Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Scott Charles Bigelow (September 1, 1961 - January 19, 2007) was an American professional wrestler. He was more commonly known as Bam Bam Bigelow. He was famous for his time in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) (now World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) ) and World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Death
On the morning of January 19, 2007, Bigelow was found dead in his home at about 10:00 A.M. in Hudson, Florida. He was 45 years old. At the time of his death, Bigelow had been suffering from an infection and diabetes. He was 45 years old. The autopsy results showed that Bigelow's death was due to multiple drugs found in his system including toxic levels of cocaine and an anti-anxiety drug. Bigelow was also suffering from a heart problem.

References

Other websites 

1961 births
2007 deaths
American professional wrestlers
Sportspeople from New Jersey
Drug-related deaths
Former WWE wrestlers
The Anglo-Norman language is the name given to the special sort of the Norman language spoken by the Anglo-Normans, the descendants of the Normans who ruled the Kingdom of England following the conquest by William of Normandy in 1066. This langue d'oïl became the official language of England and later developed into the unique insular dialect now known as the Anglo-Norman language. It was much like Old French.

Anglo-Norman was the spoken language of the Norman nobility and was also used in the courts.

Other websites 
 The Anglo-Norman hub - a project to produce an Anglo-Norman dictionary. Contains articles and corpus texts.

Romance languages
Langues d'oïl (which literally means in English: "languages of yes") is the linguistic and historical name for the Gallo-Romance languages which developed from Latin in the northern territories of Roman Gaul that now are occupied by northern France, part of Belgium and the Channel Islands.

 Romance languages
 Gallo-Romance languages
 Langue d'oïl or Oïl languages
 Langue d'oc or Occitan language

Langue d'oïl (in the singular),  Oïl dialects and Oïl languages (in the plural) refer to all the ancient northern Gallo-Romance languages as well as their modern-day descendants.  The most widely spoken modern Oïl language is French, but others include Norman, Walloon, Picard, Gallo, Poitevin-Saintongeais, and Champenois.
They share many common linguistic features.  One of them is that Oïl (pronounced [wil], or [wi] as in modern French oui), was the ancestor of the word for yes that is used in all of the Oïl languages.  Oc is the word used in territories to the south and so the Occitan language is also called langue d'oc (literal English translation: "language of yes").
Romance languages
For the article about a mathematical concept, see Ring (mathematics)

A ring is a piece of jewelry that is usually worn on the finger.

It is usually made of metal such as gold, silver, platinum, but can be made of other things, for example, bone or glass. Many rings have gemstones on them, for beauty and decoration on your finger. It is a fashion accessory and sometimes a sign of importance (status). The Lord Chancellors of England were given a ring when taking office, and returned it when leaving the position. The ring identified them as the second most important person in the kingdom.
In most religions, senior clergy have rings of their office. It is standard practice for members of a church to kneel and kiss the ring as a sign of faith and obedience.
Engagement and wedding rings 
Rings have been used for engagements and weddings since prehistoric times.The engagement ring is meant to be a sign of luck and happiness. Both men and women used to wear an engagement ring to show that they were going to be married, but more recently only women have worn them. A diamond ring is seen as being especially lucky, as the sparkle of the diamond is said to come from the fires of love. A pearl in a ring is unlucky, as the pearl is a sign of tears. Because the ring is round and does not have an end, it is seen as a symbol of love which never ends. These are, of course, superstitions. However, a wedding ring is a public symbol of a legal relationship, and in many societies rings have that kind of function.

References

Gallery

Basic English 850 words
Jewelry
Descendant or descendent might mean: 

The children of a previous generation
A later evolutionary type in the same line.
Descendant (astrology), the point directly opposite from the ascendant, or Rising Sign
The Gallo-Romance are a branch of Romance languages. It includes French and several other languages spoken in modern France and northern Italy and Spain. According to some linguists, it also includes Occitan and Catalan. Others group biyhy together as a separate Occitano-Romance branch or place Catalan within the Ibero-Romance group.  The Gallo-Romance languages, along with the Ibero-Romance and Rhaeto-Romance groups, form Western Romance.

Examples of Gallo-Romance languages 
Lombard
Piedmontese
Emilian-Romagnol  
Venetian
Ligurian  
Franco-Provençal
Capital accumulation means the gathering of objects of value; the increase in wealth; or the creation of wealth. In this context capital can be understood as assets used for profit.

In economics capital accumulation is often seen as the same as investment.

But capital accumulation can refer as well to 

real investment in tangible means of production.
financial investment in paper assets.
investment in non-productive physical assets such as residential real estate that appreciate in value.
"human capital accumulation," i.e., new education and training increasing the skills of the (potential) labour force.

Non-financial capital accumulation is an essential factor for economic growth, since additional investment is essential to enlarge the scale of production and increase employment opportunities.

Rosa Luxemburg insisted that capital accumulation is the cause of the imperialism on her essay ""The Accumulation of Capital".

Related pages
 Constitution
 Constitutional economics
 Imperialism
Other websites 
 Growth, Accumulation, Crisis: With New Macroeconomic Data for Sweden 1800-2000 by Rodney Edvinsson
 The Crises caused by Capital Accumulation  - Oxford University publication
 The Accumulation of Capital

Economics
In finance, Investment or investing means that an asset is bought, or that money is put into a bank to get a future interest from it. Investment is total amount of money spent by a shareholder in buying shares of a company. In economic management sciences, investments means longer-term savings.

It is a term used in business management, finance and economics, related to saving or deferring consumption. Literally, the word means the "action of putting something in to somewhere else" (perhaps originally related to a person's garment or 'vestment').
Types of investment
There are two major uses of the term investment between the economics field and the finance field. Economists refer to a real investment (such as a machine or a house), while financial economists refer to a financial asset, such as money that is put into a bank or the market which may then be used to buy a real asset. Advisors, who tell people how to manage their investments, might say that even when an investment is losing money because of bad times, not to give up and withdraw it.  Instead, wait for the situation to improve. This is a risk for each person to decide.

Business management 
The investment decision (also known as capital budgeting) is one of the fundamental decisions of business management.

Related pages
Gold coin
Fixed assets investment
Social Investment
Speculation

Other websites 

Financial Times
Wall Street Journal
NASDAQ
Good books on investing and value investing 

Business
Finance
The Battle of Bannockburn, fought on 23 and 24 June 1314, was an important Scottish victory in the Wars of Scottish Independence. A smaller Scottish army defeated a much larger and better armed English army.

Background
When King Alexander III of Scotland died in 1286, his heir was his granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway. King Edward I of England arranged to have his son, Edward II of England, become her husband and share the crown of Scotland in 1289. But Margaret died on her way from Norway to Scotland in 1290. This began a period in Scotland called the First Interregnum (1290–1292). Scotland was without a monarch. Edward I was invited to choose who would be king from among the candidates who had any claim to be king. He chose John of Scotland. But Edward now claimed power over the Scottish king. Balliol could do nothing without Edward's approval. In July 1295 the Scottish Parliament met and took most of the power away from John Balliol and gave it to a group of men they elected called the "Council of Twelve." This group made an agreement with King Philip IV of France called the Auld Alliance. King Edward gathered his army at Newcastle and prepared to invade Scotland
. He brought his army to Berwick and captured the town and castle. John Balliol sent King Edward letters refusing to recognize Edward's right to rule Scotland. After Edward had captured all the castles in Scotland, John Balliol surrendered to him. John Balliol was sent to prison in London, then later Edward allowed him to live in France. In 1296 Edward made every man in Scotland who owned land promise to be loyal to him. Scotland remained without a king of their own until 1306 when Robert the Bruce declared himself king of Scotland defying Edward I. Just before doing this Robert the Bruce had been involved in a dispute with John Comyn. The two met before the altar in Greyfriars Church in Dumfries in 1306 and in a fight John Comyn was killed. Robert the Bruce was crowned king three weeks later at Scone. Accused of murdering Comyn, Bruce was excommunicated by the Pope. Edward sent his men after Bruce but was unable to capture Him. A series of border skirmishes and wars went on
. In 1310 Edward again invaded Scotland but with little effect. Between 1310 and 1314 a large number of castles were captured from the occupying English soldiers by Bruce and his followers.
In the Spring of 1313 Edward Bruce, brother of the Scottish King began a siege of Stirling Castle, which was held by Sir Philip Mowbray for the English king. By the middle of summer the Scots were still not able to defeat the castle. Edward Bruce made an agreement with the castle commander, Mowbray. It said that if the castle was not relieved by the English by 24 June the following year it would be surrendered to Bruce. Edward Bruce went to his brother to tell him the good news. But the Robert Bruce saw this as a mistake. It gave King Edward II of England a year to get ready an army to march into Scotland. Up to this point the king of Scotland had avoided pitched battles with the English army. All King Robert could do is prepare for what was sure to come. In October 1313 King Robert made everyone in Scotland take an oath of loyalty to him or lose their lands. The English king was now in danger of losing everything in Scotland
. On 28 November 1313 Edward II announced he would assemble an army to be in Scotland before 24 June 1314.
Edward II comes to Scotland

Edward's first aim was to bring needed food, weapons, and fresh soldiers to Sterling Castle before they had to surrender. He began gathering the largest army a king of England had ever led. He had 2,500 heavy cavalry each followed by one or more mounted squires. Edward brought 3,000 of his best Welsh longbowmen. Finally he had 15,000 foot soldiers each with a sword, shield and spear. His army numbered over 20,000 and began marching from Berwick on 17 June 1314 and formed ten divisions. He had reached Edinburgh on 21 June where the army was re-supplied by Edward's ships. By 22 June the army made an exhausting march to Falkirk, only 10 miles from Sterling Castle. Edward's army moved on the old Roman road, which ran through an ancient forest known as the Tor Wood, over the Bannock burn and into the New Park, a hunting preserve enclosed at the time of Alexander III.

Scottish preparations
First day of battle
  
The English army reached Tor Wood on June 23rd and stopped. They were met by Sir Philip Mowbray, the English commander of Stirling Castle. He told the king there was no need for battle. Edward had fulfilled his obligation to relieve the castle by coming within three leagues. Also he had seen Bruce's preparations and warned of trying to attack the Scots with heavy cavalry. Like Edward II and his commanders, Mowbray thought the Scots would retreat when they saw the size of Edward's great army. The vanguard of Edward's forces under Gloucester had already crossed the ford over the Bannockburn towards the Scottish lines. An English knight Henry de Bohun was riding ahead of his companions when he caught sight of
the Scottish king inspecting some of his lines. De Bohun lowered his lance and charged. Robert the Bruce was mounted on a small palfrey and armed  with a battle-axe He could have simply moved behind his men and let them repel the charging warhorse and rider. Instead he turned his horse and rode towards de Bohun. At the last moment Bruce swerved his horse to one side, missing de Bohun's lance. He then rose in his stirrups and brought down his axe with such force he cut through de Bohun's helmet killing him instantly. There was a stunned silence by both armies then a great cheer rose among the Scottish soldiers. Then the highlanders of Bruce's own division charged the English cavalry who were still lining up. The horses of the Earl of Gloucester and several others stumbled as they fell into the hidden pits. The earl was rescued but the English cavalry fled from the charging Scots. King Robert stopped their charge and they returned to their lines
. This showed how well-disciplined the Scottish soldiers had become.
When King Robert returned his brother and his commanders criticized the king (as much as they dared) for risking his life that way. Robert the Bruce did not answer them. He only stared at his now broken battle-axe. Looking around the king saw English cavalry moving around their left. He pointed out the cavalry and said to Thomas Randolph "a rose has fallen from your chaplet". Immediately Randolph rode to his men and moved the schildton onto the open ground in the path of the English knights. When their leader Sir Henry Beaumont saw the Scots approaching he said "let us wait a little; let them come on; give them room." Sir Thomas Gray replied "I doubt that whatever you give them now, they will have all too soon." Sir Henry said to Thomas Gray, "if you are afraid then be off!" Sir Thomas replied "it is not from fear that I shall fly this day" and along with several other knights charged the Scottish schiltron. Many were killed, being impaled on the spears. Sir Thomas himself was captured
.  The remainder of the English knights surrounded the schiltron and attacked the Scots from every angle. But the schiltron held and the English in frustration began throwing their weapons at the Scots. When Sir James Douglas, commanding the left schiltron saw his friend in trouble and begged Bruce to go to his rescue. But by the time he returned to his man Randolph was winning the day. Moving forward Randolph's schiltron split the English cavalry in two.  Half of the remaining English fled back to the English lines while half fled to Sterling Castle. After losing just one Yeoman, the Scots took off their helmets to rest from the heat of the day.
Sir Alexander de Seton had secretly left the King of England's Army and came to Robert the Bruce that night. He wished to no longer serve the king of England and offered to join the Bruce. He pledged on his life that the English were discouraged and if Bruce attacked them tomorrow, he would win the battle.

The English moved from the bogs south and east of the burn to harder ground. They had to water all the warhorses, draft horses and oxen. By the time the move was finished it was nearly dawn. But the tidal rivers around them had risen and they could not cross them as they did earlier. The English were now cramped into a small space where they could not move freely.
Second day of battle
 
        
Robert the Bruce saw where the English spent the night. Their narrow front gave the Scottish army an advantage if the English did not move before morning. Morning found the English had not moved. Not long after daybreak on 24 June, three Scots divisions came out of the woods and began moving towards the English. The English mounted their horses in great confusion. When the Scots schiltrons began attacking the English lines the knights and soldiers could not maneuver. They were so crowded men were being pushed into the Bannock burn behind them.
The other two Scottish divisions moved up to join Edward Bruce. Randolph moved up on Bruce's left side. James Douglas came up next to Randolph. Together all three schiltrons filled the narrow battlefield. They pushed forward into the confused English. Wounded horses without their knights were running back into the English lines. Edward's army was now so crowded they could hardly move. The Scots were pushing into them from the front. The back ranks were being pushed into the water and marshes.
Up to this point in the battle the English and Welsh longbowmen (archers) had not been used to their full advantage. They were moved to the right side of the English lines. From here they could fire arrows into the Scottish army with great effect. But Robert the Bruce had provided for this event. His 500 light horsemen led by Keith, the Marischal, quickly scattered the English and Welsh archers. many of the English and Welsh archers ran back to the English lines. This caused more confusion and the infantry also begin to run away. The Scottish king now sent in his reserve division behind Douglas. When the English saw another large force of Scots joining the battle they began falling back. Everywhere King Edward looked his forces were losing the battle.

Edward II's escape
The Earl of Pembroke and sir Giles d'Argentan were guarding the English King. As the battle was now lost they needed to get the king to safety. They led him off the battlefield and towards Sterling Castle. At the same time several Scots recognized the king and tried to capture him. The king fought them off with his mace. He broke free and rode to Sterling Castle a short distance away. At the castle Sir Philip Mowbray did not allow King Edward to enter. He told the king he now had to surrender the castle and the king would be taken prisoner. But Mowbray gave Edward II a knight to guide the king and his party to safety. Edward, with 500 of his cavalry turned towards Linlithgow. Sir James Douglas got permission from Robert the Bruce to pursue the English king. With a group of Keith's horsemen Douglas kept close behind Edward as he fled south. As he pursued the English king, Douglas and his men encountered Sir Lawrence de Abernethy who with 80 men was on his way to join Edward at Bannockburn
. On finding out the king had lost the battle he and his men joined Douglas in trying to capture Edward. The English tried to bait them into a fight at Winchburg but Douglas stayed on their flank (side).Even with Abernethy's men the Scots were not strong enough to take on Edward's knights. The chase continued all the way to Dunbar Castle. Loyalties on the border were very uncertain at this time. The local earl had sided with Edward. So the king was allowed to escape in a boat back to England with only a few of his closest followers. The rest of his 500 horsemen were left to find their way back to England as best they could.
Historical significance
  
The wars with England were still not over. It would be another 14 years until Scotland was free of English rule.  But to the Scots the Battle of Bannockburn was a major victory. Before the battle Robert the Bruce was considered by many a usurper (pretender). He only had limited support in Scotland. After Bannockburn Robert the Bruce became a national hero. He had the support of most of Scotland. However his political rivals in Scotland suffered. Perhaps no one more than the Comyn family and supporters. Both John Comyn of Badenoch and Edward Comyn of Kilbride were killed at Bannockburn. With them died any hope of an English victory returning this family to power.
The English dead at Bannockburn were buried with honors according to their rank. There were over 500 returned to England in exchange for ransom. And Scottish prisoners in England were returned in exchange. Robert the Bruce's wife, daughter and sister were returned. The border wars continued but from 1314 to 1328 the focus shifted to the north of England. The purpose of all the raids was to get Edward II to recognize Robert the Bruce as king of Scotland. Also for England to give up their claims to Scotland and recognize their independence. The English learned their lesson from Bannockburn. The Scots apparently didn't. In the later Battle of Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill the same tactics that brought victory at Bannockburn brought them defeat. William Mackenzie wrote: "Never did the arms of England suffer so complete a disaster; never did the arms of Scotland repeat so remarkable a performance."

Notes

References
Notes

References

Other websites
Battle of Bannockburn animated battle map  by Jonathan Webb
 The National Trust for Scotland Battle of Bannockburn
 A new start for Bannockburn Heritage Center 

1314
Bannockburn
History of the British Isles
14th century in Scotland
June events
The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) were a series of civil wars fought over the throne of England between supporters of the House of Lancaster, the Lancastrians, and supporters of the House of York, the Yorkists. Both houses were branches of the Plantagenet royal house and were related through King Edward III.

The wars began for several reasons, and historians have debated the one that was most important. King Henry VI was seen as a poor ruler by many of his people because of his lack of interest in politics and his mental illness (his French queen, Margaret of Anjou, often made key decisions instead). Also, England's defeat in the Hundred Years' War in France, economic problems after the war and problems with the feudal system of government were other causes.
The name of the Wars of the Roses, which was first used only in the 19th century, comes from the white rose symbol for the House of York and the red rose symbol for the House of Lancaster. However, the red rose symbol was not used until after the wars had ended, and most soldiers fought under the symbol of their local nobleman. At the time, they were called the "Civil Wars". The houses were named after the cities of Lancaster and York, but neither city played a big role during the war, and both houses owned land all over England and Wales.



Background
King Edward III had many sons, as is shown in the family tree below. His oldest son, known by his nickname "The Black Prince" died first, and the throne passed to the Black Prince's son, Richard, who became King Richard II of England in 1377 although he was only ten. He grew up to be a weak and unpopular king, and one of his actions was to send his cousin Henry into exile.
Henry later returned while Richard was away in Ireland and took over the country. When Richard returned, Henry tricked him into giving himself up. Richard was put into prison, where he died, and Henry became King Henry IV of England.

Henry IV reigned until his death and was followed by his son, King Henry V (in 1413). Henry V died in 1422 and was followed by his son King Henry VI, who was only a baby. Henry VI did not run the government until 1437. He then ruled until 1461, six years after the Wars of the Roses began.

Henry VI was considered a poor ruler by some of his people for several reasons. He was shy and did not like politics and war. He was easily led by a small number of friends, such as his French queen Margaret of Anjou and his advisor Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset.
Henry VI's reign also saw England's defeat in the Hundred Year's War. England had done well in the war while he was still a child, and by 1428, the English appeared to be close to defeating their House of Valois enemies. However, they soon had problems, including Joan of Arc's rebellions in 1429-1430 and Burgundy's decision to switch sides in 1435. Because of these problems, England's control in France was already weakened when Henry VI started to run the government in 1437. Henry VI tried to end the war with a peace agreement, but his French enemies realised that they could win a complete victory. In 1453, England had lost all their lands in France apart from Calais.

Also in 1453, Henry VI was for the first time overcome with mental illness and could not run the country. A powerful nobleman called Richard, Duke of York persuaded the other nobles to make him "Lord Protector". That meant that he would run the country until the king recovered.
While York ran the country, he locked his enemy Somerset in the Tower of London. Henry recovered in 1454 and began to run the country again. He let Somerset out and gave him back his position. York and his supporters then became afraid that the king and Somerset would have them executed.

War

Early fighting (1455)
York decided that he could protect himself only by defeating the king in battle. He raised an army of many people who were unhappy with Henry and Margaret, which led to the First Battle of St Albans in 1455. That was the first to be fought between the Yorkists, who supported York, and the Lancastrians (who supported Henry). York won with the help of the Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. Henry was found hiding in a leather shop, taken prisoner and was again overcome with mental illness. Somerset and some of the king's other key supporters were killed in the battle. York was again made Lord Protector.
The next year, Henry recovered. York let him go back to running the country and was put in charge of running Ireland. Henry and Margaret knew that they could not get rid of York easily. For the next few years, both sides wanted to stop a war from breaking out but could not agree on several things. York wanted to be the next king after Henry died, rather than Henry and Margaret's newborn son, Edward. Margaret would not allow that and so Henry moved to Coventry, where he had more support.

Main fighting (1459-61)

A more serious war broke out in 1459 and started because Warwick had attacked other country's ships during his time in charge of Calais. Henry asked Warwick to meet to explain what he doing, but Warwick refused. Soon enough, York and Warwick started putting together an army. They were stopped at the Battle of Ludford Bridge and fled England. Henry and the Lancastrians now had control. They ordered that York and Warwick were to be executed if they were found.
The peace did not last long. York and Warwick returned and raised an army and won the Battle of Northampton. For the second time, Henry was captured after he was overcome with mental illness. York was made Lord Protector for the third time.

York then announced that he wanted to take the throne for himself. Many of his supporters thought that was a step too far and so they agreed that Henry would still be king, but York, not Henry's son, would be the next king.
York then travelled to the north of England to attack the remaining Lancastrians. That led to a disaster, and York lost the Battle of Wakefield at the end of 1460 and was killed. His son Edward the became leader of the Yorkists. The next year saw mixed results for both sides. Edward defeated a Lancastrian army at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross, but the Lancastrians won the Second Battle of St Albans where Henry escaped. In London, Edward was met with a lot of support, announced that he wanted to take the throne and defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton. That was the bloodiest battle that was ever fought on British soil.

After Towton, Edward was in control of England and was crowned as Edward IV in June 1461. Over the next few years, he and his allies put down small Lancastrian rebellions. Henry was again captured in 1465.

Warwick changes sides (1469-71)
Fighting broke out again in 1469 when Edward's most powerful supporter, the Earl of Warwick, switched sides. Warwick was furious that Edward had married Elizabeth Woodville, a common woman. Many people also thought that was wrong since kings were then expected to marry the daughters of noblemen or other kings. Warwick led a rebellion against the king. The country was left in confusion. At one point Warwick captured Edward and so he had captured two kings.

Warwick soon let Edward go and then supported making Henry king again. Warwick believed that he could run the country while Henry was on the throne. He also arranged for Henry's son to marry Warwick's daughter Anne Neville. Edward could not raise an army to fight and so he fled the country in 1470. Henry VI then became the ruler again. Warwick's role in bringing Edward and then Henry to power led to him being nicknamed "Kingmaker".
Henry's return did not last long. Warwick planned to help France invade Burgundy, which helped Edward find soldiers. Edward returned in 1471 and won two great victories over the Lancastrians. The first was the Battle of Barnet in which Warwick was killed. The second was the Battle of Tewksbury in which Margaret was taken prisoner and her son was killed.

Edward IV took the throne again and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London. He died one month later, and historians think Edward had him murdered since that left the Lancastrians without a leader.

There was little fighting for the next 12 years. Margaret was released in 1475, went back to France and died in 1482.

Richard III (1483-85)

Edward IV ruled until his sudden death in 1483. Just before dying, Edward had said that his 12-year-old son should become king as Edward V, and Edward's brother Richard would be "Lord Protector". Richard would run the country until Edward V became an adult.
Edward V was the king for 78 days before Richard took the throne for himself. He was crowned as Richard III. The young Edward and his brother disappeared a few months later while they were living in the Tower of London. Many people thought Richard had ordered the boys to be killed, and some historians agree. That caused many Yorkists to turn against Richard III.

Richard managed to win against a rebellion by his old friend, the Duke of Buckingham. Henry Tudor, a distant relative of Henry VI who returned to England, became the leader of the rebellions and created a new Lancastrian army. Elizabeth, Edward IV's widow, supported Henry after he promised to marry her daughter Elizabeth of York. In the Battle of Bosworth Field, Richard III was killed, and his army was defeated. Henry took the throne as King Henry VII, the first king of the House of Tudor.
Afterwards 
The Battle of Bosworth Field is often seen as the end of the war. However, there was another great battle two years later, but Henry VII stopped a rebellion and brought peace to the country.

Henry married Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth of York and told people that he was bringing the two houses together. He also started the Tudor rose symbol, with a red rose and white rose joined.

References

Other websites 

 The Wars of the Roses Chronology World History Database 
 The Wars of the Roses  Has a large article on 'Soldiers and Warfare during the Wars of the Roses' with interesting information on the fighting and tactics of the day, plus battles and people
 warsoftheroses.com includes a map, timeline, info on major players and summaries of each battle
 A complicated but comprehensive diagram of the Wars of the Roses  is at threetwoone.org
 An extensive chronological account is at Wars Of The Roses . The historical interpretation which accompanies it is the personal view of the author
Civil wars involving Europe
Wars involving England
15th century in England
15th-century conflicts
A matchbook is a small cardboard container that holds a quantity of matches inside and has a coarse striking surface on the exterior. 

A flap on the front is lifted to access the matches, which are attached to the interior base in a comb-like pattern and must be torn away before use. (In the matchbox, by contrast, the matches are arranged loosely in the interior tray.)

Matchbooks are often covered with advertising logos or various artistic decorations, and they have served as collector's items and free souvenirs. 

Tools
The Diary of Friedrich Kellner is a journal written during the Second World War. The author, August Friedrich Kellner, was a justice inspector in the courthouse in Mainz. He was also a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany between 1918 and 1933. After Hitler banned the party, the family moved to Laubach. 

When Hitler ordered the invasion of Poland in September 1939, Kellner began his secret diary. He named his diary "Mein Widerstand," which means "My Opposition."  In the diary, he wrote down what he saw and heard about what happened in Nazi Germany. He wrote it so that people later would know about it. 

The diary has ten volumes, with a total of 861 pages.  There are 676 dated entries.  Included in the diary are more than 500 newspaper clippings.

The English translation of the diary was published in 2018 by Cambridge University Press under the title, My Opposition: The Diary of Friedrich Kellner -- A German against the Third Reich.
Historical significance
At the end of World War Two,  most Germans said they knew nothing about the mass murders of the Jews.  But as early as October 28, 1941, Kellner wrote the following entry in his diary:
A soldier on vacation here said he witnessed a terrible atrocity in the occupied parts of Poland.  He watched as naked Jewish men and women were placed in front of a long deep ditch and upon the order of the SS were shot by Ukrainians in the back of their heads and they fell into the ditch.  Then the ditch was filled with dirt even as he could still hear screams coming from people still alive in the ditch.  These inhuman atrocities were so terrible that some of the Ukrainians, who were used as tools, suffered nervous breakdowns.  All the soldiers who had knowledge of these bestial actions of these Nazi sub-humans were of the opinion that the German people should be shaking in their shoes because of the coming retribution.  There is no punishment that would be hard enough to be applied to these Nazi beasts.  Of course, when the retribution comes, the innocent will have to suffer along with them
.  But because ninety percent of the German population is guilty, directly or indirectly, for the present situation, we can only say that those who travel together will hang together.
There is not much in the diary about the Kellners’ personal lives.  Instead, Friedrich Kellner wrote about the political atmosphere of a country run by terrorists.  He also wrote about the leaders and people in other nations who remained indifferent to what Hitler and Mussolini were planning.  Kellner was very angry that millions of people had to die because a few politicians in the democracies failed to confront Hitler and his allies.  Kellner was also angry at the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh, and the car manufacturer Henry Ford, and at others who blindly expressed admiration for Adolf Hitler.  “The whole world let themselves be fooled by this man,” Kellner wrote on May 3, 1942.  

Friedrich Kellner expected America and England to come to the rescue.  On June 25, 1941, he wrote:
When will this insanity be brought to an end?  When will the intoxication of victory turn into a terrible hangover?  Now is a unique chance for England and America to take the initiative, but not only with empty promises and insufficient measures.  If America had the will to throw its entire might into the fray, it could tip the balance for a return of peace.  Only a tremendous force and the commitment of all war material can bring the German wild steer to reason.  Up until now the statesmen–through unbelievable shortsightedness–have neglected or failed their duty.  Mankind awake!  Attack together with all your might against the destroyers of peace!  No reflections, no resolutions, no speeches, no neutrality.  Advance against the enemy of mankind!

Various entries from the diary

17 October 1940: England is able to defend itself. It has a good defense against air raids.  England should follow the old proverb: “Invasion is the best defense."  Where is the British fleet?
12 Nov 1940: Chamberlain and the entire English government is to blame for not acting when they discovered Germany's war preparations.  A world power must always be prepared to successfully and energetically repulse any attack.

5 Dec 1940: No Italian soldier stands on Greek soil any longer.  Greece turned the tables and chased them out of Greece and into Albania.  Where is the celebrated fascist pluck?  Nothing is solved with bragging and the big mouth alone.  The spirit decides.  The Greeks defended their fatherland.  And the Italians?  They wanted to invade and plunder a small country.  Finally a light shows itself in the European chaos.

24 Dec 1940: Just one more day and the second Christmas of the war is here.  There is nothing to be felt of "Peace on Earth."

5 July 1941: In Giessen, Forester Ritter was arrested because he said the war would last another three years.
The truth may not be spoken.
7 July 1941: Today my father would have celebrated his 80th birthday.  What would he have said, this friend of peace, to these awful murderers of mankind?  Good-hearted and reasonable people in Germany are just speakers in the desert.
The scorners of mankind, the daredevils and uncompromising aggressors, those are the heroes of today’s Germany.

29 July 1941: The wounded soldiers in the hospital in Giessen tell about Russian prisoners-of-war being murdered.  Are the German people a people of culture? No!  A cultured people must be able to think as individuals and behave themselves properly.  But the German people have allowed themselves to be dictated to by their "infallible" Führer: “The Führer is always right,” “the Führer never errs.”  The German people have been taken in by this devil.
14 April 1943:  Ten years in prison for a "radio crime.”  But that punishment was too little for the judge.  He sent back the verdict to the original court and demanded the death penalty.  Just think:  the death sentence for listening to a foreign broadcast on the radio.  This terror regime has given itself a gruesome monument forever.

Purpose of the diary
Friedrich Kellner wrote the diary to expose the crimes of the Third Reich. He believed his diary could serve as a warning for future generations to oppose dictatorships and their totalitarian ideology.

After the war, Friedrich Kellner helped to reestablish the Social Democratic Party.  He became chairman  of the Laubach branch.  He retired from politics in 1960, at the age of seventy-five.
 
In 1968, he gave his diary to his American grandson, Professor Robert Scott Kellner , to take to America for safekeeping.  He told him:
The day will come when the same kind of anti-democratic and anti-Semitic hatred will bring intense misery to the world.  Use the diary as a weapon against dictatorships and terrorism.  There will always be people of bad will, therefore people of good will must be prepared to oppose them.

Reception 

  In the spring of 2005, the diary was on exhibit at the George Bush Presidential Library and Museum in College Station, Texas.  It has also been exhibited in the Holocaust Museum in Houston, Texas.  And it was exhibited in the Heimat Museum in Laubach, Germany.
 
  The Justus Liebig University of Giessen has established the Kellner Project and will publish the diary.

 In 2007, a Canadian movie company made a documentary movie about both Friedrich Kellner and his grandson Robert Scott Kellner.  The movie is called, My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner.

Other websites
Other websites 

 Diary Entries in German and English
 George Bush Presidential Library - Kellner exhibit
 Justus Liebig University - Kellner Project
 Telefilm Canada - "My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner" 
 Holocaust Museum Houston - Kellner exhibit 
 Heimat Museum, Laubach, Germany - Kellner exhibit 

Diaries
World War II
1945 books
German literature
My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner is a 2007 documentary movie by Abella Entertainment Ltd. of Toronto, Canada.  It is produced and directed by Fern Levitt and Arnie Zipursky.  Leonard Asper is an executive producer.  The movie is distributed by CCI Entertainment.

Subject matter

The documentary tells the story of Chief Justice Inspector Friedrich Kellner  ( ) who wrote a secret diary during World War II.  The diary records the crimes of the Nazis. The movie uses interviews, historical footage, and re-enactments of events to tell how Friedrich Kellner risked his life to write the diary.  The story is also about Kellner’s American grandson, Robert Scott Kellner, who was abandoned as a child but later found his grandfather in Germany.  Part of the movie is about the grandson’s attempt to bring the Friedrich Kellner diary to the attention of the public.
The movie begins with Friedrich Kellner as a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany before the war.  He campaigns against Adolf Hitler and the Nazis.  The re-enactments show Kellner trying to stop the riots against the Jews during Kristallnacht.  Kellner is brought before a tribunal, and he is threatened with imprisonment in a concentration camp.  The movie shows Kellner’s active and passive resistance against the Third Reich.  One scene shows him distributing leaflets that had been dropped from American planes.  When World War II comes to an end, Kellner helps to restore the SPD.  He  becomes the chairman of the party in his region.  Interwoven in the story about Friedrich Kellner is the story of his grandson.

The documentary was filmed on location in Mainz and in  Laubach, Germany, and in Texas.
Background information
 The Kellner diary was on exhibit at the George Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas.
 It was also exhibited in Germany.
 The University of Giessen is the home of the Kellner Project.

Other websites 

 My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner  at Telefilm Canada movie catalog.
 Diary Entries in German and English
 George Bush Presidential Library - Kellner exhibit
 Justus Liebig University - Kellner Project
 University of Massachusetts, A Promise To Keep 
 Holocaust Museum Houston - Kellner exhibit 
 Heimat Museum, Laubach, Germany - Kellner exhibit 
 

2007 documentary movies
2000s biographical movies
Canadian movies
World War II movies
Multilingual movies
The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, commonly called the Nobel Prize in Economics, is a prize awarded each year for outstanding contributions in the field of economics. The prize was not one of the awards set out in the will of Alfred Nobel. The winners of the prize receive their diploma and gold medal from the Swedish monarch at the same December 10 ceremony in Stockholm as the Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature. The amount of money awarded to the economics laureates is also equal to that of the other prizes.

Winners

Related pages 
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Physics
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Literature
 List of Nobel Peace Prize winners

References

Other websites 
 Laureates  at the Nobel foundation
 Winners of the Prize in Economics
 History of the prize and its controversy
Lindsey Jacobellis (born August 19, 1985 in Danbury, Connecticut) is an American snowboarder.  She competed in the 2006 Winter Olympics and won the silver medal.

References

Other websites
 
 Lindsey Jacobellis  at NBC Olympics
 Lindsey Jacobellis at ESPN XGames
 
 Lindsey Jacobellis  at ESPN XGames

1985 births
Living people
American Olympic silver medalists
Sportspeople from Connecticut
American snowboarders
Axis of Evil, often correlated with the Axis of Resistance, is a term first used by US President George W. Bush in his State of the Union speech on January 29, 2002 to describe the governments of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea and later Cuba, Libya, and Syria. He used this term because he believed that they backed terrorism and were trying to buy weapons of mass destruction.

References

Politics of the United States
George W. Bush
The State of the Union Address is a speech the president of the United States of America gives every year, usually in January. In the speech the president talks about how the country is doing and what plans he will be proposing for that year.

According to tradition, president speaks with its appeal annual. The US Constitution it does not set clear terms such appeals. Article II, Section 3 of the US Constitution reads «He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient».

Before the president enters the congressional chamber of the United States Capitol, the Sergeant at Arms always yells: "Mister/Madam Speaker, the President of the United States".

Presidency of the United States
A ninja is a kind of spy or assassin who lived in Japan beginning in the 14th century.

History

Ninja (or shinobi) were a mystery in the History of Japan. The correct Japanese word for these warriors was shinobi-no-mono, which literally means "people who survive/endure". Ninja is easier to say; this is why it is more widely used. Shinobi-no-mono is the native Japanese word for ninja, while ninja is the Sino-Japanese word. Ninja warriors created secret associations and took part in many political killings. Their mystery comes from two ideas: 1) they always participated in secret spy operations and political killings; 2) ninja were hired by heads of armies as paid warriors (mercenaries). The art of fighting which was used by ninja was called ninjitsu, which was a combination of shinobi-no-jitsu and shinobi-jitsu.
The art of ninja fighting was passed down from father to son, or from master (sensei) to their best students. But in the middle of 17th century, Nakagawa Sosuntzin created a ninja school in the Mutsu Province. It was called Nakagawa-ryu and taught the ninjitsu method of fighting. Nakagawa Sosuntzin himself trained a group of 10 men, which he called Hayamiti-no-mono (men of the short hit). Ninja were taught many more things than a samurai. They had to be skilled at handling swords, spears, bows and many other weapons; but also they had to know about explosive and poisonous substances, to be a good path finder and to survive in different situations. Usually they were trained from young age and had to keep a very specific physical shape. Ninja were not allowed to be too light or too heavy. A ninja who could read and write was very appreciated.

Ninja clothing and equipment
The diversity of ninja weapons and attributes is much wider than that of the samurai. The main weapon of ninja was the sword. Ninja swords were usually shorter than samurai katana and had a straight blade. When they climbed, the sword was put on the left shoulder, putting the handle of the sword was close to the left ear. Ninja also used different types of throwing knives, and a weapon for their fists called tagaki. They used metallic claws on their feet which helped them to climb and made their kicks more dangerous.

They are also very close to the other form of Japanese killer, a samurai.

As with Robin Hood or King Arthur, the ongoing presence of ninja in pop culture movies and manga often differs widely from their true origins.

Related pages
Samurai

References

Other websites 
Methods of Fighting and Ninja Wearing Apparel 
Hanami Web - Ninja 

Samurai
Spies
The USS Arizona Memorial is in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. It is to remember the sailors killed when Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941 by the Japanese. During the attack 1,177 sailors were killed on the USS Arizona. The memorial is located on top of the sunken USS Arizona. People can walk over the ship to look at it.

United States Navy
Buildings and structures in Hawaii
Military monuments and memorials in the United States
National Memorials of the United States
Honolulu