Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Mende is a commune and prefecture of the department of Lozère, part of the Occitanie region. It is also the capital of the arrondissement of Mende.

The inhabitants of this city are known, in French, as Mendois (women: Mendoises).

Geography
Mende is located in the southern Massif Central, to the north of the Cévennes, near the Mont Lozère, the highest point of the Lozère department. The Lot river flows through the city and most of Mende is on the left side of the river.

The commune of Mende has an area of  and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

The commune of Mende is surrounded by the communes Chastel-Nouvel, Badaroux, Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile, Balsièges, Barjac and Servières.

Climate 
The climate in Mende in the Köppen climate classification is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

Population
The city of Mende had 11,542 inhabitants for a density of  persons/km2.

Evolution of the population in Mende
Administration
Mende is the prefecture of the Lozère department since 1790. It is also the capital of the Mende arrondissement and of two cantons:
 Mende-1, formed with a part of Mende (5,513 inhabitants) (2014)
 Mende-2, formed with a part of Mende (6,029  inhabitants) (2014)

It is part of the intercommunality Cœur de Lozère ().

Twinned and partner towns
Mende is twinned with:
  Wunsiedel, Germany, since 1980
  Volterra, Italy, since 1993
  Vila Real, Portugal, since 2003

Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissement of Mende
 Communes of the Lozère department

References

Other websites

 City council website 
 Mende Tourist Office

Communes in Lozère
Departmental capitals in France
The following is a list of the 363 communes of the Maine-et-Loire département in France.

(CAA) Communauté d'agglomération d'Angers, created in 2001.
(CAC) Communauté d'agglomération du Choletais, created in 2001.
(CAS) Communauté d'agglomération Saumur Loire Développement, created in 2001.

Maine-et-Loire
The following is a list of the 185 communes of the Lozère département, in France.

Lozere
The following is a list of the 319 communes of the Lot-et-Garonne département, in France.

 (CAA) Communauté d'agglomération (unitary authority) of Agen, created in 2000.

Lot-et-Garonne
The following is a list of the 340 communes of the Lot département, in France.

Lot
(AgglO) Communauté d'agglomération Orléans Val de Loire, created in 2002
 (AME)   Agglomération Montargoise et Rives du Loing, created December 14, 2001
 (CC4V)  Communauté de communes des Quatre Vallées (seat in Ferrières-en-Gâtinais), created in 2002
 (CCB)   Communauté de communes du Beaunois, created in 2002
 (CCBG)  Communauté de communes de Beauce et du Gâtinais
 (CCCB)  Communauté de communes du canton de Briare, created in 2002
 (CCCCL) Communauté de communes du canton de Châtillon-sur-Loire, created in 2002
 (CCCL)  Communauté de communes du canton de Lorris, created in 2002
 (CCCOL) Communauté de communes du canton d'Ouzouer-sur-Loire, created in 2002
 (CCF)   Communauté de communes de la Forêt (seat in Loury), created in 2002
 (CCG)   Communauté de communes du Giennois (seat in Gien), created in 2002
 (CCL)   Communauté de communes des Loges (seat in Jargeau), created in 2002
 (CCQR)  Communauté de communes des Quatre Rivières (seat in Châtillon-Coligny), created in 2002
Diffraction is a physics concept which occurs when waves bend around small obstacles, or spread out after they pass through small openings. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as light that the eye can see. Diffraction also occurs with as electrons.

Causes of diffraction

Diffraction is caused by one wave of light being shifted by a diffracting object. This shift will cause the wave to have interference with itself.  Interference can be either constructive or destructive.  When interference is constructive, the intensity of the wave will increase.  When interference is destructive, the intensity will decrease, sometimes to a point where it is completely destroyed.  These patterns of interference rely on the size of the diffracting object and the size of the wave.  The strongest examples of diffraction occur in waves where the wavelength is similar to the size of the object causing diffraction.
Uses of diffraction
Diffraction can be used to separate different wavelengths of light using a diffraction grating.  A diffraction grating can be a series of closely-spaced slits or a mirror with a series of small grooves.  Diffraction gratings work because different wavelengths of light will constructively interfere at different angles.  Diffraction gratings are used in many analytical chemistry tools, such as a spectrometer.

Diffraction can also be used to look at molecules using X-ray crystallography.  In X-ray crystallography, X-rays are aimed on a crystal. The crystal diffracts the X-ray and makes a diffraction pattern.  This pattern is unique to the type of crystal and can be used to identify the molecule that makes the crystal. Diffraction also occurs in a bending movement where the wave becomes more spread out

References
Skoog, D.A.; Holler, F.J.; Crouch, S.R.  Principles of Instrumental Analysis. (Brooks/Cole, California). 
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Young_Diffraction.png
Wave physics
Shanghai Knights is an 2003 martial arts action-comedy movie that was produced by Jackie Chan, Gary Barber and Roger Birnbaum and was directed by David Dobkin. It is a sequel to Shanghai Noon. Shanghai Knights was released on February 7, 2003 in North America. The movie received positive reviews with a 66% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 58 out of 100 from Metacritic. prequel Shanghai Dawn.

Cast 
 Jackie Chan as Chon Wang
 Owen Wilson as Roy O'Bannon
 Fann Wong as Chon Lin
 Thomas Fisher as Inspector Artie Doyle/Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
 Aidan Gillen as Lord Nelson Rathbone
 Donnie Yen as Wu Chow
 Aaron Johnson as Charlie Chaplin
 Oliver Cotton as Jack the Ripper
 Kim Chan as Chon Wang's Father
 Gemma Jones as Queen Victoria
 Brad Allan as Thug (uncredited)

Stunts 
 Tom Wu
 Nicky Li
 He Jun
 Wu Gang
 Park Hyun Jin
 Lee In Seob
 Han Guan Hua

Release Dates

Other websites 
Shanghai Knights Official website 
 
 

2003 movies
American action movies
American comedy movies
Wyre is a local government district in Lancashire, England. It is a borough, based in the town of Poulton-le-Fylde. Wyre is named after the River Wyre, which runs through the district.

Wyre was formed in 1974.

Town and parish councils in Wyre

Urban areas
Fleetwood
Poulton-le-Fylde
Thornton Cleveleys

Parish councils
Barnacre with Bonds
Bleasdale
Cabus
Catterall
Claughton on Brock
Forton
Garstang
Great Eccleston
Hambleton
Inskip-with-Sowerby
Kirkland, Lancashire
Myerscough and Bilsborrow
Nateby
Nether Wyresdale
Out Rawcliffe
Pilling
Preesall (Town Council) 
Stalmine-with-Staynall
Upper Rawcliffe with Tarnacre
Winmarleigh

References

Other websites
Wyre Borough Council 

 
District and borough councils in Lancashire
1974 establishments in England
The River Wyre is a river in Lancashire, England. It flows into the Irish Sea at the town of Fleetwood. It is about  long. The river is a County Biological Heritage Site.

Lancashire
Wyre
Wyre
Michael Konsel (born 6 March 1962) is a retired Austrian football player who played as goalkeeper in Austria and Italy.

Career
He started as defender for Fortuna 05 when he was six but at the age of nine he became goalkeeper, a position he played for the rest of his career. At the age of 16 he came to  FC Kritzendorf where he became goalkeeper of the first team. His first professional team was First Vienna FC, then he want to SK Rapid Wien. For Rapid he played 395 matches in the league, 47 Cupmatches and 42 international matches (2 times the final of the UEFA Cupwinner Cup)

After his successful time with Rapid he went to AS Roma in Italys Seria A. The last year of his career he spent with SSC Venice.
International
Michael Konsel played 43 matches in Austrias national team. He was member of Austrias team for the FIFA World Cup in 1990 and 1998. 1990 in Italy he was second goalkeeper but 1998 he was number 1 and played 3 matches. Although he played his first match 1985 he became number 1 in the team not until 10 years later. His last match was a friendly versus Worldchampion France in Viennas Ernst-Happel-stadium.

Honours
Austrian Bundesliga (3):
 1987, 1988, 1996
Austrian Cup (3):
 1985, 1987, 1995
Austria
Goalkeeper of the year: 1987/88, 1994/95, 1995/96, 1996/97
Footballer of the year:
Krone-Fußballerwahl:1987,1995
APA-Fußballerwahl:1995
VdF-Honourary price:1998
Italy 
Best Goalkeeper Serie A : 1997/98
FIFA World Cup:
Member of the Austrian team 1990 and 1998

Other websites 
 Official homepage
 players profile Michael Konsel 

1962 births
Austrian footballers
Players of the Austrian national football team
Living people
Austrian football goalkeepers
Austrian football champions
The list contains European stadiums with a capacity of at least 25,000. Almost all of these stadiums were built mainly for association football. Most of the rest were built for athletics, the rugby codes, or (in Ireland) Gaelic games.

Current Stadiums

Capacity of 25,000 or more
Notes:

(d) indicates retractable seating deployed, 
(nd) indicates retractable seating not deployed
(m) indicates movable seating deployed
(t) indicates capacity with temporary seats to be removed

An asterisk - * - indicates that a team does not play all of its home matches at that venue.

The "Category" column indicates whether the stadium has been designated by UEFA as capable of hosting Champions League or Europa League matches.

Other UEFA Category 4 Stadiums

Under construction
The following is a list of European stadiums which are currently under construction and will have a capacity of 25,000 or more.

References 

stadiums by capacity
Locus may refer to:

Locus (mathematics), one of a set of points which satisfies one or more conditions
An allele's position on a chromosome
Locus Award

Related pages
Locust
Chaumont is a commune of France, and the capital (or prefecture) of the Haute-Marne department in the Grand Est region.

Geography
The city of Chaumont is on the Langres plateau on the geographical centre of the Haute-Marne department in northeast France. It is along the Marne (river) river.

It has an area of . Its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

The commune of Chaumont is surrounded by the communes Condes, Treix, Chamarandes-Choignes, Laville-aux-Bois, Biesles, Verbiesles, Neuilly-sur-Suize, Richebourg, Semoutiers-Montsaon, Villiers-le-Sec and Jonchery.

Two rivers flow through the city: the Suize to the west and the Marne to the east.

Climate
The climate of Chaumont, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

Population
The inhabitants of Chaumont are known, in French, as Chaumontais (women: Chaumontaises).

The city of Chaumont has a population, in 2014, of 22,674; its population density is of  inhabitants/km2.
Evolution of the population in Chaumont

Chaumont forms with Chamarandes-Choignes the urban area of Chaumont with a population of 23,716 inhabitants (2014) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Chaumont, formed by 65 communes, with a population of 42,594 inhabitants (2014) and an area of .

Administration 
Chaumont is the prefecture of the Haute-Marne department, the capital of the arrondissement of Chaumont and the administrative centre () of three cantons:
 Chaumont-1 formed by 6 communes and part of Chaumont, with 10,816 inhabitants (2014).
 Chaumont-2 formed by 4 communes and part of Chaumont, with 8,534 inhabitants (2014).
 Chaumont-3 formed by 5 communes and part of Chaumont, with 10,609 inhabitants (2014).

It is part of the intercommunality Chaumont, du Bassin Nogentais et du Bassin de Bologne Vignory Froncles ().
Twinned and partner towns 
Chaumont is twinned with:
  Ashton-under-Lyne, England, since 1956.
  Ivrée, Italy, since 1983.
  Bad Nauheim, Germany, since 1992.
  Oostkamp, Belgium, since 2004.

Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissement of Chaumont
 Communes of the Haute-Marne department

References

Other websites

 Site officiel de la ville de Chaumont 
 Office de Tourisme du Pays de Chaumont en Champagne
Saint-Lô is a commune. It is in the Manche department in west France.

Sister cities
Saint-Lô is twinned with:
 Saint-Ghislain, Belgium, since 1961
 Aalen, Germany, since 1979
 Christchurch, UK, since 1985
 Kervénanec, Lorient, France, since 1988
 Roanoke, Virginia, US, since 1999

Communes in Manche
Departmental capitals in France
The following is a list of the 433 communes of the Haute-Marne département, in France.

Haute-Marne
The following is a list of the 594 communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department, in France.

(CUN) Communauté urbaine du Grand Nancy, created in 1995.

Meurthe-et-Moselle
Vannes is a commune. It is the prefecture of Morbihan in Brittany.

Education 
 Institut catholique d'arts et métiers

Sister cities
Vannes is twinned with:

  Mons, Belgium (since 1952)
  Cuxhaven, Germany (since 1963)
  Fareham, United Kingdom (since 1967)

Vannes also has partnerships (‘partenariats’) with:
  Barouéli, Mali, since 2003
  Wałbrzych, Poland, since 2001
Bar-le-Duc is a commune. It is found in the Meuse department in the east of France.

Sister cities
Bar-le-Duc is twinned with:
 Tambov, Russia
 Griesheim, Germany, since 1975
 Wilkau-Haßlau, Germany, since 1990
 Gyönk, Hungary, since 1995

Communes in Meuse
Departmental capitals in France
The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is a 17th-century building in Kilmainham, Dublin, Ireland. It was built to be a home for retired soldiers. It was used as a home for over 250 years. 

The hospital was built between 1680 and 1684 by architect Sir William Robinson. He was the official State Surveyor General for James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to King Charles II. 
The style is based on Les Invalides in Paris. The Royal Hospital Chelsea in Chelsea, London was completed two years later and looks alike in style. 

The Tudor Gothic gateway at the end of the road leading to the Royal Hospital was designed by Francis Johnston. He was one of the leading architects of the day. This gateway originally stood beside the River Liffey at Bloody Bridge (now Rory O'More Bridge). It was moved after the arrival of the railway in 1844.
When the Irish Free State was formed, they thought about using the building for the Oireachtas Éireann, the new Irish national parliament. This did not happen. After the soldiers were all gone, the buildings were used for different things like offices for the Garda Síochána (the Irish police force) and as storage for the National Museum of Ireland. 

The Government of Ireland restored the buildings in different stages from 1957, and opened in 1985 as the National Centre for Culture and the Arts. In 1991 the Irish Museum of Modern Art was opened here.

Every year on the National Day of Commemoration the President of Ireland lays a wreath in the courtyard in memory of all Irishmen and Irishwomen who have died in past wars and on service with the United Nations.

Related pages
 Kilmainham Gaol

References

Other websites
 Royal Hospital Kilmainham website
 Virtual Tours of Royal Hospital Kilmainham North Range, Courtyard and Formal Gardens
Buildings and structures in Dublin
1684 establishments
Medical and health organizations in the Republic of Ireland
17th-century buildings and structures
The following is a list of the 261 communes of the Morbihan département, in France.

(CAL) Communauté d'agglomération of Pays de Lorient, created in 2000.
(CAV) Communauté d'agglomération of Pays de Vannes, created in 2001.
(CAB) Communauté d'agglomération of Côte du Pays Blanc, created in 2003, the largest part of which is located in the Loire-Atlantique département.

Morbihan
The following is a list of the 500 communes of the Meuse département, in France.

Meuse
Kilmainham (In Irish: Cill Mhaighneann, "St Maighnenn's church") is an area of Dublin. It lies south of the River Liffey and west of the city centre in the Dublin 8 postal district.

History
In the Viking era, there was a monastery here. The monastery was home to the first Norse base (longphort) in Ireland.

In the 12th century the lands on the banks of the Liffey belonged to the Knights Templars. Strongbow built a castle for them, about a mile away from the Danish wall of old Dublin. Here the Templars lived for nearly a century and a half. In 1308, Edward II ruled that they were no longer allowed to practice their religion. Thirty members of the Templars were imprisoned in Dublin. Their lands and rights were given to the priory of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. They were there until the monasteries were closed in the 16th century.
The Manor of Kilmainham was a liberty. This means it had special rights. "The manor" was an area that included parts of James's Street and side-streets and went as far as Lucan and Chapelizod. 

Until the time of Queen Elizabeth, the lord lieutenants used the manor of Kilmainham. In 1559, the earl of Sussex, found that the building at Kilmainham was damaged by a storm. The following year Elizabeth ordered that Dublin Castle be improved so the lord lieutenant could live there. From that time, Kilmainham was no longer used much.

Things to see 
The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is in Kilmainham. It was built on the site where the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem had their priory in Dublin. It is now the Irish Museum of Modern Art. Nearby is also Kilmainham Gaol, where the executions of the leaders of the Easter Rising took place. 

Kilmainham also has one of a small number of Viking era burial sites (Old Norse haugr meaning barrow or mound), within Dublin.

References 

Dublin
Balancing selection refers to selective processes by which different alleles (different versions of a gene) are kept in the gene pool of a population at frequencies above that of gene mutation.

This usually happens when the heterozygote for a gene has a higher relative fitness than the homozygote. In this way genetic polymorphism is conserved.
 
Evidence for balancing selection can be found in the number of alleles in a population which are maintained above mutation rate frequencies. All modern research has shown that this significant genetic variation is common in panmictic populations. It is the field experience of Darwin, Wallace and others, that natural populations in the wild are extraordinarily varied. Museum collections of single species tell the same story.

There are several ways balancing selection works to maintain polymorphism. The two major and most studied are heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection.

Mechanisms of balancing selection

Heterozygote advantage
In heterozygote advantage, or heterotic balancing selection, an individual who is heterozygous at a particular gene locus has a greater fitness than a homozygous individual. Polymorphisms maintained by this mechanism are balanced polymorphisms.
 
A well-studied case is that of sickle cell anemia in humans, a hereditary disease that damages red blood cells. Sickle cell anemia is caused by the inheritance of a variant hemoglobin gene (HgbS) from both parents. In these individuals, hemoglobin in red blood cells is extremely sensitive to oxygen deprivation, and this causes shorter life expectancy.
 
A person who inherits the sickle cell gene from one parent, and a normal hemoglobin gene (HgbA) from the other, has a normal life expectancy. The heterozygote is resistant to the malarial parasite which kills a large number of people each year. The heterozygote frequency is kept high because of the fierce selection against both the homozygotes.
The heterozygote has a permanent advantage (a higher fitness) wherever malaria exists.

Frequency-dependent selection 
Frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency.

In positive frequency-dependent selection the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes more common. In negative frequency-dependent selection the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes less common. For example, in prey switching, rare morphs of prey are fitter because predators concentrate on more frequent morphs.

Fitness varies in time and space 
The fitness of a genotype may vary greatly between larval and adult stages, or between parts of a habitat range.

Selection acts at different levels 
The fitness of a genotype may depend on the fitness of other genotypes in the population: this covers many natural situations where the best thing to do (from the point of view of survival and reproduction) depends on what other members of the population are doing at the time.

References
References 

Classical genetics
Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield PC KG (22 September 1694 – 24 March 1773) was a British statesman and intellectual.

Stanhope was born in London. He got his schooling at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. After that, he went on the Grand Tour of the continent. He became gentleman of the bedchamber to the Prince of Wales.

Career in government
In 1715, he entered the House of Commons as Lord Stanhope of Shelford and member for St Germans. He left for Paris and sent the government valuable information about the Jacobite plot. In 1716, he returned to Britain and sat in the House of Commons. He liked to take part in the debates.
He took his seat in the House of Lords. In 1728, he was sent to the Hague as ambassador. He did a good job, and got the Order of the Garter in 1730, and the position of Lord Steward. After he did not support Walpole's Excise Bill, he was dismissed from his stewardship. He spent years opposing the ruling party in the House of Lords. First against Robert Walpole and then against King George II of England. In 1744, the "Broad Bottom" party, led by Chesterfield and Pitt, came into office. They ruled together with the Pelhams. 

He was then sent to the Hague as ambassador a second time. The object of his mission was to persuade the Dutch to join in the War of the Austrian Succession. His mission was successful. When he got back to London, he was made Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland. This was a position he wanted for a long time.

He took the his role seriously. He established schools and manufacturing in Ireland. In politics, he found a way to work with both Protestant and Roman Catholic parties.
He also still took his seat in the Upper House. In 1751, he helped in making the Gregorian calendar a fact. That Act of Parliament is sometimes known as Chesterfield's Act. After he slowly became deaf, he had to stop his work in the parliament. 

He lived for some years at the Ranger's House, Chesterfield Walk, Greenwich, London.

How he is remembered
In politics, he is best known for the time he was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. As a writer, he is best known for his Letters to his Son. Those letters were not really written to be read by the general public. His widow Eugenia Stanhope first published them in 1774. Letters to his Godson was published in 1890. Both sets of letters are written with great style and knowledge. 

Chesterfield County, Virginia and Chesterfield County, South Carolina in the United States were named in his honour. He also plays a role in the 1757-1758 novel The Virginians by William Makepeace Thackery.

Things he has probably said:
"An able man shows his spirit by gentle words and resolute actions."

"I recommend you to take care of the minutes, for the hours will take care of themselves."

Other websites

Scans of Stanhope's Letters to his son, 1774–1775 edition, Vol. 1, Vol. 2
Guide to the Chesterfield Manuscripts at the Lilly Library, Indiana University

References

Knights of the Garter
1694 births
1773 deaths
Members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Members of the House of Lords
Lord-lieutenants
The Grand Tour was the name of travel through Europe by rich European (mostly British) young men between 1660 until about 1840. It was done to learn about European society and art. The idea was that what they learned on their travels could be used to help those that stayed at home. Italy was often the final country to visit. They would mostly travel with servants and a teacher called a bear-leader.

Example Grand Tour
Which places the Grand Tour would visit  changed through the years. An example would be a British tourist would go from  Dover, England and crossed the English Channel to Ostend, in the Spanish Netherlands/Belgium, or Calais, or Le Havre in France.

There they could rent or buy a carriage and travel to Paris. Or they could make the trip by boat, traveling up the Seine to Paris, or up the Rhine to Basel.

In Paris, the traveler could take lessons in French, dancing, fencing, and horse riding. Paris was popular because of the language and fashion of French high society.
From Paris he would go to Switzerland for a while, often to Geneva. From there the traveler would make a difficult crossing over the Alps into northern Italy.

Once in Italy the tourist would visit Turin, then might spend a few months in Florence. Other Grand Tourists would be in Florence to welcome him. A trip to Pisa then on to Padua, Bologna, and Venice.

Venice was seen as the most important place for Italian architecture, and was very important place to visit.

From Venice the traveler went to Rome to study the ruins of ancient Rome. Some travelers also visited Naples to study music. Naples was often the final destination before turning back.

From here the traveler went north through the Alps to the German-speaking parts of Europe. From there travelers visited Holland and Flanders before returning across the Channel to England.

References
References

Other websites
 The Grand Tour 
 Grand Tour online at the Getty Museum
 In Our Time: The Grand Tour: Jeremy Black, Edward Chaney and Chloe Chard. 
  "Grand Tour" an exhibition project of the Swedish artist Matts Leiderstam 
  Voyagers and Voyeurs - Travellers in 19th century France, an anthology
  Contemporary Grand Tour in Italy, Pictures and quotes
 Digging and Dealing in Eighteenth Century Rome

Tourism
Travel
Alnico is an alloy made up of iron with aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co). The name "Alnico" is an acronym from Al-Ni-Co. Alnico may also contain copper and sometimes titanium.

Alnico alloys are ferromagnetic (a mechanism by which some materials form permanent magnets). Alnico alloys also have a high coercivity (they do not easily lose their magnetism) and are used to make permanent magnets. Before rare-earth magnets were developed in the 1970s, lnico magnets were the strongest type of magnet. The development of Alnico began in 1931 when T. Mishima in Japan found that an alloy of iron, nickel, and  aluminium had double the coercivity of the best magnets of that time. (the coercivity of Alnico is 400 oersted).
Properties 
Alnico alloys can be made magnets by strong magnetic fields. Rare-earth magnets like neodymium and samarium-cobalt are the only easily found magnets which are stronger than alnico magnets. Alnico magnets produce very strong magnetic fields at their poles (a pole is one of the two ends of a magnet) as high as 1500 gauss (0.15 tesla which is about 3000 times stronger than earth's magnetic field.

Some types of alnico magnets are isotropic (properties are same in all directions) and can be properly magnetised in all directions. Other types like alnico 5 and alnico 8 are anisotropic (properties change when direction changes) have a preferred direction (one direction would be better than other directions) for magnetisation. Anisotropic alnico alloys will make stronger magnets in their preferred direction than an isotropic alnico alloy.

Alnico magnets are the only magnets that have useful magnetism even when heated red-hot. 

In 2008, the cost of Alnico magnets was about $44/kg ($20/pound).
References 

Alloys
Iron
The hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus) is a common bird that is found in North America. The size of one is 15 to 17 cm. It has a brown head. It is closely related to the Mexican Russet nightingale-thrush. They are mainly brown and have a reddish tail. Underneath they are white with some dark spots. They have pink legs. The hermit thrush is the state bird of Vermont.

Other websites 
 Hermit Thrush on the IUCN red list

Birds of North America
Thrushes
The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (plural: Lords Lieutenant) is the name of a political office (job). It was the representative of the King and head of the Irish executive (government) between 1171 and 1922. The term is always pronounced as 'Lord Lef-tenant of Ireland'.

Other words used for this office were Judiciar in the early medieval period, and Lord Deputy as late as the 17th century. The people in this job were often also called viceroy, from the French vice roi or deputy king.

In the Middle Ages some Lord Lieutenants had been Irish noblemen. After that only noblemen from Great Britain worked in this job.

Role
The King's representative had a number of different roles. He was
 the representative of the King (the "viceroy");
 the head of the government in Ireland;
 a member of the English or British Cabinet;
 sometimes also commander-in-chief of the army in Ireland.
 Grand Master of the Order of St. Patrick
The structure of the government
The Lord Lieutenant was helped to govern by the Irish Privy Council. This was a group of people chosen to be on the Council. Some inherited their seat. They usually met in the Council Chamber in Dublin Castle.

The main politicians were:
 Chief Secretary for Ireland  From 1660, originally the chief administrator. By the end of the 19th century the Chief Secretary worked like a prime minister, with the Lord Lieutenant in the role of the King.
 Under-Secretary for Ireland  The head of the civil service in Ireland.
 Lord Justices  Three people who acted in for the Lord Lieutenant's when he was away. Before 1800 they were: Lord Chancellor of Ireland, the Speaker of the Irish House of Commons, and the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh as Primate of All Ireland.

Lords Lieutenant stayed in power until the British Government/the King wanted them to leave.
Importance of the post
Two Lords Lieutenant, Lord Hartington and the Duke of Portland, went from Dublin Castle to 10 Downing Street as Prime Minister of Great Britain, in 1756 and 1783 respectively. At other times, the post was used to move politicians that were no longer wanted in London out of the way.

By the mid-to-late 19th century the post was no longer very important. The Chief Secretary for Ireland had become more important in ruling the country than the Lord Lieutenant.

Housing

The official house of the Lord Lieutenant was the Viceregal Apartments in Dublin Castle. This was also where the Viceregal Court was based. When the Lord Lieutenant had to live in Ireland full time, this had to change. In 1781 the British government bought the former ranger's house in Phoenix Park. It was named the Viceregal Lodge. It is now known as Áras an Uachtaráin. It is the residence of the President of Ireland.
The Lords Lieutenant then only lived in the Castle during the Social Season (early January to St. Patrick's Day, 17 March).

Irish attitudes
The office of Lord Lieutenant, like the British government in Ireland, was generally unpopular.

From the early 19th century, calls were made frequently to get rid of the office. However, the office survived right down until the end of British rule in most of Ireland.

More reading
 Joseph Robins, Champagne and Silver Buckles: The Viceregal Court and Dublin Castle 1700–1922 (Lillyput Press, 2001) 

Irish politicians
Lord-lieutenants
The Dublin Zoo (), in Phoenix Park, Dublin, Ireland is the largest zoo in Ireland. It is one of Dublin's most popular attractions. It was opened in 1831. 

It is over  in size. It has a number of special areas like:
 The Kaziranga Forest Trail. This is an Asian rainforest with elephants.
 African Savanna. This area has animals like giraffes and zebras.
 Family farm. In this area people can see goats and sheep and other farm animals.
 South American House. Animals like the saki monkey, the two-toed sloth and iguana live here.

It was founded on 10 May 1830 and opened to the public on 1 September 1831. This makes it the third oldest zoo in the world. The animals, 46 mammals and 72 birds,< were a present from London Zoo.> It now has over 600 animals from all over the world.

In 2010, Dublin Zoo received 963,053 visitors.

References

Other websites 

Zoos
Dublin
Organizations based in the Republic of Ireland
A how-to or a how to is an informal, often short, description of how to do a specific physical task, think to solve a specific problem, or think about a topic. There are many forms of these, such as video-game walkthroughs, parkour how-to guides, and others.

Characteristics 
How-to guides "guide" you through a topic. They include videos, descriptions, and other resources to help the reader understand what the guide is trying to teach. Usually, the guide contains helpful third-party resources. An example of this is wikiHow. However, the topic taught needs to be in layman's terms, or a simple general guide, similar to this project. To meet the requirements for a how to, the creator has to understand the topic better than the reader. For example, if a person is reading a guide on particle physics, the author of the guide does not need to be a astronaut with a Phd in physics, but the author also cannot be a person who just found out about the subject. This is explained better in Mentorship.
Guidance 
Some guides are for the field, like the Golden Guides, and others made to help others understand a topic, like a guide on Nuclear Science. The reader cannot observe the reactions but can understand how they happen. How to guides are mostly populated by field guides, like "How to fire a gun properly." and "How to be a helpful Wikipedia contributor". Guides can't start without the "how to" prefix, in the process confusing potential readers and making the title seem like a statement rather than a question-statement hybrid. "Fire a gun properly" sounds like a statement, so people will click away from the guide without actually understanding how, just planning to do what the title said.

Topics 
A topic needs to be teachable. A subject cannot be "How to watch a show" because the solution can be easily found. A topic needs to be teachable to a new person who wants to learn more about the subject, and retain its hard-earned difficulty.
Problem solving
Wild type is a term in genetics for the most common type in a natural population. It is applied to alleles of a gene, or the genotypes or phenotypes of a species.

The term is used in genetics to contrast normal alleles with mutant alleles.

With Drosophila melanogaster, wild type usually means the standard version of the famous laboratory population used in the T.H. Morgan laboratory, and since used around the world. This was, of course, only a small sample of the natural populations.

Actually, we propbably know more about Drosophila pseudoobscura in the wild than Drosophila melanogaster, because of a huge series of studies done by Theodosius Dobzhansky and his colleagues after World War II.

References 

Classical genetics
Cmune is a software development company. It is the maker of UberStrike, a popular web-based video game. Cmune was started in 2007 by Shaun Lelacheur Sales and Ludovic Bodin.

UberStrike was originally developed under the name Paradise Paintball. It is a free, multiplayer first-person shooter browser game. There are over 10 million registered players. As of November 2012, it was still the largest FPS inside Facebook.

2007 establishments in Asia
Video game companies of China
Tábor is a city in the Czech Republic. It is in the South Bohemian Region. At the 2007 census, 35,859 people lived there. The city was started in 1420. The current mayor is Hana Randová. The city is named after Mount Tabor.

Other websites 

Tábor's Official website

Cities in the Czech Republic
1420 establishments
1420s establishments in Europe
South Bohemian Region
Yamaguchi is a city in southern Japan. It is the capital of Yamaguchi Prefecture. The city had a population of 198,971 people in 2010. Yamaguchi was made when 40 towns were merged on April 1, 1889.

Other websites 
 Yamaguchi's Official city website (Japanese)

Cities in Yamaguchi Prefecture
Random mating is a term in population genetics. It describes an ideal situation in which  all individuals on one sex are equally potential partners of all members of the opposite sex. The technical term for it is panmixia. 

Random mating is one of the requirements for the Hardy–Weinberg law to hold. This is the foundation equation of population genetics.

There are a number of types of non-random mating, such as mate choice (selection by females from a small group of males), mating type (in microorganisms like Paramecium), selfing in some flowering plants, and in general, inbreeding. Mechanical or geographical differences within a species will often prevent a whole species being panmictic.

The opposite of random mating is assortative mating.

References 

Classical genetics
The Ernst-Happel-Stadion is a football stadium in Vienna, Austria. The Ernst Happel Stadium is the largest football stadium in Austria. It is the home of the Austrian national football team. Club football matches are limited to the Austrian cup final and international competitions with one of Vienna's top clubs, FK Austria Wien and SK Rapid Wien, as their homegrounds are too small for UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup matches. Local derbies between FK Austria and SK Rapid have also been played in the stadium. In 2014, it became the official homeground of SK Rapid Wien because their stadium was being rebuilt.

History
The stadium was built between 1929 and 1931. It was used and opend for the second Workers' Olympiad 1931. The capacity of the stadium was approximately 60,000 people. The first match in the new stadium was a match between a selection from workers sportclubs from Lower Austria and Vienna. (2:3).
During the occupation of Austria by Nazi Germany it was used as barracks and also as collecting point for Viennese Jews. In 2003 a private plaque was created in the VIP area to remind on this incidents. In 1944 the stadium was bombed and heavily demaged.

After the Second World war  the stadium was reconstructed. 1956 the capacity was extended to 92,708 people.The record was 91,000 visitors on October 30, 1960 at the football match between Spain and Austria (3-0). After the death of former Austrian top player and coach Ernst Happel, the Prater Stadium was renamed after him in 1992.

UEFA Euro 2008

The Ernst-Happel-Stadion hosted 7 games of Euro 2008: 3 group games of the Austrian team, two quarter-finals, one semi-final and the final.
Other  matches
    1995 UEFA Champions League final: Ajax 1 – 0 Milan
    1994 UEFA Cup final: Internazionale 1– 0 Austria Salzburg
    1990 European Cup final: Milan 1 – 0 Benfica
    1987 European Cup final: Porto 2 – 1 Bayern Munich
    1970 European Cup Winners Cup final: Manchester City 2 – 1 Górnik Zabrze
    1964 European Cup final: Internazionale 3 – 1 Real Madrid

Concerts
The stadium has hosted concerts by many famous artists, including AC/DC, Bon Jovi, David Bowie, Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band, Guns N' Roses, Michael Jackson, Pink Floyd, Robert Plant, Rihanna, The Rolling Stones, U2, Kanye West and Robbie Williams, among others.

Football stadiums in Austria
Buildings and structures in Vienna
1931 establishments in Europe
20th-century establishments in Austria
A hollow-cathode lamp (HCL) is type of cold cathode lamp used in physics and chemistry as a spectral line source (for example, in atomic absorption spectrometers) and as a frequency tuner for light sources such as lasers. An HCL takes advantage of the hollow cathode effect, which causes conduction at a lower voltage and with more current than a cold cathode lamp that does not have a hollow cathode.

The HCL is a light source or radiation source which is used to excite electrons of a metal of interest to a higher energy level. Excitation is when an electron in its lowest energy state, also known as the ground state, undergoes a transition to a higher energy state known as an excited state. These transitions can occur through heat, electrical energy, light, particles, or a chemical reaction.

Instrument Design
Instrument Design

A HCL consists of an anode and a cathode inside of a glass tube. The glass tube is filled with some type of inert gas such as argon or neon with a pressure of around 5 torr (666 Pascal). It is important that the gas is inert in order to minimize interferences in the output of the data. The anode is an electrode in which loss of electrons by ionization takes place.  The anode is typically constructed of an inert conducting metal to ionize the inert gas. 

The cathode is made of the pure metal of interest or a mixture of metals containing the metal of interest.   It is important that the cathode be stored under a vacuum to avoid any kind of contamination. Contamination of the cathode compromises the purity of the metal of interest and the data obtained for that metal. The material of the window is specifically selected in order to get the best transmission of spectral lines for the cathode element.

Excitation Process
Excitation Process

The excitation process of the element of interest happens in a few steps. First, the inert gas inside the glass tube is ionized by a voltage. Ionization is how neutral atoms are converted to charged species. This voltage is applied across the anode and the cathode and generates a current of 5-15 mA.  This current allows for electrons to move to the anode and cathode.
If the voltage applied is large enough, the ions of the inert gas gather enough energy to remove some of the metal atoms of interest from the surface of the cathode by striking the surface. The removal of these atoms produces a cloud around the cathode. The process of producing this cloud is called sputtering. Some of these metal atoms in the cloud have moved to an excited energy state and as they return to their ground state, they emit a specific radiation which is characteristic to the metal of interest. The release of this radiation allows for data to be collected and information gathered pertaining to the metal of interest.  After a period of time, the atoms move to the glass walls of the lamp or back to the surface of the cathode.

Operation Conditions
How well the HCL works and how long it lasts is dependent on the care of operation. When a high voltage is applied, higher currents arise. These higher currents allow for more intense data output but at the same time can produce a number of unexcited atoms in the cloud. These unexcited atoms can interfere with good output data because they are able to absorb the radiation that is emitted from the excited electrons returning to their ground state. This process is called self adsorption. The process of self adsorption results in weaker intensities. Increasing the current too much can also result in a shorter lifetime of the lamp, as well as melting the metal on the cathode thus ruining the lamp.

References

Lamps
Ernest Dale Tubb (February 9, 1914 – September 6, 1984) was an American country music singer and songwriter. Tubb was nicknamed The Texas Troubadour. He is probably best known for his hit song "Walking the Floor Over You" in 1941. He joined the Grand Ole Opry as a member in 1943. He was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1965.

Other websites 
Ernest Tubb at the Country Music Hall of Fame 

1914 births
1984 deaths
Singers from Texas
American guitarists
Musicians from Texas
Country musicians
Grammy Award winners
An incoming photon will strike the photocathode surface of the PMT which will emit electrons. These electrons are then accelerated toward additional electrodes by a potential difference of about 90 volts. Upon striking this electrode, more electrons are emitted. This process repeats nine times, each time generating more and more electrons. This process can generate 106 to 107 electrons for each individual photon. These electrons are then collected at the anode where the current and voltage is then measured. 
	
Photomultiplier tubes are highly sensitive and have very quick response times. The sensitivity of the PMT can be improved by cooling it, to reduce temperature induced noise. Photomultiplier tubes must not be exposed to intense light, such as the sun or ambient light because the intensity can damage the components. 
	
Photomultiplier tubes are commonly used for analysis techniques as well as medical and research purposes.

References

Light
The 2011–12 season is Juventus Football Club's 114th in Serie A. Juventus starts the season with a new Manager, Antonio Conte.

On June 15, Former Juventus director manager Luciano Moggi has been banned for life from all Italian football.

On July 8, Juventus start pre-season training in Turin.

On October, President Andrea Agnelli said that Alessandro Del Piero will leave Juventus at the end of the season.

Transfers

Pre-season

Squad

Serie A

References

2011 in association football
2011 in Europe
2012 in association football
2012 in Europe
2010s in Italian sport
Football seasons
Juventus F.C.
History of Turin
GC-MS is the best way for forensic experts to identify substances because it is a specific test. A specific test positively identifies the actual presence of a particular substance in a given sample. A non-specific test only says that categories of substances are in the sample. Although a non-specific test could statistically suggest the identity of the substance, this could lead to false positive identification.
History
The first research papers on gas-liquid chromatography were published in 1950. Chemists used different detectors to see that compounds were flowing out of the end of the chromatograph.  Most of the detectors destroyed the compounds, because they burned them or ioned them.  These detectors left chemists guessing the exact identity of each compound in the sample. In the 1950s, Roland Gohlke and Fred McLafferty developed a new combined machine. They used a mass spectrometer as the detector in gas chromatography. These early devices were big, fragile, and originally limited to laboratory settings.
The design was complex. The time interval between different compounds flowing out of the chromatograph was hard to control. So, the mass spectrometer had to finish working on one compound before the next one flowed out of the chromatograph.  In the early models, the measurements from the mass spectrometer was recorded on graph paper. Highly-trained chemists studied the patterns of peaks to identify each compound.  By the 1970s, analog-to-digital converters were added to mass spectrometers. This allowed computers to store and to interpret the results. As computers grew faster and smaller, GC-MS became faster and spread from laboratories into every day life.  Today, computerized GC-MS instruments are widely used in environmental monitoring of water, air, and soil. It is also used in the regulation of agriculture, food safety and in the discovery and production of medicine.
The development of small computers has helped in the simplification of GC-MS machines. It also greatly reduced the amount of time it takes to analyze a sample. Electronic Associates, Inc. (EAI) was a leading U.S. supplier of analog computers. In 1964, EAI began development of a computer-controlled mass spectrometer under the direction of Robert E. Finnigan. By 1966, over 500  gas-analyzer instruments were sold.  In 1967, the Finnigan Instrument Corporation (FIC) was formed. In early 1968, delivered the first prototype quadrapole GC-MS instruments to Stanford and Purdue University.  FIC was eventually renamed Finnigan Corporation and went on to establish itself as the worldwide leader in GC-MS systems.