Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Champagnes have different names depending on how much sugar is added. Here is a list of kinds of champagnes from least sweet (called "dry") to most sweet (called "wet"/"doux"):
 brut zéro or brut natural - no sugar is added
extra brut
 brut
 extra-dry
 sec
 demi-sec
 doux

Brut is the most common type of champagne.

Features 

Champagne, like all sparkling wines, is carbonated. Because of all the bubbles, champagne is sometimes called bubbly (ex. "We're going to have bubbly at our wedding.")

Champagne can be opened in a way that the cork "pops" out and the champagne sprays out in a bubbly foam. Usually this is done only at celebrations. It can be achieved by shaking the bottle before opening it. Normally, care should be taken when opening champagne bottles so that it does not make a mess. When done correctly, the cork will come out quietly, more like a sigh than a pop.

Champagne is usually served in a champagne flute (a tall, narrow glass). The shape of the glass helps keep the bubbles for a longer time.
Champagne is always served cold (chilled). The best temperature is 7 to 9 °C (43 to 48 °F). Often the bottle is chilled in a bucket of ice before and after opening.

How to say it 
In English it is pronounced like "shampain" (). In French is sounds more like "shampanye" ().

References 
 Guy, Kolleen. When Champagne became French: Wine and the Making of a National Identity. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.
 Robinson, Jancis (Ed.) The Oxford Companion to Wine. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, second edition, 1999.
 Prial, Frank J. Decantations. New Yrk: St. Maritin's and grifin Publishers, 2001, p. 24.

Other websites 
 Champagne reviews and tasting notes

French wines
Marne
Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion (little Caesar; ; June 23, 47 BC – August, 30 BC) was the son of Cleopatra VII. He ruled Egypt as a child along with Cleopatra until 30 BC. He was murdered by Octavian, who would later become the Roman emperor Augustus.

Caesarion is probably the son of Julius Caesar. If so, he is the only known son of Caesar.

Caesarion was the last king (pharaoh) of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt.

1st millennium BC pharaohs
47 BC births
30 BC deaths
Lorca is a town in Murcia, Spain. The 2010 census recorded that 92,694 people live there. On 11 May 2011, an earthquake occurred, causing the deaths of ten people.

References

Towns in Spain
Municipalities in the Region of Murcia
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin was born 6 June (26 May, Old Style) 1799, Moscow, and died 10 February 1837 (29 January, New Style), St Petersburg. He was a Russian poet, novelist, dramatist and writer of short stories. 

Many think he was the greatest Russian poet. He started the great tradition of Russian literature. Pushkin wrote in a way that no other Russian had done before: he used the Russian language as it was spoken instead of writing in a style based on old church books. His influence on other Russian writers was enormous and several Russian composers set his stories and poems to music. His poetry is very hard to translate well into other languages because the words are full of special meanings in Russian culture. His novels, especially Eugene Onegin, are widely read.

Pushkin’s great-grandfather was an African slave who was set free by Tzar Peter the Great. Pushkin was killed in a duel in 1837 at the age of 37.
Early years 
Pushkin's father came from an old aristocratic family. On his mother's side Pushkin had African ancestors. His great-grandfather Abram Gannibal was an Abyssinian who was living in a palace of the Turkish sultan in Istanbul. The Russian ambassador bought him as a present for Peter the Great, the tsar of Russia. Gannibal became a favourite of Peter the Great and he was sent to Paris to study. He became very rich. Pushkin was proud of his great-grandfather and wrote about him in a novel called The Negro of Peter the Great.

In 19th century Russia all aristocratic families learned to speak French, so Pushkin and his brother and sister spoke and wrote in French more than in Russian. The children were cared for by a nurse, Arina Rodionovna Yakovleva. It was the nurse who taught them to love the Russian language. She told the children Russian folktales. Pushkin also spoke Russian to the peasants and he read many books in his father's library.
When he was 12 he went to a new school called the Imperial Lyceum at Tsarskoye Selo. Years later this school was renamed Pushkin after their famous pupil. He soon started writing romantic poems in Russian using Russian tales of heroes and adventures. Ruslan and Ludmila was a poem that was later to be made into an opera by Mikhael Glinka.
Adulthood 
In 1817, Pushkin got a job in the foreign office at St. Petersburg. He soon became interested in politics and supported the Decembrist revolt of 1825 when a group of noblemen and army officers tried to put another tsar in power and make him less powerful. Pushkin wrote some political poems. The result was that he was told he had to leave St. Petersburg. He had to spend six years in exile in the south of the country: in the Caucasus and the Crimea. He wrote about his experiences in the south in several romantic narrative poems (long poems which tell a story). He started work on a novel in verse called Yevgeny Onegin (or Eugene Onegin). He did not finish it until 1833. This was to be his most famous work. It was used by many musicians including Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky who made it into an opera. The poem shows typical Russian people in the society of his day.
Pushkin was angry that he was still in exile and he wrote many letters to his friends. Many of these letters were later published. He spent a lot of time drinking, gaming and fighting with swords. He fell in love with the daughter of a Count for whom he was working. The Count managed to get Pushkin exiled to his mother's estate near Pskov at the other end of Russia. Pushkin spent two years here. He was lonely, but he studied Russian history and talked to the peasants. The poems he wrote were full of ideas from Russian culture. He wrote one of his major works: Boris Godunov, a drama about a story from Russian history. The composer Modest Mussorgsky later made an opera from it. Boris Godunov was a cruel tsar in the 17th century. Pushkin's play shows that the ordinary people had a lot of power. This made it difficult for Pushkin to get it published.
Return from exile 
After the revolt in 1825 the new tsar Nicholas I realized that Pushkin was by now very famous. He also realized that he had not taken part in the revolt, so he allowed him to return. The tsar said that he himself would censor Pushkin's works before they were allowed to be published. He said that he was going to be a good tsar and help the poor people (the serfs) to become free. Pushkin was in a difficult position because he could not write anything that the tsar would not like.

He had to be very careful not to say bad things about the rulers of the country. The police watched him very carefully. Yet at this time Pushkin wrote a large number of great works, almost each one of them being the first of their kind in Russian literature. One example is the short story The Queen of Spades, which Tchaikovsky made into an opera and which was to be a great influence on the novels of Fyodor Dostoevsky.
Last years 
In his last years, Pushkin was again in government service in St. Petersburg. He married in 1831 and had to spend a lot of time in society at court. He wrote more and more prose. He wrote a history of Peter the Great and a historical novel The Captain's Daughter. He kept asking the tsar to let him resign from his job and go to the country to spend his time writing. The tsar would not allow that. In 1837, Pushkin was killed in a duel. He had been forced to fight the duel in order to defend his wife's honour.
Pushkin’s achievements 
The Russian language today would be very different if it had not been for Pushkin. Using the language as it was spoken by the people he made it into a language which was simple but which could also express deep feelings. His works were a great influence on later writers like Ivan Turgenev, Ivan Goncharov and Leo Tolstoy. Yevgeny Onegin was the first Russian novel which told a story about the society of the time. His works have been translated into all the major languages

Related pages
List of Russian language poets
List of Russian-language novelists

Other websites 
 Eugene Onegin
 Pushkin works available from archive.org (various languanges)
 Pushkin poetical works
  Alexander Pushkin Fairy Tales: Russian Text

Deaths by firearm in Russia
Russian writers
Russian poets
1799 births
1837 deaths
Exile means being sent away from the country or area where you live.  People are usually exiled for political reasons or sometimes because they have committed a crime.  They may have said bad things about the rulers in that country or tried to get into power themselves. People are not exiled in democratic countries, but many famous people in history have been sent into exile.

Exile may mean that someone is sent out of the country, but sometimes they are sent to another part of the country (this is called "internal exile").  Sometimes people have made their own decision to leave their country as a protest against the way it was being ruled.  This is called "self-imposed exile".
In the Old Testament the Jews were exiled to Babylon.  In Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome people were often sent into exile.  For several centuries Russia (in the 20th century the Soviet Union) sent many people into exile, often to labour camps in Siberia.  Thousands of people from Europe including many famous people went to the United States when the Nazis came to power in Germany in the 1930s.

One famous person who was sent into exile was Napoléon Bonaparte who was exiled from France, first to Elba and then to Saint Helena after his defeat against the allied forces.

The cellist Pablo Casals went into self-imposed exile as a protest against the government of Francisco Franco. He said he would not come back until Spain was a democracy. But he never could, because he died two years before Franco.

Related pages
Government-in-exile
Political asylum

Punishments
Lager (which is short for Lager beer) is a kind of beer. It is made from a kind of yeast. Fermentation will be a slow process. It usually has a clear color. That color comes from the beer being stored for some time. During that time, the yeast can settle at the bottom of the barrel. The yeast is removed before the beer is bottled or served. 

Lagers are usually drunk while they are cold.
Types of beer
Ryszard Kapuściński ; 4 March 1932 – 23 January 2007) was a popular Polish journalist. He was well regarded both at home, and abroad. During his life he became known for his way of reporting news. He was a foreign correspondent for the Polish press agency. He was shortlisted as a candidate for the Nobel Prize for Literature, but also received many other awards. He is one of the Polish authors whose works get translated most often.

Kapuscinski, Ryszard
Kapuscinski, Ryszard
1932 births
2007 deaths
The Republican National Committee (the R.N.C. or RNC) is a group of people who coordinate the activities of the U.S. Republican party in all fifty states.  The R.N.C. has its headquarters in Washington, DC. It also has state Republican party headquarters in each of the 50 state capitals.

The current chairwoman of the committee is Ronna Romney McDaniel of Michigan.

Related pages
Democratic National Committee
Libertarian National Committee

Other websites 
Official RNC website 

Republican Party (United States)
The Democratic National Committee (D.N.C. or DNC) is a group of people who coordinate the activities of the U.S. Democratic party in all fifty states. The D.N.C. is headquartered in the nation's capital, Washington, DC. It also has state Democratic party headquarters in each of the 50 state capitals.

The current chairman is Jaime Harrison of South Carolina and the deputy chairman is Gretchen Whitmer of Michigan.

Related pages
 Republican National Committee
 Libertarian National Committee

Other websites 
 Official DNC website

Democratic Party (United States)
The Four Corners is the place in the Southwestern United States where the four corners of New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, and Arizona meet. Three of the four corners (AZ, NM, UT) are on the Navajo Indian Reservation and the fourth corner (CO) is on the Ute Mountain Indian Reservation.

The Four Corners Monument is at the coordinates .

References

Geography of New Mexico
Geography of Colorado
Geography of Utah
Geography of Arizona
The Southwestern United States (called the American Southwest or simply the Southwest) is a portion of the country mostly considered located in the western region of the United States. It is warmer than the northern states and drier than the eastern states. Depending on the source, the area almost always includes Arizona and New Mexico, All or parts of Southern California, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado may also be trans-pecos "horn" of far western Texas. The nearby striped states may also be conidered part of this region, as may the trans-pecos "horn" portion of far western Texas. The striped states of California,Nevada, Utah, and Colorado are all also classified as part of the "West" by the United States Census Bureau, while Texas and Oklahoma are considered part of the "South" by the same Bureau(see "United States Census Bureau Regions and Divisions"). The Southwest is growing. Big cities in the area are Phoenix, Las Vegas, El Paso, Albuquerque, and Tucson. It is one of the fastest growing parts of the country
The main parts of the Southwest are the ones that were in Santa Fe de Nuevo México and the New Mexico Territory.

Western United States
A flagellum (plural: flagella) is a long, whip-like structure that helps some single celled organisms move. It is composed of microtubules. They help propel cells and organisms in a whip-like motion. The flagellum of eukaryotes usually moves with an “S” motion, and is surrounded by cell membrane.

Flagella are structurally almost identical with the much smaller Cilia. So much so that it has been proposed protists bearing either should be unified in the Phylum Undulipodia. Previously, Margulis had proposed that the Ciliates alone should be placed in a Phylum Ciliophora. Admittedly, the Protista is a collection of disparate single-celled forms, but while a more sophisticated taxonomy is in flux (changing), Protista is still a useful term.
Cilia and flagella are cell organelles, specialised units which carry out well-defined functions, like mitochondria and plastids. It is fairly clear now that all or most of these organelles have their origin in once-independent prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea), and that the eukaryote cell is a 'community of micro-organisms' working together in 'a marriage of convenience'.

Types 
Three types of flagella have so far been distinguished; bacterial, archaeal and eukaryotic. The main differences among these three types are summarized below:
Bacterial flagella are helical filaments that rotate like screws. They provide two of several kinds of bacterial motility.
 Archaeal flagella are superficially similar to bacterial flagella, but are different in many details and considered non-homologous.
 Eukaryotic flagella – those of animal, plant, and protist cells – are complex cellular projections that lash back and forth.  Eukaryotic flagella are classed along with eukaryotic motile cilia as undulipodia to emphasize their distinctive wavy appendage role in cellular function or motility.  Primary cilia are immotile, and are not undulipodia; they have a structurally different 9+0 axoneme rather than the 9+2 axoneme found in both flagella and motile cilia undulopodia.

References

Other websites 
 Molecular Machines Index of Illustrations, Graphics, and Animations 
 Physics Today introduction to the bacterial flagellum by Howard Berg 

Protista
Organelles
The Walkman is the invention as well as the brand name of Sony. It represents a portable audio player. Today, similar devices are also called "Walkman". The name describes players that have small sizes and can be carried by one anywhere. The portable player was a revolutionary device since one could take favorite music with him or her.

History 

The  original Walkman cassette player was released in 1979. The name "Walkman" was used in Japan, while abroad it had other names, one of which was "Soundabout". First the product did not have a name, and then one of the company's staff proposed "Walkman". Because it was a direct translation from Japanese, Sony's leadership seemed skeptical. They thought "Walkman" was not a suitable name for a device which was to be launched in the United States and Europe.
Sony used new ways to introduce its new product on the market and advertise it. The main idea of Sony was to make people aware that Walkman is a product that is unique on the market and that it is both new and fun. On June 22 (the date of release), Sony Walkman appeared in Tokyo. The company held an unusual press conference where different journalists were invited to Yoyogi, which is Tokyo's major park. They were given a Walkman to prove that the portable player is fun and easy to use. 

By 1995 there were already about 150 million Walkman portable players produced. Later, MP3 players became more popular.

Related pages

 Sony
 Japan
 iPod
 MP3
 Laptop
 DVD
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Audio technology
Music technology
Semantics is the study of meaning. Meaning in this case refers to the relation between signifiers and what they stand for. Signifiers are words, signs and symbols.

The word semantics was first used by a French man named Michel Bréal. He studied the way that language was put together, how language changed as time passed, and the connections in languages. Semantics can include simple or very complicated ideas.  In everyday speech, it means a problem with understanding language that can confuse because of the words or their connotation (another idea created by a word that is not in its definition).  This problem of understanding has been studied for a long time, especially in the field of formal semantics, where people explain the connection between words and their meanings in a clear way.
In linguistics (the study of language), semantics is the study of the attempts to understand signs or symbols used in agents (the words that cause an action) or communities in different situations. Other items of language that are said to have meaning are sounds, facial expressions, body language, and proxemics, which is the use of personal space. Each of these topics connects to many ways of studying. In writing, things like the way paragraphs are written and the use of punctuation show meaning. Other types of language create other meanings.

Formal semantics is sometimes similar to many other areas of language study. Some of these are lexicology (study of words), syntax (ordering of words), pragmatics (the study of language in different situations), and etymology (the history of words). Semantics is also a well-defined field on its own.

References

Linguistics
Governance is the term for the way a group of people such as a country do things. Many groups create a government to decide how things are to be done. Governance is different from politics. Politics deals with people with different ideas working together to create an agreement about what to do, and governance is doing what politics decided needed to be done.Governance is also how government decision making affects people in that nation.

Government
Political science
A snowball is a ball of snow. They are usually made by a person picking snow up in their hands and pressing it together in the ball the size of their hand. Snowballs are usually thrown at people or objects as a game called a snowball fight. Making snowballs is a common activity for children when it snows. 

Larger snowballs are made by using a ball the size of a hand and rolling it on the ground. As more snow sticks to it, the ball grows larger. Larger snowballs are often used to make Snowmen. The term "Snowball effect" comes from this. It means as things go on, they get more serious in the same way that a snowball gets larger as it rolls.

Snow
MPEG-4 is a video and audio standard (type). Movies in MPEG-4 need less space on a computer. At the same time, they still have DVD quality. MPEG means Moving Picture Experts Group. Many researchers and engineers all over the world worked to develop MPEG-4. The work on this standard ended in 1998. MPEG-4 became a standard all over the world.

Movies that use MPEG-4 standard are high quality and take up less computer memory. Older standards were MPEG-1 and MPEG-2. Compared to these older versions, MPEG-4 has more features. For example, it has a way to fix problems, lots of quality and size choices, and a better picture quality.
MPEG-4 is designed for the special needs of computers, television areas and telecommunications. It is able to be individual objects in a certain area, besides rectangular pieces of computer information. For example, this could be a car driving in front of a background. The background does not change. The car can be treated as separate thing, because it is not a fixed background. This is because MPEG-4 can be many rectangular images at the same time.

Related pages
VHS
DVD
MP3

Other websites 
MPEG-4  - Additional information on the format for more advanced users

Computer file formats
Audio technology
Display technology
Warship was a popular British television drama series produced by the BBC between 1973 and 1977.

The series was about life on board a Royal Navy warship, the fictional HMS Hero. It was mainly filmed aboard the Leander-class frigate HMS Phoebe.

Four Leander class frigates played the role of HMS Hero. They were HMS Phoebe, HMS Dido, HMS Hermione and HMS Jupiter. All the crews of these warships were given HMS Hero cap tallies for filming purposes.

The creator of the series was a serving Royal Navy officer, Ian Mackintosh. He wrote three books based on episodes of the series. They were simultaneously published in hardback and paperback. The books were:
 Warship (published in 1973);
 HMS Hero (published in 1976);
 and Holt RN (published in 1977).

The opening music of the series was a march played by the Royal Marines, called Warship, and written by Anthony Isaac. It is still played by Royal Marine bands.
Related pages
 Ian Mackintosh
 HMS Hero
 HMS Phoebe (F42)
 HMS Dido (F104)
 HMS Hermione (F58)
 HMS Jupiter (F60)
 Leander class frigate
 Royal Navy
 Royal Marines
 Fleet Air Arm
 Frigate

Other websites 
 Warship Episode Guide
 British Film Institute site on Warship 
 Royal Navy leaflet on Warship, from the HMS Phoebe Association website
 Comments on Warship by series Director Michael Briant
 Webpage (at Home > Scriptwriting > Warship) about Michael J Bird's scripts for Warship
 HMS Phoebe Association website
 HMS Dido Association website 
 HMS Jupiter Association website
 HMS Hermione Association website 
 Ian Mackintosh's Royal Navy service record on Opsromm.org 
 

Royal Navy
Naval transport
Ships
English-language television programs
Jerry Lewis, born as  Joseph  Levitch, (March 16, 1926 – August 20, 2017) was an American comedian, actor, singer, director and humanitarian. He was of Jewish descent. He was best known for acting in comedy movies in the 1950s and 1960s such as The Nutty Professor. He also helped to raise money for people with muscular dystrophy, through the Muscular Dystrophy Association.

Lewis was born in Newark, New Jersey. He studied at Irvington High School though he dropped out in his sophomore year.

Lewis first became famous as part of Martin & Lewis, working with singer Dean Martin. They worked together for ten years. They appeared on stage, radio and television, and in movies. They stopped working together in 1956 and did not speak for years. They reunited a few times from the 1970s to the 1990s.
Lewis directed of many of his movies. He was the first director to use video cameras with movie cameras, to help with filming scenes. Film takes time to process, but videotape can be played back right away, saving time and work if a scene needs to be redone. Other directors soon started using his technique, and it is still used today.

During the 1970s, Lewis' movies became less popular. He moved away from acting and directing. In the 1990s, he returned to performing onstage. He continued to perform during the 2000s.

Lewis was a Republican though he was friends with President John F. Kennedy. He supported Presidents Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump.

Lewis died at his home in Las Vegas, Nevada at 9:15 AM of cardiomyopathy on August 20, 2017 at the age of 91.
Movies
Jerry Lewis acted in many movies, including: 
The Stooge (1952)
Hollywood or Bust (1956)
The Bellboy (1960)
The Errand Boy (1961)
The Patsy (1964)
The Disorderly Orderly (1964)
Three on a Couch (1966)
Way... Way Out (1966)
Don't Raise the Bridge, Lower the River (1967)
The Big Mouth (1967)
Silent Treatment (1968)
Hook, Line & Sinker (1969)

References

Other websites 
 Official Jerry Lewis website 
 
 Italian Jerry Lewis fansite
1926 births
2017 deaths
Actors from New Jersey
American movie actors
American movie directors
American movie producers
Philanthropists from Nevada
American screenwriters
American television actors
American television personalities
American television presenters
American voice actors
Deaths from cardiomyopathy
Comedians from Newark, New Jersey
Humanitarians
Jewish American actors
Jewish American musicians
Jewish American writers
Jewish businesspeople
Jewish philanthropists
Republicans (United States)
Singers from New Jersey
Writers from New Jersey
Businesspeople from Newark, New Jersey
Businesspeople from Las Vegas
Actors from Las Vegas
Writers from Las Vegas
Singers from Las Vegas
Comedians from Las Vegas
Breakdance (also called breaking, b-boying or b-girling) is a type of dance that is done by people who are part of the hip hop culture. B-boy means boy who dances on breaks (breakbeats). Breakdancing was invented in the early 1970s by African American and Latino American inner-city youth in the South Bronx in New York City.The dance style evolved during the 70s and 80s in big cities of the United States.

Breakdancing uses different body movements, spins, arm movements, leg movements, all of which are done to the rhythm of hip hop music. Breakdancing was most popular in the 1980s but continues to be common today.

There are four categories in breakdance. They are power moves (windmill, tomas, airtrax and so on), style moves, toprock, downrock (footwork), and freezes (chair, airchair and so on). Many of moves come from gymnastics and kung-fu.
Breakdancers dance with breakbeats. The difficulty of their skills decides the better b-boy. One of the biggest breakdance contests in the world is Battle of the Year (BOTY). It has several different types of contests. There are one-on-one battles, team battle, contest of showcase and so on. B-boy battle means dancing on random music. In 2013, the team coming from South Korea, Fusion MC, won the championship. Floorriorz coming from Japan got the award of best show.Good behavior with the sub

History
Breakdance occurred around a time where there was a lot of violence, on the streets of New York
Important Movements
A freeze is a technique where the dancer suddenly stops, often in an interesting or balance-intensive position. Freezes often incorporate various twists of the body into stylish and often difficult positions.
The two-step move sets up the direction of movement and builds up momentum when dancing. This move allows the dancer to stay low and in contact with the ground, which places him in a good position for performing other dance moves.  As such, the two-step is often one of the first moves a break-dancer learns and it leads onto the 6-step.
A kick in breakdance is a one-handed handstand, with often an impressive leg position and the free arm in some stylish position. They are often executed quickly to impress. Watch Grease this will help, or you can watch So You Think You Can Dance. This movie and show will help understand your understanding of breakdance.

Literature
-Guillaume Éradel, C'est quoi le breakdance? Saint-Denis, Edilivre, 2015 ()

References

Dance types
Hip hop
Constantine is a 2005 American superhero horror movie starring Keanu Reeves and Rachel Weisz. It is based on a comic book series called Hellblazer.

The main character, John Constantine, fights demons.

Other websites
 

2005 fantasy movies
2005 horror movies
2000s superhero movies
2000s American fantasy movies
American science fiction horror movies
Cancer in movies
2000s English-language movies
Movies set in Los Angeles
DC Comics movies
Warner Bros. movies
2000s apocalyptic movies
American superhero movies
East Anglia is a region of eastern England. It is named after an ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdom, which was named after the homeland of the Angles, Angeln in northern Germany. The kingdom consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk ("North folk" and "South folk") but the region's borders are vague. 

Farming and gardening are very successful in this fertile country. The landscape has been heavily influenced by Dutch technology. 

Regions of England
Petty kingdoms of England
Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir (, ; ; 9 January 1908 – 14 April 1986) was a French author (writer) and philosopher (person who writes about ways of thinking).

She wrote novels (stories in a book), articles about philosophy ways of thinking or ways of living, and politics, biographies (books about other people's lives) and an autobiography (a book about her life).

Her best known books are She Came to Stay and The Mandarins. Her best known writing about ideas is The Second Sex, which was written in 1949. It describes the bad experiences of women in European society, and suggests how women's lives can be improved.

Early years 
Her full name was Simone Lucie-Ernestine-Marie-Bertrand de Beauvoir. She was born on January 9, 1908 in Paris. She studied mathematics and ways of thinking at the Institut Catholique. Then she studied literature and languages at the Institut Sainte-Marie. As well, she studied ways of thinking at the Sorbonne, which is at the University of Paris.
Her writing; personal life 
In 1943, de Beauvoir published She Came to Stay, a story about her lover Jean-Paul Sartre (who was also a writer and a philosopher). Next, she wrote a novel called The Mandarins, which won prize.

In 1944 de Beauvoir wrote an article called Pyrrhus et Cinéas, which was about a way of thinking about hard choices that people have to make.

In 1949, she wrote Le deuxième sexe. It was translated by Howard Parshley to The Second Sex. It describes the bad experiences of women in European society, and suggests how women's lives can be improved. The book also discussed ways of thinking about hard choices.

At the end of World War II, de Beauvoir and Sartre started a newspaper about ways of living called Les Temps Modernes.

De Beauvoir was bisexual and had sexual relationships with some of her female students.

She died of pneumonia. She is buried next to Sartre at the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris.
Some of the books she wrote 
 The Blood of Others, (1945)
 Who Shall Die?, (1945)
 The Second Sex, (1949)
 The Mandarins, (1954)
 The Prime of Life, (1960)
 When Things of the Spirit Come First, (1979)

Books about Simone de Beauvoir 
 Beauvoir, Simone de. Woman: Myth & Reality,
 in Jacobus, Lee A (ed.) A World of Ideas. Bedford/St. Martins, Boston 2006. 780-795

References

Other websites 
 The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Simone de Beauvoir by Shannon Mussett. Includes a bibliography of her work in English translation.
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Simone de Beauvoir by Debra Bergoffen. Extensive bibliography.
 Guardian Books "Author Page", with profile and links to further articles.

1908 births
1986 deaths
20th-century French philosophers
Abortion-rights activists
Bisexual people
Feminist writers
French atheists
French autobiographers
French feminists
French LGBT writers
French novelists
LGBT feminists
LGBT novelists
Writers from Paris
Katherine "Katie" Anne Couric (born January 7, 1957) was a co-host of the top-rated Today show, broadcast live on NBC affiliates, from 1991 until late 2006, earning nearly $14 million each year for the last 4 years of her contract. 

Couric was born in Arlington, Virginia. She was hired by the news division at CBS in late 2006 to anchor and be the main editor of the CBS Evening News, which operated with temporary anchors after Dan Rather's departure.  Ratings have been disappointly low despite the initial fanfare and introduction of new theme music at the beginning of each show.  In 2021, Couric was a guest host on the syndicated quiz show Jeopardy! following the death of Alex Trebek.
Couric is active in charities, especially related to colon cancer, after the death of her husband (to colon cancer) in 1998. Couric received a colonoscopy on live television in March 2000. She also released pictures of her mammogram on television. She voiced a fish version of herself named Katie Current from the 2004 animated comedy movie Shark Tale.

Couric has two daughters, Ellie and Caroline.

References

American journalists
Television personalities from Virginia
American movie actors
American voice actors
Actors from Arlington County, Virginia
1957 births
Living people
During the history of slavery, there were many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures. Slavery is a condition in which people are owned or completely controlled by other people. Buying and selling slaves is a trade as old as many of the oldest civilizations. A modern form of the slave trade is called human trafficking.

History of the slave trade
Early civilizations 
Once slavery became a major part of the workforce, slave trading became a business. Ancient Greece was the first civilization where slaves made up a large part of the population. Between the 4th and 6th centuries (BC) it is estimated that from one-third to one-half of the population were slaves. There were many sources of slaves. Prisoners captured in war, kidnapping, people selling their children and criminals were some of the more common sources. The market price for slaves would go down after a battle in which many slaves were taken. Slavery was a large part of the Greek economy. A slave could earn money and could earn enough to purchase their freedom. Ancient Rome was even more dependent on slaves.
Medieval Europe 
Slavery was also a part of medieval Europe. Societies that did not depend on slaves were often the source of slaves. In the Viking world, slavery was an important part of the economy. Not only the taking of slaves in raids and battles, but also selling slaves in other markets. The Vikings were slave traders. They captured, used, and sold slaves. Most forms of slavery declined in Northern Europe but was practiced elsewhere in Europe. In Sicily, Italy, Spain, France, Russia and North Africa slavery lasted through much of the middle ages. Most of these slaves were "white" and came from other parts of Europe and Eastern Europe. As the New World was colonized, slavery was a well-established source of cheap labour. By the time Columbus came to the Americas, Europeans had already been using African slaves in their colonies in West Africa.

Africa
Historians estimate that between 650 AD and the 1960s, 10 to 18 million people were enslaved by the Arab world. They were taken from Europe, Asia and Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and the Sahara desert. For four centuries, beginning in the late 15th century, millions of Africans were taken as slaves by Europeans. They got this idea from the Arab empires which had been taking black slaves from Africa since the 7th century. Europeans began exporting Africans to the New World as a source of cheap labor on colonial plantations.  This was called the Atlantic slave trade. Early attempts to enslave Native Americans failed which gave rise to the African slave trade. Africans were a relatively easy source of slaves as European traders did not have to capture them, but relied on Arabs and other Africans to do it for them. Even before outside slave traders took advantage of Africans, the Africans themselves had established slave trading. Theirs was not an economy based on money, but on trading
. Slaves were a commodity (a substitute for money).
Slave sales 

 
Slaves were often sold at markets and auctions. Slave auctions show that slaves were not thought of as human beings with human rights. Instead, they were thought of as property, which could be bought or sold. Slaves that were for sale were often advertised in the newspapers, like today's newspapers advertise cars or houses.  Slave traders were even listed in public directories (like today's phone books).p. 96

Slaves did not have any say in what happened to them. Many times, families were split up and sold to different owners for different amounts of money. Millions of families became separated this way and never saw each other again.

Types of auction

There were three types of auctions: Grab and go, May the highest bidder win, and the scramble.
In a "grab and go" auction, a buyer would give the slave trader a certain amount of money and would get a ticket. When a drum roll sounded, the pen holding the slaves would open. The buyer would rush in and grab the slave or slaves that he wanted. He would then show his ticket to the slave trader before he left.

In a "may the highest bidder win" auction, slaves would be shown to the buyers one at a time. If more than one buyer wanted a particular slave, all of the buyers would have to bid on the slave (making offers for what they were willing to pay). Slaves would be investigated by the buyer and would be forced to be poked, and tortured by the buyer. The buyer who bid the highest would be able to buy that slave for the amount of money he bid.

In "the scramble," buyers would quickly grab whichever slaves they wanted and would take them to work.

Slaves were prepared for this when the sellers put fat and tar on them to make them look more healthy
Related pages
 Slavery
 Arab slave trade
 Atlantic slave trade
 The Middle Passage
 Human trafficking

Other websites
 Examples of advertisements that listed slaves for sale  (South Carolina Historical Society)
 Primary sources about slave auctions (written by freed slaves about what slave auctions were like)

References

Slavery
This is a list of U.S. states (and the one federal district, Washington, D.C.) and territories showing their time zones.

Most of the United States uses Daylight Saving Time (DST) in the summer. In the list, it will say if the state does not use DST.

Note: the time zones listed on this page are listed in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) as well as the names of the time zones as they are called within the United States. For an explanation on what UTC+# and UTC-# mean, please see the UTC page.

Zones
 These are the times zones that are used by the United States and its territories:
 UTC-12: Anywhere on Earth (AoE)
UTC-11: Samoa Standard Time (ST)
 UTC-10: Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time (HAT)
UTC-9: Alaska Standard Time (AKT)
 UTC−8: Pacific Standard Time (PT)
 UTC−7: Mountain Standard Time (MT)
 UTC−6: Central Standard Time (CT)
 UTC−5: Eastern Standard Time (ET)
 UTC−4: Atlantic Standard Time (AST)
 UTC+10: Chamorro Standard Time (ChT)
 UTC+12: Wake Island Time Zone (WIT)
States, Territories and Federal Districts

Other websites
 Official time zone site of the U.S.A. government 

Time zone, List of U.S. states by
Time zones in the United States
The Central Line is a line of the London Underground. Its colour is red on the tube map. It runs east-west through London. The line was the longest line until the line between Epping and Ongar was closed. Outside the rush hours trains run every 3-4 minutes in Central London and every 6-7 minutes on the branches.

Map

Stations 

In order from west to east. Station in italics are not in the on the Central line anymore

West Ruislip branch 
 Terminus: West Ruislip, opened 21 November 1948
 Ruislip Gardens, opened 21 November 1948.
 South Ruislip, opened 21 November 1948.
 Northolt, opened 21 November 1948.
 Greenford, opened 30 June 1947.
 Perivale, opened 30 June 1947.
 Hanger Lane, opened 30 June 1947.

branch joins at North Acton:

Ealing Broadway branch 
 Terminus: Ealing Broadway, opened 3 August 1920.
 West Acton, opened 5 November 1923.

branch joins at North Acton:
Main line
 North Acton, opened 5 November 1923
 East Acton, opened 3 August 1920.
 White City, opened 23 November 1947.
 Wood Lane, opened 14 May 1908; closed 22 November 1947.
 Shepherd's Bush, opened 30 July 1900.
 Holland Park, opened 30 July 1900.
 Notting Hill Gate, opened 30 July 1900.
 Queensway, opened 30 July 1900 (as Queens Road); renamed 1 September 1946.
 Lancaster Gate, opened 30 July 1900.
 Marble Arch, opened 30 July 1900.
 Bond Street, opened 24 September 1900.
 Oxford Circus, opened 30 July 1900.
 Tottenham Court Road, opened 22 June 1907 (as Oxford Street); renamed 9 March 1908.
 British Museum, opened 30 July 1900; closed 24 September 1933.
 Holborn, opened 25 September 1933
 Chancery Lane, opened 30 July 1900
 St. Paul's, opened 30 July 1900
 Bank, opened 30 July 1900.
 Liverpool Street, opened 28 July 1912.
 Bethnal Green, opened 4 December 1946.
 Mile End, opened 4 December 1946.
 Stratford, first served 4 December 1946.
 Leyton, first served 5 May 1947.
Splits into two branches.

Woodford branch 
 Wanstead, opened 14 December 1947.
 Redbridge, opened 14 December 1947.
 Gants Hill, opened 14 December 1947.
 Newbury Park, first served 14 December 1947.
 Barkingside, first served 31 May 1948.
 Fairlop, first served 31 May 1948.
 Hainault, first served 31 May 1948.

The Greater London boundary with Essex is at Grange Hill
 Grange Hill, first served 21 November 1948.
 Chigwell, first served 21 November 1948.
 Roding Valley, first served 21 November 1948.
Terminates at Woodford [see Ongar Branch] (except for rush hours)

Ongar branch (now Epping Branch)
 Snaresbrook, first served 14 December 1947.
 South Woodford, first served 14 December 1947 (as South Woodford (George Lane)); renamed 1950.
 Terminus for Woodford branch: Woodford, first served 14 December 1947.
The Greater London boundary with Essex is between Woodford and Buckhurst Hill
 Buckhurst Hill, first served 21 November 1948.
 Loughton, first served 21 November 1948.
 Debden, first served 25 September 1949.
 Theydon Bois, first served 25 September 1949.
 Terminus: Epping, first served 25 September 1949.

Note: the remaining stations to Ongar were served by a shuttle service from Epping.
 North Weald, first served 25 September 1949; closed 30 September 1994.
 Blake Hall, first served 25 September 1949; closed: 31 October 1981.
 Ongar, first served 25 September 1949; closed 30 September 1994.

References

Other websites 
 Central Line - London Underground page about the Central Line
 Clive's Underground Line Guide
London Underground lines
1900 establishments in the United Kingdom
1900s establishments in England
Transport in the London Borough of Hillingdon
Transport in the London Borough of Ealing
Transport in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham
Transport in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea
Transport in the City of Westminster
Transport in the London Borough of Camden
Transport in the City of London
Transport in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets
Transport in the London Borough of Newham
Transport in the London Borough of Waltham Forest
Transport in the London Borough of Redbridge
LSD is the shorter name for a chemical called lysergic acid diethylamide. LSD is often called by the slang name acid. LSD is a psychedelic drug that causes people who take it to witness illusions. It also alters their thought processes.

LSD was investigated as an adjunct to psychiatric therapies for disorders such as alcoholism. Currently, LSD is being investigated as a clinical tool for treating people with anxiety and depression associated with having a terminal illness. Since there is no recognized medical use for LSD, its use in medicine is experimental. The vast majority of LSD use is illegal and thus considered "drug abuse" according to some definitions.
History
LSD does not occur in nature, so it must be chemically synthesized. It was invented in 1938 by a Swiss chemist, Albert Hofmann, at the Sandoz Laboratories in Switzerland. Hofmann was trying to produce a new circulatory and respiratory stimulant (an 'analeptic'). He produced LSD because of its similarity to nicotinic acid diethylamide, a known respiratory stimulant.
LSD first became popular in the 1960s. A Harvard psychology professor, Timothy Leary, began to encourage people to try the drug then. College students willingly took part in LSD experiments. These experiments were made by psychologists and other professionals. Leary and two of the people he worked with, Richard Alpert and Ralph Metzner, thought the transforming effects of the drug could be a kind of 'rebirth' of users, in the same way as many religions offered them. They wrote a book, The Psychedelic Experience, which was based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Leary eventually became well known in the 1960s hippie movement for his slogan about LSD: "Turn on, tune in, drop out". The Hippies were a countercultural movement. A number of famous rock bands, including the Beatles and the Grateful Dead, became known for their use of LSD, and even a new type of rock music, called "acid rock", was born from the fad.
Dangers of using LSD
The most common danger of taking LSD is having a bad experience, which is called a "bad trip". During a bad trip, people may feel very scared and worried, and they may have very sad thoughts. A bad trip can lead to lasting bad memories and even mental harm. Users who get out of control, or who try to harm themselves, should be taken for medical help.

Storing LSD in an improper manner could end up destroying the blotter and cause adverse effects like nausea and brain fatigue. The safest method to store LSD is wrapping it in aluminum foil or in a Mylar bag. Avoid storing it in books, papers, or box packaging as it could drastically lower the dosage of the blotter and potentially cause unwanted effects upon ingesting it.

Many illegal drugs, such as heroin and cocaine, are very addictive. This means that people who start taking the drug will want to keep taking it, even if it is damaging their physical and mental health. LSD is not addictive to the body or to the mind.
Another danger from using LSD is that it makes a person impaired (intoxicated). When people are impaired, they may have accidents or do things that they would not normally do. In some rare cases, people taking LSD develop a psychosis.

Frequent or regular use of LSD can result in flashbacks. In a flashback, the person feels the drug beginning to affect him or her again, even though he or she has not taken a dose that day. This can be brought on by stress. Note that over 75% of LSD users claimed never to have "flashed back".

It has been said that some people who use LSD can end up with damage to their chromosomes, but this is a myth based on one wrong report that was disproven soon after it was published.

Legal status
LSD is illegal in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and most of Europe. Some countries enforce the laws against LSD very harshly. Other countries do not enforce the law very much. LSD has been manufactured illegally since the 1960s.

Notes

Other websites
Other websites

Media 
 Belfast Telegraph Dr Albert Hofmann - The father of LSD
 Pickard And Apperson Sentenced On LSD Charges Official DEA press release on the "Largest LSD Lab Seizure In DEA History"
 Tripping the light fantasmic, The Age, February 4, 2006

Video 

 "LSD being tested on British Troops ", a strange (if humorous) piece of historical footage of military experiments testing LSD's potential as an incapacitating (non-lethal) weapon.
 "Spontaneous pattern formation in large scale brain activity: what visual migraines and hallucinations tell us about the brain", lecture by Jack Cowan (via the Internet Archive)

School 
 A Critical Review of Theories and Research Concerning LSD and Mental Health 
 Definitions of Addiction, Physical Dependence, and Tolerance 
 The Effects of LSD on the Human Brain

Trivia 
 Artist under influence of LSD 
 A nearly complete LSD Slang term list as defined by the White House Drug Policy

Illegal drugs
Organonitrogen compounds
Psychoactive drugs