Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Although a few people thought that Berlioz was an original composer, many others thought his music was very strange. He hardly earned any money from composing. Most of the money he earned came from musical journalism, which is something he hated. When his works were performed, he usually conducted them himself. He wrote a work for viola and orchestra called Harold en Italie. Paganini had asked him to write it for him to play, but when Paganini saw the music he did not like it because it was not “showy” enough for the viola. Some years later Paganini heard the work and decided he liked it, so he paid Berlioz 20.000 Francs. This was a lot of money, and it made it possible for Berlioz to spend time writing a big new work: Roméo et Juliette. When this was first performed some critics thought that Berlioz did not understand Shakespeare probably. However, Richard Wagner, who was in the audience at the first performance, was very impressed
. Berlioz tried to be successful as an opera composer, but people did not understand his original music. He wrote a Grand symphonie funèbre et triomphale, originally written for a military band. Les nuits d'été is a very moving song-cycle.
Later life 

During the 1840s and 1850s Berlioz spent much of his time travelling abroad. He went to Germany, Austria, Russia and England. He was becoming more famous abroad than at home in France, although he still continued to go back to Paris. The Germans loved his music and were impressed by his conducting. He rarely conducted anything except his own music. In 1846 he composed one of his finest works: La Damnation de Faust which was performed in the Opéra-Comique. The opera house was half empty. It was a great disappointment to him. Berlioz continued to tour to other countries where people appreciated him. He had great success in St Petersburg, in Berlin where he performed to the King of Prussia, and in London, where he never got paid for the concerts that Jullien conducted because Jullien had no money left. However, he had other successes in London and the English liked him very much.
Berlioz had always had a passion for the Latin poet Virgil. In 1856 he spent a long time writing a long opera in five acts called Les Troyens (The Trojans). He knew it would be almost impossible to find anyone who would put on a performance. It only became possible in 1863 after he had divided the work into two parts. After that it was 30 years before the opera was performed again. It contains some of his best music. The storm scene is especially famous and often performed separately as an orchestral piece.

As he got older he became obsessed with death. He had lost two wives, and his two sisters had also died. He started to walk in cemeteries. He wrote his Memoires (autobiography). It has been translated into many languages including English.
In 1863 he wrote to Estelle, the girl he had loved when he was a child. She was now a widow of 67 and he was 60. He visited her in Lyons and loved her again. He wrote regularly to her for the rest of his life, and stayed with her three times in Grenoble where she lived with her son. She gradually understood him better, and she gave him much happiness during his last years.

A final journey to St Petersburg was too much for Berlioz. He became ill. He went to Nice on the way home, where he twice collapsed while walking by the sea. He went back to Paris where he was cared for by his mother-in-law. He died on 11 March 1869 and was buried in the Cimitière Montmartre.
Berlioz is a clear example of a “prophet who is without honour in his own country”: not many people in France realized he was a great composer, but in other countries he was welcomed as one of the great composers and conductors of his day. Many of his works are difficult to describe. His Symphonie fantastique is not quite a symphony, his Harold en Italie is not quite a concerto. His Requiem is not a normal, religious requiem, Roméo et Juliette is a mixture of all sorts of things. He wrote five operas, which are all very different in style. His songs are tender and lovely, influenced by the French romance. His overtures are very popular at orchestral concerts. His music is very original and, although he wrote a book on orchestration, the sounds he composed were so personal that no one could imitate him. He was not good at playing any instrument, but could imagine all the sounds in his head. Many of his melodies stretch themselves over an unusual number of bars
. A lot of his orchestral music is programme music: it is often inspired by books or wild stories in his imagination.
References 
 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980. 
 Berlioz Mémoires; edition Garnier-Flammarion, Paris 1969

1803 births
1869 deaths
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris
French autobiographers
19th-century French composers
French music critics
People with foods named after them
Romantic composers
Vincenzo Bellini (Catania, November 3 1801 - Puteaux, near Paris, September 23 1835) was an Italian composer and opera composer.

Bellini was well liked for his melodies. His first success was Il pirata in 1827. It was followed by I Capuleti e Montecchi in 1830. Then came his most famous operas La sonnambula (1831), Norma (1831) and his last I puritani (1835).

His second to last work Beatrice di Tenda (1833) was less successful.

Although his operas never left the repertoire, they became popular again in the 1950s due largely to soprano Maria Callas, followed by Joan Sutherland in the 1960s.

Reference
 The Complete Dictionary of Opera and Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.

1801 births
1835 deaths
Bellini, Vincenzo
Bellini, Vincenzo
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
People from Catania
Charles-Valentin Alkan (30 November 1813 - 29 March 1888) was a French-Jewish composer and pianist. His real name was Morhange. He was a virtuoso pianist who wrote a lot of piano music. Most of the pieces he wrote are extremely difficult to play. Franz Liszt,  Busoni and other people of his day thought he was a great composer. Despite this, most people have only discovered in recent years how good his music is. His piano music is mostly tonal, but it changes key in unusual ways. The story was told by many people that he died when a bookcase collapsed on top of him, but that story is proved not to be true.

From the 1860s to 1873 he did not show in public very much, and composed some of his works.

Alkan was a close friend of Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt.

Other websites

19th-century French composers
Romantic composers
French pianists
1813 births
1883 deaths
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris
The Shrimad Bhagwat Purana describes in detail the incarnations of Lord Vishnu. There is a description of Lord Kalki in the second chapter of the 12th wing of the same Purana. In which it is said that Lord Kalki will be born as a son in the house of an ascetic Brahmin named Vishnuyasha at a place called Shambhala in Moradabad district of Uttar Pradesh. Lord Kalki will destroy the sinners from the world by riding on a horse or vehicle named Devadatta and re-establish religion.

References 

Hinduism
Hindu mythology
Thomas Arne (born in London, baptized 28 May 1710; died in London, 5 March 1778) was an English composer and violinist.  He was the most famous musician in the theatre in England in the 18th century.  He wrote music for lots of plays.  He had a great gift for writing beautiful tunes.  Songs such as Where the Bee Sucks are still very popular.  His best known tune is Rule Britannia which is sung every year at the Last Night of the Proms.

English composers
British violinists
Classical era composers
1710 births
1778 deaths
Johann Nepomuk Hummel (born Pressburg November 14 1778; died Weimar October 17 1837) was an Austrian composer and pianist.  He was a child prodigy.  Mozart thought he was so talented that he taught him free of charge.  Hummel became one of the greatest pianists and composers in Europe.  He always wrote in a Classical style, he never became an early Romantic like Beethoven.
He also wrote a concerto for trumpet, which is fairly famous.

1778 births
1837 deaths
Austrian composers
Classical era composers
People from Bratislava
Austrian pianists
Alphabetical order is a way to sort (organize) a list. It helps a reader to find a name or a title in the list. It is done by following the standard (usual) order of letters in an alphabet. Some lists in alphabetical order were used during the early Roman Empire. It became commonplace after the Renaissance. 

Sorting things in English is done using the Roman alphabet. Different languages have different rules for sorting. Note also, that there are different ways to sort numbers, and special characters, such as letters with diacritics.  German has the letters ä,ö,ü, and ß.

 Option one: the letter with diacritics is treated the same way as the one without, ä is treated as a, ö as o and ü as u. (Known as DIN 5007-1, usually used for encyclopedias)
 Option two: the letter is treated the same as some replacement: ä is replaced by ae, ö be oe, ü by ue, and  ß by ss (Known as DIN 5007-2, used for phone books)
Note that these may be different by language: Danish also has a letter ä, but sorts it after z, and not treated like a as in German.

English 
A list of items like Eric, Lydia, Andrea, and Bob is organized by their first letter.  A comes before B, and B comes before E, and E comes before L in the alphabet.  When alphabetical order is used:
Andrea
Bob
Eric
Lydia

If many words have the same first letter, they are sorted by their second letters.
Larry
Leonard
Linda
Lydia

After that, the third and fourth letters are used until the whole list is sorted.

The words a, an and the are ignored.  Sometimes they are written at the end, after a comma.  Spaces and hyphens ( - ) are ignored, too.
A Long Day's Journey Into Night
The Long Goodbye
Longhand: A Writer's Notebook
The Long Road Home
Long Voyage Back
The Long Walk
A formula can be used to systematically ignore a, an and the. For Microsoft Excel, it would be:
=IF(LEFT(A2,2)="A ",RIGHT(A2,LEN(A2)-2),IF(LEFT(A2,3)= "An ",RIGHT(A2,LEN(A2)-3),IF(LEFT(A2,4)="The ",RIGHT(A2, LEN(A2)-4),A2)))

That can also be listed like this:
Long Day's Journey Into Night, A
Long Goodbye, The
Longhand: A Writer's Notebook
Long Road Home, The
Long Voyage Back
Long Walk, The

Names are usually ordered by Family name, not given name.
Gene Hackman
Tom Hanks
Katharine Hepburn
Jennifer Love Hewitt

Names are often written with the last names first.
Hackman, Gene
Hanks, Tom
Hepburn, Katharine
Hewitt, Jennifer Love

Numbers can be sorted in two ways.  Sometimes, they are listed in order from smallest to largest.  This is the normal way to sort numbers.
1
3
9
18
27
81

Other times, they can be sorted as if they were normal, spelled-out words.  This way is often used for numbers in titles.
Eighteen
Eighty-one
Nine
One
Three
Twenty-seven

Alphabet
Bad Rodach is a German town in the north of Franconia. Next bigger cities are Hildburghausen and Coburg. Its population is about 7,000. Its mayor is Gerold Strobel.

References

Other websites 

Spa towns in Germany
Coburg (district)
Mathangi "Maya" Arulpragasam (born 18 July 1975 in Hounslow, London) is an artist, movie graduate and musician. She is the daughter of a Tamil revolutionary. She is best known by her stage name M.I.A. Her music style contains elements of grime, alternative, hip-hop, dance, and electronic music. 

M.I.A. graduated from Central St. Martin's College of Art and Design with a degree in fine art, film and video. She has been noted for her idiosyncratic style in her music, her sense of fashion, and other artistic output. 

In 2000, she did the cover artwork for the album The Menace, by Elastica and directed the music video for their single "Mad Dog God Dam." She filmed a North American tour of the band. In 2002, she published a book of art inspired by the Tamil rebellion and her childhood in Sri Lanka. She met the musician Peaches who introduced M.I.A. to the Roland MC 505. M.I.A. wrote and recorded several songs on a demo using a 505, including the song "Galang."
"Galang" was initially released in 2003 on the white-label Showbiz Recordings. It became popular with DJs and garnered acclaim.

M.I.A. signed to XL Recordings in 2004. The song "Sunshowers" and "Galang" were re-released. Through 2004, file-sharing of the two singles and leaked promos of Arular on the internet increased anticipation for her debut album Arular.

One of the first artists to break on the internet, M.I.A. ended 2004 making Piracy Funds Terrorism, a mash-up mixtape of Arular tracks produced by herself and DJ Diplo.

Arular 
in 2005, M.I.A. released her debut album, Arular, which is named for her father. It sold over 100,000 copies. The most popular song off the album was "Galang" which appeared in a Honda advertisement. On the album, there is a hidden track called "M.I.A.". The listener hears nothing for a minute or two, then a new track starts playing.
Kala 
Kala is M.I.A.'s second album. Track listing as follows:
 Bamboo Banga
 Bird Flu
 Boyz
 Jimmy
 $20
 Mango Pickle Down River
 World Town
 Paper Planes
 Come Around

1977 births
Living people
Musicians from London
Artists from London
Rappers
People with dyslexia
Most music is in a particular key.  This means that one of the 12 notes (C, D flat, D, etc.) sounds like the “home note”.  When the piece finishes it normally comes to rest on this home note (also called: the “tonic”).  The piece will be built on the notes of the scale that starts on that note. There are two kinds of key (like there are two kinds of scale): major and minor.  Sometimes the key of a piece is in its title: "Minuet in C", "Sonata in F sharp major".  If the title does not say “major” or “minor” it is normally taken to be major.

Related pages
circle of fifths
tonality
key signature
transposing instrument
Otaku is a Japanese slang word, deriving from the honorific "お宅" (otaku), meaning "your house", that has come to mean someone who obsessively exerts time, money, and energy into a hobby. Otaku have a deep, complex knowledge around a particular subject or area of study, and is oftentimes (esp. in the West) used to refer to avid consumers of anime and manga. The term can also be compared with Hikikomori.

In Japan, otaku is generally regarded as an offensive word, due to the negative cultural perception of withdrawal from society. However, the otaku philosophy of living has gained traction among Japanese youth and adolescents, likely as a reaction to the established culture of intense work and academic studies. Under 30’s have developed a neo-otaku identity with more positive associations of being a geek or nerd. In the West, the word usually describes an anime or manga "fanatic" and is not typically perceived as derogatory.

References

Slang
Anime and manga terms
In music theory the Circle of fifths shows how the different keys are related to one another.  It is usually shown as a circle with the names of keys around it. If you take any key in the circle, its fifth is the one to its right. It can be easily understood together with a piano keyboard.

Structure 
On a piano there are white and black notes (also called “keys” when used in a piano context).  The white notes are named by the letters A to G of the alphabet.  After G comes another A and so on.  The black notes go in threes and twos.  This makes it easy to see the pattern of white notes.  Where there are two black notes together, for example, the white note between them is D.  The black notes do not have names of their own.  They are named after the white notes next to them.  The black note just above (i.e. to the right) of a G is a G sharp.  The black note just below (i.e. to the left) of the G is G flat.  This means that each black note has two possible names (e.g. G flat or F sharp).
Method 
Playing each note in turn, whether a white or a black note, will give a chromatic scale (e.g. C, C sharp, D, E flat, E, F, F sharp, G, A flat, A, B flat, B, C).  Each step is called a “semitone” or “half tone”.  A “tone” or “whole tone” therefore is a jump of two semitones (C to D, or C sharp to E flat, or E to F sharp).

By playing on white notes from C to the next C we get a major scale.  Some of the steps are tones and some are semitones.  The semitones come between E and F and between B and C, i.e. between the 3rd and 4th and between the 7th and 8th note of the scale.  All major scales have this pattern (tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone).

Examples 

Starting a scale on a G means that the F has to be an F sharp.  This F sharp, the 7th note of the scale, is written in the key signature when writing a piece in the key of G major.

Starting a scale on a D means that the F and the C have to be F sharp and C sharp.

Starting a scale on an A means that the F, C and G have to be sharp.
We can continue like this until all seven notes are sharp (C sharp major).

Each time we went to a sharper key we took the note which was the 5th note of the previous scale (G, with one sharp, was the 5th note of C major.  D, with two sharps, was the 5th note of G, etc.).

In a diagram this can be shown as a circle which is called the “Circle of Fifths”.  As we get sharper and sharper we go clockwise round the circle.

Flats 
The flats work in exactly the opposite way.  Instead of going up to the fifth note (e.g. C,D,E,F,G) we can go down a fifth (C,B,A,G,F).  F is the scale which has one flat.  As we get flatter and flatter we go counter-clockwise round the circle until all seven notes are flattened.
It can be seen that three of the scales each have two possible names: B major (with 5 sharps) can also be thought of as C flat major (with seven flats), F sharp major (with 6 sharps) can also be thought of as G flat major (with 6 flats), and C sharp major (with 7 sharps) can also be thought of as D flat major (with 5 flats).

Minors 
Relative minors (the minor scale with the same key signature) can also be worked out by going round three steps of the circle (C major is the relative major of A minor, i.e. it shares the same key signature: nothing).  On a keyboard the relative minor can be worked out by going down three semitones (from C go down to B, Bflat, A).

Music theory
The haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) is a saltwater ray-finned fish. It is from the family Gadidae, the true cods. 

The haddock is the only species in the monotypic genus Melanogrammus. It is found in the North Atlantic Ocean and the nearby seas. In these areas. the haddock is an important fish for fisheries. It is very important in northern Europe. In this area, it is sold fresh, frozen and smoked. Smoked varieties of the fish include the Finnan haddie and the Arbroath smokie.

Related pages 

 List of fish common names

References 

Gadiformes
Edible fish
Kristallnacht (also called Reichskristallnacht, Reichspogromnacht, ) was a two-day pogrom that happened against Jews in Nazi Germany and parts of Austria. It was between 9 and 10 November 1938. About 30,000 Jews were moved to concentration camps, and over 1,500 synagogues were pillaged and partly destroyed. Also, almost all Jewish cemeteries in Germany and Austria were destroyed. This marked the change from discriminating against Jews to actively persecuting and deporting them.

Herschel Grynszpan (sometimes also spelled Grünspan), a 17-year-old Jew living in Paris, learned that his whole family had been made to go back to Zsbaszyn in Poland, even though the younger children had been born in Germany. He got a gun, and with this he fired shots at Ernst Eduard vom Rath, who was a secretary of the German embassy in Paris. This was on 7 November. Vom Rath died of his wounds on 9 November.
The motive of Grynszpan is unclear. In a judicial hearing in 1942, he said it was revenge. He meant to shoot the ambassador, but hit the secretary instead.

The NSDAP used this event as an excuse to seize Jewish property. There had been a similar event in February 1936 but there were almost no consequences. Then, a Jewish student, David Frankfurter, had fired shots at the NSDAP secretary Wilhelm Gustloff. At that time, the NSDAP could not act because of the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin.

Photo gallery

Further reading 
 Schultheis, Herbert. Die Reichskristallnacht in Deutschland nach Augenzeugenberichten (Bad Neustädter Beiträge zur Geschichte und Heimatkunde Frankens 3). Bad Neustadt a. d. Saale: Rötter Druck und Verlag. 1985. .

1938 in Germany
1930s in Austria
Nazism
Judaism in Austria
Judaism in Germany
November events
Pogrom (from Russian:погром (pogrom); from "громить" IPA: - to wreak havoc, to demolish violently) is a form of riot attacking people and property. The target of the attack is a group of people because of their ethnic identity or religion, usually Jews. In a pogrom, the local authorities such as the police do not arrest the rioters and do not come to the aid of the victims.

In a pogrom, the target people's homes, businesses, and places of worship are destroyed. People of the target group are physically attacked and some are murdered.

Related pages 
Babi Yar
Kristallnacht

References

!
Below are some of the major things that happened in the years from 970 to 979.



970
 A major volcano erupts in Mashu, Japan.
 A terrible famine begins in France.
 Eric the Victorious becomes the first king of Sweden.

Births 
 Leif Ericson, Norse explorer
 Seyyed Razi, important Muslim scholar and writer
 Sitt al-Mulk
 Xu Daoning, Chinese artist

Deaths 
 30 January – Peter I of Bulgaria
 Magyar leader, Taksány
 Ferdinand II of Castile
 Fujiwara no Saneyori
 García III of Pamplona
 Hatto II, Archbishop of Mainz
 Menahem ben Saruq
 Patriarch Polyeuctus of Constantinople
 Taksony of Hungary

971
 Kenneth II of Scotland succeeds Culen as King

Births 
 Kushyar ibn Labban
 Mahmud of Ghazni
 Emperor Shengzong of Liao
 Prince Shaif

Deaths 
 Abu Jafar Khazeni
 Culen of Scotland
 Ziri ibn Manad
972
 Otto II marries Theophanu, Byzantine princess
 Battle of Cedynia – Polish duke Mieszko I defeats Germans
 Pope Benedict VI succeeds Pope John XIII as pope
 Boleslaus II the Pious succeeds Boleslav I of Bohemia in Bohemia
 Yaropolk of Kiev succeeds Sviatoslav I in Kiev
 Fatimids enter Egypt, establish the Al-Azhar mosque in Cairo
 Buluggin ibn Ziri appointed viceroy in Ifriqiya, start of the Zirid dynasty
 The monastery at the site of Peterborough Cathedral is rebuilt
 Saint Eadburga is canonized
 Emperor John Tzoimisces makes eastern Bulgaria a Byzantine subject
 The city of Satu Mare, Romania is founded

Births 
 March 27 – King Robert II of France (d. 1031)
 Al-Mawardi
 Ermesinde of Carcassonne, countess and regent of Barcelona (d. 1057)
 Fujiwara no Yukinari
 Fulk III of Anjou
 Pope Gregory V
 Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor
 Renauld I, Count of Nevers
Deaths 
 July 15 – Boleslav I of Bohemia
 September 6 – Pope John XIII
 Liutprand, bishop of Cremona and historian
 Sviatoslav I, Prince of Kiev
 Kuya, Japanese monk of Pure Land Buddhism (b. 903)

973
 The Fatimids move their capital to Cairo
 Edgar of England is crowned king by Saint Dunstan
 Otto II becomes Holy Roman Emperor and King of Germany
 January 19 – Pope Benedict VI succeeds Pope John XIII as the 134th pope

Births 
 September 15 – Al-Biruni, mathematician (d. 1048)
 December 26 – Abu al-Ala al-Ma'ar;ri, poet

Deaths 
 May 7 – Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 912)
 July 4 – Saint Ulrich of Augsburg (b. 890)

974
 A great earthquake in England.
 The Carmathians are defeated in Egypt by Jawhar as-Siqilli
 The Byzantine Empire retakes Syria
 Fuzhou builds new city walls
 October – Pope Benedict VII succeeds Pope Benedict VI as the 135th pope
 Antipope Boniface VII is declared pope

Deaths 
 Pope Benedict VI
 Ratherius of Verona
 Shi Chonggui
975
 Coronation of King Edward the Martyr
 Emperor Taizu of Song China conquers Hunan province
 Al-Aziz becomes Fatimid Caliph

Births 
 Stephen I of Hungary (d.1038)
 Thietmar of Merseburg
 Andre Bertelli Araujo

Deaths 
 Alp Tigin, Turkic general
 July 8 – King Edgar of England
 al-Muizz, Fatimid Caliph
 Gwangjong of Goryeo
 Turketel, abbot of Crowland
 Gu Hongzhong

976
 January 10 – Basil II becomes Eastern Roman Emperor
 Brian Boru is inaugurated as King of Munster
 Samuil of Bulgaria becomes Tsar
 Yuelu Academy is founded in China

Births 
 Emperor Sanjō of Japan

Deaths 
 January 10 – John I Tzimiskes, Byzantine Emperor
 October 8 – Jelena of Zadar, Queen of Croatia
 November 14 – Emperor Taizu of Song
 Harald Greyhide, King of Norway
 Al-Hakam II, Caliph of Cordoba

977
 Imam Ali Mosque is built at Najaf

Births 
 Kōkei, Japanese Buddhist monk
 Saint Poppo of Deinze

Deaths 
 Hunain ibn Ishaq, Egyptian physician
 Dubrawka, daughter of Duke Boleslav I of Bohemia
978
 The revolt of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria against Otto II ends
 England's royal mint is located at Guildford

Births 
 Princess Zoe of Byzantium, later Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire
 Yaroslav I the Wise, prince of Novgorod and Kiev

Deaths 
 March 18 – King Edward the Martyr of England
 Abraham of Alexandria, Coptic pope
 Li Houzhu, last Chinese emperor of the Southern Tang

979
 March 24 – The Battle of Pankalia

Births 
 August 29 – Abu Taghlib, Emir of Mosul
 Estrid of the Obotrites, future wife of king Olof Skötkonung of Sweden
 Otto, Count of Vermandois

Deaths 
 Iago ab Idwal, King of Gwynedd
 'Imran

References

970s
The 990s was a decade that began on 1 January 990 and ended on 31 December 999.

Events
 Sei Shonagon writes The Pillow Book, a compilation of her daily observations, thoughts and feelings as an attendant to Empress Sadako in Japan's Imperial Court.
New or NEW can mean:
Harry Stewart New (1858–1937), U.S. journalist and political figure.
the IATA airport code for New Orleans Lakefront Airport
the ISO 639 language code for the Nepal Bhasa language, also known as Newari.
New a box office hit Tamil movie released in 2004
new is a built-in operator in the C++ programming language.

Basic English 850 words
Clear might mean:

 Transparency
 Clear (Scientology), how you are when you have understood your mind
 In financial terms, the process of making good on an obligation, such as transferring the funds from the writer of a cheque to the receivor of the cheque
 To remove from current memory previous numbers or results in an adding machine
 An acronym for Citizen Law Enforcement Analysis and Reporting, a software system used by the Chicago Police Department

Related pages
 Clearing

Basic English 850 words
A Sertoli cell  is a  cell found in the testes. Its main function is to help the developing sperm cells through the stages of spermatogenesis - the process of turning stem cells into sperm. It was also called the "mother cell." The cell also helps in the creation of stem cells.

Name
Sertoli cells get their name from Enrico Sertoli, an Italian physiologist. He discovered them while studying medicine in the University of Pavia, Italy. He published a description of this cell in 1865.  As of 2006, two textbooks have been published that are almost entirely about the Sertoli cell .

Anatomy of the male reproductive system
The year 1300 (MCCC) was a  leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 1300th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 300th year of the 2nd millennium, the 100th and last year of the 13th century, and the 1st year of the 1300s decade. The year 1300 wasn't a leap year in the Proleptic Gregorian calendar.

Events 
 Wenceslas II of Bohemia becomes King of Poland.
Events of 1378 
 March – In England, John Wycliffe tries to promote his ideas for Catholic reform by laying his theses before parliament and making them public in a tract. He is subsequently summoned before Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon of Sudbury, at the episcopal palace at Lambeth to defend his actions.
 September 20 – Unhappy with Pope Urban's critical attitude towards them, the majority of the cardinals meet at Fondi and elect Clement VII as antipope and establish a rival papal court at Avignon. This split within the Catholic Church becomes known as the Western Schism.
Undated 
 Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV meets with his nephew Charles V of France to publicly celebrate the friendship between their two nations.
 Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV dies and is succeeded by his son, Wenceslaus.
 The Papacy makes a permanent move back from Avignon to Rome, ending the Avignon Papacy.
 Pope Gregory XI dies. Due to riots in Rome calling for a Roman pope, the cardinals, who were mostly French, elect Pope Urban VI (Bartolomeo Prignano, Archbishop of Bari) as the 202nd Pope.
 France, Aragon, Castile and León, Cyprus, Burgundy, Savoy, Naples and Scotland choose to recognise Antipope Clement VII. Denmark, England, Flanders, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, northern Italy, Ireland, Norway, Poland and Sweden continue to recognise Pope Urban VI.
 Dmitri Donskoi of Moscow & Vladimir resists a small invasion by the Mongol Blue Horde.
Revolt of the Ciompi – discontent wool carders briefly take over the government of Florence. For the first time, a European government represents all social classes.
 Tokhtamysh dethrones Timur Malik as Khan of the White Horde.
 Kara Osman establishes the Turkomans of the White Sheep dynasty at Diyarbakır in present-day southeast Turkey.
 The Turks capture the town of Ihtiman in west Bulgaria.
 An English spy assassinates Owain Lawgoch, claimant to the throne of Wales and ally of France.
 Gian Galeazzo Visconti succeeds his father, Galeazzo II Visconti, as ruler of Milan.
 Uskhal Khan succeeds his father, Biligtü Khan, as ruler of the Yuan Dynasty in Mongolia.
 Balša II succeeds his father, Durađ I, as ruler of Zeta (now Montenegro).
 Tai Bian succeeds Zhao Bing Fa as King of Mong Mao (now northern Myanmar).
 Appearance of Halley's Comet.
Da'ud Shah succeeds his assassinated nephew, Aladdin Mujahid Shah, as Bahmani Sultan in present-day southern India. Da'ud Shah is assassinated in the same year and is succeeded by Mohammed Shah II.
Births 
 August 16 – Hongxi Emperor of China (died 1425)
 October 24 – David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay (died 1402)
 December 31 – Pope Callixtus III (died 1458)
 Robert Campin, Flemish painter (died 1444)
 Vittorino da Feltre, Italian humanist (died 1446)
 Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian sculptor and metal smith (died 1455)
 John Hardyng, English chronicler (died 1465)

Deaths 
 February 6 – Jeanne de Bourbon, queen of Charles V of France (born 1338)
 March 27 – Pope Gregory XI
 May 29 – King Henry II of Castile (born 1334)
 July – Owain Lawgoch, titular Prince of Wales – assassinated (born circa 1330)
 August 16 – San Rocco di Venezia, patron saint of pestilence (born 1340)
 November 29 – Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (born 1316)
 Galeazzo II Visconti, Lord of Milan
The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is a non-profit public broadcasting TV service with many member TV stations in the United States. It is based in Arlington, Virginia. The equivalent service for radio in the United States is National Public Radio (NPR). The PBS stations will shut down in the future excluding New Jersey.

PBS Stations
 KERA-TV Dallas, TX
 WFWA Fort Wayne, IN
 WGBH Boston, MA
 WMPB Baltimore, MD
 WNED Buffalo, NY
 WNET Newark, NJ
 WBGU-TV Bowling Green, OH
 WQED (TV) Pittsburgh, PA
 KCTS 9 Seattle WA
 WTTW Chicago, IL
 WETA-TV Washington, DC
 WBRA-TV Roanoke, VA
 WETP-TV Sneedville, Tennessee

References

Other websites
 Official site
 Anti-Semitism on PBS?

1952 establishments in the United States
UPN (which originally stood for the United Paramount Network) was a television network in over 200 places in the United States. UPN was owned by CBS Corporation, which also owns the larger CBS network. UPN shut down on September 15, 2006, and was replaced with The CW, a joint venture between CBS Corporation and the Warner Bros. division of Time Warner, which owned The WB before that network was also shut down in 2006 and merged with UPN to create The CW.

Programming

References

American television networks
Viacom
Columbia Broadcasting System
A television network is a network to provide television programming to many television stations. It is almost always a large company. Until the mid-1980s, television programming in most countries of the world was mainly done by a small number of broadcast networks. Many early television networks (for example, the ABC, Channel 4, PTV, CBC, BBC or PBS) began as radio networks.
A television network may broadcast many television channels. For example, BBC is a television network. It broadcasts its programs on many different channels including BBC One, BBC Two, BBC News, BBC World News, BBC Four and CBBC. Each channel will often have a group of programs that are similar in some way. For example, CBBC broadcasts children programs. The individual companies that create the content are television studios. A studio is often an affiliate of a network. For example, WAVY is a station in Hampton Roads, Virginia. It is an affiliate of the NBC network. WAVY is also the name of the channel that the studio creates and broadcasts locally on channel 10. It is called WAVY10.
The year 1363 was a common year which started on a Saturday.

Events 
 Magnus IV, King of Sweden, is deposed by Albert of Mecklenburg.
 Bosnian nobles revolt against the occupying Serbs.

1363
Tokyo Tower is a tower in Shiba Park, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan.

Tokyo Tower is 333 m (1093 ft) tall. It the world's highest self-supporting steel tower and the tallest structure in Tokyo.

The highest number of visitors was about 5.2 million a year (1959), about 710 thousand a month (1959.8), about 40 thousand a day (1960.3.30).

The cost for lighting is about 24 thousand yen to 25 thousand yen a day. It seems to be two-tone of red and white, but actually the colors are international orange and white. The color cannot be changed to other colors because the color is decided by the law.

In 2009, the Tokyo Tower was recognized as one of the 100 Landscapes of Japan which best show contemporary Japan and its culture in the Heisei period.

References

Buildings and structures in Tokyo
Skyscrapers in Japan
Births 
 King Afonso I of Portugal (died 1185; birthdate disputed)

Deaths 
 Anselm of Canterbury, Archbishop of Canterbury
Events 
 January 22 – Marriage of King Richard II of England and Anne of Bohemia.
 May 17 – King John I of Castile and Leon marries Beatrice of Portugal
 July 7 – Death of the childless James of Baux, ruler of Taranto and Achaea and titular Latin Emperor.
 Charles III of Naples becomes ruler of Achaea (now southern Greece).
 Otto, the widower of Joan I of Naples, becomes ruler of Taranto (now eastern Italy).
 Duke Louis I of Anjou inherits the claim to the Latin Empire (now western Turkey) but never uses the title of Emperor.
 October 22 – King Fernando I of Portugal dies and is succeeded by his daughter, Beatrice of Portugal. A period of civil war and anarchy, known as the 1383-1385 Crisis, begins in Portugal due to Beatrice being married to the King John I of Castile and Leon.
 The Teutonic Knights recommence war against pagan Lithuania.
 Rao Chanda succeeds Rao Biram Dev as Rathore ruler of Marwar (now in western India).
 Löwenbräu beer is first brewed.
Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep temple is built in present-day Thailand by King Kuena of Lanna.
 Construction of the Bastille is completed in Paris.
Births 
 Amadeus VIII of Savoy (died 1451)
 Yolande of Aragon, regent of Anjou (died 1443)
 Pope Eugene IV (died 1447)
 Anne of Gloucester, English noblewoman (died 1438)

Deaths 
 March 1 – Amadeus VI of Savoy (born 1334)
 June 5 – Dmitry Konstantinovich, Russian prince (b. 1324)
 June 8 – Thomas de Ros, 5th Baron de Ros, English Crusader (born 1338)
 June 15 – John VI Cantacuzenus, former Byzantine Emperor
 October 22 – King Fernando I of Portugal (born 1345)
1284 was a leap year.

Births 
 April 25 – Edward II of England (died 1327), King of England
1141 is a year starting on a Wednesday of the Julian Calendar.

Births 
 Malcolm IV, King of Scotland (d. 1165)
 Nizami Ganjavi, Persian poet (d. 1209) (Maybe 1140 or 1142)

Deaths 

 February 11 – Hugh of Saint Victor, Saxon philosopher, theologian and mystic (b. c. 1078)
 February 13 – Béla II, King of Hungary and Croatia (b. c. 1109)
 April 12 or April 13 – Engelbert, Duke of Carinthia
 May – Aubrey de Vere II, Lord Great Chamberlain of England (b. 1062)
 June 10 – Richenza of Northeim, German empress (b. c. 1087/89)
 October 18 – Leopold, Duke of Bavaria (b. c. 1108)
 Sheikh Ahmad-e Jami, Persian Sufi writer, mystic and poet (b. 1048)
 Judah Halevi, Sephardi Jewish philosopher and poet (b. c. 1075)
 Alberich of Reims, Archbishop of Bourges (b. 1085)

References
1429 was a common year.

Births 
 17 January – Antonio del Pollaiuolo (d. 4 February 1498), Italian painter
The  (also , or simply Vuelta) is a long-distance bicycle race. The first race was in 1935. The Tour de France and Giro d'Italia were both very successful, and both run by newspaper companies. A newspaper called  in Spain decided to start a similar race in Spain. It is now one of the three "Grand Tours" of Europe and, after the  and the , is the third most important road cycling stage race in the world.

The leader of the race wears the red jersey. This is the same as the yellow jersey in the Tour de France. The leader of the combination classification wears a white jersey. The leader of the mountain climbers' competition wears a white jersey with blue polka-dots. The leader of the sprinters' competition wears a green jersey.

The race was run in the spring until 1995. Since 1995 it has been run in September.

Winners of the Vuelta a España 

 
UCI ProTour
Seminiferous tubules are long thread-like tubes found in each of the testicles where sperm is produced. The inner lining of the tubule contains Sertoli cells.

Other websites 
 Image 
 Diagram 

Anatomy of the male reproductive system
The seminal vesicles are a pair of tube-like glands. They are found behind the bladder of males. They make about 70% of the content of semen (also called seminal fluid).

Anatomy 
Both vesicles are about 5 cm in length, but they are curled up. Each gland makes a ball shape on the wall of each vas deferens. There is a tube linking the seminal glands which opens into the vas deferens and prostate gland.

From inside to out, the layers making the vesicles are:
 Mucosa - folded to increase surface area
 Muscle
 Connective tissue

Use 
The seminal vesicles make most of semen, but during ejaculation, most of the ejaculate has sperm rather than semen in it. The use of seminal fluid is not known, since sperm do not move or survive well in semen. Some think that it acts as a fluid to stop sperm from another male impregnating the female so that the children of only one male can survive.

Seminal fluid has proteins, enzymes, fructose, mucus, vitamin C and flavins. The fructose gives sperm energy and 'food'.

Gallery
Gallery

Other websites 
  - "The Male Pelvis: The Urinary Bladder"
  - "The Male Pelvis: Structures Located Posterior to the Urinary Bladder"

Anatomy of the male reproductive system
Glands
The glans penis (or just glans) is the sensitive tip of the penis. It is also called the "head" of the penis. Slang names include "helmet" and "bell end". Usually, the glans is covered by the foreskin, except in men who have been circumcised.

Diseases 
The glans can become irritated or infected which occurs in a small number of males. It is more common in males who have poor hygene or are uncircumcised.

The opening of the urethra is at the tip of the glans. In children who have been circumcised and wear diapers, the opening of the penis has no protection. This can cause the urethra to get very narrow in a small amount of boys which can need surgery to reopen later.

The skin on the glans of an uncircumcised penis is very sensitive, and washing it too much with soap can cause dermatitis.

Circumcised men have a dry and wider glans that is leathery to the touch. There are special Moisturizer that a circumcised man can use on his glans to provide softer.
Anatomy 
The glans penis is a cap around the corpus spongiosum. It is attached to the Corpus cavernosum penis and at the tip of the glans is the urethra opening. The foreskin helps keeps the glans moist.

Related pages
 Corpus cavernosum
 Foreskin
 Penis
 Clitoris
 Frenulum
 Circumcision

Additional images

References

Other websites 

  - "The Male Perineum and the Penis: The Corpus Spongiosum and Corpora Cavernosa"
  - "The Male Pelvis: The Urethra"

Anatomy of the male reproductive system
Events 
 Edward the Confessor becomes King of England.

Births 
 Pope Urban II (died 1099)

Deaths 
 Michael V, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1015)
Charge could mean:
 Electric charge, the charge in electricity
 to take charge, or being in charge means to take or have authority and responsibility for decisions
 In firearms, to charge a weapon is to load it with a round and ready it for firing
 Charge (engine), the air or fuel/air mixture being fed into the intake in an internal combustion engine. Charge air usually refers to air that has not had fuel mixed with it.
 During the European Middle Ages, a charge (youth) often meant an underage person placed under the supervision of a nobleman
 Charge (warfare), a maneuver in battle where soldiers rush towards their enemy to engage in close combat
 In context of wartime operations, to charge with certain rights, such as guaranteeing persons held in custody are allowed those rights
 In money, a charge is any fee assessed, such as a charge for using an automatic teller machine (ATM), entering a museum, being late with a payment, etc.
In basketball, a charge is an foul, called when an offensive player with the ball makes illegal contact with a defensive player who has legally established his position
CHARGE syndrome, birth defects in children
Charge card, similar to a credit card
 A pen spinning trick where the pen makes conic rotations between two fingers
In law:
A criminal charge is an indictment before a court by a prosecuting authority
A jury charge is are jury instructions given by a judge to a jury concerning the law applicable to the case under consideration
An equitable charge is a security interest similar in effect to a mortgage
Second person can refer to the following: 

A grammatical person, you, your, and yours in the English language
Second-person narrative, a perspective in storytelling
God the Son, the Second Person of the Christian Trinity

Related
First person (disambiguation)
Third person (disambiguation)
An optical fiber is a thin fiber of glass or plastic that can carry light from one end to the other. The study of optical fibers is called fiber optics, which is part of applied science and engineering.

Optical fibers are mainly used in telecommunications, but they are also used for lighting, sensors, toys, and special cameras for seeing inside small spaces. They are sometimes used in medicine to see inside people, like down their throat.

History 

Guiding light by internal reflection, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall, a physicist, demonstrated it during his public lectures in London, 12 years later.
 
The principle was first used for internal medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the 1930s. Modern optical fibers, where the glass fiber is coated with a transparent cladding to offer a more suitable refractive index, appeared later in the decade.
The term "fiber optics" was coined by Narinder Singh Kapany.

In 1965 Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company Standard Telephones and Cables (STC) were the first to show that the loss of intensity in optical fibers could be reduced, making fibers a practical communication medium. They proposed that the defects in fibers available at the time was caused by impurities which could be removed. They pointed out the right material to use for such fibers, such as silica glass which has high purity. This discovery earned Kao the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.

How it works
How it works 

An optical fiber is a long, thin strand of clear material. Its shape is usually similar to a cylinder. In the center, it has a core. Around the core is a layer called the cladding. The core and cladding are made of different kinds of glass or plastic, so that light travels slower in the core than it does in the cladding. If the light in the core hits the edge of the cladding at a shallow angle, it bounces off. Light can travel inside the core and bounce off of the cladding. No light escapes until it comes to the end of the fiber, unless the fiber is bent sharply or stretched.

If the cladding of the fiber is scratched, it may break. A plastic coating called the buffer covers the cladding to protect it.  Often, the buffered fiber is put inside an even tougher layer, called the jacket. This makes it easy to use the fiber without breaking it.

Uses
Uses

Fiber-optic communication 
The main use of optical fiber is in communication (telecommunication).  Fiber-optic communication transmits information from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber.  The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information.  First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optic communication systems have revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have helped with the advent of the Information Age.  

Early systems had short range but later ones used fibers that are more transparent.  Since the light does not leak out of the fiber, the light can go a long distance before the signal gets too weak.  This is used to send telephone and internet signals within and between cities.  Because of its advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed countries. Undersea cables with fibers connect the world.
Most optical communication systems have electrical connections.  An electric signal controls a transmitter.  The transmitter converts the electric signal to a light signal and sends it through the fiber to the receiver.  The receiver converts the light signal back to an electric signal.  

Fiber is sometimes used for shorter links too, such as to carry the sound signals between a compact disc player and a stereo receiver.  The fibers used for these short links are often made of plastic which is less transparent.  TOSLINK is the most common type of optical plug for stereos.

Other uses 
Optical fibers can be used as sensors. Special fibers are used for this, that change how they pass light through when there is a change around the fiber. Sensors like this can be used to detect changes in temperature, pressure, and other things. These sensors are useful because they are small and do not need any electricity at the place where the sensing happens.
These fibers are also used to carry light for humans to see. This is sometimes used for decoration, like fiber-optic Christmas trees. Sometimes it is used for lighting, when it is convenient to have the light bulb someplace other than where the light needs to be. This is sometimes used in signs and art for special effects.

A bundle of fibers can be used to make a device called an endoscope or a fiberscope. This is a long thin probe that can be put into a small hole, that will send an image of what is inside through the fiber to a camera. Endoscopes are used by doctors to see inside the human body, and are sometimes used by engineers to see inside tight spaces in machines.
Optical fibers (with special chemicals added) can be used as optical amplifiers. This allows an optical signal to travel further between endpoints, and without converting the optical signal to electrical and back, reducing the overall cost of the components. These optical amplifiers can also be used to create Lasers. These are called fiber lasers. They can be very powerful, because the long thin fiber is easy to keep cool, and makes a good quality light beam.

References 

Optics
Fibers
Events 
Possible timing of King Arthur's victory over the Saxons.
493 – Death of Saint Patrick.
494 – Pope Gelasius I delineates the relationship between church and state.
494 – An earthquake devastates Latakia.
494 – Under Emperor Xiaowen the capital of Northern Wei, a state in China capital is moved from Datong to Luoyang, a city long acknowledged as a major center in Chinese history.

Births 

 495 - Amalasuntha

Deaths 

 496 – Pope Gelasius I

490s
The 390s was a decade which ran from January 1, 390 to December 31, 399.

Events 
 Gildonic revolt in Africa Province (397–398)