Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Göttingen school 
In 1895 Hilbert became Chairman of Mathematics at the University of Göttingen, at that time the best research center for mathematics in the world. He remained for the rest of his life. Among his students were: Hermann Weyl, the champion of chess Emanuel Lasker, Ernst Zermelo, and Carl Gustav Hempel. John von Neumann was his assistant. At the University of Göttingen, Hilbert was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as Emmy Noether and Alonzo Church.

Axioms and problems

Hilbert's axioms 
The text Grundlagen der Geometrie (Foundations of Geometry) was published by Hilbert in 1899. It proposed a formal set, Hilbert's axioms, instead of the traditional axioms of Euclid. They avoid weaknesses in those of Euclid, whose works at the time were still used textbmathematics is his 1900 presentation of a set of problems that set the course for much of the mathematical research of the 20th century.
He put forward a number of unsolved problems at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris in 1900. This is reckoned the most successful and deeply considered compilation of open problems ever to be produced by an individual mathematician. Later he expanded his list to 23 problems.

Hilbert's program
In 1920 he proposed explicitly a research project in metamathematics, which became known as Hilbert's program. He wanted mathematics to be formulated on a solid and complete logical foundation. He believed that in principle this could be done, by showing that:

All of mathematics follows from a correctly chosen finite system of axioms; and
That some such axiom system is provably consistent.

He seems to have had both technical and philosophical reasons for formulating this proposal.

Physics 
After 1912, Hilbert turned his focus to physics. At that time, he worked in general relativity and mathematical physics. His work in these fields is also important.
Related pages
 Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel, a meditation on strange properties of the infinite, is often used in popular accounts of infinite cardinal numbers.

References 

Ewald, William B. (ed) 1996. From Kant to Hilbert: a source book in the Foundations of Mathematics. 2 vols, Oxford.
Jean van Heijenoort, 1967. From Frege to Godel: a source book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931. Harvard Univ. Press.
David Hilbert; Cohn-Vossen S. 1999. Geometry and Imagination. American Mathematical Society. . An accessible set of lectures originally for the citizens of Göttingen.
[David Hilbert] Michael Hallett and Ulrich Majer. eds. 2004. David Hilbert's Lectures on the foundations of Mathematics and Physics, 1891–1933. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. .
Rowe, David; Gray, Jeremy J 2000. The Hilbert challenge. Oxford University Press. .

Other websites 

Hilbert's 23 Problems Address
Hilbert's Program

Hilberts radio speech recorded in Königsberg 1930 (in German) , with English translation
1862 births
1943 deaths
German academics
People from former German territories
People from Kaliningrad
German geometers
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell  (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, and mathematician. He was born in Wales, but spent most of his life in England. He worked mostly in the 20th century. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950.

Bertrand Russell wrote many books and articles. He also tried to make philosophy popular. He gave his opinion on many topics. He wrote the essay, "On Denoting", which has been described as one of the most influential essays in philosophy in the 20th Century. He wrote on very serious issues as well as everyday things. 

He was a well known liberal as well as a socialist and anti-war activist for most of his long life. Millions looked up to Russell as a prophet of the creative and rational life. At the same time, his stances on many topics were extremely controversial. From 1931 until his death, he was a member of the House of Lords.
Personal life
Born at the height of Britain's economic and political ascendancy, he died of influenza nearly a century later when the British Empire had all but vanished, its power dissipated in two victorious, but debilitating world wars.  Russell's voice carried enormous moral authority, even into his early 90s. Russell supported nuclear disarmament a lot, but did not support the American war in Vietnam even when it was popular.

In 1950, Russell was made a Nobel Laureate in Literature "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought."

Beliefs
In his 1949 speech, "Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?", Russell expressed his difficulty over whether to call himself an atheist or an agnostic:

In Russel's book The Impact of Science on Society he wrote:

What people said about Russell
As a man 
"Bertrand Russell would not have wished to be called a saint of any description; but he was a great and good man."
 — A.J. Ayer, Bertrand Russell, NY: Viking Press, 1972.

As a philosopher 
"It is difficult to overstate the extent to which Russell's thought dominated twentieth century analytic philosophy: virtually every strand in its development either originated with him or was transformed by being transmitted through him. Analytic philosophy itself owes its existence more to Russell than to any other philosopher."
 — Nicholas Griffin, The Cambridge Companion to Bertrand Russell, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
As a writer and his place in history 
"Russell's prose has been compared by T.S. Eliot to that of David Hume's. I would rank it higher, for it had more color, juice, and humor. But to be lucid, exciting and profound in the main body of one's work is a combination of virtues given to few philosophers. Bertrand Russell has achieved immortality by his philosophical writings."
 — Sidney Hook, Out of Step, An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century, NY: Carol & Graff, 1988.

"Russell's books should be bound in two colours, those dealing with mathematical logic in red — and all students of philosophy should read them; those dealing with ethics and politics in blue — and no one should be allowed to read them."
 — Ludwig Wittgenstein quoted in Rush Rhees, Recollections of Wittgenstein, Oxford Paperbacks, 1984.
As a mathematician and logician 
Of the Principia: "...its enduring value was simply a deeper understanding of the central concepts of mathematics and their basic laws and interrelationships. Their total translatability into just elementary logic and a simple familiar two-place predicate, membership, is of itself a philosophical sensation."
 — W.V. Quine, From Stimulus to Science, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995.

As an activist 
"Oh, Bertrand Russell! Oh, Hewlett Johnson! Where, oh where, was your flaming conscience at that time?"
 — Alexandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, Harper & Row, 1974.
As a recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature 
In other words, it was specifically not for his incontestably great contributions to philosophy — The Principles of Mathematics, 'On Denoting' and Principia Mathematica — that he was being honoured, but for the later work that his fellow philosophers were unanimous in regarding as inferior.
 — Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell, The Ghost of Madness, p. 332.

From a daughter 
"He was the most fascinating man I have ever known, the only man I ever loved, the greatest man I shall ever meet, the wittiest, the gayest, the most charming. It was a privilege to know him, and I thank God he was my father."
 — Katharine Tait, My Father Bertrand Russell, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975, p. 202.

Quotations
"War does not determine who is right. Only who is left." (Often attributed to Russell, but no sources exist.)  
 "The secret of happiness is to face the fact that the world is horrible, horrible, horrible." (Source: Alan Wood, Bertrand Russell, the Passionate Sceptic, 1957)
 "The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so certain of themselves, but wiser people so full of doubts." (Source?)
 "You could tell by his [Aldous Huxley] conversation which volume of the Encyclopaedia Britannica he'd been reading. One day it would be Alps, Andes and Apennines, and the next it would be the Himalayas and the Hippocratic Oath." (Source: Parris, M., Scorn: With Added Vitriol, London: Penguin, 1996, quoting Russell's 1963 letter to Ronald W. Clark)
"A Tale of Two Moralities" "I dislike Nietzsche," Russell wrote, "because he likes the contemplation of pain, because he erects conceit into a duty, because the men whom he most admires are conquerors, whose glory is cleverness in causing men to die." (Source: History of Western Philosophy, chap. on Nietzsche, last par.)
Selected bibliography of Russell's books 
This is a selected bibliography of Russell's books in English sorted by year of first publication.
 1896, German Social Democracy, London: Longmans, Green.
 1897, An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry, Cambridge: At the University Press.
 1900, A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz, Cambridge: At the University Press.
 1903, The Principles of Mathematics, Cambridge: At the University Press.
 1910, Philosophical Essays, London: Longmans, Green.
 1910 – 1913, Principia Mathematica (with Alfred North Whitehead), 3 vols., Cambridge: At the University Press.
 1912, The Problems of Philosophy, London: Williams and Norgate.
 1914, Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy, Chicago and London: Open Court Publishing.
 1916, Principles of Social Reconstruction, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1916, Justice in War-time, Chicago: Open Court.
 1917, Political Ideals, New York: The Century Co.
1918, Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays, London: Longmans, Green.
 1918, Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1919, Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1920, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism, London: George Allen & Unwin
 1921, The Analysis of Mind, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1922, The Problem of China, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1923, The Prospects of Industrial Civilization (in collaboration with Dora Russell), London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1923, The ABC of Atoms, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
 1924, Icarus, or the Future of Science, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
 1925, The ABC of Relativity, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
 1925, What I Believe, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
 1926, On Education, Especially in Early Childhood, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1927, The Analysis of Matter, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1927, An Outline of Philosophy, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1927, Why I Am Not a Christian, London: Watts.
 1927, Selected Papers of Bertrand Russell, New York: Modern Library.
 1928, Sceptical Essays, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1929, Marriage and Morals, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1930, The Conquest of Happiness, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1931, The Scientific Outlook, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1932, Education and the Social Order, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1934, Freedom and Organization, 1814 – 1914, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1935, In Praise of Idleness, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1935, Religion and Science, London: Thornton Butterworth.
 1936, Which Way to Peace?, London: Jonathan Cape.
 1937, The Amberley Papers: The Letters and Diaries of Lord and Lady Amberley (with Patricia Russell), 2 vols., London: Leonard & Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press.
 1938, Power: A New Social Analysis, London: George Allen & Unwin.
1940, An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth, New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
 1945, A History of Western Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster.
 1948, Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1949, Authority and the Individual, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1950, Unpopular Essays, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1951, New Hopes for a Changing World, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1952, The Impact of Science on Society, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1953, Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1954, Human Society in Ethics and Politics, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1954, Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1956, Portraits from Memory and Other Essays, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1956, Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901 – 1950 (edited by Robert C. Marsh), London: George Allen & Unwin.
1957, Why I Am Not A Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects (edited by Paul Edwards), London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1958, Understanding History and Other Essays, New York: Philosophical Library.
 1959, Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1959, My Philosophical Development, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1959, Wisdom of the West ("editor", Paul Foulkes), London: Macdonald.
 1960, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind, Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company.
 1961, The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell (edited by R.E. Egner and L.E. Denonn), London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1961, Fact and Fiction, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1961, Has Man a Future?, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1963, Essays in Skepticism, New York: Philosophical Library.
 1963, Unarmed Victory, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1965, On the Philosophy of Science (edited by Charles A. Fritz, Jr.), Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company.
1967, Russell's Peace Appeals (edited by Tsutomu Makino and Kazuteru Hitaka), Japan: Eichosha's New Current Books.
 1967, War Crimes in Vietnam, London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1967 – 1969, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 3 vols., London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1969, Dear Bertrand Russell... A Selection of his Correspondence with the General Public 1950 – 1968 (edited by Barry Feinberg and Ronald Kasrils), London: George Allen and Unwin.
Note: This is a mere sampling, for Russell also authored many pamphlets, introductions, articles and letters to the editor. His works also can be found in any number of anthologies and collections, perhaps most notably, The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, which McMaster University began publishing in 1983. This collection of his shorter and previously unpublished works is now up to 16 volumes, and many more are forthcoming. An additional 3 volumes catalogue just his bibliography. The Russell Archives at McMaster also have more than 30,000 letters that he wrote.

Additional references:

A. Russell
 1900, Sur la logique des relations avec des applications à la théorie des séries, Rivista di matematica 7: 115-148.
 1901, On the Notion of Order, Mind (n.s.) 10: 35-51.
 1902, (with Alfred North Whitehead), On Cardinal Numbers, American Journal of Mathematics 23: 367-384.
B. Secondary references:
 John Newsome Crossley. A Note on Cantor's Theorem and Russell's Paradox, Australian Journal of Philosophy 51: 70-71.
 Ivor Grattan-Guinness, 2000. The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940. Princeton University Press.

Books about Russell's philosophy 
 Bertrand Russell: Critical Assessments, edited by A. D. Irvine, 4 volumes, London: Routledge, 1999. Consists of essays on Russell's work by many distinguished philosophers.
 Bertrand Russell, by John Slater, Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1994.
 The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell, edited by P.A. Schilpp, Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University, 1944.
 Russell, by A. J. Ayer, London: Fontana, 1972. . A lucid summary exposition of Russell's thought.
Biographical books 
  Bertrand Russell: 1872 – 1920 The Spirit of Solitude by Ray Monk (1997) 
 Bertrand Russell: 1921 – 1970 The Ghost of Madness by Ray Monk (2001) 
 Bertrand Russell: Philosopher and Humanist, by John Lewis (1968)
 Bertrand Russell, by A.J. Ayer (1972), reprint ed. 1988: 
 The Life of Bertrand Russell, by Ronald W. Clark (1975) 
 Bertrand Russell and His World, by Ronald W. Clark (1981)

Related pages 
 Russell's teapot

References

Other websites
Other websites

Writings available online 
 Mysticism
 "Contents Recommended" 
 "A Free Man's Worship" (1903)
 Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?
 Icarus: The Future of Science 
 Has Religion Made Useful Contributions to Civilization? 
 Ideas that Have Harmed Mankind 
 In Praise of Idleness  (1932)
 Nobel Lecture  (1950)
 Political Ideals
 The Problem of China
 The Problems of Philosophy 
 Proposed Roads to Freedom  (1918)
 "16 Questions on the Assassination" (of President Kennedy) 
 The Analysis Of Mind
 What is an Agnostic?
 Why I am not a Christian 
 "The Elements of Ethics"  (1910)
 The Principles of Mathematics (1903)

Other 
 Pembroke Lodge - childhood home and museum
 The Bertrand Russell Society - a member organisation of the International Humanist and Ethical Union
 The Bertrand Russell Society Quarterly 
 The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation
Biography and quotes of Bertrand Russell
 Russell Photo Gallery
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 The Bertrand Russell Archives
 Resource list
 The First Reith Lecture given by Russell (Real Audio)
 Encyclopaedia Britannica
 Bertrand Russel -Citizendium

1872 births
1970 deaths
20th-century British philosophers
Academics of the University of Cambridge
Agnostics
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
British atheists
British autobiographers
British mathematicians
British Nobel Prize winners
Democratic socialists
Labour Party (UK) people
British LGBT rights activists
Members of the House of Lords
Nonviolence advocates
Order of Merit
United Kingdom Earls
Welsh politicians
Welsh writers
Set theorists
Deaths from influenza
Alfred North Whitehead, OM (15 February 1861 – 30 December 1947) was an English mathematician who became a philosopher. He was born in Ramsgate, Kent, and died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. He wrote on algebra, logic, foundations of mathematics, philosophy of science, physics, metaphysics, and education. He is the co-author, with Bertrand Russell, of the important Principia Mathematica.

References 

1861 births
1947 deaths
English mathematicians
English philosophers
Order of Merit
People from Kent
Ramsgate
A mask is a type of clothing which covers the face. It is similar to a veil, but more close-fitting.

Uses 
There are different reasons why people use masks.  A person can use a mask so others do not know who they are (as when committing a crime).  Or, a mask may keep someones face safe from harm (like a gas mask so harmful gases do not get into the lungs).

There are many practical uses for masks in everyday life. Mostly, the masks used are semi-masks which cover only the bottom half of the face, the mouth and nose. An example is the use of masks in operating theatres, and
by wood-workers. In surgery, the purpose is to keep bacteria off the patient; in wood-working the purpose is to keep wood fibres out of the lungs.

In Venetian masks only the top half of the face is covered, to prevent recognition. Ice hockey masks, used in the Hannibal Lecter movies, cover the whole face to protect it from the hockey puck moving at high speed.

Origin
Origin

The word 
The word 'mask' might have come from other languages. The French masque, the Italian maschera, the Spanish máscara, the Latin (not classical) mascus/masca (meaning "ghost") or the Arabic maskharah (meaning "jester" or "man in masquerade") all use the same word.

History 
One of the oldest masks found is the Death Mask. This stone mask is 9000 years old and is probably the oldest mask in the world. It is kept in Musée de la bible et Terre Sainte, Paris.

There are also three masks from the same period, kept in The Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

Masks are used in many magical or shamanistic rituals in non-western societies. The celebration or appeasement of animistic spirits takes place with dance and song in ancient performances in many parts of the world. In these events performers use costumes and masks to mimic the supposed spirits.

From this kind of beginning, the use of masks in ancient Greek theatre may have started. The actors and chorus in this early theatre all used masks.
Masks in recent times 
Masks have been used to protect people against air-borne diseases. They were worn during the plague in the Middle Ages; during the influenza epidemic of 1918, and the COVID-19 epidemic. Gas masks were issued in World War II even though phosgene gas was never used in that war (it had been in WWI).

2019-20 coronavirus pandemic 
During the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic, a new variation of trikini, with two pieces for the body and a face mask was designed. Indian film actress Kajol popularized the idea of this trikini.
Figurative uses 
There are some other uses of the word 'mask', which arise by extension. That means using 'mask' as a metaphor. In film a mask is a screen which cuts out part of the image. In social theory, a mask is the behaviour a person takes on in his role or job. Thus policemen, head teachers, army commanders, prime ministers act as they are expected to act (most of the time). The inference is that behind the mask is the 'real' person. Their role is a mask. As a verb, 'to mask' means to cover or hide.

Related pages 
Veil
Theatre
Greek theatre
 Surgical mask
 Abenomask

References

Other websites 
 International Mask and Carnival Museum of Binche

Headgear
Non-verbal communication
Art
Metaphors
A holiday is a regularly reoccurring festive day. Usually, but not always, the festive day is observed every year. The word "holiday" is derived from the words "holy" and "day."  In British English, the word "holiday" is used to refer to a Vacation as well as a public holiday.
Long holidays with no work 
 Spring Festival, May Day, and National Day (People's Republic of China)
 Golden Week (Japan)
 The Majówka, also called the Picnic (Poland) 
 Holy Week, sometimes with Easter, St. Patrick's Day, Easter Monday and Good Friday (Ireland) 
 A long weekend, when a holiday is next to the weekend (Australia and England). 
In the United States, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, Presidents' Day, Memorial Day and Labor Day are always on Monday to create a "long weekend" or "3-day weekend". 
Other holidays like America's Independence Day and Veterans' Day can come on a weekday or weekend.  If the holiday is on a weekend, it is moved to Friday or Monday to create a "3-day weekend." Calendars sometimes mark these holidays twice. For example, in 2006, Veterans' Day in America was on Saturday, November 11. "Veteran's Day (observed)" was also on the calendar; it was Friday, November 10.
Holidays in western countries during winter 
 New Year's Day
 Boxing Day (Wren day, St. Stephan's day)
 Kwanzaa
 Christmas Day
 Hanukkah
 Yule

Greetings 
 Merry Christmas (also called Feliz Navidad (Spanish) and Joyeux Noel (French))
 Merry Yuletide
 Happy Hanukkah
 Happy Kwanzaa
 Happy New Year
 Joyous Yule
 Happy Solstice
 Season's Greetings
 Happy Holiday(s)

Holidays celebrated around the world 
 New Year's Day (1 January)
 Valentine's Day (14 February)
 International Women's Day (8 March, mostly in Eastern European Countries)
 World Party Day (3 April)
 Earth Day (22 April)
 Labour Day, Worker's Day or May Day (1 May, most countries - United States and Canada celebrate Labour Day on the first Monday of September)
 Mother's Day (second Sunday in May in North America, fourth Sunday in Lent in UK)
 Father's Day (Different countries have different dates)
 Halloween (31 October)
 New Year's Eve (31 December)

Holidays celebrated in various countries
United States 
 Martin Luther King, Jr.'s birthday, either January 15 or the third Monday in January
 Abraham Lincoln's birthday, either February 12 or the second Monday in February
 George Washington's birthday (or Presidents' Day), either February 22 or the third Monday in February
 Memorial Day, last Monday in May
 Independence Day, July 4
 Labor Day, first Monday in September
 Thanksgiving, fourth Thursday in November

Religious holidays

Buddhist holidays 
 Vesak
 Blessed Rainy Day in Bhutan
Celtic and Norse holidays 
In the order of the Wheel of the Year:
 Samhain (Celtic): 31 October-1 November, Celtic New Year, first day of winter
 Winternights (Norse): 29 October-2 November, Norse New Year
 Yule (Norse): 21 December-22 December, winter solstice, Celtic mid-winter
 Imbolc (Celtic): 1 February-2 February, Celtic first day of spring
 Ostara/Easter (Norse): 21 March-22 March, vernal equinox, Celtic mid-spring
 Beltane (Celtic): 30 April-1 May, Celtic first day of summer
 Litha (Norse): 21 June-22 June, summer solstice, Celtic mid-summer
 Lughnasadh (Celtic): 1 August-2 August, Celtic first day of autumn
 Mabon/Harvest End (Norse): 21 September-22 September, autumnal equinox

Hindu holidays 
 Baisakhi 
 Daserra
 Diwali
 Diwali Amvasaya (Laxmi Puja)
 Diwali (day 2)
 Bhaubeej
 Ekadasi
 Ganesh Chaturthi
 Gokul Ashtami
 Gudhi Padwa
 Holi
 Mahashivratri
 Makar Sankranti
 Onam
 Pongal
 Rama-Lilas
 Ram Navami
 Vaikunta Ekadasi
 Ugadi
Christian holidays 
 Advent
 All Saints' Day
 All Souls' Day
 Ascension Day (Jesus enters Heaven)
 Ash Wednesday
 Assumption of Mary (The Virgin Mary enters Heaven)
 Candlemas
 Childermas
 Christmas (Birth of Jesus)
 Corpus Christi(Sacrifice of Jesus)
 Easter (Jesus is born again)
 Easter Triduum
 Easter Vigil
 Good Friday (Death of Jesus)
 Holy Saturday
 Holy Thursday (The Last Supper)
 Epiphany
 Lent
 Pentecost or Whitsun (The Holy Spirit goes to the followers of Jesus)
 Shrove Tuesday or Mardi Gras (last day of Carnival)
 Winter Lent
 Watch Night

Catholics also celebrate saint's days.

Islamic holidays 
 Aashurah Muharram
 Eid (based on the lunar calendar)
 Eid ul-Fitr, Lesser Bairam
 Eid ul-Adha, Greater Bairam
 Mawlid Al Rasul - Prophet Muhammad's Birthday
 Nisfu Shaaban
 Nuzul Al Qur'an - First announcement of Holy Koran
 Ramadan-Ul-Mubarik
 Isra' Mi'raj - Prophet Muhammad's enters heaven.
 Youm Arafat - Day before Eid ul-Adha
Bahá'í holidays 
 Naw Ruz (Bahá'í New Year) 
 1st Day of Ridván
 9th Day of Ridvan 
 12th Day of Ridvan 
 Declaration of the Báb
 Ascension of Bahá'u'lláh
 Martyrdom of the Báb
 Birth of the Israel
 Birth of Bahá'u'lláh

Jewish holidays 

 Shabbat (Sabbath, observed weekly)
 Rosh Hodesh (first day of the Hebrew calendar month)
 Passover
 Lag Ba'omer
 Shavuot (Festival of Weeks; Harvest Festival)
 Tisha B'Av
 Rosh Hashanah (New Year)
 Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement)
 Sukkot (The Feast of Tabernacles)
 Hanukkah (also: Chanukah; the Festival of Lights)
 Tu Bishvat (New year of the trees)
 Purim (Deliverance from Evil)

References
Spokane (Pronounced: ) is a city in the U.S. state of Washington. Spokane is in the eastern half of the state, about  from Idaho. Spokane is  south of Canada.

Spokane is the second largest city in Washington, while Seattle is the largest. Spokane's nickname is the "Lilac City" because of how many of those flowers grow in the area.

The population of the city in 2019 was 222,081 and the population of the metro area of Spokane is 573,493.

History
Spokane was founded in 1871 when a sawmill was built on the Spokane Falls. In 1889 a fire burned down the downtown area of Spokane. In 1892 the railroad came to Spokane, and this made it easier for people to get into and out of the city.
In 1974 Spokane hosted the World's Fair. This brought a lot of people and business into Spokane.

Spokane River

The Spokane River flows through the city. In downtown Spokane, there is a large waterfall called the Spokane Falls. The first buildings in Spokane were built near the falls.
The Spokane River has many dams that make energy for the people of Spokane.

Climate
In the Summer, Spokane is hot and dry. Spokane has cold and snowy Winters. Spring and Fall are very short.

Temperatures over  or less than  do not usually happen in Spokane. However, the hottest temperature in Spokane was , and the coldest was .

References

 
County seats in Washington (state)
1871 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Washington (state)
The M16 is an assault rifle used by the United States since the Vietnam War in 1963, based on the AR-15. Since 1975, the M16 has been used by many different countries. First designed by Eugene Stoner in the United States of America, it is currently the standard infantry rifle used by the United States Military Forces. The rifle is being used by over 80 nations.

The M16 uses the 5.56mm NATO (.223) caliber cartridge, with a muzzle velocity (the speed of bullet leaving the rifle) of over 900 meters per second (over 3,000 feet per second), and has a maximum effective range of 600 yards, with a rate of fire (how fast the gun shoots) of approximately 800 rounds per minute. The M16A1 can shoot semi automatic and fully automatic fire. The M16A2 can shoot semi automatic and three-round-burst fire. The M4A1 Carbine retains full automatic and semi automatic fire. The M16 normally holds 30 cartridges in its magazine, but there are variants of the magazine that hold only 20 or 10 cartridges.
There is also an M16 variant for the Canadian Army called Diemaco C-7. The Diemaco C-7 rifles have maple leaves on the left side.

Related pages 
 AR-15

References 
 Rose, Alexander. American Rifle-A Biography. 2008; Bantam Dell Publishing. .

Assault rifles
5.56 mm firearms
Rifles of the Cold War
Male mammals have a penis, and a glans penis. Usually, some skin covers the glans penis. This skin is called foreskin. Most male mammals either have a foreskin that covers the glans penis or a sheath in which the whole penis can retract.

Circumcision is the removal or shortening of this skin. It is often done for religious reasons. Sometimes it is done for medical reasons.

Female mammals have a clitoris. It also has a piece of skin protecting it, called clitoral hood.
Human foreskin
The outside of the foreskin is like normal skin but the inside of the foreskin is a membrane like the inside of an eyelid or  mouth. The foreskin is attached to the penis by the frenulum, but it can move. It is very stretchy. On the penis, the most sensitive areas to fine-touch are located on the foreskin. The foreskin can be pierced (have a hole for jewelry put through it) or slit (cut) for fashion reasons. If the foreskin is not cared for (by washing the inside) daily it produces smegma. Smegma is a mixture of epithelial (skin) cells, skin secretions and fluid, which accumulate under the foreskin of the penis. Smegma has strong bad-smelling odor and a bad taste, caused by lactic acid bacteria. The foreskin must be rolled back and washed to prevent smegma.

Retractability
Retractability

In older boys and adult males, the foreskin can be pulled back. In baby boys, the foreskin is usually attached to the glans of the penis and should not be forcibly pushed or pulled back for cleaning. In the United States, medical advice is usually that parents should gently pull back their son's foreskin part way back for cleaning after the baby is one year old. Soap should not be used -- just warm water. Pulling a baby's foreskin back too early (especially before six months of age) can damage it and cause scar tissue to form. When a parent is able to pull the foreskin back, it is important to do so gently and only pull it back as far as it will go. The parent should not make the baby cry or bleed. When the foreskin can be pulled back, the area under the foreskin needs to be cleaned every day. In Europe, where uncircumcised penises are much more common, parents are often told they do not need to pull back a boy's foreskin for washing.
American doctors may be more worried about possible kidney damage, especially scarring inside the kidneys. That can happen because of a bacterial infection that starts in the foreskin and urethra. The urethra is the tube urine (pee) comes out of. The infection often spreads to the bladder. While not as common, the infection can spread further to the kidneys. A serious kidney infection (called pyelonephritis) can cause scarring of the kidney. The boy may have very serious kidney problems and may even die because of a childhood urinary tract infection. Acute (very serious) pyelonephritis in the first years of life often leads to significant renal (kidney) damage that may progress to end-stage renal disease during adolescence. End-stage renal disease means the kidneys  no longer function well enough to meet the body's needs. If the person does not receive frequent kidney dialysis or a kidney transplant, the person will die.
European doctors may think it is more important that parents not touch their young boy's penis too much. The European attitude is that a boy should discover how to pull back his foreskin on his own. 

In any case, sometime between infancy and the onset of puberty, the foreskin separates from the glans of the penis and can slide back and forth over the glans of the penis. Often this happens sometime after age five. This happens because of normal erections during childhood. Erections stretch the foreskin. There is no "right" age for this to happen. Each child is different. 99% of foreskins are retractable by puberty. Once the foreskin becomes retractable, usually it will automatically retract with an erection. Alternatively, a male (or his sexual partner) may slide the foreskin back and forth over the glans of the penis to cause an erection.
Sensitivity in humans
The foreskin contains Meissner’s corpuscles, which are nerve endings involved in fine-touch sensitivity. They are most numerous in the “ridged band”, the junction of the inner and outer foreskin layers, and least numerous in the smooth inner layer of foreskin. Compared to other hairless skin areas on the body, the Meissner's index was highest in the finger tip (0.96) and lowest in the foreskin (0.28). The foreskin is the least sensitive hairless tissue of the body. A study also found that “the number of these nerve endings decreases significantly after the teenage to young adult years when sexual activity begins. This makes it very difficult to propose any sexual function for Meissner’s corpuscles. A more feasible hypothesis is to regard them as a juvenile phenomenon, perhaps serving to protect the penis until the onset of puberty reveals its sexual function.”
Studies in sexual sensation concluded that the glans, not the foreskin, is involved in sexual sensation, particularly the corona and frenular (the area under the frenulum) areas. Thus, speculation and outdated opinion pieces claiming special properties of the foreskin, such as in penile function and masturbation, should be viewed with skepticism.

Perhaps sensitivity of the foreskin to fine touch might have served as an “early warning system” in our naked upright forebears from the intrusion of biting insects and parasites while protecting the glans.

Use 

The foreskin can keep the glans penis comfortable, moist, and protect it.
In modern times, there is controversy regarding whether the foreskin is a vital or vestigial structure. During the physical act of sex, the foreskin reduces friction, which can reduce the need for additional sources of lubrication. "Some medical researchers, however, claim circumcised men enjoy sex just fine and that, in view of recent research on HIV transmission, the foreskin causes more trouble than it’s worth." The area of the outer foreskin measures between 7–100 cm2, and the inner foreskin measures between 18 and 68 cm2, which is a wide range. Regarding vestigial structures, Charles Darwin wrote, “An organ, when rendered useless, may well be variable, for its variations cannot be checked by natural selection.” In the March 2017 publication of the Global Health Journal: Science and Practice, Morris and Krieger wrote, "The variability in foreskin size is consistent with the foreskin being a vestigial structure
." It has been found that larger foreskins place uncircumcised men at an increased risk for HIV infection most likely due to the larger surface area of inner foreskin and the high concentration of Langerhans cells.
Moses and Bailey (1998), say that "it has not been demonstrated that [the foreskin] is associated with increased male sexual pleasure."

Circumcision of the foreskin 

Circumcision is when some or all of the foreskin is cut off. The removal of the foreskin can protect against certain medical conditions and infections. It is done to satisfy medical, religious, hygienic, ritual, and aesthetic views. Circumcision is common in many countries such as the United States, South Korea, Israel and Muslim countries.

Related pages
 Anatomy
 Circumcision
 Genitals
 Masturbation
 Human penis
 Smegma

References

Other websites
 Foreskin.org - Many pictures of human foreskin 

Anatomy of the male reproductive system
Sid Vicious (10 May 1957 – 2 February 1979) was an English punk musician. His real name was John Simon Ritchie and he was born in Lewisham, London. He was a member of the band The Sex Pistols from February 1977 to January 1978, but played his instrument (the bass guitar) very badly. His bad behaviour was more important to the band than playing his instrument well.

On 22 October 1978, his American girlfriend Nancy Spungen (19581978) was stabbed to death with a knife in New York City. It is not clear if Vicious killed her. He was charged with murder, and released on bail. Before he was due to go to court, he died of an accidental overdose of heroin in New York City.

A movie was made about the lives of Vicious and Spungen. The name of this movie is "Sid and Nancy." Gary Oldman plays Vicious.

Other websites

1957 births
1979 deaths
Bassists
British punk musicians
Drug-related accidental deaths in the United States
English rock musicians
Musicians from London
Sex Pistols
The Wii ( ; also known as the Nintendo Wii) is a video game home console made by Nintendo. It first came out on November 19, 2006, in North America. It plays video games made just for the Wii. The original model also plays games for the Nintendo GameCube. It was succeeded by the Wii U on November 18, 2012 which can play and use all Wii games and controllers. With over 101 million units sold, the Wii is Nintendo's second-highest-selling home console, after the Nintendo Switch. The original Wii and Wii Family Edition were discontinued on October 21, 2013, although the Wii Mini was still in production until November 13, 2017. The Wii received positive reviews.

Hardware
CPU: IBM "Broadway" processor at 1 GHz
GPU: ATI "Hollywood" at 243 MHz
Memory: 88 MB RAM
Storage: 512 MB of flash memory

Wii Channels
Wii Channels

There are many things called Channels on the Wii. They are called channels because, just like on TV, you can look through channels by pressing − and +. Each Wii Channel does something different. Some of them need to connect to the Internet to work, using either Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection or WiiConnect24, but some information that has been saved can be viewed without a connection to the Internet. WiiConnect24 could not be used anymore on June 27, 2013.

Disc Channel
Games can be played on this channel after a Wii game disc or Nintendo GameCube disc is put in the disc slot.

Wii Shop Channel 
The Wii Shop Channel was used to buy and download Virtual Console (old) games, WiiWare games, and other Wii channels. An Internet connection was needed to use this channel. The Wii Shop Channel closed on January 31, 2019.
Mii Channel
The Mii Channel is where a player can make an avatar called a Mii to represent them, either in the Mii Channel's online feature Mii Parade, or in games that allow using Miis and most other Wii channels mentioned here.

News Channel
The News Channel was used to look up news on different topics, ranging from national news to sports and entertainment. An Internet connection was needed to use this channel.

Forecast Channel
The Forecast Channel was used to check the weather forecast for most cities around the world. There was a feature that let you select your local area to receive weather updates. An Internet connection was needed to use this channel.

Everybody Votes Channel
The Everybody Votes Channel was a channel containing regularly updated polls. There were three national polls (updated on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays) along with one worldwide poll. An Internet connection was needed to use this channel.
Internet Channel
The Internet Channel allowed users to access the web. It is based on the Opera Browser. You would need an Internet connection to use this channel. On September 1, 2009, the Internet Channel became free to download after an update was released to support Adobe Flash. Refunds consisting of a free Virtual Console NES title worth 500 Wii Points were offered by Nintendo to Wii owners who had downloaded it before for the same price.

Check Mii Out Channel
The Check Mii Out Channel (known as the Mii Contest Channel in Europe) was used to send and pick up other Miis, and was also used in voting contests to see which Mii was the best. An Internet connection was needed to use this channel.

Nintendo Channel
The Nintendo Channel was used to watch videos, collect and send feedback on certain Wii titles, and download Nintendo DS game demos to a Nintendo DS using the DS Download Service. An Internet connection was needed to use this channel.
Today and Tomorrow Channel
The Today and Tomorrow Channel is a channel that was only released in Europe on September 9, 2009, used to view daily horoscopes. Up to six Mii characters can be registered. It offers advice on five topics: love, work, study, communication, and money. It also offers hints on food, fun, and care. Another feature is a Mii compatibility check.

Homebrew Channel
The Homebrew Channel is an unofficial (it does not come with the Wii) channel used for loading unofficial software, or homebrew. With Homebrew, you can do many things that the Wii cannot normally do on its own (play DVDs, stream media from a computer, run emulators, etc.).

Wii Speak Channel
The Wii Speak Channel is downloadable once you buy the Wii Speak, used in certain games like Animal Crossing: City Folk. An Internet connection is required to use the Wii Speak Channel.

Wii Remote
Wii Remote

The Wii Remote is a controller that is like a regular television remote. The Wii Remote uses accelerometers and infrared light sensors (from LEDs inside a 'sensor bar') to know where it is in 3D space. This lets people control the game using physical movement and by pressing buttons. The controller connects to the console using Bluetooth. It has a rumble feature (the controller shakes when the game being played tells it to do so) and a speaker inside the remote.
An attachment to the Wii Remote that comes with the Wii console and can also be bought by itself in stores is the Nunchuk controller. It also has an accelerometer and an analog stick with two buttons, and it connects to the bottom of the Wii Remote with a wire. A wrist strap can also be used to stop the player from dropping or throwing the Wii Remote. Because of problems with the straps, Nintendo has given all players a free stronger replacement for all straps. It also comes with a cover called the Wii Remote Jacket, which protects the Wii Remote and the thing that it hits from being damaged or broken. It also gives a stronger grip, which makes it harder for the Wii Remote to slide out of players' hands.

Attachments for the Wii Remote 
Nintendo and many other companies have made attachments for the Wii Remote. They are usually connected by a wire or by a small plug at the bottom of the Wii Remote.

Nunchuk
Nunchuk 

The Nunchuk is the most common attachment for the Wii Remote. It is made to fit perfectly into someone's hand. It comes packaged with the Wii. The Nunchuk has an analog stick on the front and two buttons on the back. A Nunchuk is needed for many Wii games, as it is required to move characters around the game. The name "Nunchuk" is a play on the word "Nunchuck" or "nunchaku".

Wii Motion Plus 
The Wii Motion Plus connects to the bottom of the Wii remote to help the sensors find the remote more accurately. It improves the playing of some games.

Classic Controller 

Nintendo has released a "classic" controller for the Wii. The design is similar to the SNES's controller, but it has two analog sticks and four shoulder buttons instead of two. It was mainly made for playing older games that can be bought from the Wii Shop Channel.
Zapper 
There is also a case that looks like a gun for the Wii Remote and Nunchuk. It is named the Zapper after a NES gun controller. When the Wii Remote and the Nunchuk are placed inside it, the shape of the controller in the player's hands changes. The Zapper does not actually plug into the Wii Remote. It just holds it in place. The Zapper also included a free, short game to help the player get used to it.

Instruments 
There are many pretend instruments made by Nintendo and other companies for playing music video games like Guitar Hero and Rock Band. So far, they have made guitars and drums. They plug into the bottom of the Wii Remote. There are also microphones that plug into the USB port on the back of the Wii console.

Wheel 
There is also a plastic wheel. These came with Mario Kart Wii and other racing or car driving games. The Wii remote goes into the middle of the wheel. There are some built-in buttons on the wheel to make it easier to reach the buttons on the remote.

Models
Models

Wii Family Edition
A revision of the Wii (also called the RVL-101) that was released near the end of its lifecycle was announced on August 17, 2011. This model is designed to only sit horizontally (with the buttons changed accordingly) and is incompatible with the Nintendo GameCube's software and its accessories. This model was released in North America on October 23, 2011, in Europe on November 4, 2011, and in Australia on November 11, 2011. It was not released in any Asian countries. The Wii Family Edition includes a black console, the game New Super Mario Bros. Wii, and the Super Mario Galaxy: Original Soundtrack.

Wii Mini
Another late-cycle revision of the Wii (also called the RVL-201) was announced on November 27, 2012. As its name suggests, the Wii Mini is the smallest model of the Wii. Like the Family Edition, it is not compatible with GameCube games or its accessories. In addition, it also does not have online features and several built-in channels, such as the Photo Channel and the Weather Channel, similar to the Wii Mode on the Wii U. It also can only sit horizontally. The main feature is its notable redesign. Unlike the original Wii and Family Edition, which are mostly white, the Wii Mini is black with a red frame. All the buttons are located on the top of the console, and it lacks online support for Wii games. Additionally, the Wii Mini has a manually operated top-loading disc drive (similar to that of the GameCube) instead of the slots that former models have. The console launched in Canada on December 7, 2012 for $99.99. It was then released in Europe on March 15, 2013 at a cost of at least $79.99
.99. It was then launched in the UK on March 22, 2013 for $99.99. It was finally launched in North America on November 17, 2013, bundled with a red Wii Remote Plus and a red Nunchuk for $99.99. Like its predecessor, the Wii Mini was not released in any Asian countries and it was not released in Australia either. The Wii Mini is the third home Nintendo console since the SNES and NES to receive a redesign right after their respective successors launched though the NES 101 model launched two years after the SNES launched. The N64 received no redesigns of any kind, and the GameCube had a small revision that lacked the unused Serial Port 2 (though the cover still remains) and the unpopular Digital AV Out port.
Reception 
The Guardian titled the Wii one of the 10 most influential video game consoles.

IGN ranked the Wii 10th among the best video game consoles.

Related pages
Xbox 360
Nintendo 64
Nintendo GameCube
Nintendo DS
Nintendo DSi
Nintendo DSi XL
Nintendo 3DS
Wii U
Nintendo Switch
Wii Points

Sources

Other websites

 Official Wii website 

Wii hardware
Seventh generation consoles
Joseph Strutt was an English engraver in 1749. He put patterns into objects (like words into stone) and collected things from the past. He died in 1802.

1749 births
1802 deaths
English artists
People from Essex
English writers
Patricia "Tricia" Nixon Cox was born on February 21, 1946 in Whittier, California. She is the daughter of former US president Richard Nixon and Pat Nixon. She is the older sister of Julie Nixon Eisenhower.

Unlike her sister, Tricia performed many ceremonial jobs, like going with her father to campaign stops and state visits. She married Edward F. Cox on June 12, 1971. she has 1 son 

She tutored inner-city children.

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1946 births
Living people
Children of Presidents of the United States
People from Whittier, California