Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Decline

After this Mussorgsky’s life became gradually worse.  He was depressed, and had fits of madness.  He was drinking heavily. He still managed to compose.  He wrote a song cycle
Sunless, a piano suite Pictures at an Exhibition and started two operas:  Khovanschina and The Fair at Sorochyntsi.  A lot of his friends were drinking, and many of them died.  He was lucky to keep his job: his boss was very keen on music and allowed him a lot of time off work.   However, in 1880 he eventually lost his job.  He was very poor.  A group of friends got together to give him money so that he could finish the two operas he was composing.  He almost managed to finish Khovanschina but The Fair at Sorochyntsi remained unfinished.  He became ill.  The famous painter Repin made a painting of the composer, showing him with a red nose and glazed eyes.  He died a week after his 42nd birthday.

His music
His music

Mussorgsky's music uses Russian musical themes.  His music influenced later composers such as  Dmitri Shostakovich and Sergei Prokofiev.  His greatest work was the opera Boris Godunov which was about an historical character who illegally made himself tsar of Russia, but dies when he feels guilty about the murder he had committed.

Khovanshchina was left unfinished and was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov.  It was first performed in 1886 in Saint Petersburg. This opera, too, was revised by Shostakovich. The Fair at Sorochyntsi remained unfinished.  It includes a dance, a Gopak, which is very well-known.

Perhaps his best-known work is Pictures at an Exhibition. It was written for piano, but later the French composer Maurice Ravel arranged it for orchestra, and this version is very often performed today at concerts. A short orchestral piece Night on Bald Mountain is also very often performed.
Mussorgsky wrote a number of songs including three short song cycles: The Nursery (1872), Sunless (1874) and Songs and Dances of Death (1877).  One very well-known song is Mephistopheles' Song of the Flea.

References 

1839 births
1881 deaths
Romantic composers
Russian composers
In the United States, the Provost is the chief academic officer of a college or university.  Different schools have different rules for what the Provost does, but most Provosts deal with issues about hiring and dismissing professors and giving out tenure, handling complaints about academic programs, and deciding what the general academic policies are for the school.  In other countries, the Provost is sometimes the leader of the whole college or  university.

Colleges and universities
Robert Kocharian is the president of Armenia. He is the second president Armenia has had since it left the Soviet Union.  On August 31 1954 Robert Kocharian was born in Nagorno-Karabakh, in the city of Stepanakert. As president of Armenia, Kocharian has been talking to the president of Azerbaijan, Ilham Aliyev, about what to do with the land of Nagorno-Karabakh, which the two countries had a war over.

Armenian politicians
Prime Ministers of Armenia
1954 births
Living people
Armenians (Armenian: հայեր,  Hayer) are an ethnic group native to the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia, which includes Republic of Armenia, eastern Turkey and the internationally unrecognized state of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) in western Azerbaijan. Armenians make up almost the entire population of Armenia and Artsakh. Armenians According to various estimates, the total population of Armenians in the world is 7 to 8 million. They speak Armenian, an Indo-European language.

History

Antiquity 
The territory of the ancient Kingdom of Urartu extended over the modern frontiers of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and the Republic of Armenia. Its center was the Armenian highland between Lake Van, Lake Urmia, and Lake Sevan. During the seventh century, the Urartians collaborated with a combination of Scythians and Cimmerians in their jockeying for power, but by 590, having been weakened in the constant rivalry between Assyrians, Babylonians, Scythians, and Medes, Urartu was swallowed by the Medes.
The Iron Age kingdom of Urartu was replaced by the Orontid dynasty, which ruled Armenia first as satraps under Achaemenid Persian rule and later as independent kings. The Kingdom of Armenia was ruled by the Orontid (also known as Yervanduni or Eurandids) dynasty from 321 BC to 200 BC. The Orontids (Eurandids) were an Armenian dynasty of probably Iranian origin. Around 200 BC a coup by the Armenian noble family of Artaxias toppled the Orontid (Yervanduni) dynasty, thus the Artaxiad dynasty came to power. The Artaxiad dynasty was been identified as a branch of the Orontid (Eurandid) dynasty. The Seleucid Empire's influence over Armenia had weakened after it was defeated by the Romans in the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. A Hellenistic Armenian state was thus founded in the same year by Artaxias I alongside the Armenian kingdom of Sophene led by Zariadres
. Artaxias seized Yervandashat, united the Armenian Highlands at the expense of neighboring tribes and founded the new royal capital of Artaxata near the Araxes River. The new city was laid on a strategic position at the juncture of trade routes that connected the Ancient Greek world with Bactria, India and the Black Sea which permitted the Armenians to prosper.
Under Tigranes the Great, a member of this dynasty, during his reign, Kingdom of Armenia stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean and the Kingdom of Armenia was called the "Armenian empire" during her reign. At one time, the domains of Tigranes the Great stretched from the shores of the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean, from Mesopotamia up to the Pontic Alps. The vast empire, formed of a varied mixture of diverse tribes, with their own dialects and cultures, could hardly be turned over- night into a cohesive and durable political structure. Inner disunity aided the designs of the Romans, who launched a series of onslaughts on the Armenian dynast, beginning with the invasion by Lucullus in 69-68 B.C, and culminating in the campaigns of Pompey in Armenia, Iberia and Colchis in 66-65 B.C
.C. The downfall of Tigranes the Great was precipitated by the flight of his son, Tigranes the Younger, to the court of the Parthian king Phraates III, who supplied him with an army with which to invade Armenia, and join forces with the victorious Romans.
Medieval 
Later, the Armenian highland was divided between the Sassanids and their successors, the Arabs with the Eastern Rome.
Prestige of Ashot I, governor of Armenia, rose as both Byzantine and Arab leaders courted him. The Abbasid Caliphate recognized Ashot as "prince of princes" in 862 and, later on, as king. Several contemporary prominent Armenians, including Grigor-Derenik Vaspurakan, insisted on Ashot's coronation. Ashot was crowned King of Armenia through the consent of Caliph al-Mu'tamid in 885 to prevent intrusion into Armenian territory by Basil I, a Byzantine emperor of Armenian origin. The establishment of the Bagratuni kingdom later led to the founding of several other Armenian principalities and kingdoms: Taron, Vaspurakan, Kars, Khachen and Syunik. During the reign of Ashot III (952/53–77), Ani became the kingdom's capital and grew into a thriving economic and cultural center. The first half of the 11th century saw the decline and eventual collapse of the kingdom. The Byzantine emperor Basil II (r. 976–1025) won a string of victories and annexed parts of southwestern Armenia
. King Hovhannes-Smbat felt forced to cede his lands and in 1022 promised to "will" his kingdom to the Byzantines following his death. However, after Hovhannes-Smbat's death in 1041, his successor, Gagik II, refused to hand over Ani and continued resistance until 1045, when his kingdom, plagued with internal and external threats, was finally taken by Byzantine forces. It can be assumed that Armenia had a population of 5–6 million at that time in the (IX-XI centuries).
In 1198, with the crowning of Leo I, King of Armenia of the Rubenid dynasty, Cilician Armenia became a kingdom.

In 1226, the crown was passed to rival Hethumids through Leo's daughter Isabella's second husband, Hethum I. As the Mongols conquered vast regions of Central Asia and the Middle East, Hethum and succeeding Hethumid rulers sought to create an Armeno-Mongol alliance against common Muslim foes, most notably the Mamluks. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Crusader states and the Mongol Ilkhanate disintegrated, leaving the Armenian Kingdom without any regional allies. After relentless attacks by the Mamluks in Egypt in the fourteenth century, the Cilician Armenia of the Lusignan dynasty, mired in an internal religious conflict, finally fell in 1375.
Commercial and military interactions with Europeans brought new Western influences to the Cilician Armenian society. Many aspects of Western European life were adopted by the nobility including chivalry, fashions in clothing, and the use of French titles, names, and language. Moreover, the organization of the Cilician society shifted from its traditional system to become closer to Western feudalism. The European Crusaders themselves borrowed know-how, such as elements of Armenian castle-building and church architecture. Cilician Armenia thrived economically, with the port of Ayas serving as a center for East–West trade.

Early modern period 
Following the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, two Islamic empires—the Ottoman Empire and the Iranian Safavid Empire—contested Western Armenia, which was permanently separated from Eastern Armenia (held by the Safavids) by the 1639 Treaty of Zuhab.

Iranian and Russian Empires
Until the late fifteenth century, Armenians had constituted a majority in Eastern Armenia. At the close of the fifteenth century, with the rise of the Safavids, Islam had become the dominant faith, and Armenians became a minority in Eastern Armenia.

Some 80% of the population of Iranian Armenia were Muslims (Persians, Turkics, and Kurds) whereas Christian Armenians constituted a minority of about 20%, mainly because of the sixteenth-century wars with the Ottomans and the early seventeenth-century forced deportations of Armenians from the region by Shah Abbas I. As a result of the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), Iran was forced to cede Iranian Armenia (which also constituted the present-day Armenia), to the Russians.
After the Russian administration took hold of Iranian Armenia, the ethnic make-up shifted, and thus for the first time in three centuries, ethnic Armenians started to form a majority once again in one part of historic Armenia. The Russian offensive during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I, the subsequent occupation, and the creation of a provisional administrative government gave hope for ending Ottoman Turkish rule in Western Armenia. With the help of several battalions of Armenians recruited from the Russian Empire, the Russian army had made progress on the Caucasus Front, advancing as far as the city of Erzurum in 1916. The Russians continued to make considerable advances even after the toppling of Tsar Nicholas II in February 1917.

Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire

From the mid-nineteenth century, Armenians faced large-scale land usurpation as a consequence of the sedentarization of Kurdish tribes and the arrival of Muslim refugees and immigrants (mainly Circassians) following the Russo-Circassian War. In 1876, when Sultan Abdul Hamid II came to power, the state began to confiscate Armenian-owned land in the eastern provinces and give it to Muslim immigrants as part of a systematic policy to reduce the Armenian population of these areas. This policy lasted until World War I. These conditions led to a substantial decline in the population of the Armenian highlands; 300,000 Armenians left the empire, and others moved to towns. Some Armenians joined revolutionary political parties, of which the most influential was the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), founded in 1890. These parties primarily sought reform within the empire and found only limited support from Ottoman Armenians.
Abdul Hamid's despotism prompted the formation of an opposition movement, the Young Turks, which sought to overthrow him and restore the 1876 Constitution of the Ottoman Empire, which he had suspended in 1877. Although skeptical of a growing, exclusionary Turkish nationalism in the Young Turk movement, the ARF decided to ally with the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) in December 1907. In 1908, the CUP came to power in the Young Turk Revolution, which began with a string of CUP assassinations of leading officials in Macedonia. In early 1909 an unsuccessful countercoup was launched by conservatives and some liberals who opposed the CUP's increasingly repressive governance. When news of the countercoup reached Adana, armed Muslims attacked the Armenian quarter and Armenians returned fire. Ottoman soldiers did not protect Armenians and instead armed the rioters. Between 20,000 and 25,000 people, mostly Armenians, were killed in Adana and nearby towns
. Unlike the 1890s massacres, the events were not organized by the central government but instigated by local officials, intellectuals, and Islamic clerics, including CUP supporters in Adana.
On the eve of World War I in 1914, around two million Armenians lived in Anatolia out of a total population of 15–17.5 million. According to the Armenian Patriarchate's estimates for 1913–1914, there were 2,925 Armenian towns and villages in the Ottoman Empire, of which 2,084 were in the Armenian highlands in the vilayets of Bitlis, Diyarbekir, Erzerum, Harput, and Van. Armenians were a minority in most places where they lived, alongside Turkish and Kurdish Muslim and Greek Orthodox Christian neighbors. According to the Patriarchate's figure, 215,131 Armenians lived in urban areas, especially Constantinople, Smyrna, and Eastern Thrace. Although most Ottoman Armenians were peasant farmers, they were overrepresented in commerce. As middleman minorities, despite the wealth of some Armenians, their overall political power was low, making them especially vulnerable. During World War I, the CUP—whose central goal was to preserve the Ottoman Empire—came to identify Armenian civilians as an existential threat
. CUP leaders held Armenians—including women and children—collectively guilty for "betraying" the empire, a belief that was crucial to deciding on genocide in early 1915. Minister of War Enver Pasha took war of Sarikamish after losing, Enver publicly blamed his defeat on Armenians who he claimed had actively sided with the Russians, a theory that became a consensus among CUP leaders. Reports of local incidents such as weapons caches, severed telegraph lines, and occasional killings confirmed preexisting beliefs about Armenian treachery and fueled paranoia among CUP leaders that a coordinated Armenian conspiracy was plotting against the empire. In February 1915, the CUP leaders decided to disarm Armenians serving in the army and transfer them to labor battalions. Discounting contrary reports that most Armenians were loyal, the CUP leaders decided that the Armenians had to be eliminated to save the empire.
The ethnic cleansing of Armenians during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is widely considered a genocide, there are different estimates for the number of Armenians who died from the genocide range from 800,000 to 1,500,000.

Modern period 

The First Republic of Armenia was established in 1918, but collapsed in 1920. In 1921, the Republic of Mountainous Armenia was established but collapsed in the same year. Afterwards Armenia came under the Soviet administration and became one of the Soviet Republics. In 1991, like other Soviet Republics, Armenia gained its independence.

Sources

History

Population

References

Notes 

 
Ethnic groups in Asia
Ethnic groups in Europe
Ethnic groups in Azerbaijan
The Mass Rapid Transit system, commonly known as the MRT, is a rapid transit system that makes up the railways in Singapore, covering most of the city-state. 

Following two decades of planning, the system began operations in November 1987 with 5 stations spread over  of track. The network has since grown quickly in accordance with Singapore's aim of developing a complex rail network as the core of the country's public transportation system, averaging a daily ridership of 3.384 million in 2019. The MRT is known as one of the best rapid transit system in the world.

It is a rapid transit system which links the different places of Singapore together using a network, or different connections of trains. When a person travels from one place to another, he or she boards a train in a train station and then the train moves until the train reaches the place he or she wants to come out, or alight from. Sometimes he or she has to change trains.
Overview 
About 3.4 million passengers use the MRT everyday. The system is 231 km long and has 134 stations. Trains run from 5:30 am to 1:00 am every day except for the festive periods, such as Christmas Eve, New Year's Eve and Chinese New Year's Eve. A train comes every 2–3 minutes in peak hours, every 7 minutes during off-peak hours and 5–6 minutes for the weekend service. It is operated by Singapore's SMRT Corporation and SBS Transit.

There are currently 6 lines in the MRT system, where they are connected by special stops called interchanges. The lines are North South Line, East West Line, North East Line, Circle Line, Downtown Line and the Thomson-East Coast Line. 

On 16 December 2011, the MRT network suffered what is likely to be the worst breakdown in its 24-year operating history. 'A power rail problem' made North-South Line trains suddenly lose power and stopped in darkness and without air conditioning for up to an hour accompanied only by light from mobile phones.

Network

Openings
7 November 1987: Yio Chu Kang - Toa Payoh
 12 December 1987: Toa Payoh - Outram Park
 12 March 1988: Outram Park - Clementi
 5 November 1988: Clementi – Lakeside
 20 December 1988: Yio Chu Kang – Yishun
 4 November 1989: Marina Bay – Tanah Merah
 16 December 1989: Tanah Merah – Pasir Ris
 10 March 1990: Jurong East – Choa Chu Kang
 6 July 1990: Lakeside – Boon Lay
 10 February 1996: Yishun – Choa Chu Kang
 10 January 2001: Tanah Merah – Expo
 18 October 2001: Dover
 8 February 2002: Expo – Changi Airport
 20 June 2003: HarbourFront – Punggol
 28 February 2009: Boon Lay – Joo Koon
 28 May 2009: Bartley – Marymount
 17 April 2010: Bartley – Dhoby Ghaut
 8 October 2011: Marymount – HarbourFront
 14 January 2012: Promenade - Marina Bay
 22 December 2013: Bugis - Chinatown
 23 November 2014: Marina Bay - Marina South Pier
 27 December 2015: Bukit Panjang - Bugis
 18 June 2017: Joo Koon - Tuas Link
 21 October 2017: Chinatown - Expo
 2 November 2019: Canberra MRT station
31 January 2020: Woodlands North - Woodlands South
 28 August 2021: Springleaf - Caldecott
 13 November 2022: Stevens - Gardens by the Bay
Expansion 
The MRT system only had two lines, the North South and East West Lines, for more than ten years until the opening of the North East Line in 2003. While plans for these lines, as well as those being built, were made long before, the Land Transport Authority's (LTA) proposal named "A World Class Land Transport System" in 1996 showed that the government wanted to greatly expand on the existing system. The plans allow for the long-term replacement of the bus network by rail-based transportation as the main way of public transportation. It called for the expansion of the 67 kilometres of track in 1995 to over 360 in the year 2030. It was expected that daily ridership in 2030 would have grown to 6.0 million from the current 1.4 million passengers.
Thomson-East Coast Line 
The 43-kilometre Thomson-East Coast Line was planned to be completed by 2025 and will consist of 32 stations. It was originally planned to be completed by 2024 but this plan was changed due to the Covid-19 pandemic. It will connect to the North South Line at Woodlands station, Orchard and Marina Bay, to the Circle Line at Thomson, Caldecott and Marina Bay, to the Downtown Line at Stevens and Sungei Bedok, and to the East West and North East lines at Outram Park. The first part, or stage, opened in 2019.

The Thomson-East Coast Line was a result of joining two separate lines, the Thomson Line and the Eastern Region Line, which was announced on 15 August 2014. The Thomson Line consisted of the part from Woodlands North to Marina Bay, while the Eastern Region Line consisted of the rest of the joined line.
A new extension to the line was announced on 25 May 2019. The new extension will connect the line to Singapore Changi Airport, allowing people arriving from the airport to go to the city without changing to another train. The tracks of the East West MRT line that currently go to the airport will also be used by this extension, which means that trains on the line will go all the way to Tanah Merah station, and there will be no more East West line trains using these tracks. This extension is expected to open by/before 2040.

North East Line Extension

To be opened by 2024, the 2-kilometre extension will run from Punggol through Punggol North including the new Punggol Downtown. The extension is for future residents in Punggol North to have access by train to the city centre as well as other parts of Singapore.

Downtown Line
Downtown Line 

The Downtown Line was built in three stages, with the first opening in 2013, the second in 2015, and the third in 2017. An extension to the third stage, known as Stage 3e, will open in 2024, being 2.2 kilometres long and with two more stations. On 7 March 2015, Senior Minister of Stage for Transport Janil Puthucheary said that there will be a new station called Hume, to be built between the already open stations of Hillview and Beauty World. This station will open in 2025. When Hume opens, the line will be 42 kilometres long and have 37 stations.

On 25 May 2019, the Land Transport Authority announced another extension to the second stage of the line to a new station, Sungei Kadut MRT station. This extension will open in the mid-2030s.

Circle Line Stage 6

To be opened by 2026, the 4-kilometre extension will run from Marina Bay through Keppel, ending at HarbourFront, making the Circle Line a full continuous circle.

Jurong Region Line
Jurong Region Line

First proposed as a LRT line when originally announced in 2001, the Jurong Region Line is now going to be a medium capacity line. The new plan will serve West Coast, Tengah and Choa Chu Kang and Jurong. The line will open in stages from 2026.

Cross Island Line

The 50-kilometre Cross Island Line will go across the island of Singapore, passing through Tuas, Jurong, Sin Ming, Ang Mo Kio, Hougang, Punggol, Pasir Ris and Changi. The addition of the new line brings commuters with another way for east–west travel to the current East West Line. It will also connect to all the other major lines to serve as a key transfer line, adding to the role currently fulfilled by the orbital Circle Line; the Cross Island Line will also become the first line to have interchange stations with all existing lines as of 2023. (Under construction lines included). The first stage will open by 2029, and other stages are expected to open by 2031.
Brickland and Sungei Kadut MRT stations 
On 25 May 2019, the LTA announced two new stations to be built on the North South line. Brickland station will be built between Bukit Gombak and Choa Chu Kang, while Sungei Kadut will be built between Yew Tee and Kranji. Both stations will open in the mid-2030s.

Possible new line along north-east area 
In the LTA's Land Transport Master Plan (LTMP) 2040, there will be studies to see if a new line can be built, between Woodlands, and Greater Southern Waterfront areas. If the line is built, it will be about 30 kilometres long, and will be completed as early as 2040. The line could serve around 400,000 houses, and lower the time needed for travel to the city by up to 40 minutes.

Facilities at the stations
Every station has ticket machines, restrooms (toilets), a passenger service center, which controls what is happening in the train station and has wired radio with the train operator, payphones (public phones) and access for disabled. Some of them have automated teller machines, kiosks and a bus interchange nearby.

All stations in Singapore are either elevated or underground, with the exception of Bishan. Underground stations and trains are air-conditioned and have full-height platform screen doors. Elevated stations have half-height platform screen doors.

Rolling stock 
A total of 12 types of rolling stock are used on the MRT lines. Almost all of them are powered by 750 voltage current from a third rail, except those on the North East MRT Line, which uses 1500 voltage current from overhead wires.

North South and East West Lines
For the North South and East West Lines, seven types of rolling stock are used. The oldest is the C151, built in 1986-89 by a collaboration between Kawasaki Heavy Industries and three sub-companies, Kinki Sharyo, Nippon Sharyo and Tokyu Car Corp. 66 trainsets are in operation, which were upgraded between 2006 and 2008. 19 more C651s were purchased in 1994 from Siemens AG, followed by 21 more C751B sets, built in 1999-2000 by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Nippon Sharyo. Two companies, Kawasaki Heavy Industries and CSR Sifang, have collaborated to build 3 types of rolling stock. The fourth rolling stock in operation is the C151A. They were built between 2010 and 2014, and started operations in 2011. The next rolling stock that started operations is the C151B, which began operations on 16 April 2017. The next rolling stock, being built between 2017 and 2018, is the C151C, and it began operations on 30 September 2018. The newest rolling stock, the R151, began operations on 4 June 2023 on the East West Line
. With 106 trains ordered, it plans to replace the C151, C651 and the C715B.
North East Line 
On the North East Line, 25 six-car trainsets of the C751A were built from 1999 to 2002 by Alstom. A further 18 trainsets, the C751C, were built by Alstom and Shanghai Electric and entered operation on 1 October 2015.

Circle Line 
For the fourth MRT line, the Circle Line, 40 three-car trainsets of C830s were built from 2005 to 2008 and began operations in 2009. Together with the C751Cs, the same companies made 24 C830C trainsets which began operations on 26 June 2015.

Downton Line 
For the fifth MRT line, the Downtown Line, 73 three car C951s were built by Bombardier Transportation and began operations in 2013. An additional 15 trains and a final 4 trains were ordered, bringing the total number of C951s to 92 trainsets.

Thomson-East Coast Line 
For the sixth MRT line, the Thomson-East Coast Line, 91 four-car trainsets of CT251 rolling stock are built and were delivered between 2018 and 2021, and it began operations in 2020.
Fares and ticketing 
Stations are divided into two areas, paid and unpaid, which allow the rail operators to collect fares by controlling entry only through the fare gates, also known as access control gates. These gates, connected to a computer system, are able to read and change electronic tickets that can store data, and can store information such as the initial and destination stations and the duration for each trip. General Ticketing Machines sell tickets for single trips or allow the customer to purchase more value for stored-value tickets. Standard tickets can be used up to 6 times within 30 days from the day of purchase. The machines also allow the customer to buy more credit for stored-value tickets. Such tickets require a minimum amount of stored credit.
As the fare system has been connected together by TransitLink, commuters need to pay only one fare and pass through two fare gates (once on entry, once on exit) for an entire journey, even when transferring between lines operated by different companies. Commuters can choose to extend a trip mid-journey, and pay the difference as they exit their destination station.

The ticketing system uses the EZ-Link and NETS FlashPay contactless smart cards based upon the System for e-Payments (SeP) system for public transit built on the Singapore Standard for Contactless ePurse Application (CEPAS) system. This system allows for up to 4 card issuers in the market. The EZ-Link card was introduced on 13 April 2002 as a replacement to the original TransitLink farecard while its competitor the NETS FlashPay card entered the smart card market on 9 October 2009. The adult EZ-link card is at S$15 while the NETS FlashPay card is at S$13.
Assurance has been given by both operators and authorities, that many actions have been taken in an effort to ensure the safety of passengers, with SBS Transit having to make greater efforts in actively publicising its safety considerations on the driverless North East Line before and after its opening. Safety campaign posters are highly visible in trains and stations, and the operators frequently play safety announcements to passengers and to commuters waiting for trains. Fire safety standards are about the same as the strict guidelines of the US National Fire Protection Association. Platform screen doors are installed at all underground stations, with half-height platform screen doors installed at all above-ground stations. These doors prevent suicides and disallowed access to restricted areas, as well as keeping normal temperatures in stations
. Bylaws reduce uncivil, disruptive and dangerous acts, such as smoking, the consumption of food and drink, using safety features in an evil way, and unlawfully going onto the railway tracks. Penalties ranging from fines to jail are given for these offences.
Security 
Security concerns related to crime and terrorism were not the biggest priority of the system's planners at its original creation. However, after the Madrid train bombings in 2004 and the failed plan to bomb the Yishun MRT Station, the operators deployed private, unarmed guards to patrol station platforms and check the belongings of commuters.

Recorded announcements are frequently made to remind passengers to report suspicious activity and not to leave their belongings unattended. Digital closed-circuit cameras (CCTVs) have been upgraded with recording software at all stations and trains operated by SMRT Corporation. Trash bins and mail boxes have been removed from station platforms and concourse levels to station entrances, to remove the risk that bombs will be placed in them. Photography without prior allowance was also banned in all MRT stations since.
On 14 April 2005, the Singapore Police Force announced plans to improve rail security by creating a specialised Police MRT Unit, now known as Public Transport Security Command (Transcom). These armed officers began patrols on the MRT and LRT systems on 15 August 2005, conducting random patrols in pairs in and around rail stations and within trains. They are trained and allowed to use their firearms if they need to, including killing if necessary.

Related pages
 Light Rail Transit (Singapore)
 List of Singapore MRT stations
 List of Singapore LRT stations

Notes

References

Other websites
 SMRT Trains 
 SBS Transit
 Land Transport Authority
 Transitlink 
 Public Transport Council

 
1987 establishments in Singapore
Buildings and structures in Singapore
Hampshire College is a private college in Amherst, Massachusetts. The current president of the college is Edward Wingenbach. The motto of the college is Non Satis Scire, which is Latin for "to know is not enough".

History 
Hampshire was created in 1965 by four other colleges as an experiment in higher education. The campus opened and the first class of students arrived in 1970. The Presidents of Amherst College, Smith College, Mount Holyoke College, and the University of Massachusetts got together in the 1950s and early 1960s and realized that there were things their own schools did not do very well. They also thought that the world was changing a lot and needed a college where students would have a lot of responsibility for their own education to be successful in the future.
Franklin Patterson and Charles Longsworth were chosen by these schools and wrote a book called The Making of a College that said how Hampshire was to be run and what kind of programs it would offer. Today, this book is considered an inspirational document by Hampshire students and faculty who try to live up to its ideals.
Program
Hampshire College describes itself as an experimenting college because it is always changing and improving how it does things, rather than doing the same thing as other colleges. Students usually do individual projects in order to move towards graduation.  There is some required coursework, but it is not the main point of the school.  Students also do not receive grades for completing their work.  Instead, they get something called a narrative evaluation, which is a long written explanation of what they did right and what they did wrong. There are also no specific required classes for graduation, but students must take classes in different areas depending on where they are in their studies.

The program is divided into three "Divisions" rather than four years, and students complete each Division as they show that they are capable of harder work.  Most students graduate in four years, but not everyone takes the same amount of time for each Division.
Division I, requires students to complete one course in each of the five "Schools of Thought" (see below) and three other courses, either on or off campus. Students are allowed to take classes at any of the other four founding schools.
Division II, the concentration or "major," requires students to learn about a single subject in detail. Each student is responsible for designing their own Division II. They work with a committee of at least two faculty members. Many students choose a faculty committee whose members have the same interests as they do. Division II also has a community service project and a multicultural perspectives requirement (all students must show some study in a culture different then their own).
Division III, the advanced project, requires students to complete a complex project in their field of choice. Division III usually lasts one year and is completed while taking few or no classes. A Division III topic can be a long written paper (it is something like a traditional college's "bachelor's" or "honors" thesis, or, for the very best students, a Master's or other graduate thesis), but it can also be a collection of creative work (writing, painting, photography, and movie are popular choices) or a hands-on engineering project, or invention.
The Hampshire College faculty are not organized in traditional departments but in loosely collected Schools. The Schools' names and subjects have changed over the years, but there have always been between three and five of them. Since 2005, the Schools are:

Cognitive Science (CS): includes linguistics, most psychology, some philosophy, neuroscience, and computer science.
Humanities, Arts, and Cultural Studies (HACU): includes film, some studio arts, literature, media studies, and most philosophy.
Social Science (SS): includes most sociology and anthropology, economics, history, politics, and some psychology.
Natural Science (NS): includes most traditional science and mathematics
Interdisciplinary Arts (IA): includes performing arts, some studio arts, and creative writing.

Alumni and faculty
Notable Hampshire College alumni
Ken Burns, documentary filmmaker, The Civil War, Baseball and Jazz
Chuck Collins, political activist, co-founder of United For a Fair Economy
John Dwork, famously received a bachelor's degree in Frisbee (technically, "Flying Disc Entertainment and Education") from Hampshire in January 1984
John Falsey, television writer and producer, co-creator of St. Elsewhere and Northern Exposure
Daniel Horowitz, noted criminal-defense attorney.
Emily Hubley, award-winning animator, Hedwig and the Angry Inch
Will Killingsworth, musician, Orchid (band), Bucket Full of Teeth and Ampere (band) recording engineer, Dead Air Studios
Toby Driver, musician and artist, Kayo Dot and maudlin of the Well
Jon Krakauer, mountain climber and author, Into Thin Air and Into the Wild
Josiah Litant, Hampshire Assistant Dean of Student Services
Jeff Maguire, Academy Award-nominated screenwriter, In the Line of Fire
Eugene Mirman, comedian
Liev Schreiber, stage and screen actor, The Manchurian Candidate, director, Everything is Illuminated
Elliott Smith, singer and songwriter
Lee Smolin, theoretical physicist at the Perimeter Institute
Danny Tamberelli, actor, The Mighty Ducks and television series All That and The Adventures of Pete and Pete
Barry Sonnenfeld, director, Men in Black
Naomi Wallace, playwright, One Flea Spare, Slaugher City
Mike Ladd, Hip Hop MC and member of the Anti-Pop Consortium
Gary Hirshberg, Founder of Stonyfield Farm Yogurt
Joshua Wesson, Founder of Best Cellars, a national chain of affordable wine shops
Evan B. Brandes, Attorney / Author
Thanu Yakupitiyage, activist and DJ
Notable past and present faculty
Eqbal Ahmad, post-colonial political scholar
Leonard Baskin, artist
James Baldwin, writer
Herbert J. Bernstein, theoretical physicist, philosopher and educator
Bill Brand, experimental filmmaker
Susan Douglas, sociologist, writer
Mark Dresser, jazz musician, contrabass virtuoso
Marty Ehrlich, jazz musician
Lynne Hanley, literary critic
Norton Juster, architect and writer
Michael Klare, expert on U.S. defense policy
Yusef Lateef, musician
Michael Lesy, writer
Jerome Liebling, filmmaker and photographer
Lester Mazor, legal scholar, former law clerk to former Chief Justice Warren E. Burger
Abraham Ravett, filmmaker
Eric Schocket, American studies scholar
Frank Holmquist, political scientist focusing on Africa and Kenya specifically
Vivek Bhandari, subaltern studies political scholar
Laurie Nisonoff, feminist economist
Annie G. Rogers, clinical psychologist, writer, poet
Andrew Salkey, writer
Other websites 
Hampshire College
Hampshire College Archives, featuring PDF text of The Making of a College and documents from Hampshire College history
The Re-Radicalization of Hampshire College
The Hampshire College Daily Jolt 
The Princeton Review: Hampshire College 

Colleges and universities in Massachusetts
Five Colleges, Incorporated
1965 establishments in the United States
1960s establishments in Massachusetts
Heather McCartney (born Heather See on December 31, 1962 in Tucson, Arizona) is the daughter of Linda McCartney, and the adopted daughter of former Beatle Paul McCartney.

When Linda, a magazine photographer, visited England on an assignment, she brought along daughter Heather, who soon had babysitters like guitarist Eric Clapton. When Linda began a relationship with McCartney, Heather's presence was a plus, as McCartney loved children and was eager to start a family. 

Six-year-old Heather makes a brief appearance in the movie Let it Be, visiting McCartney in the studio while the Beatles were at work. She dances around as they play, jumps out at Ringo Starr from behind a cymbal (Starr, a father himself, pretended to be scared), and sits on McCartney's lap, while he checks a microphone.
Heather gained a half-sister the next year, as mother Linda became pregnant with McCartney's baby, and the two were married. McCartney adopted Heather, who took his name, and Mary McCartney (named for Paul's own mother) was born early in 1970. Another sister, Stella, became the fashion designer Stella McCartney. A brother, James Louis McCartney, became a musician.

1962 births
Living people
People from Tucson, Arizona
Paul McCartney
Jan-Michelle Kerouac (born February 16, 1952 - died June 7, 1996) was the daughter of writer Jack Kerouac, by his second wife Joan Haverty. A writer herself, Jan's books included Baby Driver and Trainsong. She also appeared in some documentary programs about her father, giving her side of his life story.

Death
On June 5, 1996, Kerouac died in Albuquerque, New Mexico a day after her spleen was removed. She had suffered kidney failure five years earlier and was on dialysis. She is buried in Nashua, New Hampshire, next to her father's parents.

References

Other websites
Jan Kerouac Obituary
New York Times story

1952 births
1996 deaths
Writers from New York (state)
A survivor is a person or animal which continues to live after something happens which might have killed them. They might be one person who lives when ten people die in a car crash.

Survivor could also mean:

Gaming 

 Resident Evil: Survivor, a 2000 arcade game
 Survivor (video game), an action game released in 1987 by the Spanish software house Topo Soft
 Survivor (board game), board game based on the show.

Literature 

 Survivor (1988 novel), a novel by Christina Crawford
 Survivor (novel), a novel by Chuck Palahniuk
 "Survivor" (story), the last novella in Accelerando by Charles Stross
 Survivor (Octavia Butler novel), a 1978 novel by Octavia Butler

Music
Music 

 Survivor (album), an album by Destiny's Child
 "Survivor" (song), the second single from Destiny's Child's third album, Survivor
 Survivor (band), a rock band whose hits include "Eye of the Tiger" and "Burning Heart"
 Survivor (Survivor album), an album by Survivor (band)
 Survivor (Funker Vogt album), an album by Funker Vogt
 Survivor Records, a British Christian Music record label

Television 

 Australian Survivor, a television series based on the popular American reality show Survivor
 Celebrity Survivor, an Australian television series based on the popular reality television show Survivor
 Survivor (TV series), a reality television show
 Survivor (UK TV series), the British version of the American reality show Survivor
 Survivor Series, an annual professional wrestling pay-per-view event held in November by World Wrestling Entertainment
Other 
 Survivor (horse), a racehorse which won the first Preakness Stakes in 1873
 Survivor (tournament), a series of writing tournaments that are held three times a year
 Survivor: The Ride!, a roller coaster in Paramount's Great America in Santa Clara, California
Exclusive disjunction (also called exclusive or, XOR) is a logic operation on two values. It is often represented by the symbol  (or ). It will be true, if exactly one of the two values is true. Otherwise, it will be false. This also means that the result of 'XOR' will be true precisely both the values are different. Same values will result in a false.

The best way to remember a XOR operation is: "One or the other, but not both".

Because of that, this is different from inclusive disjunction.

Truth table 
The truth table of  (also written as , , or ) is as follows:

Related pages 

 Boolean algebra
 Logical conjunction
 XOR gate

References 

Logic
Logical connectives
Forchheim (; East Franconian: Forchham) is a German town in Upper Franconia. Next bigger cities are Nürnberg, Bamberg, Fürth, Erlangen and Coburg. There live is about 32.000 people.

Forchheim is  high and has an area of .

Photo gallery

References

Other websites 
 www.forchheim.de (official Webpage in German)

Towns in Bavaria
Forchheim (district)
César Cui (18 January 1835, Vilnius – 26 March 1918, Petrograd) was a Russian composer. He is the least known of the five Russian composers who were nicknamed the "Moguchaya Kuchka" ("Mighty Handful"), a group which included Mily Balakirev, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Modest Mussorgsky and Alexander Borodin. Cui’s father came from France and his mother from Lithuania. 

Like most Russian composers in the 19th century he was an amateur composer. His main job was as an expert on military fortifications. He became a professor in this subject and wrote important textbooks about military defences. He became a general.
Cui liked his friends from the Moguchaya Kuchka, but was often very critical of music by other Russian composers such as Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninoff. This may have been because he was jealous of their success. He did not find orchestration easy. Balakirev helped him a lot with the orchestration of some of his compositions. He was best when writing songs and short piano pieces. He liked to write music that sounded Far Eastern in character. Cellists like to play a short piece he wrote called "Orientale".

Russian composers
Romantic composers
1835 births
1918 deaths
People from Vilnius
Alexander Porfir'yevich Borodin (born St. Petersburg October 12th 1833; died St. Petersburg February 27 1887) was a Russian composer. Like many Russian composers of the 19th century he was an amateur musician. His main job was Professor of Chemistry at the University of St Petersburg. He had to compose in his spare time. When he was ill he had more leisure to write music. He used to tell his friends: “Please do not say: ‘I hope you are well’, please say: ‘I hope you are ill’”.  Borodin’s most famous opera is called Prince Igor. He wrote many fine songs, chamber music and orchestral music, including two symphonies. The Nocturne from his String quartet no 2 is especially well-known.
In his music, Borodin showed Russian power and the heoric characters. His main means of expression was melody.
When he was young he learned French, Swedish and English, but later Italian.

Borodin died of a heart attack.
1833 births
1887 deaths
Russian chemists
Deaths from myocardial infarction
People from Saint Petersburg
Romantic composers
Russian composers
A permit is a written document that has been given by a government source. Permits let a person do something that he could not do without the permit. Permits are commonly gotten for these reasons:
To work at a job
To drive a car
To build something. This includes digging.

Related pages
Licence

Law
Corrosion is the breakdown of materials due to chemical reactions. It is usually oxidation with air molecules and often in the presence of water. Corrosion also occurs when an acidic/basic corrosive substance touches another material. When a material corrodes, its physical properties change. Problems with corrosion are mostly with metal, though other materials can corrode. Corrosion is a form of erosion. Some materials, such as stainless steel, are highly resistant to corrosion. Metals that may corrode can be protected by plating, painting, and other means.

One form of high temperature corrosion can lead to the formation of compacted oxide layer glazes, which under certain circumstances reduces wear. 

Iron corrosion is called rusting.

Chemical processes
Metallurgy
Rust is a type of corrosion. It happens to iron and its alloys when it is exposed to air or water for a long time. Rust slowly decomposes iron into other chemicals, because of a reaction with the oxygen molecules. Both air and water are needed for rust. Almost all metals corrode but they can be protected by covering with paint, a coating of oil or grease or even plastic.  Sacrificial protection or industrial galvanizing can also work.  Alloys (mixes of metals) such as stainless steel, rust more slowly than pure iron.  When iron rusts, it becomes red or brown, and the metal eventually decays.

Rust appears on metal if it is left outside in the damp air. For example, rust occurs mostly in cracks of alloys or metals.  Rain water can enter the cracks and stay in the cracks, and cause the metal to corrode.  Eventually it becomes rust.  Iron is not strong after it rusts.
Some metals, such as aluminium, titanium, and stainless steel form a very thin coating of tough corrosion on the metal. The metal cannot continue corroding because the coating isolates the rest of the metal from the source of oxygen. This is why aluminium keeps its shine. It also makes aluminium seem very unreactive, even though it can react with water. Rusting iron makes iron oxides that are not tough, so air and water continue to get in and the iron continues to rust.

Some types of basidiomycete fungi can be mistaken for rust because they are similar to rust in color and texture and sometimes are on metals.

Related pages
 Iron(III) oxide
 Hematite
 Corrosion

Other pages

Metals