Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The British ruled India primarily for the economic benefit of Britain. India produced cheap raw materials for British industry. Indians had to buy British manufactured goods and profits went back to Britain.

Independence 
Almost all of the people in India wanted to be free from British rule. The struggle for independence was long and difficult. Many people protested against the British, and the British tortured many. They had long promoted divisions among the various Indian rulers and religions. The most important leader of the Hindu majority was Mohandas K. Gandhi. Gandhi believed in a non-violent opposition towards the British.

Because Hindus and Muslims fought each other, India was divided into two countries: Pakistan and India. Pakistan was also divided, decades later. India won its independence, along with Muslim Pakistan, and became a free country on August 15, 1947. Pakistan won independence on 14 August, some hours before India.

Republic of India
Republic of India 

On 15 August 1947, British Indian Empire was partitioned into two countries(dominions), India (Bharat) and Pakistan. With this the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent ended. On 26 January 1950, Hindustan adopted a constitution. From that day, Bharatis became the Republic of India or Indians.
During last 60 years, Republic of India has seen different stages in its national life. Some of them are as follows:
 It fought three wars against Pakistan, and one war against China. Wars with Pakistan were fought in 1947, 1965, and 1971. The relationship between India and Pakistan was now horrendous, and will be for a long time. In 1999, it had a limited skirmish in Kargil. The war with China was fought in 1962. In 1971, the Republic of India also helped Bangladesh in its freedom struggle.
 Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru (the first Prime Minister of India), India had adopted a socialist economy. Some economists think it was a mixed economy. In a mixed economy, socialism and capitalism continue together. During this period, lasting for several years up to end-1980s, India could rapidly develop its infrastructure, science and technology.
By the early 1990s, India had changed its economic policies. It started several reforms to attract more capital from other countries. Local businessmen and industrialists also got more freedom to carry out their activities.
 In 1974, India had already detonated its first nuclear bomb. It repeated the same in 1998. With this, it became a nuclear power.
Presently (), India is currently the fifth largest economy in terms of gross GDP. It is the 4th largest economy of the world when accounting for purchasing power parity. Some economists think that in coming decades, India’s economy will become still larger.

Related pages
 Ancient India
 History of Manipur
 History of Pakistan
 Bangladesh
 India

References

More reading 
 Benedetti, Giacomo. "The idea of India in ancient Indian texts: āryāvarta, jambudvīpa, bhāratavarṣa and the relation with non-āryas."
 Allan, J. T. Wolseley Haig, and H. H. Dodwell, The Cambridge Shorter History of India (1934)
 Majumdar, R. C., H.C. Raychaudhuri, and Kaukinkar Datta. An Advanced History of India London: Macmillan. 1960. 
 Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India in(1981)

Other websites 
 A Concise History of India
 Indian History Timeline
The 1250s was a decade that began on 1 January 1250 and ended on 31 December 1259.

Births 
 1254 – Marco Polo

Deaths 
 1250 – Fibonacci
Life and Times of Michael K is a novel written by J. M. Coetzee in 1983. It won a Booker Prize.

The story is about a simple gardener called Michael K, trying to run away from South Africa in the Apartheid Era.

Some people think there is a link between Michael K and Josef K. in The Trial by Franz Kafka.

1983 books
Booker Prize winners
English-language novels
African literature
Tort law is the part of law for most harms that are not either criminal or based on a contract.  Tort law helps people to make claims for compensation (repayment) when someone hurts them or hurts their property. For example, a car accident where one driver hurts another driver because he or she was not paying attention might be a tort.  If a person is hurt by someone else, he or she can sue in court.

Many torts are accidents, like car accidents or slippery floors that make people fall down and get hurt. These are called negligent torts. But some torts are done on purpose.  These are called intentional torts.  For example, if one person punches another person in the nose, it might be an intentional tort called battery.

Many torts cause physical harm to people.  Some torts cause damage to property, like a broken window.  Some torts can harm other things, like someone's reputation or a business.
The kinds of torts this article talks about are a part of the common law.  The common law is found in England and former British colonies, such as the United States of America.  Different laws are found in civil law countries such as France or Germany.  In those countries people usually use the word delict instead of tort, but they mean very similar things.

In general 

Torts are what happens when one person (or organization) injures another.  The person or organization that causes the injury is known as a tortfeasor.  The person who is injured is often called the victim.

The victim may sue the tortfeasor.  The people or organizations on each side of a lawsuit are called the parties.  In a lawsuit, the victim is called the plaintiff.  The tortfeasor is called the defendant.
Usually, the plaintiff in a lawsuit is asking the court to make the defendant pay money to make up for the harm that the defendant caused.  For example, the money that the plaintiff asks for might pay for the plaintiff's medical bills if he or she was hurt in an accident. Money that the court orders the defendant to pay is called damages. For some torts, especially ones done on purpose (intentional torts), the plaintiff might also ask the court to punish the defendant by making him or her pay extra money. That extra money is sometimes called punitive damages.

Sometimes a plaintiff also asks the court to order the defendant to stop doing something, like polluting the air or water.  An order to stop doing something is called an injunction (in the United States it is sometimes called a restraining order).

Tort law or 'The Law of Torts' is a body of laws that is applied by civil court proceedings to compensate people who have suffered harm due to the wrongful act of another.
Sometimes the same act can be both a tort and a crime.  For instance, stealing someone else's property might be a criminal offense, but it is also a tort against the person who owns the property. Similarly, punching somebody in the nose can constitute both the crime and tort of battery.

Kinds of torts

Intentional torts 
When a defendant causes an injury on purpose, that injury is an intentional tort.  Sometimes, an injury can be an intentional tort if the defendant knows it will happen, even if the defendant does not want it to happen.  Intentional torts include hitting people and saying things about them that are not true.

Unintentional torts 
Unintentional torts are accidents.  They usually happen because someone was not being careful.  When someone is not careful, it is called negligence or recklessness.
An example of negligence is driving a car while not paying attention to the road. In a case of negligence, the court figures out what happened and decides whether the defendant was careful enough.  It orders the defendant to pay money only if the defendant was not careful enough.

Recklessness occurs when somebody knows that a substantial risk may result to the lives and safety of others as a result of his or her actions, but acts with indifference to the safety of others. An example of a reckless act is shooting a gun randomly toward an occupied building. Although there is no intent to hurt anybody inside of the building, the action creates a significant risk that somebody could be injured or killed.
Strict liability 
In some kinds of cases, it does not matter whether the defendant was careful or not.  This is called strict liability or absolute liability.  For example, in the United States, if someone buys a soda can and it explodes because it was manufactured badly, the manufacturer will probably have to pay the victim money even if the court finds that the defendant was as careful as it could be.

Physical torts 
Physical torts are injuries to a person's body, such as hitting them or making them sick.

Abstract torts 
Abstract torts are injuries to a person's mind, reputation, or property.  A person's mind or reputation can be injured by saying things about them that are not true.  A person's property can be injured by taking it from them without permission or saying that it belongs to someone else.
Torts involving people 
Torts that involve people include hitting them, saying things about them that are not true, and making them stay in one place when they want to leave.  Hitting someone is called battery.  Saying things about someone that are not true is called slander, and writing things about someone that are not true is called libel, both of which are forms of defamation. When a police officer takes a person to prison when he or she is not supposed to, that is called false imprisonment or false arrest.

Torts involving property 
Torts involving property include walking on someone else's property without permission, taking someone else's property without permission, or damaging someone else's property.  Walking on someone else's property without permission is called trespassing.  Taking someone else's property without permission is called stealing or conversion.

References

Legal terms
A lawsuit occurs when two people or organizations ask a court or judge to solve a disagreement or argument.  The two (or more) participants in a lawsuit are called the parties.  Each party is usually represented by a lawyer.  That means that the lawyer will talk to the judge for the party.

The party that starts the lawsuit is called the plaintiff because they are complaining about something the other side has done. This is also called "suing", or to "sue".  The other party is called the defendant because it must defend what it has done.  Both sides or parties will show evidence or proof that they are right and the other side or party is wrong.  The parties may also ask witnesses questions about what the argument or disagreement is about.
After both parties have shown evidence and asked witnesses questions, the judge or jury will decide which party is right.  Then the court will do something to make the winning party happy again.  The court might make the losing party pay the winner money, or it might make the losing party stop doing something that made the winner unhappy.

The conduct of a lawsuit is called litigation. The plaintiffs and defendants are called litigants and the attorneys representing them are called litigators. The term litigation may also refer to criminal trial.

References 

Law
Chamber music means music written for small groups of instruments. A “chamber” is a “room” (from the French word “chambre”). Usually the word “chamber” in English means a room in a large house or castle. In the days when people with big houses or castles kept their own musicians, they might have their own private orchestra which played in the large hall. Sometimes there would be a concert in a small chamber. This was called “chamber music”.

Chamber music can be any group of instruments from two up to nine. Each player will be playing something different from the others (“one to a part”). Unlike an orchestra where there may be many violins all playing the same notes.

The word “chamber” is also used for a “chamber orchestra” meaning: a small orchestra. By contrast: a large orchestra is often called a “symphony orchestra”. A small choir may be called a “chamber choir”. But these examples are not usually thought of as “chamber music”.

Words for the size of groups
These words are used to show how many people are playing. They can also be used for groups of singers (vocal solo, duet etc.):

 a solo is just one player (or singer). This is not usually called chamber music.

 a duet or duo is a piece for two instruments. The word “duo” usually means a piece in which the two parts are of equal importance. Violin sonatas, flute sonatas etc. usually have piano accompaniment but are not normally called “duets”. Piano duets are for two players at one piano.

 a trio is a piece for three instruments. Piano trios are pieces for piano, violin and cello. Sometimes trios may be called after one of the instruments, for example: Brahms’ “Horn Trio” is for French horn, violin and piano, not for three horns!

 a quartet is a piece for four instruments. String quartets are the most popular form of chamber music. They are for two violins, viola and cello. A piano quartet would be for piano, violin, viola and cello.
a quintet is a piece for five instruments. A string quintet can be for two violins, two violas and cello (e.g. Mozart’s string quintets) or it can be for two violins, viola and two cellos (e.g. the one by Schubert). A piano quintet is for piano and string quartet (although Schubert’s Trout Quintet is unusual: it is for piano, violin, viola, cello and double bass).

 a sextet is a piece for six instruments. String sextets are normally for two violins, two violas and two cellos. Poulenc’s Sextet is for piano and five wind instruments.

 a septet is quite unusual and could be for any combination of instruments. Beethoven, Saint-Saëns and Ravel all wrote septets, but for different combinations.

 an octet is for eight instruments. Schubert’s Octet is for clarinet, horn, bassoon, string quartet and double bass. Mendelssohn’s Octet is for two string quartets.

 a nonet is quite rare. Louis Spohr wrote a nonet for violin, viola, cello, double bass, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and French horn.

History
History 

Chamber music for instruments became popular as something different from big orchestras. The orchestra developed in the 17th century and so did chamber music. Composers wrote trio sonatas which were for two high instruments (e.g. two violins) and a continuo accompaniment (usually harpsichord and cello). Arcangelo Corelli and Johann Sebastian Bach wrote many trio sonatas.

Joseph Haydn wrote lots of string quartets. He made this combination popular. Mozart and Beethoven also wrote some very great string quartets. The last ones that Beethoven wrote were very difficult to play and to understand, but composers of the 19th century like Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn and Brahms were inspired by them. In the twentieth century some of the best string quartets were written by Bartók and Shostakovich.
Playing chamber music 
It is great fun to play chamber music because each player is an individual. It is like having a conversation in music. There is no conductor, so each musician has to listen carefully to the others and learn to play together as a small team. The musicians can also hear their own playing better than they can in an orchestra. Some living composers have written a lot of music for young players who are not very advanced. Some of Mozart’s earlier string quartets are not too difficult and make an excellent introduction to chamber music playing.

Example 

Music genres
Stefano Mei (born 3 February 1963 in La Spezia) was an Italian long-distance runner in several international athletics (also called track and field) events.

Mei won the silver medal in the 5,000 metre race, and the gold medal in the 10,000 metre race during the 1986 European Championships in Athletics in Stuttgart, Germany. Mei also won a bronze medal in the 10,000 metre race during the 1990 European Championships in Athletics, in Split, Yugoslavia (now Croatia). He competed in the 1984 and 1988 Summer Olympics.

References
 1986 European Championship results 
 1990 European Championship results 

1963 births
Living people
1984 Summer Olympics
1988 Summer Olympics
Italian long-distance runners
Italian Olympians
Sportspeople from Liguria
People from La Spezia
The Bielsko-Biała Museum is a museum at Bielsko Castle, Poland. Since the 1970s there are three local branches: the Julian Fałat Museum, the Museum of Technology and Textile Industry and the Weaver's House Museum.

The castle
The castle was built in the 14th century by the Piast family, the rulers of the Cieszyn Duchy in Poland, the castle was used as one of their residences for over two centuries. In 1752 the Bielsko state became a duchy owned by the Sulkowski family. The castle was their property until 1945. After World War II the castle was taken over by the Polish State. Since 1983 its only owner has been the Bielsko-Biała Museum.
The permanent exhibition in the castle
In the west wing of the building the hunting room and armoury are located. The next two rooms display three centuries of art history from the 15th to the 17th century. Neighbouring with these rooms are a rococo concert hall and a Biedermeier room. The castle's east wing contains a gallery of the 19th and 20th century painting and graphic art. Next rooms located in the north wing display an exhibition of the history of the city and castle, as well as craftsman traditions of old Bielsko and Biała. The east wing of the castle is occupied by art gallery (the 19th century paintings displayed here include works of art representing realism and academism, Młoda Polska (Young Poland) paintings, works of artists connected with Bielsko-Biała during the twenty years of independence after World War I and during the modern times)

Museum of Technology and Textile Industry
The museum shows traditions of wool industry in Bielsko-Biała, by means of collecting machines, equipment and documents. The exhibits are stored in four rooms and show the look of old textile factory A separate room displays machines for making hats and the history of Bielsko-Biała fire brigade. There is also a little printing office and a room where all the historical household equipments, radio sets, typewriters etc., are being stored.

The weaver’s house
Reconstruction of the weaver’s house and workshop owned by a guild master. It shows live and work in 19th and 20th centuries. There are two main rooms – workshop on the left and living room on the right, with a kitchen and a bedroom. 
The weaver’s house is an original example of the old wooden house. It tries to show craftsman’s work.
Julian Fałat’s villa
The museum of Julian Fałat in Bystra Śląska is housed in a historical villa of the artist, called “Fałatówka” and its visitors can see the art and some biographical documents of the artist. This is the house where the artists lived after he stoped being a headmaster of the Cracow Academy of Fine Arts. The exhibition presents oil paintings and watercolours: self-portraits, portraits of his family and friends, landscapes from his travels and hunting scenes.

Related pages
Poland

Other websites 

Museum in Bielsko-Biała

Museums in Europe
Castles in Europe
Buildings and structures in Poland
Education in Poland
14th-century buildings and structures
Circumcision is an operation in which the foreskin is removed. In common speech, someone who has been circumcised is described as cut while someone who is not is described as uncut. For example, one teenaged boy might ask another teenaged boy, "Are you cut?" While this is slang English, it is not considered profanity.

Circumcision may be done by a doctor using a surgical tool, such as scissors, a plastic tool called a plastibell device, or it may be done with a laser. If the doctor uses a laser there is almost no bleeding.

Circumcision may be a religious ritual, a custom in certain tribes or countries, or a medical practice. The rates differs from country to country.
Reasons for circumcision 
 Medical Conditions that Male Circumcision Protects Against Over the Lifetime
 Urinary tract infection;
 Penile inflammation, for example, balanitis, balanoposthitis, lichen sclerosus;
 Candidiasis;
 Phimosis and paraphimosis (when the foreskin is too tight)
 Inferior hygiene;
 Sexually transmitted infections including high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV), genital herpes simplex virus (HSV), trichomoniasis, mycoplasma, syphilis, chancroid, and HIV;
 Physical injuries to the foreskin, including coital injuries;
 Cancers of the penis, prostate, and cervix.
 Religious reasons: Most Jewish and Muslim males must be circumcised. Jewish boys are typically circumcised when they are 1 week old. Muslim boys are usually circumcised at any time from moments after birth all the way up to puberty, depending on family, region, and country.
In some tribes, especially in Africa, a teenage boy must be circumcised. Otherwise, his family and the people in his village will not treat him as a man and he will not be able to marry.
 In Western culture (especially in the United States), parents circumcise their sons because it is easier to keep the penis clean and it is more common.
 Many men and teenage boys in Western countries ask for circumcision simply because they like the appearance.
Benefits and criticisms 
No major medical organization recommends universal circumcision of neonatals (newborns), and no major medical organization calls for banning it.
This simple change to the penis is very common in many countries of the world including the United States and Israel.  Circumcision is done for medical reasons because it lowers the chance of ever getting cancer of the penis to near zero. The foreskin is a possible source for penile cancer. Childhood circumcision has a strong protective effect against penile cancer in later life. Penile cancer has been nearly eliminated in populations of males circumcised shortly after birth. Circumcision virtually eliminates the risk of invasive penile cancer. Being uncircumcised is a risk factor for penile cancer. Invasive penile cancer is cancer that spreads in the body. It is uncommon, but often causes the man to die. Circumcision also reduces the risk of cancer of the cervix in female sexual partners.  Cervical cancer is very common. It causes over 300,000 deaths of women worldwide every year.  Circumcision reduces, but does not eliminate, the risk of getting or spreading HIV/AIDS
. Circumcision became more common in Africa after HIV/AIDS began. Use of condoms also reduces the risk of getting or spreading HIV/AIDS, but many people in Africa cannot afford condoms or choose not to use them.
People disagree about whether circumcision is a good for health and sexual pleasure. People who think circumcision is a good idea may point to health reasons. Circumcision reduces sexually transmitted diseases like HIV and HPV, prevents certain kinds of cancer, and gets rid of infections and unpleasant smells under the foreskin. If circumcision is done soon after birth, it makes it less common for baby boys to get urinary tract infections (UTIs). UTIs can cause permanent damage to the kidneys. Many people think a penis looks better if it is circumcised. A study done in the United States found that the women prefer a circumcised penis, to look at and in sexual activity, especially if they are going to put their mouth on the penis. In countries where most boys are circumcised as babies, parents sometimes think that uncircumcised boys will be teased. Some boys are mean to a boy if his penis looks different
. Bullying was a bigger problem in the past when boys had to take showers together at school after gym class or before swimming. People opposed to routine circumcision are called intactivists.
Reduces the risk of HIV Infection
 Decreased risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs / STDs) - Circumcised men might have a lower risk of certain sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Still, safe sexual practices remain essential.
 Provides health benefits for sexual partners - by getting circumcised, you not only reduce your own HIV and STI risk, but your partner’s too.
 Better hygiene - Circumcision makes it simpler to wash the penis. Also, when a guy is not circumcised, moisture can get trapped between his penis and the foreskin, which creates an ideal environment for bacteria to grow. Removing the foreskin gets rid of the wet, warm and dark environment that can sustain viruses such as HIV and other sexually transmitted infections such as syphilis, herpes and chancroids.
 Eliminates bruising and tearing during sexual intercourse
 Reduces the risk of penile cancer - Although cancer of the penis is rare, it's less common in circumcised men.
Being circumcised reduces your female partner’s risk of cervical cancer.
 Decreased risk of urinary tract infections - The overall risk of urinary tract infections in males is low, but these infections are more common in uncircumcised males.
 It can be difficult to keep an uncircumcised penis fresh 100% of the time. Circumcision simplifies the task of keeping the penis clean and keeps you fresher, giving you more confidence
Some myths about medical male circumcision:

 Myth: Circumcision affects a man’s ability to make his partner pregnant.
 Truth: Circumcision has no effect on a man’s ability to make his partner pregnant. There are other factors such as fertility that play a role here.
 Myth: Circumcision leads to a loss of sexual function and pleasure.
 Truth: Although there can be some minor loss in sensitivity at the tip of the penis, MMC does not lead to a loss of sexual function and pleasure. In fact, several studies conducted among men after adult medical male circumcision suggest that very few men report their sexual functioning to be worse after circumcision. Most men report either improvement or no change.
One study, conducted in 2015, determined that the foreskin does not provide a sexual response or serve a sexual function in men. Instead, it is the corona and frenular (the area under the frenulum) areas which provide sexual response due to the high concentration of genital corpuscles. Out of a large sample of Kenyan men in a controlled trial, 74.8% of men reported higher penile sensitivity two years after circumcision, while only 7.1% reported lower penile sensitivity two years after circumcision. It was deduced that even a retracted foreskin would tend to reduce the stimulus to the corona and frenular areas, particularly on the outward stroke of intercourse. The study determined that “any sexual effect of circumcision must depend solely on the exposure of the glans and not on the absence of the prepuce.” The study concluded that male circumcision has no adverse effect on parameters relevant to sexual function, sensation, sensitivity, satisfaction, or pleasure.
The area of the outer and inner foreskin combined spans a wide range: 7–100 cm2 and 18–68 cm2 respectively. In discussing vestigial structures, Charles Darwin stated, “An organ, when rendered useless, may well be variable, for its variations cannot be checked by natural selection.” The variability in foreskin size is consistent with the foreskin being a vestigial structure.

Those who believe that the foreskin is important for sexual pleasure are against circumcision. Others do not like circumcision because they believe it has no medical advantage, or that it is easy to clean under the foreskin, or that circumcision harms the penis or the mind. People who do not like circumcision of baby boys say doctors and parents should not make this decision. They say that the owner should choose when he is old enough to decide for himself. However, it will hurt more if done at a later age.

There are 8 large groups of circumcised men:
Jews
 Muslims
 Many African blacks who are not Muslim
 Most Spanish people from Andalusia
 Filipinos
 Polynesian people
 South Korea
 Majority White Americans and African Americans from the United States
In the US, male circumcision is commonly done after birth in the Hospitals. According to the CDC, the latest data (from NCHS) on male circumcision in the United States show a 2.5% overall increase in prevalence in males aged 14 to 59 years between 2000 and 2010. In contrast, there has been a decline of 6.1% in newborn circumcisions. The newborn circumcision rate in the US dropped slightly from 83.3% in the 1960s to 77.2% in 2010. The main reason for this 6 point drop is most likely the much faster increase in the Hispanic population, the ethnic group having the lowest circumcision prevalence. The growing Hispanic population in the West accounts for most of the decrease in national prevalence. Because Hispanic and black individuals are over-represented in poorer demographics, the withdrawal of Medicaid funding for elective circumcision in 18 states is of concern to public health, as was also expressed by the authors of the CDC’s recent report
. After controlling for other factors, states with Medicaid coverage had hospital circumcision rates 24 percentage points higher than states without such coverage. Many, but not all, private health insurance plans pay for circumcision. A study of 96,457 male babies in the state of Maryland found that 75% of new baby boys were circumcised before they left the hospital. More were circumcised in a religious ceremony or in a doctor's office later. With those boys included, 82% of baby boys in Maryland got circumcised. It was less common for Asian Americans and Hispanic babies than for White Americans and African Americans babies. A Study from 2022 shows the Highest Circumcision rate of newborn babyboys are West Virginia with 87%
Reuse of removed skin 
When a foreskin is removed from a baby, doctors can (with parents' permission) use the skin for important medical purposes. Doctors can replace skin on someone with burns or with foot sores caused by diabetes. Foreskins that have been removed can be used for medical research. A foreskin that has been cut off can be used to test new drugs and to find cures for diseases. The small piece of skin that was cut off can grow a huge amount of new skin, enough to cover several football fields. In the future, it may be possible to grow other parts of the body from this skin.

Ice Age 
Since the Ice Age circumcision of males was practised

Styles
They are four circumcision styles: Low and Loose, Low and Tight, High and Loose and High and Tight.
The extreme High and Tight Style is done in USA, while the lower styles are common in Europe.
Judaism 
In Judaism, religious law orders that baby boys be circumcised on the 8th day after their birth. This is required even if the 8th day after birth is Shabbat (Saturday). In the Jewish faith, circumcision is an important tradition because it represents the newly born baby being included in the covenant (or agreement) which God made with the prophet Abraham. Medical studys confirm that the 8th day after birth, is the ideal day for a circumcision, because of the highest presence of the Coagulation factor Vitamin K Jews used to bury the foreskin after it was removed.

A mohel is someone who circumcises Jewish baby boys eight days after they are born in accordance with Jewish law. A knife is traditionally used for this, but a clamp is now sometimes used instead. Mohels are traditionally male, but most types of non-orthodox (not fully traditional) types of Judaism allow women to be mohels without restriction.
For Jews who observe religious law, the circumcision is performed at a ceremony called a Brit milah. Family, relatives and guests attend. Others, such as Reform Jews may choose to have the circumcision done in a hospital before the baby goes home. They may have a celebration afterwards, or after the birth of a baby girl for whom there is no ritual act.

Islam 
In the Quran, no sura or ayat mention male or female circumcision. However, there are some injunctions of the prophet Muhammad that explain and command only male circumcision, as a continuation of Abrahamic/Hebraic tradition.  For example, the prophet Muhammad said in a hadith that "Five are the acts which are part of  fitrah: Circumcision, clipping or shaving the pubic hair, cutting the nails, plucking or shaving the hair under the armpits and clipping (or shaving) the moustache".
Many Islamic scholars say that is an important ritual and a symbolic step of purification along the lines of Abrahamic tradition. Most Shafi Islamic Jurists (judges) say that circumcision is required for men. It is an accepted tradition in almost all Islamic sects and among most Islamic scholars and theologians. Circumcision is also important within Islam because Islam claims to be the 'truth' and the 'continuation' of the old and true message of Ibrahim/Abraham. According to Islam, God's covenant with Abraham was passed on to Muhammad, whose mission was to continue the covenant. The covenant is continued, according to Islam, through several steps, including male circumcision. The Quran discusses this covenant in detail in several places, including sura 14 (Ibrahim – Abraham). An Uncut Man is not allowed to made his Hajj to Mecca.
Age of men illustration 
There are two hadiths which are linked to the acceptance of male circumcision in Islam. They also show how circumcision may have been used to keep track of dates in tribal Arabia:

Ibn Jubayr Sa'id reported: "Ibn `Abbas was asked the following question: 'How was it with you, [when] the Prophet, peace be upon him, died?,' he said, 'I was circumcised at that particular time because the men were usually only circumcised when they became sexually mature.'"
[Sahih al-Bukhari No. 6299]

And further, Ibn `Abbas reported: "When the Prophet, peace be upon him died, I was circumcised at that particular time."
[Sahih al-Bukhari No. 6300]

Along with being an important rite of passage, circumcision may have helped people keep track of dates and place events into the correct time and place, like the Sünnet-Party.

Additional images

Related pages
 Corona of glans penis

Notes
Notes 

a. An Arabic word, literally meaning 'nature' or 'natural' – here it signifies doing the right thing or natural thing.
b. Reported in both hadith collections of al-Bukhari and Imam Muslim.

References 

Religious ethics
Islamic culture
Hygiene
Anatomy of the male reproductive system
Judaism
Medical procedures
Sexual law
The Moirai (also known as the Fates) were the three goddesses of destiny in Greek mythology. They were Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos ().

The role of the Moirai is to control the fate of every being. The life of each being is represented by a "thread of life". Clotho spins the thread, beginning the being's life. Lachesis measures it (looks how long it is) and Atropos cuts the thread at the end of the person's life once they have reached their destiny, killing them.

The Moirai are considered to be above the Greek gods. However, in some stories, Zeus, the Chief God, is capable of controlling them.

The decisions of the Moriai about a person's life cannot be changed. 

The parents of the Moirai are not surely known. Some said they were the daughters of Zeus and the Titaness Themis, or more likely of primordial beings like Nyx, Chaos or Ananke. 

Their Roman equivalent were the Parcae.

Greek gods and goddesses
Wikisource – The Free Library – is a project by Wikimedia. Its goal is to make a free wiki library of source texts. It has translations into many languages.

History 
It began on November 24, 2003. Its name was "Project Sourceberg" (a play on words for Project Gutenberg), and its URL was http://sources.wikipedia.org. On December 6, 2003, members wanted to change the name to "Wikisource", but the URL was not moved to http://wikisource.org until July 23, 2004.

References

Other websites 
The English Wikisource website
Multilingual portal for Wikisource

Wikis
2003 establishments
Whaling is the practice of hunting whales. This is done to get meat and oil, called blubber. Hunters of whales are called whalers. Whaling has been done at least since 3000 BC. 

Many communities on the coast have done whaling for food for a long time. They have also killed stranded whales.

Industrialisation started in the 17th century and also affected whaling. Special ships were built for whaling, and whales were hunted until they were almost extinct. 

As technology improved and demand for the seemingly vast resources remained high, far more whales were killed than were born. In the late 1930s more than 50,000 whales were killed each year.  By the middle of the 20th century, there were not enough whales and they were at risk of becoming extinct.  In 1986, the International Whaling Commission introduced a moratorium on commercial whaling so that whales might recover.
This moratorium was successful, and whale stocks recovered.  There is a debate about whaling in general. Countries which are in favor of whaling want to do away with the moratorium, so they can again hunt whales as they did before.  Countries and environmental groups say that whaling is immoral and should be banned, and that stocks have not yet recovered sufficiently.

The History of Hunting
Whales have a thick layer of fat under their skin called blubber. For many years, the Eskimos of Alaska depended on these whales to live. Every part of a whale was used: the bones, the blubber, and the skin - every bit of it. In this way, one whale could feed an Eskimo community for a long time. They were important to the Eskimos. However, sometimes a good thing can get out of control and become a bad thing. This was what happened in whale hunting.
The whalers found out the paths whales liked to take in the ocean, and killed them mercilessly. It was a dangerous and frightening job. Whalers would jump into a small boat and follow the whale. Once they were close to it, they would throw a harpoon that was attached to a very long rope into the whale.  The end of this harpoon was not at all like a spear.  It had a switch blade on the end that would stay in the whale's skin.  Once the harpoon was in the whale, the whale would start swimming as fast as it could.  The whale might swim day and night with no stop for several days.  Eventually, the tired and hurt whale would stop.  The whalers would then kill the whale with one last harpoon. When the animal died, the whalers would haul the whale onto the ship (big or small), skin it, then boil the blubber for the oil.
Soon, boats began getting bigger. Whalers began using a harpoon like before, but the harpoon has a grenade inside. This was very cruel way of killing whales as it hurt them a lot.  The whale would then have blood coming out of its blowhole. This meant the whale would die soon.
Sometimes entire whale families were found, and as many were killed as possible. Because of whaling, several kinds of whales became almost extinct.

More happily, whales are protected by conservation laws that stop people from killing too many of them. Also, chemists invented many products that take the place of whale blubber, and kerosene replaced whale oil in lamps.  Now, many countries have agreed not to hunt whales, because otherwise all the whales might die.  They signed a treaty agreeing on this though Norway and Japan still hunt whales. Russia and the United States also practising whaling, on a much smaller scale.  (Japan still does hunt often, however).

References

Other websites 

Whaling -Citizendium 

Fishing
An opinion is something a person or a group of people think.  "What is your opinion?" is like saying: "What do you think about it?"

The person's answer might start with: "In my opinion..........." or "I think........."

Sometimes companies try to find out what people think about something by asking many people their opinion.  This is called an "opinion poll" and the people who do it are "pollsters".  They might be trying to find out whether people think something is good or bad, such as electricity or exercise or Wikipedia, or whether one politician or beer or sport team is better than another.

Opinions are usually contrasted with facts. Facts are statements which are reliably supported by evidence. Opinions may or may not turn out to be facts.

Related pages 
Endoxa
Freedom of speech

Basic English 850 words
Human communication
A school year is the time of year when students go to school. In some countries, it starts after summer, and goes to the next summer. The typical school year in the United States ranges from 170 days to 190 days. In the south, a school year is 180 days for students and 190 days for teachers.

Education
Academia
An audience is a group of people that see, hear or otherwise experience the same thing.  It may be many different kinds of thing, such as a play, a movie, a book, or a broadcast.  Audience members participate in different ways in different kinds of art; some live performance events invite the audience to be part of the performance, while others allow only applause and criticism. Mass media seldom provide for audience participation.

An audience at a sporting event are called spectators or  a live audience

Performing arts
Entertainment
This page is about 'group' in the common sense. For the mathematical concept, see Group (mathematics).

A group is a set of things or a number of individuals who have regular contact and frequent interaction.

Examples of groups
 A family of people
 A herd of animals
 A class of students
 A sports team
 Ethnic group
 The apples on a tree
 The hats in a box
 Britain, China, France, Russia, and the United States of America are in the United Nations Security Council. 
 Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorus are a group of chemical elements that life needs.

Basic English 850 words
A side-scrolling video game or 2D game is a video game where the player goes toward one side of the screen, either to the left or the right, although this is different for each video game. A famous side-scroller is Super Mario Bros. The character usually moves from left to right but sometimes it is the other way around. In the golden age of video games, Side scrollers were a big thing and they still are to this day.

Types of video games
Video game gameplay
However, many people can not stop themselves from eating, and they become fat or obese. You can become fat by eating the wrong, unhealthy types of food and by eating too much. When a plant collects energy from the sun through its leaves, it is called photosynthesis. If a plant gets too much food, it can just store it until later. They use this stored food during the winter. When you are proven to be fat or obese through your body mass index (BMI), it means you are heavier than the average for your height. The taller you are, the heavier you should be, in theory. If someone is too heavy to be called fat, then they are called obese. When someone eats too much of one thing, they become fat. Someone can eat junk food, but they can also balance themselves by also eating fruits and vegetables. 
 

Food and drink
A bathroom (also known as a restroom, washroom, toilet or lavatory) is where people go for personal hygiene activities. This includes use of the toilet, wash their hands, brush their teeth, take a bath, painted bathtub , or take a shower. The room may also contain a sink, often called a "wash basin", “hair basin” or "hand basin" (in parts of the United States) and often a "lavatory." In the United States, "bathroom" mostly means "a room containing a lavatory." In other countries this is mostly called the "toilet". The word "bathroom" is also used in the United States for a public toilet or "restroom." Bathrooms also have bathroom cabinets.

History
Baths go back to 3,000 B.C. Usually, a town would have a special building for people to take baths, which sometimes were part of a religious ceremony. Starting in the 16th century, public baths started declining. People at this time started building baths inside their homes.
Variations
Usually, a full bath will have a toilet, a sink, a bathtub (painted) , and/or a shower. If a bathroom has only a toilet and a sink, then it is called a half bath or a powder room. A master bath is connected to a master bedroom for the use of whoever lives in that bedroom and no one else.

Rooms
A shower is a place where a person cleans themself by using water. They stand up when they use a shower and usually do not wear clothes in a shower. Showers have a shower head that squirts out water usually from above.

There are different kinds of showers. One is a "power shower" where there are many jets of water from all around. Another is the one in the picture. Some are in baths, and others are on their own.

Showers are mainly used for hygiene.

Hygiene
Gangtok is the capital of the Indian state of Sikkim, It has a population of 50,000. It is located at a height of 1,780 metres in the Himalayan Mountains . It is small town, filled with different cultures and religions living together. 

The city has wide roads, flyovers, markets, a modern hospital, schools, colleges and universities, fast food shops, discothèques, and all other modern amenities. One imposing man-made landmark of the town is the 200 ft-high TV tower which overlooks the town and is near the Enchey Monastery below Ganesh Tok. 

Capital cities in India
Towns in Sikkim
Woodwinds, especially the recorder and clarinets, are transposing instruments. Saxophones and most brass instruments are transposing instruments.

Historical notation 

The use of transposed notation (writing notes higher or lower than they really are) probably started with the slow changes in how to make instruments. There was a "clarinet in C" when Mozart was alive, but was later replaced by the larger, richer sounding "clarinet in B♭". There was no change to how clarinet players had to move their fingers. That helped players change from the older instrument to the newer instrument. Maybe learners of the modern day instrument in B♭ could re-learn how to use their fingers, so they could play with normal notes. But all written music would have to be transposed back to "concert pitch".

Natural harmonic series and timbre
Instruments such as horns and woodwinds have a natural harmonic series, so it is easier and louder to play in certain keys. So that needs to be remembered when writing music for these instruments. Also, these instruments can only be played in tune in certain keys, because of a problem with something called "equal temperament". Which keys will work depends on which key the instrument was tuned for.
Having transposing instruments makes it possible for pipes to play in several different keys.  The fingering can remain the same. Only the key the music is written in, the notes that harmonize with that key, and timbre (what the note sounds like, not just which key it is) change as the different sizes of instrument are used.  A cor anglais is like an oboe but a fifth lower (Five notes of a scale. A written C sounds like an F).  Any oboe player can play the cor anglais, reading the music and playing with normal oboe fingering.  It will automatically sound a fifth lower.  Compare this to recorders which are not transposing instruments.  On a descant recorder, the note played with three fingers of the left hand (1-2-3-0-0-0) is a G.  To play a G on a treble (alto) recorder the fingering is 1-2-3-1-2-3.  This can be confusing at first, but with practice players can get used to changing between the different sizes of recorder.
Professional clarinet players will need two clarinets: a B flat and an A clarinet.  Some clarinet cases are made to hold both instruments.  Some clarinet players also play the bass clarinet.  This is also in B flat, but sounds an octave lower than the ordinary B flat clarinet.  There is also an E flat clarinet which sounds a minor third higher than written.

Saxophones transpose into different keys according to their sizes.  Brass instruments come in several different keys.  It is always important for a player to come to a rehearsal or concert with the correct instrument.  Often brass players become skilled at transposing. That means, if their music is written in the wrong key for the instrument on which they are playing, they can still play it in the right key.

Musical instruments