Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1875. It guaranteed African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, and to prevent being excluded from jury duty.  The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.  Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in Civil Rights Cases (1883) that sections of the act were unconstitutional. The Court's reasoning was the Fourteenth Amendment prohibited discrimination by states not by individuals. As a result Congress could not protect against individual cases of discrimination.

Plessy v. Ferguson
Florida was the first to pass a law requiring railroads to provide “equal but separate accommodations for the white, and colored, races”. Soon, Texas, Mississippi and other states had the same or similar laws. In 1890, when Louisiana passed a similar law, blacks began resisting. In 1892 it was agreed Homer Plessy would challenge the laws in order to form a test case. Plessy "passed" for white and while riding on an East Louisiana train in the "white section" announced he was black and refused to move to the "colored" section. Plessy was arrested and 1896 his case reached the Supreme Court. The case was Plessy v. Ferguson, Fergusson being the name of the Judge who first ruled against him in the New Orleans Criminal District Court.
In 1896, the Supreme Court heard the case. Plessy's lawyers argued Louisiana's Separate Car Act violated the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments. The Court, in a 7-1 decision decided against Plessy and that the law was constitutional. Writing the majority opinion, Justice Henry Brown wrote:

The lone dissenter, Justice John Harlan, saw terrible consequences in the judicial opinion rendered by the court. He wrote:
 The problem with Plessy was that separate was almost always never equal. The public schools and other facilities designed for blacks were always inferior.

Jim Crow era
Beginning in 1890, Southern Democrats began to pass state laws that took away the rights African Americans had gained. These racist laws became known as Jim Crow laws. Plessy caused Jim Crow laws to go unchallenged by the federal government for 58 years. They included laws that made it impossible for blacks to vote. Since they could not vote, blacks also could not be on juries. Other laws required racial segregation so blacks could not go to the same schools, restaurants or hospitals as whites. They could not use the same bathrooms or drink from the same drinking fountains. They could also not sit in front of whites on busses or trains. Many southern Christian ministers taught that whites were the chosen people and blacks were cursed by God. Lynchings were designed to instill fear in blacks and keep them in their place. Between 1882 and 1968, 3,440 black men and women were lynched. Others were burned at the stake, castrated, beaten or murdered
. The Jim Crow era began to end after the Supreme Court’s unanimous Brown v. Board of Education decision overruled Plessy.
Notes

References

Other websites 
 US race relations: Six surprising statistics
 The Court’s Decision (Brown v. Board of Education)

United States federal legislation
Legal terms
African-American history
The Berber calendar is a calendar used most often in the region of North Africa, to control seasonal agricultural works.

Calendars
An address bus is a computer bus architecture. It is used to transfer data between devices. The devices are identified by the hardware address of the physical memory (the physical address). The address is stored in the form of binary numbers to enable the data bus to access memory storage. 

Address buses are made up of a collection of wires connecting the CPU with main memory that is used to identify particular locations (addresses) in main memory. The width of the address bus (that is, the number of wires) determines how many unique memory locations can be addressed. Modern personal computers and Macintoshes have as many as 36 address lines. This theoretically allows them to access 64 gigabytes of main memory. However, the actual amount of memory that can be accessed is usually much less than this theoretical limit due to chipset and motherboard limitations.
An address bus is part of the system bus architecture, which was developed to decrease costs and enhance modular integration. However, most modern computers use a variety of individual buses for specific tasks. 

An individual computer contains a system bus, which connects the major components of a computer system and has three main elements, of which the address bus is one, along with the data bus and control bus.

An address bus is measured by the amount of memory a system can retrieve. A system with a 32-bit address bus can address 4 gigabytes of memory space. Newer computers using a 64-bit address bus with a supporting operating system can address 16 exbibytes of memory locations, which is virtually unlimited.

Computer buses
Avolar was a Mexican low-cost airline. Its headquarters and largest hub were in Tijuana. It started on September 7, 2005 with one Boeing 737-500 airplane. It was one of the first low-cost airlines in Mexico. By 2008, the airline had 10 Boeing 737 airplanes. It flew to 21 cities throughout Mexico. Avolar suspended flights for 3 days in August 2008 and for 1 day in October 2008. This was due to large debts. Avolar asked to fly to the United States on October 28, 2008. Avolar finally stopped flying on that same day - October 28, 2008. The airline has never flown again since then.

Gallery

References
 

2005 establishments in North America
2008 disestablishments in North America
Defunct companies of North America
2000s establishments in Mexico
Airlines of Mexico
Drag kings are female performance artists who dress in male clothes. They play male gender roles as part of an individual or group routine. Drag kings may be straight, lesbian or transgender. They often perform as macho male characters, like construction workers and rappers. 

In the late 1800s/early 1900s, several drag kings became British music hall stars. British pantomime has preserved the tradition of women in male roles. Starting in the mid 1990s, drag kings started to have the fame and attention for which drag queens are known. 

The term drag king was first used in print in 1972.

Drag kings are mostly a part of lesbian culture. They can be most often seen at lesbian festivals or bars. However, not all drag kings are lesbians.

References

Performing arts
Gay slang
Entertainment occupations
The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) is a United States federal law.  It controls what drugs American people and companies can have, make, import, and use.  It also controls what drugs doctors can prescribe.

"Controlled substances" include illegal drugs, chemicals that are used to make illegal drugs, and some medications.  If a government has rules or laws about a certain drug, then that drug is called a controlled substance.

The United States Congress passed the law as part of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970.  President Richard Nixon signed the bill into law on October 27, 1970.

Summary
The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) sets laws about:
 Which drugs are controlled substances
 When it is illegal to make, sell, or have controlled substances
 What kinds of importation and exportation of controlled substances is illegal
 The punishments for breaking these laws

The CSA does not include alcohol or tobacco as "controlled substances."
Schedules
The CSA divides controlled substances up into five groups, called Schedules.  Drugs are put into these categories based mostly on:
 How easily and commonly they are abused;
 Whether they have any accepted medical uses;
 International treaties
 For example, the United Nations may make a treaty to control a new drug.  If the United States agrees to that treaty, then the CSA has to be amended (changed) to add that drug to one of the Schedules

Amendments

Since the CSA was created in 1970, many new illegal drugs and medications have been developed.  Because of this, the Act has been amended many times to add on new types of drugs.
For example, since 1970, the CSA has been amended:
 In 1978, to include barbiturates, benzodiazepines, psychedelic drugs like LSD, and amphetamine-type stimulants
 In 1986, to add designer drugs like MDMA (Ecstasy)
 In 1988, to include chemicals and machines that were being used to make cocaine
 In 1990, to add anabolic steroids (man-made steroids that act like testosterone in the body)
 In 1993, to try to control methamphetamine trafficking
 In 2008, to prevent people from getting drugs from online pharmacies without having prescriptions

The Schedules

There are five different Schedules of controlled substances, numbered IV (one through five in Roman numerals).  The CSA describes the different Schedules based on three things:
 Potential for abuse: How likely is this drug to be abused?
 Accepted medical use: Is this drug used as a treatment in the United States?
 Safety and potential for addiction: Is this drug safe?  How likely is this drug to cause addiction?  What kinds of addiction?
This table gives a summary of the differences between the different Schedules.

Schedule I

The CSA says that no doctor in the United States can write a prescription for a Schedule I drug.  Some states have passed laws allowing doctors to prescribe marijuana for diseases like cancer and AIDS.  Even though those prescriptions are legal in those states, they are still illegal under the CSA.

Here are some examples of Schedule I drugs:
 GHB
 Heroin
 LSD
 Marijuana
 Synthetic cannabis
 MDMA ("Ecstasy")
 Mescaline
 Peyote
 Psilocybin

Schedule II
Schedule II

Schedule II drugs are the most-controlled type of drugs that a doctor can write a prescription for.  Some drugs that are usually illegal are on Schedule II.  They are on Schedule II instead of Schedule I because sometimes, they can be used for medical reasons.  For example, Schedule II includes cocaine, because it can stop bleeding and kill pain in the mouth, throat, and nose.  Schedule II also includes methamphetamine, because it is sometimes used to treat Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and severe obesity.
Other drugs on Schedule II include:
 Amphetamine, Adderall, and other medications used to treat ADHD
 Methylphenidate (also called Ritalin or Concerta): Used to treat ADHD
 Opiate painkillers: fentanyl, oxycodone, morphine, hydromorphone, hydrocodone, and pure codeine
 Methadone, which is used to treat severe pain or opiate addiction
 Phencyclidine (PCP), which used to be used as an anesthetic for people and animals
 Short-acting barbiturates, like pentobarbital (a sedative and strong anti-seizure medication)

The CSA puts limits on prescriptions for Schedule II drugs.  For example, prescriptions for these drugs cannot be refilled.  The patient cannot get more of the medication at the pharmacy without getting a new prescription.  Also, the doctor must write the prescription  they cannot call or fax the prescription to the pharmacy.  The pharmacy needs an original copy of the prescription.

Schedule III
Schedule III

Schedule III drugs are less controlled than Schedule II drugs.  Doctors can send these prescriptions to a pharmacy by fax or phone.  These prescriptions can be refilled five times in six months without the patient needing a new prescription.

Drugs in Schedule III include:
 Anabolic steroids: Used to treat many medical problems, like growth failure (when a child does not grow normally)
 Buprenorphine (also called Suboxone or Subutex): Used to treat opiate addiction
 Ketamine: Used as an anesthetic
 Marinol: Man-made tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, a chemical in marijuana): Used to treat nausea and vomiting from chemotherapy, and loss of appetite from AIDS
Schedule IV
Schedule IV drugs have the same rules for prescriptions and refills that Schedule III drugs do.  Examples of Schedule IV drugs include:
 Benzodiazepines, like clonazepam (Klonopin), diazepam (Valium), and lorazepam (Ativan): Used to treat anxiety
 Benzodiazepine-like drugs used for insomnia, like zolpidem (Ambien)
 Long-acting barbiturates like phenobarbital: Used to control seizures

Schedule V

Schedule V drugs are the least strictly controlled of all the controlled substances.  A doctor can call or fax the prescription to the pharmacy.  There is no limit on the number of times a prescription can be refilled.

Examples of Schedule V drugs include:
 Cough medicines with small amounts of codeine in them
 Mixtures with a small amount of opium in them (used to treat diarrhea)
 Some anti-seizure medications, like pregabalin (Lyrica)

Enforcement
The United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is in charge of enforcing the CSA.  The DEA is part of the United States Department of Justice.
Usually, only two government agencies can add or remove drugs from a Schedule.  These agencies are the (DEA) and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA).  However, sometimes Congress passes special laws to add a drug to the CSA.

Anyone can ask the DEA to add a drug, remove a drug, or change a drug to a different Schedule in the CSA.  Even a regular person can petition the DEA for a change.  After it gets a petition, the DEA starts an investigation of the drug.

During these investigations, the DEA gathers a lot of information, talks to different government agencies, gets the FDA's opinion, and does research.  Because all of this takes time, a federal law allows the Attorney General of the United States to put a drug on Schedule I for a year.  The law only allows this when there is "an imminent hazard" (an immediate threat) "to the public safety."  For example, in 2011, the Attorney General used this law to put synthetic cannabinoids on Schedule I.

Notes

References
Notes

References

1970 in the United States
United States federal legislation
1970s in law
Drug control law
"Pop! Goes the Weasel" is an English nursery rhyme and singing game. 

There are many different versions of this song.

American versions include the following words:

All around the mulberry bush
The monkey chased the weasel
The monkey stopped to pull up his sock
Pop! Goes the weasel

There are many other American and English versions.

References

Children's songs
1850s songs
A nursery rhyme is a traditional poem for young children. The term has been used since the 18th century or early 19th century. In North America, the term Mother Goose Rhymes, first used in the mid-18th century, is often used.

Examples of English nursery rhymes are "Three Blind Mice", "Jack and Jill" , "Hey Diddle Diddle"and "Baa Baa Black Sheep"
An amicus curiae (literally, friend of the court; plural, amici curiae) is someone who is not a party to a case and offers information that affects the case but who has not been asked by any of the parties to assist a court. This may take the form of legal opinion, testimony or learned treatise (the amicus brief). It is a way to introduce concerns that might be overlooked by the parties directly involved in the case. The decision on whether to admit the information lies at the discretion of the court. The phrase amicus curiae is legal Latin.
History 
The amicus curiae practice was found in Roman law. It played an important part in both English common law and the American legal system. Later, it was introduced in international law, in particular, concerning human rights. Today, it is used by the European Court of Human Rights. It is also used in the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the Court of Justice of the European Union and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon.
Presentation 
The situation most often noted in the press is when an advocacy group files a brief in a case before an appellate court to which it is not a litigant.  Appellate cases are normally limited to the factual record and arguments coming from the lower court case under appeal. Usually attorneys focus on the facts and arguments most favorable to their clients.  Where a case may have broader implications, amicus curiae briefs are a way to introduce those concerns, so that the possibly broad legal effects of court decisions will not depend solely on the parties directly involved in the case.
In prominent cases, amici curiae are generally organizations with sizable legal budgets. In the United States, for example, non-profit legal advocacy organizations, such as the American Civil Liberties Union, the Landmark Legal Foundation, the Pacific Legal Foundation, and others, frequently submit such briefs to advocate for or against a particular legal change or interpretation. If a decision could affect an entire industry, companies other than the litigants may wish to have their concerns heard.  In the United States, federal courts often hear cases involving the constitutionality of state laws.  Hence states may file briefs as amici curiae when their laws are likely to be affected, as in the Supreme Court case McDonald v. Chicago, when thirty-two states under the aegis of Texas (and California independently) filed such briefs.
Amici curiae who do not file briefs often present an academic perspective on the case. Newspaper editorials, blogs, and other opinion pieces arguably have the capability to influence Supreme Court decisions as de facto amici curiae. They are not, however, technically considered amicus curiae, as they do not submit materials to the Court, do not need to ask for leave, and have no guarantee that they will be read.
United States Supreme Court rules
The Supreme Court of the United States has special rules for amicus curiae briefs sought to be filed in cases pending before it. Supreme Court Rule 37 states, in part, such a brief should cover "relevant matter" not dealt with by the parties which "may be of considerable help". The cover of an amicus brief must identify which party the brief is supporting, or if the brief supports only affirmance or reversal. The Court also requires that, inter alia, all non-governmental amici identify those providing a monetary contribution to the preparation or submission of the brief. Briefs must be prepared in booklet format, and 40 copies must be served with the Court.
In the United States Supreme Court, unless the amicus brief is being filed by the federal government (or one of its officers or agents) or a U.S. state, permission of the court (by means of motion for leave) or mutual consent of the parties is  generally required. Allowing an amicus curiae to present oral argument is considered "extraordinary".

In the World Trade Organization 
The role of amicus curiae briefs in the World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement system is controversial. The controversy arises due to the governmental nature of WTO disputes. As only WTO members have access to the system, any non-members such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are excluded and have no right to be heard. Thus the only way for them to contribute to a WTO decision is through amicus curiae briefs.

References

Other websites 

Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
Dictionary – MSN Encarta  (Archived 2009-10-31)
Definitions from Dictionary.com
The Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia
Henderson v. United States, 339 U.S. 816 (1950) , was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court that abolished segregation in railroad dining cars.

Background 
In the early part of the 20th century, railroads did not provide dining facilities for African-Americans. But public pressure in the 1930s and 1940s forced railroads to provide some kind of dining arrangement for black passengers. In response, they set up one or two tables for African-Americans. No matter how many needed to eat, there were only a few chairs available to them.

On May 17, 1942, Elmer W. Henderson, an African-American passenger, was travelling first-class on the Southern Railway from Washington, D.C. to Atlanta, Georgia. He was a lawyer traveling as part of his duties for President Roosevelt's Fair Employment Practice Committee.
Interstate Commerce Commission hearings 
Henderson filed a complaint with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) in October 1942. He alleged this conduct violated provisions of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. While the Commission agreed that he had suffered undue and unreasonable prejudice and disadvantage, it dismissed the occurrence as a casual incident brought about by the bad judgment of an employee.
The decision 
The US Supreme Court did not rule on the constitutionality of "separate but equal" in this instance, but did find that the railroad had failed to provide the passenger with the same level of service provided to a white passenger with the same class of ticket. The Court found this violated the Interstate Commerce Act, which made it illegal for a railroad in interstate commerce “to subject any particular person… to any undue or unreasonable prejudice or disadvantage in any respect whatsoever.”

With the permission of the Court, Sam Hobbs, a member of the United States House Committee on the Judiciary filed a brief as amicus curiae in support of the lower court decision. Several other amicus curiae briefs were filed in support of Henderson, the appellant.

Notes

References

Other websites 
 Complete text of Supreme Court case on Justia Brown at 50  FindLaw Black Past

1950 in the United States
United States Supreme Court cases
United States law
A plaque in biology is a flat growth-form. The term is used for 
bacteria growing on an agar plate
dental plaque, a bacterial biofilm around teeth.
senile plaques: protein deposited outside cells in the brain in Alzheimer's disease
fatty deposits inside arteries in atherosclerosis

Biology
The New York International Auto Show is an annual auto show that is held in Manhattan in late March or early April. It is held at the Jacob Javits Convention Center.  It usually opens on or just before Easter weekend and closes on the first Sunday after Easter. In 2016 the show started on March 25 and ended April 3.

The show has been held annually since 1900.
The show was held at the New York Coliseum from 1956 to 1987 when the show moved to the Javits Center.

References 

19th-century establishments in New York (state)
Manhattan

1900 establishments in the United States
Santal is the official language of the Santal community. Most Santal people live in Jharkhand, Odisha, or West Bengal.

References 

Austro-Asiatic languages
Languages of India
Chiang Mai  (Thai เชียงใหม่) is the second-largest province (changwat) of Thailand. It is in the country's north. It is bordered by Chiang Rai to the northeast, Lampang and Lamphun to the south, Tak to the southwest, Mae Hong Son to the west, and Shan State of Burma to the north. The capital, Chiang Mai, is 685 km north of Bangkok.

Geography 
Chiang Mai Province is about  from Bangkok. The highest mountain in Thailand, Doi Inthanon at , is in Chiang Mai Province.

Several other national parks are also in the province: Doi Suthep-Pui, Ob Luang, Sri Lanna, Huai Nam Dang, Mae Wang, and Pha Daeng.

History

The city of Chiang Mai was capital of the Lanna Kingdom after its founding in 1296.

In 1599, the kingdom lost its independence and became part of the Ayutthaya Kingdom.

In 1932, the province Chiang Mai moved up to the second level subdivision of Thailand when the administrative unit of Monthon Phayap, the remains of the Lanna Kingdom, was dissolved.

Types of People
Types of People

13.4% of the population in the province are members of hill tribes, among them the Hmong, Yao, Lahu, Lisu, Akha, and Karen.

Climate 
Chiang Mai has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen Aw), tempered by the low latitude and moderate elevation, with warm to hot weather year-round, though nighttime conditions during the dry season can be cool and are much lower than daytime highs. The maximum temperature ever recorded is 42.4 °C in May 2005.

Transportation

Car. Chiang Mai is on Highway 11 (Super Highway Rd). 
Train. Chiang Mai is the northern terminus of the northern railway route.
Songthaew
Samlor. Samlors (rickshaws) can be found in the urban core.
Tuk-tuks are used for short distances.
Buses. Chiang Mai is served by buses from Bangkok and many other cities.
Bicycle and motorbike. Both forms of transport can be hired in Chiang Mai city.
Air. Chiang Mai International Airport (CNX) is one of the seven Thai international airports

References 

Provinces of Thailand
New Brunswick may refer to:

New Brunswick, Canadian province
New Brunswick Southwest, federal electoral district in New Brunswick, Canada
New Brunswick Railway, Canadian railway and land holding company
New Brunswick, Indiana, unincorporated town in Harrison Township, Boone County, Indiana
New Brunswick, New Jersey, city in New Jersey, USA
New Brunswick (NJT station), railroad station on the New Jersey Transit Northeast Corridor Line and the Amtrak Northeast Corridor
East Brunswick is a township in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. The suburban community is part of the New York City metropolitan area and is located on the southern shore of the Raritan River. It is adjacent to the city of New Brunswick.

History
The general area of central New Jersey was once occupied by the Lenape Native Americans.

References 

Townships in New Jersey
Middlesex County, New Jersey
Maria Teresa Felicitas (French: Marie Thérèse Félicité; 6 October 1726 – 30 April 1754) was born a Princess of Modena. By marriage, she was the Duchess of Penthièvre. Maria Teresa was the mother-in-law of Philippe Égalité and a grandmother to the future Louis Philippe I.

Early life
Maria Teresa was born on 6 October 1726 in Modena, Italy. She was the first child of Charlotte Aglaé d'Orléans and Francesco III d'Este, Duke of Modena. Her parents’ marriage wasn’t happy, and her mother would later move back to France.

Marriage
In On 29 December 1744 at the Palace of Versailles, Maria Teresa married her second cousin, Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre. The couple had seven children in total but only two of them survived childhood. The marriage was seen as very happy.

Children
Children

Louis Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Rambouillet (2 January 1746 – 13 November 1749); died young.
Louis Alexandre de Bourbon (6 September 1747 –6 May 1768); married Princess Marie Louise of Savoy, Mademoiselle de Carignan but had no children.
 Jean Marie de Bourbon (17 July 1748 – 19 May 1755); died young.
 Vincent de Bourbon, Count of Guingamp (22 June 1750 – 14 March 1752); died young.
 Marie Louise de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Penthièvre (18 October 1751 – 26 September 1753); died young.
 Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon, Mademoiselle d'Ivoy and later Mademoiselle de Penthièvre (13 March 1753 – 23 June 1821); married Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans and had children.
 Louis Marie Félicité de Bourbon (29 April 1754 – 30 April 1754); died young.

Death

Marie Teresa died in childbirth in 1754 giving birth to a son who also died. Her husband refused to remarry and died in 1793. Her daughter, Marie Adélaïde, moved Marie Teresa’s body to the Royal Chapel, in Dreux.

Titles and styles
Titles and styles

6 October 1726 - 29 December 1744 Her Most Serene Highness Princess Maria Teresa Felicitas.
29 December 1744 - 30 April 1754 Her Most Serene Highness The Duchess of Penthièvre.

References

Other websites
 

1726 births
1754 deaths
Deaths in childbirth
Dukes and duchesses of France
House of Bourbon
House of Este
People from Modena
Gonzales v. Oregon was a landmark case decided by the United States Supreme Court in 2006.  In 2001, Attorney General John Ashcroft tried to stop Oregon's Death with Dignity Act.  This law allowed terminally ill people to get a prescription for a medication that they could take to kill themselves.  (This is called "physician-assisted suicide.")  

Ashcroft tried to stop doctors from prescribing medicines for physician-assisted suicide.  He threatened to use a federal anti-drug law to punish them.

The state of Oregon went to court to fight Ashcroft.  Eventually, the Supreme Court ruled that Ashcroft did not have the power to stop doctors from prescribing legal drugs in a way that was legal in Oregon.  This decision allowed physician-assisted suicide to continue in Oregon.

History

The Oregon Death with Dignity Act
In 1994, the people of Oregon voted to pass the Death with Dignity Act.  Under this law, if a terminally ill adult wants to, they can get a lethal prescription from a doctor.  They can only do this if they are a competent adult (they are able to make decisions on their own).  They must also meet many other requirements.

By the end of 2001, when Ashcroft got involved, 150 people had gotten prescriptions under the Death with Dignity Act.  Ninety-nine of these people used their prescriptions to end their lives.  The other 51 (about one out of every three people) chose never to use their prescriptions.

Background of the case

In 2001, Attorney General Ashcroft tried to stop Oregon's doctors from prescribing medicines for physician-assisted suicide by using the Controlled Substances Act.
The Controlled Substances Act
The Controlled Substances Act is a federal law sets the United States' rules about legal and illegal drugs.  It includes rules about what medicines doctors can and cannot prescribe.  It also includes a list of medicines, called "controlled substances," which doctors cannot prescribe without a special license from the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).  

DEA rules limit when doctors with this license can prescribe controlled substances:

This means that doctors can only prescribe controlled substances if their patients need them for real medical problems.  Basically, the doctor has to be acting like a doctor, not a drug dealer.  

The goal of this rule was to stop doctors who prescribed drugs to people who abused them.  If doctors did this, they would be violating the Controlled Substances Act.  The punishment for doctors who do this is to lose their DEA license to prescribe controlled substances.

The Ashcroft Directive
In 1994, when Oregon first passed the Death with Dignity Act, Janet Reno was the Attorney General.  She decided the Death with Dignity Act did not violate the Controlled Substances Act.  

However, in November 2001, Attorney General Ashcroft put out a new rule (which became known as "The Ashcroft Directive").  He reversed Reno's position.  He said the Death with Dignity Act did violate the Controlled Substances Act.  

Ashcroft had decided physician-assisted suicide was not a "legitimate medical purpose" for any medication.  Because of this, he said, any doctor in Oregon who wrote another prescription for physician-assisted suicide would be breaking the Controlled Substances Act.  As punishment, the DEA could take away these doctors' licenses to prescribe controlled substances.  This would make it impossible for those doctors to prescribe medicines for physician-assisted suicide.  The DEA could also fine the doctors or even charge them with crimes.
Appeals
The day after Ashcroft issued his Directive, the state of Oregon went to federal court to fight it.  Doctors, other health care providers, and people with terminal illnesses joined Oregon's lawsuit against Ashcroft.  On April 17, 2002, U.S. District Judge Robert Jones ordered an injunction  a judge's order saying that Ashcroft's rule could not be enforced.  However, the court did not have the jurisdiction to hear the whole lawsuit.  It moved the case to a higher (more powerful) court: the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.

The Ninth Circuit agreed with Judge Jones's injunction.  They ruled that Congress obviously did not mean for the Controlled Substances Act to be used to control physician-assisted suicide.  They meant for it to control illegal drug dealing.  They also ruled that Ashcroft did not have the power to control a state's medical practices.  That was the state's own business to control, the Court said.
Ashcroft asked the Supreme Court to hear the case.  By the time they did, there was a new Attorney General: Alberto Gonzales.  However, Gonzales supported the Ashcroft Directive, and continued Ashcroft's fight against the Death with Dignity Act.

Supreme Court decision

On January 17, 2006, the Supreme Court decided in favor of Oregon.  

The Supreme Court did not rule on whether physician-assisted suicide, or the Oregon Death with Dignity Act, were legal.  Instead, they made their decision based on the ideas of federalism  the separation between the powers of the United States government and the individual states.

Like the Ninth Circuit, the Supreme Court ruled that the Controlled Substances Act was meant to fight drug use and drug dealing.  Congress never meant for the law to deal with physician-assisted suicide.
The Court said that Congress also never meant for the Controlled Substance Act to control medical practices.  The states had always had the right to control their own medical practices.  Ashcroft decided that he could create a meaning of "legitimate medical practice" that every state would have to follow.  The Court ruled that the Attorney General did not have this power to take away the states' rights to decide this for themselves.  Also, since he was not a medical expert, he should not be deciding what "legitimate medical practice" was.

Finally, the Court ruled that under the Controlled Substances Act, the Attorney General had a very small role.  He did not have the power to cancel a state law.  He also did not have the right to punish doctors like criminals for acting in ways that were legal in Oregon.  The Attorney General did not have the power to take these rights from Oregon.

Importance
Importance

Their ruling in Gonzales showed the states that the Supreme Court would not stop them from making physician-assisted suicide legal.  As of 2016, four more states have made physician-assisted suicide legal: Washington, Montana, Vermont, and California.  Now physician-assisted suicide is legal in five states  10% of the states in the country.  If the Supreme Court had made a different ruling in Gonzales, this never would have been possible.

A different ruling in Gonzales would have also given the Attorney General much more power over the states and their doctors.  It would have taken away the states' rights in some important areas.  Instead, it ruled in favor of states' rights and the separation of powers between the states and the federal government.

Notes

Related pages
 The Oregon Death with Dignity Act
 Controlled Substances Act
 Terminal illness
 Right to die

References

United States Supreme Court cases
László Sárosi (27 February 1932 – 2 April 2016) was a Hungarian footballer and coach. He played as a defender for Vasas and Hungary between the 1940s and 1960s. He was born in Budapest.

Sárosi died on 2 April 2016 in Budapest, aged 84.

References

1932 births
2016 deaths
1958 FIFA World Cup players
1962 FIFA World Cup players
Hungarian football managers
Hungarian footballers
Sportspeople from Budapest
Gallieno Ferri (21 March 1929 – 2 April 2016) was an Italian comic book artist and illustrator. In 1960, he met writer Sergio Bonelli. His partnership with Bonelli lead to the creation of the comic books Zagor and Mister No. He was born in Genoa.

Ferri died on 2 April 2016 in Genoa, aged 87.

References

1929 births
2016 deaths
Italian comics artists
Illustrators
Artists from Genoa
Colobus are a genus of monkeys native to Africa. The word "colobus" comes from Greek κολοβός which means "docked". This refers to their thumbs, which are just stumps.

Colobus are herbivorous. They eat leaves, fruit, flowers, and twigs. Their habitats include primary and secondary forests, riverine forests, and wooded grasslands. Their ruminant-like digestive systems help them occupy niches which other primates do not live in.

Colobus live in territorial groups of about nine individuals, with a single male with a number of females and their offspring. Newborn colobus are completely white. Mothering is shared: other members of the troop the biological mother care for an infant.
Colobus are eaten regularly by the common chimpanzee. Jane Goodall discovered that chimps hunt and eat smaller primates such as Colobus monkeys. She watched a hunting group isolate a colobus high in a tree, block all possible exits, then a chimpanzee climbed up and captured and killed the colobus. The others then each took parts of the carcass, sharing with other members of the troop in response to begging behaviours. The chimps at Gombe kill and eat as much as one-third of the colobus population in the park each year. This was a major scientific find which challenged previous conceptions of chimp diet and behavior.

References 

Old World monkeys
Mammals of Africa
The Cave nebula is an emission nebula in the constellation of Cepheus. It is about 2,400 light-years away from Earth.

Nebulae
NGC 7538 is a diffuse nebula in the constellation of Cepheus. It is about 9,100 light-years away from Earth.

Nebulae
NGC 6946, also known as the Fireworks galaxy, Arp 29, and Caldwell 12, is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Cepheus and Cygnus. It is about 22.5 million light-years away from Earth. It was discovered by William Herschel in September 9, 1798. It's highly obscured by interestellar matter, and it's very close to the galactic plane. It has a third of the Milky Way’s size.

Supernovae in NGC 6946 

Fireworks Galaxy has this name because of how many supernovae happened in the galaxy. The supernovae in this galaxy occur very frequently. In the last century a total of 9 supernovae were seen from this galaxy: SN 1917a, SN 1939c, SN 1948b, SNSN 1968d, SN 1969p, SN 1980k, SN 2002hh, SN 2004et, SN2008s.

Related pages
 Spiral galaxy
 Supernovae

References

Other websites
 APOD:2005 January 25 - NGC 6946
 
 Gemini Observatory Welcomes 2005 with Release of Galactic Fireworks Image - Gemini Observatory

Spiral galaxies
Convict leasing was a form of forced labor used by prisons in the Southern United States.  ("Convict" is a rude word for "prisoner"; leasing is like renting something.)  Under the system, prisons leased prisoners out as free workers to corporations, business owners, and plantation owners.  Basically, the prisons were selling prisoners like slaves, except that they were not sold forever.

This system made a lot of money for prisons and the contractors.  The contractors got workers who they did not have to pay, and who they could treat however they wanted.  The prisons got payments from the contractors.  Also, they no longer had to pay for food, clothing, or housing for the prisoners who they leased out; the contractors did.

In 1898, for example, about 73% of Alabama's entire yearly state revenue came from convict leasing.  For this reason, convict leasing lasted almost 100 years in the South.

Beginnings
Beginnings

The state of Louisiana leased out convicts as early as 1844.  However, convict leasing began to spread throughout the South during the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877).  This was just after the end of the American Civil War, which ended slavery.  With no more slaves to work for them, Southern farmers and businessmen needed to find new workers. Southern legislatures passed laws called Black Codes to keep blacks from moving freely and to force them to work for whites. As historian Douglas Blackmon explains:
At this time, the Southern states did not have much money, and they found that convict labor gave them a big source of revenue.  Contractors also made money off the system because they did not have to pay the prisoners the wages they would have to pay to white workers.  The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had made slavery illegal  except as punishment for a crime.  So the states passed laws that would make it easy to convict innocent black people of crimes.  Once they were prisoners, they could be treated like slaves.  The states basically used this process as a way to continue slavery in the South.

Conditions
Northern states sometimes contracted for prison labor.  However, in the South, the state gave complete control of prisoners to contractors.
Also, according to historian Matthew Mancini, the Southern convict labor system was "one of the harshest and most exploitative labor systems known in American history."  'If one [prisoner] dies, get another' was the attitude of many contractors, Mancini writes.  He says this was caused by corruption, racism, racial violence, and the fact that contractors could do whatever they wanted without getting into trouble.
Prisoners were often treated very badly.  Unlike during slavery, the contractors had not paid very much for the prisoners, and they would not have them forever.  For these reasons, contractors had very little   Prisoners could be beaten or whipped if their bosses did not think they were working hard enough.  They were abused by guards.  One source says: "Mines and plantations that used convict laborers commonly had secret graveyards containing the bodies of prisoners who had been beaten and/or tortured to death. Convicts would be made to fight each other, sometimes to the death, for the amusement of the guards and wardens."

Almost all of the prisoners who were leased out were African Americans, mostly adult males.  This was because laws were enforced much more against black people, and blacks usually got much more severe sentences for "crimes" because of racism.

U.S. Steel is one of the American companies which have admitted using African-American leased convict labor.
Convict leasing was most common around 1880.  It was formally outlawed by the last state (Alabama) in 1928.  However, it continued in different forms until President Franklin D. Roosevelt made it illegal on December 12, 1941.

The system in different states

Here are some examples of different states' convict leasing systems.

Once they stopped using the convict labor system, many states switched to the trusty system.  This was also a way to save money, but it caused abuses just like the convict labor system did.  Finally, in a landmark case called Gates v. Collier, 501 F.2d 1291 (5th Cir. 1974), a federal court forced the states using the trusty system to stop.
Effects on the prison population
Scholar Randall Shelden argues that the convict lease system created an incentive to convict black people.   Because the convict lease system brought in so much money, the states and counties had a reason to want to convict African-Americans.  This is why the people in Southern prisons became mostly African-American after the Civil War, Sheldon writes.  For example, in Louisiana's main prison in Nashville:
 On October 1, 1865, African-Americans made up 33% of the prison's population (at this time, the Civil War had just ended five                                                                                                                                              months before)
 On November 29, 1867, African-Americans had increased to 58.3% of the prison's population
 By 1869 they made up 64%
 Between 1877 and 1879, they made up 67%

During the times when Southern states used the convict leasing system, their prison populations grew across the South.  For example:
Photo gallery

Notes

Related pages
 Slavery
 Reconstruction Era
 Trusty system

References

19th century in the United States
20th century in the United States
African-American history
Human rights abuses
Imprisonment and detention
NGC 7090 is a spiral galaxy in the Indus constellation. It is about 30 million light-years away from Earth.

Spiral galaxies
NGC 7049 is an elliptical galaxy in the Indus constellation. It is about 101 million light-years away from Earth. A dust ring surrounds the galaxy, and can be observed in silhouette. The galaxy's center in enveloped in a polar gas cloud.

Elliptical galaxies
The Tadpole galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy in the Draco constellation. It is about 420 million light-years away from Earth.

References 

Barred spiral galaxies
NGC 5907 is a spiral galaxy in the Draco constellation. It is about 50 million light-years away from Earth.

Spiral galaxies
NGC 6503 is a dwarf spiral galaxy in the Draco constellation. It is about 17 million light-years away from Earth.

Spiral galaxies
NGC 6543 is a planetary nebula in the Draco constellation. It is about 3.3 thousand light-years away from Earth.

Nebulae
The Pelican nebula (also known as IC 5067 or IC 5070) is an H II region in the Cygnus constellation. It is about 1,800 light-years away from Earth.

Nebulae
The North America nebula (also known as NGC 7000 or Caldwell 20) is an emission nebula in the Cygnus constellation. It is about 1,600 light-years away from Earth. It is called the North America Nebula because its shape resembles North America. It can be found with a small telescope next to Deneb. However, it cannot be found with the naked eye. The North America Nebula is a star-forming region.

Nebulae
The Sneaker Pimps are a British trip hop group. They formed in Hartlepool, England in 1994. They are best known for their songs "6 Underground" and "Spin Spin Sugar".

Their song, "6 Underground", went to #7 on Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart.

The band's founding members were Liam Howe and Chris Corner. They then hired Kelli Dayton as a singer, and longtime friend Ian Pickering to write lyrics. Dayton was the original singer of the Sneaker Pimps.

After the first album, the band felt that demos for the 1999 album Splinter was better for the voice of Corner. Following the tour for their first album, Becoming X, they kicked Dayton out of the group. Dayton later had a solo career under the name "Kelli Ali".

The Sneaker Pimps broke up in 2005. They got back together in 2015.

References

Other websites
1994 establishments in England
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
English pop music groups
Hartlepool
Musical groups established in 1994
Trip hop groups
Musical groups disestablished in 2005
2005 disestablishments in England
Musical groups established in the 2010s
2015 establishments in the United Kingdom
2010s establishments in England
Louis Alexandre de Bourbon (Louis Alexandre Joseph Stanislas; 6 September 1747 – 6 May 1768) was the son and heir of Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, grandson of Louis XIV by the king's legitimised son, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, Count of Toulouse. He was known as the Prince of Lamballe from birth. He died before his father, and did not have children.

Biography
Louis Alexandre was born on 6 September 1747, at the Hôtel de Toulouse in Paris. The prince de Lamballe, as he was known all his life, was the couple's only surviving son. He was one of seven children.
Marriage
His father chose his bride, the Italian born Princess Maria Luisa Teresa of Savoy "Mademoiselle de Carignan". The wedding celebration lasted from 17 January 1767, until 27 January with feasts in Turin and Nangis. Prior to the wedding, His father had arranged the marriage to try and get his son to settle down as he was a well known womaniser. However after three months of happiness, Louis Alexandre soon tired of his young wife and resumed his life of débaucherie. He eloped with Mademoiselle de La Chassaigne, an opera dancer, five months into his marriage. At one point, Louis Alexandre even sold his wife's diamonds to raise money to pay his debts.
Death
After a dissipated short life, Louis Alexandre died on 6 May 1768, sixteen months after his marriage, of a venereal disease at the Château de Louveciennes in the arms of his wife. He died without any children. His wife inherited part of his considerable fortune. He was eventually buried at the Royal Chapel, Dreux, France by his younger sister Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

6 September 1747 – 6 May 1768 His Serene Highness the Prince of Lamballe

Commons

1747 births
1768 deaths
Heirs apparent who never acceded
House of Bourbon
Infectious disease deaths in France
People from Paris
Politicians from Paris
The Iran men's national volleyball team is the national men's volleyball team of Iran. It is managed by the Islamic Republic of Iran Volleyball Federation (I.R.I.V.F.). It joins international volleyball competitions. 

They are currently the strongest team in Asia.  They won the 2011 and 2013 Asian Volleyball Championships. They rank 10th in the FIVB World Rankings (as of September 2014). The team's home venues are Azadi Indoor Stadium and Azadi Volleyball Hall.

References

Other websites 
Official website
FIVB profile

National volleyball teams
Sport in Iran