Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Rare earth elements ("REEs") are a set of seventeen chemical elements. They include the fifteen lanthanides plus scandium and yttrium. Scandium and yttrium are rare earth elements since they are often found in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides and have similar chemical properties.

Although they are called rare, rare earth elements are not extremely rare on Earth. They were called this because they are spread very evenly over the Earth, so it is hard to find a lot in one place. Promethium is rare, because it is radioactive, and decays.

Cerium, one of the lanthanides, is the 25th most common element in the Earth's crust. However, most rare earth elements are not found concentrated or in pure forms.
List of rare earth elements
This is a table of the seventeen rare earth elements, their atomic number and symbol, the origin of their names, and some of their uses. Some of the rare earths are named after the scientists who discovered them, and some are named based on where they were discovered.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Z
!Symbol
!Name
! class="unsortable"|Name Origin
! class="unsortable"|Selected applications
|-
|21
|Sc
|Scandium
|from Scandinavia, where the first rare earth ore was discovered.
|Light aluminium-scandium alloy is used for aerospace components.  It is also an additive in certain lamps.<ref name="CRC_ed89_elements">C.R. Hammond, "Section 4; The Elements", in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 89th edition (internet version 2009), David R. Lide, ed. CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL.</ref>
|-
|39
|Y
|Yttrium
|after the village of Ytterby, Sweden, where it was discovered.
|Yttrium is found in certain lasers and TV phosphors.  It also has applications in high-temperature superconductors, and microwave filters., energy-efficient light bulbs
|-
|57
|La
|Lanthanum
|from the Greek "lanthanein", meaning to be hidden.
|High refractive index glass, flint, hydrogen storage, battery-electrodes, camera lenses, fluid catalytic cracking catalyst for oil refineries
|-
|58
|Ce
|Cerium
|after the dwarf planet Ceres, named after the Roman goddess of agriculture.
|Chemical oxidizing agent, polishing powder, yellow colors in glass and ceramics, catalyst for self-cleaning ovens, fluid catalytic cracking catalyst for oil refineries,  flints for lighters
|-
|59
|Pr
|Praseodymium
|from the Greek "prasios", meaning leek-green, and "didymos", meaning twin.
|Rare-earth magnets, lasers, core material for carbon arc lighting, colorant, additive in  glass used in welding goggles, 
|-
|60
|Nd
|Neodymium
|from the Greek "neos", meaning new, and "didymos", meaning twin.
|Rare-earth magnets, lasers, violet colors in glass and ceramics, ceramic capacitors
|-
|61
|Pm
|Promethium
|after the Titan Prometheus, who brought fire to mortals.
|Atomic batteries
|-
|62
|Sm
|Samarium
|after Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets, who discovered the rare earth ore samarskite.
|Rare-earth magnets, lasers, 
|-
|63
|Eu
|Europium
|after the continent of Europe.
|Red and blue phosphors, lasers, mercury-vapor lamps, 
|-
|64
|Gd
|Gadolinium
|after Johan Gadolin (1760–1852), to honor his investigation of rare earths.
|Rare-earth magnets, high refractive index glass or garnets, lasers, X-ray tubes, computer memories, neutron capture, MRI contrast agents |-
|-
|65
|Tb
|Terbium
|after the village of Ytterby, Sweden.
|Green phosphors, lasers, fluorescent lamps
|-
|66
|Dy
|Dysprosium
|from the Greek "dysprositos", meaning hard to get.
|Rare-earth magnets, lasers
|-
|67
|Ho
|Holmium
|after Stockholm (in Latin, "Holmia"), native city of one of its discoverers.
|Lasers
|-
|68
|Er
|Erbium
|-
|68
|Er
|Erbium
|after the village of Ytterby, Sweden.
|Lasers, vanadium steel
|-
|69
|Tm
|Thulium
|after the mythological northern land of Thule.
|Portable X-ray machines
|-
|70
|Yb
|Ytterbium
|after the village of Ytterby, Sweden.
|Infrared lasers, chemical reducing agent
|-
|71
|Lu
|Lutetium
|after Lutetia, the city which later became Paris.
|Medical devices, high refractive index glass
|}
Origin
Rare earth elements are heavier than iron. They are made by supernovae (exploding stars). In nature, fission of uranium-238 creates very small amounts of radioactive promethium. Most promethium is synthetically created in nuclear reactors.

Rare earth elements change through time in small quantities (ppm, parts per million). Their proportion can be used for geologic dating and dating fossils.

Geological distribution

The rare earth elements are often found together. The longest-lived isotope of promethium has a half life of 17.7 years. Because of this, the element exists in nature in only very small amounts. Promethium is one of the two elements that do not have stable (non-radioactive) isotopes and are followed by stable elements (the other being  technetium).
Because all lanthanides are close in size, the rare earth elements have always been hard to separate. Even with eons of geological time, separation of the lanthanides in nature has only rarely gone farther than the separation between light versus heavy lanthanides, otherwise known as the cerium and yttrium earths. This geochemical separation is shown in the first two rare earths that were discovered. These were yttria in 1794 and ceria in 1803. When first found, each was a mixture of all of the rare earths. Large ore bodies of the cerium earths can be found around the world and are being exploited. Ore bodies for yttrium are rarer. Also, they are usually smaller and less concentrated.

 Global rare earth production 

Until 1948, most of the world's rare earths came from sand deposits in India and Brazil. Through the 1950s, South Africa mined most of the world's rare earths. This happened after large veins of a rare earth bearing mineral were found there.
Through the 1960s until the 1980s, a mine in California was the leading producer. Today, the Indian and South African deposits still make some rare earth concentrates, but they are very small compared to the amount being produced in China. China produces over 95% of the world's rare earth supply. Most of this has been done in Inner Mongolia,China's rare earth dominance, Wikinvest. Retrieved on 11 Aug 2010. even though it had only 37% of proven reserves. These numbers have since been lowered to 90% of global production and a proven reserve rate of only 23% by 2012. All of the world's heavy rare earths (such as dysprosium) come from Chinese rare earth sources such as the polymetallic Bayan Obo deposit.Chao E.C.T.et al  1997.  "Sedimentary carbonate‐hosted giant Bayan Obo REE‐Fe‐Nb ore deposit of Inner Mongolia, China; a cornerstone example for giant polymetallic ore deposits of hydrothermal origin". United States Geological Survey Publications Warehouse
. In 2010, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) released a study which said  the United States had 13 million metric tons of rare earth elements.
China 
These concerns have gotten larger because of the actions of China.  China has said it will put regulations on exports and work to stop smuggling. On September 1, 2009, China said it is going to lower its exports to 35,000 tons per year in 2010–2015. China said that this was done to conserve rare resources and protect the environment. On October 19, 2010 China Daily reported that China will "further reduce quotas for rare earth exports by 30 percent at most next year to protect the precious metals from over-exploitation". At the end of 2010 China said that the first round of exports in 2011 for rare earths would be 14,446 tons. This was a 35% decrease from the first round of exports in 2010.  In September 2011 China said it was stopping production at three of its eight rare earth mines. These mines produced almost 40% of China's total rare earth production. In August 2012, China said there would be another 20% reduction in production.
Outside China 
Because of the increased demand and the restrictions on exports of the metals from China, some countries are stockpiling rare earth resources. Searches for new sources in Australia, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Tanzania, Greenland, and the United States are taking place. Mines in these countries were closed when China undercut world prices in the 1990s. It will take a few years to restart production.

At present Kachin State in Myanmar is the world's largest source of rare earths.

The European Union has urged the Denmark protectorate Greenland to restrict Chinese development of rare-earth projects there, as China accounts for 95 percent of the world’s current supply. As of early 2013, the government of Greenland has said that it has no plans to impose such restrictions.
Nuclear reactors are another possible source of rare earth or any other elements. Nuclear fission of uranium or plutonium creates a many elements as well as all their isotopes. However, it is not likely that creating them can be done safely and economically because of the radioactivity of many of these isotopes.

 Recycling 
Another source of rare earths is electronic waste and other wastes that have a large amount of rare earth components. New advances in recycling technology have made getting the rare earths from these ores easier to do. Recycling plants are currently operating in Japan, where there is about 300,000 tons of rare earths in unused electronics. In France, the Rhodia group is setting up two factories in La Rochelle and Saint-Fons. These factories will produce 200 tons a year of rare earths from used fluorescent lamps, magnets and batteries.

 Usage 
The main usage seems to be for the kind of batteries and magnets used in high-tech apparatus.
Origin 
Originally, there is only one source in the universe which makes these elements. Their source is the supernovae which in their nova stage have run through the earlier elements. Some are quite common on Earth: cerium is the 25th most abundant element on Earth, and is more abundant than copper. It is just that it is too scattered to be easily exploited.

Yttrium is one of four rare earth elements which were found in the village of Ytterby in Sweden.

 Geo-political considerations 
China has said that resource depletion and environmental concerns are the reasons for increased nationwide control of its rare earth mineral production. Non-environmental reasons have also been suggested to explain China's rare earth policy. According to The Economist'', "Slashing their exports of rare-earth metals...is all about moving Chinese manufacturers up the supply chain, so they can sell valuable finished goods to the world rather than lowly raw materials."
A 2011 report issued by the U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of the Interior, “China’s Rare-Earth Industry," deals with industry trends in China. It looks at national policies that may guide the future of the country's production. The report says that China’s lead in the production of rare-earth minerals has grown over the past two decades. In 1990, China accounted for only 27% of such minerals. In 2009, world production was 132,000 metric tons. China produced 129,000 of those tons. According to the report, recent patterns suggest that China will slow the export of such materials to the world: “Owing to the increase in domestic demand, the Government has gradually reduced the export quota during the past several years.” In 2006, China allowed 47 domestic rare-earth producers and traders and 12 Sino-foreign rare-earth producers to export. By 2011, there were only 22 domestic rare-earth producers and traders and 9 Sino-foreign rare-earth producers
. The government’s future policies will likely keep in place strict controls: “According to China’s draft rare-earth development plan, annual rare-earth production may be limited to between 130,000 and 140,000 [metric tons] during the period from 2009 to 2015. The export quota for rare-earth products may be about 35,000 [metric tons] and the Government may allow 20 domestic rare-earth producers and traders to export rare earths.”
The United States Geological Survey is searching southern Afghanistan for rare earth deposits under the protection of United States military forces. Since 2009, the USGS has done remote surveys as well as fieldwork to verify Soviet claims that volcanic rocks containing rare earth metals exist in Helmand province near the village of Khanneshin. The USGS has found an  area of rocks in the center of an extinct volcano with light rare earth elements including cerium and neodymium. It has mapped 1.3 million metric tons of useful rock. This is about 10 years of supply at current demand levels. The Pentagon has estimated its value at about $7.4 billion.
Rare earth pricing
Rare earth elements are not exchange-traded in the same way that precious (for instance, gold and silver) or non-ferrous metals (such as nickel, tin, copper, and aluminium) are. Instead, they are sold on the private market. This makes their prices hard to monitor and track. However, prices are published periodically  on websites such as mineralprices.com. The 17 elements are not usually sold in their pure form. They are usually distributed in mixtures of varying purity, e.g. "Neodymium metal ≥ 99.5%". because of this, pricing can vary based on the quantity and quality required by the end user.

References

Other websites

Rare earths mining: China's 21st Century gold rush, BBC News June 2010 infographic examining China's role in the rare earths market.

+
Larry Hankin (born December 7, 1937) is an American movie, television, radio, stage, voice actor, movie director and movie producer who is known for his role as Mr. Heckles in Friends.

Hankin was born in New York City, New York. He studied at Syracuse University.

References

Other websites
 Official website

 YouTube page

1940 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American voice actors
American radio actors
Actors from New York City
Movie directors from New York (state)
Movie producers from New York (state)
Jonathan Harris (Jonathan Charasuchin; November 6, 1914 – November 3, 2002) was an American movie, television, radio, stage, and voice actor who is known for his role as Dr. Zachary Smith in Lost in Space.

Harris was born on November 6, 1914 in The Bronx, New York City, New York. He studied at James Monroe High School. Harris was married to Gertrude Bregman from 1938 until his death in 2002. Harris died on November 3, 2002 in Encino, Los Angeles, California from heart failure, aged 87.

References

Other websites

 
 

1914 births
2002 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American voice actors
American radio actors
American television personalities
American radio personalities
Actors from New York City
In astronomy, the zenith is a point "above" a particular location, in the sky. "Above" means in the opposite direction of gravity at that location. The zenith is the opposite of the nadir.  The nadir is in the direction the direction that gravity pulls.  The zenith is not a real point,  it is used as a reference for the location of other things in the sky.

Relevance and use
 
For scientists, the zenith is the direction of reference for measuring the zenith angle. The zenith angle is the angle between a place in the sky (usually a star) and the local zenith.

Related pages
Nadir

References

astronomy
In astronomy, the nadir is a point "below" a particular location. "Below" means in the same direction of gravity at that location. The nadir is the opposite of the zenith.  The nadir is not a real point.  It is used as a reference for the location of other things.

Related pages
Zenith

References

Astronomy
Herman Bing (March 30, 1889 – January 9, 1947) was a German-American character actor and voice actor. He was the brother of Gus Bing (1893–1967).
He shot himself on 9 January, 1947.

Other websites

German movie actors
German voice actors
American movie actors
American voice actors
1889 births
1947 deaths
Lawrence "Larry" Semon (February 9, 1889 – October 8, 1928) was an American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter during the silent movie era. In his day, Semon was considered a major movie comedian. He is now remembered mainly for working with both Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy before they started working together.

References

American movie actors
Silent movie actors
Actors from Mississippi
1889 births
1928 deaths
Joyce Cary (born Arthur Joyce Lunel Cary; December 7, 1888 – March 29, 1957) was an Irish novelist and writer, who was born in Donegal, Ireland. 

He studied at Clifton and Trinity College, Oxford. Afterwards, he also spent some time learning art at Edinburgh and Paris. In 1913, he joined the Nigerian Political Service, under the British colonial system and was posted out to Nigeria. While working there, he also fought in the First World War, with the local Nigerian Regiment. After the end of the war, he returned to politics. However, he was becoming very sick, and was advised to retire and go back home.

After retiring back to Britain, he began to write seriously and full-time. His first novel, Aissa Saved, was published in 1932. He published several other works after this, including The Captive and the Free, Herself Surprised, A Fearful Joy, The Horse's Mouth, To be a Pilgrim and others.

He died in March 1957.

1957 deaths
Irish writers
1888 births
Theodore Huebner Roethke ( ; May 25, 1908 – August 1, 1963) was an American poet.

Roethke's parents were German immigrants, who settled in Michigan and started a highly prosperous floral business. He was born in Michigan.  He grew up in an atmosphere of greenhouses and plants.  These images stayed with him, and he often alluded to it in his work. 

He was educated at Michigan State University and then Harvard. He became a teacher and sports coach. He began to publish his poetry later, around 1941, with the publication of Open House. However, according to critics and scholars, he really began to "mature" with his second book, The Lost Son and Other Poems (1948). It was followed by other critically acclaimed volumes. 

Roethke joined the University of Washington as a lecturer in 1947. He stayed there until his sudden death in 1963. 

Among other prizes and awards, he won the Pulitzer Prize (1953), the Bollinger Prize (1958), and a posthumous National Book Award (1964).

References
References

1908 births
1963 deaths
Writers from Michigan
American poets
Khan Bahadur Captain (retd) Sardar Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, KBE, (born 1892 - died 1942) was an important Punjabi statesman and popular leader.  He was Governor and then Premier of this province in British India.

Background and early life
Sikandar Hayat was the son of Nawab Muhammad Hayat Khan, CSI, of the Khattar tribe of Wah.

After initial education at the Aligarh school and the MAO College at Aligarh (later to become the Aligarh Muslim University), he went for higher education to the King's College London. On returning home, in 1915, he enrolled as an Assistant Recruiting Officer in the Punjab, to help the British Indian Army's efforts during the First World War; and was later one of the very first natives to receive the King's Commission, as a Captain of the 67th Punjabis (later the 1st Battalion of the 2 Punjab Regiment) in 1919. After the war he started his own business ventures and also entered grassroots politics in his area.
Later life and career
In the 1920s, Sikandar Hayat Khan slowly began to make his mark as a statesman, and in collaboration with Sir Fazli Husain and Sir Chotu Ram became one of the founders of the Unionist Party (Punjab). This was a secular party representing all Punjabis of different creeds mostly united by the zamindar (rural/agrarian) interest, and it soon became the most popular political group in the province. Due to his special services at this time, in various ways, the Government of British India granted a knighthood to Sir Sikandar. Between 1932 and 1934 he also had the unique honour of being the only native to be appointed acting Governor of the Punjab under British rule.
Role in the Second World War
Between 1939 and 1942, when he died, Sir Sikandar supported the British struggle against Nazi Germany and believed in cooperating with the British government in the Second World War. He believed that this support would be good for India and help it towards independence after the War ended. He was very active in maximizing recruitment of troops from the Punjab as part of the 'war effort' and even made morale-boosting tours of the Middle East where most Indian (especially Punjabi)troops where serving. The Muslim League leadership agreed with this perspective of his and also announced full cooperation with the British Raj, or government, to achieve their own ends.
Muslim League and Lahore Resolution
Soon after winning the general elections in 1937, Sir Sikandar felt conscious of the need to maintain a balanced stance in a volatile and divided Punjabi political system. He thus decided to also negotiate with the All India Muslim League  under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. As a result, he and Jinnah signed the Jinnah-Sikandar Pact at Lucknow in October 1937, merging the Muslim elements of his powerful Unionist party with the Muslim League, as a move towards forming a common, united front for safeguarding their community rights and interests in India. He was also later one of the chief supporters and architects of the Lahore Resolution, March 1940, calling for an autonomous or semi-independent Muslim majority region within the larger Indian confederation—which demand later led to the demand for an independent Pakistan.
At the time of his sudden death in December 1942, Sir Sikandar was honoured by the people of Lahore and granted burial outside the old Badshahi Mosque there, on the other side from Allama Muhammad Iqbal, the poet. Much of his work was left half done, in particular his plan to help the British war effort towards eventual Indian freedom, and his attempts to weld the Punjab together and save it from communal friction. Many historians have opined that Sir Sikandar's early demise at the age of 50 was, arguably, a major blow to the Indian freedom movements, especially to the Punjab. He wished to preserve this intact, within a larger Indian Confederation whereby his own Muslim community could enjoy full and maximum freedom and self-governance without truncating India or the Punjab region. He was too well aware of the potential bloodbath and conflict resulting from any such division or separation which, alas, was witnessed on such massive scale at the time of the August 1947 Partition of India and Pakistan
. It would thus not be wrong to say that Sir Sikandar's presence would certainly have been a 'moderating influence—and his death must be reckoned a great misfortune [at the time]''.
Indirectly, however, in due course, his eldest son Shaukat Hayat Khan, would take on a significant role in assisting the All India Muslim League in winning an independent Pakistan, finally, in a somewhat different interpretation of the father's intentions.

Related pages
 Lahore Resolution
 Working Committee of the All-India Muslim League

References

1892 births
1942 deaths
Punjabi people
Leaders of All India Muslim League
Knights and Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Khan Abdul Majid Khan Tarin, Khan Sahib, OBE (1877–1939) was a prominent magistrate, judge and later MLA, of the NWFP assembly, in British India.

Background 
He was the son of a tribal Tarin (or Tareen) chieftain and cavalry officer, Sardar Habib Khan (1829–1888), Nawab-Bahadur, Risaldar; and was born in Talokar village, near Haripur,  in what was later to be the Hazara area of the NWFP, in British India. After his father's death he was educated by English tutors and then sent to Aitchison College, Lahore for studies. Later, he was sent to England and became a Barrister.

Career 
Abdul Majid Khan Tarin was a Magistrate and Judge in the Punjab service from 1902 to 1934 and then, after his retirement, he joined the All India Muslim League. In 1937 he was elected an MLA (Member of Legislative Assembly) of the North-West Frontier Province but could not complete his tenure there as he died in September 1939, after a short illness.
Legacy 
His son Khan Abdus Salim Khan was a Pakistani diplomat who was ambassador in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Japan, USA and the UK and his daughter-in-law Begum Mahmooda Salim Khan was later Pakistan's first woman minister during the regime of General Ayub Khan. One of his great-grandsons is the Pakistani poet and scholar, Omer Tarin.

Majid Khan Tarin was also a very active early philanthropist of his area and opened many educational institutions and set up a medical ward for Tuberculosis patients at the Haripur government hospital. His family has continued this charitable tradition.

References 

1877 births
1939 deaths
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Indian judges
Leaders of All India Muslim League
Khattar (, ) is a tribe found in northern part of Punjab mainly in Rawalpindi and Attock districts and some parts of KPK in  Pakistan

Notable people

Pakistan 
 Nawab Muhammad Hayat Khan, a punjabi muslim administrator in British rule.
 Colonal Ayan Hayat Khan
British army officer before partition Served in Prince Albert Victor Cavalry after partition 11 FF unit of Pakistan army. Khattar From Haripur
 Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, First Prime Minister of Punjab Province in British India.
 Shaukat Hayat Khan, a senior Muslim league politician
 Yawar Hayat Khan senior director/producer of Pakistan Television
 General (retd) Ahsan Azhar Hayat, former senior officer of the Pakistan Army and ex-ambassador to Jordan 
 Major (retd) Tahir Sadiq. (MNA NA-55 and Ex district nazim Attock)
 Ghulam Sarwar Khan. (Federal petroleum minister,MNA NA-59 and senior leader PTI party)
India
 Ishaan Khattar, Indian actor
 Jagdish Khattar, Indian bureaucrat and business executive
 Manohar Lal Khattar, Indian politician
Nasri Khattar, Lebanese architect, creator of the Unified Arabic typeface
 Rajesh Khattar, Indian actor
 Sat Pal Khattar, Singaporean lawyer

References 

Ethnic groups in Pakistan
Ethnic groups in India
Pakistani tribes
Punjabi people
Major Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan (1915-1998) was a leader of the All India Muslim League from the Punjab province of British India, later Pakistan; and he worked as a close assistant to Muhammad Ali Jinnah in the Pakistan Independence Movement from circa 1942/43 to 1947.

Background
He was the eldest son of the former Punjabi statesman and leader, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan. As a young man, he joined the British Indian Army and served up to the rank of Major before resigning in 1942, on his father's death.

Pakistan Movement
From 1942 to 1947, Khan was active as a leading Punjabi member of the All India Muslim League and assisted the founder of Pakistan, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, in the efforts to obtain a separate Muslim nation-state when the British left India. In 1946, he was given the title of Shaukat i Punjab (The pride of the Punjab: a play on his name) by Jinnah himself.
Later politics
After 1947, for quite some time he remained an active political figure and member of parliament. However, gradually between the 1960s and 1980s he became increasingly disillusioned by the corruption and dishonesty of politics in Pakistan and finally quit. He died in September 1998, at Islamabad.

References

1915 births
1998 deaths
Politicians from Punjab, Pakistan
Leaders of All India Muslim League
The Aitchison College is Pakistan's most prestigious school and college. It is in the old and historical Punjabi city of Lahore. The school was started during British colonial rule, in 1886. It was first called the 'Punjab Chiefs' School and College'. It is named after Sir Charles Umpherston Aitchison, who was Lieutenant Governor of the Punjab. Only boys aged 4 to 19 go there.

References

Colleges and universities in Lahore
1886 establishments
19th-century establishments in Pakistan
Tarin (also written as Tareen), are a large Pashtun tribe.  They mostly live in parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan.

The Durrani tribe, which ruled Afghanistan for quite some time, is a branch descended from the main Tarin tribe.

References

Ethnic groups in Pakistan
Ethnic groups in Afghanistan
Ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Ethnic groups in Balochistan (Pakistan)
Kim was a famous book.  It is a novel by the Nobel Prize winning English writer, Rudyard Kipling.  It was first published in 1901.

Background
The book is set after the Second Anglo-Afghan War which ended in 1881, but before the Third, probably in the period 1893–98  The novel is notable for its detailed picture of the people, culture, and varied religions of India.

Summary
The novel tells the story of a young Irish orphan, Kimball O'Hara, better known as 'Kim'. He is living in British India and brought up by his ayah (nursemaid) in the old Punjabi city of Lahore (now in Pakistan). Kim meets a Buddhist Lama (priest) and has many exciting adventures, traveling along the Grand Trunk Road. Some other interesting characters in this story are Mahbub Ali, Colonel Creighton, Lurgan-sahib and Hurree Chandar Mukerjee.
Critical View
Kim is Kipling's most important work and a significant work about India and the British Raj, and the famous 'Great Game' of espionage played there between the British Empire and Russia in the 19th century. It is also his most 'enchanting' prose work and may well be compared to other great English literary classics by Geoffrey Chaucer, Shakespeare and Charles Dickens.

References

1901
English novels
1900s books
English children's books
British India
Works by Rudyard Kipling
"Maamme" (, meaning "Our Land") is the national anthem of Finland. The words of the song are based on the first chapter of the Swedish epic poem called The Tales of Ensign Stål, which was written by a priest named Johan Ludvig Runeberg, who was the national poet of Finland at the time. These words were later translated into the Finnish language. The melody of this song was composed by German-born musician Fredrich Pacius around the same time.

The national anthem of Finland is de facto; in other words, the Finnish national anthem is not official, because the Constitution has yet to mention a national anthem.

This melody of the song is also the same one used in the national anthem of neighbouring Estonia.

Lyrics
The original text to the song has eleven verses, but nowadays, only the first and last verses (highlighted in bold) are part of the national anthem. However, three verses – the first in Finnish and in Swedish, and the last in Finnish – can be sung if among the singers are Swedes and Finns together.
References

1840s songs
European anthems
National symbols of Finland
The Chief Justice of Pakistan heads the Supreme Court of Pakistan. These are the names of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of Pakistan (known as the Federal Court until 1960).

List

 A Acting
 ± Recess appointment, later rejected by the Supreme Judicial Council. All decisions voided due to illegality of appointment.
 † Died in office

References
WebCite is a service that archives web pages. A user asks WebCite to archive a certain URL, and then WebCite will make a copy of what the page looks like at that time. Authors use this when writing citations. If the webpage changes or is removed ("link rot"), there is still a copy on WebCite. This is very important when writing papers for academic journals or for school. Using the WebCite service is free (it costs no money.)

WebCite saves many kinds of internet content. Some of these are:
 HTML web pages
 PDF files
 CSS style sheets
 JavaScript
 digital images (pictures)

It also saves some information ("metadata") about the original content. This information includes the time it was saved, the MIME type, and how long it is. This information is useful because it can prove that the archive version is authentic.

Websites
jQuery is a JavaScript library created to make it easier and simpler to write JavaScript and HTML. It works on most web browsers and was invented by John Resig. The first release was in January 2006 at BarCamp NYC. Today there is a team of programmers working on jQuery, which is led by Dave Methvin.

Today, more than 55% of the 10,000 most-visited websites use jQuery, hence it is the most popular JavaScript library being used today. It is free and open source software and licensed under the MIT License.

jQuery's syntax is designed to make it easier to write complicated JavaScript. Some things that are easier to do using jQuery are:
 navigate (move around) a web page
 select (choose) elements on a web page using the Document Object Model
 create animations
 handle events like user actions
 create Ajax applications.
It also allows programmers to make their own jQuery plug-ins.
Companies like Microsoft and Nokia have said that they are going to include jQuery on their mobile platforms. In addition, Microsoft is including jQuery in its Visual Studio software to use with the ASP.NET AJAX framework and ASP.NET MVC Framework. Nokia has included it in their Web Run-Time widget development platform. jQuery has also been used in MediaWiki since version 1.16.

Release history

References

Other websites
 
 Quick API Reference
 jQuery UI
 

JavaScript
Free software
Little Mix were a British girl band consisting of Perrie Edwards, Leigh-Anne Pinnock and Jade Thirlwall. Former member Jesy Nelson left the band in December 2020 due to mental health issues.   They were the winners of the 2011 series of Britain's television competition The X Factor. Their winning single was called 'Cannonball' peaked at the top of the UK Singles Chart becoming their first number-one single. Their first album was released on 18 November 2012 and is called 'DNA'.

The band sold over 60 million records making them one of the best-selling girl groups of all-time. Little Mix was the first girl band to win The X Factor.
The X Factor
Little Mix entered the competition as four separate acts in the "Girls" category. They were put together as a group by the judges later on in the competition. They were originally called Rhythmix. Their mentor in the competition was Tulisa Contostavlos, an R&B singer and songwriter best known as part of hip hop trio N-Dubz. Little Mix won the competition in December 2011, beating Marcus Collins and Amelia Lily in the final.
Singles
"Cannonball" (December 2011) - The X Factor Winners Single - Peaked at No.1 on charts
"Wings" (May 2012) - Peaked at No.1 on charts
"DNA" (October 2012) - Peaked at No.3 on charts
"Change Your Life" (January 2013) - Peaked at No.12 on charts
"How Ya Doin'?" (April 2013) - Peaked at No.16 on charts
"Move" (November 2013) - Peaked at No.3 on charts
"Little Me" (November 2013) - Peaked at No.14 on charts
"Word up" (March 2014) - Peaked at No.6 on charts
"Salute" (May 2014) - Peaked at No.6 on the charts
"Black Magic" (July 2015) - Peaked at No.1 on the charts 
"Love Me Like You" (October 2015) - Peaked at No.11 on the charts
"Secret Love Song" (February 2016) 
"Hair" (April 2016) - Peaked at No. 11 on the charts
"Shout Out To My Ex" (October 2016)
"Touch" (December 2016)
"No More Sad Songs" (March 2017)
"Power" (May 2017)
"Reggaeton lento (Remix)"  (August 2017)
"Only You" (June 2019)
"Woman Like Me" (October 2018)
"Think About Us" (January 2019)
"Bounce Back" (June 2019)
"Break Up Song" (March 2020)
"Holiday" (July 2020)
"Sweet Melody" (October 2020)
"Confetti" (April 2021)
"Heartbreak Anthem" (May 2021)
Other websites
Official website 

2011 establishments in England
2010s British music groups
British girl groups
English R&B bands
English pop music groups
English hip hop bands
Musical groups established in 2011
Musical groups from London
The X Factor winners
The marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata) is a small wild cat of South and Southeast Asia. Its head and body length is 45 – 62 cm (18 - 24") and it weighs 2 – 5 kg (4 - 11 lb). 

Genetic analysis has shown that it is closely related with the Asian golden cat and the bay cat, which diverged from the other felids about 9.4 million years ago. Therefore, it may probably be transferred to the genus Catopuma.

Description 
Its tail is extremely long and bushy. The background color of its fur varies from dark gray-brown through yellowish gray to red-brown. The flanks and back are strikingly marked with large, irregular, dark-edged blotches. The legs and underparts are marked with black dots, and the tail is marked with black spots and rings. There are spots on the forehead and crown, which merge into narrow longitudinal stripes on the neck and irregular stripes on the back.
Habitat 
The marbled cat is found in northern India, Nepal, Guangxi and Yunnan provinces in China, and south through Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (Indonesia), and Borneo. Throughout its range it is thought to be rare, although it has also been suggested that the perception of the marbled cat's rarity may be caused by its secretive nature and its preference for remote forest areas.

References 

Mammals of Asia
Felines
Cheng Shuang (; born February 11, 1987) is a Chinese female aerial skier who took part in the 2010 Winter Olympics.

Cheng won the gold medal at the 2011 FIS Freestyle World Ski Championships.

References

1987 births
Living people
Chinese Olympians
Skiers
The American League East is a group of baseball teams in the American League of Major League Baseball. It is one of the six divisions in the MLB. There are five teams in this division. Four of the five teams are from the eastern United States, and one team is from Canada.

Teams in the American League East Division
Baltimore Orioles
Boston Red Sox
New York Yankees
Tampa Bay Rays
Toronto Blue Jays

American League
Ugnu-Kuparuk Airport is a private airport in Kuparuk, Alaska, United States. It is owned by ConocoPhilips Alaska. ConocoPhilips is an energy company that runs the oil field in Kuparuk. It is used for most cargo-transferring and sometimes air-taxi.

Sources 

Airports in the United States
Transport in Alaska
The African golden cat (Caracal aurata) is a medium-sized cat. This cat was previously listed as Profelis aurata. It weighs about  on average.  The underside of its chest and chin are normally light-colored. In rare cases, they are pure white. This cat is closely related to the caracal.

Its fur color can change over time. This is affected by its age and other factors.
The head of an African golden cat has light spots around the eyes. In the 1960s, studies were done that showed that various colors of the African golden cat (red, brown, silver) were found in equal numbers in most areas of their habitats. Distinctive spots on the back of the cat are only found on cats in West Africa. 

Normally, the habitat of the African golden cat is in the tropical rainforests found along the equator in Africa.

References 

Mammals of Africa
Felines
Hakim Ahmad Shuja MBE (1893-1969) was an Urdu poet, playwright, scholar and early movie writer and lyricist of British India, later Pakistan.

He was born in Lahore's old 'walled city'. Shuja wrote about the history and ethos of its Bhaati Gate and Bazaar i Hakiman areas in his memoirs Lahore ka Chelsea(circa 1960s). He is accounted to be one of the old city's notable Lahoris.

He is best known today for writing the screenplays for many early Indian and Pakistani movies and for composing romantic lyrics and songs for some of them. His son, Anwar Kamal Pasha, later became a major Pakistani film director and producer.

References

1893 births
1969 deaths
Indian Muslims
Urdu poets
Indian screenwriters
Writers from Lahore
Lyricists
Cinema of Pakistan
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Pakistani poets
"Wide Awake" is a song by American pop singer-songwriter Katy Perry. The single was released May 22, 2012, via Capitol Records as the second and final single from Teenage Dream: The Complete Connection, a re-release of Perry's third studio album, Teenage Dream. The song was well acclaimed by music critics, many of whom gave the maturity of Perry as a reason for citing. The song hit number 1 in several countries, including Canada, Poland, New Zealand, and Venezuela, while it peaked at number 2 in the United States. The single is among a string of hits by Perry. It is an electronic song about moving on and taking hardships when breaking up.  The song was certified quintuple-platinum in the US for sales and streams of over five million copies.  It ranked at number 15 on Billboard's Year-End Hot 100 of 2012 in the US Katy Perry wrote .
Music video
The video for "Wide Awake" begins with Perry behind the scenes on the set of the music video for "California Gurls".  She goes to her dressing room and stares at her reflection in the mirror.  Perry is then seen in a dark forest, holding a lantern and trying to escape it like a maze.  She meets a younger version of herself and eats a strawberry from a tree, which poisons her.  Later, Katy and her younger self exit to find Katy's "Prince Charming" who crosses his fingers behind his back in distrust.  Katy punches him, and her younger self is seen riding away on a bike with a name plate reading "Katheryn," Katy Perry's first name.  The video ends with Katy singing "Teenage Dream" on the California Dreams Tour.

References 

2012 songs
Katy Perry songs
Taufiq Rafat was born in 1927 in Sialkot. He got his education from  Dehra Dun, Aligarh and Lahore. He was a famous Pakistani poet and writer as well. He was regarded as pioneer of English language poetry and writing in Pakistan. He has depicted the real culture of Pakistan in his writings. He was an admirer of Ezra Pound, T. S Eliot and W. H Auden. Taufiq Rafat is the one poet whose work has appeared in all three of Pakistan's major anthologies. First Voices (1965), Pieces of Eight (1971) and Wordfall (1975). He also wrote a full-length play in verse: The Foothold, which remains unpublished but was performed by The Government College Dramatic Club in Lahore. He has been a guide, mentor and critic to many younger poets. His major work is considered his collection of poems Arrival of the Monsoon.  He also translated the epic Puran Bhagat (1983) of Punjabi poet Bulleh Shah and Qadir Yar into lyrical English.

1927 births
1998 deaths
Pakistani poets
Daud Kamal (1935–1987) was a Pakistani poet and academic, from Peshawar city. He was a Professor of English Literature at University of Peshawar.

References

1935 births
1987 deaths
Pakistani poets
People from Peshawar
Pakistani academics
Alamgir Hashmi (also Aurangzeb Alamgir Hashmi; born 15 November 1951) is a significant Pakistani poet who writes in English.   His poems have received critical acclaim.

References

1951 births
Living people
Pakistani poets
Bapsi Sidhwa (née Bhandara; born 1938 in Lahore) is a Pakistani writer. She writes in English. Sidwa now lives in Houston, Texas, United States.

She is best known for her novels, The Crow Eaters (1978), The Bride (1982), Cracking India (1991), An American Brat (1993) and Water: A Novel (2006).

1938 births
Living people
Pakistani writers
This is a list of writers from Pakistan. It is only partly complete. It includes writers of both fiction and non-fiction, writing in any language.
 


A
Agha Shorish Kashmiri
Ahmad Ali
Ahmad Faraz, Urdu poet
Ahmad Nadeem Qasimi
Akhtar Raza Saleemi
Aijaz Ahmad Mangi
Alamgir Hashmi, poet
Alauddin Masood
Altaf Fatima
Ali Moeen
Altaf Gauhar
Amar Jaleel
Amjad Islam Amjad
Amjad Parvez
Anna Molka Ahmed, poet
Anwar Maqsood
Anwaar Ahmad
Anwer Zahidi
Ashfaq Ahmed
Arshad Sharif
Ata ul Haq Qasmi

B
Bano Qudsia
Bapsi Sidhwa, fiction writer
Bina Shah, fiction writer
Bushra Rahman

C
Chaudhry Afzal Haq
Colonel Muhammad Khan

D
Daud Kamal, poet

E
 Ehsan Sehgal

F
Faiz Ahmad Faiz
Farooq Qaiser
Fatima Surayya Bajia
Muhammad Farooq
Fatima Bhutto
Farman Fatehpuri

G
Ghazala Rafi
Ghulam Muhammad Qasir

H
Hajra Masroor
Hakim Ahmad Shuja
Hakim Said
Hina Faisal Imam, poet

I
Ibn-e-Insha
Idris Azad
Iftikhar Arif
Ihsan Danish
Imdad Hussaini
Imtiaz Ali Taj
Intizar Hussain
Ishtiaq Ahmed
Ibn-e-Safi
Israr Ahmed
J
Javed Chaudhry
Janbaz Mirza
Jazib Qureshi
Javed Ahmad Ghamidi
Jocelyn Orc-Saeed

K
Khadija Mastoor
Khalid Hussein
Kaleem Omar, poet
Kamila Shamsie, fiction writer
Khakan Sajid
Kishwar Naheed

M
Mahmood Shaam
Maki Kureishi, poet
Masood Ashraf Raja
Mazhar ul Islam
Mohammed Hanif, fiction writer
Muhammad Iqbal, National poet of Pakistan
Muhammad Asad  
Muhammad Taqi Usmani
Mohsin Bhopali
Mohsin Hamid, fiction writer
Muhammad Asim Butt
Muhammad Munawwar Mirza
Muhammad Umar Memon
Mumtaz Mufti
Muneeza Shamsie
Muniruddin Ahmed
Musharraf Ali Farooqi
Muhammad Hamza Saeed Bhatti 
Mustansar Hussain Tarar
Mushtaq Ahmed Yousfi
M. Athar Tahir

N
Nadeem Aslam, fiction writer
Najam Hussain Syed
Naseem Hijazi
Nasir Kazmi

O
Allama Kaukab Noorani Okarvi
Omer Tarin, poet
Osman Khalid Butt

P
Patras Bokhari
Partawi Shah

Q
Qudrat Ullah Shahab
Qurat-ul-Ain Haider

R
Raees Warsi
Rahim Gul
Rasheed Ahmed Siddique
Rasheed Hasrat
S
Saadat Hasan Manto
Saeed Rashid
Sarfraz Manzoor
Shaikh Ayaz
Shaukat Siddiqui
Shaukat Thanvi
Shafiq-ur-Rehman
Sheikh fasih uddin

T
Tanwir Phool
Tariq Ismail Sagar
Tahir Alauddin
Tahir Naqvi
Tariq Rahman
Taufiq Rafat, poet

U
Umera Ahmed
Usman Peerzada

W
Waqas Ahmad Khwaja, poet
Wasif Ali Wasif
Wazir Agha

Z
Zaib-un-nissa Hamidullah
Zulfikar Ghose, fiction writer
Zulkaif Riaz
Zafar Mairaj

Other websites

 
Lists of writers by nationality
Writers
The Gheba tribe are a tribe from the Punjab, mostly located in the North-western portion of Rawalpindi Tehsil and Fateh Jang Tehsil of Attock District of Pakistan. They are generally classified as Mughals.
Origins 
The origins of the Ghebas is subject to some dispute or controversy for quite some time; according to most scholars, historians and early British Indian administrators of their native areas, the Ghebas, like their close kin the Jodhra tribe and Alpial, are of Hindu origins, probably Rajputs. Most of them settled in North-western portion of Rawalpindi Tehsil and Fateh Jang Tehsil. They were at one time spread out over a broader area, in both Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa areas of what is now Pakistan but over time, their main population came to live in Attock and Rawalpindi districts of northern Punjab. They were most probably descended from one Raja Dayanand, a Chauhan Rajput, through Rai Shankar, whose offspring 'Rai Gheba' converted to Islam and was given the title of 'Gheba Khan'. They have been Muslims since then and sizeable landowners in the districts they live in.
There is another view, often believed by most of the Gheba families, that they are not really Rajputs or Jatts but are Barlas Mughals,

Villages 
Whatever their origins, the Ghebas continue to be among the biggest landowners of northern Punjab, in present-day Pakistan. Popular villages of Gheba Sardars in Fateh jang are , Tajabara,Majia,jeendhar, Asthaal, Malal, Dhurnal, Dhari-Rai-Ditt and Shehr Rai-Sadullah-Khan ,khunda and Dehdar.  several other villages that  Ghebas own as landlord ,the arians are living in those villages as a tenents.
The  biggest and most important village of Ghebas Sardars in Attock area is Kot Fateh Khan, which is part of the Jagir estate of the Sardar of Kot.

Occupations 
Most of the Ghebas are landowners and engaged in agricultural activities.

Related pages

References 

Punjabi people
Ethnic groups in Pakistan
Pakistani tribes
The Jodhra are  a North Punjabi Rajput tribe who are located in Punjab's district of Attock, they are densely populated in Tehsil Pindi Gheb. Jodhra Rajputs are closely allied with the Ghebas,Khans of Makhad.

History
Sir Lepel Griffins book talks about their history.
The Jodhra tribe converted to Islam in the hand of Mahmud of Ghazni, they came to Attock in the end 16th Century and got their hands on  much of the land of north Punjab mainly the 'illaquas' of Sohan, Sill, Talagang and Chakwal. The Jodhra were independent Chiefs keeping up a large body of armed retainers. They saw their peak in the times of Malik Aulia Khan after which owing to family feuds and other causes the tribe has lost much of its original prosperity.
Their fights with Gheba tribe were an essential part of their history and were known as 'arch-rivals' and enemies but now the two tribes inter-marry and are on friendly terms.In Sir Lepel Griffins book it is stated that the Jodhra are men of principles who could kill for their prestige, they are strong, proud of their culture and traditions. They also breed horses and are fond of hawking and field sports, they prefer service in cavalry to infantry.
Kamrial Family