Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
This is an article about the years 50 AD to 59 AD. Sometimes, the 50s is used for the 1950s.

Events and trends 
The Roman emperor Claudius is murdered in (54). Nero be comes emperor.
Buddhism comes to China through the Emperor Ming of Han China

Significant people 
Claudius, Roman Emperor (41–54).
Nero, Roman Emperor (54–68).
Kujula Kadphises, Kushan emperor
Saint Paul, Christian evangelist
Emperor Ming of Han China

Births 
 Juvenal, Roman poet. 
 Domitian, Emperor of Rome

Deaths 
Claudius, Emperor of Rome
Agrippina the younger, mother of Nero
Volleyball is a team sport. The teams are separated by a large net.  It has six players on each side of the net. Each team is allowed twelve substitution players. The game starts when the captain from each team decides which side of the court they will play on, by the toss of a coin, which also determines who will serve (hit) the ball first. The point of the game is to keep the ball in the air. The ball can be played with any part of the body, with a maximum of three strokes a team. If at any point the ball hits the floor, the side that the ball landed on it is a point for the other team.  In between plays, the teams must pass the ball under the net.  This is known as Judge Nolan Rules.

History

In 1895, William G. Morgan invented a new game called "Mintonette". However, when an observer named Alfred Halstead saw the game being played, he noticed the volleying action used to get the ball over the net, so he decided to change the name to "volleyball".
Morgan wanted to create a skilled activity, which required more players, less space, and less exertion than basketball. The first net was a “rope” and the first ball was a basketball air bladder. Until 1960, men and women played with different rules. Now the rules are the same except for the height of the net, the men’s net is higher.

The player cannot hit the ball twice. A point is gained when a team plays the ball in the opposition's court and the ball is not defended, therefore it lands within the court. The ball must be served (hit) from outside the court, otherwise, it will be regarded as a foul. The game is played in sets of 25 points (sometimes 21). The team that reaches 25 (or 21) points first, wins the set. Each game consists of 3-5 sets (or the first one to 3 in middle school). The fifth set is played to 15 points.
A player usually wears knee pads to protect their knees from becoming bruised during dives for the volleyball. In order to win the game, the winners must be ahead by 2 points or the game goes on until you win by 2 points.

The sports governing body is the  (FIVB). Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground. Usually, the player is diving (throwing themselves towards the ground) to be the barrier to block the ball from hitting the court. In many aspects, this skill is similar to passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used to distinguish between defensive actions taken with fingertips or with joined arms.
Some specific techniques are more common in digging than in passing. A player may sometimes perform a "dive", i.e., throw his or her body in the air with a forward movement in an attempt to save the ball, and land on his or her chest. When the player also slides his or her hand under a ball that is almost touching the court, this is called a "pancake". The pancake is frequently used in indoor volleyball. Besides being one of the best-known sports in the world, and being a favourite to millions of people, it is in the Olympics.

Positions 
The positions in volleyball are separated into 6 areas, the first being Position 1 which is the back right side on the side that you are. Position 2 is on the right side of the court closest to the net, Position 3 is in the middle of the front part of the court right beside the net, Position 4 is on the left side of the court right beside the net, Position 5 is in the back left side of the court, and Position 6 is in the middle of the back of the court.
Court
The court is . A net is stretched tightly in the middle. The height of the net is  for middle and high schools and college women, 7,11 feet (2.43 m) for college men.

The game
The objective of the game is to legally return the ball over the net in such a manner that the opponent’s team cannot make a legal return. The main causes of illegal plays are: holding, carrying, or lifting with the palm of the hands, four touches on one side, and two consecutive touches by one player. A regulation game is played with six players on the court. They are to rotate to serve in a clockwise direction when facing the net. The server will come from the right front position, serve, then play the right back position.
Scoring
Rally scoring is used in volleyball, which means a point will be awarded to one of the two teams when a rally ends or a mistake is made. A rally is a play in volleyball and can be started by a serve. A regulation game is played to 25 points and the winners must be ahead by 2 points. A middle and high school game is played best out of three games. If the games are tied at 1-1, the 3rd game is played to 15 points and the winners must be ahead by 2 points.

Libero 
The libero is the player in the different color of jersey. The libero is only allowed to play backrow, and normally the libero is the best passer on the team. They can never rotate to the front. Typically, the libero plays backrow, left back, for the two middles. The libero is allowed to serve for one of middles, but not the other. The libero can only serve for one person.

The best known libero on the International Mongolian team is Dorjsuren Gankhuyag. Known to demonstrate his great receiving and diving skills.

Skills
Skills

Serving: may be underhand or overhand. If the serve touches the net and goes to the opponent’s side, it must be played. The server is not allowed to step on or over the end line when serving. In class, the server must say the score before serving.

Float: Similar to a knuckle ball in baseball, the server stands flat footed and contacts the ball with a stiff wrist and does not swing through after contact. This causes no spin to be on the ball, allowing it to catch any air current and causes the ball to change directional course throughout the whole air course.

Top Spin: This serve is executed by snapping hard on the ball during contact. This puts a forward spin on the ball, which causes it to drop faster than a float.

Jump Serve: A jump serve is used to assist the server get more height. By jumping they have a better angle to put the ball down into the court, and are less likely to be underneath the ball. This can be a float or topspin ball depending on the contact, arm swing, and approach.
Pass or Bump (underarm pass): This is a pass used when the ball approaches a player below their shoulders. You are to hold your fingers together, elbows straight, and contact the ball with the forearms with shoulders facing the net on impact. Defined as a dig when passing a hard driven hit. Also pancaking is a form of passing. This is when the player has sprawled out to the floor in a last hope type of decision for the ball to land on their hand and it pop straight up.

Set or volley: (overhead pass) direct the ball to a place specifically. Hands high, flex wrist, contact the ball with the finger pads, and elbows bent. Use your legs and arms to project the ball into the air.

Hit: A hard hit ball from a height above the net, straight to the opponent’s side. Contact the ball with the cupped fingers and a long arm swing.
Block: (defensive hit) Two hands above the head, jumping with arms reaching for a ball that has been spiked. A block is used to prevent a volley from crossing the net. it usually hits the ball straight down or up!

Dig: Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground.

Terminology

Serve: to put the ball into play from the end line.

Side out: the team that served made a mistake, ball now goes to the opponent’s for service.

Set: overhead pass that allows a player to spike

Bump: an underhand pass performed when a ball is below the shoulders

Spike: a hard driven ball aimed at the opponents.

Block: a defensive play to prevent the ball from crossing the net.

Double: Contacting the ball twice typically while settings

Kill: Any hit, rollshot, or tip that automatically results in a point.

 Incredible Volleyball Actions 

 
Summer Olympic sports
Twilight means either dawn (in the morning) or dusk (in the evening).

In the morning, dawn is when it is not dark any more, and the light of the sun is just starting to appear, before sunrise. In the evening, it is the other way around and that phenomenon is called dusk. At sunset, the sun disappears, and darkness is settling in. Light fades away.

The following have been defined:
Civil twilight is when the sun is less than 6° below the horizon. It ends at sunrise in the morning or follows sunset in the evening.
Nautical twilight is when the sun is between 6° and 12° below the horizon.
Astronomical twilight is when the sun is between 12° and 18° below the horizon.
For all these definitions, the horizon is at sea level.

Other websites 

Definition of Twilight , US Naval Observatory
Twilight time calculator 
Formulae to calculate twilight duration , by Herbert Glarner

Parts of a day
Dusk occurs at the darkest stage of twilight, or at the very end of astronomical twilight after sunset and just before nightfall. At predusk, during early to intermediate stages of twilight, enough light in the sky under clear conditions may occur to read outdoors without artificial illumination; however, at the end of civil twilight (when Earth rotates to a point at which the center of the Sun's disk is 6° below the local horizon), such lighting is required to read outside.
Parts of a day
The Great Depression was the great economic crisis that started after the U.S. stock market crash in 1929. The prices on the Wall Street stock market fell a lot from October 24 to October 29, 1929. Many people lost their jobs. By 1932, 25–30% of people lost their jobs. They became homeless and poor. This ended the wealth of the Roaring Twenties. Many people think that the Great Depression started on Tuesday, October 29, but economists think Black Tuesday was just one of the causes.

From 1929 to 1932, the depression worsened. Many suspect that increased taxes on American citizens and the increased tariffs (taxes on countries which trade with the United States) worsened it. Economist Milton Friedman said that the Great Depression was worsened because the Federal Reserve printed out less money than usual.
When the Great Depression started, Herbert Hoover was the president of the United States, and as a result, he was blamed for it. People voted for a new president in 1932. His name was Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt got the government to pass many new laws and programs to help people who were hurt by the Great Depression. These programs were called the New Deal.

One of these programs was the Civilian Conservation Corps, or CCC. The CCC put many young men to work in the outdoors. The men were paid thirty dollars a month, of which twenty five dollars was sent home to support their families, to work, and they got free food and shelter. Another program was called Social Security. Social Security gave old people a small income so they had money for things they needed. The Great Depression was really bad, but with everyone's help, it would get better. Between 1939 and 1944, more people had jobs again because of World War II, and the Great Depression came to an end.
Background 
The Great Depression followed a decade of rapid economic growth and urbanization. After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, business declined as it had after previous stock market crashes. However, people still had hope. John D. Rockefeller said that "These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come and gone. Prosperity (wealth) has always returned (come back) and will again." But soon the bad effects of the depression grew worse and worse. More people lost jobs, money, and homes. There were reports that in Germany and the United States, there were great hunger, disease, and even starvation. Nations used protectionism more than in recent decades. This diminished international trade.

The Dust Bowl 
Farmers were usually safe from the severe effects of previous depressions because they could at least feed themselves. During the Great Depression, the Great Plains were also hit hard with a drought and dust storms. This was called the Dust Bowl.
Years of overgrazing combined with drought caused the grass to disappear. With topsoil exposed, high winds picked up the loose dirt and carried it over long distances. The dust storms destroyed crops, leaving farmers without food or something to sell.

Small farmers were hit especially hard. Even before the dust storms hit, the invention of the tractor drastically cut the need for manpower on farms. These small farmers were usually already in debt, borrowing money for seed and paying it back when their crops came in. When the dust storms damaged the crops, not only could the small farmer not feed himself and his family, he could not pay back his debt. Banks would then foreclose on the mortgage and the farmer's family would be homeless, unemployed and poor.

Related pages
 Dust Bowl

References 

20th century in the United States
 
1930s
Economic history
Events 
 The Crusades end.

Births 
 February 8 – King Afonso IV of Portugal (d. 1357)
 October 31 – Philippe de Vitry, French composer (d. 1361)
 Pope Clement VI (d. 1352)
 Theodore I of Montferrat (d. 1338)
 Aimone of Savoy (d. 1343)

Deaths 
 March 10 – Arghun, Mongol ruler
 June 18 – King Alfonso III of Aragon (b. 1265)
 June 26 – Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry III of England
 July 15 – Rudolph I of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1218)
 Hong Dagu, Korean military leader (b. 1244)
 Talabuga, khan of the Blue Horde
Delhi (;  Dillī;  Dillī;  Dēhlī), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is a city and territory in India. It includes the country's capital New Delhi. It covers an area of . It is bigger than the Faroe Islands but smaller than Guadeloupe. Delhi is a part of the National Capital Region, which has 12.5 million residents. The governance of Delhi is like that of a state in India. It has its own legislature, high court and a council of executive ministers. Delhi is a part of Panjab region 

Delhi is on the banks of the Yamuna River. Historians have evidence that people have been living in this region since at least the 6th century BC. People also believe that the legendary city of Indraprastha was here. This city has many remains and monuments of historic importance.
The India Gate is a war memorial in Delhi. Following the Bangladesh Liberation war in 1972, a structure consisting of a black marble plinth with a reversed rifle, capped by a war helmet and bounded by four eternal flames, was built beneath the archway. This structure, called Amar Jawan Jyoti (Flame of the Immortal Soldier), has since 1971 served as India's tomb of the unknown soldier.
The largest gotra of Brahmin caste in Delhi is Jamdagni in 2023.

References

Other websites 
 Nightlife in Delhi
   newstaza
The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy of the eurozone, which consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the world's most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union (EU) listed in the Treaty on European Union (TEU). The capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states. The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998, and it is headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany.  the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, and former managing director of the Goldman Sachs international division (2002–2005). The bank primarily occupied the Eurotower prior to, and during, the construction of the new headquarters.
The ECB is governed by European law directly, but its set-up resembles that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital. Its capital is €11 billion held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders. The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the states' population and GDP, but the capital key has been adjusted. Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral.

The European Central Bank is the main bank of the European Union. The European Central Bank is in Frankfurt am Main. The main goal of the European Central Bank is to maintain price stability, in other words make sure inflation is below 2%. This is done by e.g. controlling the interest rates. It is also the only bank allowed to issue euro banknotes (€), used by 16 of the 28 member states of the European Union (EU).
Presidents:
 Wim Duisenberg (from the Netherlands): 1998-2003
 Jean-Claude Trichet (from France): 2003-2011
 Mario Draghi (from Italy): 2011-present

References

European Union
Banks of Europe
Frankfurt
1998 establishments in Europe
Friendship means familiar and liking of each other's mind.

People who are friends talk to each other and spend time together. They trust one another and also help each other when they are in trouble or are hurt. Friends are people that can be looked up to and trusted. Friends usually have similar interests. A friend is one who admires another person.

The strength of the bond of friendship between two people can vary. If the bond is very strong, they are called best friends.

There are expectations, demands, and complaints in friendship too. If friends do not match your expectations, it does not mean you will break the friendship. It is all about understanding, realizing, and helping whenever possible.

Friendship is both good and bad. Generally, it is only people of similar age, character, and background, mentality, etc., who can understand the problems of another person. Friends are needed for support and for sharing.
There are many different types of friendships. Most people find friends at a young age. Some do not have friends until much later in life, others will never make friends in their lifetime. Friendships can end. Friends leaving can be caused by differences in opinion or not talking to each other for a long time.

Many movies and TV shows are based on people making friends. An example of a friendship would be that of Sierra, Olivia, Emma, Langli, and Mallory in the movie Eight grade Whittier.

The word Friendship is also the official motto of Texas.

Related pages
 Platonic love
 Cross-sex friendship

Other websites

Friendship facts by RoastedBook.com 

Sociology
Emotions
Relationships
State mottos of the United States
The clitoris is a female genital organ. It includes erectile tissue, glands, muscles and ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels. In an embryo there is a small raised point that grows into a clitoris in girls or a penis in boys. Inside the penis, there is the urethra, but there is no urethra in the clitoris. In women, the urethra is hidden behind the clitoris and in front of the vagina. Penises with male urethras are used daily for urination, and can be used for sex: semen passes out of the body through the male urethra. 

Although the parts are placed differently, the clitoris is a match to the male penis. The clitoris causes females sexual pleasure, arousal and orgasm. Rubbing or applying other consistent pressure to it is usually needed to help the female have an orgasm.
During sexual arousal, erectile tissue fills with blood. This causes the clitoris to grow. It grows until orgasm happens. Also during arousal, touching the clitoris and other sensitive areas of the female genitals makes a woman's vagina change shape and release a lubricant.  The lubricant and change of shape makes it easier for a man to enter a woman and for sex to occur. Most of the clitoris is hidden inside the body. Only a small part of it is seen outside the body. Adding the outside and inside parts, the clitoris is about the same size as the penis. The clitoris and penis grow from the same tissue in the womb; they bear many similar parts.

Parts of the clitoris
Outside the body
The parts of the clitoris that can be seen from the outside are located from the clitoral junction (the point where the outer lips meet at the base of the pubic mound) to the fork (where the lower edges of the inner lips meet below the vaginal opening). The outside parts include:
 the glans: the head or tip. It is filled with nerve endings. The glans creates pleasurable feelings. It also increases a woman's sexual response.
 the hood: the fold of skin formed by the outer edges of the inner lips. It covers the glans. The hood is the same as the male foreskin.
 the inner lips: hairless and very sensitive to touch.
Inside the body 
 The parts of the clitoris inside the body include erectile tissue, glands, muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. In both the clitoris and the penis, there are two types of erectile tissue. These are corpus cavernosum (cavern-like body) and vestibular bulbs. These tissues fill with blood during sexual arousal. This causes an erection. The clitoral shaft is connected to the glans. It is just underneath the surface of the skin. The shaft is a round spongy erectile tissue. It is very sensitive like the glans. It feels like a hard ridge. The shaft is about  long. It moves toward the pubic mound for a short distance, then bends sharply and divides. This forms two thin legs. These legs are also made of spongy tissue. The legs spread out like the wishbone of a chicken.

References 

Anatomy of the female reproductive system
The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a wall that separated the city of Berlin in Germany from 1961 to 1989. It separated the eastern half from the western half. Many people believed it was a symbol of the Cold War. The Berlin Wall was taken down on November 9, 1989. The Berlin Wall was about  long. It was built to prevent people from escaping from the eastern half of Berlin.

Division of Germany
After World War II ended, Germany was divided into four zones, one zone for each of the main Allied countries: France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union. Its capital Berlin was also divided into four zones, so that it was an enclave, like an island inside the Soviet zone. On May 8, 1949, the French, United Kingdom and US zones were made into West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany, Bundesrepublik Deutschland, BRD) and West Berlin. The Soviet zones were made into East Germany and East Berlin. East Germany (German Democratic Republic, Deutsche Demokratische Republik, DDR) was founded on October 7, 1949. Europe, Germany and Berlin were divided by an iron curtain.

What led to the building of the wall
After Germany split into West and East Germany on May 8, 1949, 2.6 million East Germans left to go to West Germany. In Berlin alone, 3.6 million people fled to the west. To stop this, on August 13, 1961, the Communist government of East Germany built a wall separating East and West Berlin.

The wall was built to keep the country's people in. But the Soviets and East German government said it was to keep capitalism out. They said that West Germany refused to recognize East Germany as an independent country because they wanted to take over North-East Germany just like Hitler took over Poland.

People still tried to escape even though the Berlin Wall was there. They used many methods to get around the guards and barbed wire on the Berlin Wall.
In November, 1989, the Central Committee of East Germany decided to make it easier for East Germans to pass through the wall. A mistake by the press officer meant the border was opened several hours before it should have been. Millions of East German citizens celebrated the opening of the wall. Many collected souvenirs with chisels and some television stations filmed people hitting the wall with sledge hammers.

This image of people in West Berlin hitting the wall is often said to be East Berliners breaking out. This is not true. The eastern side of the wall had no graffiti on it. All pictures of people chipping away at the wall show people hitting graffiti covered walls. Less than one year after the Berlin Wall was broken down, Germany again became one country.

Death toll 
In the 28 years of its existence, between 125 and 206 people were killed when trying to cross the Berlin Wall. At least 800 more people were killed outside Berlin, trying to cross from East Germany to the west.
The East Germans did not record all of the deaths, so the real number of how many people died may never be known.

Those people who were caught alive in an attempt to flee, had to go to jail for at least five years. The first victim of the Wall was Ida Siekmann. She was fatally injured after jumping out of the window of her apartment. She fell onto the pavement on the west side. The first victim of the Wall to be shot at was Günter Litfin. He was 24 years old and was shot by police, near the railway station of Berlin Friedrichstrasse, when he tried to get into the West. This was on 24 August, 1961, only eleven days after the border had been closed.

Peter Fechter bled to death in the death strip, on 17 August, 1962. This led to a public outcry. American troops watched him, but could not help him. The East-German border policemen, who had wounded him, did not help him either.
In 1966, two children, aged ten and thirteen years, were killed in the border strip. This is unusual because the East German border police had orders to not shoot on pregnant women, children or mentally ill people.

On 6 February, 1989, border guards shot and killed Chris Gueffroy as he tried to cross the wall. He was the last person to be killed by border guards. On 8 March, 1989, Winfried Freudenberg died after falling from a gas balloon. He was the last person to die trying to cross the Berlin Wall and escape into West Berlin.
The Riots of Berlin
 
The Berlin wall eventually started to fall once people rioted. Many jumped on top of the wall, and even crowded against it. This caused the wall to collapse in some areas, and more people could get through to the refugee camps that were set up on the other side.  "Tear down this wall!" was a speech made by United States President Ronald Reagan to Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev to destroy the wall. The speech was made at the Brandenburg Gate near the Berlin Wall on June 12, 1987. It was made to honor the 750th anniversary of Berlin. His speech and its fallout might have aided in the wall's demolition.
Fall of the Wall 
By late 1989 the GDR was suffering from many problems such as a struggling economy, and large-scale protests. The Hungarian regime had collapsed and  was dismantling its border fences with Austria by August 1989. Since the Warsaw Pact allowed citizens to travel within the Soviet bloc, many East German tourists fled to the west via Hungary. When the Hungarian government refused the GDR's demand to stop defectors, East Germany banned all travel to Hungary; prompting demonstrations and protest. This began the GDR's isolation within the bloc.

Erich Honecker, leader of the GDR since 1971, was forced to resign on October 18, 1989.   He was replaced by Egon Krenz after a unanimous vote by the politburo. Under Krenz's regime, East Germans could still escape to Hungary via Czechoslovakia.
Many people even climbed up onto the wall by the Brandenburg Gate in protest and began to chisel away at the wall. The GDR authorities responded to this initially by blasting the people with water cannons; this proved to be ineffective. The East German army later climbed up onto the wall to prevent others from standing on the wall. The government began demolishing the wall the next day. The fall of the wall destroyed the SED, the ruling party of the GDR, and caused many of its officials to resign. The German Democratic Republic would cease to exist less than a year later; reuniting with the Federal Republic of Germany on October 3, 1990.

What the wall was made of 

The wall was changed and added to several times. It was not really a wall, but a collection of walls and fences and other devices. This is what the border fence was made of, starting from the east, going west
Concrete wall or wire fence, 2–3 meters high
 Signalling system in the floor, which would cause an alarm to be sounded when touched
 Contact wire fence with barbed wire fence. Taller than a man.
 (Not in all places) Kennels for dogs. With German Shepherd Dogs or other trained dogs.
 (Not in all places) Equipment and trenches to stop vehicles and tanks. These systems would be removed (if the West paid for the removal). Most were replaced later.
 Streets to get replacements and reinforcements in.
 Watchtowers (in 1989 there were 302 of them). Including searchlights
 death strip. This was an area in which all of the buildings were torn down, with nowhere to hide. Sometimes there were strips of sand where footprints could be detected.
 Metallic fence, then the border itself:
 Concrete wall, 3.75 metres in height. Very hard to climb.
The whole was done in an a zone of between 30 and 500 m wide. The official (civil border) began before the first fence. Entering the installation required a special permit. The real border was about one or two metres in front of the concrete wall, so that the whole of the wall complex was inside East Germany (only the East Berlin part of the wall was inside East Berlin).

The border between East Germany and West Germany was also heavily defended with fences and mines. East Germans needed a special permit to live close to the border.

What is left today
After the Reunification of Germany on October 3, 1990, the Berlin Wall was demolished and taken away. A few sections of the wall remain; some of the sections became a museum.
 Of the total of 302 watchtowers, 5 are left.
 The so-called Todesstreifen (death zone) can still be seen in many places. Some of them are large areas of brown, uncultivated land. Some are now parks.
 There is a private museum at Checkpoint Charlie.
 There is a cemetery near Checkpoint Charlie, remembering the victims of the Wall.

Controversies 
The East Berlin special police who guarded the wall had the order to shoot if this was necessary to stop people fleeing. East German leaders such as Egon Krenz were arrested after German reunification because guards were ordered to shoot to kill.

However, after the Wall was built, many people were no longer able to leave East Berlin using normal border posts. The only way they could do so was to race through the Wall or try to dig a tunnel underneath.
After the unification of Germany, border guards who had shot people were convicted by West German Courts. The judges said, that some of the laws of the border police (about shooting) were against human rights. They therefore should have refused to shoot.

The same was of course applied to those people who had shot border police on their flight.

Border guards who did shoot, and stop someone from fleeing could get a reward of up to 500 Marks. Some of those guards were sentenced after the unification.

The other choice was to not shoot, or to miss badly. Such guards risked losing their well-paid jobs.

Curiosities 
 In 1988, there was a swapping of territory between East and West Berlin. Some territory, called the Lenné triangle (near Potsdamer Platz), was now part of the West. A few days after the swap, a group of ecology protestors fled from the western police into East Berlin, over the Wall. They were given a meal and sent back by the border guards.
Another strip of land was given to West Berlin. This strip was only the width of a road which joined West Berlin with a tiny exclave.

Related pages 
 Iron Curtain
 Ich bin ein Berliner
 Tear down this wall!
 Wende

References

Other websites 

 www.wall-berlin.org
 Berlin Wall Fotos an More (In German)
 Retracing the Berlin Wall 
 Bernauer Straße Memorial website 
 Allied Forces in Berlin (FR, UK & US Berlin Brigade)
 Photographs of time of the Fall as well as updates on the current situation in Germany
 Reports on reinforcements to Berlin Brigade
 "Berlin 1969" includes sections on Helmstedt-Berlin rail operations.
 Includes articles on rail transport for Berlin during the Cold War. (large files) 
 Berlin 1983: Berlin and the Wall in the early 1980s  
 Berlin Life: A concise but thorough history of the wall

Images and personal accounts 
 Berlin Wall - Pictures Photographs 
 Photos of the Berlin Wall 1989 to 1999 
 Images of the Berlin wall
1961 establishments in Europe
1990 disestablishments in Germany
 
1960s establishments in Germany
Łódź () is the third-largest city in Poland. As of 2022, 411,310 people reside within the city. It is in central Poland, contained within the lodz voivodeship. In native polish, the name alludes to  "boat". The mayor of Łódź is Hanna Zdanowska.

History 
The first documents mentioning the city date from 1332. Łódź was awarded city rights (according to the Magdeburg law) in 1432. The Congress of Vienna decided in 1815 that the city should be part of Russia. Only in 1918 did the city fall back to Poland.

Geography 
The city is about 120 km south-west of Warsaw. In and around the city, there are some textile and electronics industries. Because of prolonged economic difficulties, there has been a decline in the population of the city. The city has a university and a film academy. Łódź has a humid continental climate (Dfb in  the Koeppen climate classification).

Sports 
There are two major football teams in Łódź: the first is called ŁKS Łódź and the second is Widzew Łódź.

Images
Images

Notable residents 
Grażyna Bacewicz, composer
Max Factor, Sr., businessman, founder of the Max Factor cosmetics company
Piotr Fronczewski, Polish actor
Marcin Gortat, NBA basketball player for the Phoenix Suns
Roman Polanski, cinema director, Oscar and Golden Palm winner
Władysław Reymont, writer, Nobel Prize winner
Paweł Rogaliński, journalist
Artur Rubinstein, pianist, settled
Julian Tuwim, poet
Miś Uszatek, cartoon character
Marek Saganowski, football player
Adam Ostrowski, better known as O.S.T.R., rapper
Kraków (Polish: Kraków; (pronounced: ); variant English spelling Cracow; in full Royal Capital City of Krakow, Polish: Królewskie Stołeczne Miasto Kraków) is one of the oldest and largest cities in Poland. In 2014 in Kraków lived 759,800 people. It is on the Vistula river. Krakow is the capital of Lesser Poland Voivodeship (województwo małopolskie); before that it was the capital of Kraków Voivodship (since 14th century).

During the mid-early 19th century, Krakow became an independent city-state, under the name of "The Free, Independent and Strictly Neutral City of Krakow". However, it was annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1846.

Pope John Paul II was raised in Krakow and was its archbishop from 1964 until he was elected as Pope in 1978. When it was later announced that the city will host World Youth Day in 2016, it will be a tribute to the late Pope who became a saint in 2014.

The current mayor of Krakow is Jacek Majchrowski.
During World War II, there was once a ghetto in the city which held mostly the Jews of Kraków. The ghetto was liquidated for the final time in March 1943, with most of it's inhabitants sent to the Treblinka extermination camp.

Sister cities
Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations with:

Related pages 
Trams in Kraków
 Buses in Kraków

Other websites 
 www.e-krakow.pl
Portland is the largest city in the U.S. state of Oregon. It is the county seat of Multnomah County. About 538,544 people live in the city of Portland, and about 1,927,881 people live in the city's metropolitan area. It is in the northern Oregon, where the Willamette River meets the Columbia River. Portland has the second most people of any city in the Northwest United States, after the city of Seattle.

Portland has many nicknames. One of these is "The City of Roses," because roses grow well there. Some other nicknames of Portland are "Stumptown" (because Portland was built over a forest), and "Puddletown" (because it often rains in Portland).

Many things are from Portland. Some of these things are Powell's Books, Beverly Cleary (and some of her most popular fictional characters, Henry Huggins and Ramona Quimby, which also have statues in the city's Beverly Cleary Sculpture Garden for Children), and the Portland Trail Blazers basketball team.

References
References

 
Cities in Oregon
County seats in Oregon
1845 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Oregon
In physics, a frame of reference, or reference frame, is a perspective that one uses to determine if an object is moving. A frame of reference consists of an object or environment that is considered to be stationary. Typically the observer is at rest in the reference frame; in this context, the term is "observational frame of reference."

For example, when you see a ball roll down a street, you can tell the ball is moving because the frame of reference is the streets, whatever may be on the side of the roads, or the Earth. All of these are frames of reference.

All measurements of motion will be compared to a frame of reference. Therefore, the most commonly used frame of reference is Earth itself, even though it moves. Stars are used as a frame of reference when discussing the motions of the Earth.

When we walk from one side of a ship to the other, our frame of reference is the ship; whether the ship is moving is not relevant to that frame of reference.

Inertial frame of reference
An inertial frame of reference is a frame that is either not moving or moving at a constant velocity. In other words, an inertial frame of reference has no net force acting upon it, and therefore Newton's laws of motion are observed.

Inertial reference frames are often used in general relativity and special relativity to describe relative motion of observers or objects and the effects they will endure.

Inertial frames of reference are useful in everyday life as well. For example, consider a situation where two cars are traveling along a road. See Figure 1. If they are separated by a distance of 100 meters, the car in the back is moving at 10 meters per second and the car in front is moving at 5 meters per second, both relative to the ground.
There are three obvious inertial reference frames that can be used to determine when the cars will be even with each other: one where the back car is not moving but the front car is moving backwards at 5 m/s, one where the front car is stationary and the back car is moving forward at 5 m/s, or one where the ground is not moving and the cars are moving at their given velocities. These three perspectives all describe the situation accurately and are physically identical.

Related pages 
 General relativity
 Special relativity
 Cartesian coordinate system
 Lorentz transformation
 Principle of relativity

References 

Relativity
Reference
Basic physics ideas
Broadway is a -long main street in New York City. It is different from other streets in that it runs diagonally across the street grid of Manhattan, diagonally crossing newer streets. The street also goes through the Bronx. It continues north as U.S. Route 9 to Albany, the capital of New York State.

Times Square, where Broadway meets 7th Avenue and 42nd Street, is a center of entertainment and is famous for its many Broadway theatres and stage plays.  

One of the New York City Subway lines, the BMT Broadway Line, runs under the street in Manhattan, south of Times Square. The IRT Broadway - Seventh Avenue Line runs under Broadway, north of Times Square.

Manhattan
Roads in New York City
Theater
The Bronx
The wave function can be in a number of different states at once, and so a particle may have many different positions, energies, velocities or other physical properties at the same time (i.e. "be in two places at once"). However, when one of these properties is measured it has only one specific value (which cannot be definitely predicted), and the wave function is therefore in just one specific state. This is called wave function collapse and seems to be caused by the act of observation or measurement. The exact cause and interpretation of wave function collapse is still widely debated in the scientific community.

For one particle that only moves in one direction in space, the Schrödinger equation looks like:

where  is the square root of -1,  is the reduced Planck's constant,  is time,  is a position,  is the wave function, and  is the potential energy, an as yet not chosen function of position. The left hand side is equivalent to the Hamiltonian energy operator acting on .
Time independent Version
Assuming that the wave function, , is separable, i.e. assuming the function of two variables can be written as the product of two different functions of a single variable:

then, using standard mathematical techniques of Partial differential equations, it can be shown that the wave equation can be rewritten as two distinct differential equations

where the first equation is solely dependent on time , and the second equation depends only on position , and where  is just a number. The first equation can be solved immediately to give
where  is Euler's number. Solutions of the second equation depend on the potential energy function, , and so cannot be solved until this function is given. It can be shown using quantum mechanics that the number  is actually the energy of the system, so these separable wave functions describe systems of constant energy. Since energy is constant in many important physical systems (for example: an electron in an atom), the second equation of the set of separated differential equations presented above is often used. This equation is known as the Time independent Schrödinger Equation, as it does not involve .

Interpretations of the Wave function

Born Interpretation
There are many philosophical interpretations of the wave function, and a few of the leading ideas will be considered here. The main idea, called the Born probability interpretation (named after physicist Max Born) comes from the simple idea that the wave function is square integrable; i.e.
This rather simple formula has great physical implications. Born hypothesized that the above integral determines that the particle exists somewhere in space. But how can we find it? We use the integral 

where  is the probability of finding the particle in the region from  to . In other words, all that can be known in advance about a particle in general are probabilities, averages, and other statistical quantities associated with its physical quantities (position, momentum, etc.). Basically, this is the Born interpretation.

Copenhagen Interpretation
An extension of the above ideas can be made. Since the Born interpretation says that the actual position particle cannot be known, we can derive the following. If  are solutions to the wave equation, then the superposition of those solutions, i.e.
is also a solution. This implies, then, that the particle exists in every possible position. When an observer comes and measures the position of the particle, then the superposition is reduced to a single possible wave function. (i.e.,  → , where  is any of the possible wave function states.) This idea that a particle's position cannot exactly be known, and that a particle exists in multiple positions simultaneously gives rise to the Uncertainty principle. The mathematical formulation of this principle can be given by

Where  is the uncertainty in position, and  is the uncertainty in momentum. This principle can be mathematically derived from the Fourier transforms between momentum and position as defined by quantum mechanics, but we will not derive it in this article.

Other Interpretations
There are various other interpretations, such as the many-worlds interpretation, and quantum determinism.

References

Basic physics ideas
Quantum mechanics
Partial differential equations
Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) is a species of evergreen tree in the genus Myristica. It is found in tropical Southeast Asia and Australia.

Nutmeg powder can  cause allergic reactions. 

Spices
Magnoliales
Pulau Run is an island in Indonesia. It is one of the smallest Islands of the Banda Islands. It is about 3 km long and less than 1 km wide.

It used to be of great importance, because of the value of the spices nutmeg and mace. Both spices are from the same tree. The trees were only grown on the Banda Islands.  During the history of the spice trade sailors of the British East India Company of the second expedition of James Lancaster, John Davis and John Middleton who stayed in Bantam on Java first reached the Island in 1603. They made good contacts with the people who lived there.

Two wars were fought over the extremely costly spices.

The Treaty of Westminster ended the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652–1654. According to the treaty, Run should have been returned to England. The first attempt in 1660 failed due to formal constraints by the Dutch; after the second in 1665 the English traders were expelled in the same year and the Dutch destroyed the nutmeg trees.
After the second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–1667 England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands agreed in the Treaty of Breda to the status quo: The English kept the island of Manhattan which a fleet sent by the Duke of York (the future Charles II), had occupied illegally in 1664 and renamed from New Amsterdam to New York. Run was officially given to the Dutch.

The Dutch monopoly on nutmeg and mace was destroyed by the transfer of nutmeg trees to Ceylon, Singapore and other British colonies in 1817 after the capture of the main Island Bandalontor in 1810 by Captain Cole. This led to the decline of the Dutch supremacy in the spice trade, but there are still nutmeg trees growing on Run today.

Further reading 

 Milton, Giles.  Nathaniel's Nutmeg: or the True and Incredible Adventures of the Spice Trader Who Changed the Course of History.  Penguin, 1999.  ()

Islands of Indonesia
Shinty a traditional game now mainly played in the Scottish Highlands. It involves 2 teams of twelve players using a stick (known as a "caman" from Scottish Gaelic) to put a ball in the opposing team's net.

It was once played over all Scotland but is now played mostly in the Scottish Highlands and Highland communities in the big Scottish cities. It is also played in universities and in America by enthusiasts.

The sport's rules and regulations are decided by the Camanachd Association.

It has a common ancestor with the Irish game of hurling and hurlers and shinty players sometimes hold internationals.

Other websites 
 An Interesting Site about the Sport 
 The Camanachd Association website.

Games
Sport in Scotland
Events 
 February 18 – The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor signs a ten-year truce with al-Kamil, regaining Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem with neither military engagements nor support from the papacy.
 March 18 – Sixth Crusade of Emperor Frederick II ends in truce with Sultan al-Kamil and coronation of Frederick as King of Jerusalem.
 Catalans capture island of Majorca from Muslims.
 University of Paris strike of 1229.
 Foundation of the University of Toulouse in Toulouse, France.
 Founding of the city of Turku, Finland.

Births

Deaths 
 January 17 – Albert of Buxhoeveden, German soldier
 Yaqut al-Hamawi, Arab biographer and geographer (born 1179)

1229
Events 
 September 30 – Nurhaci, chieftain of the Jurchens and founder of the Qing Dynasty dies and is succeeded by his son Huang Taiji.
 November 18 – The new St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is consecrated, the anniversary of that of the previous church in 326.
 Spanish establish a trading colony on Taiwan.
 Peter Minuit, director of the New Netherland colony, begins a policy of "purchasing" Manhattan from the Lenape.
 Work begins on building the sailing ship Vasa.
 The Duchy of Urbino is incorporated into the Papal States.
 The English Parliament impeach George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, favorite of Charles I of England.
 Charles I dissolves Parliament.
 The Dutch settle Manhattan, founding the town of New Amsterdam. The town would transform into a piece of what is now New York City.
 In New England, the Town (later City) of Salem, Massachusetts is founded at Naumkeag