Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Constitution says clearly that officials can be impeached for treason or bribery.  But it does not say exactly what "High crimes and Misdemeanors" includes or does not include.  "High crimes" is a phrase from old British law that means crimes committed by people with political power.  However, in British history, "high crimes and misdemeanors" could include many different things (even losing a ship by not tying it up).  After the Constitution was written, Alexander Hamilton explained in The Federalist Papers what kind of causes for impeachment the Founders had in mind: "offences which [come] from the abuse or violation of some public trust.  [They cause] injuries done immediately to the society itself."
Congress has made the meaning of "high crimes and misdemeanors" clearer by who they have chosen to impeach, and why.  Since the Constitution was ratified, the House of Representatives has impeached 18 people - mostly judges, but also two Presidents.  All but three of these 18 were impeached for crimes other than treason or bribery.  For example:
 President Andrew Johnson was impeached in 1868 for breaking a federal law (he was acquitted by the Senate)
 President Bill Clinton was impeached in 1998 for perjury and obstruction of justice (he was acquitted)
 The judges were mostly impeached for:
 Being unfair, not being impartial, and making rulings that broke laws
 Abusing their power
 Being corrupt
 Tax evasion and lying about how much money they had

Notes

References 

United States Constitution
A dissenting opinion (or dissent) is an opinion in a legal case. It is written by one or more judges expressing disagreement with the majority opinion of the court. In some cases, they simply declare a disagreement with the majority opinion. In other cases they may be used to instruct, prod, or otherwise try to convince other justices of the point of view expressed by the minority.

When not necessarily referring to a legal decision, this can also be referred to as a minority report.
Dissenting opinions are normally written at the same time as the majority opinion and any concurring opinions. They are also delivered and published at the same time.  A dissenting opinion does not create binding precedent nor does it become a part of case law. However, they can sometimes be cited as a form of persuasive authority in subsequent cases when arguing that the court's holding should be limited or overturned. In some cases, a previous dissent is used to spur a change in the law. A later case may result in a majority opinion adopting a particular rule of law formerly advocated in dissent.  As with concurring opinions, the difference in opinion between dissents and majority opinions can often highlight the precise holding of the majority opinion. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes stated in 1936: "A dissent in a Court of last resort is an appeal".
The dissent may disagree with the majority for any number of reasons: a different interpretation of the existing case law, the application of different principles, or a different interpretation of the facts.

References 

Legal terms
In law, a legal opinion is usually a written explanation by a judge or group of judges that accompanies an order or ruling in a case. Legal opinions  may also be written by legal experts. A legal opinion is used to lay out the rationale (reasons for) and legal principles for the ruling.

Opinions are usually published at the direction of the court. They may be used to reinforce, explain, change, establish, or overturn legal precedent. If a court decides that an opinion should be published, the opinion is included in a volume from a series of books called law reports or case reports. Published opinions of courts are also collectively referred to as case law, which is one of the major sources of law in common law legal systems.

References 

Legal terms
A judicial opinion is a form of legal opinion written by a judge or a panel of judges explaining how they resolved a legal dispute. It cites the decision reached to resolve the dispute. A judicial opinion usually includes the reasons behind the decision. Where there are three or more judges, it may take the form of a majority opinion, minority opinion or a concurring opinion.

Kinds of judicial opinions
 A majority opinion is a judicial opinion agreed to by more than half of the members of a court.  A majority opinion sets becomes the decision of the court in a particular case.

 A concurring opinion is written to agree with a decision, but for giving different reasons for the agreement. When it is joined by the greatest number of judges, it is referred to as the plurality opinion.

 A dissenting opinion (or dissent) is an opinion written by one or more judges expressing disagreement with the majority opinion. A dissenting opinion does not create binding precedent nor does it become a part of case law.
References 

Law
Having failed to receive a majority of the court's votes, concurring opinions are not binding precedent (common law) and cannot be cited as such. But concurring opinions can sometimes be cited as a form of persuasive precedent (assuming there is no binding precedent already in effect).  The conflict in views between a majority opinion and a concurring opinion can assist a lawyer in understanding the points of law in the majority opinion.  Occasionally, a judge will use a concurring opinion to signal that he or she is open to certain types of "test cases" that would allow the development of a new legal rule. In turn, such a concurring opinion may become more famous than the majority opinion in the same case. A well-known example of this phenomenon is Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co. (1944).
Concurring opinions by region
In some courts, such as the Supreme Court of the United States, the majority opinion may be broken down into numbered or lettered parts. Concurring justices may state that they join some parts of the majority opinion, but not others, for the reasons given in their concurring opinion. In other courts, such as the Supreme Court of California, the same justice may write a majority opinion and a separate concurring opinion to express additional reasons in support of the judgment
Terminology at the various courts
At the International Court of Justice, the term "separate opinion" is used and judges can also add declarations to the judgment.
The term concurring opinion is used at the Supreme Court of the United States.
The European Court of Human Rights uses the term concurring opinion and calls both concurring and dissenting opinions separate opinions. Judges very rarely add declarations to the judgment.
The Law Lords of the United Kingdom give each an opinion of their own. No aggregated judgment is provided.
 In some jurisdictions (e.g., California), the term may be abbreviated in certain contexts to conc. opn.

Notes

References

Legal terms
In law, seriatim (Latin for "in series") indicates that a court is addressing multiple issues in a certain order, such as the order that the issues were originally presented to the court.

Legal usage 
A seriatim opinion describes an opinion delivered by a court with multiple judges, in which each judge reads his or her own opinion rather than a single judge writing an opinion on behalf of the entire court. This is a practice generally used when a legal case does not have a majority opinion.

Use of the word, and other Latin phrases, has become less frequent in legal communications as a result of, among other factors, efforts by groups such as the Plain Language Movement to promote the use of "plain English" in legal discourse.
In the United Kingdom 
In modern use pleadings is used for "one by one in sequence".  For example, in English civil cases, defence statements generally used to conclude with the phrase "save as expressly admitted herein, each allegation of the plaintiffs is denied as if set out in full and traversed herein seriatim." This formulation is now discouraged under the English Civil Procedure Rules, especially rule 16.5 (3)-(5).

It is sometimes seen in older deeds and contracts as a more traditional way of using terms of reference.  For example "the railway by-laws shall apply to the contract as if set out herein seriatim." It is sometimes found as part of the longer phrase brevatim et seriatim, meaning "briefly and in series".

The term is also used when replying to a communication that contains a number of points, issues or questions to show that the responses are in the same order in which they were raised in the original document: "To deal with your queries seriatim..."
In the United States 
During the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Marshall, 1801 to 1835, the practice of judicial opinions being delivered in seriatim was discontinued.

In 2009, Title III, Rule 15(a)(1) of the U.S. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure regarding Amended and Supplemental Pleadings (part of pretrial procedure) was amended to allow three changes in the time previously allowed to make one change. 
This provision will force the pleader to consider carefully and promptly the wisdom of amending to meet the arguments in the motion... and will expedite determination of issues that otherwise might be raised seriatim.
The right to make changes now ends 21 days after service of a motion.

References

Legal terms
In law, a memorandum opinion is usually an unpublished legal opinion that cannot be cited as precedent.  It is formally defined as: "[1] unanimous appellate opinion that succinctly states the decision of the court; an opinion that briefly reports the court's conclusion, usu. without elaboration because the decision follows a well-established legal principle or does not relate to any point of law."  There is no elaboration or explanation because the decision either follows a well-known legal principle or it does not relate to a point of law. A memorandum opinion is also not subject to appeal.

Generally, memorandum opinions follow ordinary rules, including the application of precedent and the rule of stare decisis.

References 

Legal terms
In law, a per curiam decision (or opinion) is a ruling issued by an appellate court in which the decision rendered is made by the court (or at least, a majority of the court) acting collectively and unanimously. In contrast to regular opinions, a per curiam does not list the individual judge responsible for authoring the decision, but minority dissenting and concurring decisions are signed.

Per curiams are not the only type of decision that can reflect the opinion of the court. Other types of decisions can also reflect the opinion of the entire court, such as unanimous decisions, in which the opinion of the court is expressed with an author listed. The Latin term per curiam literally means "by the court".

United States
United States

Federal
The decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court are usually not per curiam. Their decisions more commonly take the form of one or more opinions signed by individual justices which are then joined in by other justices. Unanimous and signed opinions are not considered per curiam decisions, as only the court can officially designate opinions as per curiam. Per curiam decisions tend to be brief in length. The designation is stated at the beginning of the opinion.

The notable exception to the usual characteristics for a per curiam decision is the case of Bush v. Gore. Although it was per curiam, there were multiple concurrences and dissents.

State
The Supreme Court of California occasionally releases decisions in the name of "The Court". But these are not necessarily unanimous.  Sometimes an opinion in the name of the Court may be accompanied by extensive concurring and dissenting opinions.
Canada
The Supreme Court of Canada also attributes some decisions to "The Court" but does not use the phrase per curiam. In the U.S. the term is used primarily for uncontroversial cases. In Canada, however, it has been used for important and controversial cases to emphasize that the entire Court is speaking with a single voice.

Notes

References

Legal terms
Anita Brookner, CBE (16 July 1928 – 10 March 2016) was a British award-winning novelist and art historian. She was Slade Professor of Fine Art at the University of Cambridge from 1967 to 1968. She was the first woman to hold this visiting professorship. She was awarded the 1984 Man Booker Prize for her novel Hotel du Lac.

References

Other websites
Anita Brookner Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin
 

1928 births
2016 deaths
Historians from London
John Werner Cahn (January 9, 1928 – March 14, 2016) was an American scientist and recipient of the 1998 National Medal of Science. 

He was a professor in the department of Materials Science at MIT from 1964 to 1978. Since 1977, he has held a position at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (formerly the National Bureau of Standards, NBS).Cahn has applied the basic laws of thermodynamics to describe and predict a wide range of physical phenomena.

References

1928 births
2016 deaths
Writers from Michigan
Scientists from Michigan
Tamara D. Grigsby (November 19, 1974 – March 15, 2016) was an American social worker. She was a university professor from Wisconsin. She served as a Democratic Party member of the Wisconsin State Assembly, representing the 18th Assembly District, from 2005 until 2013.

Grigby's staff announced on December 22, 2011 that she was hospitalized in intensive care, battling cancer. In April 2012, Grigsby announced she would be retiring from the Assembly to recover her strength.
Her death was announced on March 15, 2016.

References

1974 births
2016 deaths
Politicians from Wisconsin
Academics from Wisconsin
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
State legislators of the United States
Earline W. Parmon (Nonember 18, 1943 – March 15, 2016) was an American Democratic member of the North Carolina General Assembly. She represented the state's seventy-second House district

Parmon has served five terms in the state House. She announced in 2012 that she would run for a seat in the North Carolina Senate. Parmon served in the North Carolina State Senate and resigned in 2015. Parmon also served as Forsyth County, North Carolina commissioner.

Parmon died on March 15, 2016 from a short-illness in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. She was aged 72.

References

1943 births
2016 deaths
African American politicians
Politicians from Buffalo, New York
Politicians from North Carolina
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Asa Briggs, Baron Briggs (7 May 1921 – 15 March 2016) was an English historian. He was a leading specialist on the Victorian era. He was a well-known historian of broadcasting in Britain. He was made a life peer in 1976. Briggs was born in Keighley, West Riding of Yorkshire.

Briggs died in Lewes, East Sussex on 15 March 2016. He was aged 94.

References

1921 births
2016 deaths
English historians
Writers from Yorkshire
People from West Yorkshire
Pharisees were Jewish leaders who composed and enforced religious law at a certain period in Jewish history. At times, the Pharisees were a political party, a social movement, and a school of thought. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD, Pharisaic beliefs became the foundation for Rabbinic Judaism. The term 'Judaism' today almost always refers to Rabbinic Judaism.

Paul of Tarsus, disciple of Jesus, was a Pharisee before he became a Christian.

Other websites 
Pharisees: Oxford Quick Reference
Jewish Encyclopedia: Pharisees

Ancient Israel and Judah
Ratu Seru Raveive Rabeni (27 December 1978 – 15 March 2016) was a Fijian rugby union player. He played as a centre or wing. He played for the Fiji national rugby union team from 2000 through 2011. Rabeni was known in both club and international level for his physicality and bone crunching tackles, earning him the nickname "Rambo".

Rabeni died in Fiji from a heart attack on 15 March 2016, aged 37.

References

Other websites
 Leeds profile 
 Tigers profile
 Fiji profile 
 Pacific Islanders profile 
 Scrum profile

1978 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Fijian rugby union players
This article will show the current results of the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries. The Democratic Party presidential primary is a process of choosing delegates, or people that represent someone, to go to the 2016 Democratic National Convention. People in each state will vote on who they think will be good for the presidency, and each candidate gets a certain amount of delegates based on the number of votes they receive.
The primaries began on 1 February 2016 in Iowa. The remaining candidates are former first lady and secretary of state and senator Hillary Clinton and senator Bernie Sanders.
On June 6, 2016, the Associated Press reported that senator Hillary Clinton has gotten enough delegates to become the presumptive Democratic nominee. However, their count includes some superdelegates. Since superdelegates can vote however they want at the Democratic convention, their votes could change at any time before then, so it is possible (but only remotely possible) that Clinton will not get the nomination. Bernie Sanders endorsed Clinton on 12 July 2016.

Main candidates 

 Hillary Clinton – 67th United States Secretary of State (2009 to 2013), First Lady of the United States (1993 to 2001) and New York senator (2001 to 2009).
 Bernie Sanders – Vermont senator (2007 to present) and representative (1991 to 2007).

Dropped out during primaries 

 Martin O'Malley – Maryland governor (2007 to 2015) and Baltimore mayor (1999 to 2007).

Dropped out before primaries
Jim Webb – Virginia senator (2007 to 2013) and Secretary of the Navy (1987 to 1988).
 Lincoln Chafee – Rhode Island governor (2011 to 2015), senator (1999 to 2007) and Warwick mayor (1993 to 1999)
 Lawrence Lessig – professor

Results 

All delegate total are approximate.

 The delegate count that is under the popular vote percentage is estimated. If you add all the delegates listed, you may get a result that is a little bit off from the total at the top of the table. It also only shows pledged delegates, and not super delegates.

Related pages 
 Results of the Republican Party presidential primaries, 2016

References 

2016 United States presidential election
Democratic Party (United States)
United States presidential primary elections
The Armenian calendar was the main calendar used in Armenia during the medieval period.  The year in this calendar is exactly 365 days long, divided into twelve months of thirty days each, plus five extra days that are called "aveleacʿ" in the Armenian language, which are not a part of any month.  The first year in the Armenian calendar is equal to the year 552 AD in the Gregorian calendar.  This calendar was mainly used in the medieval era, but is also used in modern times by some Armenian nationalists.

This calendar has no leap days. For that reason, it shifts backwards against the Gregorian calendar over a period of 1,461 years.

Months 
The twelve months in the calendar have differen names to the months usually used in English.

Calendars
Armenia
Harold Adrian Russell "Kim" Philby (1 January 1912 – 11 May 1988) was a British intelligence officer who worked as a spy for the Soviet Union, before defecting in 1963.  

Philby began his work for the Soviet Union as a spy in 1934. He went on to serve the KGB for 54 years. He passed over 900 British documents to the KGB. He served as a double agent.  

Of the five spies in the Cambridge Five spy ring, Philby was believed to have been the most successful at passing information to the Soviet Union.

In 1961, defector Anatoliy Golitsyn gave information which pointed to Philby. An MI6 officer,  Nicholas Elliott, was sent in 1963 to interview him in Beirut. He reported that Philby seemed to know he was coming (this suggested the presence of yet another mole). Nonetheless, Philby allegedly confessed to Elliott.

Shortly afterwards, apparently fearing he might be abducted in Lebanon, Philby defected to the Soviet Union. He fled, under cover of night, to a Soviet freighter.
Related pages 
Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (movie)

References 

1912 births
1988 deaths
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
British communists
British intelligence people
British people of World War II
KGB people
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
British spies for the Soviet Union‎
Sylvia Anderson (27 March 1927 – 16 March 2016) was a British producer and actress. She was born in London, England, United Kingdom.  She was known for voicing Lady Penelope in Thunderbirds.

She was married to producer Gerry Anderson from 1960 until they divorced in 1981. They had a daughter and son.

On March 16, 2016, Anderson died of a short illness in her home in Bray, Berkshire at age 88.

References

Other websites
 
 

1927 births
2016 deaths
Actors from London
Disease-related deaths in Berkshire
British television producers
British television actors
British television writers
British voice actors
Movie producers from London
Writers from London
Hua Mulan () is a legendary warrior from China. The stories about her are set during various times in China's history. She was first written about in a ballad called the Ballad of Mulan (). In the ballad, Hua Mulan takes her father's place in the army. She practiced martial arts such as kung fu, and was skilled with a sword. She fought for twelve years and became famous, but she refused any reward.

Hua Mulan is a real person and did save China.

Related pages 
 Mulan (movie)

References

Other websites 
 
 
 

History of China
Legendary people
Chinese military people
Yassmin Abdel-Magied is an Australian writer, social advocate, and an engineer. She helps women, youth, and ethnic minorities develop their communities. At 16 years old, Abdel-Magied created Youth Without Borders, an organization that provides programs, opportunities, and support for youth to create positive changes in their communities.

Biography 
Abdel-Magied was born on March 3, 1991 in Sudan and moved to Australia with her parents just before she turned two years old
She received the Dean’s Excellence Scholarship from the University of Queensland. In 2011, she graduated from the University of Queensland with a Bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering
In 2012, Abdel-Magied started working on oil and gas rigs as a field engineer (Measurement and Logging While Drilling specialist). In 2014, she moved to Perth, Australia to work as a drilling engineer on offshore rigs.
Achievements- 
Abdel-Magied has served on multiple boards and councils, including the boards of the Queensland Museum, the Australian Multicultural Council, the Queensland Design Council, United Nations Youth Australia and others. She currently sits on the board of ChildFund Australia, the Council of Australian-Arab Relations and OurWatch.

In December 2014, Abdel-Magied presented her first TED Talk about implicit bias. She published her first book, Yassmin’s Story, in 2016 with Random House.
Awards 
In 2007, Abdel-Magied received the Young Australian Muslim of the Year award. In 2010 she received the Young Queenslander of the Year award, in 2011 she was a finalist for the Queensland Young Australian of the Year Award. She was the winner of the Youth Leader category in the 2012 Australian Financial Review and Westpac 100 Women of Influence Awards and the youngest woman on the list. In 2015, Abdel-Magied was one of the finalists in Young Australian of the Year, being named Queensland Young Australian of the Year.

Youth Without Borders 
Abdel-Magied founded Youth Without Borders  in 2007 and has been the chair of the organization since its establishment. The organization provides programs, opportunities, and support for youth to create positive changes in their communities. One of the projects is a library for children and youth on a motorcycle. This motorcycle travels to villages that do not have access to libraries in Indonesia.

References
References 

1991 births
Living people
Australian activists
Australian engineers
Muslims
Mechanical engineers
History 
Father Juan Manuel Madrazo, the priest of the San José Church in the 1950s, was the first person who organized the festival. The purpose of this festival was to commemorate the life of this Saint and raise money to repair the church. When the father was moved out of San Juan, this festival came to an end. It was not until 1970 when a historian and anthropologist named Ricardo Alegría proposed to Rafaela Balladares de Brito, a resident of San Sebastian street, to revive this tradition. Balladares de Brito with the help of her neighbors began to reorganize the festival and recollect money for an elementary school directed by Sisters of Charity.
First celebrations 
During the past celebrations, a group of musicians in the early morning of the first days walked and announced the festivity though the street. People in costumes of Spanish Kings, Queen Isabel and King Fernando, wear huge mask over their heads and were called “Cabezudos”, also participated in the parade. During the procession, people carried the Saint’s Image from San Sebastian Street and ended at the San José Church. In addition, the neighbors decorated their home’s balcony and the streets. They also prepared typical food, wore dresses and participated as host of the music shows.

Today’s celebrations
In Puerto Rico  
In the present, the addition of artisans has acquired more importance, as well as music and dance in the nights. Also, artists perform at different stages localized around the Old San Juan. “Cabezudos” now include characters representing the Puerto Rican folklore that pass through the streets dancing and singing followed by the public. Now, the parade is longer than the past ones and the municipality of San Juan is responsible in organizing the entire festival. Festivities vary year by year, but mainly include the ones mentioned above.
In United States 
In the recent years, several of San Sebastian Festivals have been celebrated in different areas of Florida and in DFW, Texas. This has been a result of many Puerto Ricans moving to the United States and wanting to maintain a connection with their typical island traditions. The festivals programed in Florida and Dallas, Texas have a duration of one to two days compared to the one celebrated in Puerto Rico which last four days. These festivals also have Puerto Rican food and rums, “Cabezudos”, artisan market, and music.
In DFW, Texas since January 2018, a group of Puerto Ricans - Traigo esta Trulla, start to organize the first Fiestas de la San Se- DFW with more than 6,000 participants.

References 

Festivals in the United States
Puerto Rico
A least developed country (LDC) is a country that the United Nations considers to be the least developed out of all the countries in the world. They normally have the lowest ratings on the Human Development Index. The idea to name LDCs started in the late 1960s. The first group of LDCs was listed by the UN in November 1971.

Classification process
Indicators are used to determine whether a country is a least devleoped country.
The gross domestic product, per person, is low. Currently, the average over three years is considered.
An index measuring social factors, such as health,  education and literacy among adults. Currently, the Human Assets Index is used for this purpose.
A third index looks at how vulnerable the economy is as a whole. Currently, the Economic Vulnerability Index is used.
To be considered a least developed country, a country must have high levels of poverty, low human resources and a vulnerable economy. The UN looks at indicators, such as gross national income, nutrition, health, education and literacy. Economic vulnerability is recorded on the Economic Vulnerability Index.

LDC criteria are reviewed every three years. Countries may stop being considered an LDC when indicators show that they have become developed enough. Since the LDC category was created, four countries have graduated to developing country status. The first country to do this was Botswana in 1994. The second was Cape Verde, in 2007. Then Maldives in 2011, and Samoa in 2014.  It is expected that Equatorial Guinea and Vanuatu will be the next countries to be promoted from LDC status.

, there are 48 least developed countries. There are also three countries which meet the criteria for LDC status, but have asked to not be included in the index: Ghana, Papua New Guinea and Zimbabwe.

Current list
Current list

The "least developed countries" according to the United Nations:

Africa (34 countries)

Asia (9 countries)

Oceania (4 countries)

Americas (1 country)

Related pages
 Developed country
 Developing country
 Third world
 List of countries by Human Development Index
 Poverty line
 Small Island Developing States

References

More reading
 United Nations, "LDCs: Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries, and Small Island Developing States"
 World Trade Organisation, ""WTO Launches Trade Initiative for Least Developed Countries", FOCUS newsletter, WTO, Geneva, Switzerland, November 1997 issue 24.

Other websites
 Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, United Nations 
 United Nations List of LDCs

 
Economic geography
Most of the disputes were about the makeup and election of the Senate. Other disagreements concerned how "proportional representation" was to be defined (whether to include slaves or other property). They needed to decide whether to divide the executive power between three persons or invest the power into a single president. They also had to work out how to elect the president, how long his term was to be and whether he could stand for reelection. There were issues over what offenses should be impeachable. Most of the time during the Convention was spent on deciding these issues, while the powers of legislature, executive, and judiciary were not heavily disputed. Once the Convention began, the delegates first agreed on the principles of the Convention, then they agreed on Madison's Virginia Plan and began to modify it. A Committee of Detail assembled during the July 4 recess and produced a rough draft. Most of this rough draft remained in place, and can be found in the final version of the constitution
. After the final issues were resolved, the Committee on Style produced the final version, and it was voted on and sent to the states.
The Virginia Plan 
James Madison had spent the winter of 1787 making a study of various confederations throughout history. He came to Philadelphia armed with a wealth of knowledge and an idea for what the United States government should be. His plan was presented to the Convention by Edmund Randolph, the Governor of Virginia. It became the broad outline of what would be a new government under the U.S. Constitution. His plan called for three branches of government with checks and balances to prevent any one branch from abusing their power. Madison's idea for a legislature had two houses. One would feature members elected by the people for a three-year term. The other would have its members elected by the state legislatures and would serve for 7 years. Both would have the seats determined by the population of the country.
Two more plans 
After debating the Virginia plan for two weeks, William Patterson presented his plan called variously, the New Jersey Plan, the Patterson Plan and the Small State Plan. It was very similar to the Articles of Confederation and featured a unicameral (one house) legislature. All states would have one vote. He had one idea that was kept; that state laws that ran counter to federal laws would be voided.

A third plan was offered by Alexander Hamilton. It was a copy of the British Constitution. It also was bicameral with an upper house and a legislature in which members served on their good behavior.
A solution 
Finally they worked out a compromise between all three plans. The new government would have an upper house, having an equal number of delegates from each state, and a lower house with representation based on population. The executive branch would have most of the responsibilities of foreign affairs while other important powers, like ratifying treaties, would be the responsibility of the legislative branch. After the new Constitution was ratified by the states, it went into effect in 1789.

References 

United States Constitution
1787 in the United States
18th century in Philadelphia
Article Four of the United States Constitution outlines the relationship between the various states, as well as the connection between the states and the federal government.

Section 1: Full faith and credit
The first section requires states to recognize the "full faith and credit" of the public acts, records and court proceedings of other states. 
This clause makes certain that any judicial decisions made in courts of one state are recognized and honored in all other states. This eliminates the practice of "forum shopping", the practice of having a legal case heard in the court thought most likely to provide a favorable judgment. It also prevents someone moving from one state to another to escape a judgment.
In Mills v. Duryee (1813), the United States Supreme Court ruled that the merits of a case, as settled by courts of one state, must be recognized by the courts of other states. state courts may not reopen cases which have been conclusively decided by the courts of another state. Later, Chief Justice John Marshall suggested that the judgment of one state court must be recognized by other states' courts as final. However, in McElmoyle v. Cohen (1839), the court heard a case where one party obtained a judgment in South Carolina and sought to enforce it in Georgia, which had a statute of limitations that barred actions on judgments after a certain amount of time had passed. The court upheld Georgia's refusal to enforce the South Carolina judgment. The court found that out-of-state judgments are subject to the procedural law of the states where they are enforced, notwithstanding any priority it may be given in the state in which they it was issued.
Section 2: Rights of state citizens; rights of extradition

Clause 1: Privileges and Immunities

  
Clause One of Section 2 requires interstate protection of "privileges and immunities". The apparent ambiguity of the clause has given rise to a number of different interpretations. Some contend that the clause requires Congress to treat all citizens equally. Others suggest that citizens of states carry the rights accorded by their home states while traveling in other states.

Neither of these theories has been endorsed by the Supreme Court. A state may not discriminate against citizens of other states in favor of its own citizens. But certain exceptions are allowed. For example a state may give their own citizens the right to buy a hunting or fishing license at a lower cost than to nonresidents.

Clause 2: Extradition of fugitives
Clause Two requires that fugitives from justice may be extradited on the demand of executive authority of the state from which they flee. The Supreme Court has held that it is not compulsory for the fugitive to have fled after an indictment was issued, but only that the fugitive fled after having committed the crime. The Constitution provides for the extradition of fugitives who have committed treason, felony or other crime. That phrase incorporates all acts prohibited by the laws of a state, including misdemeanors and small, or petty, offenses.

In Kentucky v. Dennison (1860), the Supreme Court held that the federal courts may not compel state governors to surrender fugitives through the issue of writs of mandamus. The Dennison decision was overruled by Puerto Rico v. Branstad (1987). Now, the federal courts may require the extradition of fugitives. Alleged fugitives generally may not challenge extradition proceedings.

Clause 3: Fugitive Slave Clause
Pierce Butler and Charles Pinckney, both from South Carolina, submitted this clause to the Constitutional Convention. James Wilson and Roger Sherman both objected and Butler withdrew the clause. However, on the next day the clause was reinstated and adopted by the Convention without objection. At the last moment the language was changed from "Person legally held to Service or Labour in one state" to read "Person held to Service or Labour in one state, under the Laws thereof". 

In 1865, the Fugitive Slave Clause was repealed by the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery.

Section 3: New states and federal property

Clause 1: New states
The First Clause of Section Three grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This latter provision was designed to gave Eastern states that still had claims to Western lands (e.g., Virginia and North Carolina) to have a veto over whether their western counties (which eventually became Kentucky and Tennessee) could become states. It would later be applied with regard to the formation of Maine (from Massachusetts) and West Virginia (from Virginia).

Clause 2: Property Clause
This clause, commonly known as the Property or Territorial Clause, grants Congress the constitutional authority for the management and control of all territories or other property owned by United States. Additionally, the clause also proclaims that nothing contained within the Constitution may be interpreted to harm (prejudice) any claim of the United States, or of any particular State. The exact scope of this clause has long been a matter of debate.
The federal government owns or controls about thirty percent of the land in the United States. These holdings include national parks, national forests, recreation areas, wildlife refuges, vast tracts of range and public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management, reservations held in trust for Native American tribes, military bases, and ordinary federal buildings and installations. Although federal property can be found in every state, the largest concentrations are in the west, where, for example, the federal government owns over eighty percent of the land within Nevada.

Section 4: Obligations of the United States

Clause 1: Republican government
This clause, sometimes referred to as the Guarantee Clause, has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens compared to those of the government. The Guarantee Clause mandates that all U.S. states must be grounded in republican principles, such as the consent of the governed.  By ensuring that all states must have the same type of government (a republic), the Guarantee Clause is one of several portions of the Constitution which mandates symmetric federalism between the states.

Clause 2: Protection from invasion and domestic violence

Section Four requires the United States to protect each state from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot, but was not invoked.

References

Further reading
Adam H. Kurland, The Guarantee Clause as a Basis for Federal Prosecutions of State and Local Officials, 62  369 (1989).
Other websites 
Kilman, Johnny and George Costello (Eds). (2000). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analyis and Interpretation. 
CRS Annotated Constitution: Article 4

United States Constitution
Norma Angélica Cruz Córdoba (Norma Cruz) is a Guatemalan human rights  activist who works to stop violence against women.  Cruz is the head of the Fundación Sobrevivientes (Survivors' Foundation), a women's rights organization in Guatemala City.  In 2009, the US Department of State gave Cruz an International Women of Courage Award.

Life 

Norma Cruz was born in Guatemala City in 1962.  Her father was a shoemaker and her mother was a cook.  As a teenager, Cruz was a student leader and a missionary.  When she was 15 years old, Cruz joined a convent.  Two years later, she left the convent, because she wanted a more political life.

Work 

Cruz started the organization Fundación Sobrevivientes on July 3, 1996.  It started as a women's support center.  Now it has a shelter for up to 20 women, teenagers, and children. In 2009, 110 people stayed at the shelter. The organization also gives legal help to women who want to take legal action in the courts.

Awards
Awards 

2009 International Women of Courage Award from U.S. Department of State

2009 Person of the Year by Prensa Libre, the leading newspaper in Guatemala

References

Other websites 

Fundación Sobrevivientes (Survivors' Foundation)

Living people
Guatemalan people
Human rights activists
Women who received the International Women of Courage Award
1962 births
Caroline Herschel (16 March 1750 – 9 January 1848) was a German astronomer who spent most of her life in England. She was the first female astronomer that we know of.

She was the first woman to receive a salary as a scientist. She was the first woman in England to hold a government position. She was the first woman to be awarded a Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1828), and to be named an Honorary Member of the Royal Astronomical Society (1835, with Mary Somerville). She was also named an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy (1838). The King of Prussia presented her with a Gold Medal for Science on the occasion of her 96th birthday (1846).

Early life and childhood
Caroline was born on March 16, 1750 in Hanover, Germany. She was encouraged by her father to get an education. She learnt geometry on her own. She had a hard life because people that she loved died. After her father's death, her brother William Herschel suggested she join him in England. She left Hanover for England on August 16, 1772, with her brother.

In England, Caroline's neighbor taught her how to cook, market, and to speak English. This expanded her horizons. William encouraged her to be independent. She signed up to learn how to sing and to play the harpsichord. This led her to being a part of William’s musical shows in small gatherings. She and William discussed astronomy in their free time. This caused her interest to grow. Caroline began including English society in her everyday life. She eventually decided to devote her time to astronomy. This helped William: he needed Caroline’s talents in copying papers.
Astronomy 
When they were in England, Caroline helped her brother in his scientific work. She helped him to discover Uranus with a six-foot telescope. William was credited with the discovery of Uranus. He was knighted because of his discovery, and she was his assistant. She recorded and completed tasks for him. Her calculations and record keeping were always accurate. They saved her brother a lot of time. Caroline often worked on discoveries of her own. She independently discovered the second companion of the Andromeda Galaxy (Messier 110; NGC 205) and another, new, nebula.  She also discovered eight comets in 17861795.

She reworked Flamsteed's  Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars. The result was published by the Royal Society in 1798 and contained an index of every observation of every star made by Flamsteed, a list of errata, and a list of more than 560 stars that had not been included. In 1825, Caroline donated the works of Flamsteed to the Royal Academy of Göttingen.
She was the first woman to discover a comet. She discovered seven more comets between 1789 and 1797. The comet 35P/Herschel-Rigollet is named in her honor, as well as the lunar crater C. Herschel, and the planetoid (281) Lucretia. She also is famous for her work with her brother. She aided him in his studies. She reorganized John Flamsteed's British Catalogue, which listed nearly 3,000 stars.

Herschel's brother died in 1822 and left her without his financial support. She returned to Hanover after his death and received her stipend from the British Royal Family. She also helped her brother's son finish his father's work.

Awards

Caroline Herschel was awarded a gold medal for her works in science from the Royal Astronomical Society in 1828. She was made an honorary member at the Royal Astronomical Society ten years later. Herschel also received a similar award from the Royal Irish Academy. She was awarded the gold medal for science by the King of Prussia on her ninety-sixth birthday.
Legacy
Toward the end of Caroline's life, she arranged two-and-a-half thousand nebulae and star clusters into zones of similar polar distances. Her nephew, John Herschel,  re-examined them systematically.  The list was eventually enlarged and renamed the New General Catalogue.  Many non-stellar objects are still identified by their NGC number.

Herschel died on January 9, 1848 in Germany. She died at the age of 97. Herschel was never married.

An asteroid was discovered in 1888. It was called Lucretia, Herschel's middle name. Herschel continued to have a legacy after her death because she discovered several comets.

References 

1750 births
1848 deaths
German astronomers
People from Hanover
Francis Wayne Sinatra (January 10, 1944 – March 16, 2016), professionally known as Frank Sinatra, Jr., was an American singer, songwriter, conductor and actor. He was born in Jersey City, New Jersey. He was the son of Frank Sinatra. He was known for his song "That Face!" and for appearing on some shows with Dean Martin. In later years, he was in some episodes of Family Guy.

He had an older sister, Nancy Sinatra and a younger sister, Tina Sinatra.

Sinatra was kidnapped, at the age of 19, on December 8, 1963 at Harrah's Lake Tahoe (room 417). Sinatra was released two days later after his father paid the $240,000 ransom demanded by the kidnappers.

Sinatra died suddenly of cardiac arrest in Daytona Beach, Florida on March 16, 2016. He was aged 72.

References

Other websites
 The Kidnapping of Frank Sinatra, jr.  FBI
1944 births
2016 deaths
Actors from New Jersey
American conductors
American singer-songwriters
American television actors
American voice actors
Deaths from cardiac arrest
Frank Sinatra
People from Jersey City, New Jersey
Singers from New Jersey
Writers from New Jersey
Marion Patrick Jones (16 August 1930 – 2 March 2016) was a Trinidadian novelist. She wrote about library science and social anthropology. She was also known by the names Marion Glean and Marion O'Callaghan (her married name). She was the author of two notable novels: Pan Beat, first published in 1973, and J’Ouvert Morning (1976). She was born in Port of Spain.

Jones died at her home in Port of Spain of heart failure on 2 March 2016 at the age of 85.

References

1930 births
2016 deaths
People from Port of Spain
Caribbean novelists
Ralph C. Johnson (1953 or 1954 – March 15, 2016) was an American politician and businessman. He was born in Greensboro, North Carolina. Johnson served as a Democratic member of the North Carolina House of Representatives from 2015 until his death in 2016. He represented the 58th district.

Johnson died in a hospital in Greensboro, North Carolina after suffering a stroke. He was aged 62.

References

1950s births
2016 deaths
African American politicians
Deaths from stroke
Politicians from North Carolina
Businesspeople from North Carolina
People from Greensboro, North Carolina
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Alexander Sergeyevich Esenin-Volpin (also written  Ésénine-Volpine and Yessenin-Volpin in his French and English publications; ; May 12, 1924 March 16, 2016) was a Soviet-born American poet and mathematician. He was a known dissident, political prisoner and a leader of the Soviet human rights movement. He spent a total of fourteen years incarcerated and repressed by the Soviet authorities in prisons, psikhushkas and exile. He worked at Boston University.

In 1973 he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto. In 2005, Esenin-Volpin participated in "They Chose Freedom", a four-part television documentary on the history of the Soviet dissident movement.

Volpin died on March 16, 2016, aged 91.

References
References

1924 births
2016 deaths
Educators from Boston
American mathematicians
American poets
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Writers from Saint Petersburg
Russian mathematicians
Russian poets
Soviet writers
Scientists from Boston
Writers from Boston
Scientists from Saint Petersburg
Moscow State University alumni
Soviet dissidents