Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Other

It is common for Australian and South African year 12 students and year 13 students in New Zealand to receive personalised jerseys during their last year at school. These are commonly referred to as a year 12 or leavers' jumpers. They are based on the design of a sport jersey (usually Australian Rules Football or Association Football), feature school colours, the year the students graduate, and a personalised nickname. They are usually worn over the normal school uniform. It is common for students to get personalised names on the back of their jerseys.

In Australia there has been a recent trend with many students now preferring to get year 12 hoodies, jackets or baseball varsity style jackets instead of the traditional jerseys.
History
Jersey, in the Channel Islands, was famous for its knitting trade in medieval times, and because of that original fame, the name jersey is still applied to many forms of knitted fabric, round or flat. The traditional jersey, and traditional guernsey, are dyed a navy blue colour, using a dye that does not require stripping the wool of its natural oil, rendering these sweaters surprisingly water resistant. The wool used in guernseys is often passed through oil in order to render it doubly water-resistant.

In sports
In sports

In sport a jersey is a shirt worn by a member of a team, often with the wearer's name and team number as well. Many Cycling jerseys of specific colour or pattern represent certain statuses in cycling, such as the maillot jaune (yellow jersey) of the leader of the Tour de France, or the rainbow jersey.  The World Cycling Union also says a champion must wear the champions jersey in a race, not the team jersey.  Cycling jerseys are usually made of special synthetic material to help sweat away from the skin.  The main garment of an ice hockey uniform, which was traditionally called a sweater, is increasingly known as a hockey jersey. This garment, along with basketball jerseys which are usually sleeveless and baseball jerseys which are usually button up, have become fashion accessories.
Other

It was common for Australian and South African year 12 students and year 13 students in New Zealand to receive personalised jerseys during their last year at school. These are commonly referred to as a year or leavers' jumpers. They are based on the design of a sport jersey (usually Australian Rules Football or Association Football), feature school colours, the year the students graduate, and a personalised nickname. They are usually worn over the normal school uniform.

In Australia there has been a recent trend with many students now preferring to get year 12 hoodies, jackets or baseball varsity style jackets instead of the traditional jerseys.

Sports clothing
Cameron Mitchell (November 4, 1918 - July 6, 1994), was an American actor.

Career 

Born in Pennsylvania, U.S.. His first role was in a short movie The Last Installment: A Crime Does Not Pay Subject (1945), That same year he was cast in What Next, Corporal Hargrove?  by Richard Thorpe.  Also had a role in the movie They Were Expendable (1945), John Wayne.  In 1948 he landed the role of Lieutenant Ansel Goldberg, in the classic war movie Command Decision, with Clark Gable.

The decade of 1950s was very good for Mitchell, working in many movies such as Smuggler's Gold (1951), the Sci Fi Movie Flight to Mars (1951).
In the early 1960s, Mitchell has great success in Europe he starring in movies: Erik the Conqueror (1961) - Caesar the Conqueror (1962) - Attack of the Normans (1962) - The Black Duke (1963) -Last Gun (1964), Minnesota Clay (1964), In the Shadow of the Eagles (1966) - I coltelli del vendicatore (1966), Island of the Doomed (1967). 
  
In 1970 Mitchell starred in the cult movie The Rebel Rousers, with Jack Nicholson, and directed by Martin B. Cohen. He plays a man who is harassed by a motorcycle gang from hell.

He also co-starred in the movies: Hombre (1967), a western with Paul Newman, The Other Side of the Wind (1972), directed by Orson Welles,  Buck and the Preacher (1973), with Sidney Poitier, The Midnight Man (1974), starring and directed by Burt Lancaster, and The Klansman (1974), with Lee Marvin.
In the decade of the 1980s, Mitchell starred only in low-budget movie. Among his movies of the 80s are The Silent Scream (1980), The Nightmare Never Ends (1980), The Guns and the Fury (1981), The Tomb (1986), with John Carradine, and The Offspring (1987), with Vincent Price.

Television 

In 1967 he was hired to play the role of Buck Cannon in The High Chaparral, with Leif Erickson as Big John Cannon. The series was a success and remained four seasons between 1967 and 1971.

He also worked in American television from its origins, in 1962, is the narrator of the TV series The Beachcomber. He was also guest starred in TV series Colt .45, Wagon Train, The Untouchables, Bonanza, Daniel Boone, Cade's County, Alias Smith and Jones, Mission: Impossible, Night Gallery, Gunsmoke, Police Story, Magnum, P.I., Matt Houston, and others.

Other websites

American movie actors
1918 births
1994 deaths
American television actors
Actors from Pennsylvania
Freckles are clusters of concentrated melanin that are most often visible with a fair skin complexion. Freckles are predominantly found on the face, although they may appear on any skin exposed to the sun, such as the lips, neck, arms, neck, shoulders, back and chest.

They are an inherited trait, caused by variation in the MC1R gene that is involved in the determination of red hair, fair skin, and freckles. Freckle formation is triggered through exposure to sunlight.

Two types of melanin, the red pheomelanin and the black eumelanin, are present in human skin. Eumelanin protects against sunlight. People with red hair have mostly pheomelanin in their hair and skin and/or a reduced ability to produce eumelanin. This may explain why they fail to tan and are at risk from the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight.

About 1.5 billion people in the world have freckles. About 75 per cent of Filipino people have freckles.

References 

Human body features
Lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora) is a type of flowering plant in the verbena family. It can also be called lemon beebrush. Its tiny flowers bloom purple or white in late summer.

Uses 
Lemon verbena leaves are used to add a lemony taste to fish and poultry dishes, vegetable marinades, salad dressings, jams, puddings, and beverages. It also is used to make herb tea.

References 

Verbenaceae
Anacardiaceae (also known as the cashew family or sumac family) is a family of flowering plants in the order Sapindales, with about 70 genera and 650 species of evergreen or deciduous trees, shrubs, and woody vines. Are plants including cashew, mango and pistachio. It is native to tropical and subtropical areas of the world, but a few species occur in temperate regions. 

Anacardiaceae
Charlotte's Web is a children's novel by E. B. White. First published in 1952, it was illustrated by Garth Williams and won many awards.

Three movies are based on the book:
 Charlotte's Web (1973), an animated movie made by Hanna-Barbrea productions.
 Charlotte's Web 2: Wilbur's Great Adventure (2003), the sequel to the 1973 movie.
 Charlotte's Web (2006), a live-action movie based on the book, starring Julia Roberts and Dakota Fanning.

1952 books
20th-century American novels
Newbery Honor books
American children's books
Golpar (Heracleum persicum), also known as Persian hogweed, is a flowering plant. It grows wild in mountains.

Uses 
Golpar seeds are used as a spice in Persian cooking. These seedpods are slightly bitter. They are usually sold in powder and are often sold as "Angelica Seeds." The powder is sprinkled over beans and potatoes. Golpar is also used in soups and stews. It is often sprinkled over pomegranate seeds. Golpar is also mixed with vinegar into which lettuce leaves are dipped before eating.

Apiaceae
Tsunami warning system or TWS detects tsunamis and issues warnings to prevent loss of life and property. It consists of two equally important components: a network of sensors to detect tsunamis and a communications infrastructure to issue timely alarms to start evacuation before the big waves reach the land to let the people to rush to safety.

There are two distinct types of tsunami warning systems: international and regional. Both of those systems depend on the fact that tsunami waves travel, approximately, 15-30 times slower than seismic waves.

Notes

Tsunamis
The Sceptical Chymist is a cornerstone book in the history of chemistry.

It was written by Robert Boyle FRS (1627–1691). He was a 17th century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor.

Boyle was an alchemist, but also the first modern chemist. He is famous for Boyle's law, which is about the relationship between the temperature and pressure of a gas.

References 

Science books
17th-century books
1660s works
Tsunami protection engineering is intended to prevent or mitigate possible tsunami damage and save lives. The best method of protection seems to be the use of seawalls in front of ports and cities. Another effective method from a tsunami is proper planting trees. Some villages in India, for example, had minimal casualties in the 2004 tsunami because they had planted trees along the coastline.

Tsunami protection engineering should also foresee and prevent situations like one that happened at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant when the main power went down, backup generators failed and cooling water could not get to the nuclear fuel. The overheating that followed led to explosions, fires and dangerous release of radiation.

Notes

Tsunamis
Earthquake engineering
Telly Savalas (January 21, 1922 – January 22, 1994) was an American actor and singer. He is best known from playing the character Kojak in a television series and many television movies. He was born in Garden City, New York; his parents were Greek Americans.

Career 
Early in his career, he played different characters like the detective in Cape Fear (1962), with Gregory Peck and Robert Mitchum, and the role of Feto Gomez in Birdman of Alcatraz (1962), he would win the Academy Award as supporting actor.
 
One of his best roles in his career was that of Pontius Pilate, in The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965). For his role, he shaved his head.
 
Then co-star in war movies Battle of the Bulge (1965), The Dirty Dozen (1967), with Lee Marvin, Telly played the role of a religious fanatic convict, who is elected by Lee Marvin for a suicidal mission., and Kelly's Heroes (1970), with Clint Eastwood and directed by Brian G. Hutton.
He was then personified as the villain Ernst Stavro Blofeld, in the James Bond saga, On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969).
 
In the 1970s Savalas worked in Europe with some success in movies as Città violenta (1970), with Charles Bronson, A Town Called Bastard (1971), with Jack Palance, La banda J.S.: Cronaca criminale del Far West (1972), Horror Express (1972) with Christopher Lee and Peter Cushing, Senza ragione (1973). and the movie by Mario Bava, Lisa e il diavolo (1974).

In the late 70s and early 1980s, Savalas worked on movies including Beyond the Poseidon Adventure (1979), Cannonball Run II (1984).

Television 
In 1963 he was on an episode of The Twilight Zone.
In 1973 CBS hired him to play the role of a Lieutenant, member of the police detective in New York, in production for CBS television: The Marcus-Nelson Murders. Has a success out of the ordinary and the producers decided to turn it into a television series.
Seven TV movies were made in the series Kojak: Kojak: The Belarus File (1985), Kojak: The Price of Justice (1987), Kojak: Ariana (1989), Kojak: Fatal Flaw (1991),  Kojak: Flowers for Matty (1990), Kojak: It's Always Something (1990) and Kojak: None So Blind (1990).  

He won an Emmy Award for Kojak.

He also starred in TV movie productions Mongo's Back in Town (1972), She Cried Murder (1973), Alcatraz: The Whole Shocking Story (1980), Dirty Dozen: The Deadly Mission (1987), The Dirty Dozen: The Fatal Mission (1988), The Hollywood Detective (1989).

Filmography

References

Other websites 

 Official site 
 Savalas.TV - Who loves ya, baby?
 TellySavalas.de - German Infoside 
 TellySavalas.com
1922 births
1994 deaths
Actors from New York City
Actors who played Bond villains
American Eastern Orthodox Christians
American movie actors
American television actors
American television directors
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles County, California
Deaths from bladder cancer
Deaths from prostate cancer
Emmy Award winning actors
Colby Lopez (born May 28, 1986) is an American professional wrestler. He wrestles for the WWE currently on the Raw brand. He competes under the ring name Seth Rollins. On March 29, 2015, he won the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. Rollins is a former member of The Shield and while he was with them, he was a WWE Tag Team Champion with Roman Reigns. Before being called up to the main roster, Rollins wrestled for the WWE's developmental program NXT and was the first NXT Champion.

Career 
Rollins has also wrestled for Ring of Honor (ROH), where he is a former ROH World Champion and a former two-time ROH World Tag Team Champion with his Jimmy Jacobs. While on the independent circuit, he wrestled under the ring name Tyler Black. Aside from Ring of Honor, he has also competed in Scott County Wrestling, AAW: Professional Wrestling Redefined, Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South, the National Wrestling Alliance, Pro Wrestling Guerrilla, and Wrestling Society X.
Black is also a three-time world champion—the MCPW World Heavyweight Championship once, the FIP World Heavyweight Championship once, and the ROH World Championship once.

References

Other websites

WWE profile

1986 births
American professional wrestlers
Living people
Sportspeople from Iowa
WWE wrestlers
In college athletics in the United States, schools typically join together in conferences for regular play.

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)

National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA)

Other collegiate sports associations

In general
Association of Christian College Athletics (ACCA)
Central Plains Athletic Conference (CPAC)
Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC)
Liga Atletica Interuniversitaria de Puerto Rico (LAI)
Midwest Christian College Conference
National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA)
Northern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference
Pacific Christian Athletic Conference
United States Collegiate Athletic Association (USCAA)
Penn State University Athletic Conference
Yankee Small College Conference
Wisconsin Collegiate Conference

Boxing
National Collegiate Boxing Association (NCBA)

Cycling
Eastern Collegiate Cycling Conference (ECCC)

Gymnastics
East Atlantic Gymnastics League (EAGL) (women)
Eastern Intercollegiate Gymnastics League (EIGL) (men)
Lacrosse
See: :Category:College lacrosse leagues in the United States

Rowing
Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC) (men)
Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges (EAWRC)

Sprint football
Collegiate Sprint Football League (CSFL)
Midwest Sprint Football League (MSFL) – starts play in 2022

Volleyball
Eastern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (EIVA) (men)
North East Collegiate Volleyball Association (men)

Water polo
Western Water Polo Association
Wrestling
Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA)
National Collegiate Wrestling Association
Mid-Atlantic – Teams from Tennessee, the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware
North Central – Teams from Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin
Northeast – Teams from New York, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Vermont
Northwest – Teams from Washington and British Columbia
Southeast – Teams from Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Mississippi
Southwest – Teams from Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Louisiana, and Kansas
West – Teams from California, Nevada, Utah and Arizona

Junior colleges
National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA)
Alabama Community College Conference
Arizona Community College Athletic Conference
Arrowhead Conference
Bi-State Conference
Carolinas Junior College Conference
Eastern Pennsylvania Collegiate Conference
Garden State Athletic Conference
Georgia Junior College Athletic Association
Great Rivers Athletic Conference
Illinois N4C Conference
Illinois Skyway Collegiate Conference
Iowa Community College Athletic Conference
Kansas Jayhawk Community College Conference
Maryland Junior College Athletic Conference
Michigan Community College Athletic Association
Mid-Florida Conference
Mid Hudson Athletic Conference
Mid-State Athletic Conference
Mid-West Athletic Conference
Midwest Football Conference (NJCAA)
Minnesota College Athletic Conference 
Mississippi Association of Community & Junior Colleges
MISS-LOU Junior College Conference
Missouri Community College Athletic Conference
Mon-Dak Conference
Mountain Valley Conference
NJCAA Region 9
NJCAA Region 9
Ohio Community College Athletic Conference
Nebraska Community College Athletic Conference
Northeast JC Football Conference
Panhandle Conference
Pennsylvania Collegiate Athletic Association
Southern Florida Conference
Scenic West Athletic Conference
Southwest Junior College Football Conference
Tennessee Junior & Community College Athletic Association
Western Junior College Athletic Conference
Western New York Athletic Conference
Western Pennsylvania Collegiate Conference
Western States Football League
Wisconsin Technical College Conference
Wyoming Community College Athletic Conference
Northwest Athletic Association of Community Colleges

Charter members
Centralia College - Centralia, Washington
Clark College - Vancouver, Washington 
Everett Community College - Everett, Washington 
Grays Harbor College - Aberdeen, Washington 
Lower Columbia College - Longview, Washington
Mt. Vernon Junior College (now Skagit Valley College) - Mt. Vernon, Washington
Olympic College - Bremerton, Washington 
Skagit Valley College (formerly Mt. Vernon Junior College)
Wenatchee Valley College - Wenatchee, Washington
Yakima Valley Community College - Yakima, Washington

Region members
Region members 

Northern Region
Bellevue College - Bellevue, Washington
Douglas College - New Westminster, British Columbia
Edmonds Community College - Lynnwood, Washington
Everett Community College - Everett, Washington 
North Seattle Community College - Seattle, Washington
Olympic College - Bremerton, Washington
Peninsula College - Port Angeles, Washington
Shoreline Community College - Shoreline, Washington
Skagit Valley College - Mount Vernon, Washington
Whatcom Community College - Bellingham, Washington

Southern Region
Chemeketa Community College - Salem, Oregon
Clackamas Community College - Oregon City, Oregon
Lane Community College - Eugene, Oregon
Linn-Benton Community College - Albany, Oregon
Mt. Hood Community College - Gresham, Oregon
Portland Community College - Portland, Oregon
Southwestern Oregon Community College - Coos Bay, Oregon
Umpqua Community College - Roseburg, Oregon
Eastern Region
Big Bend Community College - Moses Lake, Washington
Blue Mountain Community College - Pendleton, Oregon
Columbia Basin College - Pasco, Washington 
Community Colleges of Spokane - Spokane, Washington 
Treasure Valley Community College - Ontario, Oregon
Walla Walla Community College - Walla Walla, Washington
Wenatchee Valley College - Wenatchee, Washington
Yakima Valley Community College - Yakima, Washington

Western Region
Centralia College - Centralia, Washington
Clark College - Vancouver, Washington
Grays Harbor College - Aberdeen, Washington
Green River Community College - Auburn, Washington
Highline Community College - Des Moines, Washington
Lower Columbia College - Longview, Washington
Pierce College - Lakewood, Washington
South Puget Sound Community College - Olympia, Washington
Tacoma Community College - Tacoma, Washington
California Community College Athletic Association
Bay Valley Conference
Big Eight Conference (California)
Central Valley Conference
Coast Conference
Foothill Athletic Conference
Golden Valley Conference
Orange Empire Conference
Pacific Coast Conference (California)
South Coast Conference
Western State Conference

Sports lists
Network topology is the layout of the connections (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network.

There are two main

The names used - such as ring or star -  are only rough descriptions. The computers on a home network can be arranged in a circle but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring network.

Basic topology types 
There are seven basic topologies:
 Point-to-point topology
 Bus (point) topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Tree topology
 Full/partial Mesh topology
 Hybrid topology

Which of these is chosen depends on what devices need to be connected, how reliable it has to be, and the cost associated with cabling.

Physical topology
The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of the network. This refers to how the cables are laid out to connect many computers to one network. The physical topology you choose for your network depends on:
 Office Layout
 Troubleshooting Techniques
 Cost of Installation
 Type of cable used
Types of Physical topologies
The mapping of the nodes of the network and the physical connections between them – the layout of wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling or wiring system.

Point-to-point
The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints (the line in the illustration above). Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony.  The value of a permanent point-to-point network is the value of guaranteed, or nearly so, communications between the two endpoints. The value of 
an on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers, and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.
Permanent (dedicated)
Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point communications channel that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two endpoints. A children's "tin-can telephone" is one example, with a microphone to a single public address speaker is another. These are examples of physical dedicated channels.

Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.
Switched:
Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be set up dynamically, and dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of conventional telephony.

Bus
Bus

In local area networks where bus topology is used, each machine is connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable through some kind of connector.  A terminator is required at each end of the bus cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the MAC address or IP address on the network that is the intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data does match the machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is cheap to implement compared to other topologies. However, there is a higher cost of managing the network. Additionally, since only one cable is used, if the network cable breaks, the whole network will be shutdown.

Star
Star

In local area networks with a star topology, each network host (for example a PC) is connected to a central hub with a point-to-point connection. All traffic on the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that it may need a lot more cables, and if the hub breaks everything will stop working. And if the information is to be passed only to a single computer then it can't be done in this topology i.e. all the computers interact with each other and the information will be shared to all the computers. information cannot be shared to a single computer in this topology.

Ring
Ring

A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the right acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. Each device incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next device in the ring. The network is dependent on the ability of the signal to travel around the ring.

Mesh 

Fully connected mesh topology
The number of connections in a full mesh network of n nodes is = n(n - 1) / 2. The fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical networks. It has been used on networks with only a small number of nodes.
Partially connected mesh topology
The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense required for a connection between every node in the network.

In most practical networks that are based upon the partially connected mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the shortest path between nodes. The network used a longer alternative path in the case of a failure or break in one of the links. This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing' algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

Tree

Also known as a hierarchy network.
The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node.  Each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.) 

Each node in the network having a specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.  This tree has individual peripheral nodes.
Logical topology 
Logical topology describes the way in which a network transmits information from network/computer to another and not the way the network looks or how it is laid out. The logical layout also describes the different speeds of the cables being used from one network to another.

The logical topology, in contrast to the "physical", is the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, twisted pair Ethernet is a logical bus topology in a physical star topology layout. While IBM's Token Ring is a logical ring topology, it is physically set up in a star topology.
The logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same classifications as those in the physical classifications of network topologies but describes the path that the data takes between nodes being used as opposed to the actual physical connections between nodes.

Notes:
 Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control methods and protocols.
 The logical topologies are generally determined by network protocols as opposed to being determined by the physical layout of cables, wires, and network devices or by the flow of the electrical signals, although in many cases the paths that the electrical signals take between nodes may closely match the logical flow of data, hence the convention of using the terms logical topology and signal topology interchangeably.
 Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of equipment such as routers and switches.
Daisy chains
Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next.  If a message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the destination.  A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.
Centralization
The star topology reduces the probability of a network failure by connecting all of the peripheral nodes (computers, etc.) to a central node.  When the physical star topology is applied to a logical bus network such as Ethernet, this central node (traditionally a hub) rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only.  The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the remaining peripheral nodes will be unaffected. However, the disadvantage is that the failure of the central node will cause the failure of all of the peripheral nodes also,
If the central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way round trip transmission time  (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.

A tree topology (a.k.a. hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy.  This tree has individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which are required to transmit to and receive from one other node only and are not required to act as repeaters or regenerators.  Unlike the star network, the functionality of the central node may be distributed.
As in the conventional star network, individual nodes may thus still be isolated from the network by a single-point failure of a transmission path to the node.
If a link connecting a leaf fails, that leaf is isolated; if a connection to a non-leaf node fails, an entire section of the network becomes isolated from the rest.

In order to alleviate the amount of network traffic that comes from broadcasting all signals to all nodes, more advanced central nodes were developed that are able to keep track of the identities of the nodes that are connected to the network.  These network switches will "learn" the layout of the network by "listening" on each port during normal data transmission, examining the data packets and recording the address/identifier of each connected node and which port it's connected to in a lookup table held in memory. This lookup table then allows future transmissions to be forwarded to the intended destination only.
Decentralization
In a mesh topology (i.e., a partially connected mesh topology), there are at least two nodes with two or more paths between them to provide redundant paths to be used in case the link providing one of the paths fails.  This decentralization is often used to advantage to compensate for the single-point-failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a central node (e.g., in star and tree networks). A special kind of mesh, limiting the number of hops between two nodes, is a hypercube. The number of arbitrary forks in mesh networks makes them more difficult to design and implement, but their decentralized nature makes them very useful.  This is similar in some ways to a grid network, where a linear or ring topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions.  A multi-dimensional ring has a toroidal topology, for instance.
A fully connected network, complete topology or full mesh topology is a network topology in which there is a direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are n(n-1)/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due to the multiple paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen in military applications.  However, it can also be seen in the file sharing protocol BitTorrent in which users connect to other users in the "swarm" by allowing each user sharing the file to connect to other users also involved.  Often in actual usage of BitTorrent any given individual node is rarely connected to every single other node as in a true fully connected network but the protocol does allow for the possibility for any one node to connect to any other node when sharing files.
Hybrids
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.).  For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network, but two star networks connected together exhibit a hybrid network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network
 A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
 A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).

References

Tendaishe Sigauke, (2007: 46) Explaining networking terms

Other websites
Other websites

 A Guide to Network Topology 
 Research network topology 
 Types of topology 
 Logical Topology Example
 8 Common Network Topologies & How to Use

Tendaishe Sigauke, (2007: 46) Explaining networking terms

Computer networking
Prostatitis is any form of inflammation of the prostate gland. Because women do not have a prostate gland, it is a condition only found in men, although women do have microscopic paraurethral Skene's glands connected to the distal third of the urethra in the prevaginal space that are homologous to the prostate, and may cause symptoms.

A prostatitis diagnosis is assigned at 8% of all urologist and 1% of all primary care physician visits in the USA.

Nomenclature
The term prostatitis refers in its strictest sense to histological (microscopic) inflammation of the tissue of the prostate gland, although historically the term has loosely been used as a rubric to describe a set of quite different conditions. To try to remedy this, the NIH devised a new classification system in 1999.

Classification
According to the 1999 National Institute of Health (NIH) Classification, there are four categories of prostatitis:
Category I: Acute prostatitis (bacterial)
 Category II: Chronic bacterial prostatitis
 Category III: Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS), Pelvic Myoneuropathy
 Subdivisions of IIIa (inflammatory) and IIIb (non-inflammatory) exist based on levels of pus cells in expressed prostatic secretions, but these subcategories are of limited use clinically
 Category IV: Asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis

Category I: Acute prostatitis (bacterial)

Signs and symptoms
Men with this disease often have chills, fever, pain in the lower back and genital area, urinary frequency and urgency often at night, burning or painful urination, body aches, and a demonstrable infection of the urinary tract, as evidenced by white blood cells and bacteria in the urine. There may be discharge from the penis.
Diagnosis
Acute prostatitis is relatively easy to diagnose due to its symptoms that suggest infection. Common bacteria are E. Coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Enterococcus, Serratia, and Staphylococcus aureus. This can be a medical emergency in some patients and hospitalization with intravenous antibiotics may be required. A full blood count reveals increased white blood cells. Sepsis from prostatitis is very rare, but may occur in immunocompromised patients; high fever and malaise generally prompt blood cultures, which are often positive in sepsis.
Treatment
Antibiotics are the first line of treatment in acute prostatitis (Cat. I). Antibiotics usually resolve acute prostatitis infections in a very short period of time. Appropriate antibiotics should be used, based on the microbe causing the infection. Some antibiotics have very poor penetration of the prostatic capsule, others, such as Ciprofloxacin, Co-trimoxazole and tetracyclines penetrate well. Severely ill patients may need hospitalization, while nontoxic patients can be treated at home with bed rest, analgesics, stool softeners, and hydration.

Prognosis
Full recovery without sequelae is usual.

Category II: Chronic bacterial prostatitis
Signs and symptoms
Chronic bacterial prostatitis is a relatively rare condition (<5% of patients with prostate-related non-BPH LUTS) that usually presents with an intermittent UTI-type picture and that is defined as recurrent urinary tract infections in men originating from a chronic infection in the prostate. Dr. Weidner, Professor of Medicine, Department of Urology, University of Giessen, has stated: "In studies of 656 men, we seldom found chronic bacterial prostatitis. It is truly a rare disease. Most of those were E-coli." Symptoms may be completely absent until there is also bladder infection, and the most troublesome problem is usually recurrent cystitis.
Diagnosis
In chronic bacterial prostatitis there are bacteria in the prostate but usually no symptoms. The prostate infection is diagnosed by culturing urine as well as prostate fluid (expressed prostatic secretions or EPS) which are obtained by the doctor doing a rectal exam and putting pressure on the prostate. If no fluid is recovered after this prostatic massage, a post massage urine should also contain any prostatic bacteria. Prostate specific antigen levels may be elevated, although there is no malignancy.
Treatment
Treatment requires prolonged courses (4–8 weeks) of antibiotics that penetrate the prostate well (β-lactams and nitrofurantoin are ineffective). These include quinolones (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin), sulfas (Bactrim, Septra) and macrolides (erythromycin, clarithromycin). Persistent infections may be helped in 80% of patients by the use of alpha blockers (tamsulosin (Flomax), alfuzosin), or long term low dose antibiotic therapy. Recurrent infections may be caused by inefficient urination (benign prostatic hypertrophy, neurogenic bladder), prostatic stones or a structural abnormality that acts as a reservoir for infection.

The addition of prostate massage to courses of antibiotics was previously proposed as being beneficial.
It is though not without some risk, and has not been shown in more recent trials to improve outcome compared to antibiotics alone.

Prognosis
Over time, the relapse rate is high, exceeding 50%.

Category III: CP/CPPS, pelvic myoneuropathy
Signs and symptoms
In chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) there is pelvic pain of unknown cause, lasting longer than 6 months, as the key symptom. Symptoms may wax and wane. Pain can range from mild discomfort to debilitating. Pain may radiate to back and rectum, making sitting difficult. Dysuria, arthralgia, myalgia, unexplained fatigue, abdominal pain, constant burning pain in the penis, and frequency may all be present. Frequent urination and increased urgency may suggest interstitial cystitis (inflammation centred in bladder rather than prostate). Ejaculation may be painful, as the prostate contracts during emission of semen, although nerve- and muscle-mediated post-ejaculatory pain is more common, and a classic sign of CP/CPPS. Some patients report low libido, sexual dysfunction and erectile difficulties. Pain after ejaculation is a very specific complaint that distinguishes CP/CPPS from men with BPH or normal men.
Theories of Etiology
Theories behind the disease include autoimmunity, for which there is scant evidence, neurogenic inflammation and myofascial pain syndrome. In the latter two categories, dysregulation of the local nervous system due to past traumatic experiences or an anxious disposition and chronic albeit unconscious pelvic tensing lead to inflammation that is mediated by substances released by nerve cells (such as substance P).  The prostate (and other areas of the genitourinary tract: bladder, urethra, testicles) can become inflamed by the action of the chronically activated pelvic nerves on the mast cells at the end of the nerve pathways. Similar stress-induced genitourinary inflammation has been shown experimentally in other mammals.
Prostatitis researcher Dr Anthony Schaeffer commented in a 2003 editorial of The Journal of Urology that: "It is well recognized that even if pathogenic bacteria are present in the prostate, as in men with established chronic bacterial prostatitis, they do not cause chronic pelvic pain unless acute urinary tract infection develops. Taken together, these data suggest that bacteria do not have a significant role in the development of the chronic pelvic pain syndrome. The clinical observation that antimicrobial therapy reduces symptomatology in men with chronic pelvic pain syndrome is being tested in a double-blinded NIH controlled study. Since antimicrobials may have anti-inflammatory activity, it is possible that these drugs may benefit the patient by reducing inflammation rather than eradicating bacteria."

A year after making that statement, Dr Schaeffer and his colleagues published studies showing that antibiotics are essentially useless for CP/CPPS.
The bacterial infection theory that for so long had held sway in this field was again shown to be unimportant in another 2003 study from the University of Washington team led by Dr Lee and Professor Richard Berger. The study found that one third of both normal men and patients had equal counts of similar bacteria colonizing their prostates.

Since the publication of these studies, the focus has shifted from infection to neuromuscular and psychological etiologies for chronic prostatitis (CP/CPPS).
Possible role of unculturable bacteria in CPPS: There have been some questions regarding the role of unculturable/ultra-fastidious organisms in prostatitis. Although a team led by Keith Jarvi reported the isolation of unusual bacteria at the American Urological Association's annual meeting in 2001, it was not published in any urology journals, a sign that the paper did not withstand the peer review process. An item about the study was published in Urology Times, a newsletter for urologists. However, subsequent careful PCR studies failed to replicate these findings, and medical researchers are now in general agreement that CPPS is not caused by active bacterial infection.
Non-bacterial prostatitis as a form of interstitial cystitis (IC): Some researchers have suggested that non-bacterial prostatitis is a form of interstitial cystitis. A large multicenter prospective randomized controlled study showed that Elmiron was slightly better than placebo in treating the symptoms of chronic prostatitis. Other therapies shown more effective than Elmiron in treating interstitial cystitis, such as quercetin and Elavil (amitriptyline), can help with chronic prostatitis.
There are no definitive diagnostic tests for CP/CPPS. This is a poorly understood disorder, even though it accounts for 90%-95% of prostatitis diagnoses. It is found in men of any age, with the peak onset in the early 30s. CP/CPPS may be inflammatory (category IIIa) or non-inflammatory (category IIIb). In the inflammatory form, urine, semen, and other fluids from the prostate contain pus cells (dead white blood cells or WBCs), whereas in the non-inflammatory form no pus cells are present. Recent studies have questioned the distinction between categories IIIa and IIIb, since both categories show evidence of inflammation if pus cells are ignored and other more subtle signs of inflammation, like cytokines, are measured
. In 2006, Chinese researchers found that men with categories IIIa and IIIb both had significantly and similarly raised levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine TGFß1 and pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ in their expressed prostatic secretions when compared with controls; therefore measurement of these cytokines could be used to diagnose category III prostatitis.
Normal men have slightly more bacteria in their semen than men with chronic prostatitis/pelvic myoneuropathy. The traditional Stamey 4-glass test is invalid for diagnosis of this disorder, and inflammation cannot be localized to any particular area of the lower GU tract.

Men with CP/CPPS are more likely than the general population to suffer from Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS), and Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS). Prostate specific antigen levels may be elevated, although there is no malignancy.

Experimental tests that could be useful in the future include tests to measure semen and prostate fluid cytokine levels. Various studies have shown increases in markers for inflammation such as elevated levels of cytokines, myeloperoxidase, and chemokines.

Treatment
For chronic nonbacterial prostatitis (Cat III), also known as pelvic myoneuropathy or CP/CPPS, which makes up the majority of men diagnosed with "prostatitis", a treatment called the Stanford Protocol, developed by Stanford University Professor of Urology Rodney Anderson and psychologist David Wise in 1996, has recently been published.  This is a combination of medication (using tricyclic antidepressants and benzodiazepines), psychological therapy (paradoxical relaxation, an advancement and adaptation, specifically for pelvic pain, of a type of progressive relaxation technique developed by Edmund Jacobson during the early 20th century), and physical therapy (trigger point release therapy on pelvic floor and abdominal muscles, and also yoga-type exercises with the aim of relaxing pelvic floor and abdominal muscles). While these studies are encouraging, definitive proof of efficacy would require a randomized, sham controlled, blinded study, which is not as easy to do with physical therapy as with drug therapy.
Cat. III prostatitis may have no initial trigger other than anxiety, often with an element of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder or other anxiety-spectrum problem. This is theorized to leave the pelvic area in a sensitized condition resulting in a loop of muscle tension and heightened neurological feedback (neural wind-up). Current protocols largely focus on stretches to release overtensed muscles in the pelvic or anal area (commonly referred to as trigger points), physical therapy to the area, and progressive relaxation therapy to reduce causative stress. Biofeedback physical therapy to relearn how to control pelvic floor muscles may be useful.

Aerobic exercise can help those sufferers who are not also suffering from Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) or whose symptoms are not exacerbated by exercise.