Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. It was created by John Hulley and Charles Melly, with support from Dr. Brookes. These games were unfair in nature since only Men could compete.Ingomar Weiler (2004). The predecessors of the Olympic movement, and Pierre de Coubertin European Review, Vol. 12, No. 3, Cambridge University Press In 1865 Hulley, Dr. Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter.

Dr. Brookes copied the sports which were in the Olympics held in Athens in 1859 in future Wenlock Olympian Games (Brookes created this first as a class in 1850 and then as an event in 1856.). In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized by Dr. Brookes at London's Crystal Palace.
The Panathinaiko Stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875. Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870, although no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games. In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Baron Pierre de Coubertin created the International Olympic Committee. Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of creating an Olympic Games that would occur every four years in a different country. He presented these ideas during the first meeting of the newly created International Olympic Committee (IOC). This meeting was held from June 16 to June 23, 1894, at the Sorbonne University in Paris. On the last day of the meeting, it was decided that the first Olympic Games, to be controlled by the IOC, would take place two years later in Athens. The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president.

 1896 Games
1896 Games 

The first Games held under the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic stadium in Athens in 1896. These Games brought 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events. Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government money to fund future Olympic Games. This money was used to pay for the 1896 Games.L'affaire Zappa – Paris 1894, by G. Streit George Averoff paid for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games. The Greek government also provided money, which was paid back through the sale of tickets. Money was also paid back through the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set.

The Greek officials and public were excited about hosting these Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the host of the Olympic Games on a permanent basis. The IOC did not approve this request. The IOC stated that each games would be held in a different country.

 Changes and adaptations
Between 1912 and 1948 art competitions were a part of the Olympics. Medals were awarded for works of art inspired by sport, divided into five categories: architecture, literature, music, painting, and sculpture. The juried art competitions were abandoned in 1954 because artists were considered to be professionals, while Olympic athletes were required to be amateurs. The competitions were part of the original intention of the Olympic Movement.

 Winter Games
Winter Games 

The Winter Olympics were created for snow and ice sports that were not part of the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. At the 1921 Olympic Congress, in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France. The IOC ruled that the Winter Olympic Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as the summer games. This pattern continued until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France. After this, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were held on the third year of each Olympiad.

 Youth Games
Youth Games 

Starting in 2010, Youth Games help to develop young athletes for the Olympic Games. Athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 compete. The Youth Olympic Games were created by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th meeting of the IOC. The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14 to 26 August 2010. The first Winter Games was hosted in Innsbruck, Austria, in 2012. These Games are shorter than the Olympic Games. The summer version will last twelve days and the winter version will last nine days. The IOC will allow 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to take part at the Summer Youth Games. 970 athletes and 580 officials will take part at the Winter Youth Games. The sports to be played will be the same as at the Olympic Games.

 Olympic Movement
Olympic Movement 

The Olympic Movement includes a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations. As the group in charge of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city. Overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games. Changing the sports involved. Agreeing sponsorship and broadcasting rights.
The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements:
 International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level. For example, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the IF for football (soccer), and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) is the international governing body for volleyball. There are 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement, representing each Olympic sport.
 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country. For example, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the NOC of the United States. There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC.
 Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) are the temporary groups responsible for the organization of a specific Olympic Games. Each group is dissolved (taken apart) after each Games, once the final report is delivered to the IOC.
French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country.

 Controversy 
In 1998, it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics. This was done to make sure that Salt Lake City won. The IOC investigated and four members resigned and six people were sacked.

A BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games, Parisian Mayor Bertrand Delanoë accused the British Prime Minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee of breaking the bid rules.
The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion, Switzerland, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation. The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination.

 Symbols 

The Olympic logo also known as the Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (America, Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe). The colored version of the rings—blue, yellow, black, green, and red—over a white field forms the Olympic flag. The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. The flag has since been flown during every Games. The Olympic motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius'', a Latin expression meaning "Faster, Higher, Stronger".
Before each Games, the Olympic flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess, lights a torch with the use of the sun. The woman then lights the torch of the first relay bearer. Starting the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city's Olympic stadium. The flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928 and the torch relay was introduced at the 1936 Summer Games.

The Olympic mascot was introduced in 1968. The mascot is either an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country.

Ceremonies

Opening
Opening 

As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theater representative of its culture.
After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter in order to honor the origins of the Olympics. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country's chosen language. The host country's athletes are always the last to enter. During the 2004 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Athens, Greece. The Greek flag entered the stadium first and last. When it came in to the stadium for the second time it was followed by the athletes. Speeches are then given formally opening the Games. Finally the athletes oath said. Following this the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier who lights the cauldron.

Closing
The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter the stadium. They are followed by the athletes who enter together without any national distinction.
Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played. The flag of Greece to honor the birthplace of the Olympic Games. The flag of the current host country. The flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games is also flown.
The president of the organizing committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches. The Games are officially closed and the Olympic flame is put out.
In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony (as this tradition was started in Antwerp), the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC. The president then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games.
Medal presentation 

A medal ceremony is held after each Olympic event is concluded. The winner, second and third-place competitors or teams stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by an IOC member, the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist's country plays.

Sports 
The Olympic Games program consists of 26 sports, 30 disciplines and nearly 300 events. For example, wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport, comprising two disciplines: Greco-Roman and Freestyle. It is broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women. Each event represents a different weight class. The Summer Olympics program includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics program features 15 sports.
Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognized by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports. There are 35 federations represented at the IOC. Changes can happen to the list of sports in the Olympics. Sports can be added or removed from the list on the basis of a two-thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC.

The 114th IOC meeting, in 2002, limited the Summer Games program to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. Three years later, at the 117th IOC Session, the first major change to the list was performed. This resulted in the removal of baseball and softball from the list of sports for the 2012 London Games. Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports, the 2012 program will feature just 26 sports. The 2016 and 2020 Games will return to the maximum of 28 sports given the addition of rugby and golf.

Amateurism and professionalism
Beginning in the 1970s, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. After the 1988 Games, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, subject to the approval of the IFs.
As of 2004, the only sport in which no professionals compete is boxing, although even this requires a definition of amateurism based on fight rules rather than on payment, as some boxers receive cash prizes from their National Olympic Committees. In men's football (soccer), only three professional players over the age of 23 are eligible to participate per team in the Olympic tournament.

Controversies

Boycotts
Boycotts 

There have been many countries deliberately missing the Olympics in order to make political statements. The most famous examples of countries missing the Olympics happened in 1980 and 1984. The Cold War opponents missed each other's Games. 65 nations refused to compete at the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The Soviet Union and 14 of its Eastern Bloc partners (except Romania) countered by missing the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984. The countries stated that they could not guarantee the safety of their athletes. Soviet officials defended their decision to withdraw from the Games by saying that "chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria are being whipped up in the United States".

Politics
Politics 

The Olympic Games have been used as a platform to promote political ideologies almost from its inception. Nazi Germany wished to portray the Nationalist Socialist Party as benevolent and peace-loving when they hosted the 1936 Games. The Games were also intended to show the superiority of the Aryan (white) race. This goal was not met due in part to the achievements of athletes such as Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals at this Olympics.
Individual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote their own political agenda. At the 1968 Summer Olympics, in Mexico City, two American track and field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, who finished first and third in the 200meter sprint race, performed the Black Power salute on the podium. The runner up Peter Norman wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge in support of Smith and Carlos. IOC President Avery Brundage then told the United States, to either send the two athletes home or withdraw the track and field team. The United States chose to send the pair home.

Use of performance enhancing drugs
In the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to improve their athletic abilities. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games, Thomas J. Hicks, was given strychnine and brandy by his coach. The only Olympic death linked to doping happened at the Rome Games of 1960. During the cycling road race, Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines. By the mid-1960s, sports federations were starting to ban the use of performance-enhancing drugs. The IOC did likewise in 1967. The IOC created the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999. The IOC-established drug testing regimen (now known as the Olympic Standard) has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations around the world attempt to emulate
. The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance-enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use.
Violence 
The Olympics have not brought lasting peace to the world, even during the Games. Three Olympic Games were not held due to war. The 1916 Games were cancelled because of World War I, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II. Terrorism has also threatened the Olympic Games. In 1972, when the Summer Games were held in Munich, West Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the terrorist group Black September. This event is now known as the Munich massacre. The terrorists killed two of the athletes soon after they had taken them hostage and killed the other nine during a failed rescue attempt. A German police officer and 5 terrorists also died. During the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta, a bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park, which killed 2 and injured 111 others. Eric Robert Rudolph is currently serving a life sentence for the bombing.

Host nations and cities
In the Winter Olympics, France has hosted three Games, while Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Japan, and Italy have hosted twice. The most recent Games were held in Pyeongchang, South Korea's first Winter Olympics and second overall. The next Winter Games will be in Beijing, China in 2022, which will be the first time this nation has hosted.

And Youth Olympic Games in a separate list.

Summer Olympics (with successors)

Related pages
 Paralympic Games
 Special Olympics
 World Games
 Youth Olympic Games

Notes

References

Further reading

Other websites 

 
 
 New York Times Interactive of all the medals in the Modern Olympics
 All the daily program and the results of the Olympics (personal website)
 ATR – Around the Rings – the Business Surrounding the Olympics
 Database Olympics
 Dicolympic  – Dictionary about the Games from Olympia to Sochi 2014
 Reference book about all Olympic Medalists of all times

 
Multi-sport events
The Iron Age is the period after the Bronze Age in Europe, Asia, and parts of Africa. Iron production took place in Anatolia at least as early as 1200 BC, with some  evidence pointing to even earlier dates.

In the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, the use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 3000 BC. One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts known was a dagger with an iron blade found in a Hattic tomb in Anatolia, dating from 2500 BC. The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout the Near East (North Africa, southwest Asia) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC.

Before this time, people used bronze or flint tools, and pottery. They farmed, and lived in communities. Most of Europe, Africa and Asia reached the Iron Age by 500 BC. It is a period of prehistory because, though iron and steel continue to be important even today, the "Iron Age" is defined as ending when people began to write their history.
Iron is easy to find, but hard to make into tools. It melts at a higher temperature than bronze. When blacksmiths learned how to make iron tools, they were able to make many of them. With more and better tools, people could do more. For example, more people could own a metal plough. They could farm their fields better and grow more crops. Some people invented coins to help buy and sell their crops and their iron tools. 

Bronze weapons and armor were no match for those made of iron, so many peoples who did not have iron were conquered by those who did. Soldiers used iron shields and helmets in battle.

References 

Ancient history
Periods and ages in history
Entertainment is something that gives pleasure, or distracts a person from daily life, like a sport or game that excites people and keeps their attention. Some entertainment, like horror movies, can also make people feel sad or scared. Other entertainment, like comedy shows, are funny.

Entertainment can help reduce stress.

Entertainments is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience, or gives pleasure and delight. it can be an idea or an activity or even a task.

List of entertainments
Cinema
Television
 Sport
 Theatre + Puppetry + Stand-up comedy 
 Reading
 Circus
 Tourism
 Dance
 Board games
 Video games
Party
Festival
Parade with fireworks
Carnival
Street performance
Internet + Social Network
Art gallery
Museum
Park
Cafe
Cabaret
Concert
Opera
Ballet
Theme park
Beach
Exhibition
Toys
Fashion show
Zoo 
Water park
Bathhouse
Swimming pool
Cycling
Spa hotel
Countryside
Picnic 
Ski resort
Storytelling
Banquet
Walking
Shopping
Magic
Tournament
Playground
Nightclub
Camping or summer camp   

 
Media
Open Site is a free internet encyclopedia created by many editors. Anyone can apply to become an editor or donate content.

Categories 

At Open Site all the content is separated into categories. There are eleven main categories which each have many subcategories. These are the main categories:
 Arts - has information about art and entertainment.
 Business - has information about economics.
 Computers - has information about computers.
 Games - has information about games.
 Health - has information about health.
 Home - has information about home and families.
 Recreation - has information about leisure.
 Regional - has information about countries.
 Science - has information about science.
 Society - has information about society and people.
 Sports - has information about sport.

Languages 

Open Site claims to have encyclopedias in many languages e.g. Romanian, but there are very few articles.

Childrens' Encyclopedia
Open Site started an encyclopedia for children in August 2004. The writing and pictures on the children's' encyclopedia are simpler and easier to understand than other encyclopedias, like this one. The encyclopedia contains tools and facts as well as articles.

References

Other websites 
 Open Site
Encyclopedia websites
Coca-Cola is a carbonated, sweetened soft drink and is the world's best-selling soda. A popular nickname for Coca-Cola is Coke. The Coca-Cola Company claims that the beverage is sold in more than 200 countries. Coca-Cola was first made in Columbus, Georgia.The company's headquarters are in Atlanta, Georgia. Coca-Cola's main rival is Pepsi because of the similar taste of their main product. Coca-Cola has 7 cubes of sugar, whereas Pepsi has 8 cubes of sugar. The Coca-Cola Company is proud to have a long history of sponsoring major events, organizations and projects around the world. Among their most well known sponsorships are American Idol, Apple iTunes, BET Network, NASCAR, NBA, NCAA, Marvel and the Olympic Games. After their products were put back on sale in Myanmar in 2012, the only countries that Coca-Cola cannot be bought officially are Cuba and North Korea, due to trade bans with the US.

History
History 

Coca-Cola was first made in the 1800s by John Pemberton. The first sales were at Jacob's Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, on May 8, 1886. They sold it there for five cents a glass, it was very strong tasting because they did not mix it with water. Coca-Cola was first made the way it is now in Columbus, Georgia. It was called Pemberton's French Wine Coca at first and was sold as a medicine to help cure colds and give people more energy. The drink used to be sold at soda fountains in the United States. It was also created to stop addictions to morphine.
Coca-Cola was first sold in bottles in Atlanta on March 12, 1894 with actual cocaine content. It was first sold in cans in 1955. During the first year, sales were about only nine drinks per day. Dr. Pemberton did not think he could make a lot of money with the drink he invented, so he sold parts of his business to different people. Just before he died in 1888, he sold the rest of his Coca-Cola business to Asa G. Candler. Mr. Candler, together with some other businessmen, started the Coca-Cola Company.

Candler became mayor of Atlanta and gave most of his shares of Coca-Cola to his children. In 1919 the family sold control of Coca-Cola to Ernest Woodruff. In 1923 Woodruff's son Robert Winship Woodruff became president of Coca-Cola, replacing Asa Candler's son Charles Howard Candler.
How Coca-Cola was named 
The drink is called "Coca-Cola" because of the coca leaf and kola fruits that were used to add flavor. Dr. Pemberton's partner and bookkeeper, Frank Robinson, suggested the name "Coca-Cola" because he thought using the letter C twice would look better than if they used a K in the word "Cola". He then wrote down the name to use as a logo that is now very famous. The recipe was altered after a short while, after the cocaine/coca leaf reportedly caused cases of hallucinations. Coca has not been used in the formula since 1903.

Coca-Cola's advertising 
Coca-Cola was the first ever sponsor of the Olympic Games. This was for the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam.

 In 2018, the company spent a whopping $5.8 billion on global advertising, dwarfing its next rival PepsiCo by nearly $2 billion in spending.
 From 1886 to 1959, the price of Coca-Cola was fixed at five cents, in part due to an advertising campaign.

Other products
Other products 

The company sells many other products, including other sorts of Coca-Cola, such as Diet Coke (1981), Cherry Coke (1985), Diet Cherry Coke (1986), Diet/Coke with Lemon (2001), Diet Vanilla Coke (2002), Diet/ Coke with Lime (2004), Coke Zero (2006), Coca-Cola with Orange (2007), Diet Coke Citrus Zest (2007). Based on Interbrand's best global brand 2011, Coca-Cola was the world's most valuable brand.

Related pages

 Pepsi
 Fanta
 Cola, a generic type of drink
 World of Coca-Cola museum of Coke history.

References 

 
Atlanta
Soft drinks
Sulfur (or sulphur) is a chemical element. The symbol for sulfur is S, and its atomic number is 16.

Properties
Sulfur is a yellow solid that is a nonmetal. It is fragile (easily broken) and crystalline. It burns easily, releasing toxic fumes of sulfur dioxide. It has a very faint odor. If it is melted and cooled very quickly, it makes a rubbery form of sulfur that is called "plastic sulfur". It gradually turns back into the yellow brittle form. It does not dissolve in water. The smell normally known as "sulfur" comes from hydrogen sulfide and similar chemicals. These sulfides are produced when things decay without air.

Chemical compounds
Sulfur compounds are chemical compounds containing sulfur ions. Sulfur comes in several forms: oxidation states of -2 (hydrogen sulfide), +4 (sulfur dioxide, sulfites) and +6 (sulfuric acid, sulfates) are most common, although there are other oxidation states.

Sulfur oxides
Sulfur oxides

Sulfur dioxide, colorless toxic heavy gas, used to preserve dried foods
Sulfur trioxide, various forms, sometimes liquid, irritating and toxic
Oleum, sulfur trioxide dissolved in sulfuric acid

Sulfur acids
Mixture of sulfur oxides and water
Sulfurous acid, unstable, weak
Sulfuric acid, stable, strong acid, most used chemical after water
Hydrogen sulfate, an ion produced when sulfuric acid only loses one acidic proton
Hydrogen sulfide, weak smelly gas, becomes acidic when dissolved in water

Sulfides
Sulfides

Salts of hydrogen sulfide
Ammonium sulfide, used in stink bombs
Antimony trisulfide, used in match heads
Arsenic trisulfide, less toxic arsenic compound
Barium sulfide, used to make barium from barium sulfate
Bismuth(III) sulfide, bismuth ore
Iron sulfide, found as pyrite naturally
Lead(II) sulfide, found as galena naturally
Selenium disulfide, used in hair treatment creams
Potassium sulfide, reacts with water
Silver sulfide, tarnish on silver objects
Thallium(I) sulfide, infrared detector
Tin(II) sulfide, dark brown solid
Tin(IV) sulfide, gold solid, "mosaic gold"
Zinc sulfide, used in fluorescent bulbs

Sulfites

Salts of sulfurous acid
Sodium sulfite, used to preserve dried foods
Potassium sulfite, used to preserve foods

Sulfates and bisulfates
Salts of sulfuric acid
Alums, all of them
Aluminium sulfate
Ammonium sulfate, used in fertilizers
Barium sulfate, used to take X-rays of digestive system
Cobalt(II) sulfate, used in pigments
Copper(II) sulfate, used to kill algae
Chromium sulfate, used to make chrome alum
Iron(II) sulfate, used for reduction 
Iron(III) sulfate, rare
Lead(II) sulfate, white solid in lead acid batteries
Manganese(II) sulfate, used to add manganese to soil
Nickel(II) sulfate, used to make nickel compounds
Sodium bisulfate, used in lowering pH
Sodium sulfate, used in detergents and paper making
Thallium(I) sulfate, colorless odorless tasteless highly toxic
Tin(II) sulfate, used to make other tin compounds
Zinc sulfate, used in pigments

Other sulfur compounds
Sulfur(I) compounds
Sulfur(I) chloride, yellow liquid

Sulfur(II) compounds
Sulfur(II) chloride, red odorous liquid

Sulfur(III) compounds
Disulfur dinitride, colorless solid
Tetrasulfur tetranitride, orange solid
Sulfur(IV) compounds
Sulfur tetrafluoride, colorless toxic gas

Sulfur(V) compounds
Disulfur decafluoride, colorless toxic liquid

Sulfur(VI) compounds
Sulfur hexafluoride, colorless heavy gas

Occurrence and preparation

Sulfur can be found in the earth near volcanoes. Many minerals contain sulfur ions. Coal contains sulfur ions which are released when it burns. Hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide are some sulfur compounds that are released when coal burns. They are reacted to make sulfur. Sulfur in the ground in melted, then forced up through pipes by compressed (squeezed) air.

Uses
Sulfur is commonly used in gunpowder, medicine, and matches. Matches release sulfur dioxide when they burn, giving them their smell. Sulfur is an essential component to living cells. Many proteins contain sulfur. It is also used as a pesticide on organic farms.

Etymology
Powder sulfur is said to be left after an occurrence of a supernatural being.
Toxicity and safety
Sulfur is not toxic, but the chemical compounds formed when sulfur burns can be very toxic. Sulfuric acid, for example, can make paper turn black!

History
The ancient name for sulfur is brimstone. Sulfur was used in fumigation (making fumes) and medicine in ancient Greece. In 1777, Antoine Lavosier convinced the scientific community that sulfur was an element.

Related pages
 Periodic table
 List of common elements
 Sulfur compounds

Other websites 
 WebElements.com – Sulfur
 EnvironmentalChemistry.com – Sulfur

Nonmetals
Aluminum (in British English: aluminium) is a chemical element. The symbol for aluminum is Al, and its atomic number is 13. Aluminum is the most abundant metal. It is a mononuclidic element.
History
People have tried to produce aluminum since 1760. The first successful attempt, finished in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminum chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin. He presented his results and showed a sample of the new metal in 1825. In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminum. (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.) He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminum chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminum. In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal. For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the person who discovered aluminum.
Properties
aluminum is a very good conductor of electricity and heat. It is light and strong. It can be hammered into sheets (malleable) or pulled out into wires (ductile). It is a highly reactive metal, although it is corrosion resistant.

A fresh film of aluminum is a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation.

aluminum prevents corrosion by forming a small, thin layer of aluminum oxide on its surface. This layer protects the metal by preventing oxygen from reaching it. Corrosion can not occur without oxygen. Because of this thin layer, the reactivity of aluminum is not seen. As a powder it burns hot. Uses include fireworks displays and rocket fuel.
Occurrence and preparation 
Pure aluminum is made from bauxite, a kind of rock that has aluminum oxide and many impurities. The bauxite is crushed and reacted with sodium hydroxide. The aluminum oxide dissolves. Then the aluminum oxide is dissolved in liquid cryolite, a rare mineral. Cryolite is normally produced artificially though. The aluminum oxide is electrolyzed to make aluminum and oxygen. The largest producer of aluminum is China. China produces about 31,873 thousand tonnes of aluminum.

aluminum was once considered a precious metal that was even more valuable than gold. This is no longer true because, as technology improved, it became cheaper and easier to make pure metal.
In space
It is the 12th most abundant of all elements. It is the 3rd most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers. The only stable isotope of aluminum is aluminum-27. It is the 18th most abundant nucleus in the Universe. It is created after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovae: this fusion creates magnesium-26, which, when capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminum. Essentially all aluminum now in existence is aluminum-27; aluminum-26 was there in the early Solar System but is now extinct. The trace quantities of aluminum-26 that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas.
On Earth
Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminum by mass. In the Earth's crust, aluminum is the most abundant metallic element by mass (8.23%). It is also the third most abundant of all elements in the Earth's crust. A lot of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminum. But, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminum by mass. aluminum also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg.

Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. aluminum also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise. Native aluminum has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea.

Compounds 
aluminum forms chemical compounds in the +3 oxidation state. They are generally unreactive. aluminum chloride and aluminum oxide examples. Very rarely are compounds in the +1 or +2 oxidation state.
Uses 
Many things are made of aluminum. Much of it is used in overhead power lines. It is also widely used in window frames and aircraft bodies. It is found at home as kitchenware, soft drink cans, and cooking foil. aluminum is also used to coat car headlamps and compact discs. It is used in electrical transmission lines because of its light weight. It can be deposited on the surface of glass to make mirrors, where a thin layer of aluminum oxide quickly forms that acts as a protective coating. Aluminum oxide is also used to make synthetic rubies and sapphires for lasers. Aluminum can now be produced from clay, but the process is not economically feasible at today.

Pure aluminum is very soft, so a harder metal is almost always added. The harder metal is usually copper. Copper/aluminum alloys are to make ships, because the aluminum prevents corrosion, and the copper prevents barnacles.
aluminum compounds are used in deodorants, water processing plants, food additives, and antacids.  Lithium aluminum hydride is a strong reducing agent used in organic chemistry.

aluminum sulfate is used in water treatment. It is also used as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in leather tanning, and in production of other aluminum compounds.

Anhydrous aluminum chloride is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries, the dyeing industry, and in synthesis of many inorganic and organic compounds.

aluminum hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water, in the paper industry, and as ￼￼antiperspirants￼. Sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an accelerator for drying of cement. 

aluminum acetate in solution is used as an astringent.
aluminum phosphate is used to make glass, ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints, varnishes. aluminum hydroxide is used as an antacid, and mordant. It is used also in water purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the waterproofing of fabrics.

aluminum is used in automobiles, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft. aluminum is used in making doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing and other building materials.

Recycling 
Since aluminum needs to be made by electrolysis, it requires a very large amount of electrical power. Recycling aluminum would be much cheaper. That's why recycling plants were opened. The cost of recycling aluminum is much less than the cost of making it from bauxite.

Recycling involves melting the scrap. This is a process that only needs 5% of the energy used to produce aluminum from ore. But, 15% of the input material part is lost as dross (ash-like oxide). An aluminum stack melter makes a lot less dross, about 1%.
White dross from primary aluminum production and from secondary recycling processes still contains useful amounts of aluminum that can be extracted industrially. The process produces aluminum billets, together with a very complex waste. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which ignites on contact with air. Even with these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.

Toxicity
aluminum is not used in the human body, although it is very common. People debate whether its use in deodorants and water treatment is healthy. aluminum ions slow down plant growth in acidic soils. aluminum may be a factor in Alzheimer's disease (a disease when the brain stops working and the patient is confused). But the Alzheimer's Society says overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminum and Alzheimer's disease.
In most people, aluminum is not as toxic as heavy metals. aluminum is classified as a non-carcinogen by United States Department of Health and Human Services. There is little proof that normal exposure to aluminum is a risk to healthy adult. There is proof of no toxicity if it is taken in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body mass. Most aluminum taken will leave the body in feces. Most of the small part that enters the blood, will be excreted via urine.

aluminum rarely causes vitamin D-resistant osteomalacia, erythropoietin-resistant microcytic anemia, and central nervous system changes. People with kidney insufficiency are at a risk the most. Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminum silicates may result in aluminum binding to the things in the intestines. It also increases the removal of other metals, like iron or zinc. Really high doses (>50 g/day) can cause anemia.
A small percentage of people have contact allergies to aluminum and experience itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms when touching products containing aluminum.

Exposure to powdered aluminum or aluminum welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis. Fine aluminum powder can also explode.

Ways of exposure
Food is the main source of aluminum. Drinking water has more aluminum than solid foods. aluminum in food may be absorbed more than aluminum from water. Major sources of human exposure by mouth to aluminum include food (because of its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (because of its use in water treatment), and medicines that have aluminum in it. Very high exposure of aluminum are mostly limited to miners, aluminum production workers, and dialysis patients.
Taking of antacids, antiperspirants, vaccines, and cosmetics give possible ways of exposure. Eating acidic foods or liquids with aluminum increases aluminum absorption. Maltol has been shown to increase the build up of aluminum in nerve and bone tissues.

Treatment
In case of suspected sudden consumption of a large amount of aluminum, the only treatment is deferoxamine mesylate.  It may be given to help remove aluminum from the body by chelation.  This should be applied with caution as it not only remove aluminum in the body, but also other metals such as copper or iron.

Environmental effects
High levels of aluminum occur near mining sites. Small amounts of aluminum are released to the environment at the coal-fired power plants or incinerators. aluminum in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down. But, small particles of aluminum remain in the air for a long time.
Acid rain is the main natural factor to move aluminum from natural sources. It is also the main reason for the effects of aluminum on the environment. The main factor for the presence of aluminum in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminum into air.

In water, aluminum acts as a toxiс agent on animals that with gills like fish by causing loss of plasma- and hemolymph ions leading to osmoregulatory failure.

aluminum is one of the primary factors that reduce the growth of plants on acidic soils. In acid soils the concentration of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs the growth and function of the root. It is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils. Wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminum. It releases organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminum cations. Sorghum is thought to have the same method of tolerating aluminum.
aluminum production has its own problems to the environment on each step of the production process. The major problem is the greenhouse gas. These gases are caused by the electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing. The strongest of these gases are perfluorocarbons from the smelting process.

A Spanish scientific report from 2001 claimed that the fungus Geotrichum candidum eats the aluminum in compact discs. The better studied bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly found in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene-based fuels, and laboratory cultures can decompose aluminum. However, these types of bacteria do not eat the aluminum; but rather, the metal is corroded by microbe waste products.

Gallery

Related pages 
 List of common elements
 Periodic table

References

Other websites 
 Alu-Scout
Drawing 
Drawing is a way of making a picture. Drawings are created by making lines on a surface. Long lines make up the shapes and small lines make the textures. Drawings can be images of real-life or abstract images.

Materials 
Drawing paper is a special material sometimes used for drawing, however many just use paper. Pencils or pens are most commonly used for drawing. However, chalk, charcoal, and many others writing utensils are used.

Shading 
Shading is the darkening or coloring of a drawing with lines or blocks of color. It can be used to make your drawings more three dimensional. Shading is the process of adding value to create an illusion of form, most importantly the light in a drawing. It should have a highlight (where the light is shining), mid tone (goes darker in color), Core shadow which is the darkest color on your drawing, then there is the reflected light. Reflecting light is where light shines on the object you are trying to draw

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Hatching 
Hatching is a artistic technique used to create tonal or shading effects by drawing closely spaced parallel lines. There are different types of hatching. There is Parallel hatching, contour, crosshatching, tick hatching, and more. There are many different ways you can do this.

History 

Drawing has been done for thousands of years, dating back to cave paintings. It focuses on objects made by humans for any number of spiritual, narrative, philosophical, symbolic, conceptual, documentary, decorative, and even functional and other purposes.

Related pages 
 Technical drawing

Art
Texas (, ), officially the State of Texas, is a state in the South Central Region of the United States. It is the second largest US state by total area (after Alaska) with 268,596 sq mi (695,662 km2) and population (after California) with nearly 29 million people as of 2019. Its largest cities are Houston, Dallas, Fort Worth, San Antonio, El Paso, and Austin, the capital city.

Texas became the 28th state in the United States in 1845. Texas has been controlled by Spain, France, the Confederate States of America, and Mexico. It declared its independence from Mexico in 1836. It was its own country, the Republic of Texas, for 9 years (1836–1845). It is called the "Lone Star State" and its flag has one star.
There are many tourist attractions in Texas. Fort Worth is known for its stockyards. Amarillo is known for the cattle business and stockyards. In Dallas, industrial technology companies including Texas Instruments and EDS have their home offices. San Antonio has The Alamo. Houston has the Johnson Space Center. Austin has the University of Texas at Austin. Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Baylor University in Waco and the University of North Texas in Denton are other important universities in the state.

Name
The state's name derives from táyshay, a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai (a Native American tribe), which means "allies" or "friends."
History
Texas was first explored in 1528 by Spanish explorers on accident (they were shipwrecked on the coast).  It did not become a colony until 1685, when France claimed it. In response, Spain started a rival colony in 1691 by setting up a religious outpost in the eastern part of Texas.  Spain did not come back to Texas until 1716 to protect its colonies in the west from French forces.  Two years later, San Antonio was founded.

The pressure between the Spaniards and Native Americans in East Texas stopped many settlers from coming to Texas. To stop the violence and the increasing Native American raids, Spain called a truce between many tribes in 1745 and 1789.

Tensions rose in Texas after the United States bought a large amount of nearby land from France in 1803. This was the Louisiana Purchase. People began wondering whether Spain or the United States could claim Texas.
After Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the United States, Texas joined the newly formed Confederate States of America in 1861 and fought in the American Civil War in an attempt to become independent from the United States. The Confederates lost to the Union (the United States) in 1865. Texas was restored to full representation in Congress on March 30, 1870.

On January 10, 1901, oil was found in Texas, leading to the founding of a richer economy. During a time when the economy was poor, many people left Texas. Texas did not regain the population it had lost until the 1950s and 60s. In recent years, Texas has become a hub for technology and computers.
Geography
Texas is the second biggest state in the Union (after Alaska) and is bigger than every European country except Russia. It has mountains, forests, deserts, plains, and coasts. The largest river in Texas is the Rio Grande, which forms the border between Mexico and the United States throughout south Texas. The highest mountain in Texas is Guadalupe Peak.

Most of Texas is in Central Time, but El Paso in Western Texas is in Mountain Time.
Economy 
Texas has the second largest economy in the United States after the economy of California. It had a gross state product of US$1.887 trillion in 2019. Texas was home to six of the top 50 companies on the Fortune 500 list in 2015 (third most after New York and California). In 2017, Texas grossed more than US$264.5 billion a year in exports—more than the exports of California (US$172 billion) and New York (US$77.9 billion) combined. As a sovereign country, in 2016, Texas would be the 10th largest economy in the world by gross domestic product (GDP), ahead of South Korea and Canada and behind Brazil.

Related pages
 Colleges and universities in Texas
 List of cities in Texas
 List of counties in Texas

References

 
1845 establishments in the United States