Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
At first, all televisions used an antenna (or aerial). This would pick up television programmes from broadcasting stations. A TV station could be many miles or kilometers away, and still be received. TVs can also show movies from VCD and DVD players or VCRs. Cable TV and Satellite television can provide more programs at once than broadcast can. Video game consoles connect to most modern TVs. Some computers can also use a TV as a computer monitor.

All TVs have screens where the picture is viewed.  Before the 1950s these were usually "black and white", which made everything look grey, but all modern TVs show colors.  Most 20th century screens also had rounded corners.  That is because television screens were cathode ray tubes.  These are like heavy glass jars with one side bulging out to form the screen.
Today flat panel displays are the usual kind.  These are usually flat rectangles with straight edges.  This long rectangle looks more like the shape of a movie theatre screen.  This is called widescreen.  If a widescreen set was 30 cm tall, it would be 53 cm wide.  For this to work best, TV shows also need to be made in widescreen.  Widescreen sets can still be any size, but they have the same widescreen shape.

The early 21st century is also when digital television transmission became more common than analog television.

 
Home appliances
Sociology is the study of societies and how humans act in groups. Sociology is a social science.  People who study sociology are called sociologists.  A society is the community of people living in a particular country or region and having shared customs, laws, and organizations.

Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1780 was first to use the term. The problems caused by the change to an industrial society, where many people moved to cities and worked in factories, were an early focus of sociology. Auguste Comte, Max Weber and Émile Durkheim were leading figures in the study of social phenomena.  Themes included: community, authority, status, alienation and lack of power.

In the 2000s, some sociologists look at such things as: race, ethnicity, class, gender, the family and social interaction. They also study the breakdown of social structures; crime and divorce.

Work of sociologists
Sociologists research the structures that organize society, such as race, gender (whether a person is male or female), and social classes (rich or poor). They study the family and examine problems such as crime and drug abuse.

Most sociologists work in one or more specialty areas or "sub-fields". Sociology includes many sub-fields that examine different aspects of society. For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure in society.  The field of demography studies changes in population size or type.  Criminology examines criminal behavior and crime.  Political sociology studies government and laws.  Sociology of race and sociology of gender examine how people think about race and gender.

Many sociologists also do research outside of the university. Their research is supposedly intended to help teachers, lawmakers, and government administrators to make better institutions, government programs, and rules.
Sociologists often use statistics to count and measure patterns in how people act or behave. Sociologists also interview people or hold group discussions to find out why people behave in certain ways. Some sociologists combine different research methods.

History of sociology 

Social analysis has been done since the time of Plato. Sociology became accepted as a type of science in the early 1800s. European cities were changing as many people moved into cities and began working in factories. Sociologists tried to understand how people interacted and how groups interacted.

The word "sociology" was invented by French thinker Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1780. Early thinkers who wrote about sociology included Auguste Comte and Max Weber.
Sociology was taught in a university for the first time at the University of Kansas in 1890. The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the University of Bordeaux by Émile Durkheim. The first sociology department to be established in Britain was at the London School of Economics and Political Science in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber.

Related pages 
 Political economy
 Anthropology
 Social psychology
 Social structure
 Sociolinguistics
 Sociological imagination
 Structural functionalism
 Marxism

Further reading 
 Babbie, Earl R. 2003. The Practice of Social Research, 10th edition. Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Inc.,  
 Giddens, Anthony. 2006. Sociology (5th edition), Polity, Cambridge. 
 Nisbet, Robert A. 1967. The Sociological Tradition, London,

Other websites 
 An insight to Human Sociology
The sky is the appearance of the atmosphere around the surface of the planet from our point of view. We see many objects that are actually in space such as the Sun, the Moon, and stars because they are in the sky. On a clear day the sky appears blue. At night it appears from very dark blue to black. The deepness of the blue increases as we look toward the horizon, and up to the point above us.

The sky, which is made up of gas molecules, is blue because of the random scattering of sunlight by the molecules. Rayleigh scattering defines the amount of scattering of light rays. Blue light scatters much more than red, which is why the sky appears blue on a clear day. Depending on the time of day, the sky may appear different colors. At dawn or dusk the sky may appear red, orange, or even green and purple depending on how low the sun is and how close it is to night.
Other planets have skies too. Because the types of gases in their atmospheres are different, they have different sky colors. For example, the sky on Mars is red.

Many things can be seen in the sky. There are objects from space like the Sun, Moon, planets and stars. There are also many weather events seen in the sky. For example, these can be clouds, rain, lightning, or fog. Weather is caused by different patterns and temperatures in the atmosphere. Other things that can be seen in the sky are birds, other flying animals, and aircraft.

Other websites 
 Day Sky Images 
 Night Sky Images 
 Sky Photo Gallery 
 Why is the sky blue?

References 

Basic English 850 words
A tone language, or tonal language, is a language in which words can differ in tones (like pitches in music) in addition to consonants and vowels.

Many languages, including Mandarin, Vietnamese, Thai, Meitei, Lao, Hmong, Cantonese, Punjabi, Chittagonian, Yorùbá, Igbo, Luganda, Ewe,  Lingála, Cilubà and Cherokee are tonal. Other languages, including Indo-European languages such as  English and Hindi, are not considered tone languages.  They can use intonation in different ways.

In some languages, it is pitch accent that is important instead. A word's meaning can then change if a different syllable is stressed. Examples include Ancient Greek, Hebrew, Swedish, Norwegian, Serbo-Croatian, Lithuanian, and some Asian languages like Japanese and Korean. However, pitch accent is different from tones.

Some tones may sound alike to people who do not speak a tone language. They are the most difficult part of learning a tone language for those people.
Example
In Mandarin, the most famous example "mā má mǎ mà ()" has four different words each pronounced in exactly the same way but with four different tones. If numbers identify the tones, they can be written ma1 ma2 ma3 ma4, which means "mom hemp horse scold." Some ways of romanization mark each tone by a different spelling; ma1 ma2 ma3 ma4 in Pinyin would be written ma mha maa mah in Gwoyeu Romatzyh. Most use numbers or accent marks (mā má mǎ mà in Pinyin). There is a passage called Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den (). It has 92 characters; all read the same way in Mandarin ("shi") but with different tones.
Mandarin does not have many syllables: the words for "mother," "hemp," "horse," "scold," and a word put at the end of sentences to make it a question are all pronounced "ma:"
"Mother" is "ma" that is high and level.
"Hemp" is "ma" that starts low and ends high.
"Horse" is "ma" that starts fairly high, dips very low, and then goes back up again.
"Scold" is "ma" that starts high and ends low.
To make a question, "ma" is added at the end, but it is kept very soft and short and about the same level.

Mandarin has "first tone," "second tone," "third tone," "fourth tone," and "neutral tone." Other Chinese dialects have more tones, some as many as twelve.

Tonal markings
Vietnamese and Pinyin use accents as the tone marks for the Latin alphabet. Each accent shows an altered sound for the syllable. Most syllables have only one tone marking, but the letters in the syllable can be altered by other markings. Syllables usually form one word in un-hyphenated compound words.
Pinyin may have style differences because its use is to help Westerners. On the other hand, Vietnamese has a national script that always follows and uses the same style.

References
A dollar is a type of currency. Many countries have named their money the dollar, so it is important to say which dollar is being talked about. The symbol for the dollar is a capital letter S, pierced by one or two vertical lines ($).

History 
The dollar is named after the thaler. The thaler was a large silver coin first made in the year 1518. The thaler named after the Joachimsthal (Joachim's valley) mine in Bohemia (Thal means valley in German). The later Spanish Peso was the same size and was often called "Spanish dollar" and the similar coin of the Dutch Republic was called “lion dollar”. In the 18th century it became a world currency. Many national currencies were originally Spanish dollars including the ones now called dollar or peso and the Japanese yen and Chinese Renminbi.

List of dollars
Australian dollar
Bahamian dollar
Barbadian dollar
Belize dollar
Canadian dollar
East Caribbean dollar
Hong Kong dollar
 Namibian dollar
New Zealand dollar
Singapore dollar
United States dollar
Zimbabwean dollar
Beer is also the name of a place in Devon, England - Beer (Devon)

Beer is a type of alcoholic drink. It is made with water, hops, barley (types of cereal grains), and types of yeast (a fungus that produces alcohol). A process called fermentation turns sugar into alcohol, using yeast. Another product of the fermentation is carbon dioxide.

Classification from the type of fermentation 
In general, all alcoholic drinks where yeast turns sugar into alcohol are called beer. In these cases, distillation is not used. The difference to wine is that with wine, sugars from plants, such as fruit sugar, or that made by animals is used. As an example, mead is a wine made from honey. Japanese sake is made from rice, and uses yeast for fermentation; so even if some people call it rice wine, sake is really a kind of beer.
Making beer 
The act of making beer is called "brewing". Beer is made by adding warm water to malted barley and other grains. The enzymes in the barley change the malted barley and other grains into simple sugars. This is called the mash. The water is then sparged (drained) from the grain. The water is now called wort. The wort is boiled and hops are added. Hops provide flavour and preserve the beer. After boiling the wort is cooled and yeast is added. The yeast turns the sugars into alcohol and the wort into beer.
Different countries have different ways to make beer. In Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czech Republic, and Slovakia, beer is usually made from just hops, malt, water, and yeast. This is because of the Reinheitsgebot. The Reinheitsgebot was a law that said says that beer can only be made from hops, malt, and water. Yeast was discovered after the Reinheitsgebot. The law was overturned by the European Union in 1992. In Belgium, however, beers have always been made with wheat, sugar, fruit, and other ingredients.

Different ways to make beer
The type of yeast used determines the kind of beer made:
 Some kinds of yeast ferment at a higher temperature, usually at 15-20 °C. The fermentation process is quicker.
 Other kinds ferment at a lower temperature, usually 4-8 °C. Beers made with this kind usually have a longer shelf-life.
 Some beers ferment sponaneously from yeast that can be found in the environment.

The history of beer
The earliest records of beer were written around 7000 years ago by the Sumerians. It is said that the Sumerians discovered the fermentation process by accident. It is not known exactly how this happened, but it could be that a piece of bread or grain became wet, and a short time later, it began to ferment and made a pulp that caused people to become drunk. A seal around 4,000 years old is a Sumerian "Hymn to Ninkasi", the goddess of brewing. This "hymn" is also a recipe for making beer. A description of the making of beer on this ancient engraving in the Sumerian language is the earliest account of what is easily recognised as barley, followed by a pictograph of bread being baked, crumbled into water to form a mash, and then made into a drink, that is recorded as having made people feel "...wonderful and blissful". It could even be possible that bread was first baked to be a way to make beer that is easy to carry around. The Sumerians were probably the first people to brew beer
. They had found a "divine drink" -- they felt it was a gift from the gods.
Amount of alcohol in beer 
Normal beers have around 3-5 % alcohol (for the volume, i.e. in 100ml beer there is 3-5ml alcohol). In brewing beer, the amount of alcohol can be made more or less quite easily. The Belgian types of beer are made by adding more sugar. Through the fermentation, this will then turn to alcohol. Today, there are beers with between 2% and about 16% of alcohol (about the same alcohol content as wine). Spirits can have up to 80% alcohol. Some beer labels say there is no alcohol in them because it was taken out later. This is not completely true, though. Beers "without alcohol" usually do have less than 1% of alcohol.
An IP address (short for Internet Protocol address) is a label which is used to identify one or more devices on a computer network, such as the internet. It can be compared to a postal address. An IP address is a long
number written in binary. Since such numbers are difficult to communicate, IP addresses are usually written as a set of numbers in a given order. Devices using IP addresses use the internet protocol to communicate.

Registration 
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority assigns IP addresses to regional internet registries (RIRs). The RIRs assign them to Internet Service Providers. Internet Service Providers then assign IP addresses to their customers. Very often, people have a router or gateway at home, to which they connect computers, printers, and other devices. These routers or gateways are often configured to assign "local" IP addresses to the devices that are connected.
Parts 
Each address has two parts: one that specifies the computer or group of computers, and another which specifies the network. A device can have more than one IP address. Certain types of IP addresses are used to address a group of devices, while others are used to address only one device. Certain types of addresses are unique, others can be re-used. A number of IP addresses are used for special purposes, for example to obtain an IP address automatically.

MAC address 
An IP address is converted to physical or Media Access Control Address using the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). If an IP address is your phone number, then your MAC address is your name. You may change your phone number, but your name will not change.
Example 
Suppose one of our friends wants to meet us but they don't know our address.  They ask us for our address and then we give it (Example: 123 Main Street, Anytown, USA).  Knowing the address, they can easily locate us.  The same thing is done in case of internet.  Every network is assigned an address.

Who allocates IP Address 
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) allocates the IP address. IANA is responsible for the IP addressing system.
What an IP address looks like 
An IP address is a long binary number, made of ones and zeros. An IPv4 address is 32 binary digits (or bits) long. An IPv6 is 128 bits long, allowing many more IP addresses to be used. IP addresses are usually written in human-readable form, where 8 bits are grouped into one octet. IPv4 addresses are usually written as a group of four numbers. Each number can take a value from 0 to 255. IPv6 addresses are written as a group of eight hexadecimal numbers. Many Ipv6 addresses contain many zeroes. There are special rules which say that in certain cases, these zeroes do not need to be written.
Public and private addresses 
Certain IP addresses can be assigned freely on the local area network. Since they are not unique, they are not routed on the internet. The addresses which can be freely assigned are called private IP addresses, and the ones which are unique are called public. To be routed, a private address needs to be translated into a public one. This process of translating between private and public addresses is called network address translation, or NAT. Routers and firewalls often also perform this task.
Reaching one or more devices 
There are three different types of addresses:
 Unicast addresses: The address is assigned to one specific device. This is the most common case, most addresses are unicast addresses.
 Broadcast addresses: Addresses all computers on the same network. There are certain cases where this is useful, such as to obtain a new address automatically. The sender sends the data once, and the devices used for routing the data make copies, as needed.
 Multicast addresses: This case is similar to the broadcast case above: Some devices are interested in receiving certain data, and the network copies the data as needed. The big difference to the broadcast case above is that all devices connected to the broadcast network see the data sent using broadcast. With multicast, devices need to subscribe to see a given content. The devices on the same network that are not subscribed will not see the content.
Obtaining a new IP address 
There are different ways of assigning a new IP address.  One of them is called Bootstrap Protocol (usually shortened to BOOTP). The device that needs a new address, does not know what network it is in, so it uses an IP address of all zeroes (0.0.0.0) which it sends as a broadcast to the current network, on a special port. In addition, it sends the MAC address of the network card, plus a 4 byte random number. The BOOTP server will send a reply, also as broadcast, addressed to a different port. The reply will contain the mac address of the client, the random number, and the IP address of the client. When the client receives the data, it will set the address specified. If the BOOTP server is configured that way, it will also send the IP address and hostname of the BOOTP Server, the name and path to a file which should be loaded to boot the client (using TFTP) or the name of a directory, which the client should mount using NFS.
DHCP extends BOOTP, and allows to send more information, such as the address of a time server, or information which is useful for routing.

IP addresses obtained automatically can be dynamic or static. Static addressing means the same machine will always get the same IP address. With dynamic addresses, a device will get the next address which is not used. Dynamic addresses which are used need to be reviewed from time to time. If they are not renewed, they can be used for other devices.

IP Version 4 
With IPv4, each address consists of four 8-digit binary numbers, called octets. An IPv4 address is 32 bits in total. The biggest number one can make with 8 regular digits is 99,999,999, but the biggest number one can make with 8 binary digits is 255 (11111111 in binary), so each octet can be any number from 0 to 255.

An IPv4 address could look something like this:
 198.51.100.137
Each octet is converted to its decimal form and separated by a period.
There are also special meanings associated with two different ending numbers. In general, a last number of 0 stands for the network (called base address), and a last number of 255 stands for all hosts on that network (called broadcast address). Computers that are on the same local network share 3 of the 4 numbers. A computer can be on more than one network. It can also have several names.

Public/Private addresses 
The problem with IPv4 is that it only allows for 4.3 billion addresses, and we've almost used them all. To delay this, Network Address Translation (NAT) was created. Network Address Translation has a network share one public IP address and give every computer on the network a private IP address. Everyone living in the same house uses the same address, but mail can be meant for multiple different people living in the house.
Special IP addresses 
There are some IP addresses that are reserved for special purposes. For example, the address 127.0.0.1 is called the Loopback Address and will "loop back" any packets sent to this address back to the computer that sent them, like sending mail to yourself. Although this may not seem useful, it is used to test servers.

Network 
It identifies the class of a network.

Host Part 
It identifies the host on a network.

Static IP Address 
It is a permanent internet address. It has to be configured manually. It is used in smaller networks. All servers use static IP addresses. It is a simple way for communication.

Dynamic IP Address 
(Dynamic means Constantly changing)

It is a temporary internet address. It is assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server from a specific range of IP address.
IPv4 subnetting 
To make a network work faster, it is split up into subnets. To do this, an IP address contains a network ID, subnet ID, and a host ID. A special binary number called a Subnet Mask is used to determine the size of the network, subnet, and host IDs.

The original IPv4 only supported 254 networks, so in 1981 the Internet addressing specification was changed to a classful network architecture. Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual networks. The first three bits of an IP address determined its class. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for normal computer communication (Unicast). The size of the network ID was based on the class of the IP address. Each class used more octets for the network ID, making the host ID smaller and reducing the number of possible hosts.
Classful networks have been replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) since 1993. CIDR also provides a network address and host address. CIDR does not have classes, which means network and host address sizes don't have to be in octets.

An IPv4 Address in CIDR notation looks like192.168.0.14/24The slash and number represent the amount of bits that the network id uses, in this case 24 or 3 octets.

IP Version 6 
Because IPv4 is only 32 bits, the number of available addresses will run out. To prevent this, an organization called the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created IP Version 6 (IPv6), which will eventually finish replacing IPv4.
IP Version 6 uses 8 octets each 16 bits = 128 bits in total. Octets in IPv6 are written in hexadecimal, and separated by colons (:). An IPv6 address might look like this:
 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
An IPv6 address can be long and this can lead to mistakes when typing them into the computer or writing them down. There are two ways in which an IPv6 address can be made shorter without leaving anything out:
 Leading zeroes can be left out: 2001:0db8:00b8:0008:0000:0000:0000:0001 becomes 2001:db8:b8:8:0:0:0:1
 Any number of sequential, all-zero 'chunks' may be compressed to simply ::. This can be done only once in the same address: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001 could be written as 2001:db8::1

DNS 
DNS stands for Domain Name System

It is also called a service server, and is based on client server network architecture. Like a phonebook, it contains a database of public IP addresses.
Other versions 
Versions before IPv4 were experimental and never widely used. Version 5 was used exclusively for the Internet Stream Protocol, which was also never widely used.

Internet
Some geographers say Eurasia is one continent, because Europe and Asia are mostly on the same tectonic plate and do not have a sea between them. The Ancient Greeks divided the world they knew into Europe, Asia and Africa. To them, the Aegean Sea was the division between the Balkan Peninsula in Europe and Asia Minor in Asia. North of the Sea of Marmara, the Greeks thought the lands on the western side of the Black Sea was Europe and the eastern side was Asia. The ancient Greeks did not know very much about the lands north of the Black Sea. Since Classical Antiquity, people have talked about Asia and Europe separately, so it is now a tradition to see them as two continents.

Some other continents, which are not completely divided by sea, are joined by a thin strip of land (called an isthmus). An example is North America and South America, which are connected by the Isthmus of Panama. Europe and Asia are not divided by a sea, nor by any isthmus.
Outside of geological definitions, Eurasia also includes the Indian subcontinent and the Arabian Peninsula.

Sometimes Eurasia is divided into West Eurasia and East Eurasia. Here, the dividing line is the Ural Mountains. West Eurasia includes Europe and the Middle East. Historians sometimes add North Africa to West Eurasia, because the Sahara Desert divides North Africa from Sub-Saharan Africa, and it is as difficult to cross as a sea. Also, North Africa is culturally linked to Europe by the Mediterranean Sea.

List of countries
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The OECD’s Eurasia activities involve 13 countries extending from the borders of the European Union to the Far East:
 Afghanistan
 Armenia
 Azerbaijan
 Belarus
 Georgia
 Kazakhstan
 Kyrgyzstan
 Mongolia
 Republic of Moldova
 Tajikistan
 Turkmenistan
 Ukraine
 Uzbekistan
 Turkey

Laurasia
The North Pole is the point that is farthest north on Earth. It is the point on which axis of Earth turns. It is in the Arctic Ocean and it is cold there because the sun does not shine there for about half a year and never rises very high. The ocean around the pole is always very cold and it is covered by a thick sheet of ice. 

There is also a Magnetic North Pole. It is near the physical North Pole. A compass points toward the magnetic North Pole.

There is a star called the North Star (or Polaris) that is always in the sky above the North Pole. People can tell how far north they are by seeing how high the North Star appears in the sky.

Climate

Related pages
 South Pole

References

Arctic
Physical geography
In linguistics, noun phrases have grammatical number. Plural is one kind of grammatical number. In English, plural noun phrases are counted as more or less than one (e.g., 32 degrees, no bananas, 0.5 liters, 1.2 grams, two times, three fish, 20 mothers). In contrast, a singular noun phrase usually refers to something that you would count as one only (e.g., one time, a glass, the sun, my mother, Jennifer). Noun phrases that cannot be counted are also singular in English (e.g., water, the meat, some space, etc.).

In many languages, a suffix (word ending) is added to a word to show that the word is plural. In English, the normal plural suffix is -s (e.g., cat is singular, and cats is plural).
Plurals in English 
There are a number of exceptions:
Singulars ending in s are usually the same in plural: species, mumps, innings and so on. However, proper nouns ending in 's' take add 'es' in plural: Jones becomes the Joneses. 
Compound words add the plural to the noun part: sons-in-law, Lord Mayors, Courts Martial.
Singulars ending in y become ies in the plural if a consonant is before the suffix: day becomes days, but spy becomes spies. Personal names are again exceptions: the plural of Mary is Marys.
Singulars ending in f usually changes to ves: dwarf to dwarves, leaf to leaves, and so on.
Special cases: some plurals just have to be learnt. The plural of person is normally people, but sometimes persons is used.
Invariant nouns: The common names of animals is often used as both singular and plural. One can say "We shot grouse today" correctly no matter what number were killed. With "fish" there is a choice. The traditional English usage is that the word is used for both singular and plural, but American usage seems to prefer fishes as the plural. With groups of animals, one uses the singular, as in a herd of bison or a shoal of herring. However, if the animals are known as individuals then, for example, we feed the ducks, or stroke our cats. There are other cases where there is no plural at all, as with sheep, salmon, deer. Other general words which add no suffix in plural are aircraft and offspring. Some look like singular but are always plural, such as vermin, livestock, cattle, people.
It is fair to say that most native English-speakers make mistakes in this area, which is one of the more troublesome aspects of English.

Other languages 
All European languages have plural forms. The suffix that is used in each language is different from the one that is applied to English nouns.

In other languages, such as Chinese, Korean and Japanese, there is usually no plural ending.

References 

Grammar
Alexander Gottfried Friedrich Gode-von Aesch, or simply Alexander Gode (October 30, 1906 – August 10, 1970), was a German-American linguist, and translator. He helped create the auxiliary language Interlingua.

American linguists
American translators
German people
1906 births
1970 deaths
Oceania is a name used in geography for the region made up of Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia, and several other island nations in the surrounding area. It is often listed as one of the continents of the world.

The term "Oceania" does not have one single agreed definition. The widest definition of Oceania includes the entire region between continental Asia and the Americas, including Australasia, as well as islands in the Pacific Rim such as the Japanese archipelago, Taiwan, and the Aleutian islands.

On the other hand, the Oceania ecozone includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand. Sometimes, people use the term 'Oceania' to include only the Polynesian and Melanesian islands in the Pacific Ocean, as separate from Australasia. When Oceania is treated separately from Australia, the region of Oceania is referred to as "Australia and Oceania".
In the United Nations' geographic regions, Oceania includes Australia and the nations of the Pacific from Papua New Guinea east, but not the Malay Archipelago or Indonesian New Guinea.

A smaller usage of Oceania as a continent includes only Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and the islands between them. This part of the world is usually called Australasia instead. For these reasons, it is not correct to say that Australasia is part of Oceania, because what is meant by 'Oceania' is not clear. Australasia has an exact definition in biogeography and geology; Australasia includes New Zealand, Australia (including Tasmania), and Melanesia, New Guinea, and the islands just north and east of Australia. All these are south-east of the Bali–Lombok line, also known as the Wallace Line.

Countries in Oceania
Some listed here are part of a larger State.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  A State of the U.S.A.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Wallis and Futuna

References

Notes
The Southern Ocean is the ocean around Antarctica. It means the waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans around the continent of Antarctica. Since the 1770s geographers have discussed its limits. Nowadays, sixty degrees south latitude is often accepted. Some people call this ocean the Antarctic Ocean.

The total area is 20,327,000 km², and the coastline length is 17,968 km.

Other websites 

 Oceanography Image of the Day, from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
 The CIA World Factbook's  entry on the Southern Ocean
 The Fifth Ocean  from Geography.About.com
 NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer  Plot and download ocean observations
 NOAA FAQ about the number of oceans 

 
Geography of Antarctica
The Catalan language is a Romance language spoken in Catalonia, Valencian Community, the eastern part of Aragon, the Balearic Islands, a small zone of Murcia (all of them in Spain), Andorra, North Catalonia (in France) and the Italian city of L'Alguer. Together, those places are often called the Catalan Countries.

The language that most similar is Occitan. Catalan also has similarities to other Romance languages, such as Spanish, Italian, French and Portuguese. It came from Vulgar Latin and was first spoken in the in the Eastern Pyrenees in the Middle Ages.

There are about 4 million people who speak Catalan as a first language and about 6 million people as a second language. Catalan is the sixth-most-spoken Romance language and also the most-spoken language that is not an official language in the European Union.

References

Languages of Spain
Andorra
Romance languages
Catalonia
A corset is a body covering undergarment (clothes worn under others).

It is made in many forms.
A tight-lacing corset is a common form used today.  
"Stays" are an old form, which were used from about 1500 to after 1860
An orthopaedic corset supports the back of an injured person.

Other websites 

Underwear
Pop music is a type of popular music that many people like to listen to. The term "pop music" can be used for all kinds of music that was written to be popular. The term "pop music" was used from about 1880 onwards, when new kinds of music became popular. Styles of pop music in the 2020s (today) include rock music, electronic dance music and hip hop. Different kinds of music are popular at different times, which changes the description.

History
Modern pop music grew out of 1950s rock and roll, (for example Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley and Little Richard) and rockabilly (for example Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly). In the 1960s, The Beatles became a famous pop music group. In the 1970s, other styles of music were mixed with pop music, such as funk and soul music. Pop music generally has a heavy (strong) beat, so that it is good for dancing. Pop singers normally sing with microphones that are plugged into an amplifier and a loudspeaker.
How does the business of pop music work? 
There are also many more people working on pop music who are not seen on the stage or in the video. These people include the studio staff (people who help the musicians to record CDs and music videos in music studios), production staff (people who help make the music recordings sound good), distribution staff (people who help sell the music to stores) and retail staff (people that sell the music to people at CD stores).

Tour staff help the band to travel around the country (or around the world) for their concert tours. Some tour staff help by carrying heavy musical instruments onto the stage. Other tour staff drive buses or cars, so that the band can get to the concert. Some tour staff operate sound equipment, such as the large amplifiers and loudspeakers that are used to amplify (make louder) the band's music for the audience.
Promotional staff help to market or promote the band's music, so that more people will know about the band, and buy the band's CDs. Some promotional staff travel to radio stations and give the band's CD to radio station managers or DJs (disk jockeys: the people who announce songs on the radio). Other promotional staff write press releases (short articles) about the band which are sent to the newspapers.

Types of music that became pop music 
Pop music came from the Rock and Roll movement of the early 1950s, when record companies recorded songs that they thought that teenagers would like. Pop music usually uses musical from the other types of music that are popular at the time. Many different styles of music have become pop music during different time periods. Often, music companies create pop music styles by taking a style of music that only a small number of people were listening to, and then making that music more popular by marketing it to teenagers and young adults.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a type of nightclub dance music called Disco turned into a popular type of pop music. Record companies took an experimental, strange-sounding type of music called New Wave music from the 1980s and turned it into pop music bands such as The Cars. In the 1990s record companies took an underground type of hard rock called Grunge (for example the band Nirvana). Michael Jackson was also a very influential artist for pop music. His album, Thriller, is the best-selling album of all time. He also wrote some other very influential songs, such as "Bad", "Give In to Me", "Will You Be There", "Heal the World", "We Are the World", "Black or White", and "Billie Jean", just to name a few. By the 21st century (after the demise of disco in the 1980s)  Contemporary R&B became pop music. Examples of Contemporary R&B artists that have a wide pop appeal are Usher, Beyoncé, Rihanna, Chris Brown and more. Pop rappers Flo Rida and Kesha were mainstream in the late 2000s and the early 2010s
. Modern pop singers include Ariana Grande, Katy Perry and Lady Gaga. Nicki Minaj blended pop and hip hop in the early 2010s.
Many bands and artists are looked as influential in music history, but the English band The Beatles are the most looked upon band in history because of many of their songs being different types of pop and rock music (even metal and punk). Michael Jackson, The Bee Gees, Nirvana (band) are many of the artists and bands that look at The Beatles as a massive influence on their music.

Sources

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General semantics is a philosophy that deals with how people react to things that happen around them based on meaning. It was created by Alfred Korzybski during the 1920s and early 1930s. 

The goal of general semantics is for people to know that when we simplify something, either mentally or in language, that simplification is not the same thing as the thing simplified. How people understand reality is not the same as what reality is because people do not know everything about reality. General semantics teaches that there is always more to something than what is seen, heard, felt, or believed.

Branches of philosophy
Reality
History and terminology 
The importance of signs and signification has been recognized throughout much of the history of philosophy, and in psychology as well. The term derives from the Greek: σημειωτικός, romanized: sēmeiōtikos, "observant of signs" (from σημεῖον sēmeion, "a sign, a mark"). For the Greeks, "signs" occurred in the world of nature, and "symbols" in the world of culture. As such, Plato and Aristotle explored the relationship between signs and the world.

The general study of signs that began in Latin with Augustine culminated with the 1632 Tractatus de Signis of John Poinsot, and then began anew in late modernity with the attempt in 1867 by Charles Sanders Peirce to draw up a "new list of categories." More recently, Umberto Eco, in his Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language, has argued that semiotic theories are implicit in the work of most, perhaps all, major thinkers.
Semiotics is usually divided into three parts:
Semantics -  what was the meaning of the words or signs used; 
Pragmatics - who said it, to whom and in what circumstances and 
Syntactics - the formal rules of the language used.

The major branches of semiotics include:
Biosemiotics
Zoosemiotics
Semiotics of culture

Other page 
Atomic semiotics
Philosophy of language

References

Language
Nitrogen is a nonmetal chemical element. The atmosphere contains more than 78 percent of nitrogen. It has the chemical symbol N and atomic number 7. Its stable inside typically contains 14 nucleons (7 protons and 7 neutrons). It has 5 electrons in its outer shell.

Properties

Nitrogen is a colorless odorless gas at normal temperature. It is normally attached to another nitrogen atom, making a nitrogen molecule (N2). This bond is very strong. That is why many explosives contain nitrogen. The bond is broken when the explosive is made. When it explodes the bond reforms, releasing a lot of energy.

It turns into a liquid at -195.8°C and turns into a solid at -210°C. If it is compressed, it can be turned into a liquid without making it cold.
It usually does not combine with other atoms because its strong bond prevents it from reacting. Lithium is one of the few chemical elements that react with nitrogen without being heated. Magnesium can burn in nitrogen. Nitrogen also makes blue electric sparks. The blue color is caused by the atoms being excited. When they get normal again, they release light. When nitrogen is excited, it reacts with many things that it does not normally react with.

Compounds 

Many chemical compounds that are important for industrial purposes contain nitrogen ions. These include ammonia, nitric acid, nitrates and cyanides. Nitrogen comes in several oxidation states; -3, -2, -1/3, +1, +3, +4, and +5. Each of those oxidation states has its set of compounds.
Compounds in the -3 oxidation state are weak reducing agents. These include ammonia, ammonium, amide and nitrides. Amino acids and proteins contain nitrogen in this oxidation state. Hydrazine, a compound in the -2 oxidation state, is a strong reducing agent. Azides contain nitrogen in the -1/3 oxidation state. They are extremely powerful reducing agents, and most are very toxic.

Nitrous oxide contains nitrogen in the +1 oxidation state. It is used as an anesthetic. Compounds containing nitrogen in the +2 oxidation state, such as nitric oxide, are reducing agents. +3 oxidation state compounds are strong oxidizing agents and weak reducing agents. Nitrites are the most common +3 compounds. Compounds in the +4 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents. They include nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide.
Compounds containing nitrogen in the +5 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents. They are one of the more common groups of nitrogen compounds. They include nitric acid and dinitrogen pentoxide. They also include nitrates, which are used in explosives such as dynamite, nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene.

Occurrence and preparation
Air is made up of about 78% nitrogen and about 20.95% oxygen, < 1% argon, and traces of other gasses such as carbon dioxide, and water vapor, among others. It is also in a few nitrates in the ground. Ammonium minerals are rare. Nitrogen is in proteins.

Pure liquid nitrogen can be made by cooling air. The nitrogen turns into a liquid at a different temperature than the oxygen. It can also be made by heating certain chemical compounds, such as sodium azide.

Uses
Uses

Nitrogen as an element is used to prevent things from reacting with the oxygen in the air. It can be used to fill crisp bags and incandescent bulbs. It is also used to fill some tires. It can be used to make electric components like transistors. Liquid nitrogen can be used to freeze things. 

Nitrogen compounds have many uses, such as anesthetics (nitrous oxide), explosives (dynamite), cleaners (ammonia), and meat (protein), and planes (fuel).

Oil companies use high pressure nitrogen to help force crude oil to the surface. 

Nitrogen is also used as a way to relieve body aches. It contributes to the torn bones in your body and helps.

History
Nitrogen was discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious gas or fixed gas. They discovered that part of air did not burn. It was found that animals died in it. It was known as "azote". Many nitrogen compounds also contain the "azide" or "azine" letters, such as hydrazine.
In 1910, Lord Rayleigh found out that when a spark was passed through nitrogen, it made a reactive form of nitrogen. This nitrogen reacted with many metals and compounds.

Related pages
 List of common elements

References
For the American sport, see American football. For other sports known as football, see Football

Association football is a sport played between two teams. In the United States, Canada and Australia, it is called soccer. In most other English-speaking countries it is called football. Association football is the most popular sport in the world.

Games like football have been played around the world since ancient times. The game came from England, where the Football Association wrote a standard set of rules for the game in 1863.

The game originated in China, for their army. The players had a very heavy ball and goals high. England took the idea of the Chinese game and changed the rules a bit and now it is the modern game we know today.
Each team has 11 players on the field. One of these players is the goalkeeper, the only player who is okay to touch the ball with their hands. The other ten are known as "outfield players". The players try to kick the ball into their opponents' goal. The team that scores the most goals wins. A match has 90 minutes of play, with a break of 15 minutes during the match. The break in the middle is called half-time. Added time may be added after half time or after 90 minutes to make up for time lost during the game because of fouls, free kicks, corner kicks, injuries, bookings, substitutions or any other time the game is stopped. A match can end in a tie, except in some competition games where one team must win. In that case, extra-time with two halves of 15 minutes each may be played, and if there is still a tie, a penalty shootout decides the winner. Sometimes extra-time is skipped and the game goes right into the penalty shootout.

Rules
Fundamental rules 
 The side which scores the most goals wins. If scores are equal, the result is a draw. In cup competitions, there may be extra time and penalties to determine a winner.
 The officials in a football game are a referee and two linesmen. 
 Goals are scored by getting the ball into the opponents' goal, more than halfway across the line.
 In big tournaments, referees can use cameras to check whether a goal was scored.
 The offside rule means that there must be at least two defenders between an attacker and the defenders' goal if the attacker's teammate passes the ball to him/her. Usually, one of the two defenders is the goalkeeper. (This rule is complex and has many other details.) Before this rule was added, players would often stand next to their opponents' goal and score an easy goal as soon as the ball was passed to them.
 Players may not use their hands or arms (handball), except the goalkeeper, who may use them within their own penalty area (penalty areas are in front of both goals).
The ball is out of play if it crosses the field boundaries.
 If a player hits the ball out of play at the side of the field, the other team gets to throw the ball back into play (a throw in).
 If a player hits the ball out of play at their end of the field, the other team kicks the ball back into play from the corner (a corner kick).
 If a player kicks the ball out of play at the other end of the field, the other team kicks the ball back into play from directly in front of the goal (a goal kick).
 Football is a game of two halves. Each half is 45 minutes.  The referee may add time to the end of each half when play is delayed due to injuries or substitutions.  There is an interval of ten minutes between halves.
 Each team is allowed up to three substitutes from the bench during the course of a game. No player substituted can return during the game.