Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The battles for the villages and American strongpoints, and transport confusion on the German side, slowed the attack down. This allowed the 101st Airborne Division to reach Bastogne on 19 December. The defense of Bastogne made it impossible for the Germans to take the town. The panzers went past on either side, cutting off Bastogne on 20 December.

In the south, Brandenberger's three infantry divisions were stopped by divisions of the U.S. VIII Corps. Only the 5th Parachute Division of Brandenberger's command was able to move forward.

Eisenhower and his commanders realized by 17 December that the fighting in the Ardennes was a major offensive and not a small attack, and they ordered many new troops to the area.

Within a week 250,000 troops had been sent. Gen. Gavin of the 82nd Airborne Division ordered the 101st to hold Bastogne. The 82nd had to battle the SS Panzer Divisions.

Siege of Bastogne
Siege of Bastogne 

By the time the senior Allied commanders met on 19 December, the town of Bastogne and its 11 roads had been held by the Germans for several days.

Two separate westbound German columns got stopped by defensive positions up to ten miles from the town.  

Gen. Eisenhower realized that the Allies could destroy German forces much more easily when they were out in the open. Patton had ordered his staff to prepare three plans for a northward turn.

On 20 December, Eisenhower removed the First and Ninth U.S. Armies from Gen. Bradley's 12th Army Group and placed them under Montgomery's 21st Army Group.

By 21 December the Germans had surrounded Bastogne, which was defended by the 101st Airborne Division and Combat Command B of the 10th Armored Division. Conditions inside the town were tough. Food was scarce, and by 22 December artillery ammunition was restricted to 10 rounds per gun per day.
The weather cleared the next day, however, and supplies (ammunition) were dropped over four of the next five days.

Despite German attacks, the town held. The German commander, Lt. Gen. Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz, requested Bastogne's surrender. When Brig. Gen. Anthony McAuliffe was told of the Nazi demand that he surrender, he refused. 

Both 2nd Panzer and Panzer Lehr moved forward from Bastogne after 21 December. The 26th VG received one panzergrenadier regiment on Christmas Eve for its attack the next day. Because it lacked troops and those of the 26th VG Division were tired, the XLVII Panzer Corps concentrated its attack on several locations on the west side.

The attack was defeated and all the tanks destroyed. The next day, 26 December, Gen. Patton's 4th Armored Division broke through and opened a passage to Bastogne.

Allied counteroffensive
On 23 December, the weather conditions started improving, allowing the Allied air forces to attack. They bombed the German supply points in their rear. P-47 Thunderbolts started attacking the German troops on the roads.

Allied air forces also helped the defenders of Bastogne, dropping medicine, food, blankets, and ammunition. A team of volunteer surgeons flew in by military glider and began operating.

By 24 December, the German advance was stopped near the Meuse. Units of the British XXX Corps were holding the bridges at Dinant, Givet, and Namur and U.S. units were about to take over.

The Germans had no supplies, and shortages of fuel and ammunition were becoming serious. Up to this point the German losses had been light, especially in armor, which was almost unharmed with the exception of Peiper's losses.

On the evening of 24 December, General Hasso von Manteuffel recommended to Hitler a stop to all operations and a withdrawal. Hitler said no.
However, confusion at the Allied command prevented a strong response. In the center, on Christmas Eve, the 2nd Armored Division attempted to attack the 2nd Panzer Division at the Meuse.

The 4th Cavalry Group attacked the 9th Panzer Division at Marche. As result, parts of the 2nd Panzer Division were cut off.  On 26 and 27 December the trapped units of 2nd Panzer Division made two break-out attempts.

Further Allied attacks near Marche led the Germans to know that no further action towards the Meuse was possible.

In the south, Patton's Third Army was battling to help the US troops in Bastogne. At 16:50 on 26 December, the Company D, 37th Tank Battalion of the 4th Armored Division, reached Bastogne, ending the siege.

German counterattack
On 1 January, in an attempt to keep the offensive going, the Germans launched two new operations. At 09:15, the Luftwaffe launched Unternehmen Bodenplatte (Operation Baseplate), a major campaign against Allied airfields in the Low Countries. Hundreds of planes attacked Allied airfields, destroying or severely damaging some 465 aircraft. However, the Luftwaffe lost 277 planes, 62 to Allied fighters and 172 mostly because of an unexpectedly high number of Allied flak guns, set up to protect against German V-1 flying bomb attacks and using proximity fused shells, but also by friendly fire from the German flak guns that were uninformed of the pending large-scale German air operation. The Germans suffered heavy losses at an airfield named Y-29, losing 24 of their own planes while downing only one American plane. While the Allies recovered from their losses in just days, the operation left the Luftwaffe weak and ineffective for the remainder of the war.
On the same day, German Army Group G (Heeresgruppe G) and Army Group Upper Rhine (Heeresgruppe Oberrhein) launched a major offensive against the thinly stretched,  line of the Seventh U.S. Army. This offensive, known as Unternehmen Nordwind (Operation North Wind), was the last major German offensive of the war on the Western Front. The weakened Seventh Army had, at Eisenhower's orders, sent troops, equipment, and supplies north to reinforce the American armies in the Ardennes, and the offensive left it in dire straits.
By 15 January, Seventh Army's VI Corps was fighting on three sides in Alsace. With casualties mounting, and running short on replacements, tanks, ammunition, and supplies, Seventh Army was forced to withdraw to defensive positions on the south bank of the Moder River on 21 January. The German offensive drew to a close on 25 January. In the bitter, desperate fighting of Operation Nordwind, VI Corps, which had borne the brunt of the fighting, suffered a total of 14,716 casualties. The total for Seventh Army for January was 11,609. Total casualties included at least 9,000 wounded. First, Third and Seventh Armies suffered a total of 17,000 hospitalized from the cold.

Allies prevail 

While the German offensive had ground to a halt, they still controlled a dangerous salient in the Allied line. Patton's Third Army in the south, centered around Bastogne, would attack north, Montgomery's forces in the north would strike south, and the two forces planned to meet at Houffalize.
The temperature during January 1945 was extremely low. Weapons had to be maintained and truck engines run every half-hour to prevent their oil from congealing. The offensive went forward regardless.

Eisenhower wanted Montgomery to go on the counter offensive on 1 January, with the aim of meeting up with Patton's advancing Third Army and cutting off most of the attacking Germans, trapping them in a pocket. However, Montgomery, refusing to risk underprepared infantry in a snowstorm for a strategically unimportant area, did not launch the attack until 3 January, by which time substantial numbers of German troops had already managed to fall back successfully, but at the cost of losing most of their heavy equipment.
At the start of the offensive, the First and Third U.S. Armies were separated by about . American progress in the south was also restricted to about a kilometer a day. The majority of the German force executed a successful fighting withdrawal and escaped the battle area, although the fuel situation had become so dire that most of the German armor had to be abandoned. On 7 January 1945, Hitler agreed to withdraw all forces from the Ardennes, including the SS Panzer divisions, thus ending all offensive operations. However, considerable fighting went on for another 3 weeks; St. Vith was recaptured by the Americans on 23 January and the last German units participating in the offensive did not return to their start line until 25 January.

Winston Churchill, addressing the House of Commons following the Battle of the Bulge said, "This is undoubtedly the greatest American battle of the war and will, I believe, be regarded as an ever-famous American victory."

Controversy at high command
As the Ardennes battles began, Montgomery commanded of the American First and Ninth armies. This was approved by Eisenhower, as the northern armies had lost all communications with Bradley, who was based in Luxembourg. The northern side had lost all communications with the US command and with nearby units. Without radio or telephone communication Montgomery managed to improvise a way of communicating orders.

This change of leadership did not become known until a message was released.
Montgomery asked Churchill if he could explain the situation.

On the same day as Hitler's withdrawal order, 7 January, Montgomery held his press conference. Montgomery praised the "courage and good fighting quality" of the Americans. He also praised Eisenhower.
Then Montgomery described the battle for a half-hour. Coming to the end of his speech he said he had used the whole power of the British Group of Armies. He called the battle "the most interesting, I think possibly one of the most interesting and tricky battles I have ever handled."

Despite his positive remarks about American soldiers, the Americans thought he took credit for the success of the campaign. They thought he made it sound like he had rescued the Americans.

Patton and Eisenhower both felt he did not describe the share of the fighting played by the British and Americans in the Ardennes. They thought that he did not tell about the part played by Bradley, Patton and other American commanders. Montgomery did not mention of any American general beside Eisenhower. This was seen as insulting.

Montgomery saw his error and later wrote: "I think now that I should never have held that press conference."
Bradley and Patton both threatened to resign unless Montgomery's command was changed. Eisenhower had decided to fire Montgomery. Eisenhower allowed Montgomery to apologize.

Aftermath 

Casualty estimates from the battle vary widely. The official U.S. account lists 80,987 American casualties, while other estimates range from 70,000 to 108,000. According to the U.S. Department of Defense the American forces suffered 89,500 casualties including 19,000 killed, 47,500 wounded and 23,000 missing.

An official report by the United States Department of the Army lists some 108,347 casualties, including 19,246 killed, 62,489 wounded and 26,612 captured and missing. The Battle of the Bulge was the most violent battle that U.S. forces experienced in World War II; the 19,000 American dead were unsurpassed by those of any other engagement. British losses totaled 1,400.

The German High Command's official figure for the campaign was 84,834 casualties, and other estimates range between 60,000 and 100,000.
The Allies continued to push on in the battle. In early February, the Allies launched an attack all along the Western front: in the north under Montgomery toward Aachen; in the center, under Courtney Hodges; and in the south, under Patton.

The German losses in the battle were serious in several ways. The last of the German reserves were now gone, the Luftwaffe had been destroyed and the remaining German forces in the West were being pushed back to the defenses of the Siegfried Line.

The initial success of Hitler's Ardennes offensive, launched 16 December 1944, caused Churchill to ask Stalin on 6 January 1945 for Soviet help by launching a Soviet attack.  On Friday, 12 January, the Soviets began the Vistula–Oder Offensive, planned to begin on 20 January.
During World War II, most U.S. black soldiers still served only as truck drivers and as stevedores.  In the midst of the Battle of the Bulge, General Eisenhower was short of replacement troops so he allowed African American soldiers to join the white military units to fight in combat for the first time. More than 2,000 black soldiers had volunteered to go to the front.

This was an important step toward a racially integrated United States military. A total of 708 African Americans were killed in combat during World War II.

Notes

References

Bibliography

More reading

Other websites
Battle of the Bulge – Official webpage of the United States Army.
 Battle of the Bulge Original reports and pictures from The Times
 Battle of the Bulge: Rare, Unseen  – slideshow by Life magazine
 "NUTS!" Revisited: An Interview with Lt. General Harry W. O. Kinnard 
 Veterans of the Battle of the Bulge (VBOB) official online home
 We owe our freedom to GIs who fought Battle of the Bulge  by Peter Thomas, veteran of the Hurtgen Forest and Bulge Battles.
 Battle of the Bulge Pictures  – photos courtesy of WW2-Pictures.com.
 Battle of the Bulge Museums  – a list of Battle of the Bulge museums near the previous battlefield.
 Oral history interview with Patrick J. Fay, an infantry scout during the Battle of the Bulge from the Veterans History Project at Central Connecticut State University
 Oral history interview with Frank Ladwig, an officer who worked on the logistics of the Battle of the Bulge from the Veterans History Project at Central Connecticut State University
American Experience – The Battle of the Bulge  – PBS Documentary, Produced by Thomas F. Lennon.
 Personalize History – Personal diary account from a radio operator in the 101st Airborne during the Battle of the Bulge.
 An Infantryman in the Battle of the Bulge
 On the British forces that fought in the Ardennes 
 The Battle of the Bulge and Malmedy Massacre
 Battle of the Bulge monument on Staten Island, New York
Bulge 1944, Battle Of
Bulge 1944, Battle Of
Bulge 1944, Battle Of
20th century in Belgium
History of Luxembourg
Wallonia
Liège (province)
Luxembourg (Belgium)
Namur (province)
Nothing is a concept of being without any form of matter, space, or being.

Related pages 
 Existentialism
 Nihilism
 No
 Vacuum
 Zero

Matter
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. We usually see it in the night sky and also during the day. Some other planets also have moons or natural satellites.

Our moon is about one-fourth of the width of the Earth. Because it is far away it looks small, about half a degree wide. The gravity on the moon is one-sixth of the Earth's gravity. It means that something will be one-sixth as heavy on the Moon than on Earth. The Moon is a rocky and dusty place. It moves slowly away from the Earth at a rate of 3.8 cm per year, due to the effect of tidal dissipation.

For the origin of the Moon, see the giant impact hypothesis.

Phases
Phases 

Because the Moon is round, half of it is lit up by the Sun. As it goes around (or orbits) the Earth, sometimes the side that people on Earth can see is all lit brightly. Other times only a small part of the side we see is lit. This is because the Moon does not send out its own light. People only see the parts that are being lit by sunlight. These different stages are called Phases of the Moon.
It takes the Moon about 29.53 days (29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes) to complete the cycle, from big and bright to small and dim and back to big and bright. The phase when the Moon passes between the Earth and Sun is called the new moon. The next phase of the moon is called the "waxing crescent", followed by the "first quarter", "waxing gibbous", then a full moon.  A full Moon occurs when the Moon and Sun are on opposite sides of the Earth.  As the Moon continues its orbit it becomes a "waning gibbous", "third quarter", "waning crescent", and finally back to a new moon. People used the moon to measure time. A month is approximately equal in time to a lunar cycle.

The Moon always shows the same side to Earth. Astronomers call this phenomenon tidal locking. This means that half of it can never be seen from Earth. The side facing away from Earth is called the far side or dark side of the Moon even though the Sun does shine on it—we just never see it lit.

History of exploring the Moon
Before people stood on the Moon, the United States and the USSR sent robots to the Moon. These robots would orbit the Moon or land on its surface. The robots were the first man-made objects to touch the Moon.

Humans finally landed on the Moon on July 21, 1969. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their lunar ship (the Eagle) on the surface of the Moon. Then, as half the world watched him on television, Armstrong climbed down the ladder of the Eagle and was the first human to touch the Moon as he said, "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."

Even though their footprints were left on the moon a long time ago, it is likely that they are still there, as there is no wind or rain, making erosion extremely slow. The footprints do not get filled in or smoothed out.

More people landed on the moon between 1969 and 1972, when the last spaceship, Apollo 17 visited. Eugene Cernan of Apollo 17 was the last person to touch the moon.
Characteristics 
Because it is smaller, the Moon has less gravity than Earth (only 1/6 of the amount on Earth). So if a person weighs 60 kilograms on Earth, the person would only weigh 10 kilograms on the moon. But even though the Moon's gravity is weaker than the Earth's gravity, it is still there. If a person dropped a ball while standing on the moon, it would still fall down. However, it would fall much more slowly. A person who jumped as high as possible on the moon would jump higher than on Earth, but still fall back to the ground.  Because the Moon has no atmosphere, there is no air resistance, so a feather will fall as fast as a hammer.

Without an atmosphere, the environment is not protected from heat or cold.  Astronauts wore spacesuits, and carried oxygen to breathe. The gloves of the spacesuit, were never taken off on the Moon. The suit weighed about as much as the astronaut. The Moon's gravity is weak, so it was not as heavy as on Earth.
On the Earth, the sky is blue because the blue rays of the sun bounce off the gases in the atmosphere, making it look like blue light is coming from the sky. But on the moon, because there is no atmosphere, the sky looks black, even in the daytime. There is no atmosphere to protect the moon from rocks that come from space, and these meteorites crash right into the moon and make wide, shallow holes called craters. The moon has thousands of them. Newer craters overlie older ones. On Earth, meteorites burn in the atmosphere, and most burn up completely.

Origin of the Moon 
The giant impact hypothesis is that the Moon was created out of the debris from a collision between the young Earth and a Mars-sized protoplanet. This is the favored scientific hypothesis for the formation of the Moon.
Water on the Moon 
In 2009 Chandrayaan-1 found a lot of water on the moon. The water is not liquid but is in the form of hydrates and hydroxides. Liquid water cannot exist on the Moon because photodissociation quickly breaks down the molecules. However, from the data received from Chandrayaan-1, liquid surface water may have once existed on the moon.

Legal status 
During the Cold War, the United States Army thought about making a military post on the Moon, able to attack targets on Earth. They also considered testing a nuclear weapon on the Moon. The United States Air Force had similar plans. However, both plans were brushed-off as NASA moved from a military to a civilian-based agency.
Even though the Soviet Union left remains on the Moon, and the United States left a few flags, no country has control over the Moon. The U.S. and Soviet Union both signed the Outer Space Treaty, which calls the Moon and all of outer space the "province of all mankind". This treaty also banned all use of the military of the Moon, including nuclear weapons tests and military bases.

Related pages 
 Late Heavy Bombardment

References

More reading

Other websites 

 The Dark Side of the Moon 

 
Basic English 850 words
William Frank Ryan (November 13, 1939 – November 19, 2021) was an American actor, singer and musician.

Career
His music career first began when he was in high school. He then signed the first of two recording contracts with CBS Records.

He got back into music and after moving to California. He began to write and record wacky songs for Disney. He did the voice of Rabbit, Tigger, and Eeyore in Disney Channel's Welcome to Pooh Corner. Since 1988 he has done the voice of Eugene Meltsner (and other characters: Harlow Doyle, Officer O'Ryan, Officer David Harley, etc.) for the Focus on the Family radio series Adventures in Odyssey. 

He also voiced Rabbit in Winnie the Pooh and a Day for Eeyore. He was also the original voice of Petrie in The Land Before Time.

Death
Ryan died from cancer in Santa Monica, California on November 19, 2021, at the age of 82.
Some movies
Mickey's Christmas Carol - Mole, Willie the Giant, Pete, Big Bad Wolf, Weasel #2 (1983)
Welcome to Pooh Corner - Rabbit, Tigger (1983)
Dumbo's Circus - Barnaby (1985)
Frog and Toad Are Friends (1985)
An American Tail - Digit (1986)
Mother Goose's Treasury - Bertram the Goose (1987)
Frog and Toad Together (1987)
DuckTales - Pete, Dangerous Dan (1987)
The Land Before Time - Petrie (1988)
Stanley and the Dinosaurs - (1989)
The Little Mermaid - Seahorse (1989)
Rock-a-Doodle - Stuey (1991)
Garfield and Friends (episode 88 Ghost of a Chance, as McKraven (or McCraven) The Ghost) (1992)
Thumbelina - Hero, Reverend Rat (1994)
A Troll in Central Park - Boss (1994)
The Pebble and the Penguin - Royal, Tika (1995)
Disney's House of Mouse - Willie the Giant (2001–2003)
Looney Tunes: Back in Action (2003) - Papa Bear
Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi (2004)
Mickey Mouse Clubhouse - Willie the Giant (2006–present)
Family Guy (episode Road to the North Pole, as Winnie The Pooh) (2010)
It's A Frame-Up! - Shooster (2013)
Get a Horse! - Peg-Leg Pete (2013)
Discography
Eugene Sings!
Eugene Sings! Christmas
Am I Cool or What?
Goin' Quackers
Elmo Aardvark: Outer Space Detective!
Elmo Aardvark: Vintage Cartoon Sound Tracks
Elmo Aardvark: Classic Cartoon Soundtracks
Classic Songs for Leonard Reed's Shim Sham Shimmy
Adventures in Odyssey (Eugene Meltsner/Harlow Doyle)

References

Other websites 

1939 births
2021 deaths
Actors from Cleveland
Adventures in Odyssey
American voice actors
Singers from Cleveland
Musicians from Cleveland
American movie actors
American television actors
Cancer deaths in California
Animals who live under human control or care are in captivity. Captivity can be used as a term meaning the keeping of either domesticated animals (livestock, pets) or wild animals. This may include for example farms, private homes and zoos. Sometimes humans take care of critically endangered animals and therefore these animals are in captivity.

Zoos
Animal rights
Cultural history
Cultural studies
The Choctaw are a Native American people originally from the southeastern United States, also called the Southeastern Woodlands. This is today in Mississippi and Alabama. Their language is the Choctaw language. It is part of the Muskogean family. It is also similar to Chickasaw. Three tribes are recognized today. They are the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, and Jena Band of Choctaw Indians in Louisiana.

History 
The people were originally mound builders. Early Choctaw lived in thatched-roof cabins of logs in communities. Agriculture was the main supply of food, such as the Three Sisters. There was also fishing and hunting. Sports were also important and often replaced war. 

The tribe supported the Americans during the American Revolution, the War of 1812 and the Creek War. Europeans thought the tribe was civilized. It was part of the so-called  "Five Civilized Tribes" of the Southeast.
Most of the tribe was forced out of their land from 1831 to 1833. This was part of the Indian Removal. The remaining Choctaw became citizens. The tribe supported the Confederates in the U.S. Civil War. Several chiefs of the Choctaw were at the US Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Choctaw worked as codetalkers during World War I. They used their own Choctaw language.  The Choctaw reorganized after the Indian Reorganization Act.

References 

Native Americans
Native Americans in the United States (also known as American Indians) are the indigenous people from the areas of North America now part of the continental United States, including parts of Alaska. The US government recognizes 574 tribes. There are about 310 Indian reservations in the US. Most Native Americans do not live on a reservation anymore.

There were and still are many diverse groups of Natives in what is now the US. The diversity includes various and rich languages and cultures. The arrival of Europeans in the Americas drastically changed Native Americans in the US. The history of these Native Americans is a story of suppression and the forced removal from their lands. During American history, there were various Native responses to European colonization and American expansion. In the 20th century, Natives got more rights and were recognized as citizens.
There are still problems today that impact Native Americans in the United States. Natives Americans face discrimination from other groups. There is also racism and cultural appropriation. There are also public health issues connected to historical trauma and generations of misstreatment.

Cultural Areas 
Historians often break up the cultures of Indigenous peoples of North America in the United States into two ten regions: 
 Arctic, including Aleut, Inuit, and Yupik peoples
 Subarctic
 Northeastern Woodlands
 Southeastern Woodlands
 Great Plains
 Great Basin
 Northwest Plateau
 Northwest Coast
 California
 Southwest

History

Settlement and Pre-Columbia Era 
Native Americans most likely originally came from Asia to the Americas. They most likely crossed over Beringia. This was a geographical bridge that connected what is now Russia and Alaska. This migration may be over 30,000 years old. The Clovis culture was one of the earliest cultures.
European Exploration and Colonization 
Europeans started to arrive in the 16th century. This caused diseases to spread, and many Natives died. The population of Natives became much smaller. There were many conflicts between American Indians and colonists even into the 19th century. Natives fought to protect their lands. Europeans also brought animals. Natives began to hunt more and move around more with these new animals. European trade led to the Columbian Exchange.

There were several wars. Native Americans often fought against each other and Europeans. They also made many alliances. The  Beaver Wars were in the 17th century. Iroquis became powerful and destroyed other tribes like  Huron, Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock, and Shawnee. Natives fought with the French and British during the Seven Year's War. King Philip's War was between Metacom and Colonists in New England. It was the last major war between Natives and Colonists.
During the American Revolution, many Natives fought with the British. At the Treaty of Paris (1783), Britain gave most Native lands to America. George Washington and Americans wanted to civilize and educate Natives. The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 supported this process. Americans thought that some Natives were civilized. These were the Five Civilized Tribes. They included the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek and Seminole tribes.

19th Cenury 
In the 19th century, most of the lands in the Eastern United States were conquered. The lands in the west were still Native American Territory. Soon diseases also came to the Western territories. The Americans wanted to move west. There was Native American resistance. Conflicts included  Tecumseh's War, the Creek War and Seminole Wars. However, Native Americans were in the Union and Confederate Armies during the Civil War.
President Andrew Jackson forced Natives to leave their lands. He passed the  Indian Removal Act of 1830. This led to the Trail of Tears. Americans justified this removal. This was called Manifest Destiny. In 1851, the Indian Appropriations Act set up preservations for Natives. Natives resisted in the Indian Wars. There was also the Dakota War, Great Sioux War, Snake War, Colorado War, and Texas-Indian Wars. In the Wounded Knee Massacre, the US army killed many Natives.

The Cherokee were the first Natives to become US citizens.

In 1871, Ulysses S. Grant recognized more Native tribes in the Indian Appropriations Act. The US government also created many boarding schools for Native Americans. The schools only taught Christianity and not Native American religions. Navajo were against teaching. Eventually, the schools included Indian history and self-esteem.
20th Century 
In the 20th century, there were more rights for Natives. Politicians were more open to Natives. Woodrow Wilson allowed Natives who fought in World War I to become citizens. Calvin Coolidge signed the Indian Citizenship Act. This made all Natives American citizens. Republican Charles Curtis was a Native and Congressman. He became the Senate Minority Whip and Senate Majority Leader for several years. Today Americans have all the rights of the US constitution. The Indian Relocation Act of 1956 supported vocational training.

Many Natives fought and died in World War II. Soldiers respected the Natives. The legacy of the Native American warrior was still there.
There was also more self-determination for Natives. There was more activism with Natives. Notable events in the 1960s are the occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969–1971) and the formation of the American Indian Movement (AIM). In 1968, the Indian Civil Rights Act gave Natives protection to tribe members. The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act was passed in 1975. Tribal colleges were created. Many universities have added study programs about Natives Americans. This is partly due to Native activism.

Contemporary Problems 
Native Americans are affected by some problems more than White Americans. For example Native Americans are six times more likely to suffer from alcoholism than average.  About 24% live in extreme poverty.  Native American and Native Alaskan women are more likely to be targets of sexual violence than other women. Natives says that they often face prejudice and mistreatment. Many Native Americans live in cities. They face poverty and bad working conditions.
Another problem is cultural appropriation. This is when a culture wrongly adopts and takes elements from another culture. This is a problem in sports with mascots. There are often Native American stereotypes. The Golden State Warriors stopped using Native American logos in the 1970s. In 2020, the Washington Redskins changed their name to Washington Commanders.

There has been controversy with names of Native Americans in the US. Native Americans were historically called Indians. This word has racist stereotypes. The term Native Americans is viewed to be more historically accurate. There is no agreement among Native Americans on what is the best term. Some criticize the term Native Americans, because the government chose it. Several Native tribes prefer the term American Indian. Native Americans prefer to be called by their tribal names.

Related pages 
 Alaska Natives
 First Nations, a term used in Canada
 Indigenous Australians

References 

Native Americans
Ethnic groups in the United States
Brian Cowen (born 10 January 1960) was the Taoiseach (prime minister) of the Republic of Ireland.  He became the taoiseach on 7 May 2008, after Bertie Ahern, he resigned after losing a general election on 9 March 2011. He was the leader of a political party called Fianna Fáil. They were in a coalition government with the Green Party and the Progressive Democrats. Independent TDs (Irish members of parliament) also support his government.

References

1960 births
Living people
Government ministers of Ireland
Members of Dáil Éireann
Taoisigh of Ireland
A web chat is a chat system to exchange information via the Web. People use a web browser to communicate with others. Apart from the browser you do not need anything else, which makes a web chat easy to use and ideal for people not very experienced with computers.

On the technical side web chats are often written with Java, Flash or Ajax.

Related pages
 Chat room
 Webcam

Internet communication
Web browsers
The British Grand Prix is a grand prix motor race organised in Great Britain by the Royal Automobile Club. First held in 1950 and after that every year since today.

Winners

Multiple winners (drivers)
Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.

Multiple winners (constructors)
Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.
A green background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war World Manufacturers' Championship.A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.Multiple winners (engine manufacturers)Manufacturers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.A green background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war World Manufacturers' Championship.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

* Built by  Cosworth, funded by Ford

** Between 1999-2005 built by  Ilmor, funded by Mercedes
*** Built by  Porsche

By year

A green background indicates an event which was part of the AIACR World Manufacturers' Championship.A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Broadcasting

United Kingdom

Formula One Grands Prix
1920s establishments in the United Kingdom
The Ob is a river in Siberia. Together with the Lena and the Yenisei, it is one of the most important rivers of Siberia. Depending upon how its length is measured, it can be between 3.650 km and 6.210 km long. Some important cities on the banks of the river include Novosibirsk (Russia's third largest city), Barnaul, Kolpashevo, Nizhnevartovsk, Surgut, Khanty-Mansiysk, Beryozovo, Labytnangi, and Salekhard. The Irtysh is the Ob river's main tributary. Other tributaries include the Omsk, Parabel, Chaya, Tobol and Ishim.

Rivers of Russia
Siberia
Deduction is one of the two main types of reasoning. The other is induction. In deduction, we apply a general rule to a particular case.

Deductive arguments are attempts to show that a conclusion must follow from a set of premises or hypotheses. A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.

Aristotle, the first person we know who wrote down laws of deduction, gives this example of deduction:

 All men are mortal.
 Socrates is a man.
 Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.

The first two statements are called "premises". The last statement is called the "conclusion". The conclusion is taken from the premises. 
If the conclusion is wrong, then at least one of the premises is wrong
If one of the premises is wrong, the conclusion may also be wrong.

Deductive reasoning is often called "top-down logic", whereas inductive reasoning is called "bottom-up reasoning".

Logic
Induction is one of the main forms of logical reasoning.  The other is deduction.  In induction, we find a general rule by using a large number of particular cases.  For example, watching water in many different situations, we can conclude that water always flows downhill.
Induction, the collecting of facts, is not by itself science. The philosopher Hume said it meant “instances of which we have had no experience resemble those of which we have had experience”. Later, John Stuart Mill raised the question “Why is a single instance, in some cases, sufficient for a complete induction, while in others [many examples] go such a little way towards establishing a universal proposition?”  Philosophers usually think the real issue is: what distinguishes good from bad inductions? A way to say it is: "If all known As are B, then probably all As whatever are B".

Criticism 

Inductive reasoning allows for a false conclusion even if all the premises are true. This is illustrated in the following example:

1. Humans exist.2. Birds also exist.3. Therefore, birds are human.  

This example shows that even though all the premises are correct, the conclusion can be false.

References
References

Other websites 
Discussions suitable for students of philosophy can be found in the usual places, especially:
Vickers, John 2014. The problem of induction. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 

Logic
Lands that came to make up Oklahoma Territory 
 Old Oklahoma – April, 22, 1889 – opened by land run.
 No Man's Land – May 2, 1890, assigned to Oklahoma Territory by Organic Act.
 Iowa reserve – September 22, 1891 – opened by land run.
 Sac and Fox reserve – September 22, 1891 – opened by land run.
 Tonkawa reserve – 1891 – allotment.
 Citizen Potawatomi and Absentee Shawnee reserve – September 22, 1891 – opened by land run.
 Cheyenne Arapaho reserve – April 19, 1892 – opened by land run.
 Cherokee Outlet – September 17, 1893 – opened by land run.
 Kickapoo reserve – May 4, 1896 – opened by land run.
 Greer County – March 16, 1896 – officially assigned to Oklahoma Territory (Supreme Court decision May 23, 1895, separated the county from Texas).
 Comanche, Kiowa, and Apache reserve – June 9 through August 6, 1901 – lottery.
 Wichita and Caddo reserve – June 9 through August 6, 1901 – lottery.
 Ponca and Otoe–Misouria reserve – 1904 – allotment.
 Kaw reserve – 1906 – allotment.
Osage reserve – 1906 – allotment.
 Big Pasture – December 1906 – sealed bid.
Other websites
 History of the State of Oklahoma, 1908 

19th century in Oklahoma
1890 establishments in the United States
1907 disestablishments
1900s disestablishments in the United States
Former territories of the United States
Sometimes scientists come up with a theory that is wrong. The discovery of an exception to a scientific theory is a major event, and a scientist can become famous by discovering an exception to a rule. Einstein became famous for his theory of relativity, which found an exception to Isaac Newton's laws of motion. Newton's theory, which had been accepted for hundreds of years, had to be changed, and has been changed.

Here is a list of some of the major theories of modern science. These theories have been tested thousands of times, and no exception has been found.
The atomic theory of matter: all matter is made up of atoms.
 The law of conservation of mass and energy: in chemical and physical reactions, mass and energy stay the same, in atomic reactions, mass is changed to energy or energy to mass according to the formula E = mc2.
 The cell theory of living things: all living things are made up of cells.
 The tectonic theory of geology: the surface of the earth is composed of tectonic plates, which move slowly.
 The periodic table of elements: atoms are distinguished by their atomic number and atomic weight, and can be arranged in a table which illustrates their properties.
 The theory of relativity: scientific laws hold in different frames of reference.
 Quantum theory: the smallest amount of energy is a "quantum unit", and all energy comes in multiples of this amount.
 The theory of evolution: It explains how living things changed over a long time, and how they have come to be the way they are.

Related pages 
Philosophy of science
Scientific method
Scientific law
Science
Philosophy of science
Marin-Epagnier was a municipality in the district of Neuchâtel in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel. In 1888, the formerly independent municipality merged with Epagnier and Marin to form Marin-Epagnier. On 1 January 2009, the former municipalities of Marin-Epagnier and Thielle-Wavre joined together and became the new municipality of La Tène.

It lies at the northeastern tip of Lake Neuchâtel close to Biel, at the boundary between French- and German-speaking regions, and at a knot of highways.

The Iron Age archaeological site of La Tène is within Marin-Epagnier's communal boundaries. (See also La Tène culture.) La Tène is a village at the eastern end of the Lake Neuchâtel (Lac de Neuchâtel), a lake in Switzerland. La Tène has a sandy beach, unique in Switzerland.

References

Other websites
Marin-Epagnier

Former municipalities of Neuchâtel
2009 disestablishments in Europe
2000s disestablishments in Switzerland
Dr Mees said that Magdalenenberg was ‘the earliest and most complete example of a Celtic calendar focused on the moon’, and that following Caesar’s conquest of Gaul, ‘Gallic culture was destroyed and these types of calendar were completely forgotten in Europe, to be replaced by the Roman sun-based calendar’.
Buildings and structures in Baden-Württemberg
7th-century BC works
1st millennium BC buildings and structures
Sacred Cenote (Well of Sacrifice) is a well known cenote at the Maya site of Chichen Itza. One can access it by a 900 foot paved corridor that leads from the Great Plaza. The Sacred Cenote was used for human sacrifices to the rain god Chaac in periods of drought.

Notes

Other websites 
 Cenotes of Chichén Itzá

Archaeological sites in Mexico
Maya civilization
Yucatán (state)
A cenote is a type of sinkhole that contains groundwater. It is typical in the Mexican Yucatán Peninsula and some nearby Caribbean islands. The term comes from a word used by the lowland Yucatec Maya to refer to any location where groundwater can be got at.

Definition and description 

Cenotes are surface connections to underground water bodies. While the most well-known cenotes are large open water pools measuring tens of metres in diameter, such as those at Chichén Itzá, most cenotes are smaller sheltered sites and do not necessarily have any surface exposed water. The term cenote has also been used to describe similar karst  features in other countries such as Cuba and Australia, in addition to the more generic term of sinkholes.
Cenote water is often very clear, as the water comes from rain water infiltrating slowly through the ground. The groundwater flow rate within a cenote may be very slow at velocities ranging from 1 to 1000 meters per year. Cenotes around the world attract cave divers. They have explored extensive flooded cave systems, some of which have been investigated for 100 kilometers or more.

Cause 
Cenotes in or near the Yukatán may have been caused by the Chicxulub meteor impact 60 million years ago.

Famous cenotes

Mexico 
Yucatán Peninsula:
  Dos Ojos, near Tulum, Mexico
 Dzibilchaltun, Yucatán, Mexico
 Sacred Cenote, Chichen Itza, Mexico
 Xtacunbilxunan, Bolonchen, Mexico

Central and Northern Region:
 Zacatón, Tamaulipas, Mexico

Canada 
 Devil's Bath, northern Vancouver Island, Canada

United States 
 Bottomless Lakes, near Roswell, New Mexico

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Sistema Zacatón 
 Volcanic karstification of Sistema Zacaton, Mexico (Gary, Sharp, 2006) 
 Stages in the Formation of a Cenote
 Doline, Sinkhole, Cenote
 Cenotes of Chichén Itzá
 Quintana Roo Speleological Survey (QRSS)
 Year 1999 Cenotes Conference in Perugia, Italy
 Maps of Chicxulub and Ring of Cenotes 

Geology
Physical geography
Geography of Mexico
In the November of 2007, the village exploded, with the remains afterwards being burnt down, with firefighters attempting to put out the blaze, but having so few people and being so far away from any other main towns, the thirty firefighters were unable to reach it in time. However, fortunately, all of Monkton's twenty people were evacuated into safety to nearby Minster. However, Minster was reported to have complained about the overcrowding caused by this and threw out the newcomers, expecting them to go back to the destroyed settlement. Unfortunately for the hamlet, Monkton's largest building, a single storey house, was also lost, and therefore it is thought to take a long time before the people of Monkton are able to resettle in a new place, or whether they will be able to reconstruct some of their old one.

References

Other websites
 Monkton 

Villages in Kent
An electric chair is a specially built chair which is used to execute condemned criminals by electrocuting (giving them a strong electric shock) them. This means that they are being killed as a punishment for a crime that they were accused of, usually murder.

An electric chair is a strong wooden chair which has electrodes (which are objects often made out of metal that conduct electricity) for running electric current through the convict's body. One electrode is placed on the convict's head, and another is placed  on the convict's right shin. When the switch is turned on, a 2,000 volt current goes through the convict. The current is to stop the heartbeat, cause unconsciousness, and cause death. Sometimes, the chair was made from the wood of the gallows which it replaced.
The electric chair is sometimes used as the very symbol of death penalty. It is also a part of Americana (that is: cultural symbols of USA) and the electric chairs of many states have ironic nicknames like Old Sparky, Yellow Mama, Gruesome Gertie, Sizzling Sally or Hot Seat. The execution itself is sometimes called "riding the lightning".

History of the electric chair

The electric chair was designed by Dr. Alfred Southwick, and first built by Harold Brown in 1888. Dr. Southwick had seen a drunk man falling in a generator and dying immediately from electric shock. There had been a very gruesome hanging in New York in 1886 that did not go right. The drop had been too long and the convict's head was torn off. Many people wanted a less cruel method of execution. The state of New York chose the electric chair.
This execution method has been used only in the United States and, for several decades, in the Philippines (its first use there in 1924, last in 1976). The electric chair has become a symbol of the death penalty, and a part of American folklore. However, it is becoming replaced as a method of executing criminals in the United States by lethal injection. Altogether, 25 US states and the US federal government have used the electric chair.

The decline of the electric chair

Death in the electric chair is usually quick as the convict dies from electric shock which stops the heart. However, if something goes wrong, the death is more like frying the convict alive. The electric chair has been declared as a cruel and unusual punishment in many states and is no longer used in most states. In fact, there are no longer any states that use the electric chair as its main way of executing criminals. All states that use the death penalty use lethal injection as its main way of executing criminals now.
So far, the latest person executed in an electric chair has been Nicholas Todd Sutton, an American serial killer, who was responsible for murdering two acquaintances and his own grandmother in North Carolina and Tennessee from August to December 1979. Convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for these crimes, Sutton, among three other inmates, later participated in a 1985 prison killing over drugs. For this final crime, he was sentenced to death and executed by electric chair on Feb. 20, 2020 in Tennessee at the Riverbend Maximum Security Prison.

References

Capital punishment
The Santiago Bernabéu Stadium is a football stadium in Madrid, Spain. It is the second largest stadium in Spain after the Camp Nou. It has a capacity for 81,044 people. The stadium is called Estadio Santiago Bernabéu in Spanish.

The 1982 FIFA World Cup and the final, were held at the Santiago Bernabéu.

History

The stadium was built at the same site of Campo de Chamartín. Construction began in 1945. On December 14, 1947, the stadium officially opened. The first match was against Portuguese champions Os Belenenses (3-1).

At that time, the stadium consisted of two uncovered tiers that could hold about 75,000 spectators. Capacity was further increased to 125,000 in 1954, when one of the long sides got expanded with a third tier. The Bernabéu was together with the Camp Nou as the playing venue of the UEFA 1964 European Nations' Cup, hosting one of the two semi-finals and the final between Spain and the Soviet Union (2-1).