Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Details 
Special English started in 1959. It was developed as an experimental radio program to spread information on news and culture to people outside the United States. Programs on VOA use a simpler English within about 1,500 words, and reports are paced 1/3 slower than regular English in order to allow listeners to increase a better understanding. This means broadcasters speak at about two-thirds the speed of conversational English. But is still far from sounding like a record played at the wrong speed. It now deals with various topics to keep interest of listeners, such as news, business, science, and culture. Stories are written in clear.
To be a Special English broadcaster, a person needs to do months of training. The training includes a professional voice trainer who teaches how to breathe properly and pronounce clearly. A chief of Special English at VOA said, "People in this country have likely never heard of Special English," and also said, "and, if they have, they often don't understand the significance of it to people in other countries."

One VOA staff explains that the main goal of Special English is for the listener to understand the content of what is being broadcast, and to make steady progress in English.  “There is a fine line between being simplified and simplistic,” he says. “We never want to cross that line.” So when necessary, more “advanced” English words are used and the meanings made clear, so the stories never suffer from incomplete information.

Students and teachers in other countries say Special English is a good learning tool.

About programs 
Some of popular programs on VOA follow.
Arts & Culture
American Stories
Health & Lifestyle
U.S.History
Science & Technology
Words & Their Stories
Learning English Broadcast
VOA broadcast a program titled 'Willis Conover, the Voice of Jazz, Is Now Online" in the past, as Willis Conover became a famous host at Music USA.

Notes

Related pages
Voice of America
Simplified English
Wikipedia:VOA Special English Word Book

Other websites 
The VOA Special English Web Page
VOA Special English Word Book - 1,500 words used on VOA Special English broadcasts
Voice of America Special English Study - Online quizzes, listen and read along, crossword puzzles and more. (By Charles Kelly)
English learning lessons using Voice of America Special English  

English language
Sausage is a food made of ground-up or chopped-up meat. It often has spices in it and is covered in a casing. Traditionally, a sausage casing is made of animal intestine, but can sometimes be made of plastic. There are many forms of sausages, including hot dog, pepperoni, bologna, and salami.

Sausages often have meat from the animal's head, lips, cheeks, ears and other parts. Some have blood in them. German and British sausages normally have a lot of "rusk," or bread crumbs, and they are less meaty than sausages from other countries. Vegetarian or vegan sausages are often made of products other than animal products, such as tofu.

Sausages may be used as a meal, in a sandwich, or in other foods like stews. Sausages can be eaten as whole pieces, or they can be chopped up as already cooked pieces.

Germany has regions that have special kinds of sausage. Sausages are some of the oldest German foods.
Name origin
The word "sausage" was first used in English in the mid-15th century. During the mid-15th century, the word "sausage" was spelled as "sawsyge". The word "sawsyge" came from Old North French saussiche (Modern French saucisse)". The French word came from Vulgar Latin salsica (sausage), from salsicus (seasoned with salt).

Types of sausage
Andouille
Blood sausage, a type of sausage made of animal blood
Bratwurst (a German/Austrian variety)
Breakfast sausage
Chorizo
Fish
Knockwurst
Landjäger
Mortadella
Salami

References

Other websites
Slang are words that are  informal.  Usually each generation or social group has its own slang - for example, older people can have trouble understanding the slang of younger people.  On the other hand, younger people often understand, but find silly or old-fashioned, the slang of older people.

Over time, language tends to get more complex, since new words enter much faster than old words leave.  Over time, slang almost always becomes part of the language, and approved for use by all.
It has also happened that some words used in Anglo-Saxon for bodily functions became thought of as profanity or rude after they were replaced by Latinate words like "urinate", "defecate" and "copulate" - which polite people were supposed to use after the Norman conquest of England in 1066.  This was in part a way of making poor people (who spoke Anglo-Saxon) all appear to be rude, while more powerful people (who spoke Norman) appeared to be polite - one way that etiquette can develop, and reinforce power structure.  This is only one example from history of how racism can be a reason for defining one group's language as 'slang' and another as 'correct'.

Wanting to have rules of grammar that do not change and the same vocabulary used by everyone for better communication is another reason that is often given for defining one group's language as correct.

An "idiom" can be slang, but it can also be a metaphor that becomes part of the culture.
Two examples of slang are 'wassup' and 'dunnow'. 'Wassup' usually means 'What is up?' (as in, 'How are you?'), and 'dunnow' usually means 'I don't know'.

Related pages 
Jargon
Political correctness
A social contract or political contract is a perceived agreement among the people of a state about the rules that will define their government. These rules are usually called laws. Laws help to make sure people have rights and that their rights are protected. One kind of social contract is a constitution. A constitution says how decisions are made, and sets limits on the powers of leaders and other people who have authority.

In the Age of Enlightenment, philosophers Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote books about social contracts. They saw good government as coming from social contracts. Rousseau wrote a book called The Social Contract. Both the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution use the theory of social contracts.

The State of nature is the time before the social contract

Related pages
 Constitution
 Natural rights and legal rights
 Political economy
 Rule of law

Law
Political philosophy
Sociology
Social capital is the willingness of people to help each other.  

It often replaces money which people would use to buy the same help.

Society works best when there is plenty of social capital. The less social capital there is, the more social problems there usually are. If there is no social capital, war and revolution often results.

People who have no money and cannot get help from society may have to agree to do things they do not want to do, or force others to do things they do not want to.  Organized crime grows in this way, and so do forced labour and slavery.
Most ways of measuring social capital have to do with trust - people who trust that favours and help will be available when they need it will favour and help others more.  Those who are seen as trying to get a free ride will get much less help.  A social climber tries to earn social capital by making friends with those who have it but without actually helping.  Some call this kind of person a social parasite. They are very hard to detect, unlike people who cheat or commit fraud. When there are too many of these kinds of people, especially when they are politicians, people begin to mistrust their government.  Rather than work with a political party to change law, they may start to look for direct revenge for things. 

Social capital is a lot like real capital. The more money a person or a society has, the easier it is to do things and the better off people are. The less money, the more difficult things become and the worse people feel.

Related pages
Human capital
Social status

Other websites
Other websites

The Social Capital Foundation 

Social sciences
Economics
A site is a real fixed physical location where something will or has happened or a place where something is.

Uses

Uses in buildings 
It is used very often in building trades to mean the place where a building will go up.

Uses in gravesites 
A gravesite is a place where a person will be buried after they die.

Uses in work 
The words onsite and offsite refer to work that must take place on the site, or which can take place somewhere else.  For instance, a prefabricated building can be "built offsite" and then "moved onsite".

Use on the internet 
Site is also a common abbreviation in net jargon for "website".  In this case no real physical location exists other than the place where the computers are, and one "goes to the site" simply by using a web browser to "go to" that URL.  This is a conceptual metaphor.  It can be confusing.  Someone who uses it is also likely using other jargon.
Subtraction is the arithmetic operation for finding the difference between two numbers, though it can also be generalized to other mathematical objects such as vectors and matrices. The special names of the numbers in a subtraction expression are, minuend - subtrahend = difference. For example, the expression  can be read as "seven minus four equals three," "seven take away four leaves three," or "four from seven leaves three."

If the minuend is less than the subtrahend, the difference will be a negative number. For example, 17 - 25 = -8 . This can be read as "Seventeen minus twenty-five equals negative eight."  

Subtraction is how cash registers determine the change a buyer receives, when the buyer pays with more money than the purchase cost.

Properties

Anti-commutativity
Subtraction is anti-commutative, meaning that if swapping the numbers around the minus sign will change the difference:
"a - b ≠ b - a"
Non-associativity
Subtraction is non-associative, which comes up when one tries to define repeated subtraction. In general, the expression
"a − b − c"
can be defined to mean either (a − b) − c or a − (b − c), but these two possibilities lead to different answers. To resolve this issue, one must establish an order of operations, with different orders yielding different results.

Predecessor
In the context of integers, subtraction of one also plays a special role: for any integer a, the integer  is the largest integer that is smaller than a, also known as the predecessor of a.

Related pages 
 Addition
 Division (mathematics)
 Multiplication
 Negative number
 Order of operations

References 

Arithmetics
String theory tries to model the four known fundamental interactions—gravitation, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force—together in one theory. This tries to resolve the alleged conflict between classical physics and quantum physics by elementary units—the one classical force: gravity, and a new quantum field theory of the other three fundamental forces. 

Einstein had sought a unified field theory, a single model to explain the fundamental interactions or mechanics of the universe.  Today's search is for a unified field theory that is quantized and that explains matter's structure, too.  This is called the search for a theory of everything (TOE). The most prominent contender as a TOE is string theory converted into superstring theory with its six higher dimensions in addition to the four common dimensions (3D + time).
Some superstring theories seem to come together on a shared range of geometry that, according to string theorists, is apparently the geometry of space. The mathematical framework that unifies the multiple superstring theories upon that shared geometrical range is M-theory. Many string theorists are optimistic that M-theory explains our universe's very structure and perhaps explains how other universes, if they exist, are structured as part of a greater "multiverse". M theory/supergravity theory has 7 higher dimensions + 4D.

Background
Background 

Introductions to string theory that are designed for the general public must first explain physics.  Some of the controversies over string theory result from misunderstandings about physics. A common misunderstanding even for scientists is the presumption that a theory is proved true in its explanation of the natural world wherever its predictions are successful.  Another misunderstanding is that earlier physical scientists, including chemists, have already explained the world. This leads to the misunderstanding that string theorists began making strange hypotheses after they became unaccountably "set free from truth".

Classical realm

Newtonian physics
Newtonian physics 

Newton's law of universal gravitation (UG), added to the three Galilean laws of motion and some other presumptions, was published in 1687.  Newton's theory successfully modeled interactions among objects of a size we can see, a range of phenomena now called the classical realm.  Coulomb's law modeled electric attraction. Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory unified electricity and magnetism, while optics emerged from this field.

Light's speed remained about the same when measured by an observer traveling in its field, however, although addition of velocities predicted the field to be slower or faster relative to the observer traveling with or against it.  So, versus the electromagnetic field, the observer kept losing speed.  Still, this did not violate Galileo’s Principle of relativity that says the laws of mechanics work the same for all objects showing inertia.
By law of inertia, when no force is applied to an object, the object holds its velocity, which is speed and direction.  An object either in uniform motion, which is constant speed in an unchanging direction, or staying at rest, which is zero velocity, experiences inertia.  This exhibits Galilean invariance—its mechanical interactions proceeding without variation—also called Galilean relativity since one cannot perceive whether one is at rest or in uniform motion.

Relativity theory

Special relativity
In 1905, Einstein's special theory of relativity explained the accuracy of both Maxwell's electromagnetic field and Galilean relativity by stating that the field's speed is absolute—a universal constant—whereas both space and time are local phenomena relative to the object's energy.  Thus, an object in relative motion shortens along the direction of its momentum (Lorentz contraction), and its unfolding of events slows (time dilation). A passenger on the object cannot detect the change, as all measuring devices aboard that vehicle have experienced length contraction and time dilation. Only an external observer experiencing relative rest measures the object in relative motion to be shortened along its travel pathway and its events slowed. Special relativity left Newton's theory—which states space and time as absolute—unable to explain gravitation.
By the equivalence principle, Einstein inferred that being under either gravitation or constant acceleration are indistinguishable experiences that might share a physical mechanism. The suggested mechanism was progressive length contraction and time dilation—a consequence of the local energy density within 3D space—establishing a progressive tension within a rigid object, relieving its tension by moving toward the location of greatest energy density. Special relativity would be a limited case of a gravitational field. Special relativity would apply when the energy density across 3D space is uniform, and so the gravitational field is scaled uniformly from location to location, why an object experiences no acceleration and thus no gravitation.

General relativity
In 1915, Einstein's general theory of relativity newly explained gravitation with 4D spacetime modeled as a Lorentzian manifold. Time is one dimension merged with the three space dimensions, as every event in 3D space—2D horizontally and 1D vertically—entails a point along a 1D time axis. Even in everyday life, one states or implies both. One says or at least means, "Meet me at building 123 Main Street intersecting Franklin Street in apartment 3D on 10 October 2012 at 9:00PM". By omitting or missing the time coordinate, one arrives at the correct location in space when the sought event is absent—it is in the past or future at perhaps 6:00PM or 12:00AM.
By converging space and time and presuming both relative to the energy density in the vicinity, and by setting the only constant or absolute as not even mass but as light speed in a vacuum, general relativity revealed the natural world's previously unimagined balance and symmetry. Every object is always moving at light speed along a straight line—its equivalent, on a curved surface, called geodesic or worldline—the one pathway of least resistance like a free fall through 4D spacetime whose geometry "curves" in the vicinity of mass/energy.
An object at light speed in a vacuum is moving at maximal rate through 3D space but exhibits no evolution of events—it is frozen in time—whereas an object motionless in 3D space flows fully along 1D time, experiencing the maximal rate of events' unfolding. The displayed universe is relative to a given location, yet once the mass/energy in that vicinity is stated, Einstein's equations predict what is occurring—or did occur or will occur—anywhere in the universe. The popularized notion that relative in Einstein's theory suggests subjective or arbitrary was to some regret of Einstein, who later thought he ought have to named it general theory.

Cosmology
Cosmology 

The electromagnetic field's messenger particles, photons, carry an image timelessly across the universe while observers within this field have enough flow through time to decode this image and react by moving within 3D space, yet can never outrun this timeless image. The universe's state under 400 000 years after the presumed big bang that began our universe is thought to be displayed as the cosmic microwave background (CMB).

In 1915, the universe was thought to be entirely what we now call the Milky Way galaxy and to be static. Einstein operated his recently published equations of the gravitational field, and discovered the consequence that the universe was expanding or shrinking. (The theory is operable in either direction—time invariance.) He revised the theory add a cosmological constant to arbitrarily balance the universe. Nearing 1930, Edwin Hubble's telescopic data, interpreted through general relativity, revealed the universe was expanding.
In 1916 while on a World War I battlefield, Karl Schwarzschild operated Einstein's equations, and the Schwarzschild solution predicted black holes. Decades later, astrophysicists identified a supermassive black hole in the center of perhaps every galaxy. Black holes seem to lead galaxy formation and maintenance by regulating star formation and destruction.

In the 1930s, it was noticed that according to general relativity, galaxies would fall apart unless surrounded by invisible matter holding a galaxy together, and by the 1970s dark matter began to be accepted. In 1998 it was inferred that the universe's expansion, not slowing, is accelerating, indicating a vast energy density—enough to accelerate both visible matter and dark matter—throughout the universe, a vast field of dark energy. Apparently, under 5% of the universe's composition is known, while the other 95% is mysterious—dark matter and dark energy.

Quantum realm

Strange mechanics
Strange mechanics 

By the 1920s, to probe the operating of the electromagnetic field at minuscule scales of space and time, quantum mechanics (QM) was developed. Yet electrons—the matter particles that interact with the photons that are the electromagnetic field's force carriers—would appear to defy mechanical principles altogether. None could predict a quantum particle's location from moment to moment.

In the slit experiment, an electron would travel through one hole placed in front of it. Yet a single electron would travel simultaneously though multiple holes, however many were placed in front of it. The single electron would leave on the detection board an interference pattern as if the single particle were a wave that had passed through all the holes simultaneously. And yet this occurred only when unobserved. If light were shone on the expected event, the photon's interaction with the field would set the electron to a single position.
By the uncertainty principle, any quantum particle's exact location and momentum cannot be determined with certainty, however. The particle's interaction with the observation/measurement instrument deflects the particle such that greater determination of its position yields lower determination of its momentum, and vice versa.

Field theory quantized
By extending quantum mechanics across a field, a consistent pattern emerged. From location to adjacent location, the probability of the particle existing there would rise and fall like a wave of probability—a rising and falling probability density.  When unobserved, any quantum particle enters superposition, such that even a single particle fills the entire field, however large.  Yet the particle is not definitely anywhere in the field, but there at a definite probability in relation to whether it was had been at the adjacent location.  The waveform of Maxwell's electromagnetic field was generated by an accumulation of probabilistic events.  Not the particles, but the mathematical form, was constant.
Setting the field to special relativity permitted prediction of the complete electromagnetic field.  Thus arose relativistic quantum field theory (QFT).  Of the electromagnetic field, it is relativistic quantum electrodynamics (QED).  Of the weak and electromagnetic fields together, it is relativistic electroweak theory (EWT).  Of the strong field, it is relativistic quantum chromodynamics (QCD).  Altogether, this became the Standard Model of particle physics.

Division in physics
When the Standard Model is set to general relativity in order to include mass, probability densities of infinity appear.  This is presumed incorrect, as probability ordinarily ranges from 0 to 1—0% to 100% probability.  Some theoretical physicists suspect that the problem is in the Standard Model, which represents each particle by a zero-dimensional point that in principle can be infinitely small. Yet in quantum physics, the Planck's constant is the minimum energy unit that a field can be divided into, perhaps a clue to the smallest size a particle can be.  So there is a quest to quantize gravity—to develop a theory of quantum gravity.

Concept

Framework
Framework 

String conjectures that on the microscopic scale, Einstein's 4D spacetime is a field of Calabi-Yau manifolds, each containing 6 space dimensions curled up, thus not extended into the 3 space dimensions presented to the classical realm.  In string theory, each quantum particle is replaced by a 1D string of vibrating energy whose length is the Planck length.  As the string moves, it traces width, and thus becomes 2D, a worldsheet.  As a string vibrates and moves within the 6D Calabi-Yau space, the string becomes a quantum particle.  With this approach, the hypothetical graviton—predicted to explain general relativity—emerges easily.

Theories
Theories 

String theory began as bosonic string theory, whose 26 dimensions act as many fewer.  Yet this modeled only bosons, which are energy particles, while omitting fermions, which are matter particles.  So bosonic string theory could not explain matter.  Yet by adding supersymmetry to bosonic string theory, fermions were achieved, and string theory became superstring theory, explaining matter, too.
(In versions of quantum field theory that include supersymmetry (SUSY), each boson has a corresponding fermion, and vice versa.  That is, each energy particle has a corresponding matter particle, and each matter particle has a corresponding energy particle, yet the unobservable partner is more massive and thus super.  These superpartners might seem an extravagant prediction, yet many theorists and experimentalists favor supersymmetric versions of the Standard Model, whose equations must otherwise be tweaked extravagantly and sometimes arbitrarily to maintain predictive success or mathematical consistency, but with the superpartners align.)

Controversies

Untestable—unscientific?
String theory's claim that all molecules are strings of energy has drawn harsh criticism.  There are many versions of string theory, none quite successfully predicting the observational data explained by the Standard Model.  M theory is now known to have countless solutions, often predicting things strange and unknown to exist.  Some allege that string theorists select only the desired predictions.

The allegation that string theory makes no testable predictions is false, as it makes many.  No theory—a predictive and perhaps explanatory model of some domain of natural phenomena—is verifiable.  All conventional physical theories until the Standard Model have made claims about unobservable aspects of the natural world.  Even the Standard Model has various interpretations as to the natural world.  When the Standard Model is operated, it is often made a version with supersymmetry, doubling the number of particle species so far identified by particle physicists.
None can literally measure space, yet Newton postulated absolute space and time, and Newton's theory made explicit predictions, highly testable and predictively successful for 200 years, but the theory was still falsified as explanatory of nature.  Physicists accept that there exists no such attractive force directly attracting matter to matter, let alone that the force traverses the universe instantly.  Nevertheless, Newton's theory is still paradigmatic of science.

Hidden dimensions? 

The idea of hidden dimensionality of space can seem occult.  Some theorists of loop quantum gravity—a contender for quantum gravity—regard string theory as fundamentally misguided by presuming that space even has a shape until particles shape it.  That is, they do not doubt that space takes various shapes, simply regard the particles as determining space's shape, not the other way around.  The spacetime vortex predicted by general relativity is apparently confirmed.
If interpreted as naturally true, the Standard Model, representing a quantum particle as a 0D point, already indicates that spacetime is a sea of roiling shapes, quantum foam.  String theorists tend to believe nature more elegant, a belief that loop theorist Lee Smolin dismisses as romantic while using biology's Modern Synthesis as a rhetorical device.  Experiments to detect added spatial dimensions have so far failed, yet there is still the possibility that signs of them can emerge.

So many solutions? 

M theory has many trillions of solutions.  Leonard Susskind, a leader of string theory, interprets string theory's plasticity of solutions as paradoxical support resolving the mystery of why this universe exists, as M theory shows it but a variant of a general pattern that always approximately results.
General relativity has brought many discoveries that in 1915 were all but unimaginable except in fiction.  A solution of Einstein's equations that sought to explain quantum particles' dynamics, the Einstein-Rosen Bridge predicts a shortcut connecting two distant points in spacetime.  Commonly called a wormhole, the Einstein-Rosen Bridge is doubted but not disproved, showing either that not all consequences of a theory must be accurate or that reality is quite bizarre in ways unobservable.

Many worlds
Many worlds 

Even the Standard Model of particle physics suggests bizarre possibilities that populist accounts of science either omit or mention as unexplained curiosities.  The theory conventionally receives the Copenhagen interpretation, whereby the field is only possibilities, none real until an observer or instrument interacts with the field, whose wavefunction then collapses and leaves only its particle function, only the particles being real.  Yet wavefunction collapse was merely assumed—neither experimentally confirmed nor even mathematically modeled—and no variance from either the wavefunction in the quantum realm or the particle function in the classical realm has been found.
In 1957 Hugh Everett described his "Relative state" interpretation.  Everett maintained that the wavefunction does not collapse, and since all matter and interactions are presumed to be built up from quantum waveparticles, all possible variations of the quantum field—indicated by the mathematical equations—are real and simultaneously occurring but different courses of history.  By this interpretation, whatever interacts with the field joins the field's state that is relative to the observer's state—itself a waveform in its own quantum field—while the two simply interact in a universal waveform never collapsing.  By now, many physicists' interpretation of the apparent transition from the quantum to the classical realms is not wavefunction collapse, but quantum decoherence.
In decoherence, an interaction with the field takes the observer into only one determinant constellation of the quantum field, and so all observations align with that new, combined quantum state.  Everett's thesis has inspired Many worlds interpretation, whereby within our universe are predicted to be virtually or potentially infinite parallel worlds that are real, yet each a minuscule distance from the other worlds.  As each world's waveform is universal—not collapsing—and its mathematical relations are invariant, parallel worlds simply fill the gaps and do not touch.

Many universes
Many universes 

Einstein doubted that black holes, as predicted by the Schwarzschild solution, are real.  Some now conjecture that black holes do not exist as such but are dark energy, or that our universe is both—a black hole and dark energy.  The Schwarzschild solution of Einstein's equations can be maximally extended to predict a black hole having a flip side—another universe emerging from a white hole.  Perhaps our universe's big bang was half of a big bounce, something's collapse down to a black hole, and our universe popping out its other side as a white hole.

Particles are strings?
Physicists widely doubt that quantum particles are truly 0D points as represented in Standard Model, which offers formalism—mathematical devices whose strokes predict phenomena of interest upon input of data—not interpretation of the mechanisms determining those phenomena.  Yet string theorists do tend to optimistically conjecture that the strings are both real and explanatory, not merely predictive devices.  It is far beyond the capacity of today's particle accelerators to propel any probing particles at energy levels high enough to overcome a quantum particle's own energy and determine whether it is a string.  Yet this limitation also exists on testing other theories of quantum gravity.  Developments suggest other strategies to "observe" the structure of quantum particles.
Paradoxically, even if testing confirmed that particles are strings of energy, that still would not conclusively prove even that particles are strings, since there could be other explanations, perhaps an unexpected warpage of space although the particle was a 0D point of true solidity.  Even when predictions succeed, there are many possible explanations—the problem of underdetermination—and philosophers of science as well as some scientists do not accept even flawless predictive success as verification of the successful theory's explanations if these are posed as offering scientific realism, true description of the natural world.

Matter is energy?
Matter is energy? 

Talk of particle physicists testing theoretical physicists' predicted particles by colliding particles in accelerators suggests that quantum particles are tiny Newtonian particles that experimentalists crack open to reveal their structure.  Instead, when two particles, each of a certain mass—measured in terms of energy as electronvolts—are collided, they can combine into a particle of that combined mass/energy, and the generated particle is "observed" for correspondence with the prediction.
It is not controversial among physicists that all particles are energy.  Loop theorists, sometimes in rivalry with string theory, claim that spacetime itself converts into the particles.  Matter's being a special variant of energy was a consequence of Einstein's special theory of relativity, and thereupon Einstein formalized the mass-energy equivalence, E=mc2.  When sufficiently energetic photons collide, they can combine and generate matter—matter creation.  All particles have antiparticles, and atoms of matter have antiatoms of antimatter, whose union annihilates the particles and matter while leaving energy.

Developments 

An inspiring development is discovery of mirror symmetry, whereby Calabi-Yau spaces tend to come in pairs such that solutions previously difficult within the extreme vibrational mode of one string can be solved by through the mirror Calabi-Yau space's geometry in its opposite range.
String theory is usually solved through conformal field theory, a quantum field theory on 2D space.  It is confirmed that molecules can collapse to 2D.  And the electron, long presumed an elementary particle, apparently splits into three entities separately carrying the electron's three degrees of freedom when the molecules that contain the electrons are channeled through a 1D pathway.

Related pages
M-theory

Notes
A scientist is a person who studies or has mastered the field in science. A scientist tries to understand how our world, or other things, work. Scientists make observations, ask questions and do extensive research work in finding the answers to many questions.

Scientists may work in laboratories for governments, companies, schools and research institutions. Some scientists teach at universities and other places and train people to become scientists. Scientists often do experiments to find out more about reality, and sometimes may repeat experiments or use control groups. Scientists who are doing applied science try to use scientific knowledge to improve the world.

Scientists use the Scientific method to test theories and hypotheses.
Types of scientists 
Scientists can work in different areas of science. 
Here are some examples: 
 Scientists that study physics are physicists. 
 Scientists that study chemistry are chemists. 
 Scientists that study biology are biologists
 Scientists that study rocks are geologists
 Scientists that study plants are botanists
 Scientists that study minds are psychologists
 Scientists that study farming are agricultural scientists

Related pages

History of science
List of scientists from Africa
List of scientists from Asia
List of scientists from Europe
List of scientists from North America
List of scientists from Oceania
List of scientists from South America

 
Science occupations
A soapbox is a temporary platform used to give a speech. During the 19th century, soap was transported in wooden boxes. When a person had new or unusual ideas, and wanted to talk to a crowd about them, sometimes he or she would stand on an empty soapbox so that everyone could see and hear the talk well. 

People sometimes use the word "soapbox" to mean a place to say new or unusual things.

References

Human communication
The word supernatural (from ) is used for things that some people believe are real, but that are not part of nature or inexplicable by the scientific laws of nature. Because we cannot prove whether these things are real, people often disagree about these things.

Some say that we should talk about things without talking about the supernatural, because we cannot prove that supernatural things are real. Other people say that although we cannot prove supernatural things in a scientific way, they are real. Some examples of supernatural things or examples are:

 magic
 miracles
 precognition
 demonic possession 
 souls, spirits or ghosts
 monsters
 yōkai
 grim reaper
 angels
 devils, asuras or demon
 kami
 UFOs
 legendary creatures
 God or gods
 parapsychology

Related pages
Religion
Belief
Superstition
Ritual
Near death experience
Naturalism (philosophy) - the idea that the supernatural does not exist

Religion
A spirit is considered to be the part of a being that is not the body. Other words with the same meanings are soul and ghost. When a body is alive, it has a spirit in it. Death is when the spirit separates from the body. 

Christians believe that spirits exist in Heaven or Hell. (See 1 Timothy 3:16, 4:1) 

Spiritualists believe that spirits can talk with people, or change things in the world. Many religions forbid communicating with such spirits in any way, (see Leviticus 19:31) but a few include this as part of their practice.

Another use of spirit means the main purpose or meaning of a sentence or document. For example, the "spirit of a law" is the true meaning of the law which the creator wanted. This phrase is often used when the words and sentences of a law could mean more than one thing, but a judge must decide what meaning is correct.

Spirituality
A seed is the part of a seed plant which can grow into a new plant. It is a reproductive structure which disperses, and can survive for some time. A typical seed includes three basic parts: (1) an embryo, (2) a supply of nutrients for the embryo, and (3) a seed coat.

There are many different kinds of seeds. Some plants make a lot of seeds, some make only a few. Seeds are often hard and very small, but some are larger. The coconut is as big as a child's head, but it contains more than just a seed. At the start, seeds are dormant (resting inside their coat) for a while. When the seed is ready to develop, it needs water, air and warmth but not sunlight to become a seedling.

Seeds carry the food that helps the new plant begin to grow. This food store is in the endosperm, and/or in the cotyledons. Many kinds of seeds are good food for animals and people. The many kinds of grain that people grow, such as rice, wheat, and maize, are all seeds. Seeds are often inside fruits.
Development from the seed 
A seed, though not active, is a tiny living thing. It contains the embryo of the future plant, which is not changing or developing: it is dormant. The common idea is that the seed "sleeps" until it gets what it needs to wake up. That is not correct. Different seeds have different habits, no doubt adapted to their habitat. There are different kinds of resting stages in seeds:
1. Seed dormancy: means the seed does not develop for a while even when conditions are suitable.p98 Delayed germination (development) allows time for dispersal. Changes take place inside the seed which sooner or later make it germinate. The details vary hugely between species.
2. Seed hibernation: fails to germinate because conditions are not right. Growth is triggered by particular events in the environment. Details of the triggers are known for some, but not all, seeds. Rain, fire, ground temperature, are examples. Many seeds only germinate after they have been eaten and passed through the digestive system of an animal. This also is a dispersal method.
When a seed germinates ("wakes up"), it begins to grow into a little plant called a seedling. It uses the soft fleshy material inside the seed for nutrients (food) until it is ready to make food on its own using sunlight, water and air.

Most seeds germinate underground where there is no sunlight. The plant does not need the nutrients in soil for a few days or weeks, because the seed has all the things it needs to grow. Later, though, it will begin to need sunlight. If there is sunlight, the plant will use it to grow healthy. If there is no light, the plant will still grow for a while, but its plastids will not mature: the chlorophyll does not turn green. If the plant does not get enough light, it will eventually die. It needs light to make food for itself when the reserve in the seed runs out.
The oldest carbon 14-dated seed that has grown into a plant was a Judean date palm seed about 2,000 years old, recovered from excavations at Herod the Great's palace on Masada in Israel. It was germinated in 2005.
 The largest seed is produced by the Coco de mer, or "double coconut palm", Lodoicea maldivica.  The entire fruit may weigh up to 23 kilograms (50 pounds) and usually contains a single seed.

Origin and evolution 
Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and spread of conifers and flowering plants. Plants such as mosses, liverworts and ferns do not have seeds, and use unprotected spores and other methods to propagate themselves. Before the upper Devonian period, land plants, like modern ferns, reproduced by sending spores into the air. The spores would land and become new plants only in favourable conditions. Spores have little food stored, and may be just single cells rather than embryos.
The evolution of seeds changed the plant life cycle by freeing plants from the need for external water for sexual reproduction, and by providing protection and nutrients for the developing embryo. These functions allowed plants to expand beyond the immediate neighbourhood of water sources. They were able to exploit environments which were drier and more upland.p92 This can be seen by the success of seed plants in important biological niches on land, from forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates. The present-day seed plants are the Gymnosperms, with naked seeds, and the Angiosperms with covered seeds, usually fruits.

The first true seeds are from the upper Devonian 370–354 million years ago, which is probably the theatre of their first evolutionary radiation. The earliest seed-producing trees were in the forests of the Carboniferous period.p112 The seed plants steadily became one of the most important elements of nearly all ecosystems.

References
References

Basic English 850 words
Plant anatomy
Biological reproduction
A sail is a large piece of cloth on the top of some boats. The wind goes around the sail and makes the boat move through the water. The piece that the sail is attached to is called a mast. Some boats have many sails, and some have only one. Usually, small boats have only one sail, and bigger boats have more. Boats with sails are called sailing boats. There are many different names for different kinds of sailing boats with different kinds of sails. 

Before people made boats with engines that used coal or oil, sailing boats were an important way to travel across oceans. Now they are not so important for transport, but they are still used for recreation and competition.

Sail types
Sail types

Modern sails can be classified into three main categories: 
 A mainsail is a sail located behind the main mast of a sailing vessel.
 A headsail also known as the jib sail, is any sail set forward of the main mast.
 A spinnaker or downwind sail (also termed Kite). Special-purpose sails are often a variation of the three main categories.
 A staysail is a fore-and-aft rigged sail whose luff can be attached to a forestay running from a mast to the  bowsprit.

High-performance yachts, in particular some catamarans such as the International C-Class Catamaran, have used or use rigid wing sails, which are said to perform better than traditional soft sails.  In particular, a rigid wing sail was used by Stars and Stripes, the defender which won the 1988 America's Cup, and by USA-17, the challenger which won the 2010 America's Cup.
Most modern yachts, including bermuda rig, ketch and yawl boats, have a sail "inventory" which usually includes more than one of these types of sails. Although the mainsail is “permanently” hoisted while sailing, headsails and spinnakers can be changed depending on the particular weather conditions to allow better handling and speed.

References

Other websites 
 The quest for the perfect sailshape 
 The Headsail: YouTube
 The Mainsail; YouTube

Basic English 850 words
Boats
The word Spanish means: 

 from or about the country of Spain, such as a person from Spain or food from Spain
Spanish people
 the Spanish language
Spanish Empire

Other use
Hispanic
Skin is the outside covering of mammals and some other animals. It has many purposes. First of all, it is a defense against the entry of pathogens such as bacteria and parasites. Second, it regulates (keeps in control) the body's temperature. It allows evaporation from its surface, and adjusts it. It is a physical defense, very strong in some animals, but rather weak in humans. The skin and hair on mammals has several purposes. In addition to temperature regulation and defense, some hair is used for signaling. 

Most animals add other defenses to their skin. Mammals have hair or fur on their skin. Birds have feathers on their skin. Most fish, and reptiles, like snakes and lizards, have scales on their skin. 

Humans can have different skin colours like black people and white people depending on their race and has to do with genetics.
The skin is actually the largest organ of the human body. Without skin, humans would easily get infected with diseases. Skin helps regulate body temperature. Skin lowers the potentially harmful effects of UV rays. As part of the immune system, skin can help warn people to certain diseases.

Clean skin is important to health, and all mammals groom their hair and skin. Skin care is much work.

Skins can be made into leather. Leather is sometimes used to make shoes, bags, and balls.

Related pages 
 Human skin colour

References 

Basic English 850 words
A search engine is a website that allows users to look up information on the World Wide Web (WWW), part of the Internet. The search engine will achieve this by looking at many web pages to find matches to the user's search inputs. It will return results ranked by relevancy and popularity by the search engine. The most popular search-engines are Google Search and Bing. Older services include Webcrawler are,  Yahoo! Search, Ask.com Lycos, and Alta Vista. Examples of specialized engines are Ecosia (supports ecological goals) or Tenor (picture engine).

To use a search engine you must enter at least one keyword into the search box. Usually, an on-screen button must be clicked on to submit the search. The search engine looks for matches between the keyword(s) entered and its database of websites and words.
After the user inputs their search or query into the search bar, a list of results will appear on the screen known as the search engine results page (SERP). This list of webpages contains matches related to the user's query in a particular order determined by a ranking system. Most search engines will remove "spam" pages from the list of results to provide a better list of results. The user can then click on any of the links to go to that webpage.

Search engines are some of the most advanced websites on the web. They use special computer code to sort the web pages on SERPs. The most popular or highest-quality web pages will be near the top of the list. 

When a user types words into the search engine, it looks for web pages with those words. There could be thousands, or even millions, of web pages with those words. So, the search engine helps users by putting the web pages it thinks the user wants first.
Search engines are very useful to find information about anything quickly and easily. Using more keywords or different keywords improves the results of searches.

A search service may also include a portal with news, games, and more information besides a search engine.  Yahoo! has a popular portal, while Google has a simple design on its front page.  Search services usually work without charging money for finding sites, and are often supported with text or banner advertisements.
Crawling 
Search engines use robots to ‘crawl’ online content. The process of crawling is the first measure that search engines take before indexing content in virtually any form–videos, text, images, webpages, etc. The content may constitute newly uploaded content to the internet or content that features updates or changes to its material. These robots, also known as crawlers or bots, record the information along with its links. Once the material has been crawled, it can be stored in a massive URL database. It’s this database that generates internet search results.