Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Weevils are herbivorous beetles. They have a long 'snout' at the front of their head, called a rostrum. Weevils are a family, the Curculionidae, which may be the largest beetle family, with about 45,000+ named living species. That makes it the largest family in the animal kingdom. In addition, the superfamily Curculionoidea has ten more families of closely related weevil-type beetles.

Damaging pests 
The family has some pests which damage plants of interest to humans. The most famous weevil is the boll weevil, which ruins cotton crops.

The Ips genus, feeding on Ponderosa pine, introduces a fungus to the tree. The fungus blocks resin canals, which leaves the weevil free to eat. Resin would normally wash the insects out; it is a defence mechanism. The fungus often kills the tree, and groups of dead trees are a focus for forest fires. In this way the insect is indirectly responsible for serious fires.
The maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais, is a major pest. It attacks both standing crops and stored cereal products, including wheat, rice, sorghum, oats, barley, rye, buckwheat, peas, and cottonseed.

Families 
 Anthribidae—fungus weevils
 Attelabidae—leaf rolling weevils
 Belidae—primitive weevils
 Brentidae—straight snout weevils
 Caridae
 Curculionidae—true weevils
 †Mesophyletidae
 Nemonychidae—pine flower weevils
 †?Obrieniidae

New species 
Over 100 new species of weevil have been found on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi.

References 

Polyphaga
4D, meaning the common 4 dimensions, is a concept in mathematics. It has been studied by mathematicians and philosophers since the 18th century.  Mathematicians who studied four-dimension space in the 19th century include Möbius, Schläfi, Bernhard Riemann, and Charles Howard Hinton.

In geometry, the fourth dimension is related to the other three dimensions  of length, width, and depth by imagining another direction through space. Just as the dimension of depth can be added to a square to create a cube, a fourth dimension can be added to a cube to create a tesseract.
By analogy, the universe of a 2D (two dimensional) being is a plane, but this plane may curved into a sphere.  This means that if a two dimensional object goes forever forward in a straight line, the object will end up in the same position it started from.  So, applying this idea to three dimensions, we can say that our universe is curved into a fourth dimension.  Thus, if a three dimensional object walks forever in a straight line, the object will end up in its starting point. 

Going into theoretical physics, if we look with a large enough magnification into a point in our universe, it may be possible to see how the universe was (its size in light years) many years ago. As the observable universe now is 93 billion light years long and the Big Bang, theoretically, began approximately 14 billion years ago. Will it be possible to see how our universe was before the Big Bang (if there was a universe at all)?
4D is also an important idea in physics, developed in the 20th century. In physics, it refers to the idea of time as a fourth dimension, added to the (3D) spatial dimensions.  Albert Einstein developed the idea of spacetime by connecting space and time together. The difference is that spacetime is not a Euclidean space, but instead is called "Minkowski spacetime".

Further reading
RAq2w, Paradoxy vedomi. Praha: PedF UK 1994, str. 78n

Other websites
The Cube shown in Five Dimensions
[Public]

Geometry
Time
Profiling is collecting information about someone in order to describe them and/or predict their behaviour and actions. It is often used for criminals or people believed to behaving illegally. More recently used on employees in the work place to improve success

Three main types of criminal profiling 

A basic profile consists of an all points bulletin (APB). It is a visual description based on eyewitness information. 

A psychological profile is created in the absence of eyewitness information, or in addition to, using evidence to create a picture of the suspect and help the police force to understand how the suspect is behaving.

Predictive profiling attempts to predict which people might commit crimes in the future.

Criminal profiling – criminal profiling is a tool used by police forces to create a picture or idea of a suspect based on eyewitness information and any other evidence they have.

Concerns about Profiling
Some people fear profiling is taken too far by police forces and can lead to harassment and arrest based on skin colour, religious beliefs, culture, nation of origin, or any social type or group that can be stereotyped by characteristic behaviour.

Profiling in Business 

Behavioural profiling is used in business to help recruit the right person for a job, to understand how to improve morale and to drive down staff turnover, pinpoint who is ready for development and in precisely which areas; and boost people management abilities.

References

Psychology
Criminal justice
Kula is a traditional trade method that takes place in the Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea.

The Kula ring 
The Kula Exchange takes place on eighteen islands, including the Trobriand Islands, and involves thousands of people. The traders involved travel by canoe over hundreds of miles to exchange their Kula valuables. These valuables can be in the form of red shells that are traded to the North of the Islands, or in the form of white-shell armbands, which travel to the South of the Islands. Therefore creating a ‘ring’ of moving valuables throughout the islands. The terms of trade change in different regions. For example, some traders have to exchange a white armband for a necklace or must trade a red shell for a white shell armband. There are also differences on who can take part in the trading process such as in the Trobriand Islands their chiefs mainly take part in the exchange process, whereas in Dobu, anyone can take part.
Trade relationships 
The Kula valuables are mainly traded for social status and recognition in the Island region. The people that an individual trades with become trusted trade partners, creating a strong, potentially life-long relationship between the exchange parties. These relationships need trust to be provided on both sides of the trade and also a mutual agreement of safety and support for each other.

Trade methods 
Kula valuables are usually passed on to their trade partners after a certain amount of time, therefore the valuables are always moving around the Kula Ring. The person who originally owned the valuable has full ownership and rights over the item, so he can keep it, sell it or even break it. Every person who therefore receives the item, does not fully own it, as there is always a true owner. This creates a sense of responsibility over how the object is handled by other traders toward the original owner. However, the original owner is sometimes unknown, lost in the Kula Ring.
The rules of the Kula 
The ability to take part in the Kula Exchange is not immediately given to just anyone. An individual must “buy” into the system by getting involved in lower trade circles than the Kula. 

The Kula valuables are rated by value and age and so are the relationships created through their exchange. Traders will often try to collect valuable and notorious Kula objects that will boost the status of the trader’s name in the Kula Ring. Kula Exchange is based on trust, strong social obligations and the cultural value system. Those who hold on too long to their Kula valuables gain a bad reputation in the system.
Social hierarchy 
The Kula Exchange system determines many social hierarchies and authoritative positions among the trade islands. For example the chiefs living on the Trobriand Islands in the 1970s owned the most shells and also the most valuable shells.  Therefore they were responsible for most of the organization and direction of the trade systems in their region. (The Trobrianders of Papua New Guinea (1988) by Annette B. Weiner) Also, the ten most influential men among all the islands control about 90 per cent of the Kula items. With this amount of control and competition, relationships between traders become fragile and ruined by manipulation and deceit. (Malinowski, B. (1920). "Kula; the Circulating Exchange of Valuables in the Archipelagoes of Eastern New Guinea". Man (Man, Vol. 20) 20: 97–105).

References
References 

Malinowski, B. (1920). "Kula; the Circulating Exchange of Valuables in the Archipelagoes of Eastern New Guinea". Man (Man, Vol. 20) 20: 97–105. doi:10.2307/2840430.JSTOR 2840430.
Weiner, Annette B. The Trobrianders of Papua New Guinea. United States of America: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 1988

Trade
Papua New Guinea
In Samoa, androphilic males (males sexually attracted to men) are referred to as fa’afafine. Translated into English, fa’afafine means “in the manner of a woman.” Most self-identify as fa’afafine, not as men.

There are myths outside of Samoa that Fa'afafine are selected to be raised as females when a family does not have enough sons, however evidence shows they are recognised for their feminine behavior early in their lives. Evidence indicates that Fa'afafine are the equivalent to feminine androphilic men in the west (typically these are gay men in western culture).

Gender roles 
They take on the role of both male and female in the society e.g. teaching, construction and also domestic work. They tend to have sexual intercourse with masculine males, however rarely with another fa’afafine.

References

Further reading 
http://www.wcc.hawaii.edu/facstaff/dagrossa-p/articles/Faafafine.pdf
http://www.acp-eucourier.info/Fa-afafine-querendo.800.0.html%3F%2526L%3D0

Gender
Samoa
Maslenitsa is one of the most popular and cheerful religious holidays in Russia. It originated from pagan times before Russia was converted to Christianity. At first, this holiday was a symbol of the spring solstice but nowadays it is considered a Christian holiday which goes right before the Great Lent. During Maslenitsa people enjoy almost any food, except meat. Usually Maslenitsa lasts for seven days and on the last day of this holiday people burn a doll which is made of branches and straw and dressed in bright clothes. This doll is called “Maslenitsa” and it symbolizes the cold and severe winter. By burning “Maslenitsa” people say goodbye to winter and greet a warm spring.

Celebration
Every day of Maslenitsa plays a great role.  On Monday people greet the holiday with games such as sledding, snowballs, riding on swings and so on. Russian people believe that happiness and joy which they feel during this day will accompany them throughout a year. On Tuesday people play games and bake pancakes which are called "blini". Blini are the most popular food which is made during this holiday. These pancakes have a round form and symbolize the Sun and warmth. On Wednesday people usually visit their friends and relatives and treat each other with blini. On Thursday by tradition people try to drive away winter by riding on horses around the village or around the places they live. Friday is usually called “Mothers’-in-law evenings” because sons-in-law come to visit their mothers-in-law. On merry Saturday everyone goes to visit their relatives. All people drink and eat as much as they want and play different games. Sunday is the last day of the holiday
. It is also called the Sunday of forgiveness because on this day everyone asks forgiveness from relatives and friends for offences and mistakes committed against them. The most appropriate answer is “God will forgive”. After that people usually sing songs, dance and at the end of the day they burn the doll.
Wedding superstition 
Maslenitsa is also considered as a family holiday because spring is a symbol of new life.  People who marry during this time are considered as very strong and happy couples who will give a birth to many children. During Maslenitsa some people even “punish” those who did not marry yet by throwing them into snow.

Religious holidays
Russian culture
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a family of single-seat, single-engine, fifth generation multirole Fighter aircraft under development to perform ground attack, reconnaissance, and air defense missions with stealth capability.

The development of the F-35 has been very controversial. Many people feel like the US Air Force has been spending too much money on the F-35 project, and that the government should halt all development of the project.

Simulacrum of stealth multirole fighter 
Su-57 - Simulacrum of the F-22.
On 7 December 2020, the CEO of the corporation Rostec, Sergey Chemezov, said that the first serially manufactured Sukhoi-57 with a first stage engine would be provided for the Russian military by the end of 2020, and the first Sukhoi-57 equipped with the second stage engine would be assembled in 2022. Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu told the Defense Ministry’s board meeting that a total of 22 Sukhoi-57 planes would be provided by the end of 2024. Under a contract concluded in 2019 a total of 76 Sukhoi-57s are to be delivered by the end of 2028.

  - on TASS Official Infographic

References

F-35
United States military aircraft
The Blues Band is a British blues band. The band was formed in 1979 by veteran musicians of British blues of the 1960s.

Band history
The band was formed in 1979. 

In the 1960s Paul Jones and Tom McGuinness played for Manfred Mann. Jones worked also as actor and radio DJ.As a harmonica man, he has performed publicly and/or recorded with Memphis Slim, Alexis Korner, Henry Gray, Alvin "Youngblood" Hart, Susan Tedeschi, Eric Bibb and Otis Grand. Hughie Flint was the drummer of  John Mayall's Bluesbreakers. Together with McGuinness he later formed McGuiness Flint who had a hit with "When I´m dead and gone". Dave Kelly was guitarist in the John Dummer Blues Band and in the touring bands of Howlin' Wolf and John Lee Hooker. They played together mostly in London pubs just for fun about playing rhythm ´n blues.
Their first album "The Official Blues Band Bootleg Album" raised no interest with record labels, so they sold it during concerts and via mail order. The record was a fine mixture of blues standards and own songs. Arista signed with the band and the album reached #40 in the charts. 1982 Hughie Flint left the band and was replaced by Rob Townsend. In 1983 they parted but they came together soon.

When not playing with the Blues Band Jones, McGuinness and Townsend are playing with "The Manfreds". The band can be seen as the 1960s Manfred Mann Band without the leader. Dave Kelly plays often with his  "The Dave Kelly Band".

By playing a lot of concerts all over Europe they had and still have a lot of fans. Till present they recorded over 20 albums. It is said, that three generations of a family can be seen in their concerts.
Discography(album) 
1980: The Official Blues Band Bootleg Album
1980: Ready
1981: Itchy Feet
1982: Brand Loyalty
1983: Bye Bye Blues (Live)
1986: These Kind of Blues
1989: Back for More
1991: Fat City
1993: Homage
1995: Wireless
1996: Live at the BBC
1997: 18 Years Old & Alive
1999: The Best of the Blues Band (USA)
2000: Brassed Up
2001: Scratchin' on My Screen
2002: Stepping Out
2004: Be My Guest
2004: The Official Gary Fletcher Bootleg Album (demos)
2005: Blues Band Box (4-CD-Kompilation)
2005: These Kind of Blues
2006: Thank You Brother Ray
2009: Live!
2009: Wire Less

Singles

 Come on in/The Blues Band Song (1980)
 Find yourself another Fool/SUS Blues (1980)
 Nadine/That's all right (1980)
 Who's right, who's wrong?/Itchy Feet (1981)
 Come on/Green Stuff (1981)
 Take me Home/So bad (1982)
 Hey Hey Little Girl/SUS Blues (1982) - limitierte live single
 Seemed like a good Idea/Rolling Log (1982)
 Blue Collar/Duisburg Blues (1989)

DVD 
 Across Borders -Live (2004)
 Steppin' Out on Main (2005)
Quotes
"The music industry doesn’t bother us and we don’t bother them." (Gary Fletcher)

Reading
Roy Bainton: Talk to Me Baby - The Story of the Blues Band, Firebird Books,

Other websites
The Blues Band 
The Blues Band Rockpalast-Archiv (German)
Homepage Gary Fletcher

References

Blues bands
In medicine, an acute disease or condition either happens for a short time, as in acute infection, or doesn't last long. The word acute may often be confused by the general public to mean 'severe'. This is different: something can be acute but not severe.

The word acute is in the name of many diseases, for example, severe acute respiratory syndrome or acute leukemia.

Acute hospitals are hospitals which are meant for short-term medical and/or surgical treatment and care. The related medical speciality is called acute medicine. 

Subacute is described as between acute and chronic. An example is subacute fever symptoms or subacute endocarditis.

Related pages
Chronic

medicine
Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism. It is the subject-matter of toxicology.

A central idea in toxicology is that almost everything is toxic when taken to excess. Effects are dose-dependent: even water can lead to 'water intoxication' when taken in too much. For even a very toxic substance such as elapid snake venom there is a dose below which there is no toxic effect. 

Toxicity is species-specific. A dose which is toxic to one animal may not be toxic to another.

Acute toxicity 
Acute toxicity describes the bad effects of a substance that come either from a single exposure, or from many exposures in a short amount of time (usually less than 24 hours). To be known as acute toxicity, the bad effects should happen within 14 days of the substance thouching something.

Acute toxicity is different from chronic toxicity. Chronic toxicity talks about the bad health effects from many exposures, often at lower levels, to a substance over a longer amount of time (months or years).
It is widely thought to be wrong to use humans as tests for acute (or chronic) toxicity research. However, some information can be picked up from investigating cases when humans accidentally make contact with the substance (e.g., factory accidents). Otherwise, most acute toxicity data comes from animal testing or, more recently, in vitro testing methods and inference from data on similar substances.

References
was a  after Genna and before Shōhō.  This period started in February 1624 and ended in December 1643. During this time, the emperors and empress were , and .

The nengō Kan'ei means "Permanent Liberality".

Events of the Kan'ei era
1625 (Kan'ei 2): Founding of Kan'ei-ji, which is a Buddhist temple in Ueno.
 4 November 1626 (Kan'ei 3, 16th day of the 9th month): Emperor Go-Mizunoo visited to Nijō Castle.
 22 December 1629 ( Kan'ei 6, 8th day of the 11th month): Go-Mizunoo abdicated; and his daughter received the succession (senso). Soon after, Empress Meishō's role as monarch was confirmed in ceremonies (sokui).
 14 March 1632 (Kan'ei 9, 24th day of the 1st month): Former Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada died.
 28 February 1633 (Kan'ei 10, 20th day of the 1st month): There was an earthquake in Sagami Province.
 1634 (Kan'ei 11, 7th month): Shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu visited the new empress in her court; and he visited ex-emperor Go-Mizunoo.
 1635 (Kan'ei 12): Ambassador from the King of Korea was received in Heian-kyō.
 1636 (Kan'ei 13): Coins were minted which stayed in use until 1853.
 1637 (Kan'ei 14): Christian rebellion at Shimabara Castle.
 1638 (Kan'ei 15): Christian religion was made illegal in Japan.
1643 (Kan'ei 20): An ambassador from the king of Korea was received in Heian-kyō.
 10 November 1643 (Kan'ei 20, 29th day of the 9th month): In the 15th year of Empress Meishō's reign (明正天皇15年), the empress abdicated; and her brother became Emperor Go-Komyō in ceremonies of senso and sokui.
Hayashi Razan and his son wrote Kan'ei shoka kezuden in 1641-1643.  The shogun ordered the writing of this history of the great clans of Japan.

Related pages 
 Edo period

References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection
 Bank of Japan (BOJ):  Kan'ei Tsuho ,  Bunsen (copper coin = one mon)

Japanese eras
1624 establishments
17th-century establishments in Japan
1643 disestablishments
17th-century disestablishments in Japan
1640s disestablishments in Asia
1620s establishments in Asia
Protostar is an early stage in the evolution of a star that usually grows to the point of beginning nuclear fusion and becoming a star by gathering mass. It is made of a contracting cloud of cold and dark interstellar medium (mostly hydrogen gas). Protostars has lower temperature than an ordinary star. For a sun-like star, deuterium fusion occurs in the protostar stage, while proton-proton fusion, which sustains stars for billions of years, starts gradually millions of years later. The modern picture of protostars was first suggested by Chushiro Hayashi in 1966.

Evolution of Protostars
Although outer space may seem empty, it is actually full of thinly spread gas and dust called the interstellar medium.  Higher density regions form clouds, or nebulas, where star formation takes place.  The gas is mostly molecules of hydrogen, so these nebulae are called molecular clouds.  The largest molecular clouds have densities of 100 particles per cm3, diameters of 100 light-years (9.5×1014 km), and masses up to 6 million solar masses, and an average interior temperature of 10 K.  This is cold and dense compared to elsewhere in space, but would be considered a vacuum on Earth.  With low temperatures and high densities, gravity can overcome thermal pressure and start the gravitational collapse that will form a star.
Sometimes the formation of stars can be triggered (known as triggered star formation) by disturbances in the gas clouds.  Such disturbances could be a shock wave from the explosion of a nearby massive star at its death, or the passage of the cloud through regions of more intense gravity as found in the spiral arms of spiral galaxies. This compress the gas clouds enough to cause gravitationally collapse.

When gravity begins to pull the gases together into a ball, a protostar forms. This process is known as accretion.
According to the law of conservation of angular momentum, a rotating body spins more rapidly as it decreases in size. So, as a protostar shrinks, its rate of spin increases. As the protostar rotates, it is much easier for material to fall right onto the poles (which spin most slowly) than onto the equator (where material moves around most rapidly). Therefore, gas and dust falling in toward the protostar’s equator are “held back” by the rotation and form a whirling extended disk around the equator. The circumstellar disks are where planets form.

When a protostar rotates, it generates a strong magnetic field which generates a strong protostellar wind (an outward flow of particles into space). Many protostars also send out high-speed jets of gas into space. Usually there are two jets flowing out along the rotation axis of the protostar. Eventually the wind and the jets clear away the extra gas around the protostar and allow the protostar and the disk to come into view.
As a protostar collapses it heats up because the gas particles run into each other. The energy the gas particles had from falling to the force of gravity gets converted to heat energy. The gas clump becomes warm enough to radiate energy. The radiation cross the interstellar dust in the surrounding dense core. The dust absorbs all impinging photons and reradiates them at longer wavelengths (infrared). 

A protostar has lower temperature than an ordinary star. At its center, hydrogen-1 is not yet fusing with itself. However, theoretically, deuterium fuses with hydrogen-1 at its centre and creates helium-3. The heat from this fusion reaction tends to inflate the protostar, and thereby helps determine the size of the youngest observed pre-main-sequence stars.

A protostar becomes a main sequence star when its core temperature exceeds 10 million K (the temperature needed for hydrogen fusion to operate efficiently).
Collapse into a star like our Sun takes about 50 million years. The collapse of a very high mass protostar might take only a million years while smaller stars can take more than a hundred million years to form.

A protostar with less than 0.08 solar masses never reaches the 10 million K temperature needed for efficient hydrogen fusion. In these cases, a protostar remains as a brown dwarf.

References

Types of stars
Fresca is a drink produced by Coca-Cola Company. It is made of citrus. The drink is similar to Squirt from 7UP company.

Soft drinks
The , also known as , is the central bank of Japan.  The main offices of the bank are in Chuo, Tokyo.

History
Matsukata Masayoshi founded the Bank of Japan in 1882 (Meiji 15).  The bank was adapted from a Belgian banking model.

Changes based on other national banks were made part of bank regulations.  BOJ was given a monopoly on controlling Japan's money supply in 1884.

The Bank of Japan issued its banknotes in 1885  (Meiji 18). In 1897, Japan joined the gold standard.

Location
The Bank of Japan is headquartered in Nihonbashi, Tokyo, on the site of a former gold mint (the Kinza).  It is near the Tokyo's Ginza district The Neo-baroque Bank of Japan building in Tokyo was designed by Tatsuno Kingo in 1896.

Related pages
Japanese yen
Bank of England
European Central Bank
Federal Reserve

Notes

More reading 
 Werner, Richard A. (2003). Princes of the Yen: Japan's Central Bankers and the Transformation of the Economy. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe. ;  OCLC 471605161

Other websites
Other websites 

 Bank of Japan official site ;  
 Building a National Currency—Japan, 1868-1899 

1882 establishments
1880s establishments in Japan
Banks of Japan
was a  after Kan'ei and before Keian.  This period started in December 1644 and ended in February 1648. During this time, the emperor was .

Events of the Shōhō era
 
 1644 (Shōhō 1): The third major map of Japan was ordered by the shogunate.

 18 May 1645 (Shōhō 2, 23rd day of the 4th month): The Shogun was elevated the court role of Dainagon.

Related pages 
 Edo period

References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection
 National Archives of Japan map of Edo in the 1st or 2nd year of Shōhō (1644 or 1645) 

Japanese eras
1644 establishments
17th-century establishments in Japan
1648 disestablishments
17th-century disestablishments in Japan
1640s disestablishments in Asia
The 1938 New England Hurricane was an extremely damaging and highly deadly Atlantic tropical cyclone which struck Long Island, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont with strong winds of Category 4 hurricane level. The hurricane didn't curve out to sea like hurricanes usually do. The 1938 storm caused over 300 million in property damage (1938 USD) and killed between 682 and 800 people. Tropical cyclones were not given human names at the time, so the 1938 storm had a number instead.

Hurricanes in the United States
1938 in the United States
September events
20th century in the Bahamas
20th century in New Jersey
1930s in New York (state)
20th century in Connecticut
20th century in Rhode Island
20th century in Massachusetts
History of Vermont
20th century in New Hampshire
20th century in Maine
1938 in Canada
Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes
Deadly storms
Darrell K. Sweet (August 15, 1934 – December 5, 2011) was an American artist. He mostly painted landscapes and pictures for stories. He was well known for painting the cover art for science fiction and fantasy novels. Sweet was nominated for a Hugo Award in 1983.

Sweet was born in Highland Park, New Jersey. He studied fine arts at Syracuse University and graduated in 1956. Sweet was famous for making the covers of the fantasy books in the Robert Jordan series The Wheel of Time. He also illustrated covers for the popular Xanth series by Piers Anthony, the Saga of Recluce by L. E. Modesitt, Jr. and the Runelords series by David Farland. Sweet painted the original cover art for Stephen R. Donaldson's series The Chronicles of Thomas Covenant the Unbeliever.

Sweet produced over 3,000 images between 1975 and 2005. He died in 2011. He was 77 years old.

References

Other websites
 Darrel K. Sweet Online Portfolio 

1934 births
2011 deaths
American painters
People from New Jersey
Reanimation a 2002 album by American rock band Linkin Park. It is the first remix album and the fourth album overall by the band. The album is a follow-up to their first studio album, Hybrid Theory. It was released on 30 July 2002. The album was recorded during the band's Hybrid Theory tour in 2001. It features hip hop and electronic-influenced remixes of songs from Hybrid Theory.

List Of Songs
"Opening"
"Pts.of.Athrty"
"Enth E Nd"
"[Chali]"
"Frgt/10"  	
"P5hng Me A*wy"
"Plc. 4 Mie Hæd"  	
"X-Ecutioner Style"
"H! Vltg3"  	
"[Riff Raff]"  	
"Wth>You"
"Ntr\Mssion"
"Ppr:Kut"
"Rnw@y"  	
"My<Dsmbr"  	
"[Stef]"  	
"By_Myslf"  	
"Kyur4 th Ich"
"1stp Klosr"
"Krwlng"

Japanese edition bonus tracks
"Buy Myself"

iTunes edition bonus tracks
"One Step Closer" (Live LP Underground Tour 2003)
"Buy Myself" (Marilyn Manson Remix of By Myself)
"My December" (Live Projekt Revolution Tour 2002)

2002 albums
Linkin Park albums
Nu metal albums
Axum or Aksum is a town in northern Ethiopia.  It was the original capital of the Kingdom of Aksum. Axum is located in the Tigray Region near the base of the Adwa mountains. 

Settlements in Ethiopia
Pygmalion is a play by George Bernard Shaw.

Plot 
A street girl selling flowers, Eliza, meets Professor Higgins. Higgins was writing down her pronunciation for his study, but Eliza misunderstood him as a policeman and caused trouble. Higgins says he can make her a duchess. It was changing her pronunciation. Later she remembers what he said and goes to learn pronunciation with a desire to be an upper class woman. 

Higgins decides to do an experiment with her. He deceives all the people at a party. It was making them believe that she is a duchess. After this success, Higgins suggests two options for Eliza. One is marrying based on her beauty. The other is running a flower shop with money from Colonel Pickering who is a rich man. Eliza refuses to do both of them and she leaves his home. Higgins and Colonel Pickering look for Eliza as soon as they know that she left. They find her in Mrs. Higgins’ house but Eliza refuses to go back. She says she would marry Freddy.
Background 
George Bernard Shaw is famous for giving audiences a twist by not doing what they expect. In comedy, people expect someone in a bad situation to be in a better one at the end. They expect a poor person to marry a rich man. They expect a villain to be punished. In Pygmalion, the flower girl in the bad situation gets better in the end. This girl selling flowers on the street rises to the upper class. It was through changing her language.

However, contrary to the audience's expectation, romance between flower girl and Professor Higgins doesn’t happen. She doesn’t marry a rich man. Also, George Bernard Shaw reflected his beliefs to reform the society in this play.
In the 20th century, there were many poor people on the street. Especially little girls worked all day for a tiny amount of money. The author had much interest in poor people and women’s freedom. And he believed speech was one of the things that separated rich and poor people. That is the starting point of Pygmalion. He used the change of language as a means to rise to the upper class.

Interpretation 
In mythology, Pygmalion was a sculptor who did not like women. He could not find a woman to love. And he decided to make a statue, Galatea. In the play, Pygmalion is compared to Professor Higgins. And Galatea is compared to Eliza. Pygmalion made Galatea to be his ideal woman. And Professor Higgins changed Eliza into a perfect upper class woman. He taught her everything from how to talk to how to behave in front of people. This process of making Eliza an upper class woman is criticized as playing with a live doll, as though she didn’t have her own soul. Higgins treats her as an object.
Also, the common expectation of audiences that women’s fate is determined by men is criticized. It is because of Eliza’s reaction after the success of pretending to be a duchess. She thought the two options suggested by Higgins would be selling herself. 

When she was selling flowers, at least she didn’t have to sell herself. She doesn’t want to rely on a rich man, but decides to marry a poor man, Freddy. She says she can make something of him. She values love more than anything else.
Plays by George Bernard Shaw
20th-century plays
Elizabeth Perkins (born November 18, 1960) is an American actress. She has been in  many movies and television programs. Perkins is from Queens, New York.

Her movie roles have included Big, The Flintstones, Miracle on 34th Street, About Last Night..., and Avalon. She is perhaps best known for her role as Celia Hodes in the Showtime series Weeds.

Personal life 
Perkins' first husband was Chicago actor and director Terry Kinney; the couple divorced. She has one daughter, Hannah Phillips, born in 1991. In 2000, she married Argentinian-born cinematographer Julio Macat. In 2005 she learned that she had a form of type I diabetes.
Awards and nominations 
Primetime Emmy Awards
 2006 Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for Weeds (nominated)
 2007 Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for Weeds (nominated)
 2009 Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for Weeds (nominated)
Golden Globe Awards
 2006 Best Supporting Actress in a Television Series, Mini-series, or TV Movie for Weeds (nominated)
 2007 Best Supporting Actress in a Television Series, Mini-series, or TV Movie for Weeds (nominated)
Satellite Awards
 2005 Best Actress in a Comedy Series for Weeds (nominated)
 2006 Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-series, or TV Movie for Weeds (nominated)
Screen Actors Guild Awards
 2007 Best Acting Ensemble in a Comedy Series for Weeds (nominated)
 2009 Best Acting Ensemble in a Comedy Series for Weeds (nominated)

References 

1960 births
Living people
DePaul University alumni
American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from New York City
Virginia Cooperative Extension provides resources and educational outreach to more than seven million Virginia residents in the areas of agriculture and natural resources, family and consumer sciences, community viability, and 4-H youth development. The federal government started cooperative extension programs in each state with the Smith-Lever Act of 1914. Virginia’s two land-grant universities: Virginia Tech and Virginia State University run the program.  The program has faculty and staff at the two universities, 107 county and city offices, 11 agricultural research and Extension centers, and six 4-H educational centers.

Related pages
 Cooperative Extension Service
 Virginia Tech
 Virginia Tech College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
 Virginia State University

References

Other websites
 Virginia Cooperative Extension
 Shaping Extension's Future 

Education in the United States‏
1914 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Virginia
In genetics, a mosaic (or mosaicism) means the presence of two different genotypes in an individual which developed from a single fertilized egg. As a result, the individual has two or more genetically different cell lines derived from a single zygote. 

Mosaicism may result from:
Crossing-over during mitosis 
A gene mutation during development 
A chromosomal mutation during development
X-inactivation: one X chromosome is randomly switched off in cells of a female mammal

The phenomenon was discovered by Curt Stern. In 1936, he demonstrated that recombination, normal in meiosis, can also take place in mitosis. When it does, it results in somatic (body) mosaics. These are organisms which contain two or more genetically distinct types of tissue.

Chimeras 
People who have mosaicism are often called chimeras but this is a mistake. A mosaic is originally from a single fertilised egg, whereas a chimaera comes from two fertilised eggs.
Other causes of two-tone appearances 
This is easiest to see with eye colours. When eye colours vary between the two eyes, or within one or both eyes, the condition is called heterochromia iridis (= 'different coloured iris'). It can have many different causes, both genetic and accidental. For example, David Bowie has the appearance of different eye colours due to an injury that caused one pupil to be permanently dilated.

On this page, only genetic mosaicism is discussed.

X-inactivation 
This is a controlled and natural developmental phenomenon in mammalian females. Females have two X chromosomes (and males have only one). The two X chromosomes in a female are rarely identical. They have the same genes, but at some loci (positions) they may have different alleles (versions of the same gene).
In the early embryo, each cell independently and randomly inactivates one copy of the X chromosome. This inactivation lasts the lifetime of the cell, and all the descendants of the cell inactivate that same chromosome. X-inactivation is reversed in the female germline, so that all egg cells contain an active X chromosome.

This phenomenon shows in the colouration of calico cats and tortoiseshell cats. These females are heterozygous for the X-linked colour genes: the genes for their coat colours are carried on the X chromosome. X-inactivation causes groups of cells to carry either one or the other X-chromosome in an active state.

X-inactivation is an epigenetic change, a switching off of genes on one chromosome. It is not a change in the genotype. Descendent cells of the embryo carry the same X-inactivation as the original cells. This may give rise to mild symptoms in female 'carriers' of X-linked genetic disorders.
Mutations 
Mutations in body cells (somatic mutations) cause groups of cells to differ in their genetics. 
Somatic mutation leading to mosaicism is common in the beginning and end stages of human life. Cancer research has shown that somatic mutations are responsible for most leukemia, lymphomas, and solid tumors.

Related pages 
Chimaera (genetics)

References 

Classical genetics
Anti-fans are the group of people who are opposed to particular person, system, or idea. This word is from a prefix 'anti-', which means 'opposed'. Anti-fans gather and criticize particular thing which they hate.

Anti-fans' activities are very diverse. Anti-fans usually work and share their views in online website. They make anti-fan page. E.g. anti-fan website, anti-fan blog, anti-fan internet cafe etc. And, they criticise their target, spread a rumor about the target, and post malicious comments to Internet articles. Anti-fans also work when they are offline. They sometimes boo and jeer at their target and even start a movement against the target.
Early their activities used to be constructive criticism, but nowadays the movement of anti-fans is changing to severe insult to their target with no specific reason. The ruthless attack causes a lot of social problems now. A lot of celebrities who are the anti-fans' target are suffering from their behaviors. In some case, they may accuse anti-fans of personal insults.

Object

Anti-fans' targets are various. The most usual target is entertainer. There are a lot of anti-fans' website for the entertainer who they dislike. E.g. Some anti-fans oppose a form of music, movie, athlete, politician, political party, TV series, idea etc. Surprisingly, the number of anti-fans tends to be proportional to the target's  popularity. Thus, the number sometimes becomes a yardstick of star's popularity.

Intelligent anti-fan
Intelligent anti-fan is one type of anti-fans. Intelligent anti-fans act as if they are the target's real fan and do wrong and bad behaviors as the fan. They intelligently create the target's bad image and gather more anti-fan.

References
 Anti-fan at Urban Dictionary

Other websites 
Article: Seattle man starts 'anti-fan site' for Colton Harris-Moore

Fandom
The mountain pygmy possum (Burramys parvus) is a small, mouse-sized (weighs 45 g) nocturnal marsupial of Australia. It is found high up (1300 to 2230 metres) in rock screes and boulder fields of southern Victoria and in Kosciuszko National Park, New South Wales.

This possum is a Lazarus taxon, and the only living species in the Burramys genus. It is also the only Australian mammal restricted to an alpine habitat. Its prehensile tail, at ~14 cm, is longer than its 11 cm head and body length. Its diet consists of insects, fleshy fruits, nuts, nectar and seeds. 

The mountain pygmy possum was first described as a Pleistocene fossil by Robert Broom in 1896. It was thought to be extinct until 1966, when a living specimen was discovered in a ski-hut on Mount Hotham.
Three geographically isolated populations are known to exist. These populations have been shown to be genetically distinct. For most of the year, males and females live apart from each other. The females live on the better part of the rocky slopes, while the males live on the margins, usually lower on the mountain. In order to breed, the males migrate to the females' habitat. During the ski season on Mount Higginbotham, the males had to cross a road which put their survival in jeopardy. A "Tunnel of Love" was constructed under the road and a road sign was put in place to warn drivers.

References 

Marsupials of Australia
Diprotodonts
Censorship in movies is the act of giving a movie a very strong film rating systems classification, or banning the movie altogether.

United Kingdom
The highest rating label in United Kingdom is 18. These means people under 18 cannot look at, buy or rent any movie under this rating. Movies with such a rating often have very strong language, explicit sexual content or heavy violence. If the content of the movie is higher than the 18 rating, the movie is then banned entirely.

Australia
Refused Classification is the very strongest rating in Australia. This rating means a movie has been banned from a part of Australia. In some cases, it has been banned in all of the country. This rating is tagged onto movies which the Australian Classification Board has said are too severe for viewing by general public.
United States
The movie rating is NC-17 in the United States. This means No Children 17 and Under Admitted. Such movies contain strong sexual content, very strong violence or extremely graphic language and are usually considered too intense for an R rating.

Canada
The highest rating label in Canada is R. This means nobody under 18 may view, buy, rent, or watch any movie under this rating. Movie with this rating have strong sexual content/nudity, prolonged scenes of graphic violence, strong coarse language, graphic horror, and other disturbing content. If the content of the movie is higher than the R rating, the movie is then banned entirely.

Related pages
 Movies banned in China

Movie ratings
Censorship
The Monsanto process is a way of making acetic acid. It uses a catalyst to add a carbonyl group to methanol. This process operates at a pressure of 30–60 atm and a temperature of 150–200 °C. It gives a selectivity greater than 99%. It was developed 1960 by German chemists working at BASF. Chemists at Monsanto introduced a new catalyst system in 1966. Today, chemists make acetic acid by the Cativa process, a similar iridium-based process developed by BP Chemicals Ltd which is more economical and environmentally friendly. So, the Monsanto process is not used very much in industry.

Catalytic cycle
The process has several steps, which repeat to remake the catalyst:
The catalytically active species is the anion cis-[Rh(CO)2I2]− (1). The catalytic cycle has been shown to involve six steps, two of which do not involve rhodium: conversion of methanol to methyl iodide and the hydrolysis of the acetyl iodide to acetic acid. (These steps are in the middle of the above diagram.) The first organometallic step is the oxidative addition of methyl iodide to cis-[Rh(CO)2I2]− to form the hexacoordinate species [(CH3)Rh(CO)2I3]− (2). This anion rapidly transforms, by the migration of a methyl group to the carbonyl ligand, affording the pentacoordinate acetyl complex [(CH3CO)Rh(CO)I3]− (3). This five-coordinate complex then reacts with carbon monoxide to form the six coordinate dicarbonyl complex. (4) This decomposes by reductive elimination to form acetyl iodide (CH3COI) and regenerate the active form of the catalyst. Acetyl iodide is then hydrolyzed to acetic acid.
The reaction mechanism is first-order with respect to methyl iodide and the catalyst (1). Hence the rate-determining step of the catalytic cycle has been proposed to be the oxidative addition of methyl iodide to the catalyst (1). Chemist think that this occurs with the rhodium center making a nucleophilic attack on the carbon of methyl iodide.

Tennessee Eastman acetic anhydride process
The Monsanto process for making acetic acid inspired chemists to invent a way to make Acetic anhydride. It is produced by carbonylation of methyl acetate.

 CH3CO2CH3  + CO  →   (CH3CO)2O
In this process lithium iodide converts methyl acetate to lithium acetate and methyl iodide, which in turn affords through carbonylation acetyl iodide. Acetyl iodide reacts with acetate salts or acetic acid to give the product. Rhodium iodides and lithium salts are employed as catalysts. Because acetic anhydride is not stable in water, the conversion is conducted under water-free (anhydrous) conditions in contrast to the Monsanto acetic acid synthesis.

References

Other websites
 http://www.uyseg.org/catalysis/ethacid/ethacid2.htm 
 http://www.uyseg.org/greener_industry/pages/ethanoicAcid/6ethanoicAcidPM2.htm 

Organometallic chemistry
Chemical processes
was a  after Shōhō and before Jōō.  This period started in February 1648 and ended in September 1652. During this time, the emperor was .

Events of the Keian era

 1648 (Keian 1): Legal code about city life and business are established in Osaka

 1649 (Keian 2): Five-storied pagoda at  was built in Asakusa.

 1649 (Keian 2): Legal code for peasants established by Tokugawa Iemitsu.

 1 April 1649 (Keian 2, 20th day of the 2nd month): There was a major earthquake in Edo.

 1651 (Keian 4): Plot to overthrow the Tokugawa, also known as the Keian Uprising.

 1652 (Keian 5, 5th month):  Nihon Odai Ichiran was published.  The French version of this work was the first Japanese history book to be published in the West.

Related pages 
 Edo period

References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection
Japanese eras
1648 establishments
17th-century establishments in Japan
1652 disestablishments
1650s disestablishments in Japan
The Communist Party of Pakistan () is a communist party in Pakistan.

The CPP was founded in Calcutta, Union of India on March 6, 1948. A decision was taken at the Second All India Conference of the Communist Party of India, which was held in Calcutta at that time, that a separate communist party ought to be created in the new State of Pakistan. It was thought that Pakistan, being a relatively small country (in comparison to India) and suffering from instability, was ripe for revolution. The delegates from Pakistan separated themselves and held a separate session were they constituted the CPP.

Political parties in Pakistan
Communist parties in Asia
, alternatively romanized as Jō-ō or Shōō, was a  after Keian and before Meireki. This period started in September 1652 and ended in April 1655. During this time, the emperors were   and .

Events of the Jōō era

 3 October 1653 (Jōō 2, 12th day of the 8th month): Fire destroyed a large part of the Imperial palace and nearby temples.
 18 August 1654 (Jōō 3, 6th day of the 7th month): Buddhist priest Ingen arrived at Nagasaki from China.
 30 October 1654 (Jōō 3, 20th day of the 9th month): Emperor Go-Kōmyō died.

Related pages 
 Edo period
 Jōō (Kamakura period)

References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection
 Sennyuji Temple Museum, Funeral ceremonies for Emperor Go-Kōmyō 
  Imperial Household website, Emperor Go-Kōmyō's mausoleum (misasagii) 

 

Japanese eras
1652 establishments
1650s establishments in Japan
1655 disestablishments
1650s disestablishments in Japan
Jōō may mean:

 Jōō (Kamakura period), a Japanese era name (1222–1224)
 Jōō (Edo period), a Japanese era name (1652–1655)