Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Confucianism is the philosophy based on the teachings of Confucius (551 BC - 479 BC), who was an important Chinese philosopher. Confucianism has a complete system of moral, social, political, and religious thought, and has had a large influence on the history of Chinese civilization.  Some people think Confucianism should be called a religion but others do not agree.

Confucianism was made to stop the fall of former Chinese society. After the Zhou Dynasty fell, people cared only for themselves and did not have any respect for others. Confucianism became a social order for China, teaching that social relationships are the most important. People slowly started to believe in it, because they wanted to have peace, but they had to care for themselves too. As a result, Confucianism brought the people love, harmony, and respect for one another.

Confucianism was started in Ch'u-fu, Confucius's birthplace.  Today, Confucianism has spread around the world, but it is still more important in China.
The teachings of Confucius focus largely on the respect of one's parents, elders, and ancestors. He also taught that humans 'can never stop learning'; meaning that knowledge is infinite, therefore we will always learn, never stopping. For example, he once asked a seven-year-old child to be his teacher, because the child knew something that he did not.

Confucianism Beliefs and Teachings 
Confucianism is mainly built on the idea of etiquette and building good relations within a community. Confucius, founder of Confucianism, taught that harmony was a fundamental aspect of the world, and viewed God (Tian) as not the personal maker of the universe, but as the governing order and regularity of the universe, and that people should regularly engage in ritual dedicated to God in order ground oneself and the community with the divine.

The Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues: are the bases of morality.

Bonds:

 Father and son
 Lord and retainer
 Husband and wife

Virtues:
Virtues: 

 Ren (Jen), altruism and humanity.
 Yi, righteousness.
 Li, good conduct.
 Zhi, knowledge.
 Xin, loyalty.

Chinese culture that exists today has its roots in Confucianism. Confucius believed that families are the building blocks of a society, which is why he laid emphasis on Filial Piety, which is known as xiào (孝) in Chinese. Filial Piety means loyalty towards one's family. A Filial son is expected to take care of his parents and go to any extent to make their wishes come true. Confucians venerate their ancestors in the form of ritual dedicated to statues or representations of them.

Confucianism advocates for people to strive for achieving the title of a Junzi, or "gentleman". The Confucian Junzi acts as a leader to the community, has the ability to see beyond himself and works in the interest of the whole rather than himself, works towards gradual, rather than immediate, goals, and is loyal and humble.
I Ching divination is regularly practiced in the realm of Confucianism, as the book of I Ching is part of the Confucian Five Classics.

The book, Analects, describes the teachings of Confucius and was written by his disciples.

Related pages
 Ogyū Sorai

References

 
History of China
Religion in China
Lead (pronounce: "/'lɛd/") is a chemical element. Its chemical symbol is Pb, which comes from plumbum, the Latin word for lead. Its atomic number is 82, atomic mass is 207.2 and has a melting point of 327.8°C. It is a very poisonous and heavy metal, and is also the last nonradioactive element on the Periodic Table.

Properties

Physical properties

Lead is a shiny, gray-blue poor metal. It gets tarnished easily to a dull gray color. It is soft and malleable. It is very shiny when it is melted. It is very heavy. It is very corrosion-resistant. It is made stronger by adding antimony or calcium. It can form an alloy with sodium. It is toxic to people and animals when swallowed.

Chemical properties
Chemical compounds
Lead makes chemical compounds in two main oxidation states: +2 and +4. +2 compounds, also known as lead(II) compounds or plumbous compounds, are weak oxidizing agents. +4 compounds, also known as lead(IV) compounds or plumbic compounds, are strong oxidizing agents. Lead compounds are toxic just like the element. The lead halides do not dissolve in water. Lead(IV) oxide is the most common lead(IV) compound. It is a black solid. The lead oxides are all colored, while the other salts are white or colorless. Lead nitrate and lead(II) acetate are the soluble compounds of lead.
+2 compounds
This state is more common than the +4 state. These are weak oxidizing agents. All but the oxides are colorless or white.
Lead(II) acetate, colorless soluble
Lead(II) arsenate, insoluble former pesticide
Lead(II) bromide, insoluble
Lead(II) carbonate, white, used as pigment
Lead(II) chloride, insoluble
Lead(II) nitrate, soluble, colorless
Lead(II) oxide, red or yellow
Lead(II) sulfate, white, found in lead acid batteries
Lead(II) sulfide, black, common as mineral

Mixed oxidation state compounds
Mixed oxidation state compounds contain lead in the +2 and +4 oxidation state.
Lead(II,IV) oxide, red, oxidizing agent

+4 compounds
These are less common. They are strong oxidizing agents. 
Lead(IV) acetate, oxidizing agent, colorless
Lead(IV) oxide, dark brown, oxidizing agentCobalt compounds are chemical compounds containing cobalt ions.

Occurrence

Lead is found very rarely in the earth's crust as a metal. Normally, lead is in the mineral galena. Galena is lead sulfide. Galena is the main lead ore.
History
Lead was used for thousands of years because it is easy to get from the ground and easy to shape and work with. The Romans used lead very commonly. They used it for pipes, drinking vessels, and fasteners.

Preparation
Lead is made from galena. Galena is made pure by froth flotation to get all the impurities out. Then the lead sulfide is roasted in a furnace to make lead(II) oxide. The lead(II) oxide is heated with coke to make liquid lead metal.

Uses

As an element

Lead is used in the ballast of sailboats. It is also used in weight belts for scuba diving. It is also used to make shotgun pellets and bullets for small arms. Some printing presses use lead type because it can be easily shaped. It can be used outside because it does not corrode in water.
Most lead is used in lead acid batteries, though. The lead is oxidized, making electricity. Sheets of lead are used to block sound in some places. Lead is used in radiation shielding. Molten lead can be used as a coolant in nuclear reactors. It used to be mixed with tin to make the pipes in pipe organs. Different amounts of lead make different sounds. In addition, lead has found its usage in solder.

It is used in some solder. It is used in covering for wires that carry high voltage. Some tennis rackets have lead in them to make them heavier. It is used to balance wheels of cars, to make statues, and to make decorative looks in buildings.
As chemical compounds
Many lead compounds are used to make colored glazes in ceramics. Lead can be used in PVC pipes. Lead compounds are added to candles to make them burn better. Lead glass has lead(II) oxide in it. Lead compounds are still used as pigments in some places. Lead compounds were added to gasoline, but are now outlawed. Some lead compounds are semiconductors and are used in photodetectors.

Old uses
Lead was used in many red, yellow, and white pigments in paints. Lead was also used in pesticides. Lead used to be used in pipes carrying water, but now it is not because lead can leach into the water.

Safety
Although it can be safely touched, exposure to lead should be avoided – it is very toxic to humans and other animals when swallowed, and its use is restricted in many countries. 

If someone is exposed to lead for a long time, it ruins their kidneys and gives them abdominal pains. Lead also ruins the nervous system. Lead paint was being eaten by children and they were getting lead poisoning.
The best way to understand lead and its properties is to read its MSDS.

Related pages
List of common elements

References

Post-transition metals
A bell is a simple musical instrument. Most bells are made of metal. Bells are also in churches to announce the time between hours. Ships usually carry a ship's bell. Alarm bells warn of danger. Some bells are in bell towers.

Basic English 850 words
Transformers are robots that turn into other things.  Usually they turn into vehicles, like cars or jets.

Transformers started in 1984 as a toy line, but then an animated series and a comic book were made. In 1986 a movie came out. In 2002 a new series and story line called Transformers Armada came out. This was followed by two more shows, Energon and Cybertron.

Transformers is about different things sometimes.  Usually it is about the heroic Autobots fighting the evil Decepticons.  The Autobots are usually led by Optimus Prime.  The Decepticons are led by Megatron.

Transformer universe
The Dynasty of Primes were the first seven Primes in Cybertronian history. They were on a quest to harvest Energon using the Star Harvester. In some documents of history, they were loosely known as "The Thirteen".

Other websites

Animated television series
Toys
Transformers (franchise)
When something is simple, it is very easy to understand or to do. The opposite is hard or complex or difficult. Simplicity is the quality of being simple.

Simple can mean something that is only made up of a few parts.  It lacks complexity.
 A bicycle is much simpler than a space ship.

Simple can mean that something or someone is humble (lowly) or common:
He lives very simply. "Simple living" is a way of life. It uses the ideas of Henry David Thoreau or Epicurus or Diogenes as its moral goals. Simple living says that a person needs only few and basic things to be happy.

Simple can also be used to refer to someone whose mind thinks in a very simple way. Calling a person "simple minded" is usually rude.

Related pages
Simpleton
Wikipedia:Simple English Wikipedia

Basic English 850 words
A mathematician is someone who studies mathematics, either as a hobby or as a job. Many mathematicians are math professors at universities, or work at cryptography. Euclid, Ramanujan, Sir Isaac Newton are some of the most famous early mathematicians.

Mathematical societies and foundations

Gallery

Notes

Notable Mathematicians

Europe
 Carl Friedrich Gauss
 Emmy Noether
 Karl Weierstrass
 Leonid Kantorovich
 Lucy Joan Slater
 Sophie Germain

Asia
 Masao Iri
 Masatake Mori
 Ryogo Hirota

Other websites

 Mathematics Genealogy Project
 International Congress of Mathematicians
 Timeline of women in mathematics
 
Science occupations
West Virginia is a state in the Appalachian region of the United States. Its capital and largest city is Charleston.  It is often abbreviated W. Va. or simply WV. About 1,800,000 people live in the state.

West Virginia is bordered by Pennsylvania to the north, by Ohio to the north and west, by Kentucky to the west, by Maryland to the north and east, and by Virginia to the east and south. The Ohio and Potomac Rivers form parts of the boundaries.

Before the American Civil War, West Virginia practiced slavery as part of the state of Virginia. Slaves, at first Native American but increasingly brought from Africa in the slave trade, were forced to grow tobacco, mine coal, and be personal servants. Many slaves were rented from owners in other parts of the state to work in the mines. In the 19th century, white people kept slaves in order to earn money by selling them south to states like Texas, Louisiana, and Georgia.
Statehood Of West Virginia 
West Virginia was admitted into the union as a slave state in 1863. Slavery was abolished after the war, and Confederate veterans voted the politicians who passed the laws out of office.

West Virginia was once a part of Virginia. At the beginning of the American Civil War, Virginia and the other southern states seceded from the United States, which means they chose to not be a part of it anymore. Slaves were fewer in the west than in other parts, and those in West Virginia who were against slavery were not objecting on moral grounds. They saw it as bad for free labor. While slavery was an issue in other parts of Virginia, in the western counties the issues were taxation and being governed from a state capital that was far away. The people in Western Virginia had far more in common with their neighboring states of Pennsylvania and Ohio than with the Commonwealth of Virginia. So this was an area of Union support.
On June 20, 1863, West Virginia became the thirty-fifth state of the United States. But it was not an easy process. There had been some discussion of the area becoming a state since the early 1800s. It took three conventions at Wheeling from 1861 to 1863. The process divided friends and communities.

Statehood was not universally accepted in West Virginia. While there were no large scale battles, there was a good deal of guerilla warfare in attempts to undermine the new government. Confederates raided into West Virginia trying to terrorize the citizens. Despite Confederate efforts to topple the state government, Washington provided both economic and political support. Union military successes outside the state helped keep the state government in power. After the war there were bitter resentments between those for and against statehood. Virginia even tried to force West Virginia back into becoming a part of Virginia again in 1871. But West Virginia remained a sovereign state despite the efforts.
Geography
West Virginia is often called the "Mountain State" because it is entirely within the Appalachian Mountain Range, and there are many hills and mountains throughout the state. The highest one is Spruce Knob, which is 4,863 feet above sea level. There are many rivers, including the Ohio, the Potomac, the Kanawha, and the Monongahela.

Related pages
Colleges and universities in West Virginia
List of counties in West Virginia

References

 
1863 establishments in the United States
Virginia is a state in the United States. Its capital is Richmond and its largest city is Virginia Beach.  The official name of Virginia is the Commonwealth of Virginia. About 8.6 million people lived there in 2020.

Geography 
Virginia is bordered (touching) by West Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia (across the Potomac River) to the north, by Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, by North Carolina and Tennessee to the south, and by Kentucky and West Virginia to the west.

History 
Native Americans were the first people to settle in Virginia.

Virginia became a state in 1788 after the American Revolution. Before it became a state of the United States, Virginia was one of the Thirteen Colonies of Great Britain. Virginia was founded (started) in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia.
The state of West Virginia was part of Virginia until the American Civil War.  Virginia then left (seceded from) the United States and joined the Confederate States of America.  The western counties of Virginia seceded from Virginia to form a new state which was loyal to the Union.  After the end of the Civil War, Virginia became part of the United States again in 1870, but the counties that had left to start West Virginia did not join Virginia again.

Virginia is the state where eight United States presidents were born. This is more than any other state.

The first African-American slaves were sent to Virginia.
Economy 
Virginia has many industries like local and national government, military, farming, technology and business. Many Virginians work for the government because it is next to Washington, D.C.. The Central Intelligence Agency, Department of Defense, as well as the National Science Foundation are in Northern Virginia.  Farming is the largest industry in the state, making 334,000 jobs. Tomatoes, peanuts, tobacco, and hay are grown in Virginia. Technology is a fast growing industry. Virginia is 4th in technology workers after California, Texas, and New York.

Related pages
 Colleges and universities in Virginia
 List of counties in Virginia

References

Other websites 

 Virginia at Citizendium

 
1788 establishments in the United States
Vermont is a state in the United States. Its capital city is Montpelier, and its largest city is Burlington. It is one of the six New England states. About 640,000 people lived there in 2020.

The states that border Vermont are Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north.

Vermont was home to the Abenaki and Iroquois Native American groups until France took control of the area when it was building colonies. Great Britain gained control after winning the French and Indian War. It is known for being one of only four states to be an independent nation before joining the United States. It was not a part of the 13 colonies and instead joined as the 14th state. Vermont became a state in 1791. It is world-renowned for its maple syrup industry, and many tourists go to see brilliant colors the trees become in the fall months. The tourism industry has become quite successful, with many tourists coming every year.
Related pages
 Colleges and universities in Vermont
 List of counties in Vermont

References

 
1791 establishments in the United States
South Carolina is a state in the southeast United States. Its capital city is Columbia, and its most populous city is Charleston. The population of the state is about 5.2 million people, ranked 23rd in the United States. South Carolina has an area of 32,030 square miles, making it the 40th largest state in the United States.

Other important cities in South Carolina are Greenville, Spartanburg, Anderson, Sumter, and Florence.
Major landforms include beaches, "barrier islands", salt marsh, sandhills , rolling piedmont, and the Blue Ridge Mountains.  Because of its natural beauty, the state attracts many tourists, especially to Myrtle Beach, Charleston, and Hilton Head Island.
South Carolina became a state in 1788.  The economy was agriculture-based, known for cotton, rice, indigo, and tobacco by African American slaves.  After the American Civil War, the state lost much of its political and economic power.  Towards the end of the 20th century, the state began to strengthen its economy and add population.  Today, the major industries are tourism, textiles (clothing materials), golf, and manufacturing.  South Carolina has the second highest number of workers employed by international companies per capita in the United States.

South Carolina is bounded to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia, located across the Savannah River, and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean.

History
History

The original inhabitants of South Carolina were Native Americans. At least 29 Native American tribes lived in South Carolina. The Native American population declined after the arrival of Europeans.

Farming 
Before the Civil War, South Carolina grew a lot of rice. African slaves worked on slave plantations in the state.

Participation In The Civil War & 1876-1966 Segregation

The Civil War 
South Carolina became the first of eleven states to secede from the union, on December 20, 1860, to protest the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln. It joined the Confederacy. The first battle of the Civil War took place at Fort Sumter, in Charleston.
1876-1966 Segregation & Democratic Dominance 
After the Civil War, African-Americans in South Carolina got to vote for some time, but soon black codes were enacted, and white-supremacist groups like the KKK were reborn, restricting African-Americans from voting. South Carolina thus became a Democratic stronghold. In fact, in 1904, Republican Theodore Roosevelt, who was running for president, won less than 5% of the vote in the state. The Democratic candidate won over 95% of the vote. This cult of fear disabled most African-Americans in South  Carolina from voting till 1965, when President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act.

Confederate Flag 
For a long time, South Carolina had the Confederate flag hanging over its capital. This is no longer the case.

Famous People 
U.S. President Andrew Jackson was born in South Carolina.

Related pages
 Colleges and universities in South Carolina
 List of counties in South Carolina

References

 
1788 establishments in the United States
Rhode Island was one of the original Thirteen Colonies. It became very important to the economy because of the slave trade, and more slaves were taken to the thirteen colonies through Rhode Island than any of the others in the 18th century. Slavers would send ships from Newport to buy slaves from Africa and make money by trading goods with others involved in slavery. Rhode Island became a state (the last of the thirteen to agree to the new United States Constitution) in 1790. But despite it joined the United States in 1790, it was founded in 1776.

Rhode Island is bordered on the north and east by Massachusetts, on the west by Connecticut, and on the south by Rhode Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. It shares a water border with New York. It is named for a large island in Rhode Island Sound, Rhode Island. Some thought the island looked liked Rhodes, an island in Greece.
An executive order was signed by Governor Gina Raimondo on June 22, 2020 to remove "Providence Plantations" from the official state name due to its ties to slavery.  Raimondo stated the change would go into effect "as soon as practicable."  In November 2020, the official name was voted to be changed to "State of Rhode Island".

Related pages
 Colleges and universities in Rhode Island
 List of counties in Rhode Island

Notes

References

Other websites

 
1790 establishments in the United States
North Carolina is one of the 50 states of the United States. The capital of North Carolina is Raleigh and the most populous city in the state is Charlotte. North Carolina is split into 100 counties and these counties have many cities and towns.

North Carolina was one of the original thirteen colonies and was where the first English colony in America lived. As of 2020, there were about 10,400,000 people living in the state.

In 2018, North Carolina was ranked number one on Forbes' Best States for Business ranking for a second year in a row.
Politics 
Until recently, North Carolina had long leaned Democratic. In presidential elections, it has voted Democratic twice as many times as it has voted Republican. In presidential elections from 1968 to 2004, North Carolina supported the Democrat only in 1976, when he came from the South. However, from presidential elections from the century of 1868 to 1964, inclusive, North Carolina voted for the Democrat in all 25 elections except for 1928. The state's governor, Roy Cooper, is a Democrat.

Major cities 
The largest city in North Carolina is Charlotte, North Carolina, with an estimated population of about 880,000 as of 2021. The second largest city is the state capital, Raleigh, North Carolina, with an estimated population of about 470,000 as of 2021. The next largest cities in the state, in order, are Greensboro, Durham, Winston-Salem, and Fayetteville.
Fayetteville, in the southern part of the state, is the location of Fort Bragg, one of the largest military bases in the United States. Asheville, a city in the western part of the state, is popular among tourists because of its location near the mountains.

Geography 

North Carolina touches South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east. The state is divided into three distinct geographical areas, the Coastal Plains to the east, the centrally located Piedmont region, and the mountain ranges of Appalachia to the west. The eastern seaboard of the state is lined with a string of barrier islands known as The Outer Banks.

North Carolina is known for its varying weather across the geographically diverse regions of the state.
Coastal Plain (East North Carolina) 
The eastern part of the state is touched by the Atlantic Ocean, and usually has moderate temperatures all year long with the summer average high temperature usually not above 90 °F in the summer and not under 40 °F in the winter. However, it can get as hot as the low 100s °F and as cold as 20 °F. Most years there is less than one inch of snow and some years pass with no snow at all. The coastal plain usually gets a tropical storm every 3 or 4 years.

Piedmont (Middle North Carolina) 
The average temperature normally does not go above 90 °F in most parts of the Piedmont in summer, but can go over 100 °F when there is a heat wave. Ice pellets and freezing rain are normal in this part of North Carolina, but the mountain ranges protect the Piedmont from the worst winter weather. Snow in this region rarely lasts more than 48 hours before melting. Weak tornadoes are often seen in the Piedmont, but only 140 people have died by tornadoes from 1950 to 2012 in the entire state.
Mountains (West North Carolina) 
The average temperature almost never goes above 80 °F in the summer and is usually in the high 30’s or low 40’s in the winter in the mountain region of North Carolina. About 14 to 20 inches of snow fall each year with some of the higher elevations getting 50 inches each winter. The wettest part of the mountains gets 90 inches of rain.

History

The Beginning 
Before the English came, about 30 Native American groups lived in North Carolina. In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh started two colonies in what is now known as North Carolina, but they did not last long. One of these, the Roanoke Colony later became known as the Lost Colony and is still known as one of the great unsolved mysteries of early American history to this day. Virginia Dare, the first English child born in the America, was born in the Roanoke Colony.
The first permanent settlers in North Carolina came from the state of Virginia in 1655 because there was not enough farmland in Virginia. Later the land was cut up into present-day North Carolina and South Carolina. The name "Carolina" comes from the Latin for Charles (Carolus) after King Charles I.

The Seaborne Slave Trade of North Carolina from the North Carolina Historical Review reports that slaves imported to North Carolina prior to the Revolution from extant records came mainly from the West Indies, most particularly Montego Bay, Jamaica; Barbados; Antigua; and the Bahamas; a small number from mainland colonies; and an even smaller number directly from Africa, though imports between the years 1772-1775 rarely exceeded 150 slaves annually (Minchinton).

The economy's growth and prosperity was based on slave labor, devoted first to the production of tobacco.

The American Revolutionary War 

North Carolina was an important state during the American Revolutionary War.

The Civil War
The Civil War 

In 1860, North Carolina was a slave state. About 1/3 of the people in the state were slaves. North Carolina fought as part of the Confederacy during the Civil War, but it was the last state to leave the Union. The state sent about 125,000 troops to fight in the war and about 40,000 of them died. Even during the war some people in North Carolina did not support the Confederacy, mostly because the Confederacy believed in slavery. The first Confederate soldier to be killed was from North Carolina.

Economy

Farming and Manufacturing 
Farms in North Carolina grow many different foods such as grapes, peanuts, Christmas trees, poultry and eggs, wheat, corn, cucumbers, apples, greens, tobacco, hogs, milk, cattle, sweet potatoes, and soybeans. North Carolina grows more tobacco than any other state in the country. Furniture making is an important industry in North Carolina, but over the past few years many jobs have moved to other countries like China and India.
Banking and Technology 
Charlotte, the biggest city in North Carolina, is the second biggest banking city in the United States, making banking very important in North Carolina. BB&T and Bank of America have their main offices in the state.

Technology is also important in North Carolina. There are many companies that make computer software and video games in the state. Winston-Salem is a center for innovation in biomedical and material sciences and information technology called the Wake Forest Innovation Quarter. Research Triangle Park near the state capital of Raleigh is one of the largest research parks in the world.

Medical Research and Care
North Carolina has four hospitals that are nationally ranked with many NICUs at a IV rating (highest possible rating in the United States). Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center is reported by the U.S. News & World Report as one of the top hospitals in the nation. Brenner Children's Hospital and Health Services is designated a Nurse Magnet facility and it was rated in 2014 as one of America's best children's hospitals.

Transportation

Roads 
North Carolina has more state maintained roads than any other American state. The biggest roads are:

Airports 
There are many major and international airports in North Carolina. These are:

References 

 
1789 establishments in the United States
New Jersey is one of the 50 states of the United States of America. It is in the northeastern section of the country along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a geographically small state, shaped like a letter [S], and bordered on the west by Pennsylvania and Delaware across the Delaware River, on the north by New York, on the northeast by the Hudson River and New York City, on the east and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the southwest by Delaware Bay.

The capital of New Jersey is Trenton and the largest city is Newark, though New Jersey is better known for bordering the large cities of New York City and Philadelphia. The state nickname is "The Garden State". The current governor is Phil Murphy.

New Jersey is the fourth smallest state, but has the eleventh highest number of people. It therefore has the highest population density (number of people for the amount of land) in the United States. New Jersey is also well known for its beaches, industries, swamps, and pine forests.
The climate is hot and humid summers and cold winters, with about  of precipitation every year. The average temperature in the summer is between  and , and in winter around 16 °F (-9 °C) to 34 °F (1 °C).

History
Before Europeans came, the land that is now New Jersey was inhabited by the Lenape (also known as Delaware Indians by the English), who were nomads, hunters, and farmers. The Dutch came to the northern area of the state in the 1630s, after Henry Hudson explored the area, thought it was a nice place, and claimed it for the Dutch. Towns quickly sprang up, occupied by the Dutch, Swedes, and Finns. People rushed in. The first towns, such as Bergen (now Jersey City), Trenton (the capitol), and Burlington developed. Many others started themselves upon the west bank of the Hudson. New Jersey was part of the area known at this time as New Netherland.
In 1664, the English took New Netherland from the Dutch and added it to their colonies. This part was renamed New Jersey after an island in the English Channel known as Jersey.

New Jersey took part in the American Revolutionary War, and was a scene of battles. On Christmas in 1776, George Washington's army entered New Jersey to attack British soldiers at Trenton and Princeton. The American army won, in two small but famous battles that were important in boosting American morale.

Later, the rebels drove the British residents out of Princeton and for a time established a national capital there. New Jersey was the third state to join the US and the first to approve the Bill of Rights.

Counties
New Jersey has 21 counties:

Mercer, Middlesex,

References

 
1787 establishments in the United States
New Hampshire is a state in northeast United States. It is one of six states in the New England region. The capital is Concord and its largest city is Manchester. The second largest city is Nashua. Other major cities include Keene, Dover, Portsmouth, and Merrimack.

The state motto is "Live Free or Die"  and the nickname is the Granite State.  The state flower is the lilac and the state bird is the purple finch.  New Hampshire is part of New England.  It is bordered by Maine in the East, Massachusetts to the South, Vermont to the West, and Quebec, a Canadian province, to the North.

Its population was estimated to be 1,359,711 in 2019, so it is the ninth smallest state in the United States by population.
New Hampshire's tourist attractions include the Lakes Region, the White Mountains, the autumn leaves, and the New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon.  Some famous people from New Hampshire are Franklin Pierce, Adam Sandler, and members of the band Aerosmith. New Hampshire is also famous for being the first state to vote in the Presidential primaries.

New Hampshire was a British colony before the American War of Independence.  It became the ninth state on June 21, 1788 when it accepted the United States Constitution.

Related pages
 Colleges and universities in New Hampshire
 List of counties in New Hampshire

References 

 
1788 establishments in the United States
A watch glass is used for temporary storage of solids and sometimes liquids (in small amounts).

Laboratory equipment
Glass
A funnel is an object with a wide top and a narrow tube at the bottom and this is used for pouring liquids into a container. A funnel is also a round metal chimney on top of a ship or train.

Tools
Ships

pl:Lejek (sprzęt laboratoryjny)
Constantinople (; ) was the capital city of the Roman Empire from 330 AD and later what historians called the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was located in the Bosporus, the strait between the Balkans and Asia Minor.

History 
For centuries the city was not very large, and was called Byzantium. In the 4th century, Roman emperor Constantine the Great made Byzantium the capital of the Roman Empire and renamed it to Constantinople. 

In the 13th century, Constantinople was looted and captured by crusaders during the Fourth Crusade. The crusaders created the Latin Empire (12041261), with Constantinople as the capital city. In 1261, the Empire of Nicaea successfully restored the Byzantine Empire, under the rule of the Palaiologos dynasty.

In 1453 the Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror captured Constantinople. The city was renamed Istanbul and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire (14531922).
Over time, the city's short name in  became the name Istanbul. This name became the city's official name in 1930, during the government of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

Related pages
 Istanbul

Other websites 
 Monuments of Byzantium  - Pantokrator Monastery of Constantinople
 Mosaics of Hagia Sophia - The Deesis Mosaic from Hagia Sophia
 Constantinoupolis on the web Select internet resources on the history and culture of Constantinople
 Info on the name change from the Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture
 Welcome to Constantinople , documenting the monuments of Byzantine Constantinople, compiled by Robert Ousterhout, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
 Constantinople, from History of the Later Roman Empire, by J.B. Bury

Constantinople
Ancient Roman cities
Mormonism is a Christian restorationist  religious movement that was founded by Joseph Smith. It is also called the Latter Day Saint movement. The largest and best known Mormon church is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Mormon teachings are similar to many Christian churches, and they consider themselves to be Christian, although some non-members do not consider them to be Christian.  A 2007 survey showed that 31% of the people polled do not agree that Mormons are Christians. Mormons have beliefs that are different from the beliefs of mainstream Christian churches. The Mormon Church considers itself a restoration church. This means that members of the Church believe that it is the original Christian Church started by Jesus Christ and brought back ("restored") by Joseph Smith, Jr. in 1830. Mormonism or Bahaism are sometimes called the "fourth Abrahamic religion".

First vision
First vision 

Joseph Smith, Jr. said that he had visits from God the Father, Jesus Christ, and many angels. The first visit is called the First Vision. It happened when Joseph was 14 years old. He had decided to pray about which religion to join. He said that he went to the woods far from his family's house in New York, prayed, felt evil powers fighting him, and was rescued when a bright light appeared above him. In the bright light, he said that he saw God the Father and Jesus Christ. They told him not to join any church, because none of the churches had all of the truth. They also told him that they had work for him to do.

The Book of Mormon
Part of the work that Joseph did was translating the Book of Mormon. Joseph said that an angel named Moroni visited him and showed him where a very old book was buried. This book was written on plates of gold (sometimes called the Gold Plates). It was buried in a stone box in a hill near Joseph's home in New York. Moroni visited Joseph once a year for four years until he told Joseph to take the Gold Plates. Since the book was written in a very old language, Joseph translated the book into English. He did this with help from God and by the tools called the "Urim" and "Thummim". The book was published as The Book of Mormon in 1830. It tells the story of two main groups of people who lived in North and South America hundreds of years ago (the Nephites and Lamanites), as well as a story of a group of people who came to the Americas thousands of years ago upon leaving the Tower of Babel (the Jaredites). It also teaches many things about Jesus
. To members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Book of Mormon is a special book from God comparable to the Bible. Mormons believe that by reading The Book of Mormon and the Bible, people can learn how to get closer to God and how to find happiness in life. This book is also the reason Church members are sometimes called "Mormons".
Today the center of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is in Utah, but there are more than 16 million Mormons living all over the world. The leader of the church is called the president, and followers call him a prophet. They believe that God guides the prophet, just like God guided Joseph Smith and the prophets in the Bible. Members of the church believe that it is important for families to spend a lot of time together, and that after they die, they can live together forever. Active members do not drink alcohol, coffee, or tea, or smoke tobacco. They meet once a week on Sunday for church, where they have the sacrament and listen to short talks or sermons. They also have Sunday School to learn more. The church also has activities during the week. Mormons also have buildings called temples. These are the most holy buildings in their religion. When a Temple is first built, and after renovations, the general public is invited to tour the inside
. However, after a temple has been dedicated, only church members that have had a worthiness interview with the bishop or stake president may enter. They believe in baptism by the person being completely underwater (baptism by immersion), such as explained in the Articles of Faith that was written in a letter by Joseph Smith through revelation from Heavenly Father.
Big movements in Mormonism
Today, there are three main movements in Mormonism, although one is by far the largest. They are represented by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Community of Christ and the Church of Christ with the Elijah Message. When people talk about Mormons, they usually mean the followers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which is the largest Mormon movement. This movement also says that the term Mormon is a nickname given to members early in the church's history, and would prefer to be referred to as "Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints". "Latter Day Saint" (LDS) is another nickname that is not preferred because it omits the name of Jesus Christ.

Different groups' beliefs
Some people who call themselves Mormons are not part of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. These people belong to other Mormon churches. Some of their beliefs are different.
Other splits in the Church happened later. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) teaches that a man should only marry one woman. This is called monogamy. In the beginning of the church, this was different. A man could be married to more than one woman at the same time (called polygamy). When the Church changed its position in 1890, some people left the official Church and continued with polygamy. These groups are very small compared to the LDS. The groups that did not want to abandon polygamy are sometimes still called Mormon, even though in the official church, polygamy has been forbidden since 1890. Most of these smaller groups stay away from other people, since polygamy is illegal in the United States. The LDS tells people not to use the word Mormon or pictures of Church leaders and temples when talking about these groups, since it makes it seem like they are still connected to the LDS even though they are not.
Mormonism and Christianity
There are many practices in Mormonism that are very similar to those used in Christian movements. There are some practices, however, where the Mormon movement is noticeably different from other Christian movements, such as Catholic, Orthodox, or Protestant faiths. People who define Christianity as belonging to one of those denominations generally say that Mormonism is not a Christian movement.

In English, the LDS Church accepts the King James Version of the Bible as a part of its official scripture.
Mormons believe in Jesus Christ as the literal firstborn Son of God and Messiah, his crucifixion as a conclusion of a sin offering, and resurrection.
However, Latter-day Saints (LDS) reject the ecumenical creeds and definition of the Trinity taught by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Anglican Communion, and Trinitarian Protestantism.
In their view, the New Testament prophesied that people would turn away from Christian teachings, and that there would be a restoration to the situation before the second coming of Christ.
Much of the Mormon belief system is oriented geographically around the North and South American continents. Mormons believe the people of the Book of Mormon lived in the western hemisphere, that Christ appeared in the western hemisphere after his death and resurrection, that the true faith was restored in upstate New York by Joseph Smith, and that the Garden of Eden and location of Christ's second coming were and will be in the state of Missouri. For this and other reasons, including a belief by many Mormons in American exceptionalism, Molly Worthen speculates that this may be why Leo Tolstoy described Mormonism as the "quintessential 'American religion'".

References
Seyyed Mohammad Khatami (سید محمد خاتمی), (born October 14, 1943) is an Iranian politician who was President of Iran from August 2, 1997 to August 3, 2005 and was followed by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Khatami studied Islamic theology in Qom, and philosophy in Isfahan. Khatami built upon the idea of a lawful state, called Rechtsstaat, of democracy and of social equality. He was the first Iranian president to officially do so. These tenets led to conflicts with the government of Iran. Khatami is seen as a reformist. He is currently a prominent supporter of the Iranian Green Movement, and a critic of the government.

Other websites 
 Biography in I.R.I.B. Archive 
 Biography in Encyclopedia Britannica
 Web site of the International Center for Dialogue Among Civilizations

1943 births
Living people
Iranian politicians
Iranian Muslims
Cider (or cyder) is a drink made from fruit juice, most often from apples.

In Europe and Oceania it is an alcoholic drink that is made from apple juice, through a process called fermentation. In the United States and parts of Canada, cider containing alcohol is called hard cider or alcoholic cider, while cider or apple cider means less-sweet, usually unfiltered, apple juice.

In the United States and Canada people drink a special kind of cider around Halloween and Thanksgiving. This cider is usually unfiltered, rather thick, and it is often heated and spiced with cinnamon before drinking it. This is different from the cider in Europe, which usually is not heated.

How cider is made 

Usually to make cider, apples with a high concentration of tannins are chosen. The fermentation of the apples takes place at around 4-15° Celsius. The temperature influences the duration of the fermentation. The temperature at which the fermentation occurs also has an effect on the taste of the cider.
Shortly before all the sugar has been fermented away, the cider is put in a new barrel which is made air-tight. The rest of the sugar will then become carbonic acid. This will also add to the life-span of the cider (no pasteurisation is needed).

Cider is also the starting-point for distilling Calvados. This alcoholic drink is famous and very expensive.
Where cider is made 
Cider is made almost anywhere where there are cider-apple trees, most notably
 France, with its main cider-producing regions:
 Normandy, especially the AOC Pays d'Auge (since march 1996)
 Calvados, Normandy: Calvados the drink is made of cider through a process called double distillation. In the first pass, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. In a second pass, the amount of alcohol is augmented to about 40%.
 Brittany, especially AOC of Fouesnant and of Cornouaille
 Pays de la Loire
 Nord-Pas-de-Calais
 Champagne (Pays d'Othe)
 Savoie
 Somme
 Thiérache
 Spain :
 Asturias
 the Basque country
 Galicia
 Germany, in particular around Frankfurt am Main
 Belgium, in the 'pays d'Herve; and in the east of the Province of Liège
 United Kingdom
 Channel Islands
 North America

In France, Normandy is the first region as to the production of cider-apples (300 000 tonnes), and the first in cider production (7000 kilolitres).
In France, some ciders can benefit from a protected naming. This is the cidre normand and the cidre breton.

France is the country in the world that produces the biggest quantity of cider.

The United Kingdom  produces the most varieties, and along with Ireland holds the biggest market for cider.
Kinds of cider 
Hard cider contains alcohol, which affects the taste of the cider. This can be influenced by choosing the right moment when to stop fermentation:
 With 3° of alcohol and below, the cider will be sweet, similar to apple juice. In France they call this cidre doux, and use it to go with desserts.
 Between 3° and 5° of alcohol, you get a cider that can accompany a meal of fish or meat. The French call this cider cidre demi-sec or cidre brut (classique).
 Traditional cider (hard cider) usually has 5° alcohol or more.
 Calvados is made of cider through a process called double distillation. In the first pass, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. In a second pass, the amount of alcohol is augmented to about 40%.

In France, the most popular are the first, second and fourth categories. In the English-speaking countries, it is possible to find cider with up to 12° of alcohol.

When to drink cider
The French and Spanish cuisines have recipes where cider is needed to make them. The French and Spanish also often drink cider instead of wine made from grapes.

In Europe, many young people drink cider. Cider costs less than wine, and is often served in pubs and other places where young people go.

The effects of cider are the same as those of any alcoholic drink.
Apple products
Alcoholic drinks
Year 1499 (MCDXCIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events
 January 8 – Louis XII of France marries Anne of Brittany
 August 24 – Lake Maracaibo is explored by Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci.
 September 18 – Vasco da Gama arrives at Lisbon, returning from India
 Montenegro is added to the Ottoman Empire

 October 14 – Claude of France