Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Huge distances 
Since the distance that some birds travel on migration can be enormous, why such huge distances? Migration is useful for the birds, because the seasonal differences are to the birds' advantage. So far as is known, migration instincts are inherited: the birds cannot make a personal choice in the matter. All the same, in some species not all migrate. There is a cost to migration in the number of birds which die en route. There is an advantage only if the birds which migrate have a better chance of leaving descendants. Studies of migration have been done since the 18th century. There is still much we do not know about it.

Historically, bird migration would have started when the continents were close together. It might have started in the Upper Cretaceous or the Palaeocene. Then. as the continents drifted apart, the bird migrations got longer and longer. That makes sense, and probably is what happened. There is no direct evidence.
How do they do it? 
Biomagnetism is part of the answer. There are crystals of magnetite which occur in many birds (and some other orgainisms). There is also a chemical basis for cellular sensitivity to electric and magnetic fields (galvanotaxis).

Related pages 
 Shoaling and schooling
 Human migration

References

 Baker R.R. 1978. The evolutionary ecology of animal migration. New York: Holmes & Meyer.

Ecology
Zoology
Ethology
Scent marks are what animals leave when they are marking their territory. The leader of the pack rubs his/her scent on his/her pack. This helps establish which animal belongs to which pack, and also which animal is the leader.

Other websites 

Ethology

en:Territory (animal)#Spraying
Maputo is the capital of Mozambique. It is on the coast of the Indian Ocean. As of 2004, about 1,114,000 people live in the city. Maputo was founded in the 18th century. The original name was Lourenço Marques, but it was changed after independence. Lisbon in Portugal is a twin town of Maputo. Eduardo Mondlane University is in Maputo.

Baixa de Maputo is a historic district.

National capitals in Africa
Provinces of Mozambique
Geography of Mozambique
The concept of original sin refers generally to the Christian belief in the universal nature of sin. Original sin is considered to be the result of the story of Adam and Eve in The Bible.  In that story (Genesis 3), God only made one rule for them: They must not eat fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. But the snake told Eve, that eating the fruit would make Eve like God. Eve then persuaded Adam to eat the fruit. After they had broken  God's only rule, they were removed from the Garden of Eden.

Then Genesis tells the story of how their oldest son Cain killed his brother Abel. Based mostly on this and many other stories and passages in the Bible and Saint Paul's statement in Romans 5:12 (Sin entered the world because one man, Adam, sinned, and death came because of sin. Everyone sinned, so death came to all people.--NIV), Christians traditionally believe that no human is without sin.
More specifically the term "original sin" refers to the state of being part of the human race. Every human is born with sin. Salvation can only be obtained through faith. 

This was first explained fully by Saint Augustine in his writings against the Pelagians. The Eastern Orthodox Churches do not believe in this specific doctrine of Original Sin.

Christian theology
American Airlines, Inc. (AA) is the largest airline of the United States. It is based in Fort Worth It was founded in 1930 with the name American Airways. 82 small airlines were combined in 1930 to form American. In 1934, the name was officially changed to American Airlines. American was the first airline to have computerized reservations, a frequent-flyer program and an airline lounge. In 1999, American helped start Oneworld. In 2001, American bought TWA. In 2011, American filed for bankruptcy. American was combined with US Airways in 2013. In 2016, American will introduce a new no-frills fare. This is to compete with many low-cost carriers.

Accidents and incidents (only 5 listed) 
 American Airlines Flight 191 (1979)
 American Airlines Flight 70 (1988)
 American Airlines Flight 11 (2001)
 American Airlines Flight 77 (2001)
 American Airlines Flight 587 (2001)

Gallery

References

Other websites 

 American Airlines official website
American Airlines Video and Audio on MarketWatch
1926 establishments in the United States
Airlines of the United States
Companies based in Texas
Fort Worth, Texas
United Airlines, commonly referred to as United, is a major American airline. It was founded in Boise, Idaho in 1926 and it is currently the second largest airline in the United States to date. It is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. On May 3, 2010, it was announced that Continental Airlines would merge with United to become one company. The new airlines will take the United name but use Continental's globe identity and livery. There was a lot of negative reaction to the new livery.  Most people were in favor of the iconic "Tulip" logo, designed by Saul Bass in 1973.

Accidents and incidents
The following is a handful of memorable incidents involving United Airlines flights;

United Airlines Flight 826 on December 16, 1960.
United Airlines Flight 553 on December 8, 1972.
United Airlines Flight 811 on February 24, 1989.
United Airlines Flight 232
September 11 attacks
United Airlines Flight 175 at 9:03 a.m.
United Airlines Flight 93 at 10:03 a.m.
United Airlines Flight 328 on February 20, 2021.

Gallery
Gallery

References

Other websites

 

Airlines of the United States
History of Chicago
Star Alliance
1926 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Idaho
IATA members
Companies based in Chicago
Romanization or Latinization of Ukrainian is how to write the Ukrainian language in Latin letters. Latin letters are the type that are currently used for this article.

This makes the language easier for non-Ukrainian people to read and pronounce.

There are two different kinds of Romanization. These methods are transliteration, representing written text, and transcription, representing the spoken words.

Transliteration 
Transliteration is the letter-for-letter representation of text using a Latin writing system.

The International scholarly system, also called scientific transliteration, is most often seen in linguistic publications about Slavic languages. Each character represents one phoneme, one meaningful unit of sound. This is based on the Croatian Latin alphabet.

Transcription
Transcription is the representation of the spoken word. Phonetic transcription represents every single sound, or phone, and can be used to compare different dialects of a language. It is more specifed as the Transliteration.
Table of latinization Ukrainian letters

 a Notes for the Ukrainian National system
 Transliteration can be rendered in a simplified form:
 Doubled consonants ж, х, ц, ч, ш are simplified, for example Запоріжжя→Zaporizhia.
 Apostrophe and soft sign are omitted, except for ьо and ьї which are always rendered as ’o and ’i.
b. gh is used in the romanization of зг (zgh), avoiding confusion with ж (zh).
c. The second variant is used at the beginning of a word.

Romanization
Magical DoReMi is a shojo anime that follows the adventures of three elementary school girls as they help Majo Rika turn back into a human being. The anime is geared at girls aged 7-14. 

The series aired in Japan on TV Asahi between February 1999 and January 2003. It has four seasons and 201 episodes. There are also 2 spin-off seasons and 3 fillms, the newest being "Looking For Witch Apprentices".

Characters
Doremi Harukaze - A kind-hearted, but clumsy girl with red hair. Her sister Pop often annoys her. Her theme color is pink with her fairy named Dodo. Her name in the English dub is Dorie Goodwyn.
 Pop Harukaze - Doremi's little sister with pink hair and the 4th witch. She has good behaviour, but she is annoying to Doremi. Her theme color is red with her fairy named Fafa. Her name in the English dub is Caitlyn Goodwyn.
 Hazuki Fujiwara - Doremi's friend; a smart, polite and shy girl with brown hair. Her theme color is orange with her fairy named Rere. Her name in the English dub is Reanne Griffith.
 Aiko Senoo - A friend of Doremi; a sporty country girl with blue hair. Her theme color is sky blue with her fairy named Mimi. Her name in the English dub is Mirabelle Haywood.
 Majo Rika -  a witch accidentally turned into a witch frog (a green blob) by Doremi. Her name in the English dub is Patina.
Lala - Majo Rika's fairy with blonde hair, who is warm hearted to the Witch Apprentices. Her name in the English dub is Lorelei.
 Onpu Segawa - The 4th witch with violet hair of the show. Her theme color is purple with her fairy named Roro. Her name in the English dub is Ellie Craft.
 Momoko Asuka - The 5th witch with fluorescent yellow hair of the show. Her theme color is yellow with her fairy named Nini.
 Hana Makihatayama - The 6th witch with lemon yellow hair of the show. Her theme colors are white and lemon yellow with her fairy named Toto.
Story

The story begins in a town named Misora. Doremi Harukaze is a third-grader who is interested in magic.  After a bad day at school, Doremi wanders into a part of town that is unfamiliar.  She then sees Maho-Do, an old magic shop, and decides to look inside.  There she finds Majo Rika. As Doremi looks around she finds out that it is a real magic shop and that Majo Rika is a witch.  When Doremi says this to Majo Rika, she turns into a Witch Frog.  After this, Majo Rika and her fairy, Lala, decide to teach Doremi how to become a witch, so she can change Majo Rika back from a witch frog.  Doremi happily agrees, wanting to learn magic.
Doremi becomes a witch in training, called a "Witch Apprentice".  Doremi practices using magic. She learns what it is like to be a witch from her experiences.  After something very strange happens, Doremi's friends begin to ask questions.  Doremi decides to take Hazuki and Aiko to Maho-Do.  At Maho-Do, they learn what happened with Doremi and also become witch apprentices so they keep it a secret.

The series follows the lives of Doremi, Hazuki, and Aiko as they learn, train, and pass tests to become witches.

In the next season, "Ojamajo Doremi Sharp", they discover a magical rose garden, which they witnessed the birth of a magical baby, called Hana-chan.

Other websites 
English
 4Kids TV Magical DoReMi website  - The official website for the English dub.
Japanese
 Toei Animation Homepage - Magical DoReMi Japanese Market management and headquarter
 Toei Animation Ojamajo Doremi website - The official website to the first season of the series.
1999 anime television series
2000 anime television series
2000 manga
2001 anime television series
2001 manga
2002 anime television series
Children's television series
Friedrich Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher and writer. At first, he was a professor at the University of Basel. He worked in a part of classical studies called classical philology. He later wrote several books of philosophy, and is now known as one of the most important thinkers of modern times. Although it was never proven, there is evidence to show that he considered being a trans-female.

Beliefs 

Nietzsche wrote a lot about how people make decisions and about how they live their lives. He attacked most of the moral ideas that were popular at the time because he did not believe that there were any real facts about what was right or wrong. He thought people should create their facts about morality.
He also often attacked the ideas of the Christian religion - he believed that the Christian idea that one should feel pity when one sees weakness was unhelpful. According to him, weak people rely on other people's love as a way of protecting themselves. Nietzsche believed that people should be stronger than that.

He thought that people should be very aware of their bodies and of the real world in which they live. He told his readers not to live in a daydream or make decisions based on unrealistic thoughts. He believed that ideas of heaven came from an inability to cope with life in the world.

Nietzsche considered the world to be one connected thing, including mankind and nature. He invented the idea of the "will to power". This idea is that everyone and everything is trying to overcome itself, or defeat or take control of itself. Therefore, if the world is just one thing, this is the force that makes the world.
Nietzsche thought that human beings would be successful at overcoming themselves, and he thought that when they did, they would be different and better. He named the person who would do this someday "Superman" (or "Übermensch" in German). He thought that the supermen would be stronger than normal humans, and not restricted by other people's ideas of right and wrong.

Influence 
Adolf Hitler, the German Chancellor and leader of the Nazis in World War II, read Nietzsche's work.  Some people say that Hitler did not understand Nietzsche's ideas, but he used them to try to show that his actions were right. Hitler and Benito Mussolini used the term "Übermensch" to refer to the Aryan race. However he was not popular among all fascists.
Nietzsche wrote in a very fiery and exciting way. However, what he wrote later in his life became more and more odd. When he was forty years old, Nietzsche went insane. Supposedly, one day in the city of Turin, Italy, he saw a horse being whipped by its owner and ran to save it, hugging it around the throat. After this, Nietzsche never wrote again and could not look after himself. This illness may have been caused by the disease syphillis, or a brain tumour.

His writing and ideas are still popular and of interest to academics and intellectuals.

In the late 1880s Georg Brandes developed a philosophy called "aristocratic radicalism" inspired by Nietzsche's idea of the "overman." 

Nietzsche is associated with anarchism, but his writing seems to have a negative opinion of anarchists. Anarcha-feminist Emma Goldman was deeply influenced by his work.

Ideas 
The Death of God
The Übermensch (Overman)
The Will to Power
Apollo & Dionysus
Master & Slave Morality
Amor Fati (Love of Fate)
Eternal Recurrence
References

Other websites 
 Nietzsche and Lou Andreas-Salomé

1844 births
1900 deaths
19th-century German philosophers
Continental philosophers
German atheists
Writers from Saxony-Anhalt
Academics of the University of Basel
A movie screen is a surface on which a movie projector plays a movie.  They are sometimes a wall, sometimes a cloth, and sometimes paper.  Theaters have movie screens, and some people have them at home.  Movable movie screens are made to be used where there is not a movie screen already.  Screens are white or grey so that the movie shows up nicely on the screen. This lets the people watching the movie see it easily.
Modern day movie screens are made from PVC sheets that are joined together by welding in such a way that the screen appears to be in a single piece. 

Movie industry
Metallica is an American thrash metal/heavy metal band. The band started in Los Angeles in 1981, and helped make the thrash sub-genre of heavy metal. The band is one of the "Big Four" of early thrash metal, with Megadeth, Slayer, and Anthrax. They are well known for many of their songs, including "Master of Puppets", "The Unforgiven", "One", "Enter Sandman", and "Nothing Else Matters". Since then, they have become one of the most popular and successful bands in metal, and have sold over 100 million albums worldwide. The band's fifth album, Metallica, has sold over 22 million copies, making it one of the top 20 best selling albums of all time. Metallica's current members are guitarist and singer James Hetfield, drummer Lars Ulrich, guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Robert Trujillo. Hetfield and Ulrich write most of the band's songs.
Metallica became popular when they released their third album, Master of Puppets, in 1986. It is called the band's best album. The band was nominated for a Grammy Award for their fourth album, ...And Justice For All, in 1988. Their next album, Metallica, was their most popular. The band's latest studio album is Hardwired... to Self-Destruct. The band will release a new album 72 Seasons in 2023. Metallica has sold over 125 total albums.

Band history
Band starts
The band formed after drummer Lars Ulrich placed an advertisement in a newspaper saying that he was looking for musicians to help him cover songs by Tygers of Pang Tang, Diamond Head, and Led Zeppelin. James Hetfield, a guitarist who would become the lead singer of Metallica, answered the advertisement. Later, Lars and James would be joined by another young guitar player looking for a band named Dave Mustaine. Ulrich, Hetfield, Mustaine, and bass player Ron McGovney started playing in the band. Ulrich and Hetfield saw another bass player, Cliff Burton, playing at a concert, and asked him to join the band to replace McGovney. This was because McGovney was having trouble getting along with other band members. Burton joined the band after Ulrich and Hetfield agreed to move from Los Angeles to San Francisco. In 1983, Mustaine was kicked out of the band for his drug and alcohol problems and violent behavior, and was replaced with guitarist Kirk Hammett who left his previous band, Exodus
. Mustaine went on to form his own band named Megadeth. They became very popular in the metal scene, and have become one of Metallica's metal contemporaries, along with Slayer and Anthrax. All four bands are known as the "Big Four" of thrash metal.
Successful albums 
In 1983, Metallica released their first studio album Kill 'Em All, on which few of the songs were still credited to Mustaine. One year later, Metallica released their second studio album Ride the Lightning. "Ride the Lightning" and "The Call of Ktulu," the album's final track, were the band's last songs to give Dave Mustaine writing credits. Metallica was one of few bands at the time to deviate from the then popular hair/glam metal trend that was taking place during the 1980s, led by bands like Poison and Mötley Crüe.

In 1986, Metallica released their third studio album, Master of Puppets, which is widely considered to be one of the greatest heavy metal albums of all time. On September 27, 1986, Cliff Burton was killed when the band's tour bus crashed in Sweden. Burton was subsequently replaced by Jason Newsted after auditioning.
With Newsted as bassist, Metallica released their fourth studio album ...And Justice for All, reaching #6 on the Billboard 200. The album features the song "One," which won a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1990. The album is criticized for its production and inaudible bass guitar, which is commonly believed to be a result of Jason Newsted's hazing, during which the other members turned down the bass guitar volume on the album. The album is also known for having much more complex song structures than previous albums.

Metallica reached even greater success with their self-titled fifth studio album, which debuted at #1 on the Billboard 200 and has sold over 15 million copies in the United States. The album won a Grammy for Best Metal Performance in 1992, being Metallica's third consecutive Grammy (the second being their cover of Queen's "Stone Cold Crazy").
Stage accident 
On August 8, 1992, when the band was playing in Montreal, James Hetfield accidentally walked into a 12 foot high blast of fire on stage. He had second and third degree burns. Fortunately, he recovered and was performing with the band again seventeen days after the accident.

Metallica's music shifted towards a more mainstream hard rock style, and continued their success with Load and ReLoad, released in 1996 and 1997, which both debuted at #1 on the Billboard 200. Despite the albums' success, many fans were unhappy with the large change of style from Metallica's previous albums.

In 1998, Metallica released Garage, Inc., which was an album of cover songs by many of the artists that influenced Metallica, such as Motörhead, Mercyful Fate, Thin Lizzy, and Blue Öyster Cult.
In 2001, Newsted left Metallica to start his own project, Echobrain, much against the band's wishes, particularly James Hetfield. Their eighth studio album, St. Anger, was released in 2003, with producer Bob Rock playing bass after Newsted's departure. St. Anger also debuted at #1 on the Billboard 200, but was even further disliked by fans than Load and Reload. Shortly after the release of St. Anger, bassist Robert Trujillo joined the band after a long auditioning process with many bassists. At Trujillo's request, his audition song was Battery, a very fast-paced song from Master of Puppets.
Death Magnetic, the band's ninth studio album, was released in September 2008, and debuted at #1 on the Billboard 200, making Metallica the first band to achieve five consecutive #1 albums in United States. Death Magnetic showed a return to the band's thrash metal roots. From 2008 to 2010, Metallica performed their World Magnetic Tour supporting the album's release. The tour concluded in Melbourne, Australia November 21, 2010.

In June 2010, Metallica attended the Sonisphere Festival in Sofia, Bulgaria with the rest of the Big 4, alongside Anthrax, Megadeth and Slayer. Between Metallica's encores, all four bands took the stage to perform "Am I Evil?" by Diamond Head.

In 2011, Lulu, a collaboration album between Metallica and Lou Reed, was released. Many Metallica fans were dissatisfied due to stylistic differences between Reed and Metallica, but the album has managed to garner success.
In October 2013, Hetfield stated in an interview that the band would start working on their next album in early 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/metallica-106-1243995|title=Metallica's James Hetfield says band are 'itchin to start work on new album|last=NME|date=9 October 2013|website=NME}}</ref>

 Band members 
Current lineup
 James Hetfield – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1981–present)
 Lars Ulrich – drums (1981–present)
 Kirk Hammett – lead guitar, backing vocals (1983–present)
 Robert Trujillo – bass, backing vocals (2003–present)
Former
 Dave Mustaine – lead guitar, backing vocals (1982–1983)
 Ron McGovney – bass (1982)
 Cliff Burton – bass, backing vocals (1982–1986; died 1986)
 Jason Newsted – bass, backing vocals (1986–2001)
Timeline
Discography 
 Kill 'Em All (1983)
 Ride the Lightning (1984)
 Master of Puppets (1986)
 Garage Days Re-Revisited (1987)
 ...And Justice for All (1988)
 Metallica (The Black Album) (1991)
 Load (1996)
 ReLoad (1997)
 Garage, Inc. (1998)
 S&M (1999)
 St. Anger (2003)
 Death Magnetic (2008)
 Lulu (2011)
 Hardwired... to Self-Destruct (2016)
 S&M2 (2020)
 72 Seasons'' (2023)

References

 
American heavy metal bands
American hard rock bands
Thrash metal bands
Speed metal bands
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Musical groups established in 1981
A time bomb is bomb whose detonation is triggered by the timer on it or a mechanism causing it to explode. When the timer reaches zero, the bomb will explode.  

Explosives
1655 was a common year.

Events 
 March 25 – Saturn's largest moon, Titan, is discovered by Christian Huygens.
 April 7 – Fabio Chigi becomes Pope Alexander VII
 April – Admiral Robert Blake severely damages the arsenal of the Bey of Tunis.
 May 7 Pope Alexander VII is chosen to be pope.
 May 10 – English troops land on Jamaica
 August 9 – Oliver Cromwell divides England into districts under major-generals
 New Sweden (Delaware) attacked and captured by Dutch forces.
 The Bibliotheca Thysiana is erected, the only surviving 17th century example in the Netherlands of a building that was designed as a library.
 Emperor Go-Sai ascends to the throne of Japan
These are some important events that happened in the years from 1400 to 1410.



1400

 Henry IV stops the Epiphany Rising.  He kills the people who try to have Richard II of England restored as King.
 The princes of the German states remove Wenceslaus as Holy Roman Emperor.
 Rupert is elected as Holy Roman Emperor.
 Owain Glyndŵr is called Prince of Wales by his followers.  He begins attacking Englishplaces in north-east Wales.
 Manuel II Palaiologos becomes the first (and last) Byzantine Emperor to visit England.
 The Medici family becomes powerful in Florence.

Births 
 Luca della Robbia, Florentine sculptor 
 Owen Tudor, Welsh courtier (d. 1461)
Deaths
 January 5 – John Montacute, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, English politician (executed)
 January 5 – Thomas Holland, 1st Duke of Surrey, English politician (executed) 
 January 13 – Thomas le Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester, English politician (executed)
 January 16 – John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter, English politician (executed)
 February 14 – King Richard II of England (probably murdered) 
 April 28 – Baldus de Ubaldis, Italian jurist 
 June 5 – Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, rival Holy Roman Emperor
 October 25 – Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet 
 December 24 – Archibald the Grim, Scottish magnate 
 Narayana Pandit, Indian mathematician

1401
 Timur raids the city of Baghdad in the Jalayirid Empire.
A civil war starts in the Majapahit Empire in present-day Indonesia.

Births 
 May 12 – Emperor Shoko of Japan
 October 27 – Catherine of Valois, queen of Henry VI of England 
 December 21 – Tommaso Masaccio, Italian painter
Deaths 
October 20 – Klaus Störtebeker, German pirate
Anabella Drummond, queen of Scotland

1402
 King Jogaila of the Poland–Lithuania union marries Anna of Celje.  She is a granddaughter of Casimir III of Poland.
 May 21 – Following the death of Queen Maria of Sicily, her husband Martin I of Sicily marries Blanche of Navarre.
 The University of Würzburg, Germany, is founded.
 The Great Comet of 1402 is sighted.

Births 
 September 29 – Fernando, the Saint Prince of Portugal 
 Leonor of Aragon, Queen of Portugal

Deaths 
 March 26 – David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, heir to the throne of Scotland
 May 3 – João Anes, Archbishop of Lisbon
 July 13 – Jianwen Emperor of China
1403
 February 7 – King Henry IV of England marries Joanna of Navarre.
 Henry 'Hotspur' Percy forms an alliance with Welsh rebel Owain Glyndŵr.
 July 21 – Battle of Shrewsbury:  King Henry IV of England defeats a rebel army led by "Hotspur" Percy.  Percy is killed in the battle by an arrow in his face.
 In China, the Ming Emperor Yongle moves the capital from Nanjing to Beijing.
 The world's first quarantine station is built in Venice.  It is to protect against the Black Death.
 Stefan Lazarević makes Belgrade the capital of the Serbian Despotate.

Births 
 January 17 – George Kastrioti of Albania 
 February 22 – King Charles VII of France
 June 11 – John IV, Duke of Brabant 
Robert Wingfield, English politician 
Louis III of Naples
Deaths 
 May 10 – Katherine Swynford, widow of John of Gaunt
 May 12 – William de Lode, English prior
 July 23 – Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester, English rebel (executed) 
 Beyazid, Ottoman Sultan 
 Hajji Zayn al-Attar, Persian physician
 Đurađ II Stracimirović, Serbian nobleman

1404
 June 14 – Rebel leader Owain Glyndŵr allies with the French against the English. 
 October 17 – Pope Innocent VII succeeds Pope Boniface IX as the 204th pope.
 November 19 – St. Elizabeth's flood ruins parts of Flanders, Zeeland and Holland.
 Jean de Béthencourt becomes the first ruler of the Kingdom of the Canary Islands.
 Stephan Tvrtko II succeeds Stefan Ostoja as King of Bosnia.
 The University of Turin is founded.
Births 
 February 9 – Constantine XI, last Byzantine Emperor 
 February 18 – Leon Battista Alberti, Italian painter, poet, and philosopher 
 March 25 – (baptism) – John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, English military leader 
 June – Murad II, Ottoman Sultan 
 July 25 – Philip I, Duke of Brabant 
 September 10 – Gilles de Rais, French aristocrat
 October 14 – Marie of Anjou, queen of Charles VII of France 
 Yamana Sōzen, Japanese warlord and monk

Deaths 
 April 27 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy 
 September 14 – Duke Albert IV of Austria 
 September 23 – Eleanor of Arborea, ruler of Sardinia 
 September 27 – William of Wykeham, English bishop and statesman 
 October 1 – Pope Boniface IX 
 October 15 – Marie Valois, French princess 
 December 13 – Albert, Count of Holland
1405
 June 8 – Archbishop Richard le Scrope of York and Thomas Mowbray, Earl of Norfolk, were executed in York on Henry IV's orders.
 Bath Abbey is built in England.
 First written record of whiskey being drank is recorded in Ireland.  It was distilled by Catholic monks.
 Early feminist Christine de Pizan writes The Book of the City of Ladies.

Births 
 March 6 – King John II of Castile 
 May 6 – George Kastrioti, Albanian national hero 
 October 18 – Pope Pius II

Deaths 
 February 14 – Timur, Turco-Mongol monarch and conqueror 
 May 29 – Philippe de Mézières, advisor to Charles V of France

1406
 April 4 – James I becomes King of Scotland.
 October 26 – Eric of Pomerania marries Philippa, daughter of Henry IV of England.
 November 30 – Pope Gregory XII succeeds Pope Innocent VII as the 205th pope.
 December 25 – John II becomes King of Castile.
 Construction of the Forbidden City begins in Beijing.
Births 
 September 26 – Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros, English soldier and politician 
 Ulrich II of Celje 
 Lorenzo Valla, humanist

Deaths 
 January 6 – Roger Walden, English bishop
 March 19 – Ibn Khaldun, Arab historian 
 April 4 – King Robert III of Scotland
 May 4 – Coluccio Salutati, Chancellor of Florence 
 July 15 – Duke William of Austria
 August 28 – John de Sutton V 
 November 1 – Joanna, Duchess of Brabant 
 November 6 – Pope Innocent VII
 December 25 – King Henry III of Castile

1407
 April 10 – The fifth Karmapa finally visits the Ming Dynasty capital, then at Nanjing.
 November 23 – The Duke of Orleans is killed; war starts again between the Burgundians and his followers.
 Rudolfo Belenzani leads a revolt against Bishop Georg von Liechtenstein in Trento, Italy.

Births 
 March 15 – Jacob, Margrave of Baden-Baden 
 August 27 – Ashikaga Yoshikazu, Japanese shogun 
 Thomas de Littleton, English judge
Deaths 
 March 7 – Francesco I Gonzaga, ruler of Mantua
 April 23 – Olivier de Clisson, French soldier 
 November 23 – Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans, brother of Charles VI of France 
 Pero López de Ayala, Spanish soldier
 Tokugawa Chikauji, Japanese nobleman

1408
 December 13 – The Order of the Dragon is founded under King Sigismund of Hungary.
 Henry, Prince of Wales retakes Aberystwyth from Owain Glyndŵr.

Births 
 April 8 – Jadwiga of Lithuania, Polish princess

Deaths 
 May 31 – Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Japanese shogun 
 Pope Matthew of Alexandria
 Elizabeth le Despenser, English noblewoman
 John VII Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor 
 Miran Shah, son of Timur

1409
 January 1 – The Welsh surrender Harlech Castle to the English.
 December 2 – The University of Leipzig opens.
 Martin I of Aragon becomes King of Sicily.
 Ulugh Beg becomes governor of Samarkand.
 Venice buys the port of Zadar from Hungary.
Births 
 January 16 – René of Anjou 
 October 1 – Karl Knutsson, King of Sweden 
 Bernardo Rossellino, Florentine sculptor and architect

Deaths 
 May 13 – Jan z Tarnowa, Polish nobleman
 May 22 – Blanche of England, sister of King Henry V 
 July 25 – King Martin I of Sicily 
 Thomas Merke, English bishop
1412 (MCDXII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events 
January 16 – The Medici family are  made official bankers of the Papacy.
End of the reign of Emperor Go-Komatsu of Japan.
Emperor Shoko ascends to the throne of Japan.
John II of Castile, declared Valladolid laws that restricted the social rights of Jews. Among many other resrictions the laws forced Jews to wear distinctive clothes and denied from them any administrative positions.

Births 
January 6 – Joan of Arc
Events 
 February 24-25 – Rebellious soldiers kill Albrecht von Wallenstein
March 1 – Battle at Smolensk, King Ladislaus IV of Poland defeats Russian army.
March 25 – The first settlers arrive in St. Mary's City, Maryland (led by Lord Baltimore), the fourth permanent settlement in British North America.
August 18 – Urbain Grandier, a priest accused of sorcery, burned alive in Loudun, France.
September 5 and September 6 – Battle of Nördlingen (1634) results in Catholic victory

Moses Amyraut's Traite de la predestination is published
Curaçao captured by the Dutch
Treaty of Polianovska
First meeting of the Académie française
Jean Nicolet lands at Green Bay, Wisconsin
Opening of Covent Garden Market in London
English establish a settlement at Cochin, now Kochi on Malabar coast
First decennial performance of the Oberammergau Passion Plays
Oxford University Press receives its charter and becomes the second of the privileged presses

Deaths 
April 28– Urbain Grandier
Zinedine Zidane (born 23 June 1972, nicknamed Zizou, Yaz and ZZ) is a French former football player who is set to be the manager of the France national football team after the 2022 FIFA World Cup. He played for four European clubs and the French national team. He was the current manager of Real Madrid since 2016 to 2021.

Early life
Zidane was born in Marseille, France and is of Kabyle Berber descent.

Career
Zidane played for several famous football clubs, like Juventus of Italy and Real Madrid of Spain. He led France to win the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2000 European Football Championship. In 2002 he also won the UEFA Champions League for Real Madrid, which was the ninth championship for Real Madrid. Zidane was picked as the FIFA World Player of the Year three times. He led France to the 2006 World Cup final and was arguably the best player in the tournament. He is widely regarded to be one of the greatest players of his generation and of all time.
Retirement 
In 2006, Zidane announced that he would retire after the World Cup. Zidane was famous for headbutting Marco Materazzi in the chest during the 2006 FIFA World Cup final at the 110th minute of extra time and was sent off with a red card. France eventually lost 5-3 in penalties to Italy and got second place. This incident was widely known as the Zidane headbutt. There is even a sculpture of it in Doha, Qatar.

Club career statistics

|-
|1988/89||rowspan="4"|Cannes||rowspan="4"|Division 1||2||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|1989/90||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|-
|1990/91||28||1||0||0||colspan="2"|-||28||1
|-
|1991/92||31||5||0||0||4||0||35||5
|-
|1992/93||rowspan="4"|Girondins Bordeaux||rowspan="4"|Division 1||35||10||0||0||colspan="2"|-||35||10
|-
|1993/94||34||6||0||0||6||2||40||8
|-
|1994/95||37||6||3||2||4||1||44||9
|-
|1995/96||33||6||14||3||8||1||55||10
|-
|1996/97||rowspan="5"|Juventus||rowspan="5"|Serie A||29||5||9||1||10||2||48||8
|-
|1997/98||32||7||13||5||11||3||56||15
|-
|1998/99||25||2||6||0||10||0||41||2
|-
|1999/00||32||4||14||5||4||0||50||9
|-
|2000/01||33||6||7||2||4||0||44||8

|-
|2001/02||rowspan="5"|Real Madrid||rowspan="5"|La Liga||31||7||9||1||9||3||49||11
|-
|2002/03||33||9||7||3||14||3||54||15
|-
|2003/04||33||6||11||4||10||3||54||13
|-
|2004/05||29||6||0||0||10||0||39||6
|-
|2005/06||29||9||15||5||4||0||48||14
200||34||17||5||22||4||239||43
151||24||49||13||49||5||249||42
155||37||42||13||47||9||244||59
506||95||108||31||118||18||732||144
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1994||2||2
|-
|1995||6||2
|-
|1996||12||1
|-
|1997||8||1
|-
|1998||15||5
|-
|1999||6||1
|-
|2000||13||4
|-
|2001||8||2
|-
|2002||9||1
|-
|2003||7||3
|-
|2004||7||4
|-
|2005||5||2
|-
|2006||10||3
|-
!Total||108||31
|}

References
References

1972 births
Living people
1998 FIFA World Cup players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
2006 FIFA World Cup players
Footballers from Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur
Sportspeople from Marseille
Real Madrid Castilla managers
Real Madrid CF managers
Ballon d'Or winners
France at UEFA Euro 1996
France at the 1998 FIFA World Cup
France at UEFA Euro 2000
France at the 2002 FIFA World Cup
France at the 2006 FIFA World Cup
Babylon was a  city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, in present-day Iraq, about 85 kilometers (55 mi) south of Baghdad. All that remains of the original ancient city of Babylon today is a mound of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Babylon was at first a small town which sprung up at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BCE. The town flourished and became well-known and important. Babylon eclipsed Nippur as the 'holy city' of Mesopotamia. This was about from 612 to 539 BCE. It was the time Hammurabi first unified the Babylonian Empire. Babylon became the capital city of the Neo-Babylonian Empire .

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Assyrian period
During the reign of Sennacherib of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt,  It was only pacified by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 BCE, its walls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the Arakhtu, the river on the south side of the city.  This act shocked the religious conscience of Mesopotamia.  After the murder of Sennacherib by two of his sons, his successor Esarhaddon hurried to rebuild the old city.  He was crowned there, and it was where he lived for part of the year.

In the later overthrow of the Assyrian Empire, the Babylonians saw another example of divine vengeance.

Neo-Babylonian Chaldean Empire 
Babylon threw off the Assyrian rule in 612 BCE and became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Chaldean Empire.
With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of building followed, and Nebuchadnezzar II (604–561 BCE) made Babylon into one of the wonders of the ancient world.  Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including rebuilding the Etemenanki ziggurat and the construction of the Ishtar Gate — the most spectacular of eight gates that ringed the perimeter of Babylon. All that was ever found of the Original Ishtar gate was the foundation and scattered bricks.

Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world), said to have been built for his homesick wife Amyitis. Whether the gardens did exist is a matter of dispute. Historians disagree about the location, and some believe it may have been confused with gardens in Nineveh.
Persia captures Babylon
In 539 BCE, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great, the king of Persia, in the Battle of Opis. The walls of Babylon were very high and very thick. The only way into the city was through one of its many gates.  The Euphrates flowed next to the  walls and Cyrus decided to use the river to get into the city. Cyrus' troops diverted the Euphrates river. This caused the level of the river to drop allowing soldiers to enter the city.

The Babylonians had held a celebration that evening. The Persian Army took over most of the city before the Babylonians had become aware that the Persians had gotten into the city. The account was reported by Herodotus, and is also mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. Cyrus claimed the city by walking through the gates of Babylon with little or no resistance from the drunken Babylonians.
Cyrus later issued a decree allowing people, including the Jews, to return to their own land. This is mentioned in the Old Testament. It allowed Jews' temple to be rebuilt in Jerusalem.

Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king Darius the Great, Babylon became the capital city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north). It was a centre of learning and scientific advancement. In Achaemenid Persia, the Babylonian arts of astronomy and mathematics were revitalised. Babylonian scholars made maps of constellations. The city was the administrative capital of the Persian Empire. This empire was the most powerful of the then known world. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that improve our understanding of that era.
The early Persian kings had tried to keep the religious ceremonies of Marduk. By the reign of Darius III, over-taxation and numerous wars had led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the disintegration of the region. Despite three rebellions in 522 BCE, 521 BCE and 482 BCE, the land and city of Babylon remained under Persian rule for two centuries. In 331 BCE, Alexander the Great took over. Under the Parthian Empire, Babylon continued to shrink and lose importance.

References 

Mesopotamia
Events 
January 16 – Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk is tried for treason for his part in the Ridolfi plot to restore Catholicism in England.
April 1 – The Sea Beggars, Netherlandish Calvinist rebels, capture the port city of Brielle. This leads to a wave of uprisings in Holland and Zealand, leaving most of those provinces (with the exception of Amsterdam), under rebel control.
June 25 – The Sea Beggars capture the city Gorkum. Several Roman Catholic priests are put into a prison.
July 9 – The Sea Beggars hang 19 previously imprisoned Roman Catholic priests at Brielle.
August 18 – Wedding in Paris of the Huguenot King Henry III of Navarre with Marguerite de France, sister of King Charles, in a supposed attempt to reconcile Protestants and Catholics.
August 24 – St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in Paris. Catholics in Paris murder thousands of Protestants, including Gaspard de Coligny, at the order of King Charles IX. Henry of Navarre and the Prince of Condé barely escape the same fate. This brings about the Fourth War of Religion in France.
November 9 – Siege of Sancerre Catholic forces of the king lay siege to Sancerre, a Huguenot stronghold in central France. The fortified city held out for nearly eight months without bombard artillery. It was one of the last time slings were used in European history.
 December – The Duke of Alva, Spanish commander in the Netherlands, lays siege to Haarlem.
 Ending of the Muromachi period in Japan
 Tycho Brahe observes the supernova SN 1572 in Cassiopeia
 Vilcabamba, last independent part of the Inca Empire, conquered by Spanish
1359 was a common year.

Events 
 Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Orhan I (1326-1359) to Murad I (1359-1389) 
 Berlin joins the Hanseatic League.
 Margarete Maultasch, Countess of Tyrol, and her husband Louis of Bavaria are absolved from excommunication.
 Second Treaty of London signed between England and France, but rejected by the French States-General on May 25.
1389 was a common year.

Events 
 February 24 – Margaret I defeats Albert in battle, thus becoming ruler of Denmark, Norway and Sweden
 June 28 – Battle of Kosovo between Serbs and Ottomans. Both leaders, the Serbian Prince Lazar and Murad I were killed in battle.
 Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Murad I (1359-1389) to Beyazid I (1389-1402)
Genetic engineering (GE), also called genetic modification, is a branch of applied biology. It is the changing of an organism's genome using biotechnology. These methods are recent discoveries. The techniques are advanced, and full details are not given here.

This is an overview of what can be done: 
 new DNA may be inserted in the host genome by getting a DNA sequence,  and then putting this into the host organism by using a molecular biology vector. 
 genes may be removed, or "knocked out", using an enzyme called a zinc finger nuclease.
 gene targeting is a different technique which uses recombination to change a gene. It can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce mutations.
 
An organism that is altered by genetic engineering is a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria in 1973; GM mice were made in 1974. Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, including crops.
Genetic engineering techniques have been used in research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent, and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells. GM animals such as mice or zebrafish are being used for research purposes.

Critics have objected to use of genetic engineering on several grounds, including ethical concerns, ecological concerns. Economic concerns are raised by the fact GM techniques and GM organisms are subject to intellectual property law. Ecological concerns are more subtle. There is a risk that some genetically modified (GM) organisms may be better adapted to some niche in nature, and will take away some the habitat of the regular species.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was won in 2012 by John B. Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka for "the discovery that "mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent". The Nobel Prize for 
2020 was won by Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna for "the development of a method for genome editing". Together, these awards show how close we are to the practical use of genetic changes which could fix many medical problems.

Synthetic genomics 
The ability to construct long base pair chains cheaply and accurately on a large scale allows researchers to do experiments on genomes that do not exist in nature. The field of 'synthetic genomics' is beginning to enter a productive stage.
GM food 
GMOs (genetically modified organisms) are involved in controversies over GM food. Is the food produced from GM crops safe? Should it be labeled, and are GM crops needed to address the world's food needs? These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in most countries.

We can now produce and use GM and GE seeds.  Some large countries like India and China have already decided that GM farming is what they need to feed their populations. Other countries are still debating the issue. This debate involves scientists, farmers, politicians, companies and UN agencies.  Even those involved in the production of GM seedlings are not in total agreement.

Related pages 
Genome editing
Zinc finger
Gene knockout
Gene targeting
Genetically modified food

References
Kim Il Sung (, ; 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was the first leader of North Korea from 1948 until his death in 1994. His birth name was "Kim Song-ju". Kim created the Juche political idea. He ran North Korea differently than the Soviet Union and China.

By the late 1950s and during the 1960s and the 1970s, the North Korean economy preformed quite well and that many North Koreans enjoyed a higher standard of living than the South Koreans. By the 1980s however, the South started to take over. Despite this however, the North Korean economy still preformed quite well until the Fall of the Soviet Union, North Korea's biggest trading partner in 1991 where the North Korean economy declined and fell far behind the South. Kim died of a heart attack on 8 July 1994. He was succeeded by his son, Kim Jong-il.

Kim Il Sung's name means "one who becomes the sun". There are more than 300 statues of Kim Il Sung in North Korea.
 There are over 300 statues of Kim in North Korea.

Early Life and Career
Kim Il-Sung was Born Kim Song-ju on April 15, 1912 in the area of what is now Pyongyang during the Occupation of Korea by Japan. His Family participated in Anti-Japanese Resistance by Korea nationalists around the time when Kim was Born. Kim and his Family fled to Manchuria. During his Time in Manchuria, Kim was exposed to Marxism literature and joined Guerrilla activities against the Japanese by the late 1920s and early 1930s.

Resistance to Japan 

During the Japanese occupation of Korea, Kim Il Sung was involved with numerous opposition guerrilla groups.

Founding of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea
In 1945, after the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, the United States bombed Japan at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, severely weakening the Japanese Empire. The Soviet Red Army entered Japanese-Korea and captured Pyongyang with little difficulty. They made Kim Il Sung the leader of the North Korean branch of the Korean Communist Party and supplied him with modern Soviet tanks, trucks, arms and artillery for the Korean People's Army (KPA). The Democratic People's Republic of Korea was declared on September 8, 1948 despite UN resistance. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin installed Kim as leader of the new state. The southern portion of the Korean Peninsula declared itself the Republic of Korea (South Korea) in retaliation. Statues of Kim appeared in North Korea as early as 1949.

Korean War