Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The iPod touch's touchscreen ability is the same as the iPhone's. Like the iPhone, the iPod touch also has a physical home button separate from the touch screen. The home screen includes a headphone set, an alarm clock and also a list of buttons corresponding to the available applications: Music, Videos, Photos, and iTunes on the bottom button row. Safari, Calendar, Contacts, Clock, Calculator, and Settings are at the top. The iPod touch is also sold with 28 wallpaper photos, some of which are figures from the iPod advertisements.

As of September 9, 2014, when iPod Classic was discontinued, iPod Shuffle, iPod Nano and iPod Touch were the only ones still manufactured. The iPod touch is the only remaining iPod still being manufactured as of July 27, 2017, when the iPod nano and iPod shuffle were discontinued. Apple concluded the iPod touch on May 10, 2022. However, the iPod touch was still available at Apple's online store while supplies lasted.

Models
Models 

 iPod 1st Generation (iOS 1 to 3.1.3) 
 iPod 2nd Generation (iOS 2 to 4.2.1)
 iPod 3rd Generation (iOS 3 to 5.1.1)
 iPod 4th Generation (iOS 4 to 6.1.6)
 iPod 5th Generation (iOS 6 to 9.3.5)
 iPod 6th Generation (iOS 8.4 to 12.5.5)
 iPod 7th Generation Current Model (iOS 12.4 to 15.7)

Requirements 
Before October 12, 2011, when the iPod touch is taken out of the box for the first time, it needs to be connected to a computer for it to start. When it's first turned on, iTunes must be installed on either a macOS or Microsoft Windows operating system computer for programming the iPod touch. On either operating system, the iPod touch needs a USB 2.0 port on the computer to connect. When the iPod is first turned on it needs data communications with iTunes, and will always show the "cable to iTunes" picture until it senses iTunes.
However, after October 12, 2011, new iPods that were bought will have iOS 5 installed and that means users can set up the iPod wirelessly, without connecting it to a computer. It also means that users do not have to connect their iPod to a computer in order to sync and back up data. All of this will be done through Apple's iCloud service.

The official requirements for the iPod touch are:
 A computer running either:
 Mac OS X 10.4.10 or later
 Microsoft Windows XP (Home or Professional x32 Edition) with SP2, or Microsoft Windows Vista (32 bit OS only )
 iTunes 7.4 or later
 Available USB 2.0 port
 Internet access

Wi-Fi 
The iPod touch is included with Wi-Fi 802.11b/g, and, like the iPhone, has the Safari web browser and YouTube. The iPod's Wi-Fi ability can also be used to buy music from the iTunes Store.
Third-party applications 
On October 17, 2007, Steve Jobs, gave an open letter posted on Apple's webpage, announced that a software development kit (SDK) for the iPhone would be made ready to third-party developers in February 2008. Because of security concerns and Jobs' praise of Nokia's digital signature system, it is also suggested that Apple will adopt a similar method. The SDK will also apply to the iPod touch. However, end-users have still been able to "jailbreak" the iPod touch in similar methods to the iPhone, allowing the usage of third-party applications created by users. The most popular iPod touch jailbreak method is a website which takes advantage of a TIFF exploit in the iPod touch's web browser to execute the code in order to install the hacks. The site also patches the exploit as well. This method only worked on the 1.1.1 firmware, as 1.1.2 fixed the exploit needed for the installer to work.
Software upgrades 
During the initial launch of the iPod touch, reviews noted some differences compared to Apple's similar iPhone. One of the primary criticisms of the iPod touch is the absence of the iPhone's email, mapping and stock tracking applications. On January 15, 2008, Steve Jobs announced at his Macworld 2008 keynote that the January Software Upgrade for the iPod touch consisted of five new applications: Mail, Maps, Stocks, Notes and Weather. The new Maps feature is similar to that of the iPhone, with new software from Skyhook Wireless that pinpoints the user's location using Wi-Fi. The software upgrade is available for current iPod touch owners via iTunes download for US$19.99.[1] New iPod touch units with 1.1.3 installed (MA623LL/B or MA627LL/B) will also have the software upgrade pre-installed.[2]Customers who purchase an iPod touch with part number MA623LL/A or MA627LL/A must pay the upgrade fee to receive the new applications.
The first reviews of the iPod touch have cited some differences compared to Apple's similar iPhone. One of the biggest criticisms of the iPod touch was that it did not have the iPhone's email, mapping and stock tracking applications. Another complaint mentioned that the iPod touch had no physical buttons for volume control - a feature that the iPhone had. The iPod touch instead used software-based controls, which makes users to double click the home button, bringing up an on-screen volume control. The iPod touch also did not have the iPhone's external speakers, built-in camera, and Bluetooth capability, but the 2nd generation onward has external speakers and the Bluetooth capability. The fourth generation, released in September 2010, was the first iPod touch to feature the retina display and two built-in cameras for FaceTime and for videos and still photos
. At least one critic has suggested that Apple may have left out these applications and hardware features on purpose in order to differentiate the iPod touch from its more expensive cousin, the iPhone. Others say that the touch does not need the applications mentioned above because it's an iPod and not a mobile phone. However, the 2009 model of the iPod touch does feature Bluetooth, but only to link with bluetooth headphones.
By now, the 5th-generation iPod touch mostly has the same functions as the iPhone, but is not quite as powerful, uses an inferior camera, lacks a built-in GPS, and lacks cell phone capabilities. However, it is cheaper than the iPhone, and also thinner, making it more portable.

Manufacturing flaws 
A number of early iPod touch users have complained that their iPod's screen could not properly display shades of black. The problem has been related to the bad reflective coating on the LCD display and bad quality control. The defect caused the screen to have very narrow optimal viewing angle (hard to look at the screen from the side) and also resulted in "shimmering" blacks. This screen problem was later fixed with the firmware update 1.1.1 although some still complained that the screen still could not properly display certain shades of black. Critics also say that the update simply "alleviates" the screen problem by adjusting contrast settings and does not provide a fix for the screen itself.
Specifications 
The specifications as listed on Apple's website are:
 Screen material: Glass
 Screen size: 8.9 cm (3.5 in)
 Screen resolution: 480×320 pixels at 163 ppi
 Input method: Multi-touch screen interface
 Operating system: iOS
 Storage: 8, 32, or 64 GB flash memory
 CPU: 1.0 GHz ARM Cortex-A8
 RAM: 256 MB
 Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g)
 Built-in rechargeable, non-removable battery with up to 7 hours of video playback, and up to 40 hours of audio playback, times vary.
 Size: 110×61.8×8 mm (4.3×2.4×0.31 in)
 Weight: 120 grams (4.2 ounces)
 Direct iTunes Wi-Fi store access
 Wide screen video
 Integrated Safari web browser and YouTube client
 Access to Starbucks music (currently only in New York, San Francisco Bay Area, and Seattle. Coming to Chicago in March 2008)

Timeline

Related pages
 iPod
 iPad
 iPhone
 Touch screen

References
References

Other websites 
 iPod Touch Installer Application(3rd Party) Directory 
 Apple's iPod touch official product page
 Apple's list of special web applications usable with the iPod touch
 Apple special event: Keynote address introducing iPod touch. September 2007 

Touch
Setting can mean:
 Jewelry: 
Setting (the noun): Frame or bed into which a diamond or gem is set, see also personal setting
 Setting (the verb) describes is the art to fasten a diamond or gem into a jewelry item
 A place where something is set
 Set construction in theatrical scenery
 Setting (fiction) in literature
 Campaign setting in role playing games
 Setting - a frame - in psychoanalysis and psychotherapy- all the basic rules regulating place, time and behaviors within which therapeutic process and therapeutic alliance evolve
 A Setting is a term used in Irish traditional music to describe a version of a tune that is incompatible when played together with other versions of the same tune.
 Tracking (education), grouping students by ability.
 In computers and electronics, can refer to the configuration of options of the software or device
Contact means to touch physically or to communicate with.

Contact could also mean:
General uses
 Contact lens, a corrective, cosmetic, or therapeutic lens
 Contact process, a method for producing sulfuric acid on an industrial scale
 Contact network, a type of social network
 Contact (law), in Family Law, deals with the right of parents or other significant persons to meet with and relate to a child
 Active component of electric switch or electrical connector
 vCard or hCard, in address books, a contact is the name, address, phone number, and other pertinent information
 Contact paper, in photography, used to print negatives without enlargement
 Contact (mathematics), a mathematical concept, the idea of curves (for example) touching
 Optical contacting, a process in which two highly polished surfaces are permanently or temporarily joined without use of any adhesive
 Contact Energy, an energy company in New Zealand
 The initial fighting with an enemy unit, in a military context
 Contact Conference, an annual interdisciplinary scientific conference
A social contact, a person renowned for performing special and often illegal favors for individuals in return for goods or services.
 First contact between different cultures.
 Radar contact, the display of a single radar return from an object as a result of one radar sweep. (Compare with track).
CONTACT USA, a Crisis Hotline.
 Amateur radio contact, an exchange of information between two amateur radio operators
Contact massage, massage that is done by hands or special electronic aids
 In military parlance a contact is a chance encounter with the enemy, typically while undertaking patrolling operations. Especially common in Britain, Australia/New Zealand and probably other Commonwealth forces such as India.
In music
 Contact (musical), a dance musical

Albums
 Contact (Fantastic Plastic Machine album), an album by Fantastic Plastic Machine
 Contact!, an album by Eiffel 65
 Contact (Silver Apples album), an album by Silver Apples
 Contact, an album by The Benjamin Gate
 Contact (Thirteen Senses album), an album by Thirteen Senses.
 Contact (Indo G album), an album by Indo G
 Contact (Minori Chihara album), an album by Minori Chihara.

Songs
 "Contact", a song by Thirteen senses from the above album.
 "Contact", a song from the broadway version of the rock opera, "Rent".
 "Contact", a song by The Police from their 1979 album Reggatta de Blanc
 "Contact (song)", by the French rock band Kyo.
 "Contact" (Phish song), an early Phish song
Other media
 Contact (novel), a science fiction novel by Carl Sagan
 Contact (movie), a movie based on the book
 Contact (video game), a Nintendo DS game
 Contact (Dance), a dance production by Paul Mercurio
 Contact (The Culture), in novels by Iain M. Banks, the Exploration (and sometimes military) corp of the Culture
 Contact (game), a word-guessing game.
 Contact is English for Contacto, a publication of the British Interlingua Society.
Mac OS X Tiger (version 10.4) is the fifth major release of Apple's Mac OS X. It was released on April 29, 2005.

References

Other websites
 Ars Technica Mac OS X 10.4 Review and Overview
 Mac OS X Tiger 'Developer' Overview 

MacOS
Operating systems
The bronze plate in the parvis before the cathedral is the origin of all road distances in France calculated from Paris. The national geographic institute in France uses the building as a benchmark. The coordinates and altitude for this point are known precisely.

Victor Hugo wrote a famous story called 'Notre-Dame de Paris'.  The story takes place around the cathedral.  The English title is 'The Hunchback of Notre Dame', and it has also been made into movies.

Tradition has it that Notre-Dame’s first stone was laid in 1163 in the presence of Pope Alexander III.

On May 21, 2013 French historian Dominique Venner committed suicide at Notre Dame de Paris because of his beliefs for gay rights. About 1,500 people were evacuated from the cathedral.

2019 fire
2019 fire 

On 15 April 2019, smoke and flames were sighted and the Cathedral was declared to be on fire. The fire burnt for over half a day and caused massive damage. Most works of art in the cathedral could be saved. The French government announced that the damage would be repaired and the cathedral would be rebuilt.

References

Roman Catholic cathedrals
Churches in Paris
14th-century buildings and structures‎
"Stand Up for Love" was the first single from Destiny's Child's greatest hits album, 1's. Released in 2005, the single became Destiny's Child's first single to fail to chart in the United States. The song was the final Destiny's Child single, although another new song from the album, "Check on It" (a solo Beyoncé Knowles song) was released.

Formats and remixes
 "Stand Up for Love" (Single Edit)
 "Stand Up for Love" (Instrumental)
 "Stand Up for Love" (Acapella)
 "Stand Up for Love" (Junior's Roxy Remix)
 "Stand Up for Love" (Junior Vasquez Roxy Anthem Remix)
 "Stand Up for Love" (Junior Vasquez Roxy Dub Mix)
 "Stand Up for Love" (Maurice Joshua Nu Anthem Mix)
 "Stand Up for Love" (Maurice Joshua Nu Soul Mix)

Destiny's Child songs
2005 songs
"Survivor," Destiny's Child's signature song, is an R&B song written by American singer-songwriter Beyoncé Knowles, Anthony Dent, and Mathew Knowles for Destiny's Child's third studio album Survivor (2001). It was produced by Beyoncé and Dent, and was released as the album's first single in early 2001. The song reached number one in Ireland, Norway, and the United Kingdom, and entered the top 10 of the majority of the charts it appeared on, making it one of Destiny's Child most successful single releases. The song also won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.

Destiny's Child songs
Grammy Award winning songs
2001 songs
Erich Ernst Paul Honecker (25 August 1912 – 29 May 1994) was an East German Communist politician who led the German Democratic Republic from 1971 until 1989.

After German re-unification, he went to the Soviet Union but was sent back by the new Russian government to Germany, where he was imprisoned and tried for high treason and crimes committed during the Cold War. However, as he was dying of liver cancer, he was released from prison. He died in exile in Chile about a year and a half later.

Origins and early political career 
Honecker was born in Neunkirchen, nowadays Saarland. He had two brothers and three sisters.

He joined the Young Communist League of Germany (KJVD), the youth section of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), in 1926 and joined the KPD itself in 1929. Between 1928 and 1930 he worked as a roofer, but did not finish his apprenticeship. Thereafter he was sent to Moscow to study at the International Lenin School and for the rest of his life remained a full-time politician.
He returned to Germany in 1931 and was arrested in 1935 after the Nazis had come to power (Machtübernahme). In 1937, he was sentenced to ten years for Communist activities and remained in captivity until the end of World War II. At the end of the war, Honecker started working for the communist party again under leader Walter Ulbricht. In 1946, he became one of the first members of the new Socialist Unity Party of Germany (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands, SED), made up of the old KPD and the Social Democrats of eastern Germany.

He was a member of the parliament in the Soviet Occupied Zone after the elections of October 1946. The German Democratic Republic was created on 7 October 1949. Its constitution set up a system of government like the Soviet Union's. Honecker became a candidate member of the secretariat of the Central Committee in 1950 and full member in 1958.
Leadership of East Germany 
In 1961, Honecker was in charge of the building of the Berlin Wall. In 1971, he started a political power struggle. The Soviet's supported him, so Honecker became the new leader, or General Secretary, of the Socialist Unity Party, replacing Walter Ulbricht. In 1976, he also became Chairman of the Council of State (Staatsratsvorsitzender).

Under Honecker there was a big improvement in living standards, even though the GDR had the highest standard of living in the Eastern bloc countries. More consumer goods were made available and new house-building was speeded up.

Although Honecker was more caring to the people about goods and housing he did not allow criticism of the government. The most obvious way this was shown was the Berlin Wall. About 125 East German citizens were killed during this period while trying to cross the border into West Berlin.
In foreign relations, Honecker would never allow a unified Germany. He was very loyal to the USSR, but accepted détente (that is, becoming friendlier to western countries). Under his government East Germany even became friendlier to West Germany. In September 1987, he became the first East German head of state to visit West Germany.

In the late 1980s Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced glasnost and perestroika, reforms to liberalize communism. Honecker and the East German government, however, refused to implement similar reforms in the DDR. As the reform movement spread across Central and Eastern Europe there were demonstrations against the East German government. The biggest were the 1989 Monday demonstrations in the city of Leipzig. The other leaders of the DDR decided to get rid of Honecker, and forced him to resign on 18 October 1989. Egon Krenz took over instead.
Post-1989 
After the German reunification Honecker stayed in a Soviet military hospital near Berlin. Then he fled to Moscow with his wife, to avoid prosecution over charges of Cold War crimes. The German government said he should be prosecuted because 192 East Germans died trying to leave East Germany. After the Soviet Union broke up in December 1991, Honecker went to the Chilean embassy in Moscow, but was sent back by Boris Yeltsin's government in 1992. The trial started in early 1993, but Honecker was released due to ill health and on 13 January of that year moved to Chile to live with his daughter Sonja, her Chilean husband Leo Yáñez, and their son Roberto. He died of liver cancer in Santiago, Chile on 29 May 1994.
Personal 
Honecker married Edith Baumann in 1950 and divorced her in 1953. They had a daughter, Erika (b. 1950). In 1953 he married Margot Feist and they remained married until his death. They had a daughter, Sonja, born in 1952. Margot Honecker was the Minister for National Education in East Germany.

Famous quotes 
 "The Wall will be standing in 50 and even in 100 years, if the reasons for it are not removed." (Berlin, 19 January 1989)
()
 "Neither an ox nor a donkey is able to stop the progress of socialism." Berlin, 7 October 1989
()

Literature 
Honecker's autobiography Aus meinem Leben is translated into English as From my life.
New York : Pergamon, 1981. 
 Fulbrook, Mary, The people's state : East German society from Hitler to Honecker, Yale University Press, c2005.

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 CNN Cold War - Profile: Erich Honecker 
 Honecker im Internet (in German)
 Welcoming Address to 1979 Session of the World Peace Council Erich Honecker's speech to the WPC
 A Successful Policy Seared to the Needs of the People Volkskammer pamphlet including material by Honecker

1912 births
1994 deaths
Deaths from liver cancer
Cancer deaths in Chile
Former dictators
German atheists
German autobiographers
Members of the Volkskammer
Politicians from Saarland
Presidents of East Germany
This page lists the national rulers in the world. They are heads of state and heads of government.

In some cases they are de facto leaders not occupying either of those positions or prime ministers who are not heads of government. 195 states (193 UN members + Vatican City + Taiwan) are the basic list.

Also there are leaders of 10 other national entities (quasi and unrecognized states, and of 7 in exile and/or alternative governments (only in exile governments that exercised power or succeeded governments that exercised power).

For local rulers, for example rulers of dependencies and of the main administrative divisions, such as autonomous regions, insular or peninsular regions, successors of historical regions or regions with strong identity, regions in the news, etc.) see List of the main local rulers.

Member and observer states of the United Nations

Other states
The following states control their territory and are recognised by at least one UN member state.
The following states control their territory, but are not recognised by any UN member states.

Other governments
These alternative governments are recognized as legitimate by at least one UN member.

Other entities

Notes

Heads of government

National rulers
Notre Dame in French is the name give to a number of religious buildings, consecrated to the Virgin Mary. it was burned in the 2019 Notre Dame fire

Churches and cathedrals in France
Notre Dame de Paris, probably the most famous
Bayeux Cathedral, called Notre-Dame de Bayeux
Notre-Dame de Chartres
Notre-Dame de la Garde in Marseille
Notre-Dame de Reims
Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp
Strasbourg Cathedral, called Notre-Dame de Strasbourg

Other
University of Notre Dame in the U.S. state of Indiana
Notre Dame College, Dhaka in Bangladesh 
Notre Dame de Paris, the original French title of a novel by Victor Hugo published in 1831. In English, this novel is commonly called The Hunchback of Notre Dame.
A contact lens is a type of lens that are put directly onto the eye in order to help people see better. They are a different option instead of glasses. They have to be prescribed by an eye doctor. Some contact lenses can be used many times, while other types are disposable products used only once and then thrown away.

Other websites 
 Consumer Guide to Contact Lenses  (Articles)
 British Contact Lens Association 
 Contact Lens History 

Optometry
Chara (born as  Miwa Watabiki, on January 13, 1968) is a Japanese singer, songwriter, musician and actress. She began performing in 1991. "Swallowtail Butterfly - あいのうた" is one of her popular songs.

Early life
Chara grew up in Kawaguchi, Saitama. She started learning the piano from age four, and starting composing songs in elementary school.

References

Other websites 
 Official Site - CharaWeb

1968 births
Living people
Japanese movie actors
Japanese singer-songwriters
J-pop singers
Singers from Saitama Prefecture
Notre Dame de Reims is a cathedral in Reims. It was built in the 13th century. It is not as old as Notre-Dame de Paris or Notre-Dame de Chartres. The building process started in 1211. Most of the works were done in 1275. It was built before the Cathedrals of Strasbourg, Amiens and Beauvais, which are also called Notre Dame.

The cathedral is one of the best examples of Gothic architecture. It has been a World Heritage Site since 1991. In 2006, about 1.5 million people visited it.

The Kings of France were crowned in this cathedral. The last coronation ceremony was that of Charles X of France in 1825.

References 

Roman Catholic cathedrals
Cathedrals in France
Reims
13th-century buildings and structures‎
Bayeux Cathedral, also called the Cathedral of Our Lady of Bayeux (), is a cathedral. It is in Bayeux, in Normandy. The current cathedral was consecrated on July 14, 1077. It is part of a larger complex, a bishop's palace. It was built as a replacement for an earlier church which dated from the Merovingian era. It was here that Harold Godwinson swore an oath that later led to the Norman Conquest.

Other websites
Les Amis de Cathedrale de Bayeux

Gallery

References

Roman Catholic cathedrals
Cathedrals in France
Calvados
11th-century buildings and structures‎
1131 was a common year.

Events 
 May 9 — Tintern Abbey is founded.
 Ramon Berenguer IV becomes Count of Barcelona.
 Alberich becomes Archdeacon of Reims.
 Fulk of Anjou and Melisende become King and Queen of Jerusalem.
 Construction begins on the Beisi Pagoda in China (completed in 1162).

Births 
 King Valdemar I of Denmark (d. 1182)

Deaths 
 March 1 — King Stephen II of Hungary (b. 1101)
 April 30 — Saint Adjutor
 August 21 — King Baldwin II of Jerusalem
 December 4 — Omar Khayyám, Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. 1048)
 Alger of Liège, French monk at Cluny (b. 1055)
 Bohemund II of Antioch (b. 1108)
 Gaston IV of Béarn
 Joscelin I, Count of Edessa
 Peter the Hermit, French priest and crusader
 Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (b. 1082)

1131
1118 was a common year.

Events 
 January 24 – Pope Gelasius II succeeds Pope Paschal II as the 161st pope.
 March 10 – Gregory VIII is elected antipope.
 June 11 – Roger of Salerno, Prince of Antioch, captures Azaz from the Seljuk Turks.
 December 18 – Alfonso the Battler expels the Moors from Zaragoza.
Europe 
 Þorlákur Runólfsson becomes Bishop of Skálholt.
 Enna mac Donnchada mac Murchada becomes King of Dublin.
 Cu Faifne mac Congalaig becomes King of Ui Failghe.
 Maelsechlainn Ua Faelain becomes King of the Déisi Muman.
 The cantrefs of Rhos and Rhufoniog are annexed by Gruffydd ap Cynan, King of Gwynedd.
 The Archbishop of York is no longer required to be crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
 Reconstruction begins on Peterborough Cathedral, destroyed by fire in 1116.
 Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona captures Tarragona from the Moors.
 A rebellion against Henry I of England breaks out in Normandy.
 Alberich of Rheims becomes Master at the school of Rheims.
 Charles I, Count of Flanders marries Margaret of Clermont.
 Amaury IV of Montfort divorces his wife Richilde, daughter of Baldwin II, Count of Hainaut.
 Wulgrin III becomes Count of Angoulême.
 Gervais becomes Count of Rethel.
 The castle of Montlhéry is dismantled by Louis VI of France.
 The cathedral of Ferentino is completed.
Restoration of Santa Maria in Cosmedin begins.
 Magdeburg is almost destroyed by fire.
 Reichenbach Abbey is founded.
 Zwickau, Eisenstadt, Kirchgandern, and Wolfenbüttel are first mentioned.
 Otto of Bamberg is suspended by the Pope, and Norbert of Xanten defends himself against charges of heresy at the Synod of Fritzlar.
 Đorđe, Vojislavljevic´ ruler of Serbia, is overthrown by Uroš I of Raška.
 George of Duklja is overthrown by his cousin Grubeša.
 Radostl becomes Bishop of Krakow.
 Zbraslav, now part of Prague, is founded.
 Sylvestr becomes bishop of Pereyaslavl Yuzhniy.
 The Knights Templar are founded, with Hughes de Payens serving as the first Grand Master.
Asia 
 John II Comnenus succeeds Alexius I as Byzantine emperor.
 The Byzantine general Philocales captures Sardis from the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm.
 Baldwin I of Jerusalem invades Egypt.
 Baldwin of Le Bourg succeeds his cousin Baldwin I as king of Jerusalem.
 Roman of Le Puy becomes lord of Oultrejordain.
 Joscelin I succeeds Baldwin of Le Bourg as Count of Edessa.
 Garmond of Picquigny becomes Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem.
 Suleyman I ibn al-Ghazi becomes emir of Aleppo.
 David IV of Georgia captures Lorri from the Seljuk Turks.
 David IV of Georgia settles a number of Kipchaks in Georgia.
 Ahmed Sanjar and Mahmud II proclaim themselves rival Seljuk sultans upon the death of Mehmed I of Great Seljuk.
 Al-Mustarshid becomes Abbasid caliph.
 Bahram Shah becomes Ghaznavid emperor.
The Hoysala Empire defeats the Chalukya at the Battle of Kennagal.
 The Zenghe era of Emperor Huizong of Song China ends, and the Chonghe era begins.
 The Yongning era of Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia ends.
 Start of the Genei era in Japan.

Births 
 November 28 – Manuel I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1180)
 December 21 – Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1170)
 Gualdim Pais, Portuguese Grand-Master of the Templars (d. 1195)
 Eudes II, Duke of Burgundy
 Gertrude, daughter of Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor and wife of Henry X, Duke of Bavaria
 Christina, daughter of Canute Lavard, wife of Magnus IV of Norway
 Andronicus I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1185)
 Nur ad-Din, ruler of Syria (d. 1174)
 Ahmed ar-Rifa'i, founder of the Rifa'i Sufi order
 Taira no Kiyomori, Japanese general (d. 1181)
 Saigyo, Japanese poet
Deaths 
 January 21 – Pope Paschal II
 April 2 – King Baldwin I of Jerusalem
 April 16 – Adelaide del Vasto, regent of Sicily, mother of Roger II of Sicily, queen of Baldwin I of Jerusalem
 May 1 – Edith of Scotland, queen of Henry I of England
 June 5 – Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester
 July 7 – Florence of Worcester, long thought to be the writer of the chronicle of John of Worcester
 August 15 – Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1048)
 Gissur Ísleifsson, Bishop of Skálholt
 Muircheartach Ua Briain, High King of Ireland
 Domnall mac Muirchertaig ua Briain, King of Dublin
 Rogan mac Domnaill meic Conchobair, King of Ui Failghe
 William, Count of Évreux
 William III, Count of Angoulême
 Lithuise of Blois
 Milo II, lord of Montlhéry
 Hugh I, Count of Rethel
 Gerberge I, Countess of Provence
 Philip Halsten, King of Sweden
 Maur, Bishop of Krakow
 Basil the Physician, Bogomil leader
 Arnulf of Chocques, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem
 Mehmed I of Great Seljuk, Seljuk sultan
Al-Mustazhir, Abbasid caliph
 Arslan Shah, Ghaznavid emperor
Year 1107 (MCVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events 
 William Warelwast becomes Bishop of Exeter. 
 Emperor Toba ascends the throne of Japan.
 Chinese money printed in 3 colours to stymie counterfeiting.
 Alexander I inherits the Scottish crown with the death of Edgar of Scotland.
 The highly cultivated emperor of China, Emperor Huizong of Song, writes his Treatise on Tea.

Births 
 June 12 — Emperor Gaozong of Song of China (d. 1187)
 Henry II of Austria (d. 1177)

Deaths 
 January 8 — King Edgar of Scotland (b. 1074)
 August 9 — Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079)
 Robert Fitzhamon, Lord of Gloucester
 Kilij Arslan I, Sultan of Rüm
 Roger Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk
 Cheng Yi, Song Dynasty Chinese Neo-Confucian philosopher (b. 1033)
 Mi Fu, Chinese poet, painter, and calligrapher (born 1051)
Events 
 The Domesday Book is completed in England.
 Emperor Shirakawa of Japan starts his cloistered rule.
 The Imam Ali Mosque is rebuilt by the Seljuk Malik Shah I after being destroyed by fire.
 May 24 — Pope Victor III succeeds Pope Gregory VII as the 158th pope, though he does not accept election until May 9, 1087.
 October 23 – Battle of az-Zallaqah: Alfonso VI of León and Castile is defeated by the Almoravids, who had been called into Spain by Abbad III of Sevilla.

Deaths 
 May 21 — Richilde, Countess of Mons and Hainaut
 May 21 — Wang Anshi, Chinese statesman, economist and poet (b. 1021)
 July 17 — King Canute IV of Denmark (b. 1043)
 September 25 — William VIII, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 1025)
 Sima Guang, Chinese historian and statesman (b. 1019)
Events 
 June 4 — Henry III becomes King of Germany. 
 The Abbey of Bec is founded.
 Bretislav I of Bohemia invades Poland.

Deaths 
 10 March — Eudes of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony
 June 4 — Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor
 Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig, Prince of Gwynedd
 Unsuri, Persian poet
1030 (MXXX) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the thirtieth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.

Events

Europe 
 July 29 — Battle of Stiklestad (Norway): Olav Haraldsson loses to the people he ruled and is killed in the fight. The people he lost to were called "pagan" because they were not Christian. Later on, Olav is made a saint and is called the patron saint of Norway and Rex perpetuum Norvegiae ('the eternal king of Norway', or 'King of Norway forever').
 The city of Kaunas in Lithuania is founded.
 The city of Tartu in Estonia is founded. 
 Thalwil, Switzerland, is talked about for the first time
 Henry I of France fights against his father Robert.
Asia 
 The Song Dynasty Chinese historian and scholar Ouyang Xiu earned his jinshi degree at the age of 22 by passing the highest level tests in the country. This was his third time to take the test. This degree let him work for the government as a scholar-official.
 Byzantine Emperor Romanus III attacks Syria.
 Masud begins to rule the Ghaznavid Empire after the death of his father Mahmud.

Births 
 July 26 — Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Saint Stanislaw (died 1079)
 Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders (died 1070)
 Roger I de Montgomery, Norman nobleman, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury (died 1093)
 Vsevolod I of Kiev (died 1093)

Deaths 
 April 30 — Mahmud of Ghazni
 July 19 — Adalberon, bishop of Laon
 July 29 — King Olaf II of Norway (born 995)
 September 30 — William V, Duke of Aquitaine (born 969)

References
Events of 1448 
January 5/ 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden dies with no designated heir, leaving all three kingdoms with vacant thrones. Brothers Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna and Nils Jönsson Oxenstierna are selected to serve as co-regents of Sweden.
June 20 – The Regency period of Sweden ends with the election of Karl Knutsson Bonde as King Charles VIII of Sweden.
June 28 – Charles VIII of Sweden is publicly hailed as king at Mora Stones.
September 28 – Christian of Oldenburg, betrothed to Queen Dowager Dorothea of Brandenburg, becomes King Christian I of Denmark.
October 17 – Battle of Kosovo – Hungarian forces under John Hunyadi are defeated by the Turks due to the treachery of Prince Dan of Wallachia and George Brankovic of Serbia.
Queens' College, Cambridge founded by Margaret of Anjou.
Vatican Library founded by Pope Nicholas V.
Vlad III the Impaler becomes reigning Prince of Wallachia for two months before being deposed by Vladislav II.
Births 
November 4 – King Alphonso II of Naples (died 1495)
date unknown
Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia (died 1478)
Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine (died 1473)

Deaths 
January 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (born 1418)
September 23 – Adolph I, Duke of Cleves (born 1373)
October 31 – John VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (born 1390)
date unknown – Zhu Quan, Prince of Ning, Chinese general (born 1391)
Events 
January 6 – Constantine XI is crowned Byzantine Emperor, at Mistra. He was the last in a line of rulers that can be traced to the founding of Rome.
April 7 – The last Antipope, Felix V abdicates.
April 19 – Pope Nicholas V elected by the Council of Basel
April 25 – The Council of Basel dissolves itself.
August 13 – Brandenburg Margrave Albrecht Achilles takes the Lichtenau fortress from Nuremberg in the First Margrave War.
September 8 – Battle of Tumu Fortress – the Oirat Mongols defeat the  Ming Dynasty army and capture the Zhengtong Emperor of China; the latter is officially deposed while his brother ascends as the Jingtai Emperor the next year in 1450.
 October 29 – French recapture Rouen from the English
Births 
January 1 – Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian statesman (died 1492)
October 21 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (died 1478)
date unknown – Domenico Ghirlandaio, Italian artist (died 1494)
probable – Ilham Ghali khan of Kazan Khanate, (died 1490)

Deaths 
May 20 – Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra (born 1392)
October 27 – Ulugh Beg, Timurid ruler and astronomer (born 1394)
date unknown
Anne Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick (born 1443)
Alexander of Islay, Earl of Ross, Lord of the Isles
Events 
 Burma's Pagan empire begins to disintegrate after being defeated by Kublai Khan at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan, at Yunnan near the Chinese border.
 Some 50,000 leaders and citizens of the Southern Song Dynasty of China become the first recorded inhabitants of Macau, as they seek refuge from the invading Mongol Empire. They also stayed for a short period in Kowloon. Some hundred years later the place where they stayed became Sung Wong Toi.
 Mamluk sultan Baibars invades Anatolia and captures the emirates which once composed the Sultanate of Rüm.
 Llywelyn ap Gruffyd is subdued by King Edward I of England in the First Welsh War.
 St George's cross is first used as the flag of England.
 The philosophical doctrine Averroism is banned from Paris at a condemnation at the University of Paris.
 In Japan, a 20 kilometer stone wall defending the coast of Hakata Bay in Fukuoka is completed; it is built in response to the attempted invasion by the Mongol Empire in 1274.
November 25 – Pope Nicholas III succeeds Pope John XXI as the 188th pope.
 Third Mongol Golden Horde raid against Lithuania.
Births 
 Sempad of Armenia (died c. 1310)
 Isabella of Mar, first wife of Robert Bruce (approximate date; died 1296)

Deaths 
 May 1 – Stefan Uros I of Serbia
 May 20 – Pope John XXI (born 1215)
 July 1 – Baibars, Mameluk sultan of Egypt (born 1223)
 October 27 – Walter de Merton, Lord Chancellor of England and founder of Merton College, Oxford
 Folke Johansson Ängel, Archbishop of Uppsala
Events

Europe

War and politics 
 April 22 – The first of the Statutes of Westminster are passed by the English parliament, establishing a series of laws in its 51 clauses, including equal treatment of rich and poor, free and fair elections, and definition of bailable and non-bailable offenses.
 Eleanor de Montfort is captured by pirates in the employ of Edward I of England to prevent her marriage to Llywelyn the Last, prince of Wales; she is used as a bargaining chip over the coming years in Edward's attempts to subjugate Llywelyn and Wales.
 Scottish forces defeat the Manx of the Isle of Man in a decisive battle, firmly establishing Scottish rule of the island.
 Third Mongol Golden Horde raid against Lithuania.
Culture, religion, and science 
 Jean de Meun completes the French allegorical work of fiction, Roman de la Rose, with a second section; the first section was written by Guillaume de Lorris in 1230.
 The verge escapement, a simple type of escapement used in clocks, is invented (exact year unknown).
 Ramon Llull establishes a school in Majorca to teach Arabic to preachers in an attempt to aid proselytizing to Moors. He also discovers diethyl ether.
 The first main survey of the Hundred Rolls, an English census seen as a follow up to the Domesday Book completed in 1086, is finished; it began in 1274.
Asia 
 March – the 200,000 multiethnic troops of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, headed by the Turkish commander Bayan, face a Chinese Song Dynasty army of 130,000 led by the Song Chancellor Jia Sidao. The result is a decisive victory for the Yuan Dynasty, and soon after the much-vilified Jia Sidao is stripped of rank and title, and killed by one of his own guards as he is sent to exile in Fujian by the Song court.
 Invading Mongol forces capture the Chinese city of Suzhou.
 Marco Polo purportedly visits Xanadu, Kublai Khan's summer capital of the Mongol Empire.
 The city of Kunming is made capital of the Yunnan province of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.
 Nestorian monk Rabban Bar Sauma begin his pilgrimage from China towards Jerusalem
 Chinese astronomers observe a total eclipse of the Sun in China on March 4.
Eras and population estimates 
 The era of the tosafot, Medieval commentators on the Talmud, ends (began 1100).
 The population of Bushmen in Basutoland (modern-day Lesotho) is estimated at 125,000.
 The Japanese era Bun'ei ends, and the Kenji era begins.

Births 
 September 27 – John II, Duke of Brabant (died 1312)
 William of Alnwick, Franciscan theologian (approximate date; died 1333)
 Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Lord Badlesmere (died 1322)
 Walter V of Brienne, Duke of Athens (approximate date; died 1311)
 Edward Bruce, Scottish nobleman (approximate date; died 1318)
 Dnyaneshwar, Hindu saint and poet (died 1296)
 Gediminas, Duke of Lithuania (approximate date; died 1341)
 Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor (approximate date; died 1313)
 Mondino de Liuzzi, Italian physician and anatomist (died 1326)
 John Menteith, Scottish nobleman (approximate date; died 1323)
 Giovanni Villani, Florentine writer (approximate date; died 1348)
 Giovanni d'Andrea, Italian jurist
Deaths 
 April 13 – Eleanor of England (born 1215)
 September 24 – Humphrey de Bohun, 2nd Earl of Hereford, Constable of England (born 1208)
 Bohemund VI of Antioch (born 1237)
 Ferdinand de la Cerda, Infante of Castile, Crown Prince of Castile
Events

Europe 
 June 19 – King Louis IX of France orders all Jews found in public without an identifying yellow badge to be fined ten livres of silver.
 Pélerin de Maricourt first describes magnetic poles and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles.
 King Otakar II of Bohemia inherits Carinthia and part of Carniola, making him the most powerful prince within the Holy Roman Empire; the empire lacking an emperor during the ongoing great interregnum, Otakar II was one of the most powerful men in Europe.
 The construction of Blair Castle in Scotland is begun by John Comyn.

Africa 
 The Almohad dynasty of caliphs (not universally accepted) that once ruled most of North Africa and Al-Andalus (Moorish Spain) is extinguished when Idris II is murdered in the dynasty's last remaining possession, Marrakesh.
 The Berber Marinid completes the conquest of Morocco, replacing the Almohad dynasty which it defeated in Marrakesh.
Asia 
 The Eastern Orthodox Patriarchy of Antioch returns to Antioch after a 171-year exile, during which it had been replaced by the Latin Patriarch of Antioch.

Births 
 Philip of Artois
 Huang Gongwang, Chinese painter (died 1354)
 Vedantadesika, Hindu poet and philosopher

Deaths 
 John de Balliol, father of John Balliol, King of Scotland
 Svarn, King of Galicia
Events

Europe 
 February 26 – In the Battle of Benevento, an army led by Charles, Count of Anjou, defeats a combined German and Sicilian force led by King Manfred of Sicily. Manfred is killed in the battle and Pope Clement IV invests Charles as king of Sicily and Naples.
 July – Mary de Ferrers ordered to surrender land and Liverpool Castle to Edmund, second son of Henry III.
 October – In England, the Second Barons' War winds down as supporters of the slain rebel leader Simon de Montfort make an offer of peace to the king in the Dictum of Kenilworth; after slight modifications to the peace settlement, it is agreed to the following year.
 The war between Scotland and Norway ends as King Alexander III of Scotland and King Magnus VI of Norway agree to the Treaty of Perth, which cedes the Western Isles and Isle of Man to Scotland in exchange for a large monetary payment.
 In France, the gold écu and silver grosh coins are minted for the first time.
Asia 
 Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, brother and uncle of Marco Polo reach Kublai Khan's capital Khanbaliq (now Beijing) in China, setting the stage for Marco's famous expedition starting five years later. Kublai Khan sends the Polos back with a message requesting the pope dispatch western scholars to teach in the Mongol Empire; however, this request is largely ignored.
 The Mamluk sultan Baibars expands his domain, capturing the city of Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) and the important castle of Toron from crusader states, and defeating the Armenians at Cilicia.

Births 
 Hethum II of Armenia (died 1307)
 Beatrice Portinari, Dante Alighieri's beloved and guide through Heaven in The Divine Comedy (died 1290)
Deaths 
 February 26 – King Manfred of Sicily
 October 21 – Birger jarl, Swedish regent and founder of Stockholm (born about 1210)
 Berke, khan of the Golden Horde
 Hugh Bigod, Justiciar of England
 Ariq Boke, regent of the Mongol Empire
 Eudes of Burgundy, Count of Nevers (born 1230)
 John of Ibelin, jurist of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (born 1215)
 Duke Świętopełk II of Pomerania
 Marie de Saint-Clair, grand master of the Priory of Sion
 May 7 — Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar
Coelurosauria is the clade containing all theropod dinosaurs more closely related to birds than to carnosaurs.

This is a varied group that includes tyrannosaurs, ornithomimosaurs, compsognathids and maniraptors; Maniraptora includes birds, the only descendents of coelurosaurs alive today.

All Paraves discovered so far have been coelurosaurs. It is probable that all coelurosaurs were feathered.

Some diagnostic characteristics of coelurosaurs include elongated arms and well-developed hinge-like ankles (possible rotation of the ankle is reduced, which is helpful during locomotion). These features may be lost or modified by later coelurosaurs (birds, for example).

An increase in the proportion of the brain occupied by the cerebrum seems to have occurred in the Coelurosauria and "continued throughout the evolution of maniraptorans and early birds".
Fossil history
A few fossil traces of the Coelurosauria date back as far as the Upper Triassic. A possible, but not confirmed, example would be the archosaur Protoavis. What has been found between then and the start of the late Jurassic is fragmentary.

Many nearly complete fossil coelurosaurians are known from the late Jurassic. Archaeopteryx is known from Solnhofen limestone at 155-150 million years ago (mya). Ornitholestes, the troodontid WDC DML 110, Coelurus fragilis and Tanycolagreus topwilsoni are all known from the Morrison Formation in Wyoming at about 150 mya. Epidendrosaurus and Pedopenna are known from the Daohugou Beds in China, whose age is still being debated, but may be about 160 Ma or 145 mya.

The wide range of fossils in the late Jurassic and morphological evidence suggests that coelurosaurian differentiation was virtually complete before the end of the Jurassic.
In the early Cretaceous, a superb range of coelurosaurian fossils (including avians) are known from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning. All known theropod dinosaurs from the Yixian Formation are coelurosaurs. Many of the coelurosaurian lineages survived to the end of the Cretaceous period (about 65 Ma) and fossils of some lineages, such as the Tyrannosauroidea, are best known from the late Cretaceous. Most coelurosaur groups became extinct in the K/T extinction event. Only the Neornithes (modern birds) survived, and continued to diversify into the numerous forms found today.

There is consensus among paleontologists that birds are the descendants of coelurosaurs. Birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora.

Related pages
 Origin of birds

References
Maniraptors ("hand snatchers") is a clade of coelurosaurian dinosaurs starting in the Jurassic period.

Many paleontologists believe birds evolved from them some 150 or so million years ago. Hence, according to phylogenetic taxonomy, birds are by definition maniraptors, and the other maniraptors are their closest relatives. It is now known, from the Jehol biota, that many or all of this clade had feathers. They are often called dinobirds.

The most primitive (basal) member of the group may be Ornitholestes, and the most advanced (derived) of the non-bird maniraptors is Velociraptor and Deinonychus.

Coelurosaurs
IEEE 802.1 is the name for a number of high-level protocols  for computer networks. In this context, IEEE 802.1X helps secure such a network. It defines methods to authenticate devices and to authorise the access to certain resources. A dedicated server checks information received from a "supplicant". Depending on the result of the check, access to the given resource is granted or denied.

Other websites
 IEEE page on 802.1X 
 IEEE standard can be retrieved at no charge through the GetIEEE802 program:  
 Using 802.1x port authentication to control who can connect to your network 
 Configure RADIUS for secure 802.1x wireless LAN
 How to self-sign a RADIUS server for secure 802.1x PEAP or EAP-TTLS authentication
 Configuring  FreeRADIUS for 802.1x
 WIRE1x  
 Deployment of IEEE 802.1X for Wired Networks Using Microsoft Windows
 Steve Riley's article on the 802.1x vulnerabilities

Computer protocols
A software development kit (SDK or "devkit") is usually a set of development tools that allows a software developer to create applications for a certain software package, software framework, hardware platform, computer system, video game console, operating system, or similar platform. 

SDKs vary greatly between a simple application programming interface to hardware used to simulate a system.

Software