Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
A stock market is an institution where people and computers buy and sell shares of companies.

Shares
Shares are small pieces of a company. Shares can be bought by humans, companies, and mutual funds. When buying shares in a company, the buyer owns a small part of that company.  The price of a share can be based on many different things. The main thing that affects the price is the balance between supply and demand. If many buyers want to buy a stock the price goes up. If there are more sellers than buyers, the price goes down.

Stock brokers 
Some buyers trade shares in stocks through a stockbroker. A stockbroker is a person who buys or sell stocks for their customers. A stockbroker can also help customers make choices in stocks. Their advice is based on public information about the companies.
How the Share Market Works 
The interplay of buyers and sellers drives the operation of the stock market. Orders to purchase or sell shares can be placed through brokers or internet trading platforms. These orders are matched on stock exchanges, where supply and demand dynamics determine the price. The stock market works on the supply and demand concept, with prices moving based on a variety of factors such as corporate performance, economic conditions, and investor mood.

Stock markets in the world 
 NYSE (New York Stock Exchange) - USA
 NASDAQ (stock market for mainly technology shares) - USA
 London Stock Exchange - UK

Cultural changes in the stock market 
Trading stocks online has become more popular. Stocks can be traded online. There is a fee or commission each time a position is opened.

References
2. What is Stock Market ? How can we invest in it ?
Irwin Allen Ginsberg (June 3, 1926 – April 5, 1997) was an American poet and author. He was part of the Beat Generation movement of poets in the 1950s. He was a friend of writers Jack Kerouac and William S. Burroughs, and later made friends with musicians Bob Dylan, Donovan, John Lennon and Yoko Ono, and many other celebrities.

Ginsberg's most famous work was called Howl. It was a long poem about the social conditions of the United States in the 1950s. It began with the words "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness." It went on to describe the frustration felt by many Americans, young people and minorities in particular. There were problems in the country, such as prejudice and intolerance, that needed to be spoken about. Ginsberg published the poem, and also performed it at public poetry readings.
A few people did not like Howl, or the graphic language Ginsberg used. They tried to have Howl banned, and they wanted Ginsberg to be prosecuted (given a court trial, then either fined or put in jail). Ginsberg went to trial, and the judge decided Howl was an important work, and told the truth about America at the time. The judge rejected the ban and cleared Ginsberg, who could then continue to publish and perform the poem.

Ginsberg became involved in social causes through his work, and through the famous people he met. He grew up in the Jewish faith, but later became a Buddhist. He was a homosexual, and his longtime partner was another poet, Peter Orlovsky. He also had a long relationship with Neal Cassady, who appeared as "N.C., secret hero of these poems" in Howl.

Death
Ginsberg died in 1997 of liver cancer.

References
References 

1926 births
1997 deaths
American activists
American Buddhists
LGBT people from New Jersey
American poets
Beat Generation
Gay men
Industrial Workers of the World
Jewish American writers
American LGBT writers
LGBT poets
Writers from Newark, New Jersey
Northwestern University is a university in Evanston, Illinois, and Chicago, Illinois. It is very prestigious and selective. It has many people who learn and also people who teach.

The university is known most for providing a strong education in economics (the study of the economy), linguistics (the study of language), political science (the study of politics), and mathematics (the study of numbers). There is also a Medical school named Feinberg School of Medicine.

References

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American Lacrosse Conference
Association of American Universities
Big Ten Conference
Colleges and universities in Chicago
1851 establishments in the United States
1850s establishments in Illinois
A door god is a painting pasted on a door. These were used by the Chinese as good luck. Door gods can be seen on temples - places of religion - and other buildings. There is a belief that door gods stop evil spirits from going into the building.

Door gods are often in pairs, one for each side of the door. The first door gods may have been made for a Chinese Emperor, more than 1300 years ago. They showed his two best soldiers.

Art
Luck
Chinese gods and goddesses
Taoism
Jean-Louis Lebris de Kerouac (March 12, 1922 – October 21, 1969), better known as Jack Kerouac, was an American author and poet. He was part of the Beat Generation movement of writers and artists of the 1950s and 1960s, and gave the movement its name. His most famous work was a long novel titled On the Road, which was published in 1957.

Kerouac was a friend of writers Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, and Gregory Corso, among many others. Nearly all of Kerouac's writings were directly based on his own life, but he mostly changed names and details, to protect everyone's privacy. The man he wrote about most was his friend Neal Cassady, who was called "Dean Moriarty" in On the Road. Kerouac influenced many other writers and poets who came along later, and also many musicians of the 1960s, through his works. He also changed the way Americans saw themselves, and their country.
Early life
Kerouac was born in Lowell, Massachusetts to French Canadian parents (named Leo and Gabrielle), and was the youngest of three children. He spoke only French until he started school. His family was Roman Catholic. His father was a printer, and Kerouac became interested in printed works. He liked to make his own handwritten newspapers and books. He enjoyed reading, and imitated the styles of writers he liked, such as Thomas Wolfe. He became an expert typist, and could type faster than 100 words per minute.

Kerouac was a good athlete, and earned a football scholarship to Columbia University. An injury during a practice game ended his football career. He dropped out of Columbia, and devoted himself to writing stories and plays. He met Allen Ginsberg at college. Their circle of friends included many future writers and artists, like William S. Burroughs, and Herbert Huncke.
Early career
Kerouac published a few  and reviews in New York magazines and newspapers in the 1940s. He worked briefly for his hometown newspaper, The Lowell Sun. His first novel, The Town and the City, was published in 1950. For his second novel, Kerouac wanted to write a book about  road trips and hitchhiking. Hitchhiking was safer to do in the 1940s, in America, than it is today. Kerouac stopped and restarted writing this book several times. Kerouac did not want to just tell an ordinary story. He wanted to give an idea of how the people he met thought things through, and expressed this to each other, along with telling what they did and said. He also knew he needed more experiences, to tell a better story.
Many experiences came through Kerouac's friendship with Neal Cassady. Cassady was a handsome, bright young  with a teenaged wife, named Luanne Henderson. Cassady and Luanne had a hard relationship, and broke up and got back together many times. He later married another woman named Carolyn Robinson, who was older than Luanne and understood him better, but Carolyn and Cassady also had troubles. Kerouac was briefly married, to girlfriend Edie Parker. They did not stay together long, and were soon divorced. Cassady taught Kerouac, who never had a , how to drive, while Kerouac taught Cassady about writing.
Many people in the 1940s and 1950s used  drugs such as benzedrine, to help them stay alert. Jazz music was also popular, and some jazz musicians and listeners smoked marijuana. Kerouac was influenced by both drugs, and they changed the way he wrote. He began to write what he called " prose", jotting down words in much the same way a musician  a solo in a song. (Kerouac played no musical instruments, but could  well, and had many of the same instincts as a musician.) His new writing style was strange to many people, and even seen as bad by some older authors and critics. It was six years before Kerouac published his second novel.
The version of On the Road that finally satisfied Kerouac was written over three weeks in 1951. It was typed on a single roll of teletype paper. Kerouac liked to type on rolls of paper, because he did not have to stop to change pages. He had just gotten married for the second time, to Joan Haverty. The manuscript was Kerouac's way to explain his friendship with Neal Cassady to his new wife. The explanation made a fine rough draft for a novel, but it did not help his marriage. Joan felt that Kerouac's nonstop work on the manuscript was an , and she did not want to stay married to him after it was finished. They were soon divorced, as he was with his first wife.
The editor who worked on The Town and the City found the long, scroll-like manuscript hard to understand, and even harder to work with. Kerouac's publisher rejected the novel, as did every other publisher he went to. Nor was anyone interested in The Subterraneans, a shorter novel he wrote in three nights, about his romance with an African-American woman. Such a relationship was taboo in America during the 1950s. Kerouac continued to write, from short stories and essays to long novels, and even poetry. He tried many different subjects, but had almost nothing published. He also worked different jobs, including brakeman and .
Fame
Allen Ginsberg became well known during the 1950s for his writings, in particular a poem called "Howl", whose title came from Kerouac's  of it. Ginsberg mentioned his friends in some of his works, including Kerouac, and wanted the people who liked him to give them and their writings a chance. Finally Viking Press agreed to publish On the Road, after many changes to the manuscript. The novel became a bestseller, and Kerouac was a celebrity after years of little success. Magazines began to request articles and essays from him. He appeared on many television programs, including The Steve Allen Show. Steve Allen liked him, and they recorded an album together, with Kerouac reading aloud and Allen playing piano. He recorded another album later, with jazz musicians Al Cohn and Zoot Sims.
Kerouac wrote and published more novels, including The Dharma Bums, Doctor Sax, Maggie Cassidy, Visions of Gerard (a  of his older brother, who died in childhood), Big Sur (about the stresses brought on by fame, and how the people he knew saw him differently), Desolation Angels, and Book of Dreams (a ). He studied Buddhism, and this also influenced his writing. He wrote Some of the Dharma as an introduction to Buddhism, though he remained a Catholic.

As Kerouac, Ginsberg, and their friends became famous, a trend among the group of writers and artists was noticed, and was written about in the mainstream media. Kerouac was asked to describe his generation. He explained that the pressures of 20th century living had 'beaten' normal ways of thinking and working out of them, and they preferred the beat of bebop and jazz to most other music, "so I guess you could say we're a beat generation."
"Beat Generation" became the name for the new sense of style coming from artists and writers in New York and San Francisco. Kerouac's circle of friends and acquaintances (and their imitators) were called the Beats, with Kerouac himself called "King of the Beats" by the media. (The term was later parodied as "", implying such people were Communists, and would hurt the country.) Kerouac narrated a movie, called Pull My Daisy, about the Beat phenomenon.

An ongoing problem Kerouac had with fame was that people thought he did all the things he wrote about. Much of what he described (like Neal Cassady's lawless nature, , and drug use) was only what he saw in other people. Not everyone who read Kerouac's stories understood this. Some people wanted to blame him for doing bad things, or getting others to do them. Other people wanted to do those kinds of things with Kerouac. Shy by nature, Kerouac pulled away. He became almost a  in the house he bought for his mother. He also began to abuse alcohol.
Later life and career
During the 1960s, American society went through many changes, in part because of the influence of the Beats. Many young people read On the Road, and saw things they related to, and it made them want to experience more in their own lives. Other writers liked the looseness of Kerouac's style, and it made them think more about their own writing, how to study life, and how to better express themselves. Many musicians were affected by Kerouac's books, including Bob Dylan, Donovan, and The Doors.

Kerouac was more disappointed than happy to be famous. Even though he liked some of what he inspired, he felt that the public largely got the wrong message from his books. He saw many people take what the Beats wrote as a kind of permission to get into trouble, or abandon (give up) people and things they cared about. He felt  for the , but disagreed with them on the Vietnam War, the role of government, and . He also lost some of his old friends, when their views differed.
Kerouac still abused alcohol and other drugs, and it harmed his health. He became bloated and irritable, and looked drunk on his last television appearance, on William F. Buckley's Firing Line in 1968. He married for the third time, to Stella Sampas, the sister of a boyhood friend. Stella looked after Kerouac and his mother, kept the public and others away, and tried to get him to stop drinking alcohol.

His daughter Jan-Michelle also began to write during her teen years. He gave her his , and told her "You can use my (last) name." She wrote under the name Jan Kerouac, and published novels and stories herself, from the 1970s to the 1990s. Kerouac's mother became sick, and he sometimes worked at her bedside on stories. She helped him work out the ending of Pic, his novel about a young African-American.
Kerouac wrote and reworked new material until the last day of his life. He died in St. Petersburg, Florida during emergency surgery, to try to repair a  caused by cirrhosis, due to his alcohol abuse. He was buried in his hometown, and was hardly remembered there at first. Even though he was world famous, Kerouac earned very little money as a writer. He died with only a few hundred dollars in the bank. It was years before his grave received a headstone.
Neal Cassady died more than a year before, of exposure, alongside a railroad track in Mexico. He set out to become a writer or musician, but he never got far with either. He only published one book, The First Third, which was about his youth. Cassady earned most of his money from labor, and was often out of work and owed money. He spent a long time in jail after he was arrested for selling marijuana. Sometimes the fact that Cassady was well known through Kerouac kept him from having the life he wanted. Cassady had a family with Carolyn, but she had to both work, and raise the children when her husband was away. Carolyn later wrote a memoir.

Legacy
Kerouac's works, especially On the Road, are now more popular than ever. Generations have discovered his works, as a means of learning about life and attitudes in America during his lifetime, as a way to measure their own sense of experience, or as examples of  and  in .
Less than half of Kerouac's writings were published during his lifetime, but nearly all are now available. The ones published later drew hundreds of times more money than his most famous works, when they first appeared. His hometown Lowell remembers Kerouac today with a , and cultural events every year. His grave now has a headstone, which reads "He honored life". A street in Lowell was renamed "Jack Kerouac Alley" in his memory.

In other media
The Subterraneans was made into a movie by MGM in 1960, but the  was almost completely different from the book. On the Road was considered many times to be made into a movie, once with actor Marlon Brando as Dean Moriarty and another time with Sean Penn, but this never got farther than . The movie rights were resold in the 1990s, for more than ten times Kerouac's lifetime earnings, and a movie of On the Road appeared in 2012, starring Sam Riley and Garrett Hedlund as Kerouac and Cassidy, with Kristen Stewart and Kirsten Dunst as LuAnne Henderson and Carolyn Cassady.
A movie, Heart Beat, was made in 1980, about the relationship between Carolyn Robinson, Neal Cassady and Jack Kerouac. It starred Sissy Spacek, Nick Nolte, and John Heard.

Kerouac appears as "Hank" in William S. Burroughs's novel Naked Lunch, and was played by Nicholas Campbell in the 1991 movie version.

He was also the subject of a song by 10,000 Maniacs, "Hey Jack Kerouac".

He and Neal Cassady are the subject of a song by Tom Waits, "Jack & Neal/California Here I Come". Waits also covered a song written by Kerouac, titled "On the Road", on his' album "Orphans".

Sources

 Kerouac: A Biography, by Ann Charters (St. Martin's Press)
 Jack Kerouac, by Tom Clark (Marlowe & Company)

1922 births
1969 deaths
Deaths from hemorrhage
Deaths from cirrhosis
American poets
Beat Generation
Columbia University alumni
Disease-related deaths in Florida
People with personality disorders
Writers from Massachusetts
People from Lowell, Massachusetts
"Himno Istmeño" ("Ismithian Hymn") is the anthem of Panama. It was written by Santos Jorge.

Lyrics

References

North American anthems
National symbols of Panama
Jack Neo (born Neo Chee Keong on 24 January 1956) is a Singaporean movie director at MediaCorp, a Singapore media company. He directed I Not Stupid, Money No Enough, Ah Boys to Men and Ah Boys to Men 2, all of which were very popular. Neo was once a comedian.

Neo received the Best Director Award at the Silver Screen Awards in 1998. He was also awarded with the Lifetime Achievement Award in the following year for his contributions to Singapore's media industry. In 2004, Neo became the first moviemaker in Singapore to be honoured with the Public Service Award. He also received the Cultural Medallion on 21 October 2005 together with musician Dick Lee.

In 2008, Neo and Mark Lee bought the Singapore master franchise rights for Old Town White Coffee.  It is a coffee retail store from Ipoh, Malaysia. Their first store at Big Splash opened on 30 March in 2008.

Neo married Irene Kng in 1988 and they have four children. It is his second marriage. He is a Christian and worships at City Harvest Church.
In March 2010, it was revealed Neo had an affair with model Wendy Chong.  Later it was reported that Neo tried to have relations with up to 11 women.

Filmography

References

1956 births
Living people
Movie directors
Singaporean people
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky (11 November 1821 – 9 February 1881) was a Russian novelist. The most popular novels are Crime and Punishment, The Idiot and The Brothers Karamazov. He is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time.

In his 20s he joined a group of radicals in St Petersburg. They were into French socialist ideas. A police agent reported the group to the authorities. On 22 April 1849, Dostoyevsky was arrested and imprisoned with the other members. After months of questioning and investigation they were tried. They were found guilty of planning to distribute subversive propaganda and condemned to death by firing squad.

The punishment was changed to a sentence of exile and hard labour, but not before they were forced to go through a mock execution.  In 1859 a new tsar allowed Dostoyevsky to end his Siberian exile. A year later he was back in St Petersburg. The experience had cost him ten years of his life. It is the root of all his writing.
"Dostoyevsky's experience had altered him profoundly... He was particularly scornful of the ideas he found in St Petersburg when he returned from his decade of Siberian exile. The new generation of Russian intellectuals was gripped by European theories and philosophies [which] were melded together into a peculiarly Russian combination that came to be called 'nihilism' ".

Religion 
Raised in an educated and religious family, Dostoyevsky's beliefs changed through his life. In prison, he focused intensely on the figure of Christ and on the New Testament, the only book allowed in prison. In a letter to the woman who had sent him the New Testament, Dostoyevsky wrote that he was a "child of unbelief and doubt up to this moment, and I am certain that I shall remain so to the grave". He also wrote that "even if someone were to prove to me that the truth lay outside Christ, I should choose to remain with Christ rather than with the truth".
From an analysis of religious ideas in Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, The Demons (The Possessed), and The Brothers Karamazov, James Townsend thinks Dostoyevsky held orthodox Christian beliefs except for his view of salvation from sin. According to Townsend, "Dostoevsky almost seemed to embrace an in-this-life purgatory", in which people suffer to pay for their sins, rather than the Christian doctrine of salvation through Christ. Malcolm Jones sees elements of Islam and Buddhism in Dostoyevsky's religious convictions. Colin Wilson in The Outsider describes him as a "tormented half-atheist-half-Christian".
His work 
Many scholars see Dostoyevsky as one of the greatest psychologists in literature. His works have had a big effect on twentieth-century fiction. Very often, he wrote about characters who live in poor conditions. Those characters are sometimes in extreme states of mind. They might show both a strange grasp of human psychology as well as good analyses of the political, social and spiritual states of Russia of Dostoevsky's time. Many of his best-known works are prophetic. He is sometimes considered to be a founder of existentialism, most frequently for Notes from Underground, which has been described as "the best overture for existentialism ever written". He is also famous for writing The Brothers Karamazov, which many critics, such as Sigmund Freud, have said was one of the best novels ever written.
Demons 
His attack on nihilism is in his great novel Demons, or The Possessed. Published in 1872, it is a "dark comedy, cruelly funny in its depiction of high-minded intellectuals toying with revolutionary notions without understanding anything of what revolution means in practice".

The plot is a version of actual events at the time. A former teacher of divinity turned terrorist, Sergei Nechaev, had written a pamphlet, The Catechism of a Revolutionary, which argued that any means (including blackmail and murder) could be used to advance the cause of revolution. Nechaev planned to kill a student who questioned his ideas.

One of the characters in Demons confesses: "I got entangled in my own data, and my conclusion contradicts the original idea from which I start. From unlimited freedom, I conclude with unlimited despotism". This suggests that the result of abandoning morality for the sake of an idea will be tyranny more extreme than any in the past.
List of works 
English versions of titles come after the Russian title.
Novels 
1846 - Bednye lyudi (Бедные люди); Poor Folk
1846 - Dvojnik (Двойник. Петербургская поэма); The Double: A Petersburg Poem
1849 - Netochka Nezvanova (Неточка Незванова); Netochka Nezvanova (this is a feminine name)(Unfinished)
1859 - Dyadushkin son (Дядюшкин сон); The Uncle's Dream
1859 - Selo Steanchikovo i ego obitateli (Село Степанчиково и его обитатели); The Village of Stepanchikovo
1861 - Unizhennye i oskorblennye (Униженные и оскорбленные); The Insulted and Humiliated
1862 - Zapiski iz mertvogo doma (Записки из мертвого дома); The House of the Dead
1864 - Zapiski iz podpolya (Записки из подполья); Notes from Underground
1866 - Prestuplenie i nakazanie (Преступление и наказание); Crime and Punishment
1867 - Igrok (Игрок); The Gambler 
1869 - Idiot (Идиот); The Idiot
1870 - Vechnyj muzh (Вечный муж); The Eternal Husband
1872 - Besy (Бесы); various English titles: The Possessed; The Devils; Demons
1875 - Podrostok (Подросток); The Raw Youth
Novellas and short stories
1846 - Gospodin Prokharchin (Господин Прохарчин); Mr. Prokharchin
1847 - Roman v devyati pis'mah (Роман в девяти письмах); Novel in Nine Letters
1847 - Hozyajka (Хозяйка); The Landlady
1848 - Polzunkov (Ползунков); Polzunkov
1848 - Slaboe serdze (Слабое сердце); A Weak Heart
1848 - Chestnyj vor (Честный вор); An Honest Thief
1848 - Elka i svad'ba (Елка и свадьба); A Christmas Tree and a Wedding
1848 - Chuzhaya zhena i muzh pod krovat'yu (Чужая жена и муж под кроватью); The Jealous Husband
1848 - Belye nochi (Белые ночи); White nights
1849 - Malen'kij geroj (Маленький герой); A Little Hero
1862 - Skvernyj anekdot (Скверный анекдот); A Nasty Story
1865 - Krokodil (Крокодил); The Crocodile
1873 - Bobok (Бобок); Bobok
1876 - Krotkaja (Кроткая); A Gentle Creature
1876 - Muzhik Marej (Мужик Марей); The Peasant Marey
1876 - Mal'chik u Hrista na elke (Мальчик у Христа на ёлке); The Heavenly Christmas Tree
1877 - Son smeshnogo cheloveka (Сон смешного человека); The Dream of a Ridiculous Man
The last five stories (1873-1877) are included in A Writer's Diary.
Non-fiction
 Winter Notes on Summer Impressions (1863)
 A Writer's Diary (Дневник писателя) (1873–1881)
 Letters

Related pages 
List of Russian-language novelists
List of Russian novelists

References

Other websites

1821 births
1881 deaths
Christian writers
Deaths from emphysema
Disease-related deaths in Russia
Russian novelists
Russian Orthodox Christians
Writers from Moscow
Julia Boggs Dent Grant (January 26, 1826 – December 14, 1902), was the wife of the 18th President of the United States, Ulysses S. Grant, and was First Lady of the United States from 1869 to 1877.

Early life
She was born at White Haven plantation west of St. Louis, Missouri. She was the daughter of Colonel Frederick Dent, a slaveholding planter and merchant, and Ellen Wrenshall-Dent.

Engagement to Grant
After her schooling, she and Ulysses S. Grant got engaged in 1844. At that time, Ulysses S. Grant was a Lieutenant in the US Army. In the meanwhile, Mexican War began. Ulysses went to war. He returned from the war after many years. They married in 1848.

Children
The Grants had three sons and a daughter:
Frederick Dent Grant (1850–1912)
Ulysses Simpson Grant, Jr. known as "Buck" (1852–1929)
Ellen Wrenshall Grant known as "Nellie" (1855–1922)
Jesse Root Grant (1858–1934)
First Lady
She entered the White House in 1869 to begin, in her words, "the happiest period" of her life. With Cabinet wives as her allies, she entertained extensively and lavishly. The social highlight of the Grant years was the White House wedding of their daughter in 1874.  Contemporaries noted her finery, jewels, and silks and laces. After four years of war, an assassination, and an impeachment trial, Washington was ready for a little levity, and Julia obliged. She offered a full array of events and became a popular hostess. She planned lavish state dinners, where guests enjoyed expensive wines and liquors.

As First Lady it was suggested to her that she have an operation to correct her crossed eyes, but President Grant said that he liked her that way.
After the Presidency
Upon leaving the White House in 1877, the Grants made a trip around the world. Julia proudly recalled details of hospitality and magnificent gifts they received. A highlight of the trip was an overnight stay and dinner hosted for them by Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle in England. They also enjoyed a swing through the Far East, being cordially received at the Imperial Palace in Tokyo by the Emperor and Empress of Japan.

In 1884 Grant suffered yet another business failure and they lost all they had.

She became the first First Lady to write a memoir, though she was unable to find a publisher, and had been dead almost 75 years before "The Personal Memoirs of Julia Dent Grant (Mrs. Ulysses S. Grant)" was finally published in 1975.
She had attended in 1897 the dedication of Grant's monumental tomb overlooking the Hudson River in New York City. She was laid to rest in a sarcophagus beside her husband. She had ended her own chronicle of their years together with a firm declaration: "the light of his glorious fame still reaches out to me, falls upon me, and warms me."

Other websites
White House biography 
White Haven - Ulysses S Grant National Historic Site

1826 births
1902 deaths
First Ladies of the United States
Ulysses S. Grant
Jane Means Appleton Pierce (March 12, 1806 – December 2, 1863), wife of U.S. President Franklin Pierce, was First Lady of the United States from 1853 to 1857.

Early life
Her father’s name was Jesse Appleton. When her father died, her mother moved with her to Amherst, New Hampshire.
Marriage
How she met Pierce, a young lawyer with political ambitions, is unknown, but her brother-in-law Alpheus S. Packard was one of Pierce's instructors at Bowdoin. Franklin, almost 30, married Jane, 28, on November 19, 1834, at the bride's maternal grandparents' home in Amherst, New Hampshire. The Reverend Silas Aiken, Jane's brother-in-law, conducted the small ceremony. The couple honeymooned six days at the boardinghouse of Sophia Southurt near Washington, D.C..
Franklin Pierce was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives by the time they married and became a U.S. Senator in 1837.  Jane hated life in Washington, D.C., and encouraged her husband to resign his Senate seat and return to New Hampshire, which he did in 1842. Service in the Mexican-American War brought him the rank of Brigadier General and local fame as a hero. He returned home safely, and for four more years the Pierces lived quietly at Concord, New Hampshire, in the happiest period of their lives, where they watched their son Benjamin "Benny" grow up.
References

1806 births
1863 deaths
First Ladies of the United States
Franklin Pierce
People from Concord, New Hampshire
Lucy Ware Webb Hayes (August 28, 1831 – June 25, 1889) was a First Lady of the United States and the wife of President Rutherford B. Hayes.

Lucy was nicknamed "Lemonade Lucy."  She did not serve alcohol in the White House.

Early life
She was born in Chillicothe, Ohio. She was the daughter of James Webb, a doctor, and Maria Cook-Webb. Lucy was descended from seven veterans of the American Revolution. Her father died when she was a child. With her mother, she moved to Delaware, Ohio where in 1847 she met Rutherford B. Hayes.

Lucy Hayes studied at Ohio Wesleyan University. She was the first First Lady to graduate from college.
The First Lady
As First Lady, Hayes supported her husband's ban of alcoholic beverages at state functions, excepting only the reception for Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia in 1877, at which wine was served. She also instituted the custom of conducting an Easter egg roll on the White House lawn. A devout Methodist, she joined the president in saying prayers after breakfast and conducting group hymn sings with the cabinet and congressmen on Sunday evenings.

Children
The Hayes had four sons and a daughter to live to their adulthood:
Sardis “Birchard Austin” Birchard Hayes (1853–1926) 
James Webb Cook Hayes (1856–1934) 
Rutherford Platt Hayes (1858–1931) 
Joseph Thompson Hayes (1861–1863)
George Crook Hayes (1864–1866)
Frances “Fanny” Hayes-Smith (1867–1950)
Scott Russell Hayes (1871–1923) 
Manning Force Hayes (1873–1874)
In popular culture
In the musical comedy 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, the First Lady sings the “Duet for One,” in which she transforms from Mrs. Grant into Lucy Webb Hayes.
In the Lucky Luke comic book Sarah Bernhardt, which is set in the late 19th-century Wild West, President Rutherford B. Hayes's wife is portrayed as being one of many who strongly disapproves of the titular actress's tour of the United States, given her reputation for loose morality. Disguised as a man called “George,” the First Lady infiltrates Sarah’s entourage and sabotages their tour throughout the U.S., though she does come to accept Sarah when the French actress's charms and singing talent moves a tribe of hostile Indians.  "The president’s wife" is not mentioned by name in the book, and thus might be regarded as fictional, although she and her husband do resemble Rutherford and Lucy Hayes in many ways. Hayes himself is portrayed as a man who is very taken aback by his wife's hostility towards Sarah, and keeps making the same speech over and over again, even when there is no one there to listen to him.
Death
She died of a stroke on June 25, 1889. When she died, people in the United States lowered the flag to half-mast.

Other websites

Lucy Ware Webb Hayes  - Official White House biography
Lucy Hayes’ Civil War Letters 
Lucy Hayes at Findagrave

References 

1831 births
1889 deaths
Deaths from stroke
First Ladies of the United States
Rutherford B. Hayes
Caroline Lavinia Scott Harrison (October 1, 1832 - October 25, 1892) was the wife of Benjamin Harrison. She was the First Lady of the United States from 1889 until her death in 1892. 

Her birthplace was Oxford, Ohio. Her parents were Mary Potts Neal and Dr. John W. Scott. She met the young Ben when he was a student at Miami University. They married on October 20, 1853. They had three children. Their first child was Russell Benjamin (1854-1936). Their second child was Mary Scott (1856-1930). Their third child was a daughter, born in 1861. In the same year, their third child died. 

When her husband became the President of the United States in 1889, they both moved to the White House. Caroline gave stylish parties. She became sick with tuberculosis. She could not participate in social functions after that. She died of tuberculosis on October 25, 1892. 

First Ladies of the United States
Benjamin Harrison
1832 births
1892 deaths
Helen Louise Herron "Nellie" Taft (June 2, 1861 – May 22, 1943) was the wife of William Howard Taft and First Lady of the United States from 1909 to 1913.

Early life
Her parents were Harriet Collins and John W. Herron. She was their fourth child. She spent her childhood in Cincinnati, Ohio.

Marriage
When Helen Herron was 18 years old, she met Will Taft. They married in 1886. William Howard Taft and Helen Herron Taft had three children:
Robert A. Taft (1889-1953), United States Senator from Ohio
Helen Taft Manning (1891-1987), Professor at Bryn Mawr College
Charles Phelps Taft II (1897-1983), mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio.

First Lady
She was a part of her husband’s rise in administration and politics. When her husband became the president, she gave special attention to the social life at the White House. When she suffered from stroke, her daughter Helen Taft Manning left college for a year to look after the social life at the White House.
During their stay at the White House, the couple celebrated their silver wedding anniversary in 1911. People celebrate a silver anniversary after 25 years of any occasion. She had also written a book named  Recollections of Full Years. The book tells about her work and life. Her husband died in 1930. She continued to live in Washington D.C. after the death of her husband. She died on May 22, 1943.

Other websites
 Helen Herron Taft  White House biography
 Helen Taft at Find-A-Grave

William Howard Taft
First Ladies of the United States
People from Cincinnati

1861 births
1943 deaths
Mary Arthur McElroy (July 5, 1841 – January 8, 1917) was the sister of the 21st President of the United States, Chester A. Arthur, and served as a hostess for his administration (1881–1885). She assumed the role because Arthur's wife, Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur, had died only a year and a half earlier.

Early life
She was born in Greenwich, New York. Her parents were William and Malvina S. Arthur. Her parents had nine children, Mary being the last. In 1880, her brother Chester Arthur, became the Vice President of the United States. In July 1881, after the assassination of the President, James Garfield, Chester A. Arthur became the president of the United States and he requested his sister to become "First Lady" during his term in office.
First Lady
In November 1880, McElroy's brother Chester Arthur was elected vice president. In July 1881, President James Garfield was fatally wounded and died on September 19, 1881. Arthur succeeded him, and asked McElroy to care for his young daughter Ellen and act as "Mistress of the White House." Because she had her own family in Albany, McElroy lived in Washington, D.C. only during the busy winter social season. Although Arthur never officially granted her the protocol of a formal position, she proved to be a popular and competent hostess. The procedures she and her brother developed for the social functions were used by future First Ladies for decades.
McElroy presided over a number of events and honored former First Ladies Julia Gardiner Tyler and Harriet Lane, James Buchanan's niece and social hostess, by asking them to help her receive guests at the White House. McElroy's oldest daughter May and Arthur's daughter Nell often assisted. Her final reception took place on February 28, 1885, one week before the end of the Arthur administration: 3,000 people attended (including Adolphus Greely) and 48 daughters of officials and of the social elite assisted her.

Personal life
When her brother retired as the President, Mary went to live in Albany, New York.

Death
She died on January 8, 1917 at the age of 75 in Albany, New York.

References

Other websites
Mary McElroy 

Chester A. Arthur
First Ladies of the United States
1841 births
1917 deaths
Frances Clara Folsom Cleveland Preston (July 21, 1864 – October 29, 1947) was the wife of the President of the United States Grover Cleveland and the 27th First Lady of the United States from 1886 to 1889 and again from 1893 to 1897.

Early life
She was born in Buffalo, New York. Her birth name was Frances Clara Folsom. Her parents were Emma C. Harmon and Oscar Folsom. Her father later became a law partner of Grover Cleveland. All of her ancestors were from England. Cleveland was a family friend to Oscar's family. After Oscar’s death, Cleveland looked after the family. He arranged for education of Frances Folsom. She studied at Wells College. Cleveland and Frances Folsom sent letters to each other.
Marriage and family
In 1885, Frances Folsom and her mother came to White House to meet Cleveland. Cleveland and Frances Folsom became close to each other, despite being around 27 years younger than Cleveland. On 2 June 1886, they married. This was the first and only couple to wed in the White House. When Frances Folsom became Mrs. Cleveland, she took the role of the First Lady. She gave two receptions every week. She became very popular.

Personal life
In 1888, Cleveland lost the election. The couple lived in New York City. There their first child Ruth was born. In 1893 Cleveland again became the president. Frances Folsom again became active as the First Lady. In 1893, she gave birth to a second child, Esther. In 1895, she bore a third child, named Marion. By the time Cleveland had retired, Frances Folsom had become a very popular First Lady.
The couple retired to live in Princeton, New Jersey. During this time, they had two sons. She was by her husband’s side when he died in 1908. In 1913, Frances remarried. Her second husband was Thomas J. Preston, Jr., a professor of archeology.

Death
Frances Folsom lived until the age of 83, and had become well known in the Princeton University community.
She died at age 83 in New Jersey. 

First Ladies of the United States
People from Buffalo, New York
Grover Cleveland
1864 births
1947 deaths
Elizabeth Anne Ford (née Bloomer; April 8, 1918 – July 8, 2011) was an American spokesperson and women's right activist who was the first lady of the United States from 1974 to 1977, as the wife of President Gerald Ford. She was also the second lady of the United States from 1973 to 1974 when her husband was vice president.

Biography

Early life and education 
Elizabeth Anne Bloomer was born on April 8, 1918, in Chicago, Illinois, to Hortense Neahr and William Stephenson Bloomer. She also had two older brothers. Ford later grew up in Grand Rapids, Michigan.

She attended schools such as, Central High School and Bennington School of Dance.

Marriage and family 

Betty and Gerald Ford were married at Grace Episcopal Church in Grand Rapids, Michigan on October 15, 1948.

The couple had four children named Michael, Jack, Susan, and Steven Ford.

Second Lady of the United States (1973–1974)
Ford became the second lady of the United States succeeding Judy Agnew when her husband inaugurated as the 40th vice president of the United States on December 6, 1973, after the resignation of Spiro Agnew.

Ford served as the second lady from 1973 until her husband's term ended in August 1974.

First Lady of the United States (1974–1977) 

Ford assumed the role and duties as the first lady of the United States succeeding Pat Nixon, when her husband inaugurated as the 38th president of the United States, upon the resignation of Richard Nixon on August 9, 1974.

As first lady, Ford was very active, she kept high approval ratings and she was considered to be an influential first lady. Ford was known for raising Breast cancer awareness In addition, she was a strong supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment, abortion rights and the women's rights movement. 

Ford gained fame as one of the most influential first ladies in history. She supported major issues such as feminism, equal pay, drugs, gun control.
She was regarded to be the most politically outspoken first lady since Eleanor Roosevelt. Ford regarded Roosevelt as a role model. Active in social policy, Ford broke a record as a politically active presidential spouse.

Ford was popular with the American public. Her overall approval rating was as high as 75%. Ford's popularity was higher than her husband's at most times.

Ford served as the first lady from 1974 until her husband's term ended in 1977.

Later Life 
In 1987, Ford opened the Betty Ford Center in Rancho Mirage, California. The center helps treat drug dependence, alcoholism, and substance abuse. In 1991, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George H. W. Bush.

Death and funeral 
Ford died of natural causes  three months after her 93rd birthday, at Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage, California.

Her funeral was held on July 14, 2011, and she was later buried next to her husband at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum.

References
References

Official website
 

American autobiographers
First Ladies of the United States
Gerald Ford
Writers from Chicago
Second Ladies of the United States
Time People of the Year
1918 births
2011 deaths
Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt (August 6, 1861 – September 30, 1948) was the second wife of Theodore Roosevelt, the President of the United States. She acted as the First Lady of the United States from 1901 to 1909.

She was born in Norwich, Connecticut. Her parents were Charles (1825-1883) and Gertrude Tyler Carow (1836-1895). She spent her childhood in old New York City. As small children, Edith Kermit Carow and Corinne Roosevelt Robinson (younger sister of Theodore Roosevelt) played together. During childhood, she and "Teedie" (nickname of Theodore Roosevelt) were in and out of each other's houses.

Edith went to Roosevelt's wedding with Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt in 1880. Soon Alice Hathaway died. In 1885, Rooservelt married Edith.
Theodore Roosevelt and Edith were married in London in December 1886. They settled down in a house on Sagamore Hill, at Oyster Bay, headquarters for a family that added five children in ten years: Theodore Jr., Kermit, Ethel Carow, Archibald Bulloch, and Quentin. Throughout Roosevelt's intensely active career, family life remained close and entirely delightful.

After assassination of President William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt became the President. Mrs. Roosevelt became the First Lady. She guarded the privacy of her family. Still she was an active First Lady. The White House became a social center of that time.
After her husband’s death in 1919, she spent more or less a retired life. She also traveled outside the USA. But, she always came back to Sagamore Hill as her home. In 1932, she briefly came out of her retirement. She gave a speech in support of Herbert Hoover’s re-election for the presidency of the United States. At that time, her nephew-in-law Franklin Delano Roosevelt was also a candidate for the post of the president of the United States. She died at her Oyster Bay home in New York on September 30, 1948, at the age of 87.

1861 births
1948 deaths
First Ladies of the United States
Second Ladies of the United States
People from Norwich, Connecticut
Theodore Roosevelt
Lucretia Rudolph-Garfield (April 19, 1832 – March 14, 1918), wife of James A. Garfield, was First Lady of the United States in 1881.

Early life
She was born in Garrettsville, Ohio. Her father was Zeb Rudolph, a farmer and co-founder of the Eclectic Institute at Hiram, and her mother was Arabella Mason-Rudolph. Lucretia "Crete" Rudolph was a devout member of the Churches of Christ. She was of German, Welsh, English and Irish ancestry. Lucretia Garfield's paternal great-grandfather immigrated to Pennsylvania (in a part that is now Delaware) from Württemberg, Germany.

Marriage and family
She first met James A. Garfield while both were attending a school. They renewed their friendship in 1851 as students of the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute. They got married on November 11, 1858.
The First Lady
In 1881, Garfield became the President of the United States. The family moved into the White House. Even at the age of 49, she was slim and looked lovely. She was not very much interested in her role as the First Lady. But, she was a charming lady and hosted parties at the White House. In May 1881, she fell ill and was suffering from malaria. She was resting at Long Branch, New Jersey, and was yet to become fit. At that time, she heard the news that someone had shot President Garfield, her husband.  She rushed to Washington by train. On its way, the train met with an accident. She did not suffer any injury. When she reached Washington, she remained by the side of her husband. He could not remain alive and died after about three months.

Personal life
After his death, she left for Ohio. There she lived for 36 years, and spent her time arranging and caring for the records of her husband’s career. A part of her home became a presidential library of her husband’s papers.
Death
She died at her home in South Pasadena, California on March 13, 1918. Her casket was placed above ground beside the coffin of her husband in the lower level crypt of the presidential tomb at Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland, Ohio.

Other websites
Find a Grave
Lucretia Garfield White House biography 

First Ladies of the United States
1832 births
1918 deaths
James A. Garfield
Biotechnology is a technology that involves the use of living organisms. Biotechnology is mainly used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. In biotechnology, living organisms are used to make useful chemicals and products or to perform an industrial task.

Examples 
An example of biotechnology is the use of the fermentation reaction in yeast to make beer and other alcoholic drinks. Another example is the use of carbon dioxide produced by yeast to make bread rise.
Usage 
Biotechnology is often used to refer to genetic engineering technology of the 21st century. However, the term is used for many ways of modifying biological organisms for the needs of humanity. It started with modifications of native plants into improved food crops through artificial selection and hybridization. Bioengineering is the science upon which all biotechnological applications are based. With the development of new approaches and modern techniques, traditional biotechnology industries are also acquiring new horizons enabling them to improve the quality of their products and increase the productivity of their systems.

Biotechnology has also made cloning (the process duplicating organisms) possible. A lot of people think that this is morally wrong while others think it could solve many diseases.

Biotechnology can be used to solve a great number of problems, ranging from product efficiency to reducing global warming.
Related pages 
Bioinformatics
Genetic engineering
Genetically modified food
Nanotechnology

References 

Interdisciplinary fields
Technology by type