Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Mathematical interpretation
Classically, the ratio of probabilities that two states with an energy difference ΔE will be occupied by an electron is given by the Boltzmann factor:

where:
 e is Euler's number (the base of natural logarithms)
 ΔE is the energy difference
 k is the Boltzmann constant
 T is temperature.

At the Fermi level (or chemical potential), the probability of a state being occupied is ½. If the Fermi level is in the middle of a band gap of 1 eV, this probability is e−20 or about 2.0⋅10−9 at the room-temperature thermal energy of 25.9 meV.

Photovoltaic cells

Electrons can be excited by light as well as by heat. The band gap determines what portion of the solar spectrum a photovoltaic cell absorbs. A luminescent solar converter uses a luminescent medium to downconvert photons with energies above the band gap to photon energies closer to the band gap of the semiconductor comprising the solar cell.

List of band gaps
List of band gaps

In photonics and phononics
In photonics band gaps or stop bands are ranges of photon frequencies where, if tunneling effects are neglected, no photons can be transmitted through a material. A material exhibiting this behaviour is called a "photonic crystal".

Similar physics applies to phonons in a phononic crystal.

References

Other websites
 Direct Band Gap Energy Calculator 

Quantum mechanics
Deal or No Deal is the British version of the game show franchise of the same name. It is presented by Noel Edmonds, and produced by Endemol. It began showing in 2005. Players can win £250,000 (US$388,800). The odds of winning it is only 4 in 1715 (1 in 429, or 2 in 858). This is because a player might take a offer from the banker.

The show is on Channel 4 at 4p.m. on weekdays. It runs for 60 minutes, including adverts.

Gameplay

Before the game starts, different amounts of money are packed randomly into 22 suitcases. A player is selected, and the case that they have is randomly selected.
In front of the player is a game board with all the possible amounts that could be in his/her box. The player then opens 5 boxes. Five possible amounts that could be in the player's box are gone. Based on the amounts left (that could be in the players box), the "banker" may make an offer to buy the box from the player. The offer depends on the possible amounts that could be in the player's box according to what is left on the board. So if there are high amounts that are on the board (that could be in the person's box), the banker will pay more to buy the box. He might offer £10,000 instead of £3,500 or £1500. The player may take the offer by saying "deal" of refuse it by saying "no deal".

The player then opens 3 more boxes, and the banker will make another offer. If after 6 offers, the player says "no deal", they win whatever is in their box. If they says "deal" at an offer, the player takes home the offer. The game ends, but they play on to see what would have happened otherwise.
2005 British television series debuts
2000s British television series
2010s British television series
British television game shows
English-language television programs
"Moves Like Jagger" is a dance pop single released by American pop rock band Maroon 5 on June 22, 2011 internationally and digitally. The single features pop singer-songwriter Christina Aguilera and was produced by Shellback, Benny Blanco, and Ari Levine. The song was later put on the Maroon 5 album Hands All Over in July 2011 for the re-release. The song peaked at number-one on the Billboard Hot 100 singles' chart for four weeks and number-one on the Billboard Digital Songs chart for three weeks. The song will not feature on the upcoming fourth studio album Overexposed, which is scheduled for release on June 26, 2012.

The song's lyrics refer to a male protagonist's ability to impress a female with his dance moves, which he compares to those of The Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger. The song received a positive critical appreciation, many of them complimented the vocal chemistry between Levine and Aguilera and labeled it "an irresistible summer hit".
Music video
The music video for "Moves Like Jagger" was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and filmed in Los Angeles, California on July 8, 2011. On July 9, Aguilera posted an image of herself from the video shoot via Twitter, saying, "Always great to see Jonas Akerlund. He created the perfect feel for the song. Expect a fun video." The image showed Aguilera performing with a band in front of a background of the American flag. Four shirtless images of Levine from the shoot were also released online the same day. More images from the video shoot were released online on July 11, showing Levine and Aguilera performing in front of an American and British-themed backdrop with confetti falling from the ceiling. Another image showed Aguilera performing in front of a black backdrop with her name "Christina" shown in pink. Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger made an appearance in the video "via archive footage." The music video premiered on August 8 on E!
Track list
 Digital download
 "Moves Like Jagger (featuring Christina Aguilera) – 3:21

 CD single
 "Moves Like Jagger (featuring Christina Aguilera) – 3:21
 "Moves Like Jagger (featuring Christina Aguilera) (Soul Seekerz Radio Edit) – 3:25

Maroon 5 songs
Christina Aguilera songs
2011 songs
David Edward Williams  (born 20 August 1971), known professionally as David Walliams, is a British actor, comedian and writer. He is best known for his partnership with Matt Lucas on the BBC sketch comedy series Little Britain (2003–2006) and Come Fly With Me (2010–2011).

Early life
Born on 20 August 1971 in Wimbledon, London to Peter, a London Transport engineer, and Kathleen Williams, a lab technician, Williams was brought up in Banstead, Surrey. His parents appeared on The Friday Night Project when he was the guest star on the show.

He was educated at Collingwood Boys' School in Wallington (now Collingwood School) and the independent Reigate Grammar School (where he was a contemporary of Robert Shearman).

He was a member of the National Youth Theatre, where he met Matt Lucas. Williams studied drama at the University of Bristol from 1989 to 1992, one year below Simon Pegg.
Williams changed his name to Walliams () when he joined the actors' trade union, Equity, as there was already a member named David Williams. This was spoofed in a mock interview on Rock Profile, when Robbie Williams was continuously referred to as 'Robbie Walliams'.

Career 
Walliams was also a judge for BGT(Britain's Got Talent). In September 2011, he swam the entire 140 mile length of the River Thames, raising over £1,000,000 for a charity called Sport Relief.

Personal life 
Walliams has bipolar disorder. He was married to Lara Stone from 2010 until their divorce in 2015. The couple's son, Alfred, was born on 6 May 2013.

Bibliography

Non-fiction
Inside Little Britain (with Boyd Hilton and Matt Lucas): London: Ebury Press: 2006: 
Autobiography
Camp David (2012)
Children's fiction
Novels
The Boy in the Dress (illustrated by Quentin Blake) (2008)
Mr Stink (illustrated by Quentin Blake) (2009)
Billionaire Boy (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2010)
Gangsta Granny (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2011)
Ratburger (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2012)
Demon Dentist (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2013)
Awful Auntie (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2014)
Grandpa's Great Escape (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2015)
The Midnight Gang (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2016)
Bad Dad (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2017)
The Ice Monster (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2018)
Fing (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2019)
The Beast of Buckingham Palace (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2019)
Slime (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2020)
Code Name Bananas (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2020)
Megamonster (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2021)
Gangsta Granny Strikes Again! (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2021)
Spaceboy (illustrated by Adam Stower) (2022)
Robodog (illustrated by Adam Stower) (2023)
The Blunders (illustrated by Adam Stower) (2023)
Short story collections
The World's Worst Children (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2016)
The World's Worst Children 2 (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2017)
The World's Worst Children 3 (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2018)
The World's Worst Teachers (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2019)
The World's Worst Parents (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2020)
The World's Worst Pets (illustrated by Adam Stower) (2022)
The World's Worst Monsters (illustrated by Adam Stower) (2023)
Picture books
The Slightly Annoying Elephant (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2013)
The First Hippo on the Moon (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2014)
The Queen's Orangutan (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2015; for Comic Relief)
The Bear Who Went Boo! (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2015)
There's a Snake in My School! (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2016)
Boogie Bear (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2017)
Geronimo (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2018)
The Creature Choir (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2019)
Little Monsters (illustrated by Adam Stower) (2020)
Marmalade: The Orange Panda (illustrated by Adam Stower) (2022)
Grannysaurus (illustrated by Adam Stower) (2022)
Little Monsters Rule! (illustrated by Adam Stower) (2023)

World Book Day book
Blob (illustrated by Tony Ross) (2017)

References
References

1971 births
Living people
Actors from London
Actors from Surrey
Alumni of the University of Bristol
English children's writers
British swimmers
British television producers
British television writers
Comedians from London
English movie actors
English television actors
English voice actors
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People with bipolar disorder
Writers from London
Writers from Surrey
Luton is a large town in Bedfordshire, England. It is about  north of London. It is on the M1 motorway and has mainline trains from King's Cross and St Pancras stations. It is an industrial town which has diversified from its original base as a manufacturer of hats and cars. It is also famous for its airport which serves flights across Europe. Its fine communications means it has many people who commute to work in London.  It has a population of 213,052 (mid-2019 estimate).

History
Luton was started in about the 6th century by the Saxons, based by the River Lea. It has a history of industry: making hats and Vauxhall cars for example.

Politics
Luton is a unitary authority, which means it is governed locally by its own council, Luton Borough Council. It is represented by two members of parliament.

Sport
Its football club is in the English football league and play at Kenilworth Road. Their nickname is 'The Hatters'. They are called this because of Luton's history of making straw hats.
People
Luton town has a large immigrant population, which consists mainly of people of Pakistani and Bengali origin.

References

Related pages

 Luton Airport
 Luton Town F.C.
 Vauxhall Motors

Luton
In chemistry, a superbase is an extremely strong base. It is a compound that has a high affinity for protons.

Hydroxide ion is the strongest base possible in water (aqueous) solutions, but superbases are much stronger than aqueous bases.  Such bases are useful in organic synthesis and are fundamental to physical organic chemistry. 

Superbases have been described and used since the 1850s.  Reactions involving superbases often require special techniques since they are destroyed by water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen in the air. Inert atmosphere techniques and low temperatures minimize these side reactions.

Definitions
IUPAC defines superbases simply as a "compound having a very high basicity, such as lithium diisopropylamide".

Related pages
 Superacid

References

Chemistry
Argyria or argyrosis is a disease caused by being exposed to too much silver. People with this condition may have a change in skin color to blue or "greyish". A study has said that having argyria makes it harder to see without light.

References 

Health problems
Windows Task Manager is a task manager application. It is part of the Microsoft Windows NT family of operating systems. Windows Task Manager gives detailed information about computer performance and applications that are currently running. It also gives information about processes and CPU usage, commit charge and memory information, network activity and statistics, logged-in users, and system services. The application can be used to set process priorities, processor affinity, forcibly terminating (ending) processes. In Windows XP only, the application can be used to shut down, restart, hibernate or log off from Windows.

Other websites 
Task Manager information at Computer Hope

Software
A chemical species is one of a group of atoms, molecules, molecular fragments, ions, etc., made to go through to a chemical process or to a measurement. Generally, a chemical species can be defined as an ensemble of chemically identical molecular entities that can explore the same set of molecular energy levels on a defined time scale. Chemists also use chemical species to mean a set of chemically identical atomic or molecular structural units in a solid array.

For example, when molecules of NaCl dissolve in water we don't really have any NaCl as such in the solution. We have Na+ and Cl- ions because NaCl dissociates. We say the species present in solution are Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq). In this case, the species present in solution are the ions. In other cases, where the molecules don't dissolve in water, we would have molecular species in solution rather than ionic species.
In supramolecular chemistry, chemical species are those supramolecular structures whose interactions and associations are brought about by forming or breaking intermolecular bonds. Studying these actions is the main topic of supramolecular chemistry.

References 

Chemistry
A task manager is a computer program that is used to show information about the processes and programs running on a computer. Task managers also show the general status of the computer. They can be used to terminate (end) processes and programs, as well as change the processes priority. An example of a task manager is Windows Task Manager.

Software
A blind spot is a part of the visual field our brains get no information from. It is the place in the visual field that corresponds to the lack of light-detecting photoreceptor cells where the optic nerve passes through the optic disc of the retina. Since there are no cells to detect light on the optic disc, a part of the field of vision is not perceived. The brain fills in with surrounding detail  with information from the other eye, so the blind spot is not normally perceived.

Although all vertebrates have this blind spot, cephalopod eyes, which are superficially similar, do not. In them, the optic nerve approaches the receptors from behind, so it does not create a break in the retina.

The first documented observation of the phenomenon was in the 1660s by Edme Mariotte in France. At the time it was generally thought that the point at which the optic nerve entered the eye should actually be the most sensitive portion of the retina; however, Mariotte's discovery disproved this theory.

Blind spot test
Blind spot test

Not seeing the blind spot 
As to why the blind spot is normally not seen, there are two theories. One, less favoured, is that it is simply ignored by the brain. The other is that they are 'filled in' by the brain with information from surrounding areas. Perception theorists have generally favoured this second hypothesis. The filling-in works with quite complex and unusual visual patterns, suggesting an active brain process works to mimic patterns surrounding the blind spot.

Vertebrate eye and cephalopod eye 
These natural blind spots are present only in the eyes of vertebrates. Cephalopods have their optic nerves attached to the back of the retina, so they are not a problem. The vertebrate eye is illogical because light must go through and past the nerve fibres before getting to the retina.

This comes about because vertebrate eyes are outgrowths from the brain; they grow outward from the embryological tissue which forms the brain.

References 

Experiments
Vision
Lo Barnechea is a commune and city of Santiago Province. According to the Chilean census in 2002, Lo Barnechea has an area of  and 74,749 people live there..

References

Other websites 
Municipality of Lo Barnechea 

Cities in Chile
Santiago Metropolitan Region
Incubus is an American horror movie. It is black and white. It was released in 1966 and a restored copy of the movie was released in 2001. Leslie Stevens directed the movie and William Shatner starred in it. The actors in the movie did not speak in English. They spoke in Esperanto. The movie was called Inkubo in Esperanto. Incubus was lost for many years, but an old copy was found in France. The movie was filmed in 18 days in California during 1965. Incubus did not become popular and was only distributed in France. Some people believe the movie is cursed because of all of the bad things that happened to the actors and crew. Several of them died by murder or suicide, or had other bad things happen to them, after making the movie.

Actors 
 William Shatner as Marc
 Allyson Ames as Kia
 Eloise Hardt as Amael
 Robert Fortier as Olin
 Ann Atmar as Arndis
 Milos Milos as Incubus
 Jay Ashworth as Monk†
 Forrest T. Butler as Monk†
 Paolo Cossa as Narrator (voice)†
 Ted Mossman as Monk†
† Uncredited

References
References

Further reading
 Tom Weaver, Video Watchdog #53 (1999) "Raising the Incubus"

Other websites 
 
 
 Incubus  at Rotten Tomatoes
 "Curse of the 'Incubus'", By Cara Jepsen 
 Review at The Daily Show website

1966 horror movies
American horror movies
Supramolecular chemistry is area of chemistry that studies the relationship and linking molecules into bigger systems. It focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. The study of non-covalent interactions is crucial to understanding many biological processes from cell structure to vision that rely on these forces for structure and function. Biological systems are often the inspiration for supramolecular research.

Related pages
Organic chemistry
Nanotechnology

References

Other websites

2D and 3D Models of Dodecahedrane and Cuneane Assemlies  
 Supramolecular Chemistry - Thematic Series in the Open Access Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry

Branches of chemistry
Chondroitin sulfate is a sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG). It is a chain of alternating sugars (N-acetylgalactosamine and glucuronic acid). It is usually found attached to proteins as part of a proteoglycan. A chondroitin chain can have over 100 individual sugars, each of which can be sulfated in variable positions and quantities.  Chondroitin sulfate is an important structural component of cartilage and provides much of its resistance to compression. Along with glucosamine, chondroitin sulfate has become a widely used dietary supplement for treatment of osteoarthritis. It is commonly extracted from shark cartilage.

Terminology
Chondroitin sulfate was originally isolated well before chemists learned its structure. So, its name changed over time.  Early researchers identified different types of the substance with letters.

"Chondroitin sulfate B" is an old name for dermatan sulfate, and it is no longer classified as a form of chondroitin sulfate.
Chondroitin, without the "sulfate", has been used to describe a type with little or no sulfation.  However, this distinction is not used by all.

The name "chondroitin sulfate" sounds like a salt with a sulfate counter-anion. This is not the case. The sulfate is attached to the sugar with a covalent bond. Since the molecule has multiple negative charges at physiological pH, a cation is present in salts of chondroitin sulfate.  Commercial preparations of chondroitin sulfate typically are the sodium salt. Barnhill et al. have suggested that all such preparations of chondroitin sulfate be referred to as "sodium chondroitin" regardless of their sulfation status.

Structure

Chondroitin sulfate chains are unbranched polysaccharides of variable length containing two alternating monosaccharides: D-glucuronic acid (GlcA) and N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (GalNAc).  Some GlcA residues are epimerized into L-iduronic acid (IdoA); the resulting disaccharide is then referred to as dermatan sulfate.

Protein attachment
Protein attachment

Chondroitin sulfate chains are linked to hydroxyl groups on serine residues of certain proteins. Exactly how proteins are selected for attachment of glycosaminoglycans is not understood.  Glycosylated serines are often followed by a glycine and have neighboring acidic residues. But this does not always predict glycosylation.

Attachment of the GAG chain begins with four monosaccharides in a fixed pattern: Xyl - Gal - Gal - GlcA.  Each sugar is attached by a specific enzyme, allowing for multiple levels of control over GAG synthesis. Xylose begins to be attached to proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, while the rest of the sugars are attached in the Golgi apparatus.

Sulfation
Sulfation

Each monosaccharide may be left unsulfated, sulfated once, or sulfated twice.  In the most common case, the hydroxyls of the 4 and 6 positions of the N-acetyl-galactosamine are sulfated, with some chains having the 2 position of glucuronic acid.  Sulfation is mediated by specific sulfotransferases.  Sulfation in these different positions gives specific biological activities to chondroitin GAG chains.

Function

Chondroitin's functions depend largely on the properties of the overall proteoglycan of which it is a part.  These functions can be broadly divided into structural and regulatory roles.  Some proteoglycans have both structural and regulatory roles (see versican).

Structural

Chondroitin sulfate is a major component of extracellular matrix, and is important in maintaining the structural integrity of tissue.  This function is typical of the large aggregating proteoglycans:  aggrecan, versican, brevican, and neurocan, collectively termed the lecticans.
As part of aggrecan, chondroitin sulfate is a major component of cartilage.  The tightly packed and highly charged sulfate groups of chondroitin sulfate generate electrostatic repulsion that provides much of the resistance of cartilage to compression.  Loss of chondroitin sulfate from the cartilage is a major cause of osteoarthritis.

Regulatory
Regulatory 

Chondroitin sulfate readily interacts with proteins in the extracellular matrix due to its negative charges. These interactions are important for regulating many cellular activities.  The lecticans are a major part of the brain extracellular matrix, where the chondroitin sugar chains function to stabilize normal brain synapses as part of perineuronal nets. The levels of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans are vastly increased after injury to the central nervous system where they act to prevent regeneration of damaged nerve endings.  Although these functions are not as well characterized as those of heparan sulfate, new roles continue to be discovered for the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans.

In cortical development, chondroitin sulfate is expressed by the Sub Plate and acts as a stop signal for neurons migrating from the Ventricular Zone. Neurons stopping here may then be programmed for further migration to specific layers in the cortical plate.

Medical use
Medical use

Chondroitin is in dietary supplements used as an alternative medicine to treat osteoarthritis and also approved and regulated as a symptomatic slow-acting drug for this disease (SYSADOA) in Europe and some other countries. It is commonly sold together with glucosamine.  Chondroitin and glucosamine are also used in veterinary medicine.

References
Other websites
 General Glucosamine and Chondroitin Sulfate information  at Arthritis Foundation
 "Product Review: Joint Supplements (Glucosamine, Chondroitin, and MSM)"  Summary of a Consumer Labs test of the actual composition of these supplements at consumerlabs.com
 "Glucosamine/Chondroitin Products Not Measuring Up", News report of the analysis of commercial supplements by Adebowale et al. at WebMD
 "Chondroitin Sulfate Manufacturing and Risk of Mad Cow Disease" by Winston Wicomb, Ph.D., September 24, 2002.  Information on methods for extraction of chondrotin sulfate from cow trachea, at the Stone Clinic of San Francisco, at stoneclinic.com
 "Testing Status: Chondroitin Sulfate M030009", A thorough review of available information on the use of chondroitin sulfate in humans from the National Toxicology Program at National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
 Chondroitin Sulfate, summary of information on the use of chondroitin sulfate from the publishers of the Physicians' Desk Reference.
"Glucosamine/Chondroitin Arthritis Intervention Trial (GAIT)," ClinicalTrials.gov information on the purpose, design, and analysis of the study at clinicaltrials.gov
 "NIH News: Efficacy of Glucosamine and Chondroitin Sulfate May Depend on Level of Osteoarthritis Pain", Wednesday, February 22, 2006 at National Institutes of Health
Red Bull X2010 is a fictional car in the PlayStation 3 video game Gran Turismo 5 that can go over 400 km/h, and over 6G's. It laps the Nürburgring in less than 4 minutes. Adrian Newey designed it.

Gran Turismo series
Ireland may refer to:

Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom
Republic of Ireland, the country to the south of Northern Ireland
Ireland, the island that contains both of the above
Banbasa is the smallest town in Champawat district in Uttarakhand, India. The famous shri Purnagiri temple is only 35 km from here. It is near the Nepal border (Gaddachoki-Banbasa).

Settlements in Uttarakhand
Towns in India
A velar consonant is a consonant that is pronounced with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, also known as the velum, which is the back part of the roof of the mouth. Velar consonants in English are ,  and . The consonant  is the most common in all human languages. 

These are the velar consonants in the IPA.

References

Consonants
George Church (born August 28, 1954) is an American molecular geneticist. He was one of the people who set out to analyse the human genetic code, the sequence of genes in human DNA.

Church is Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School, Professor of Health Sciences and Technology at Harvard and MIT, and a core faculty member at the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University.

With Walter Gilbert he developed the first direct genomic sequencing method in 1984, and helped start the Human Genome Project while he was a research scientist at newly formed Biogen Inc.

He invented ways of analysing huge amounts of chemical data, homologous recombination methods, and DNA array synthesizers. Automated sequencing & software in Genome Therapeutics Corp. gave the first commercial genome sequence, (the human pathogen, Helicobacter pylori) in 1994.
Church started the Personal Genome Project (PGP) in 2005, and in 2007 he founded the U.S. personal genomics company Knome (with Jorge Conde and Sundar Subramaniam).

Church does research on synthetic (artificial) biology and is director of the U.S. Department of Energy Center on Bioenergy at Harvard & MIT, and Director of the National Institutes of Health Center of Excellence in Genomic Science at Harvard.

He has been advisor to 22 companies. He co-founded Codon Devices, a biotech startup dedicated to synthetic biology. It produces DNA sequences to order. He co-founded LS9, which is focused on biofuels or renewable petroleum technologies.

In 2009 he founded Pathogenica, with Yemi Adesokan, in order to pioneer commercial applications for pathogen sequencing technology.

In September 2010, Dr. Church was honored for his work in genetics with the Mass High Tech All-Star Award. He is a senior editor for Molecular Systems Biology.

According to Forbes, Church suffers from narcolepsy.

References
References

Other websites
 New Polony DNA Sequencing Methods
 Biosketch on Edge.org 
 Knome homepage
 LS9 Inc. homepage
 How the Personal Genome Project could unlock the mysteries of life

1954 births
American geneticists
Scientists from Boston
Scientists from Florida
Living people
Revolutions per minute, sometimes called RPM, is a measure of angular frequency. It means the number of times something spins in one minute.

For example, if a wheel spins one time in one second, it is doing 60 RPM, because there is 60 seconds in one minute.

Units of frequency
Walter Gilbert (born March 21, 1932) is an American physicist, biochemist, molecular biology pioneer, and Nobel laureate. He helped develop DNA sequence analysis.

Biography
Gilbert was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on March 21, 1932. Gilbert attended Harvard University for undergraduate and graduate studies, earning a first degree in chemistry and physics in 1953 and a master's degree in physics in 1954. 

Gilbert's doctoral work was done at the University of Cambridge, where he earned his PhD in mathematics under the mentorship of Nobel laureate Abdus Salam in 1957.

Gilbert returned to Harvard in 1957 and promoted in 1968 to professor of biochemistry. In 1969, Gilbert was given Harvard's Ledlie Prize. In 1972, Gilbert was named American Cancer Society Professor of Molecular Biology.

He is a co-founder of the biotech start-up companies Biogen and Myriad Genetics. Gilbert is currently the chairman of the Harvard Society of Fellows.
Research findings
Together with Allan Maxam, Gilbert developed a new DNA sequencing method in 1976. With George Church he developed the first direct genomic sequencing method in 1984. 

Gilbert first proposed the existence of introns and exons and explained the evolution of introns in a seminal 1978 "News and Views" paper published in Nature. In 1986, Gilbert used the phrase RNA world hypothesis for the origin of life. 'RNA World' was a concept first proposed by Carl Woese in 1967.

Awards
Gilbert was given the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, shared with Frederick Sanger and Paul Berg. Gilbert and Sanger were recognized for their pioneering work in devising methods for determining the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid.

Among many other awards, Gilbert was made a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1987.

References

Other websites 

  Nobel Prize autobiography 
 The Official Site of Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize
1932 births
American physicists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Harvard University alumni
Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Boston
Living people
American molecular biologists
The optic chiasma, or 'optic chiasm', is the part of the brain where the optic nerves (CN II) partially cross. The optic chiasm is located at the bottom of the brain immediately below the hypothalamus.

Pathways
The images on the nasal (inner) sides of each retina cross over to the opposite side of the brain via the optic nerve at the optic chiasm. The temporal (outer) images, on the other hand, stay on the same side. This allows the images from either side of the visual field to go to the appropriate side of the brain, combining the sides together.

Beyond the optic chiasm, with crossed and uncrossed fibers, optic nerves become optic tracts.

The crossing over of optic nerve fibres at the optic chiasma allows the visual cortex to receive the same hemispheric visual field from both eyes.

The optic chiasma is found in all vertebrates.

References 

Anatomy of the brain
Vision
Chimaeras are cartilaginous fish in the order Chimaeriformes. They are sometimes known informally as 'ghost sharks'.

They may be the "oldest and most enigmatic groups of fishes alive today". Their closest living relatives are sharks, though in evolutionary terms they branched off from sharks nearly 400 million years ago and have remained isolated ever since.

At one time they were a diverse and abundant group, as shown by the fossil record. They are now found mainly to deep water. There are fifty living species in six genera and three families. Studying the evolution of these species has been problematic because there are few good fossils. DNA sequences have become the preferred approach to understanding speciation.

The order appeared about 420 million years ago during the Silurian. The three living families seem to have diverged during the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous (170–120 million years ago.
Features 
They do not have shark-like skin or teeth. They have smooth scales on their bodies, and three pairs of grinding tooth plates. They have a poisonous spine on their backs between the head and the dorsal fin.

Otherwise, they are rather like other Chondrichthyes. They have skeletons are made of cartilage. They use claspers for internal fertilization of females. They lay eggs with leathery cases.  They use electroreception to find their prey, which is also common in rays.

References 

Cartilaginous fish
Mainframes (also called "big iron") are powerful computers used for large information processing jobs.  They are mainly used by government institutions and large companies for tasks such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and financial transaction processing.  Mainframe computers are specially used as servers on the World Wide Web (WWW). They are distinct from supercomputers.

The term originally referred to the large cabinets that housed the central processing unit and main memory of early computers. Later the term was used to distinguish very big computers from less powerful ones ("minicomputers" or "personal computers").

References

Historical computers
Heavy Petting Zoo is the sixth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. Heavy Petting Zoo was released on January 31, 1996. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and NOFX. The title of the album is a combination of the words heavy petting and petting zoo.

Songs

1996 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
So Long and Thanks for All the Shoes is the seventh studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. So Long and Thanks for All the Shoes was released on November 11, 1997. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and Fat Mike. The title of the album comes from the title of the fourth book of Douglas Adams's The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series, So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish and the common practice of punk rock fans when they throw shoes lost by crowd surfers on stage.

Songs

1997 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
Pump Up the Valuum is the eighth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. Pump Up the Valuum was released on June 13, 2000. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and Fat Mike. The title of the album is purposely spelled wrong to avoid a lawsuit with Valium and is a play on words.

Songs

2000 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
Youth is the opposite of elderly. When something is new, it can be called young. Sometimes "young" is only for living things, and things that are not alive are "new". The word youth is often used to describe young people from the beginning of the teen years to the beginning of adulthood.
Old can refer to someone or something's age.
Young can mean that something is current to date or well before its "best by" date.

Different things lose their youth or grow old at different rates.  For example, some machines are only be considered young for roughly one year.  There are laws about the age of majority when young teenagers are legally treated as adults.  Even after that age, these youth may still be seen as immature.  This is because complete mental and emotional development is not done until around age 25, and because many young people have not yet had adult life experiences.
For some people, youth is an obsession. They want to look young.  Because of this, they use various products like face cream and plastic surgery, to stop or slow their looking older.  The "Fountain of Youth" was a popular myth, and people thought that if you took water from the fountain, you would never be old.  Now however, we know that this was a myth, and it was not magical at all.

Related pages 
Adolescence

Life
The simplified molecular input line entry specification or SMILES is a line notation for the chemical structure of molecules. It uses a short series ASCII characters to represent structures. Most molecule editor computer programs can draw a two-dimensional diagram or a three-dimensional model of a molecule based on its SMILES code.

Arthur Weininger and David Weininger wrote the original SMILES specification in the late 1980s. It has since been modified and extended by others, including by Daylight Chemical Information Systems Inc. In 2007, the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community developed an open standard called "OpenSMILES".

In July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard line notation for representing chemical structures.  People think that it is easier for humans to understand SMILES than InChI. Some chemists argue that SMILES is better than InChI because many different software programs support it. SMILES also has theoretical (for example, graph theory) backing.
Conversion
SMILES can be converted back to 2-dimensional representations using Structure Diagram Generation algorithms. This conversion can sometimes be ambiguous. Because SMILES just says which atoms are connected without any information about the angles between chemical bonds, computer programs use energy minimization to convert SMILES to 3-dimensional representations. There are many downloadable and web-based conversion utilities.

Examples
Here are some examples of the SMILES for molecules:

References

Other websites

Specifications
 "SMILES - A Simplified Chemical Language"
 The OpenSMILES home page
 "SMARTS - SMILES Extension"
 Daylight SMILES tutorial
 Parsing SMILES
SMILES related software utilities
 NCI/CADD Chemical Identifier Resolver – resolves or generates SMILES from chemical names, CAS Registry Numbers, InChI/InChIKey and many other chemical structure file formats
 NCI/CADD Online SMILES Translator and Structure File Generator  – Java online molecule editor
 PubChem server side structure editor – online molecule editor 
  smi23d  – 3D Coordinate Generation
 Daylight Depict  – Translate a SMILES formula into graphics
 GIF/PNG-Creator for 2D Plots of Chemical Structures 
 JME molecule editor  
 ACD/ChemSketch  
 Marvin  by ChemAxon – online chemical editor/viewer and SMILES generator/converter
 Instant JChem  by ChemAxon – desktop application for storing/generating/converting/visualizing/searching SMILES structures, particularly batch processing; personal edition free
 JChem for Excel  by ChemAxon – MS Excel add-in for storing/generating/converting/visualizing/searching SMILES structures
 Smormo-Ed – a molecule editor for Linux which can read and write SMILES
InChI.info – an unofficial InChI website featuring on-line converter from InChI and SMILES to molecular drawings
 Balloon – A free program for 3D coordinate generation and conformational analysis.
 Indigo  – an open-source cross-platform cheminformatics library with a plugin for IUPAC-compliant molecule and reaction 2D structural formula rendering.
 Open Babel – an open-source chemical toolbox allowing anyone to search, convert, analyze, or store biochemical data.
 Bioclipse  – a free and open source workbench for the life sciences
 MolEngine  – A .NET cheminformatics toolkit to read/write SMILES, generate 2D coordinate from SMILES, and convert SMILES from/into other Chemical file formats.
 JSDraw  – A cross-platform javascript chemical structure editor to generate SMILES and SMARTS.
Chemical nomenclature
Cheminformatics
Insulin resistance is a serious condition in which insulin becomes less able to lower the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood.  Usually, insulin helps sugar move out of the blood and into the body's cells.  In the cells, the body can use sugar to make energy.  If this does not happen correctly, too much sugar stays in the blood.  This is called hyperglycemia.  If the blood glucose level is above normal for a long time, this can lead to major health problems. 

Insulin resistance often causes certain types of diabetes mellitus, especially type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults. A condition called 'metabolic syndrome' is strongly tied to insulin resistance.

Signs and symptoms 
 High blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia)
 Fatigue, and sleepiness, especially after meals.
 Brain fogginess and inability to focus (can't think clearly).
 Weight gain, fat storage, difficulty losing weight.
 High blood pressure (hypertension)
 Increased thirst (called polydipsia) and hunger (called polyphagia)
Treatment

Self-care
 Eat less carbohydrates, and very much less direct sugar.
 Take more exercise, long walks, activity.

Standard medical test 
Blood sugar level test after 12 hours starvation.

Endocrine system
Diabetes mellitus
Cheminformatics (also known as chemoinformatics and chemical informatics) is the study of large amounts of chemical information. It is done mostly with the help of computers. These tools are used by pharmaceutical companies to discovery new drugs.

Cheminformatics uses computer science and information technology to help solve chemistry problems. Cheminformatics deals with algorithms, databases and information systems, web technologies, artificial intelligence and soft computing, information and computation theory, software engineering, data mining, image processing, modeling and simulation, signal processing, discrete mathematics, control and system theory, circuit theory, and statistics, for generating new knowledge of chemistry.

History 
The term chemoinformatics was defined by F.K. Brown  in 1998:

Basics 
Cheminformatics combines the scientific working fields of chemistry and computer science.
Cheminformatics can also be applied to data analysis for the paper, pulp and dye industries.

Uses
Uses

Storage and retrieval

The primary application of cheminformatics is in the storage of information relating to compounds. The efficient search of such stored information includes topics that are dealt with in computer science as data mining and machine learning.

File formats 
Computers represent chemical structures in specialized formats such as the XML-based Chemical Markup Language or SMILES. While some formats are suited for visual representations in 2 or 3 dimensions, others are more suited for studying physical interactions, modeling and docking studies.

Virtual libraries 
Chemical data can pertain to real or virtual molecules.  Virtual compounds may be used to explore chemical space and predict new 
compounds with desired properties.

Virtual libraries of classes of compounds (drugs, natural products, diversity-oriented synthetic products) were recently generated using the FOG (fragment optimized growth) algorithm.
Virtual screening 
Instead og testing the actual chemicals, virtual screening involves
screening compounds by computer, to identify members likely to possess desired properties such as biological activity against a given target.

Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) 
This is to predict the activity of compounds from their structures. These studies link cheminofrmatics to chemometrics. Chemical expert systems are also relevant. They represent parts of chemical knowledge in computers.

References
Other websites 
 OEChem Cheminformatics Programming Toolkit
 The Blue Obelisk Movement
 The eCheminfo  Network and Community of Practice
 Cheminformatics at Indiana University 
 Indiana Cheminformatics Education Portal 
 Cheminformatics at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 
 The Chemical Structure Association Trust (see also CSA Trust).
 Comprehensive cheminformatics link list and data set repository
 A cheminformatics glossary
  Chemoinformatics initiatives at NCL Pune, India 
  International Conference on Chemoinformatics at NCL,Pune 
 Chemical Informatics Education  and Research  at Indiana University
 Famous Cheminformatics quotations 
 The Cheminformatics and QSAR Society
 UK-QSAR and ChemoInformatics Group
 Education and Research at the University of Hamburg 
 Cheminformatics research at the Unilever Centre for Molecular Informatics, Cambridge, UK 
 YACHS Yet Another CHemistry Summarizer, Laboratoire Informatique d'Avignon LIA, France 
 Cheminformatics research at NovaMechanics Cyprus
Weblink-Cheminformatics SW and DB
 Cheminformatics studies from Unilever Centre for Molecular Informatics to OpenEye
The War on Errorism is the ninth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. The War on Errorism was released on May 6, 2003. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and Fat Mike. The album pokes fun at former U.S. president George W. Bush and criticizes him and his policies.

Songs

2003 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
Wolves in Wolves' Clothing is the tenth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. Wolves in Wolves' Clothing was released on April 18, 2006. The producers of the album were Bill Stevenson, Jason Livermore and Fat Mike. The first 1062 vinyl copies of Wolves in Wolves' Clothing were pressed yellow/green vinyl.

Songs

2006 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
Coaster is the tenth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. Coaster was released on April 28, 2009. The producer of the album was Bill Stevenson. The album was released as Frisbee on vinyl.

Songs

References

2009 albums
NOFX albums
Punk albums
2Pacalypse Now is the first studio album by American rapper, Tupac Shakur. 2Pacalypse Now was released on November 12, 1991. Many other rap artist have seen the album as a source of inspiration. The song "I Don't Give a Fuck" was featured in the 2004 video game, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas.

Songs

References

1991 albums
Debut albums
Tupac Shakur albums
Hip hop albums
Gangsta rap albums
Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. is the second studio album by American rapper, Tupac Shakur. Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. was released on February 16, 1993. The album is 2Pac's tenth biggest selling album with 1,366,000 units moved to date.

Songs

References

1993 albums
Tupac Shakur albums
Hip hop albums
Gangsta rap albums
R&B albums
Alexander Ivanovich Oparin  (Uglich, Russia,  – Moscow, 21 April 1980) was a Soviet biochemist.

He was notable for his ideas on the origin of life, and for writing an early book The Origin of Life. One of his ideas was that oxygen would tend to destroy organic molecules essential for the evolution of early life. It was later found that the earth's atmosphere at first had almost no oxygen in it.

He also studied the biochemistry of plants, and enzyme reactions in plant cells. He developed the foundations for industrial biochemistry in the USSR.

His theory 
These were some of the main ideas in his first book:

1. There is no fundamental difference between a living organism and lifeless matter. Life must have arisen as a natural evolution of matter.
2. Methane is in the atmospheres of Jupiter and the other giant planets. Oparin thought the infant Earth had a strongly reducing atmosphere, containing methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapor. In his opinion, these were the raw materials for the evolution of life.

3. At first there were the simple solutions of organic substances. Their behaviour was governed by their atoms and by the arrangement of those atoms in molecules. Gradually, as the result of the growth and increased complexity of the molecules, structures with new properties developed. These newer properties were determined by the spatial and mutual arrangement of the molecules.
4. In this process biological orderliness already exists. Competition, speed of cell growth, survival of the fittest, struggle for existence and, finally natural selection produced the characteristics of living things. 
 
Oparin outlined a way in which basic organic chemicals might form into microscopic localized systems. These would be precursors of the cell from which primitive living things could develop. He cited work done with organic chemicals which, in solution, form droplets and layers. Oparin suggested that different types might have formed in the Earth's primordial ocean. They were subject to a selection process leading eventually to life.
Bibliography 
 Oparin A.I. 1924. The origin of life. Moscow: Moscow Worker, (in Russian).
 English translation: Oparin A.I. The origin and development of life. (NASA TTF-488) Washington: D.C.L GPO, 1968.
Oparin A.I. 1924. The origin of life, 2nd edition. Moscow.
English translation of 2nd ed: The origin of life. 1938, reprinted Dover 1952.
 Oparin A. & Fesenkov V. Life in the Universe. Moscow: USSR Academy of Sciences publisher, 3rd edition, 1956 (in Russian)
 English translation: Oparin A. and V. Fesenkov. Life in the Universe. New York: Twayne Publishers 1961.

Related pages 
Miller–Urey experiment
Origin of life
Abiogenesis

References 

Russian chemists
1894 births
1980 deaths
Biochemists