Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Mount Rainier (), known to Native Americans in the region as Tahoma, Tacoma, Tacobet, or təqʷubəʔ, is a large volcano in the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest located in Mount Rainier National Park about  south of Seattle. Reaching to , it is the tallest mountain in the U.S. state of Washington and the Cascades.

Because it has a high risk of erupting in the future and is close to a high population, Mount Rainier is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world and is listed as a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior. It hosts a large amount of glacial ice which could produce massive lahars (volcanic mudflows) that threaten the entire Puyallup River valley. According to the United States Geological Survey, "about 80,000 people and their homes are at risk in Mount Rainier's lahar-hazard zones."
Between 1950 and 2018, 439,460 people climbed Mount Rainier and 84 people are reported to have died in accidents on the volcano between 1947 and 2018.

Name
Mount Rainier was known to the locally native Salish people as Talol, Tacoma, or Tahoma. There are several theories about where the native name comes from, including it possibly meaning 'mother of waters' to the Puyallup Tribe, 'snow-covered mountain', or 'larger than Mount Baker'. Other names originally used include Tahoma, Tacobeh, and Pooskaus.

The current name was given by George Vancouver who named it after his friend, Rear Admiral Peter Rainier. The map from Lewis and Clark's expedition in 1804-1806 called it "Mt. Regniere" even though Rainier had been the official name of the mountain. Theodore Winthrop in a travel book published after he died called the mountain Tacoma and for many years the two names were commonly used to refer to the mountain. Mount Tacoma was the preferred name in the nearby city of Tacoma.
Local area
Mount Rainier is the tallest mountain in Washington and the Cascade Range. It is located just east of Eatonville, to the southeast of Tacoma, and to the south of Seattle. Rainier has a topographic prominence of , which is greater than the prominence of the world's second-tallest mountain - K2. On clear days it dominates the horizon from most of the Seattle-Tacoma area so that most locals simply call it "the Mountain". On very clear days, it can be seen from as far away as Corvallis, Oregon and Victoria, British Columbia.
Mount Rainier has 26 major glaciers. In total, there are  of permanent snow and glacial ice on the mountain making it the most heavily glaciated peak in the lower 48 states. At the top are two Volcanic craters, both more than  in diameter. The east crater is larger and overlaps the western crater. Heat from the volcano keeps areas along the edge of the craters free of snow and ice and has created the world's largest glacier cave network inside the craters with almost  of passages. A small crater lake that is about  deep lies in the ice caves in the west crater and is the highest elevation lake in North America.
The Carbon, Puyallup, Mowich, Nisqually, and Cowlitz Rivers all begin on the slopes of Mount Rainier at the bottom of glaciers of that share their names with those of the rivers. The White River's water comes from three glaciers on the mountain. The White, Carbon, and Mowich all flow into the Puyallup River which ends at the Puget Sound in Tacoma. The Nisqually River empties into the Puget Sound near Lacey, Washington, and the Cowlitz flows to the Columbia River near Kelso, Washington.

Secondary peaks
Secondary peaks

Mount Rainier has a large summit area containing three peaks. The highest is called Columbia Crest followed by Point Success reaching  and Liberty Cap which is  above sea level and overlooks Liberty Ridge, the Sunset Amphitheater, and Wallis Wall. High on the east side of Mount Rainier is a rocky summit called Little Tahoma Peak. It is  above sea level and is a remnant from when Mount Rainier was much taller. Most climbers don't climb to both Columbia Crest and Little Tahoma Peak in the same trip, so it is usually considered by them to be a separate peak.

References

Notes

Other websites 

USGS: Mount Rainier -- Learning to Live with Volcanic Risk
Mount Rainier National Park 
Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System 
Mount Rainier stream drainage

Volcanoes of Washington (state)
Fort Knox is an U.S. Army post in Kentucky. Named after Henry Knox, the fort is now the site of the U.S. Bullion Reservatory (where the United States keeps its gold). The fort's fortifications were built in 1862 during the American Civil War; however, after the war the camp became abandoned until 1917.  

It is named for Henry Knox, a general in the American Revolutionary War.

American Civil War
Buildings and structures in Kentucky
Knox
Census-designated places in Kentucky
Hardin County, Kentucky
Bullitt County, Kentucky
Meade County, Kentucky
1862 establishments in the United States
1860s establishments in Kentucky
Maxwell's equations describe how electric charges and electric currents create electric and magnetic fields. They describe how an electric field can generate a magnetic field.  

In the 1860s James Clerk Maxwell published equations that describe how charged particles give rise to electric and magnetic force per unit charge. The force per unit charge is called a field. The particles could be stationary or moving. These, and the  Lorentz force equation, give everything one needs to calculate the motion of classical particles in electric and magnetic fields.

The first equation allows one to calculate the electric field created by a charge. The second allows one to calculate the magnetic field. The other two describe how fields 'circulate' around their sources. Magnetic fields 'circulate' around electric currents and time varying electric fields: Ampère's law with Maxwell's extension, while electric fields 'circulate' around time varying magnetic fields: Faraday's law.
Maxwell's Equations in the classical forms 

where the following table provides the meaning of each symbol and the SI unit of measure:

and

  is the divergence operator (SI unit: 1 per metre),

  is the curl operator (SI unit: 1 per metre).

The meaning of the equations

Charge density and the electric field 

 ,

where  is the free electric charge density (in units of C/m3), not counting the dipole charges bound in a material, and  is the electric displacement field (in units of C/m2). This equation is like Coulomb's law for non-moving charges in vacuum.

The next integral form (by the divergence theorem), also known as Gauss' law, says the same thing:

 

 is the area of a differential square on the closed surface A. The surface normal pointing out is the direction, and  is the free charge that is inside the surface.

In a linear material,  is directly related to the electric field  with a constant called the permittivity,  (This constant is different for different materials):

.
.

You can pretend a material is linear, if the electric field is not very strong. 

The permittivity of free space is called , and is used in this equation:

Here  is the electric field again (in units of V/m),  is the total charge density (including the bound charges), and  (approximately 8.854 pF/m) is the permittivity of free space.  One can also write  as . Here,  is the permittivity of the material when compared to the permittivity of free space. This is called the relative permittivity or dielectric constant.

See also Poisson's equation.

The structure of the magnetic field 

 is the magnetic flux density (in units of tesla, T), also called the magnetic induction.

This next integral form says the same thing: 

 

The area of  is the area of a differential square on the surface . The direction of  is the surface normal pointing outwards on the surface of .
This equation only works if the integral is done over a closed surface.
This equation says, that in every volume the sum of the magnetic field lines that go in equals the sum of the magnetical field lines that go out. This means that the magnetic field lines must be closed loops. Another way of saying this is that the field lines cannot start from somewhere. 
This is the mathematical way of saying: "There are no magnetic monopoles".

A changing magnetic flux and the electric field 

 

This next integral form says the same thing: 

 

Here 

This is what the symbols mean:

ΦB is the magnetic flux that goes through the area A that the second equation describes,

E is the electric field that the magnetic flux causes,

s is a closed path in which current is induced, for example a wire,

v is the instantaneous velocity of the line element (for moving circuits).
The electromotive force is equal to the value of this integral. Sometimes this symbol is used for the electromotive force: , do not confuse it with the symbol for permittivity that was used before.

This law is like Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

Some textbooks show the right hand sign of the integral form with an N (N is the number of coils of wire that are around the edge of A) in front of the flux derivative. The N can be taken care of in calculating A (multiple wire coils means multiple surfaces for the flux to go through), and it is an engineering detail so it's left out here.

The negative sign is needed for conservation of energy. It is so important that it even has its own name, Lenz's law.
This equation shows how the electric and magnetic fields have to do with each other. For example, this equation explains how electric motors and electric generators work. In a motor or generator, the field circuit has a fixed electric field that causes a magnetic field. This is called fixed excitation. The varying voltage is measured across the armature circuit.
Maxwell's equations are used in a right-handed coordinate system. To use them in a left-handed system, without having to change the equations, the polarity of magnetic fields has to be made opposite (this is not wrong, but it is confusing because it is not usually done like this).

The source of the magnetic field 

H is the magnetic field strength (in units of A/m), which you can get by dividing the magnetic flux B by a constant called the permeability, μ (B = μH), and J is the current density, defined by: 

J = ∫ρqvdA
J = ∫ρqvdA 

v is a vector field called the drift velocity. It describes the speeds of the charge carriers that have a density described by the scalar function ρq.

In free space, the permeability μ is the permeability of free space, μ0, which is exactly 4π×10−7 W/A·m, by definition.  Also, the permittivity is the permittivity of free space ε0.  So, in free space, the equation is:

The next integral form says the same thing:

s is the edge of the open surface A (any surface with the curve s as its edge is okay here), and Iencircled is the current encircled by the curve s (the current through any surface is defined by the equation: Ithrough A = ∫AJ·dA).

If the electric flux density does not change very fast, the second term on the right hand side (the displacement flux) is very small and can be left out, and then the equation is the same as Ampere's law.

Covariant Formulation
There are only two covariant Maxwell Equations, because the covariant field vector includes the electrical and the magnetical field.

Mathematical note: In this section the abstract index notation will be used.

In special relativity, Maxwell's equations for the vacuum are written in terms of four-vectors and tensors in the "manifestly covariant" form. This has been done to show more clearly the fact that Maxwell's equations (in vacuum) take the same form in any inertial coordinate system. This is the "manifestly covariant" form:

,

and

The second equation is the same as:
Here  is the 4-current,  is the field strength tensor  (written as a 4 × 4 matrix),  is the Levi-Civita symbol, and  is the 4-gradient (so that  is the d'Alembertian operator).  (The  in the first equation is implicitly summed over, according to Einstein notation.) The first tensor equation says the same thing as the two inhomogeneous Maxwell's equations: Gauss' law and Ampere's law with Maxwell's correction.  The second equation say the same thing as the other two equations, the homogeneous equations: Faraday's law of induction and the absence of magnetic monopoles.

 can also be described more explicitly by this equation:  (as a contravariant vector), where you get  from the charge density ρ and the current density .  The 4-current is a solution to the continuity equation:

In terms of the 4-potential (as a contravariant vector) , where φ is the electric potential and  is the magnetic vector potential in the Lorentz gauge , F can be written as:

which leads to the 4 × 4 matrix rank-2 tensor:
The fact that both electric and magnetic fields are combined into a single tensor shows the fact that, according to relativity, both of these are different parts of the same thing—by changing frames of reference, what looks like an electric field in one frame can look like a magnetic field in another frame, and the other way around.

Using the tensor form of Maxwell's equations, the first equation implies 

(See Electromagnetic four-potential for the relationship between the d'Alembertian of the four-potential and the four-current, expressed in terms of the older vector operator notation).

Different authors sometimes use different sign conventions for these tensors and 4-vectors (but this does not change what they mean).

 and  are not the same: they are related by the Minkowski metric tensor : . This changes the sign of some of F's components; more complex metric dualities can be seen in general relativity.

Other websites 
 Maxwell equations - Citizendium
Electromagnetism
Basic physics ideas
Partial differential equations
Henry Knox (1750-1806) was a military leader for the Americans during the American Revolutionary War. Originally from Boston, Massachusetts, he was appointed Chief Artillery Officer of the Continental Army. He is best known for transporting cannons and other artillery from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston through icy conditions using oxen. Later, George Washington named him the first Secretary of War. 

Fort Knox in Kentucky & Maine are named after him.

1750 births
1806 deaths
American generals
American revolutionaries
Founding Fathers of the United States
Politicians from Boston
18th-century American politicians
Military people from Massachusetts
The American Revolutionary War was a war fought between Great Britain and the original Thirteen Colonies in North America from 1775 to 1783. Most of the fighting was in North America and other places. The Continental Army, the rebel army, was led by George Washington and helped by France and Spain. They defeated the British Army after the British moved their attention to other matters.

After the war ended, the Thirteen Colonies became independent, which meant that the British Empire was no longer in charge of them. They became the first 13 states of a new country which they called the United States. 

Before the American Revolutionary War, another war occured called the French and Indian war. The French and Indian war was fought between France and Britain and started in 1754. Britain lost a lot of money from this, so they began taxing Americans to gain it back.
Not all colonists wanted to leave the British Empire. The Loyalists, or Tories, stayed loyal to Great Britain. They were not going to change their views. The Patriots, or Whigs, wanted independence. Before the Revolutionary War, most people in America were Loyalists; but after it, most people were Patriots.

Many colonists wrote letters showing how they felt. Thomas Paine wrote Common Sense, a famous pamphlet about independence from Britain. Other colonial leaders, such as Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson wanted independence.

Northern battles 
The first battles of the American Revolutionary War were Lexington and Concord. One of the first major battles was the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. Then, the British controlled Boston. Soon, the Second Continental Congress sent an Olive Branch Petition to King George III, which he rejected, and named George Washington head of the army. Early in 1776, Washington's army drove the British out of Boston.
A few months later, the Continental Army and the British troops under William Howe fought the New York and New Jersey Campaign. During the New York battles, the British started using Hessian troops, who were from Germany. Though the colonists lost New York, which the British would hold it for the rest of the war, Washington was able to hold onto most of his army. Over Christmas, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River and defeated the Hessians at Trenton and the British at Princeton.

In 1777, the British attacked Philadelphia, which was the American capital. Two battles were fought over Philadelphia: Brandywine and Germantown. Again, the Americans lost a major city, but Washington was able to keep most of his army. Around then, the Marquis de Lafayette joined the American Army from his native France. In 1778, the British left Philadelphia.

Between 1778 and 1781, most battles between Washington and the British were inconclusive and had no major effect militarily.
One of the most important battles was the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. American soldiers under Horatio Gates forced a British surrender under John Burgoyne. That led to France and Spain joining the war on the side of Americans, who they thought would win. Both powerful countries fought the British around the world. From 1778 to 1780, there was fighting in the West.

The Scottish commerce raider John Paul Jones also won several naval battles for the Americans over the British, but the French Navy did most of the fighting at sea. The Americans tried to capture Canada several times but failed.

Southern battles 
In 1779, the main fighting shifted to Georgia and South Carolina. As the fighting spread northward, General Nathanael Greene led the rebels' campaign. He caused many people in the South to be Patriots instead of Loyalists and won several battles against the British.
In 1781, Washington and French General Jean Rochambeau led an offensive against British troops at Siege of Yorktown in Virginia. When their soldiers lost this battle, the British surrendered to the Americans. However, the British continued to fight the French and Spanish for two years and won in India, Gibraltar and elsewhere.

End of war 
The American Revolution came to an end in 1783 when a peace treaty was signed in Paris, France. In the Treaty of Paris, British King George III accepted the independence of the colonies and recognized the newly created nation as the United States of America.

The treaty also gave all the land Britain claimed to own west of the Appalachians as far as the Mississippi River to the new country. The land would eventually become part of the United States and lead to the creation of 35 new states (some of them later rebelled as part of the Confederate States of America) that now make up the contiguous United States. Many Loyalists fled to Canada.
Casualties 
As is usual for 18th-century wars, casualty figures (killed/wounded/missing/captured) for the American Revolution are poorly known. Unlike American Civil War casualties, which were published in newspapers, Revolutionary War casualty reports are found in local town histories; total casualties of the Revolution are rough estimates.

References

Other websites 

 American Revolution, military history -Citizendium
 Rosters and Registers of the American Revolution
 Roll of New Hampshire Soldiers in the American Revolution

Revolutions
 
Wars of independence
Wars involving the United States
Wars involving France
18th-century rebellions
Rebellions in North America
1775 was a common year.

Events 
May – beginning of American Revolutionary War
May – First Continental Congress
June – Second Continental Congress
The Continental Army was the fighting force of the thirteen British colonies in the American Revolutionary War. It was created in 1775 by the First Continental Congress. Most of the army was disbanded in 1783 after the conclusion of the war. The army was officially closed by a resolution of Congress in 1784. A Legion of the United States partly replaced it in 1792, and the United States Army replaced it in 1796.

Congress elected George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army when it was formed. He led the army until it was disbanded.

United States Army
American Revolutionary War
1775 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
1784 disestablishments
18th-century disestablishments in the United States
Cream cheese is a soft, mild-tasting, white cheese. Sometimes, it is given extra flavor by adding additional seasonings such as puréed garlic, chopped dill, or chopped olives; as well, some cream cheese has small pieces of fruit or other sweet food blended into it. Cream cheese is different from other cheese in that it is not allowed time to mature. It is either made by cream or a mixture of milk and cream.

Serving
Cream cheese is often spread on toasted bagels. Waffles with cream cheese and salsa is eaten in some areas of the United States.

As an ingredient
Cream cheese is used to make cheesecake, a sweet, rich cake that is served for dessert.

Related pages
 Fromage frais

References 

Cheeses
Spreads
Shrewsbury is the county town of Shropshire, a county of England. It is located 9 miles (14 km) east of the Welsh border and serves as the commercial centre for Shropshire and mid-Wales.

The town is very old. It was started around 700 AD. The town centre has almost the exact same medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings. Many of these buildings have timber framing from the 15th and 16th centuries. There is also Shrewsbury Castle, which was built  in 1074, and Shrewsbury Abbey, which was built in 1083. The town centre is almost completely surrounded by the River Severn.

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury and lived there for 27 years.

The population of Shrewsbury is just over 76,000, making it the second largest town in Shropshire, the biggest being Telford.

The town has a railway station and a professional football club, Shrewsbury Town, who compete in League One.

Twinning
Shrewsbury is twinned with  Zutphen, Netherlands.
In fiction
Shrewsbury Abbey is the setting of the Brother Cadfael Chronicles by Ellis Peters (Edith Pargeter). The books were later made into a television show.  The story is about a 12th-century monk who solves mysteries.  In 2013, the Abbey honoured Pargeter on the 100th anniversary of her birth.

Gallery

References

County towns in England
Market towns in Shropshire
Telford is a large town in the county of Shropshire, England. It is in the borough of Telford and Wrekin.

It is a new town and building began in the 1960s. It is known for its large shopping centre in the town centre. It also has an ice rink and a large park.

The population of Telford is just over 140,000. It is the largest town in Shropshire, however the county town is Shrewsbury.

The town has a railway station, Telford Central. The town also has a football club, A.F.C. Telford United.

Gallery

Towns in Shropshire
Ludlow is a town in Shropshire, a county of England. The town is very old and dates back to around 800 AD. There is a large castle and many other historic buildings. 

There are just over 10,000 people living in the town.

It is the largest town in the South Shropshire area.

The town, though not large, is important in its area, which includes the Welsh Marches, Wales and South Shropshire. Its parish church, St Laurence's, is the largest in the county.

Transport

Road 
The A49, A4117, B4361 and B4365 roads pass through or go near Ludlow.

Rail 
Ludlow has a train station.

References

Towns in Shropshire
7th century establishments in England
Civil parishes in Shropshire
South Shropshire is an area of Shropshire in England.

It is very hilly and has few people living there. The only large town is Ludlow.

The area has many castles and other ancient features, such as stone circles.

District and borough councils in England
Shropshire
The Battle of Yorktown, also called the Siege of Yorktown, fought from September 28-October 19, 1781. It is considered the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army, led by General George Washington, won a decisive victory against the British Army, led by General Lord Charles Cornwallis. Cornwallis was forced to surrender after being surrounded by Washington's army.

The Americans were assisted by the French, led by the Comte de Rochambeau. The battle took place in Yorktown, Virginia, near the York River. After the French fleet defeated a British fleet, Cornwallis was cut off and had to surrender to the French and the Continental Army. Eventually, it led to the Treaty of Paris in 1783, two years later.
British General Lord Cornwallis had fought against the Americans in 1776 and 1777. He was convinced the Americans could not defeat a British army in the field. In 1778 he returned to England to care for his wife who died in February 1779. After a few months he returned to America to continue the fight.  While he was gone, there was a change in British strategy. Before, the British had concentrated on defeating and destroying Washington's army. Now, since the French had joined the Americans, it was no longer just a rebellion but a world war.  Earlier, the French had been helping the Americans with loans and war supplies.  Now France and Spain were fighting against the British, who had to move troops from North America to defend other places.  The new strategy was to win back the Southern colonies beginning with Georgia. The British thought that as many as 50 percent of the population in the South was loyal to Britain. They would start with Georgia and move north through The Carolinas to the Virginia Colony.
On his arrival in New York City, Cornwallis was made second-in-command to General Henry pork. The two generals did not trust each other. Clinton was convinced Washington would attack him in New York. He was afraid of sending troops home and having to depend more on Loyalist militia. Cornwallis was ready to go ahead with what troops he had. Clinton was suspicious Cornwallis' return from England was to  get a command for himself.  In fact, Cornwallis had secured a commission to replace Clinton if Clinton repeated his threats to resign.

Clinton sent Cornwallis south to recapture Charleston, South Carolina following the new plan.  Soon, Cornwallis began acting independently of Clinton, who stayed safe in New York City. Cornwallis wasn't going to play it safe and advance by careful steps as he had been instructed.  When he saw a chance to attack the new patriot army under Major General Horatio Gates, he did so without orders nearly wiping out the Americans.
In New York, Washington learned that the French Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse was sailing north from the West Indies. Rochambeau convinced Washington they could attack and defeat Cornwallis. The two commanders began marching south to meet de Grasse's 27 ships and 3,200 troops. Clinton learned of this and sent a British naval fleet to the Chesapeake Bay to cut them off. But the French and Americans arrived first. In the Battle of the Chesapeake the French navy forced the British ships back to New York City. Clinton warned Cornwallis in early September he would soon be facing American and French troops but promised him reinforcements by sea. Clinton had not yet learned of the French naval victory and did not know he could not rescue Cornwallis by sea.  By the end of September, Washington and Rochambeau had surrounded Yorktown. Cornwallis received another message in late September from Clinton telling him help was on the way
.  Cornwallis was misled again and thought he only had to hold out for a few days.
The Siege of Yorktown 
Just after the clash between the French and British Fleets, a smaller French squadron carrying the French army's siege artillery slipped into the Chesapeake. Now the French and Americans had bigger guns than Cornwallis had behind his earthen fortifications.
Marching out of Williamsburg, Virginia the Americans and French arrived on September 28, 1781 at Yorktown. They surrounded the earthworks in a Semicircle with the York River completing the circle. Cornwallis made the first move, abandoning his outer works made up of four redoubts.  Washington and Rochambeau thought this was a mistake. They sent troops to occupy the outer earthworks. The Americans and French began setting up their siege operations on September 30, first on the east side. By October 9, they were close enough to begin the bombardment. The Americans and French stormed two of the redoubts on October 14, forcing the British back even further. By that time it became obvious the British could not hold out much longer. On October 16, the British attacked two of the redoubts they had abandoned and spiked the guns. At the same time Cornwallis attempted to slip past the guards to Gloucester (now Gloucester Point, Virginia) across the river but was turned back by a storm
. Finally, with no sign of relief as promised by Clinton, Cornwallis' army of 6,000 soldiers surrendered.
Results 
The battles of Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781 were two major turning points in the Revolutionary war. Both were American victories over the British, but with very different results. The British defeat at Saratoga prolonged the war, while the battle at Yorktown foretold its end. Saratoga convinced the French to join the Americans against the British. Yorktown was a joint victory by the French and the Americans over the British. France and her allies continued to fight hard for two more years, but there was little fighting anymore on the American continent. The Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the war.

References

Other websites 
 America's Final Victory - 1781; YouTube
 The Surrender of Yorktown 1781; YouTube

Battles of the American Revolutionary War
1781 in North America
1780s in the United States
18th century in Virginia
Prelude 
In early 1777, General William Howe asked London to approve his plan to attack Philadelphia. This would destroy the rebellious American government. In Canada, General John Burgoyne submitted a plan to move down through New York and meet General Howe at Albany. This would divide the colonies. London approved both plans. Burgoyne began moving down the Hudson River valley from Canada. He split his force into two columns. One, under Colonel Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario down the Mohawk Valley. They attacked the Americans at Fort Stanwix. The Americans sent two parties to relieve the fort. The second, under the command of Benedict Arnold, drove the British away from the fort. St. Leger's column retreated back to Lake Ontario. Burgoyne continued south with his own column of about 7,000 British and Hessian soldiers. He was joined by about 500 native Americans, allied to the British.
Battle of Freeman's Farm 
Howe had captured Philadelphia. But it took so long he did not send any forces north to support Burgoyne. On September 19 Burgoyne attacked the Americans who were entrenched on Bemis Heights near Saratoga. He again fought Americans at Freeman's Farm. This time it was American riflemen under the command of Daniel Morgan. American Marksman killed a large number of British and Hessian officers. This was intended to cause confusion among the British forces. Burgoyne lost about 600 casualties. He claimed victory although he was still held in place by the Americans.
Battle of Bemis Heights 
Burgoyne tried and failed to attack the Americans again on October 7. But the Americans held out against him. A counterattack led by Benedict Arnold pushed the British back further until they finally retreated back to Saratoga. This battle cost Burgoyne another 600 casualties. The American losses were less than 150. Burgoyne's army was now surrounded by a much larger and growing American army. On October 13, 1777 Burgoyne asked for a Ceasefire. Horatio Gates, the American commander asked for Burgoyne's surrender. But Burgoyne stalled and did not give an answer. The terms given by Gates were harsh. Finally Gates offered better terms. On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered.
British surrender 
Burgoyne surrendered his whole army of 5,752. He gave up 42 cannons, 7,000 muskets and all his supplies. Officers were separated from their men and placed on parole. Unlike their men they were allowed to keep their pistols. Gates invited Burgoyne to dine with him. The two men were friendly. Each toasted the other's leader. The British and Hessian soldiers were marched to Boston. Per the agreement they were to return to England on their promise not to fight again. While some did return to England, Congress changed the terms. Many were sent to prisons in the colonies to wait out the war.

References

Other websites 
 Battle Of Saratoga - Sept & Oct 1777
 The Battle of Saratoga 1777; British Battles

Battles of the American Revolutionary War
1777 in New York (state)
1189 was a common year.

Events 
 January 21 – Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade
 September 3– Richard I of England is crowned as king of England.
 August 29– Ban Kulin wrote "The Charter of Kulin", which become a symbolic "birth certificate" of Bosnian statehood
 This year was fixed as the start of time immemorial in English law in 1276.
 Beginning of the Siege of Acre.
 The Crusader castles of Montreal and Kerak are captured by Saladin.

Births 
 Yuri II, grand prince of Vladimir (d. 1238)

Deaths 
 July 6 — King Henry II of England (b. 1133)
Horatio Gates (1726 - 1806) was an American general in the American Revolutionary War. General Gates fought for the Continental Army and is credited with the decisive American victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. 

In the earlier French and Indian War, he fought along with George Washington against the French, as an officer in the British Army.

However, Gates also lost to British General Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Camden in 1780. He had a child named Robert.

 

1726 births
1806 deaths

American revolutionaries
Events 
 February – The court of the Southern Song Dynasty of China and hundreds of thousands of its citizens move from Hangzhou to Fujian and then Guangdong to get away from an invasion by the Mongol Empire.
 March 9 – Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City. Ravensburg also does in the same year.
 June – King Rudolph I of Germany starts a war with King Otakar II of Bohemia; by November, Otakar II has to give him four important pieces of land. (The diet of Nuremberg already decided this in 1274.)
 Four different men are pope in this year, as Popes Gregory X, Innocent V, and Adrian V all die in a short time.
 King Otakar II of Bohemia lays the foundation stone of the Minorite Church in Vienna.
 Mamluk sultan Baibars takes Al-Maris, which was part of Makuria, and goes through it into Egypt.
 A 23-year drought begins to change the Grand Canyon area. In the end, the agriculture-dependent Anasazi culture has to migrate out of the region.
Births 
 October 19 – Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shogun (died 1328)
 Christopher II of Denmark (died 1332)
 Vakhtang III of Georgia (died 1308)
 Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (died 1322)
 Yesün Temür Khan of the Mongol Empire (died 1328)
 Louis d'Évreux, son of King Philip III of France

Deaths
Events 
 May 7 – The Second Council of Lyons, held by the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church convenes to consider the conquest of the Holy Land via Crusades and address the East-West Schism with the Byzantine church. The Council eventually approves a tithe to support efforts to conquer the Holy Land from Muslims, and reaches apparent resolution of the schism which ultimately proves unsuccessful.
 November – The diet at Nuremberg orders that all crown estates seized since the death of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor be restored to Rudolph I of Germany; almost all European rulers agree, with the notable exception of King Otakar II of Bohemia, who had benefited greatly by conquering or otherwise coming into possession of many of those lands.
 Pope Gregory X decrees that conclaves (meetings during which the electors have no contact with the outside) should be used for papal elections, reforming the electoral process which had taken over three years to elect him.
{{Year in other calendars10021
 (MCXCVIII''') was .

Events 
 End of the reign of Emperor Go-Toba, emperor of Japan
 Emperor Tsuchimikado ascends to the throne of Japan
 January 8 – Pope Innocent III ascends Papal Throne
 Frederick II, infant son of German King Henry VI, crowned King of Sicily

Births 
 August 24 — King Alexander II of Scotland (d. 1249)
 Ertugrul, Turkish leader, father of Osman I (d. 1281)
 Ferdinand III of Castile (d. 1252)
 Sybilla of Lusignan, wife of Leo II of Armenia (d. c. 1230)
Deaths 
 January 8 — Pope Celestine III (b. c. 1106)
 March 11 — Marie de Champagne, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1145)
 April 16 — Duke Frederick I of Austria (b. c. 1175)
 September 1 — Dulce Berenguer, Queen of Portugal, spouse of King Sancho I of Portugal (b. 1160)
 November 27 — Queen Constance of Sicily, wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1154)
 December 10 — Averroes, Arab philosopher and physician (b. 1126)
 Ruaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland
 Alix of France, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1150)
 William III of Sicily (b. 1190)
 June 2 — Lord Ygo III of Galama, Frisian knight and nobleman (b. 1139)
 William of Newburgh, English historian (b. 1135)
Events 
 Winter: Much of the English town of Alnwick in Northumbria burnt by Scottish a raiding party.
 The Ming dynasty in China disbands their navy, altering the balance of power in the Indian Ocean, making it easier for Portugal and other Western naval powers to gain dominance over the seas.
1435 was a common year.

Events 
 September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
 Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy.
Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf (HHU) () is the university of Düsseldorf, Germany, named after the most famous son of Düsseldorf, the poet Heinrich Heine.

History
In the era of Napoleon Bonaparte there was the first university in Düsseldorf, which ended after Napoleon surrendered.
So in the further 19th century there was only a Medical Academy and the famous Arts School of Düsseldorf and a Teacher Academy (Special University only for studying to became a teacher) until the 1970s, but no regular university, in Düsseldorf. In the 1960s the state government of North Rhine-Westphalia decided to have a regular university in the state's capital. The university started about 1970.
It got its name only in the 1980s, because the medicine faculty wanted to have a physician's name, because of the tradition as Medical Academy.
Current situation
Currently the Heinrich-Heine-University is a university with about 20,000 students, which is middle-class in Germany.
It has a lot of subjects in sciences, arts, economics, and so on. The deep points are on biological-medicinal research in sciences and some deep points in arts, economics, political sciences, and philosophy.

Subjects
Like most German universities it has many subjects:

Other websites 
 http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de

Colleges and universities in North Rhine-Westphalia
Education in Düsseldorf
1239 is a year in the 13th century

Events 
 September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
 Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy.

Births 
 June 17 – King Edward I of England (died 1307)
 December 17 – Kujo Yoritsugu, Japanese shogun (died 1256)
 Peter III of Aragon (died 1285)
 John II, Duke of Brittany (died 1305)
 Ippen, Japanese monk (died 1289)

Deaths
The Siberian tiger or Amur tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is the largest felid in the world. They live in eastern Russia's birch forests, and there are some in China and North Korea. It is estimated that there are around 400 to 500 Siberian tigers left in the wild.

In 2017, the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and now recognizes all the tiger populations in mainland Asia as P. t. tigris.
Description
Siberian tigers are the largest of all tigers, as well as the largest of all the big cats. They can grow up to the length of 6–9 ft (1.8–2.7 meters), but some can be as long as . They usually weigh around 300–600 pounds, but can weigh as much as 700 pounds or more. To keep themselves from becoming cold in the winters, Siberian tigers have thicker fur coats than tigers which live in southern Asia.  They also have a thick layer of fat which helps keep them warm. Like all other tigers, Siberian tigers have orange fur with black stripes. Siberian tigers have extra fur around their necks and paws which helps them keep warm. Siberian tigers have less orange in their coats, and have fewer stripes.
Where they live
Siberian tigers are located in northeast China, the Russian Far East and parts of North Korea. This region is called the "Amur Region", which is named after the Amur River. This region is covered with mountainous areas and coniferous forests. In the summer, the temperature is between mild and hot. In the winter, it may be very cold, especially at higher altitudes.

Behaviour
Like other tigers, the Siberian tiger likes to live on its own. Each Siberian tiger has its own large amount of territory. Male tigers' territories will usually cross those of several females' territories, but will usually not cross the territories of other males. In their territories, Siberian tigers usually have a lair in a cave or another area.
Feeding
Since Siberian tigers live in such cold regions, an adult needs to eat at least  of food every day to survive, but adults can eat as much as 50 kilograms of meat. Siberian tigers are carnivores. Siberian tigers are apex predators. Siberian tigers feed mainly on wild boar, moose and deer. If regular prey is unavailable they will eat fish, rodents, rabbits, wolves, asian black bears, and even small brown bears. During normal conditions, around 50 percent of the tiger's diet will be of wild boar.

Hunting
While hunting, a Siberian tiger can run up to speeds of  , but running at this speed takes a lot of energy, so the Siberian tiger will only run short distances. The Siberian tiger has good night vision and likes to hunt during the night, when it can more easily surprise its prey. It also has excellent hearing and sense of smell which it uses to find and attack prey.

Reproduction
Reproduction

Siberian tigers live alone and only come together in mating season. The mating season usually begins in December, and lasts through January. Females are pregnant for around three to three and a half months before giving birth to their cubs in early spring. Females usually give birth to around 3–4 cubs at a time. When born, the Siberian tiger cub is blind and toothless and is no larger than a normal house cat. It stays blind for around two weeks. The mother starts teaching the cubs how to hunt when the cubs are around 1 year old. The cubs then stay with their mother until they are 3–5 years old.

References

Other websites 

 "The Amur tiger in the 20th century"  article from the Tigris Foundation website
 Siberian Tiger at the AMUR website 

Tigers
National symbols of South Korea
Other calendars
 Buddhist calendar: 1997 - 1998
 Hebrew calendar: 5215 - 5216
 Islamic calendar: 859 - 860

Events 
 February 9 – Wars of the Roses: Richard, Duke of York dismissed as Protector
 February 23 – Johannes Gutenberg prints the first Bible on a printing press
 May 22 – Wars of the Roses: First Battle of St Albans – Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick defeat the Lancastrians under Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, who is killed. York captures King Henry VI of England and has himself appointed Constable of England.
 May 25 – Victorious Yorkish lords ritually renew the monarchy of Henry VI in St. Paul's Cathedral.
Cassette may mean:

Some of kinds of cassettes are:
 Audio cassettes, a kind of cassette which can store music and sounds. It is used with a "cassette player" or "cassette recorder". 
 Videotape cassettes, which can store video and sounds
 Cassette single, a recording of a single song sold on a compact audio cassette
 Digital Compact Cassette, a format of magnetic tape, developed to replace the compact cassette
History 
The standard audio cassette was invented in 1962 by Lou Ottens of the Philips company. They named it the "Compact Cassette". The first cassettes and cassette recorders had poor audio quality. They were used for recording speech rather than music. Over time, audio quality improved, and they became usable for music. During the 1970s, the cassette grew to be a popular physical format for audio. Their popularity grew further during the following decades. The Walkman, released in 1979, made the cassette very popular in the 1980s. In the 1990s, CDs became more popular than cassettes for prerecorded music, however the cassette remained the most popular format for homemade recordings until CD recorders became affordable in the early 2000s.
Use as a data medium 
Some early home computers, such as the Commodore 64, used cassettes to store data or computer programs. Some cassettes were marketed specifically for data, although these cassettes were not physically different from those used for audio. Software and games were also sold on cassettes. In the late 1980s, higher-capacity tape formats, floppy disks, and CD-ROMs made this usage of the cassette obsolete. Another format called D/CAS (Data Cassette), sometimes called a streamer cassette, was also available. It was based on the audio cassette, but it had a different formulation of tape that was designed for data only, and used a special tape drive that was incompatible with normal cassettes. It could store up to 600 MB of data. Unlike normal cassettes, it had only one side.
Types of cassette 
There are four types of cassettes, each using a different magnetic particle bonded to the plastic tape stock. The tape type alone is not an indicator of the quality of the tape; there are high-quality and poor-quality examples of all four types.
 Type I - Ferric - Type I was the original cassette formulation and is made from rust-like ferric oxide particles. These particles give the tape its characteristic brown color. Type I tapes have strong, high-quality bass and midrange, but less treble response than the other types. The vast majority of cassettes on the market are Type I.
 Type II - CrO2 and cobalt - Type II tapes are made from chromium dioxide or a mixture of cobalt and ferric oxide particles. The tape is typically black or very dark brown. Type II tapes have good treble response, and acceptable bass response, although the bass is not as strong as Type I.
Type III - Ferrochrome - Type III tapes are a hybrid of Types I and II. They consist of a layer of ferric tape for strong bass, and a layer of chromium dioxide tape for strong treble. Type III tapes are no longer made and were never very popular because the ideal bias settings for CrO2 and ferric tape are different, so the person recording the tape is forced to choose a bias setting that is not ideal. Many tape recorders do not have a setting for them. On decks without a Type III setting, they should be recorded as a Type I.
 Type IV - Metal - Type IV tapes are made from metal particles rather than metal oxides. The tape is typically a shiny metallic black color. They have good treble and bass response and very high dynamic range. Type IV tapes are no longer made.
Hybrid formats also exist, for example cobalt tapes meant to be recorded as a Type I or metal particle tapes meant to be recorded as a Type II.

Decline in popularity 
As compact discs grew in popularity, cassettes were used less. In 2011, the Oxford English Dictionary attempted to remove the word "cassette tape" from a small version of its book. Cassettes are still popular with some audiophiles, as it is an analog format that is portable and more convenient than vinyl.

Successors 
Several media formats have been developed to replace the cassette. Among these are the Elcaset, stereo microcassette, Digital Audio Tape, Digital Compact Cassette, MiniDisc, and CD-R. With the exception of CD-R, none of these formats ever surpassed the popularity of the cassette.

References 

Magnetic tape