Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Kraken Mare is the largest known lake on the surface of Saturn's moon Titan. It was discovered in 2007 by the Cassini probe and was named in 2008 after the Kraken, a legendary sea monster.

Kraken Mare is believed to be the largest of seas and lakes near Titan's north pole. It was discovered as a sea of hydrocarbons by radar pictures. Only a small part of the sea has been pictured by radar, but its full size is seen in visible light pictures. Kraken Mare is believed to be similar in size to the Caspian Sea.

An island in the sea is named Mayda Insula.

References

Other websites 

 Map of Titan's north pole, based on radar imagery, showing Kraken Mare's location

Saturn's moons
Ligeia Mare is a lake on Titan at 79.0° N, 248.0° W, measuring around 500 km in width. It is named after Ligeia, one of the sirens in Greek mythology. Ligeia Mare has been a proposed lake to land the Titan Lake In-situ Sampling Propelled Explorer space probe

Other websites
Map of the liquid bodies in the north polar region of Titan

Saturn's moons
In cryptography, a keystream is a stream of random or pseudorandom characters that are combined with a plaintext message to produce an encrypted message (the ciphertext).

The "characters" in the keystream can be bits, bytes, numbers or actual characters like A-Z depending on the usage case.

Usually each character in the keystream is either added, subtracted or XORed with a character in the plaintext to produce the ciphertext, using modular arithmetic.

Keystreams are used in the one-time pad cipher and in most stream ciphers. Block ciphers can also be used to produce keystreams. For example, the CTR mode (also known as Integer Counter Mode (ICM)) is a block mode that makes a block cipher produce a keystream then turns the block cipher into a stream cipher.

Example
Example 

In this simple example we will use only the English alphabet of 26 characters from a-z, therefore we will not encrypt numbers, commas, spaces and other symbols. As we have only 26 characters the random numbers in the keystream have to be at least between 0 and 25.

To encrypt we add the keystream numbers to the plaintext. And to decrypt we subtract the same keystream numbers from the ciphertext to get the plaintext.

If a ciphertext number becomes larger than 25 we wrap it to a value between 0-25. I.e. 26 becomes 0 and 27 becomes 1 and so on. (Such wrapping is called modular arithmetic.)

Here the plaintext message "attack at dawn" is combined by addition with the keystream "kjcngmlhylyu" and produces the ciphertext "kcvniwlabluh".

References 

 Handbook of Applied Cryptography by Menezes, van Oorschot and Vanstone (2001), chapter 1, 6 and 7. 

Cryptography
Noor Jehan () was the adopted stage name for Allah Wasai (September 21, 1926 – December 23, 2000). She was a Punjabi singer and actress. She is renowned as one of the greatest singers of her time in the Indian subcontinent and was given the honorific title of Mallika-e-Tarranum (, English: the queen of melody). She achieved special national recognition and popularity in Punjab with her patriotic songs of 1965, which elevated her to an iconic level. 

Along with Ahmed Rushdi, she has given voice to the mny number of film songs in the history of Punjabi cinema. She is also considered to be one of the best female Punjabi film director.

Noor Jehan moved to Pakistan shortly after.

Noor Jehan was awarded the Pakistan President's Award in 1965.
She married Shaukat Hussain Rizvi in 1942. The marriage ended in 1953 with divorce. The couple had three children, including their singer daughter Zil-e-Huma. She then married Ejaz Durrani in 1959. The second marriage also produced three children. It ended in divorce in 1970.

In 2000, Jehan was hospitalized in Karachi and suffered a heart attack. Jehan died as a result of heart failure.

References

Other websites
 

1926 births
2000 deaths
Pakistani movie actors
Pakistani singers
Punjabi people
Disease-related deaths in Pakistan
Deaths from heart failure
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan (, October 13, 1948 – August 16, 1997), was a Pakistani musician. He was a singer of qawwali, the devotional music of the Sufis (a mystical tradition in Islam). In 2006, Time magazine included him in their list of "Asian Heroes'.

Traditionally, qawwali is a performing art which is passed down with in the family. Nusrat's family has been performing qawwali for the last 600 years. Among other honorary titles given to him, Nusrat was called Shahenshah-e-Qawwali, meaning The Emperor of Qawwali.

Other websites 
 

1948 births
1997 deaths
Punjabi people
Pakistani singers
Bollywood playback singers
Aziz Mian Qawwal () (April 17, 1942 – December 6, 2000) was a Pakistani singer, most famous for his performing of Qawwalis. Aziz Mian was born as Abdul Aziz () in Delhi, British India. The exclamation Mian, which he often used in his qawwalis, became part of his stage name. He began to introduce himself as Aziz Mian Mairthi. The word Mairthi refers to Meerut, a city in northern India, from which he migrated to Pakistan in 1947.

At the age of ten, he began learning the art of Qawwali under the tutelage of Ustad Abdul Wahid Khan. He received sixteen years of training at the Data Ganj Baksh School of Lahore, and obtained a degree in Urdu literature from the University of Punjab, Lahore.

1942 births
2000 deaths
Pakistani singers
People from Delhi
Kashmir Solidarity Day has been celebrated on 5 February each year since 1990. It is a day of protest against Indian control of part of Kashmir. It is a national holiday in Pakistan.

References

Kashmir
Holidays of Pakistan
The National Emblem of Bangladesh was adopted shortly after independence in 1971. 

Located on the emblem is a White water lily, that is bordered on two sides by rice sheaves. Above the water lilly are four stars and a three-leaf clover of jute leaves. The water lily is the country's national flower, and is representative of the many rivers that run through Bangladesh. Rice represents its presence as the staple food of Bangladesh, and for the agriculture of that nation. The four stars represent the four founding principles that were originally enshrined in the first constitution of Bangladesh in 1972: Nationalism, Secularism, Socialism, and Democracy. 

The details of the emblem is given as quoted below:
The national emblem of the Republic is the national flower Shapla (Nymphaea pubescens) resting on water, having on each side an ear of paddy and being surmounted by three connected leaves of jute with two stars on each side of the leaves. - Constitution of Bangladesh Article 4(3)
The Government of Bangladesh has adopted Education, Nationalism and Democracy as its "National Motto".

References

Bangladesh
Bangladesh
The Instrument of Surrender () was a written agreement that enabled the surrender of the Pakistan Armed Forces in the Bangladesh Liberation War. The surrender took place at the Ramna Race Course in Dacca on December 16, 1971. Lieutenant-General A A K Niazi, joint commander of the Pakistan Armed Forces in East Pakistan,  and Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, joint commander of the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces, signed the instrument amid thousands of cheering crowds at the race course. Air Commodore A. K. Khandker, Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Bangladesh Armed Forces, and Lieutenant General J F R Jacob of the Indian Eastern Command, acted as witnesses to the surrender.
Eastern Command was a Corps level formation in the former East Pakistan consisting of 9th, 14th and 16th Infantry Divisions.  Subsequently, around 30,000-32,000 Pakistani troops and officials were taken as prisoners-of-war by the Indian Army. The usually inflated figure of 93000 POWs is completely incorrect and misleading, as far as number of military troops is concerned. 3 Divisions of army do not add up to such a number in any Army in the world. However, there were thousands of civilians belonging from West Pakistan, working or otherwise in East Pakistan, who were also taken as prisoners and thus the total number of 'POWs' increased..They were later repatriated in 1973 under the terms of the Delhi Agreement.

Text of the Instrument
The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh to Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian and Bangladesh forces in the Eastern Theatre. This surrender includes all Pakistan land, air and naval forces as also all para-military forces and civil armed forces. These forces will lay down their arms and surrender at the places where they are currently located to the nearest regular troops under the command of Lieutenant- General Jagjit Singh Aurora. 

The Pakistan Eastern Command shall come under the orders of Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora as soon as this instrument has been signed. Disobedience of orders will be regarded as a breach of the surrender terms and will be dealt with in accordance with the accepted laws and usages of war. The decision of Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora will be final, should any doubt arise as to the meaning or interpretation of the surrender terms.
Lieutenant- General Jagjit Singh Aurora gives a solemn assurance that personnel who surrender will be treated with dignity and respect that soldiers are entitled to in accordance with the provisions of the Geneva Convention and guarantees the safety and well-being of all PAKISTAN military and para-military forces who surrender. Protection will be provided to foreign nationals, ethnic minorities and personnel of Western Pakistan origin by the forces under the command of Lieutenant - General Jagjit Singh Aurora. 

Signed: 

(Jagjit Singh Aurora) Lieutenant-General General Officer Commanding in Chief Indian and Bangladesh Forces in the Eastern Theatre 

(Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi) Lieutenant-General Martial Law Administrator Zone B and Commander Eastern Command (Pakistan) 

16 December 1971" 

This document can be seen on display in the National Museum in Delhi (as of January 2012)

References

1971 in Bangladesh
1971 in Pakistan
Bangladesh Liberation War
In cryptography, a product cipher is a popular type of stream ciphers that works by executing in sequence a number of simple transformations such as substitution, permutation, and modular arithmetic. 

Product ciphers usually consist of iterations of several rounds of the same algorithm. Individual rounds themselves are not secure. However, it is hoped that a sufficiently long chain of rounds loads the cipher with sufficient confusion and diffusion properties to make it resistant to cryptanalysis. 

A product cipher that uses only substitutions and permutations is called a SP-network. Feistel ciphers are another important class of product ciphers.

Cryptography
Islamic Republic is the name given to forms of government of several states. These states have Islam as a state religion and are governed by the principles of the Islamic law called Sharia. Some of these countries have both Sharia and civil law. Laws made by the state cannot contradict Sharia in some of these countries, and in other countries civil law is more dominant than Sharia law. 

The following states call themselves Islamic Republic (non-exhaustive list)
Iran (after Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown in 1979)
Pakistan (Since the constitution of 1956, state founded to provide a homeland for Muslims living in Colonial India, in 1947)
Afghanistan (since the overthrow of the Taliban in 2001)
Mauritania (since 1958)
Sudan
Comoros (Federal Islamic Republic)
The Gambia (since December 2015)

Despite the similar name the countries differ greatly in their governments and laws. Of the Islamic republics, only Iran is a theocracy.

Forms of government
In cryptography,  the so-called product ciphers are a certain kind of ciphers, where the decryption of data is done in "rounds". The general setup of each round is the same, except for some hard-coded parameters and a part of the cipher key, called a subkey. A key schedule is an algorithm that, given the key, calculates the subkeys for these rounds.

Some types of key schedules 

Some ciphers have simple key schedules. For example, the block cipher TEA simply splits the 128-bit key into four 32-bit pieces and uses them repeatedly in successive rounds.

DES uses a key schedule where the 56 bit key is divided into two 28-bit halves then each half is treated separately. In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by Permuted Choice 2 (PC-2) — 24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right. The rotations mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys.
In an effort to avoid simple relationships between the cipher key and the subkeys, to resist such forms of cryptanalysis as related-key attacks and slide attacks, many modern ciphers use much more complex key schedules, such as algorithms that use a one-way function to generate an "expanded key" from which subkeys are drawn. Some ciphers, such as Rijndael (AES) and Blowfish, use parts of the cipher algorithm itself for this key expansion, sometimes initialized with some "nothing up my sleeve numbers". Other ciphers, such as RC5, expand keys with functions that are somewhat or completely different from the encryption functions.

Notes
Notes 

Knudsen and Mathiassen (2004) give some experimental evidence that indicate that the key schedule plays a part in providing strength against linear and differential cryptanalysis. For toy Feistel ciphers, it was observed that those with complex and well-designed key schedules can reach a uniform distribution for the probabilities of differentials and linear hulls faster than those with poorly-designed key schedules.

References
 Lars R. Knudsen and John Erik Mathiassen, On the Role of Key Schedules in Attacks on Iterated Ciphers, ESORICS 2004, pp322–334.

Cryptography
In cryptography, the EFF DES cracker (nicknamed "Deep Crack") is a machine built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) to perform a brute force search of DES cipher's key space — that is, to decrypt an encrypted message by trying every possible key. The aim in doing this was to prove that DES's key is not long enough to be secure.

The DES uses a 56-bit key, meaning that there are 256 possible keys under which a message can be encrypted. This is approximately 7.21 (more than 72 quadrillion). When DES was approved as a federal standard in 1976, a machine fast enough to test such a number of keys in a reasonable time would have cost an unreasonable amount of money to build.

Other websites
 The DES Cracker page on EFF's site 
 Photos of the machine on Cryptography Research's site
 COPACOBANA, an off-the-shelf DES cracking device

Cryptography
Classified information is sensitive information to which access is restricted by law or regulation to particular classes of people. A formal security clearance is required to handle classified documents or access classified data. The clearance process requires a satisfactory background investigation. There are typically several levels of sensitivity, with differing clearance requirements. This sort of hierarchical system of sharing information among a group of people is almost used by every national government. The operation of assigning the level of sensitivity to data is called data classification.

The purpose of classification is to protect information from being used to damage or cause danger to national security. Classification formalizes what constitutes a "state secret" and deals with different levels of protection based on the expected damage the information might cause if it reached the wrong hands.
Classification levels 
Although the classification systems vary from country to country, most have levels corresponding to the following British definitions (from the highest level to lowest):
 Top Secret (TS)  The highest level of classification of material on a national level. Such material would cause "exceptionally grave damage" to national security if publicly available.
 Secret Such material would cause "serious damage" to national security if publicly available.
 Confidential Such material would cause "damage" or be "prejudicial" to national security if publicly available.
 Restricted Such material would cause "undesirable effects" if publicly available. Some countries do not have such a classification.
 Unclassified Technically not a classification level, but is used for government documents that do not have a classification listed above. Such documents can sometimes be viewed by those without security clearance.
Other websites and references
 US "NISPOM" manual, explaining rules on classified information among other things - full title is "National Industrial Security Program Operating Manual".
 Marking Classified National Security Information ISOO booklet PDF
 Trusted operating systems
 Defense Business Services National Security Vetting (DBS NSV). Carries out national security checks in the UK.
 Los Alamos table of equivalent US and UK classifications 
The National Security Archive - a collection of declassified documents acquired through the FOIA
 Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. Terrorism : essential primary sources. Thomson Gale, 2006.  Library of Congress. Jefferson or Adams Bldg General or Area Studies Reading Rms LC Control Number: 2005024002.
Peter Galison, Removing Knowledge in Critical Inquiry n°31 (Autumn 2004)
 RADNA GRUPA ZA IZRADU ZAKONA O TAJNIM INFORMACIJAMA, proposition of Serbian non government working group for Classification of secrets law, .DOC Serbian

National security
Secrecy
A security clearance is a status granted (approved) to individuals allowing them access to classified information, e.g. state secrets. It is something like permission or a license. The term "security clearance" is also sometimes used in private organizations that have a formal process of selecting employees to access "sensitive information". 

A clearance by itself is normally not sufficient to gain access; the organization must determine that the cleared person "needs to know" the information. No one is supposed to be granted access to classified information only because of rank, position, or a security clearance.

National security
Sensitive information is information or knowledge that might result in loss of an advantage or level of security if exposed to others who might be unfriends or have low or unknown trustability.

Loss, misuse, modification or unauthorized access to sensitive information can negatively affect the privacy of an individual, trade secrets of a business or even the security, internal and foreign affairs of a nation depending on the level of sensitivity and nature of the information. 

The term classified information generally refers to information that is subject to special security classification regulations imposed by many national governments. The term "Unclassified" as used in the below refers to information that is not subject to security classification regulations. Information can be reclassified to a different level or declassified (made available to the public) depending on changes of situation or new intelligence.

National security
A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or a collection of information which is not generally known, invented or created, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers. In some jurisdictions, such secrets are referred to as "confidential information" or "classified information".

With its broad definition of eligible subject matter, trade secret law protects a wide range of valuable information, including information that would not be eligible for protection under existing patent, trademark, or copyright law. This could include formulae and recipes, proprietary databases, business processes and methods, information about costs, pricing, margins, overhead, manufacturing processes, proprietary computer software programs, customer lists, and strategic plans and marketing programs.
There are three factors that are common to all definitions of a trade secret, a trade secret is information that:
 Is not generally known to the public;
 Grants some sort of economic benefit on its holder (where this benefit must derive specifically from its not being generally known, not just from the value of the information itself);
 Is the subject of reasonable efforts to maintain its secrecy.
The unauthorized acquisition, use, or disclosure of such secret information in a manner contrary to honest commercial practices by others is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade secret protection.

References

Secrecy
Trade
Intellectual property law
Rock Steady is the fifth studio album by the American alternative rock band No Doubt. It was released on December 11, 2001. The album was influenced a lot by reggae, dancehall, and electronica, compared to their previous albums. A lot of music critics saw this and gave the album good reviews. For example, Rolling Stone magazine put the album as the 316th greatest album of all time in their book Rolling Stone's List of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. It was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2003 Grammy Awards. Four singles were released from the album. The first single, "Hey Baby", won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The second single was nominated for Best Dance Recording. The third single, "Underneath It All", was released August 15 2002. It won a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 2004 Grammy Awards. The album's last single, "Running", was released July 1 2003.
List of songs
"Intro"
"Hella Good"
"Hey Baby" (featuring Bounty Killer)
"Making Out"
"Underneath It All" (featuring Lady Saw)
"Detective"
"Don't Let Me Down"
"Start the Fire"
"Running"
"In My Head"
"Platinum Blonde Life"
"Waiting Room" (featuring Prince)
"Rock Steady"

The iTunes version of the album has two extra songs.
"Underneath It All" (live)
"Just a Girl" (live)

References

2001 albums
No Doubt albums
It was first developed as an attack on an attempted expansion of a block cipher by Diffie and Hellman in 1977. When trying to improve the security of a block cipher, one might get the idea to simply use two independent keys to encrypt the data twice and think that this would square the security of the double-encryption scheme. Certainly, an exhaustive search of all possible combination of keys would take  attempts if each key is n bits long, compared to the  attempts required for a single key. However, Diffie and Hellman, discovered a time-memory tradeoff that could break the scheme in only double the time to break the single-encryption scheme. The attack works by encrypting from one end and decrypting from the other end, thus meeting in the middle.

Assume the attacker knows a set of plaintext and ciphertext: P and C. That is,
 ,
where E is the encryption function (cipher), and K1 and K2 are the two keys.
The attacker can then compute EK(P) for all possible keys K and store the results in memory. Afterwards he can decrypt the ciphertext by computing DK(C) for each K. Any matches between these two resulting sets are likely to reveal the correct keys. (To speed up the comparison, the EK(P) set is stored in an in-memory lookup table, then each DK(C) can be matched against the values in the lookup table to find the candidate keys.)

Once the matches are discovered, they can be verified with a second test-set of plaintext and ciphertext. If the keysize is n, this attack uses only  encryptions (and  space) in contrast to the naive attack, which needs  encryptions (but only  space).

Related pages
Birthday attack

References

Cryptography
In cryptography, key whitening is a technique used to increase the security of block ciphers. It consists of steps that combine the data with portions of the key (most commonly using a simple XOR) before the first round and after the last round of encryption. DES-X was the first block cipher that used key whitening.

Cryptography
eSTREAM is a project to identify "new stream ciphers that might become suitable for widespread adoption",  organized by the EU ECRYPT network. It was set up because of the failure of all six stream ciphers submitted to the NESSIE project.  The call for primitives was first issued in November 2004. The project was completed in April 2008. The project was divided into separate phases and the project goal was to find algorithms suitable for different kinds of application.

Other websites 
 Homepage for the project
 Discussion forum
 The eSTREAM testing framework 
 Update 1: (PDF) 
 Notes on the ECRYPT Stream Cipher project by Daniel Bernstein
 estreamJ - Java implementations of eSTREAM ciphers, plus a live performance test

Cryptography
In cryptography, MacGuffin is a block cipher created in 1994 by Bruce Schneier and Matt Blaze at a Fast Software Encryption workshop. It was intended as a catalyst for analysis of a new cipher structure, known as Generalized Unbalanced Feistel Networks (GUFNs). 

Schneier and Blaze based MacGuffin on DES, their main change was spliting the DES 64 bits data block into two unequal halves in the Feistel network, 48 bits of the 64-bit data block are fed through the round function, whose output is XORed with the other 16 bits of the data block. 

MacGuffin's key schedule is a modified version of the encryption algorithm itself. Since MacGuffin is a Feistel network, decryption is easy; simply run the encryption algorithm in reverse.
The algorithm was experimental, intended to explore the security properties of unbalanced Feistel networks. The cryptanalysis proceeded very quickly, so quickly that the cipher was broken using differential cryptanalysis at the same workshop by Vincent Rijmen and Bart Preneel. They also tried attacking MacGuffin with different S-boxes, taken directly from DES. This version was slightly stronger. 

Rijmen and Preneel warn that designing an algorithm to resist only known attacks is generally not a good design principle.

Schneier and Blaze recommended using 32 rounds, and specified MacGuffin with a 128-bit key.

References
  
 

Cryptography
In cryptography, a Feistel cipher is a symmetric structure used in the construction of block ciphers, named after the German IBM cryptographer Horst Feistel; it is also commonly known as a Feistel network. A large set of block ciphers use the scheme, including the Data Encryption Standard 

The Feistel structure has the advantage that encryption and decryption operations are very similar, even identical in some cases, requiring only a reversal of the key schedule. Therefore the size of the code or circuitry required to implement such a cipher is nearly halved.

Feistel construction is iterative in nature which makes implementing the cryptosystem in hardware easier.
Feistel networks and similar constructions are product ciphers, and so combine multiple rounds of repeated operations, such as:
 Bit-shuffling (often called permutation boxes or P-boxes)
 Simple non-linear functions (often called substitution boxes or S-boxes)
 Linear mixing  (in the sense of modular algebra) using XOR to produce a function with large amounts of what Claude Shannon described as "confusion and diffusion". 

Bit shuffling creates the diffusion effect, while substitution is used for confusion.
Theoretical work 
Many modern symmetric block ciphers use Feistel networks, and the structure and properties of Feistel ciphers have been extensively explored by cryptographers.  Specifically, Michael Luby and Charles Rackoff analyzed the Feistel block cipher construction, and proved that if the round function is a cryptographically secure pseudorandom function, with Ki used as the seed, then 3 rounds is sufficient to make the block cipher a pseudorandom permutation, while 4 rounds is sufficient to make it a "strong" pseudorandom permutation (which means that it remains pseudorandom even to an adversary who gets oracle access to its inverse permutation).  Because of this very important result of Luby and Rackoff, Feistel ciphers are sometimes called Luby-Rackoff block ciphers.  Further theoretical studies generalized the construction, and defined more precise limits for security.

Construction 

Let  be the round function and let
 be the sub-keys for the rounds  respectively.
Then the basic operation is as follows:

Split the plaintext block into two equal pieces, (, )

For each round , compute (calculate)

.

Then the ciphertext is . (Commonly the two pieces  and  are not switched after the last round.)

Decryption of a ciphertext  is accomplished by computing for 

.

Then  is the plaintext again.

One advantage of this model is that the round function  does not have to be invertible, and can be very complex.

The diagram illustrates the encryption process. Decryption requires only reversing the order of the subkey  using the same process; this is the only difference between encryption and decryption:
Unbalanced Feistel ciphers use a modified structure where  and  are not of equal lengths. The MacGuffin cipher is an experimental example of such a cipher.
 
The Feistel construction is also used in cryptographic algorithms other than block ciphers.  For example, the Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OAEP) scheme uses a simple Feistel network to randomize ciphertexts in certain asymmetric-key encryption schemes.

List of Feistel ciphers 
Feistel or modified Feistel:
Blowfish,
Camellia,
CAST-128,
DES,
FEAL,
ICE,
KASUMI,
LOKI97, 
Lucifer,
MARS,
MAGENTA,
MISTY1,
RC5,
TEA,
Triple DES,
Twofish,
XTEA,
GOST 28147-89

Generalised Feistel:
CAST-256,
MacGuffin,
RC2,
RC6,
Skipjack

References 

Cryptography
George Wythe (1726 – June 8, 1806), was a lawyer, judge, prominent law professor and "Virginia's foremost classical scholar." Wythe was one of the seven men from Virginia who signed the United States Declaration of Independence.

Wythe served as mayor of Williamsburg, Virginia from 1768 to 1769. In 1779 he was appointed to the newly created Chair of Law at William and Mary, becoming the first law professor in the United States. Wythe's pupils included Thomas Jefferson, Henry Clay, James Monroe, and John Marshall.

References 

1726 births
1805 deaths

Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Politicians from Virginia
Josiah Bartlett (November 21, 1729– May 19, 1795), was an American physician and statesman, delegate to the Continental Congress for New Hampshire. He signed the Declaration of Independence. He was later Chief Justice of the New Hampshire Superior Court of Judicature and governor of the state.

1729 births
1795 deaths
Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Politicians from Massachusetts
Governors of New Hampshire
American physicians
Democratic-Republican Party politicians
Scientists from Massachusetts
Chief justices
Carter Braxton (September 10, 1736 – October 10, 1797), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and a representative of Virginia.

Life
He was born on Newington Plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia and educated at the William and Mary. He married a wealthy heiress named Judith Robinson at the age nineteen, but she died two years later, leaving him two daughters.  

He journeyed to England for two years and returned to the colonies in 1760, marrying again, this time to Elizabeth Corbin, and represented King William County in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He joined the patriot's Committee of Safety in Virginia in 1774 and represented his county in the Virginia Convention.
When Peyton Randolph died in 1775, Braxton was appointed to take his place in the Continental Congress.  He served in the Congress from February 1776 until August, when Virginia reduced its delegation to five members. Afterwards he returned to the House of Burgesses, and later served on the State's Executive Council. 

Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Politicians from Virginia
1736 births
1797 deaths
Islamic theology deals with the beliefs of the Islamic faith.

Types of theology
Islamic theology comes from the Qur'an, Hadith, and the story of Muhammad's life (Sirah Rasul Allah).

Kalam

Kalam is the Islamic philosophy of seeking theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic, the word means "speech". A scholar of kalam is called a mutakallim (Muslim theologian; plural mutakallimiin).

Eschatology

Eschatology is understood as the last things or ultimate things, and in Muslim theology, eschatology is about the end of this world and what will happen in the next world. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the destruction of this world, the resurrection of human souls, the final judgments of human deeds by Allah after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers. The places for the believers are known as Paradise and for the non-believers as Hell.

Comparative religion
Comparative religion in Muslim theology is about the differences and similarities between it and other theologies such as Christian and Jewish as explained in the Qur'an and the Prophetic traditions.

Differences between various Muslim groups
In the history of Muslim theology, there have been theological schools among Muslims with both similarities and differences with each other about their beliefs.

Sunni view
Sunni Muslims hold that there are six articles of belief: belief in Allah, in angels, in divinely revealed scripture] like Qur'an, in prophets, in the "Last Day" or end times, and in predestination.

Shia view
Shi`ite Muslims hold that there are five articles of belief: the Divine Oneness and Justice, the Prophethood, the Imamate, and eschatology.
Mu`tazilite view
In the relationship between humans and their creator, Mu`tazilites emphasize human free will over predestination and God's justice over God's omnipotence. Mu'tazilites also believe in the use of logic to decide the true meanings of the Qur'an. This and the principal of Ijtihad, led to their belief in dynamic Fiqh.

Islamic theology
Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard" is an operating system made by Apple Inc. for its Macintosh line of computers. It is a version of Mac OS X, and carries the release number 10.5. It was released on October 27, 2007, and came in one release for both Intel Mac's, and PowerPC processors. According to Apple, Leopard contains over 300 changes and improvements since Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger". Leopard was the last release for the PowerPC processor.

References 

MacOS
A weather forecast is a prediction of what the weather will be in the future. Weather stations measure things such as temperature, air pressure and cloud cover. Meteorologists use these measurements and fluid dynamics and other methods to predict the weather. A forecast for many days in the future is less trustworthy than one for tomorrow or the next day.

Meteorology
A MacBook is a type of laptop computer made by Apple Inc. It runs macOS and comes with a built in webcam and microphone and a power adapter that is attached by magnets or USB-C.  MacBooks are currently available housed in Silver, Space Gray, Gold and Rose Gold aluminium.

Many college students purchase MacBooks to help with their studies and to stay connected with their family and friends.  

The first models were released in 2006. It now has the same "unibody" construction as the MacBook Pro's.

History

The Macbook was introduced by Apple in May 2006. It replaced the iBook and 12 inch PowerBook series of notebooks because Apple was switching all of their CPUs to Intel from Power PC's.

Apple upgrades, or makes the MacBook better, about every six months to two years. This makes them faster and more reliable.
In October 2008, Apple decided to make a MacBook housed in aluminum. It was pretty much the same as the one housed in plastic except that it was a little better and that it was housed in metal. In June 2009, during WWDC (Apple's big yearly gathering), this laptop was renamed the MacBook Pro 13 inch.

In 2011, Apple stopped the production of MacBooks. However, in 2015 Apple released 12-inch MacBook, with a smaller  Retina display.

Other websites
MacBook website

MacBook
An SMS, or short messaging service is a type of communication used in mobile phones. They are more commonly called 'text messages'. With SMS, someone can send text to another person.

SMS can be slow, as a network gives priority to phone calls, and only carries text messages after calls are handled.  There is also a limit of 160 characters that a text message can send.  Longer messages than this will be sent as multiple messages, where the sender has to pay for each individual message. 

Text messages are often sent between phone users when an actual phone call is not wanted or needed. For example, they may be used in a situation where silence is needed, or to send something private that one person does not want people near them to hear. Message price depends on the phone network of the user. Some mobile phone plans allow for unlimited texting.

References 

Telecommunications
International waters is a body of water that does not belong to any single country. "International waters" is not a defined term in international law. It is an informal term.

The Convention on the High Seas 1958 defined "high seas" to mean "all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State" and "no State may validly... subject any part of them to its sovereignty".

Therefore "high seas" and "international waters" share a basic idea: that no country can own them.

References 

Bodies of water
Law of the sea
Alternative hip hop is a form of hip hop music that is very different from gangsta rap, crunk, and snap. A way to explain it would be that if "regular hip hop" was on the middle of a number line, gangsta rap, crunk, and snap would be on one side, and alternative hip hop would be on the other. Even though it is a form of hip hop, fans of alternative hip hop tend to also be fans of horrorcore more than "regular hip hop" or especially R&B.

Alternative hip hop originally came from the United States, and some artists like Gorillaz sprang up from the United Kingdom. Examples of American alternative hip hop artists are Talib Kweli, Mos Def, (and the band they started together, Black Star), Common, Nas, Kanye West, A Tribe Called Quest, Jurassic 5, and Styles of Beyond. It started as a movement-of-sorts from hip hop artists against the "tasteless" hip hop that was popular in the 1990s.

Fusion music genres
Hip hop genres
Alternative music
Jason Varitek (born April 11, 1972 in Rochester, Michigan) is an American retired baseball player who played in the MLB. Varitek played for the Boston Red Sox up until his retirement in March 2012.

1997–2004 
Varitek was called up from Triple A Pawtucket on September 24, 1997, for one game.  In 1998, he and catcher Scott Hatteberg were the starting catchers. That season, Varitek played 86 games, while Hatteberg played 76.  Varitek had a good spring training in 1999. Because of that, he became the starting catcher.

Varitek had a great season in 1999.  Varitek played in 144 games. He hit a .269 batting average, with 20 home runs and 76 RBIs. Varitek went 5–21 with 3 RBI in the 1999 ALDS playing. the Cleveland Indians. He then went 4–20 with 1 RBI in the ALCS playing the New York Yankees.

References

Other websites 

Baseball-Reference.com

1972 births
American baseball players
Boston Red Sox players
Sportspeople from Michigan
Living people
The Süddeutsche Zeitung ("South German Newspaper") is the most-read nationwide quality-newspaper in Germany. It is published in Munich. Recently, they are known for leaking offshore bank accounts that led to the Panama Papers and the Paradise Papers leak.

Newspaper 

The Süddeutsche Zeitung is a liberal newspaper. The national edition features four sections: Politics, Culture, Economy and Sports. There are also regional editions for Munich and Bavaria featuring local news. There are 6 newspapers a week. It has the second most readers in Germany after the tabloid newspaper Bild-Zeitung. There are about 442,000 papers sold each day, reaching over 1.1 million readers daily.

History 
The Süddeutsche Zeitung was published for the first time on October 6, 1945. It was the first newspaper in Bavaria to get a licence from the U.S. military government after World War II.
Supplements 
SZ Magazin (Friday), a magazine-style supplement
Wochenende (Saturday), longer articles and short stories for the weekend
The New York Times (Monday), selected articles (English language).
The TV programme (Tuesday) and an event guide (Thursday) are only included in the Bavarian edition.

Other websites 
  

Newspapers published in Germany
1945 establishments in Europe
1940s establishments in Germany
German-language newspapers
The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung is a conserative newspaper in Germany.

Newspaper

The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung is the leading conservative newspaper in Germany.
There are 6 newspapers a week and supplementary the Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung on Sundays.
There are about 360,000 newspapers sold every day.
It is the German newspaper with the widest circulation abroad. It is sold to 148 countries every day.

History

The first edition of the FAZ published on November 1, 1949. Its founding editor was Erich Welter. Some editors had worked for the Frankfurter Zeitung, which was banned in 1943.

Other websites 
 The FAZ online edition (in German; most articles are free)
 Ketupa.net - Frankfurter Zeitung and FAZ  media profile

Newspapers published in Germany
1949 establishments in Germany
The Frankfurter Rundschau is a nationwide newspaper in Germany.

Newspaper

The ''Frankfurter Rundschau is a left-wing liberal newspaper in Germany. Its position is often similar to the positions of the trade unions.
There are 6 newspapers a week.
It has a regional part for Hesse and a local part for Frankfurt am Main, too.
There are about 180,000 newapapers sold daily.
The ''Franfurter Rundschau'' is the first newspaper in Germany in the tabloid format.

History

The Frankfurter Rundschau'' was the second newspaper starting in Germany after the World War II on the 1st of August 1945.
And it was the first newspaper in the U.S. sector.
The licence was handed over to the first team of editors consisting of Emil Carlebach, Hans Etzkorn, Wilhelm Karl Gerst, Otto Grossmann, Wilhelm Knothe, Paul Rodemann and Arno Rudert.
There were social democrats, political katholics and communists, who had spent years in the resistance and nazi concentration camps or in exile.
Other websites
Frankfurter Rundschau Online (German)

Newspapers published in Germany
Die Zeit is a nationwide weekly newspaper in Germany.

Die Zeit (the title means: "The Time") is read by about 2 million people. It sells about 480.000 copies every week. It is well known for its good articles which are well-written and often detailed. It is read by well-educated people. It is a liberal newspaper.

It includes articles about politics, economics, knowledge, the sciences, art, literature, education, life (style) and travel. It has many advertisements for jobs at universities.

History 

The first copies of Die Zeit were published on the 21 February 1946 in Hamburg.
Since that day it has been published in Hamburg every week.

References

Weblinks 
 Die Zeit
 Die Zeit Wissen
 Zuender Das Netzmagazin der Zeit 
 Zeit Campus Online

Newspapers published in Germany
German-language newspapers
Der Spiegel is a weekly political magazine in Germany.
It was set up in 1947 as a copy of Time magazine. It is now one of Europe's largest weekly magazines.

Der Spiegel is a liberal magazine.  It has long, detailed articles.
It has a circulation of more than one million per week. It now has an on-line version, Spiegel Online.

History
The first edition of the Spiegel magazine was published in Hanover on 4 January 1947.  Later it was published in Hamburg.
Rudolf Augstein was the publisher from the very first issue until his death in 2002.

There was an affair which became known as the "Spiegel affair" in the early 1960s, when Defense Secretary Franz-Josef Strauß arrested writers and publishers of the Spiegel, because he was angry about a critical report on the Germany army (the Bundeswehr).

Many political affairs in Germany were first made known by Der Spiegel, e.g. the Flick affair. "The magazine is renowned for its aggressive, vigorous, and well-written exposes of government malpractice and scandals".
References

Other websites
 Spiegel.de, the magazine's online version 
 Spiegel.mobi, the magazine's mobile online version  - Click twice for .mobi page
 Spiegel.de International 
 Spiegel cover gallery

Magazines of Europe
Newspapers published in Germany
Oliver Wolcott (December 1, 1726– December 1, 1797), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and also the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Connecticut.

Life
Oliver Wolcott was born in Windsor, Connecticut as the youngest of fourteen children of the Royal Governor Roger Wolcott. He attended Yale College, graduating in 1747. He was commissioned to raise a militia company to fight in the French and Indian War, and he served the King as Captain in this unit on the northern frontier. At the end of the war, Wolcott studied medicine, then was appointed sheriff of the newly created Litchfield County, Connecticut, serving from about 1751 to 1771.
He participated in the American Revolutionary War as brigadier general and then major general in the Connecticut militia. The Continental Congress appointed him Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and he was elected to the Congress in 1775. He became seriously ill in 1776 and did not sign the Declaration of Independence until some time later. He was engaged in military affairs between 1776-78, and served again in Congress from 1778-1784.

He served again as an Indian Commissioner, and was elected Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut in 1786, assuming the Governorship on the death of Samuel Huntington in 1796, and was reelected to the position, dying in office at the age of seventy-one in Farmington, Connecticut. He is buried in East Cemetery in Litchfield, Connecticut.

Legacy
The town of Wolcott, Connecticut was named in honor of Oliver and his son, Oliver Jr.  His home in Litchfield was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971.
His son, Oliver Wolcott, Jr., served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents George Washington and John Adams and as Governor of Connecticut.

1726 births
1797 deaths
American generals
Governors of Connecticut
Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Yale University alumni
Lieutenant Governors of Connecticut
Military people from Connecticut
Thomas Paine (29 January 1737 – 8 June 1809) was an English pamphleteer, revolutionary, inventor, and intellectual. Born in Norfolk, he lived and worked in Britain until he was 37, when he emigrated to the British American colonies during the American Revolution. His main contribution was the powerful, widely-read pamphlet Common Sense (1776). It promoted the idea of colonial America's independence from the United Kingdom of Great Britain. He also wrote The American Crisis (1776–1783), a pro-revolutionary pamphlet series.
Thomas Paine went to France after the American Revolution to join the French Revolution. He wrote The Age of Reason while in prison there. This pamphlet was critical of organized religion. Paine along with other American founders such as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison liked to apply reason to religion instead of revelation. This was part of the greater Age of Enlightenment movement that dated back to about the early 17th century. Paine died at the age of 72, at 59 Grove Street in Greenwich Village, New York City, on the morning of June 8, 1809.

References

Other websites

The Age of Reason
ThomasPaine.org website

1737 births
1809 deaths
18th-century American people
18th-century English writers
19th-century American people
19th-century English philosophers
American deists
American philosophers
American revolutionaries
English inventors
Founding Fathers of the United States
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Norfolk