Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
A convention is a meeting of individuals who meet at an arranged place and time to discuss or engage in some common interest.  The most common conventions are based upon industry, profession, and fandom.  Trade conventions are usually about an industry or industry segment. They often include keynote speakers, vendor displays, and other information and activities of interest to the event organizers and those who attend the convention.  Professional conventions focus on issues of concern to the profession. Fan conventions usually feature displays, shows, and sales based on pop culture and guest celebrities. Science fiction conventions are similar to both professional conventions and fan conventions. Conventions also exist for various hobbies, such as gaming or model railroads.

References 

Human communication
Convention may mean:

 Convention (norm), a custom or tradition, a standard of presentation or conduct
 Treaty, an agreement in international law
 Convention (meeting), meeting of a (usually large) group of people and/or companies who share a common interest
 Fan convention, a gathering of fans of a particular  genre
 Gaming convention, has role-playing games, collectible card games, miniatures wargames, board games, video games, and the like
 Political convention, a formal gathering of people for political purposes
 Trade fair
 Bridge convention, a term in the game of bridge
 Convention (Paris Métro), a station on line 12 of the Paris Métro in the 15th arrondissement
 "The Convention" (The Office episode)
 "Convention" (Malcolm in the Middle episode)

Related pages
Norm
Doctrine
 Conference
 National Convention (disambiguation)
Ella  Mitchell (born 15 August 1937) is an American soul singer and actress. She is best remembered for playing  Hattie Mae Pierce (Big Momma) in the 2000 comedy movie Big Momma's House. She also played Evillene the evil witch in the Broadway theatre  musical The Wiz.

References

Other websites
 
 
 The Wiz 

1937 births
Living people
Actors from Ohio
singers from Ohio
American voice actors
comedians from Ohio
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
African American actors
African-American singers
African-American voice actors
African American comedians
African-American movie actors
African-American television actors
African-American stage actors
The HMS Birkenhead was a British troopship that sank on 25 February 1852 near Cape Town, South Africa. It was one of the first iron-hulled ships built for the Royal Navy.  She was designed as a steam-powered frigate, but was converted to a troopship before being commissioned.

Many of the lifeboats could not be lowered because of poor maintenance and a thick layer of paint that kept the mechanisms from working. The soldiers famously stood aside and allowed the women and children to get into the working lifeboats safely. Only 193 of the 643 people on board survived. The chivalry shown by the soldiers gave rise to the "women and children first" protocol when abandoning ship. The "Birkenhead drill" is memorialized in Rudyard Kipling's poem Soldier an' Sailor too:

The voyage
The voyage 

The Birkenhead steamed out of Simon's Bay near Cape Town, South Africa on February 25, 1852 bound for Port Elizabeth, South Africa. The ship had been built by the famous Scottish John Laird family of Birkenhead, Merseyside, England. She was a 1400-ton ship that was just over 200 feet long. On board were 643 men, women and children as well as several officer's horses. Among the passengers were soldiers destined for the Queen's (second) Royal Regiment of Foot. They were commanded by Ensign Boylan, one corporal and 51 men.
The ship's captain, Robert Salmond, wanted to make the trip quickly so he hugged the South African coast staying about 3 miles (4.8 km) off the shore. That evening, everyone was resting in their hammocks below decks when the ship hit a hidden reef off a point now called "Point Danger". The impact ripped the ship open allowing the sea to pour in. The forward watertight compartment flooded immediately, drowning about 100 men in their hammocks. A second impact tore open the second of the two watertight compartments flooding it. The remaining officers and men assembled on the deck. Because the winches were not well maintained and clogged with paint, the two large lifeboats that could hold 150 people each could not be launched. The ship fired distress rockets but there were no other ships nearby. Two cutters and one gig (small boat) were launched. The order was given for the men to "stand fast" (remain where they were) allowing the women and children into the few boats available
. The horses were freed so they could swim the approximately two miles (3.2 km) to shore. Twenty minutes after hitting the rock the ship broke up and sank. A few managed to swim to shore while most either drowned or were taken by sharks.
Aftermath 

The schooner Lioness discovered one of the cutters the next morning and made it to the scene where they rescued as many people as they could. It was reported in The Times newspaper that there were 643 people on board the Birkenhead, but this was an estimate as the records were lost with the ship. The survivors included about 113 Army personnel of all ranks, 6 Royal Marines, 54 sailors, 7 women and 13 children. Eight horses made it to shore (a ninth broke its leg getting off the ship). The disaster was the start of the standard protocol of women and children first. The Birkenhead Drill became the best example of courage in the face of death.

A lighthouse was built at Danger Point in 1895 to warn ships of the dangerous reef. It is about 59 feet (18 metres) tall and can be seen for about 25 nautical miles out to sea. A memorial to the Birkenhead disaster is at the base and points to the rock where the ship sank.

References
References

Other websites 
 Soldier an' Sailor too, by Rudyard Kipling
 Birkenhead drill, YouTube
 ‘Women and Children First’? On Sinking Ships, It’s Every Man for Himself

Shipwrecks
1852
1850s in the United Kingdom
19th century in South Africa
Constitutional convention may refer to:

 Constitutional convention (political meeting), a meeting of delegates to adopt a new constitution or revise an existing constitution.

Constitutional conventions by country 
 Constitutional Convention (Australia), any of four gatherings in 1891, 1897–98, 1973, 1998
Australian Constitutional Convention 1998
 Constitutional Convention (Ireland), established in 2012
 Constitutional Convention (Philippines)
 Scottish Constitutional Convention
 Constitutional Convention (United States)
Colonel Petra Herrera, also known as "Pedro Herrera", was a Mexican "soldadera".  She fought as a revolutionary in the Mexican Revolution.

Life 

Petra Herrera changed herself into "Pedro" Herrera and joined the revolutionary troops of Pancho Villa. She changed her looks and became more masculine.  She invented tricks like saying she shaved at dawn before the other soldiers were awake.  She was known for her courage, and for her specialty of blowing up bridges.

As "Pedro" Herrera, she was well-liked. She was accepted as a leader. She decided to reveal that she was a woman, but the  revolutionary leaders would not give her a military rank.

Fight in Torreón 

Herrera decided to leave Pancho Villa's group.  She created a group of women who, like her, wanted to fight at the front.   Sources say there were tens of thousands of them.
Herrera was in the biggest fight of the war to that date, the second battle of Torreón in 1914. With 400 other women, she took the city on May 30, 1914.  Cosme Mendoza Chavira, another follower of Villa, said "Ella fue quien tomo Torreón y apago las luces cuando entraron en la ciudad" (She was the one who took Torreón and turned out the lights when they entered the city.") Conventional history does not say anything about the participation of Petra Herrera.  Villa gave the role of Petra Herrera in the revolution to  an unknown woman.

The end of her days
At the end of the fighting, she asked to be a general and to continue to fight, but they only gave her a promotion to colonel. Later, the women under her command were disbanded.   It is not clear how Herrera died. Some say she finished her military days as a spy. They say she was attacked by bandits and died from the wounds.  Others say she died in the cross fire between the federal soldiers and the revolutionaries in Zacatecas.  Others say she formed her own brigade of 25,000 women and lived in a camp where men could not enter without being attacked.  Still others say she ended her existence as a waitress in the city of Juarez in Chihuahua.

References 

Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
Mexican military people
Bothriolepis is a genus of antiarch placoderms. It was widespread and diverse in the middle to late Devonian. 

Bothriolepis lived in environments across every continent including near-shore marine and freshwater settings. Most species of Bothriolepis were  small, benthic, freshwater detritivores. They got nutrients by eating decomposing plant/animal material. They were about  in length.  However, the largest species, B. maxima, had a carapace about  in length. 

Over 70 species are found across the world, but this is also typical of modern bottom dwelling species around today.

References 

Placoderms
The Arthrodires (Arthrodira) are an order of extinct armoured, jawed fishes of the class Placodermi. They flourished in the Devonian period before their sudden extinction, surviving for about 50 million years and living in most marine ecological niches.

Greek for "jointed neck", the arthrodires had movable joints between armour plates surrounding the head and body. The mouth is interesting. As the lower jaw moved down, the head shield moved, allowing a large opening. Lacking distinct teeth, like all placoderms, they used the sharpened edges of a bony plate as a biting surface. The eye sockets are protected by a bony ring, a feature shared by birds and some ichthyosaurs. 

Early arthrodires, such as the genus Arctolepis, were well-armoured fishes with flattened bodies. The largest member of this group, Dunkleosteus, was a true superpredator of the latest Devonian period, from 3 to 9 m in length. In contrast, the long-nosed Rolfosteus measured just 15 cm.
A common misconception is the arthrodires were sluggish bottom-dwellers that were outcompeted by more advanced fish. But during their reign, the arthrodires were one of the most diverse and numerically successful vertebrate orders of the Devonian. They occupied a vast spectrum of roles from apex predator to detritus-nibbling bottom dweller. The arthrodires were one of many groups eliminated by the mass extinctions of the late Devonian. This let other fish such as sharks diversify into the vacant ecological niches during the Carboniferous period.

Placoderms
Extinct fish
Captain Forever is the name for several space shooter indie games created by Jarred "Farbs" Woods. There are six total versions of the games in the series.

Gameplay 
In Captain Forever, the player is the pilot of a ship that can be expanded or upgraded using parts (such as blasters or boosters) found from other defeated ships. The goal is to stay alive for as long as possible. The game advances by defeating ships of progressive difficulty (represented by color) You lose the game after the pilot is destroyed.

Sequels 
Captain Successor was released in 2009, and included new parts.

Captain Impostor  was released in 2010 for supporters of the game, and included some updates

Captain Jameson was a new project, but scrapped in 2013. This served as the framework for the next game, Dawn Star.

Dawn Star updated the game with new aesthetics and mechanics. Originally called Captain Jameson Reboot.
Captain Forever Remix was released in 2015 by Jarred "Farbs" Woods with Dean Tate and Brian Chan, working with Pixelsaurus games. Captain Forever Remix added many new parts to the ship, and, allowed for parts to be unlocked, and a series of definitive levels (represented by planets in the solar system). The game also styles the pilot as a young girl imagining the game, playing against her brother, the antagonist of the game. Progression through the planets is achieved by destroying ships of a certain level.

Awards 
Captain Forever won the Best Game award at China's first Independent Games Festival in 2009.

References

Shooter video games
2009 video games
The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign in World War II to defeat the Germans in 1945. The British Royal Navy repeated the blockade of Germany of World War II, and Germany repeated its attempt to blockade Britain by using U-boats. The German Navy also tried to use surface warships in the Atlantic Ocean, but lost them in various battles.

Notes 
Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean
Paris Square (, Kikar Pariz, also called France Square = Kikar Tzarfat) is a square or plaza in Jerusalem. The name France Square was established in 1959. In 2007 the city of Paris gave Jerusalem a "French Fountain" that was built in the middle of the square. From that time the square has been called "Paris Square".

Other websites 

Town squares in Jerusalem
Moscow Square (, Kikar Moskva, ) is a public square in Jerusalem, Israel. The square was dedicated in 2007 during the visit of the mayor of Moscow Yury Luzhkov in Israel. The square is the center of the Russian Compound next to the Russian church.

Other websites 

Town squares in Jerusalem
Rome Square (, Kikar Roma, ) is a public square in Jerusalem, Israel. The square was dedicated in 2009 during the visit of the mayor of Rome Gianni Alemanno. The square in located next to the Italian Jews Museum and the Italian Synagogue in Jerusalem.

Other websites 

Town squares in Jerusalem
Võ Thị Sáu (Đất Đỏ, 1933 – January 23, 1952) was a Vietnamese hero. She was a schoolgirl who fought against the French. (Vietnam was a French colony until 1954.) She was a guerilla fighter.

She was born Phước Thọ Commune, Đất Đỏ District in 1933. In 1948, she started helping the Viet Minh. Many of her friends and family were part of the Viet Minh. She was a contact for the guerillas and passed information to the fighters.

When she was 14, she attacked some French soldiers. She threw a grenade at them. A Captain was killed. Twelve soldiers were hurt. She was not caught.

In 1949, she made another attack. She threw a grenade at a man who was in charge of executions (a canton chief.) The attack did not work: the grenade didn't explode. The French police caught her after the attack. She was sent to prison.

Sáu went to three different prisons. The last prison she went to was Côn Sơn Prison in the Côn Đảo Islands. She was executed (killed) on 23 January 1952. She was 18 years old.
Today, she is considered a martyr. She is buried in Hàng Dương Cemetery on Côn Sơn Island. Many Vietnamese people come to worship at her grave.

References

1933 births
1952 deaths
Vietnamese people
Electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) is a condition where a person feels unwell, which people who have it believe it to be due to being near  electromagnetic fields. Other names for it include electrohypersensitivity, electro-sensitivity, and electrical sensitivity (ES).  Wi-Fi allergy is a form of EHS.

According to the World Health Organization, EHS is described by vague symptoms that are different in each person. The symptoms are real and can be weak or strong and can make some disabled. There is no specific list of features to diagnose someone, and there is no scientific link between electromagnetic fields and how people feel. EHS is not a medical diagnosis. People who claim to have EHS blame it for headaches, fatigue, stress, sleep disturbances, skin symptoms like prickling, burning sensations and rashes, pain and aches in muscles, and many other health problems. Although electromagnetic fields can make the body hot, people who say they have EHS say they feel sick at very low levels.
Most experiments show that people who claim to have EHS can't correctly tell if they are near EM radiation or not, and the medical and scientific communities don't think its a real illness. Several double-blind experiments suggest that people who say they have EHS can't detect if electromagnetic fields are present, and are just as likely to report feeling sick after a phony exposure as they are after real exposure, making scientists think it is the nocebo effect.

Popular culture

In the TV show Better Call Saul, Jimmy McGill's brother Chuck stays at home and believes he suffers from electromagnetic hypersensitivity.

Related pages
 Wi-Fi Safety

References

Electromagnetism
Health problems
Better Call Saul is an American television series created by Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould. It is a spin-off another show, Breaking Bad. Better Call Saul is set in 2002 and follows the story of a lawyer James "Jimmy" McGill (Bob Odenkirk), six years before he appeared on Breaking Bad.

The first season consists of 10 episodes. The show's 10-episode second season premiered on February 15, 2016. On March 15, 2016, the series was renewed for a 10-episode third season.

Like the show that came before it, Better Call Saul has been praised by critics. It has been nominated for several awards, including four Primetime Emmy Awards, three Writers Guild of America Awards, two Critics' Choice Television Awards, a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Golden Globe Award. The first episode held the record for the highest-rated scripted series premiere in basic cable history.

References
References

American crime drama television series
2015 American television series debuts
English-language television programs
2022 American television series endings
American television spin-offs
American comedy-drama television series
2010s American crime television series
The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) was created by the United Nations Security Council in October 1993.  This was just after the end of the Rwandan Civil War.  UNAMIR's goals were to help put a peace agreement into place, monitor how well it was going, and support the new government.

However, on April 7, 1994, while UNAMIR was in Rwanda, the Rwandan genocide started.  The genocide lasted 100 days.  During that time, 800,000 people were killed; 2 million became refugees in other countries; another two million had to run away to different parts of Rwanda; and up to 250,000 women were raped.

The UNAMIR ended in March 1996.  Since the genocide, the United Nations has admitted that they failed to prevent the Rwandan genocide.

Overview of the genocide
In a genocide, many or all people in a group are killed because of their ethnicity, religion, or political opinions.  In the Rwandan genocide, members of an ethnic group called the Tutsi (abatutsi) were killed because of their ethnicity.  The killers were extremist members of another ethnic group called the Hutu (abahutu).  The Hutu killers also killed other Hutus whose political beliefs were not as extreme as theirs.

In 1994, almost all Rwandan people (85%) were Hutus.  However, for many years, the Tutsi minority had more power and ran the Rwandan government.  From 1990-1993, the two groups had fought a civil war about who would control the government.  This war ended with a peace treaty in 1993.  One of the reasons UNAMIR got involved was to make sure both sides obeyed that agreement.
However, on April 6, 1994, an airplane carrying the Presidents of Rwanda and Burundi was shot down.  Both Presidents were Hutus.  Nobody knows for sure who shot down the plane.  However, the Hutu extremists blamed a Tutsi rebel group, and right away, they started killing Tutsis.  The Rwandan genocide began that day.

Background

There were not many countries in the United Nations that were interested in sending peacekeeping troops to Rwanda, even before the genocide started.  France was an ally of the Hutu-led government, and did not want to fight it.  The United States had just had soldiers tortured and killed in Somalia a year before, and did not want to get into another fight in Africa."  Also, many countries thought there was nothing in it for them if they helped Rwanda.  Rwanda had no important natural resources, like oil or gold, and it was tiny.  It took five months to get United Nations member countries to offer enough soldiers for this mission.

No power to protect citizens
Once the genocide started, UNAMIR ran into a serious problem.  UNAMIR has to get its "mandate" (its powers, goals, and orders for a mission) from the United Nations Security Council.  For this mission, UNAMIR's mandate did not include stopping the genocide or protecting civilians.  At this time, UNAMIR soldiers were only allowed to shoot their weapons in self-defence, if somebody was attacking them personally.  They were not allowed to use their weapons or get involved to protect civilians who were being attacked.

Work in Rwanda 

Once they saw what was happening in Rwanda, the UNAMIR Commander, Roméo Dallaire, and Belgian peacekeepers asked the Security Council to give them more power and soldiers to stop the killings.  However, the United Nations member countries refused to change these rules for UNAMIR.  They and other world leaders talked about the genocide as 'just another ethnic conflict' and said these types of things would always go on in Africa.
After ten of its soldiers were tortured and killed trying to protect the prime minister, Belgium pulled the rest of its soldiers out of Rwanda.

Security Council response
More and more, UNAMIR's peacekeeping troops were being attacked.  Other countries began to copy Belgium and pull their soldiers out of Rwanda.  Some members of the United Nations Security Council, like the United States, argued strongly that the UN should take all of its peacekeeping troops out of Rwanda.  Eventually, the Security Council decided to decrease the number of troops UNAMIR was allowed to have.  On April 21, 1994, as the genocide was spreading across Rwanda, the Security Council decreased the number of allowed UNAMIR troops from 2,548 to 270  a decrease of almost 90%.
UNAMIR's Commander, Roméo Dallaire, kept asking the United Nations for more troops.  On May 15, the Security Council increased UNAMIR's allowed number of troops to 5,500.  However, it took almost six months for UN member countries to volunteer this many troops.  Meanwhile, the genocide continued.

France and Operation Turquoise

France offered to lead a humanitarian mission in southwest Rwanda while UNAMIR was trying to gather more troops.  The Security Council approved this mission on June 22, 1994.  France called the mission "Operation Turquoise."

During this operation, soldiers from France and other countries set up a "safe zone" in southwest Rwanda.  This was meant to be an area where people could come to be protected from Hutu attacks.  Historians think that Operation Turquoise saved 13,000 to 14,000 lives.p. 308
However, many people have accused France of not doing enough to stop the genocide in its safe zone.  Here are some of the things France's accusers say:
 In rural parts of the safe zone, mass murders were still happening.  
 France allowed the genocide's leaders to escape through its safe zone into Zaire, without being arrested by French troops.
 Other countries' peacekeeping troops and some newspaper reporters say they saw French military trucks driving members of the Rwandan army into Zaire.p. 308  
 Rwanda's current president has even accused France of helping the genocide happen.
France says it never did these things.

Operation Turquoise ended in August 1994, when UNAMIR took over the safe zone.

End of the genocide
Together with the Ugandan army, a Tutsi rebel group called the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) fought the extremist Hutus.  Bit by bit, they took control of more parts of Rwanda.  Finally, on July 4, 1994, they took control of Kigali, Rwanda's capital city.
After this, about two million Hutus ran away from Rwanda to Zaire.  This group included many of the genocide's leaders.  With the RPF in control of the country, the killings stopped.

End of UNAMIR 
UNAMIR stayed in Rwanda for about two years after the genocide stopped.  It worked on finding homes for refugees, clearing landmines, and helping with humanitarian aid.  Meanwhile, the United Nations raised $762 million to help the genocide victims and to help rebuild the country.  However, Rwanda did not want UNAMIR to stay in its country.  Rwandan leaders told the United Nations that the UN did not help with what Rwanda really needed.  It asked UNAMIR to leave Rwanda.  In March 1996, UNAMIR did.

Views about UN "failure" to protect Rwanda

Since the end of the Rwandan genocide, many people have blamed the United Nations for failing to prevent or stop the genocide.
In 2000, United Nations Security Council admitted that it did fail to prevent the genocide.  They said that they could have helped stopped the killings, but they did not.

Independent report
In 1999, Kofi Annan, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, asked for an independent report about the Rwandan genocide.  He wanted to know why the United Nations and the world had "failed" to stop the Rwandan genocide.  The report said that the major failures were:
 Not having enough resources (like peacekeeping troops to send)
 Countries not having the "political will" to help Rwanda (countries did not see helping Rwanda as important, and did not think they would get anything out of helping)
 Countries not realizing how bad things were in Rwanda

Media coverage
Media coverage

Also, at the time, historic things were happening in South Africa.  Apartheid was ending.  The international mass media chose to focus on that instead of what was happening in Rwanda.  They, like the UN, saw the Rwandan genocide as just another fight between African tribes.  Because there was little to no news broadcasts about Rwanda, most people in the world did not know what was going on there.  They could not push their governments to get involved.

Misunderstandings
Martin Dominque argues that world leaders may not have wanted to send troops to Africa because they had the wrong ideas about what African people are like.  If they thought African people were always fighting each other and always would, they would think the Rwandan genocide was no different.

New information
New information

Classified documents
Since the independent report came out in 1999, the UN and the United States have released documents that used to be classified.  These documents prove that the UN and the United States:
 Knew several years ahead of time that the Hutus had a plan to kill every Tutsi in Rwanda
 Knew that the Hutu government was training militias before the genocide began
 Knew the Hutus were committing a genocide against the Tutsis, once it started

Dallaire's fax
Dallaire's fax

Roméo Dallaire also says he tried many times to warn the United Nations that a disaster was coming in Rwanda.  Finally, he sent a fax to the military adviser of the Secreretary-General of the United Nations.  He said he had secretly spoken with a leader of the Hutu militia.  This man told him his soldiers were trained and ready to kill Tutsis.  For example, he said, his soldiers could kill 1,000 Tutsi in 20 minutes.  The man said he thought that huge massacres of Tutsis were about to begin.  Finally, he told Dallaire where the Hutu militia were keeping many of their weapons.

In his fax, Dallaire said he wanted to take action and take away those weapons.  If the weapons were not taken away, they would be used to kill Tutsis.
The next day, he received a fax back from Kofi Annan, who was in charge of peacekeeping at the United Nations.  He ordered Dallaire not to take any action.  He told Dallaire that protecting citizens was not part of UNAMIR's mandate.  About three months later, the Rwandan genocide began.

Related pages
Rwandan genocide
 Genocide
United Nations

Notes

References

1993 establishments in Africa
1994 in Africa
1995
1996 in Africa
Rwandan genocide
United Nations
On 10 April 2016 at around 3:30 am Indian Standard Time, there was an explosion and fire at the Puttingal Temple in Paravur, Kollam, Kerala, India. The incident happened when firework celebrations went out of control. More than 100 people were killed. More than 350 were injured, some with severe burns. The temple did not have permission from Kerala Government authorities to do a competitive fireworks display.

References

2016 in India
2010s explosions in Asia
2016 fires
April 2016 events
Building and structure fires in Asia
2010s disasters in India
Explosions in 2016

21st century in Kerala
2010s fires in Asia
Marie Christine de Rouvroy (May 7, 1728 - July 4, 1774) was a French noblewoman. She was later a member of the House of Grimaldi by marriage. She was a granddaughter of the famous writer, the duc de Saint-Simon  (1675-1755). She was known as the Countess of Valentinois or as Princess Charles Maurice of Monaco. She was a lady-in-waiting to three of the daughters of Louis XV of France and to the Countess of Provence.

Life

Her parents were Jacques Louis de Rouvroy, Duke of Ruffec (1698-1746) and his wife Catherine Charlotte Thérèse de Gramont (1707-1755). She was known as Mademoiselle de Ruffec before marriage. she was formally married to Prince Charles Maurice Grimaldi of Monaco, "Count of Valentinois" on 10 December 1749. The wedding took place in the private chapel of the Hôtel Saint-Simon in Paris with the express permission of Louis XV. The couple eventually separated in 1766, having had no children.
Titles
May 7 1728 - 10 December 1749: Mademoiselle de Ruffec.
10 December 1749 - 1766: The Countess of Valentinois. (Madame la comtesse de Valentinois)

References

1728 births
1774 deaths
House of Grimaldi
Złotoryja (German: Goldberg, Latin: Aurum) it's a town in southwest Poland in Lower Silesian Voivodeship. Złotoryja is a capital of Złotoryja County.

Since 1945 Złotoryja was a part of German Reich.

History 
Since 8th until 10th century in the area of Złotoryja lived people from tribe called Trzebowianie. At the end of the 12th century German miners settled here.

In 1211 Złotoryja received the city law. In 1241 miners from Złotoryja fought in Battle of Legnica against Mongols. 

Złotoryja was Czech fief since 1328.

Towns in Lower Silesian Voivodeship
The Impuzamugambi was a militia that was created in Rwanda in 1992.  "Impuzamugambi" means "those with the same goal" in Kinyarwanda, Rwanda's official language.

The Impuzamugambi was made of young people from an ethnic group called the Hutus.  A similar militia, the Interahamwe, was also made of young Hutus.  Together, these two militias killed tens of thousands of Tutsis, members of another ethnic group, in the Rwandan genocide.  They also killed some Hutus who did not agree with the pro-Hutu government.

About the Impuzamugambi
In 1992, two political parties that supported the Hutu president created the Impuzamugambi and the Interahamwe.  These political parties were extremist pro-Hutu groups.

The militias got training from the Rwandan army.  Some groups and witnesses have said that French soldiers also trained the militias.  One of the militias' commanders bragged that his men were so well trained that they could kill 1,000 Tutsis in 20 minutes.
The Impuzamugambi during the genocide
On April 6, 1994, Rwanda's President, Juvénal Habyarimana, and Burundi's President were in an airplane that got shot down.  Both men were Hutus.  As the United States Department of State said later:

Roadblocks
Within half an hour of the airplane crash, the Impuzamugambi and the Interahamwe started blocking the roads in Kigali, Rwanda's capital city.  All Rwandans had to carry identification cards that said their ethnic group on them.  The militias killed every Tutsi they found.

The militias kept using roadblocks, which became an important part of Rwanda's genocide strategy:
 Identification cards made it easy to tell who was a Tutsi
 Leaders gave the militia lists of people they wanted to be killed; if one of these people stopped at a roadblock, the militia would kill them
 The roadblocks made Tutsis too scared to try to escape from Rwanda on the roads

Door-to-door killing
During the first few days of the genocide, the Rwandan Army and the Presidential Guard took charge of executing people in Kigali.  However, the Impuzamugambi and the Interahamwe were with them, and the soldiers taught them what to do.  Soon, they were working together.  First the soldiers would fire grenades, tear gas, and machine guns into places where Tutsis might be staying.  Then the militia were allowed to go in and kill everybody inside.  Often, they used machetes or clubs to kill people.  Then the soldiers and militia would search, inch by inch, to find anyone who might still be hiding.

In this way, the Rwandan army and the militias killed 20,000 people in the first five days of the genocide.

Spreading the genocide
According to Human Rights Watch, before April 6, the militias had only about 2,000 members, mostly in Kigali.  However: "Once the genocide began and militia members began reaping the rewards of violence, their numbers [increased quickly] to between twenty and thirty thousand for the [whole] country[.]"  Eventually, the Impuzamugambi and the Interahamwe grew so much that together they had 50,000 members.  That was half as many members as the regular Rwandan Army had.

This allowed the militias to spread the genocide around Rwanda.  There were militia all over the country.  However, the militia did not do all of the killing in the genocide.  They encouraged, and sometimes forced, regular people to kill their Tutsi neighbors, friends, wives, or husbands.  If they did not do this, they would be killed themselves.
The militias massacred groups of Tutsis who were trying to hide in places like schools and churches.  For example, on April 21, 1994, in the Murambi Technical School massacre, militia members killed almost 65,000 Tutsis in one day.

The militias also raped and sexually assaulted many women and girls.  Overall, during the genocide, between 150,000 and 250,000 women and girls were raped (though there is no way to know how many of these crimes were committed by militia, and how many by army members).

End of the genocide
The Ugandan army joined the a Tutsi rebel army in fighting the extremist Hutus.  Bit by bit, they took control of more parts of Rwanda.  Finally, on July 4, 1994, they took control of Kigali.

After this, about two million Hutus ran away from Rwanda to Zaire (now called the Democratic Republic of the Congo).  With the Tutsis in control, the genocide ended.

Prosecution and punishment
Many of the Impuzamugambi were among the two million people who fled from Rwanda to eastern Zaire.  The Tutsi and Ugandan armies went after them.  According to the BBC, "Human rights groups say the [Tutsi rebel army] killed thousands of Hutu civilians as they took power  and more after they went into [Zaire] to [follow] the [militias]."  However, there is no way to know how many members of the Impuzamugambi may have been killed.

However, an international court was able to convict two of the Impuzamugambi's commanders: Hassan Ngeze and Jean Bosco Barayagwiza.  In 1995, the United Nations Security Council set up the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR).  Its goal was to prosecute people who took part in genocide, war crimes, or crimes against humanity.
In 2003, the ICTR found both Ngeze and Barayagwiza guilty of planning and leading the genocide; trying to get other people to commit genocide; and crimes against humanity.  They were both sentenced to life in prison.  The sentence against Barayagwiza was later decreased to 35 years due to a legal mistake.  He will stay in prison for at least 27 years.

Related pages
 Rwandan genocide
 Interahamwe
 United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
 Genocide
 Crimes against humanity
 Racism

References

1990s crimes
1994 in Africa
Rebel militia groups in Africa
Rwandan genocide
1992 establishments
The Free French Forces were a free army during the Nazi occupation of France in World War II. It started in 1940. It ended in 1944 because of the invasion of Normandy. These forces made a major impact on the German army by destroying railroads and attacking German units.
 
 

World War II
1940s in France
French military organizations
Prince Charles Maurice, Count of Valentinois (14 May 1727 – 18 January 1798) was a Monégasque prince and member of the House of Grimaldi. He was known by his title Count of Valentinois. He had a fairly importanmt military career and was also a Grandee of Spain. He is also sometimes referred to as Prince Charles Maurice of Monaco.

Life

Born at the "Hôtel Matignon" in Paris, he was the eighth child of the reigning Princess Louise Hippolyte of Monaco and her husband Prince Jacques I. His father was the Duke of Valentinois but the title was given to Charles Maurice to be used as a Count. 

His older brother Honoré III would later become the next Prince of Monacao when their father died in 1751.

Marriage
Married on 10 November 1749 to Marie Christine de Rouvroy the couple were married in Paris with the express permission of Louis XV of France. They separated in 1766 having had no children together.
Military career
At the age of 18 he partook in the Battle of Fontenoy For his military abilities he was awarded the Order of the Golden Fleece.

References

1727 births
1798 deaths
Earls and countesses
European military people
House of Grimaldi
People from Paris
École nationale supérieure de techniques avancées (ENSTA ParisTech) is a engineering graduate school in France. It is in a campus of the University of Paris-Saclay.

Its different curricula lead to the following French & European degrees :
 Ingénieur ENSTA ParisTech (ENSTA ParisTech Graduate engineer Masters level program)
 Master of Science
 Mastères Spécialisés (MS)
 Massive Online Open Course.

Academic activities and industrial applied research are performed mainly in French and English languages. Students from a dozen of nationalities participate to the different curricula at ENSTA ParisTech.

Most of the 600 graduate engineer students at ENSTA ParisTech live in dedicated residential buildings nearby research labs and metro public transports.
Admission 
Admission to the "ENSTA ParisTech engineering Programme" implemented at ENSTA ParisTech is possible after two/three year scientific undergraduate studies and requires success to either: 
 an admission exam for Bachelors of Sciences ;
 a French nationwide selective exam with numerus clausus : concours Mines-Ponts (3-year curriculum including at least 2 years in France)
 a selective application as per Top Industrial Managers for Europe (TIME) double degrees procedures applicable in Europe (2+2-year curriculum, including 2 years in France)
The "ENSTA Programme" typically lasts three years and results in a master's degree, augmented with international experience. Thus undergraduate studies + the ENSTA Programme account for more than a cumulated 300 ECTS credits as applicable in the European education system.
Research labs 
Research activities at ENSTA ParisTech relate to the following topics:
Chemistry and Processes Unit (UCP)
Electronics-IT-robotics Unit (U2IS)
Applied Mathematics Unit (UMA)
Mechanics Unit (UME)
Applied Optics Unit (UOA)
Applied Economics Unit

Notable alumni 
 Valérie Cornetet, head of the Institut Polytechnique des Sciences Avancées

References

Further reading 

 Official website

Technical colleges and universities
Universities in Paris
1741 establishments
18th-century establishments in France
1740s establishments in Europe
A wind instrument is a type of musical instrument where the player blows into (or over) a mouthpiece to produce sound. They typically fit into two categories: woodwind instruments and brass instruments. Woodwind instruments include oboe, clarinet, flute, and saxophone. The brass instruments include the bugle, trumpet, trombone, cornet and tuba.

References 

Musical instruments
The Kawasaki Heavy Industries C151 is a type of train used by Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system. It is the first generation rolling stock on the MRT and is one of the five types of electric multiple units on the North South and East West Lines.

The trains were introduced in 1987 and are still in operation. There are sixty-six trainsets with six cars each. There is a single money trainset with four cars that was used to collect money from different stations. It has been withdrawn from service. These trains are operated by SMRT Trains.
The trains were upgraded between 2006 and 2008, mainly to improve the trains' appearances. Most of the important parts for the trains' functioning were not replaced as they were still considered in good condition. However, due to what was considered one of the MRT's worst breakdowns in its history, a second upgrade was planned to replace these important parts, but the Land Transport Authority paused the upgrades as they wanted to replace the trains entirely instead. Currently, only a few trains have these parts replaced.

Design
The train currently has a black livery with a red stripe, similar to that of the C751B and C151A. Before upgrades, it had a white livery with red stripe, similar to the C651.

After the upgrades, the number of seats in a row was reduced from 9 to 7, and more grab poles and straps were installed.
Train Formation
The C151 is made out of 2 3-car trainsets permanently coupled together. Each trainset is assigned a unique number, and each carriage has its own number. There are 132 trainsets numbering 001-132. There would either be normal coupled (099/100) or cross coupled (001/100). A complete set would be coupled together as such:

DT-M1-M2-M2-M1-DT

DT- driving trailer (3)  M1/2 motor car 1/2 (1/2)

The first number of the four numbers is the carriage number, DT (3), M1(1), M2(2).

The second number is the identification number. For the C151, this number is either a '0' or a '1'.

The third and fourth number is the trainset number 

For example, trainset 099/100 would consist of:  3099-1099-2099-2100-1100-3100

Related pages
Siemens C651
Kawasaki Heavy Industries & Nippon Sharyo C751B
Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CSR Qingdao Sifang C151A
Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CSR Qingdao Sifang C151B
Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CRRC Sifang C151C

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)
Rolling stock
El Hedim Square (, "the square of demolition") is a famous square in Meknes, Morocco. The square was built in the years 1672-1674 after the Sultan of Morocco, Moulay Ismail, demolished half of the Old city of Meknes for his palace and the square. the Mansour Gate is in the front of the square.

Other websites 

Buildings and structures in Morocco
Town squares
17th-century buildings and structures
Buprestida is a family of beetles. In English, they are known as jewel beetles or metallic wood-boring beetles, because of the coloring of their carapace. 

The family is among the largest of the beetles, with some 15,000 recent species  in 450 genera. In addition, almost 100 fossil species have been described.

References 

Polyphaga
A Moroccan riad is a traditional Moroccan house or palace with an inside garden or courtyard. A riad normally has two or more storeys around an Andalusian-style courtyard that contained a fountain. They usually do not have outside-facing windows. Riads were the city homes of the wealthiest citizens such as merchants and courtiers. The name riad comes from the Arabic word ‘ryad’, meaning a garden.

References

Related pages 
 Moroccan architecture

Other websites 

 that art of moroccan riad in "Metropolismag" site

Morocco
Architectural styles
In the United States, people have to pay income taxes to the United States government, most state governments, and many local governments.  This means that people have to pay taxes to these governments, based on how much money they earn.

Introduction

Income taxes are based on what a person earns in one calendar year  between January 1 and December 31.

When it takes income taxes, the government takes a percentage of a person's income.  This percentage is called an income tax rate.  In other words, the income tax rate is the part, or portion, of a person's income that the government takes.

The United States government, and most states, use progressive tax rates.  This means that as a person earns more income, their income tax rate gets higher.  In other words, as a person earns more money, they have to pay more taxes.
Every year, the government divides incomes into categories.  These categories are called tax brackets.  Each tax bracket includes a range of incomes  the lowest and highest amounts a person could earn to be in that tax bracket.

Tax brackets are important because each one is taxed at a different tax rate.  In other words, a person in a higher income category has to pay a larger percentage of their income in taxes.  The tax rates for each different tax bracket are called marginal tax rates.

For example, in 2016, these are the tax brackets and marginal tax rates for single people:

Not all income is taxed at the same rate
However, this does not mean that a person making $415,051 is paying 39.6% of that entire $415,051 in income taxes.  Tax rates in the United States are marginal.  This means that different portions of a person's income get taxed at different rates.
For example, if a person earns $9,276 in a year, they do not have to pay 15% of that whole amount.  The first $9,275 that they earned falls into the first tax bracket ($0  $9275, which has a 10% tax rate).  The person pays the 10% tax rate for all of their income that fell into that tax bracket.  The person has only $1 left in income that falls into the next tax bracket ($9,276  $37,650).  They only have to pay that tax bracket's tax rate of 15% on that one dollar.

In other words, what the chart above really means is that in 2016, for a single person:

Not all income is taxable
Usually, the government uses a person's gross income to decide how much they should be taxed.  A person's gross income is every dollar they have earned in a year.

However, there are some types of income that the government cannot take as part of income taxes.
Deductions
Deductions are certain kinds of costs that the government does not tax.  The government will decrease (or "deduct") these costs from a person's gross income.  This means the government will be taxing the person on less income.

There are many kinds of deductions.  There are some deductions that anyone who pays taxes can take.  For example, if a person has paid to move, paid into a retirement fund, or paid student loan interest, they can take these costs off their gross income.  The government will not tax these costs.

The federal government also gives a standard deduction to most people who are paying income taxes.  For example, in 2015, the standard deduction for a single person was $6,300.  The government does not tax this amount.

Sometimes people have other deductions that will add up to more than the standard deduction.  These can also be used to decrease the amount of income the government can tax a person on.

Personal exemptions
The federal government allows each person who files taxes to take a tax deduction called a "personal exemption."  When the United States Congress created tax rules in 1954, they thought a certain amount of money should not be taxed so that a person could spend that money on food, housing, and other basic needs.  In 2015, the personal exemption for one person was $4,000.  Most people can take another exemption for their spouse, and another for each child in their home.

State deductions

Many states have their own deductions.  For example, if a person in Massachusetts pays rent to a landlord, they can deduct half of their rent (up to $3,000) from the amount of income the government can tax them on.
Credits
The federal government also offers tax credits.  This means that if a person spends money on certain things, and meets all the rules of the credit program, the credit can be up to 35 percent of your qualifying expenses, depending upon your adjusted gross income.  For example, the Child and Dependent Care Credit is for parents who work, but have to pay over $3,000 a year for someone to take care of their children while they are working.  Each credit has many different rules that people must meet.  However, if they do meet them, the federal government will take $3,000 off of their taxes, to help the parents continue to work.