Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Technical drawings are used to make electronic parts as well as mechanical parts. They are used in commercial and residential construction. Roads, bridges, and wastewater systems are just some of the things that need technical drawings. Almost anything that is manufactured requires technical drawings.

Technicians 
A drafter, draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person trained to make technical drawings. A professional drafter who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting technician. Professional draftspersons bridge the gap between engineers and manufacturers. They contribute experience and technical expertise to the design process.

Related pages 
 Computer-aided technologies
 Plan (drawing)
 Architecture
 Mechanical engineering
 Civil engineering
 Mechanical engineering

References

Other websites 
 Technical Drawing 
 Technical Drawing Tutorial

Architecture
Manufacturing
Engineering
Industrial occupations
Florence Jacqueline Sylvie Devouard,  was born 10 September 1968 and was the leader of the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation from October 2006 to July 2008, taking over from Jimmy Wales.  She joined the board of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2004 and helped start Wikimedia France in October 2004.

Nibart-Devouard was born in France, grew up in Grenoble and studied in Nancy, and later lived in Antwerp in Belgium and in Arizona in the United States. As of 2008, she lives in the village of Malintrat in France. On 9 March 2008, she was elected member of the municipal council of Malintrat. On 16 May 2008, she was made a knight of the French national Order of Merit.

References

Other websites
Nibart-Devouard's user page on English Wikipedia

1968 births
Living people
People from Versailles
Wikimedia Foundation
Wikipedia people
La Altagracia is the easternmost province of the Dominican Republic. It was created on 1961 and its capital city is Higüey.

Location 
To the north and east of the province is the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and to the south is the Caribbean Sea, with the Mona Passage (a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Caribbean Sea) to the southeast. The province is bordered to the west by La Romana and El Seibo provinces.

History
The region of the province was part of the El Seibo until 1944 when it was made part of the new province of La Romana. In 27 February 1961, the La Romana province was split in two provinces: La Romana and La Altagracia.

The province was created with the municipalities of Higüey and San Rafael del Yuma with the city of Salvaleón de Higüey as capital of the province. Las Lagunas de Nisibón was made a municipal district in 1982, La Otra Banda in 1987, Boca del Yuma in 2001, Bayahibe in 2002, and Verón Punta-Cana in 2006.
Origin of name
The province was named La Altagracia (High Grace) because the Basílica de Nuestra Señora de la Altagracia ("Our Lady of High Grace Basilica") is in the city of Higüey, capital city of the province.

Population
In  (last national census), there were  people living in the La Altagracia province, and 222,802 () living in towns and cities. The population density was  persons/km².

Its population represents  of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 9th (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

, the total estimated propulation of the province is 322,653 inhabitants.

The largest city of the province is Higüey, its head municipality or capital, with a population (in ) of 168,501 inhabitants.

Geography 
The La Altagracia province has a total area of . It has   of the area of the Dominican Republic and it is ranked as the second (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province.
The altitude of Salvaleón de Higüey, provincial capital, is .

The main protected area in the province is the Parque Nacional del Este ("Eastern National park").

Mountains 
There are some low mountains in the northern part of the province. Those mountains are part of the Cordillera Oriental ("Eastern mountain range"). Savannas are found everywhere in the province.

Rivers 
There are not many rivers in this province. The main river is the Yuma that flows from north to south, into the Caribbean Sea.

Climate 
The climate of the province is a tropical climate, hot most of the year.

Municipalities
There are 2 municipalities and 5 municipal districts (M.D.) in the province. The municipalities and its municipal districts (M.D.) are:
Economy
The most important economic activities in the province are farming (cattle and sugar cane) and tourism. The eastern coast of the province, in the region of Punta Cana and Bávaro, is the most important touristic centre of the country with many hotels along beaches with white sand. Bayahibe, in the southern coast, is also an important touristic centre.

Related pages
 Provinces of the Dominican Republic
 Development regions of the Dominican Republic

References 

Provinces of the Dominican Republic
1961 establishments in North America
20th-century establishments in the Dominican Republic
"Just Say No" was an advertising campaign during the 1980s and early 1990s. It was part of the U.S. "War on Drugs." The campaign wanted to discourage children from using illegal drug(s) and offered various ways of saying "no". "Just Say No" was also used by other organizations, such as DARE, to discourage violence and premarital sex. The slogan was created by First Lady of the United States, Nancy Reagan.

Beginnings 
The campaign started in the 1970s as part of the National Institutes of Health's program to stop drug abuse. It was started by Professor Richard I. Evans from the University of Houston. Professor Evans thought that if you taught students how to resist peer pressure, then you would have less bad behavior.
While her husband ran to be President, Nancy Reagan joined this movement. In 1980,  she visited Daytop Village in New York City. After her trip, she wanted teach youth about drugs and drug abuse. After her husband became the United States, she went back to Daytop Village. She told them that she would tell others how dangerous drug abuse is.Understanding what drugs can do to your children, understanding peer pressure and understanding why they turn to drugs is...the first step in solving the problem.

Efforts 
Robert Cox and David Cantor made the slogan "Just Say No." They were advertising executives at Needham, Harper & Steers/USA in the early 1980s.  Nancy Reagan first used the phrase in 1984 when she visited Longfellow Elementary School in Oakland, California. A schoolgirl asked what she should do if her friends or classmates offered her drugs.  Soon "Just Say No" clubs became common within schools and anti-drug programs in schools. In these clubs, children promised not to use drugs.

References
References

Phrases
Nancy Reagan
La Romana is a province of the Dominican Republic. It is in the southeastern part of the country. Its capital city has the same name, La Romana.

It was created in 1959. It was a municipality of the El Seibo province before being elevated to the category of province.

Location
La Romana province is in the southeast part of the country. It is bordered to the northwest by the El Seibo province, to the northeast and east by the La Altagracia province and to the west by the San Pedro de Macorís province. The Caribbean Sea is to the south.

History
The province was created in 1944 with the name of La Romana, with two municipalities: La Romana (the capital city) and Higüey; before that date, it was part of the El Seibo province. But that same year, the name of the province was changed to La Altagracia. Its original name was given back to the province in 1961 when the new La Altagracia province was created.
Guaymate was made a municipality of the province in 1971 and Villa Hermosa in 2004. Cumayasa was made a municipal district in 2004 and Caleta in 2006.

Population
In  (last national census), there were  people living in the La Romana province, and 231,312 () living in towns and cities; it is one of the few provinces of the country where most of the people lives in cities. The population density was  persons/km², one of the highest in the country.

Its population represents  of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 10th (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

, the total estimated propulation of the province is 262,551 inhabitants.

The largest city of the province is La Romana, its head municipality or capital, with a population (in ) of 130,426 inhabitants.

Blacks are the main ethnicity of this providence, at 90% of the population. The rest of the 10% is mostly composed of mulattoes.
Geography
The La Romana province has a total area of . It has   of the area of the Dominican Republic, one of the smallest province of the country, and it is ranked as the 30th (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province.

The altitude of La Romana, provincial capital, is .

There are only a few low hills in the province and almost all the land is flat. The most important rivers are:
Chavón, in the eastern border of the province;
Dulce or La Romana, that crosses the capital city; and
Cumayasa, in the western border of the province.

The small islands of Saona and Catalina are part of the province.

The main protected area in the province is the Parque Nacional del Este ("Eastern National park").

Climate
The climate of the province is a tropical climate, hot most of the year.

Municipalities
There are 3 municipalities and 2 municipal districts (M.D.) in the province. The municipalities and its municipal districts (M.D.) are:
Economy
There are several important industries in the province; the oldest and one of the most important is the production of sugar. There is also a very important zona franca ("free zone" where the industries do not pay taxes and all the production is sent to other countries).

Tourism is very important in the province, around the capital city and with many people going to the beaches in the Saona and Catalina islands.

Related pages
 Provinces of the Dominican Republic
 Development regions of the Dominican Republic

References

Provinces of the Dominican Republic
1944 establishments in North America
1940s establishments in the Dominican Republic
Bischofshofen is a city in Salzburgerland, Austria.

It is famous because of its Ski Jump Championships.

References

Settlements in Salzburg (state)
The Freedom Party of Austria (German: Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs, shortened to FPÖ) is an Austrian political party led by Norbert Hofer

Their ideology is national conservative. They are the third biggest party in the Austrian Parliament. The party leader is currently Norbert Hofer.

References

Other websites 
 Official website
 Country Studies - Austria

1956 establishments in Europe
1950s establishments in Austria
Conservative parties
Nationalist organizations in Europe
Political parties in Austria
Eurosceptic parties
The Greens – The Green Alternative (, shortened to GRÜNE) is an Austrian political party. Its leader is Werner Kogler and it is founded 1993.

The party is a member of the European Green Party and its ideology is Center-Left. The main ideology is green politics that aims to create an ecologically sustainable society.

Other websites 
 

1993 establishments in Europe
1990s establishments in Austria
Green political parties
Political parties in Austria
A cubicle is a small room. It can be a small work space often seen in offices. It can also be a place used for changing clothes in, often found at swimming pools and gymnasiums.

History
Robert Propst designed the first cubicle in 1964. He wanted to "empower" people, and make them work better. Propst worked for a home furnishings company called Herman Miller at the time. In 1968, when the company started selling the cubicle, it did not sell well. Herman Miller later designed a new type of cubicle that was cheaper. The cubicle is now very popular in offices around the world.

References

Rooms
Navel lint, also called belly button lint, belly button fluff or navel fluff, is a collection of fluffy fibres in one's navel.

Many people find that, at the beginning and end of the day, a small lump of fluff has appeared in the navel cavity. People have wondered why this happens for many years. In 2001, Dr. Karl Kruszelnicki of the University of Sydney, Australia, did a survey to find out why this happens. This is what he found out:

 Navel lint is mostly stray fibers from one's clothing, mixed with some dead skin cells, and body hair. 
 The lint comes from a person's shirt or top. The fibers move there from friction of body hair. 
 Women have less navel lint because of their finer and shorter body hair. Older men have it more because they have more hair and it is thicker.
 Navel lint's color is usually blue-gray.  The color is most likely an average of all clothing colors worn.
 Navel lint is entirely harmless and does not need to be corrected.
Dr. Kruszelnicki was awarded the Ig Nobel Prize for Interdisciplinary Research in 2002. The Ig Nobel Prize is given for "achievements that cannot or should not be repeated".

Austrian scientist Georg Steinhauser has also done research on the navel lint.

References

Other websites 
 
 World record navel lint collection by Graham Barker 

Fibers
Start 
In England the Viking Age began dramatically on June 8, 793, when Norsemen destroyed the abbey on Lindisfarne. Monks were killed in the abbey, thrown into the sea to drown, or carried away as slaves along with the church's wealth. The Viking devastation of Northumbria's Holy Island shocked and alerted the royal courts of Europe. "Never before has such an atrocity been seen," declared the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin of York. More than any other single event, the attack on Lindisfarne cast a shadow on the perception of the Vikings for the next 1100 years. In the 1890s scholars outside Scandinavia began to rethink the achievements, artistry, technological skills and seamanship of the Vikings.
During the second half of the 18th century the Icelandic Sagas were still used as important historical sources, but the Viking Age was regarded as a barbaric and uncivilized period in the history of the Nordic countries. Until recently, what was known about the history of the Viking Age was based on the Icelandic Sagas, the history of the Danes written by Saxo Grammaticus, the Russian Primary Chronicle and the War of the Irish with the Foreigners. Few scholars still accept these texts as reliable sources; historians nowadays rely more on archaeology and numismatics, which have helped people understand the period.

Background
Background 

The Norsemen were explorers, colonizers and traders as well as plunderers. The Vikings from Norway explored the North Atlantic and settled Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Shetland and Orkney Islands, Caithness in Scotland, Greenland and (briefly) North America. The Vikings from Denmark raided ports and coastal towns along the coasts of Europe and Britain. The Vikings from Sweden pushed east, into areas that are now parts of Russia and Ukraine, establishing trade connections with the Middle East and beyond.
By the 9th century, a strong central authority was established in Jutland, and the Danes were looking beyond their own territory for land, trade and plunder. Norway had been settled over many centuries by Germanic peoples from Denmark and Sweden who made farming and fishing communities around its coasts and lakes. The mountains and fjords formed strong natural boundaries. The communities remained independent of each other, unlike the situation in Denmark which is lowland. By the year 800, there were 30 small kingdoms in Norway. The sea was the easiest way of communicating between these Norwegian kingdoms and the outside world. In the eighth century Scandinavians began to build war ships and send them on raids. The Viking longships were capable of travel on the open seas but also had a very shallow draft, meaning they could sail into shallower bays and farther up rivers than other ships of their time. This led to the term Viking, which came from the Old Norse word vīk (meaning inlet or bay)
. A person who went on raids was said to go "viking".
Historians also suggest that the Scandinavian population was too large for the peninsula and there were not enough crops to feed everyone. This led to a hunt for more land to feed the ever-growing Viking population. Internal conflicts, especially during the period of conquest and settlement that followed the early raids, caused the progressive centralisation of power into fewer hands. This meant that lower classes who did not want to be oppressed by greedy kings went in search of their own lands. Those who settled Iceland created Europe's first modern republic with a yearly assembly of elected officials called the Althing.
Overview 
The earliest date given for a Viking raid is 787 AD when, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a group of men from Norway sailed to Portland, in Dorset. There, a royal official mistook them for merchants. They killed him when he tried to lead them to the king's manor to pay a trading tax on their goods. The beginning of the Viking Age in the British Isles is, however, often given as 793. It was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that the Northmen raided the important island monastery of Lindisfarne:
"AD. 793. This year came dreadful fore-warnings over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the people most woefully: these were immense sheets of light rushing through the air, and whirlwinds, and fiery dragons flying across the firmament. These tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great famine: and not long after, on the sixth day before the ides of January in the same year, the harrowing inroads of heathen men made lamentable havoc in the church of God in Holy-island (Lindisfarne), by rapine and slaughter." -Anglo Saxon Chronicle
In 794, according to the Annals of Ulster, there was a serious attack on Lindisfarne's mother-house of Iona, which was followed in 795 by raids on the northern coast of Ireland. From bases there, the Norsemen attacked Iona again in 802, causing great slaughter amongst the Céli Dé Brethren, and burning the abbey to the ground.
The end of the Viking Age is traditionally marked in England by three major events: the failed invasion by Haraldr Harðráði, who was defeated by Saxon King Harold Godwinson in 1066 at the Battle of Stamford Bridge; in Ireland, the capture of Dublin by Strongbow and his Hiberno-Norman forces in 1171; and in Scotland by the defeat of King Hákon Hákonarson at the Battle of Largs in 1263. Harold Godwinson was subsequently defeated within a month by William, Duke of Normandy, who was another descendant of Vikings. Normandy had been acquired by Normans (Norsemen) in 911. Scotland took its present form when it regained territory from the Norse between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries.
Most Scandinavian historians and archaeologists give a different definition. Instead, the Viking age is said to have ended with the establishment of royal authority in the Scandinavian countries and the adoption of Christianity as the dominant religion. The date is usually put somewhere in the early 11th century in all three Scandinavian countries. The end of the Viking Age in Norway is marked by the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. They proclaimed Norway as a Christian nation, and Norwegians could no longer be called Vikings.

The Kingdom of the Franks under Charlemagne was especially hard-hit by Viking raiders, who could sail down the Seine without much difficulty. Near the end of Charlemagne's reign and throughout the reigns of his sons and grandsons, a string of Viking raids began, leading to a Scandinavian conquest and settlement of the region now known as Normandy.
Religion 
At the start of the Viking age, the Vikings believed in the Norse religion. They believed in a  of gods and goddesses, as well as Valhalla, a heaven for warriors. The lower class of society would go to a place called "hel", similar to life on earth. According to Viking beliefs, Viking chieftains would please their war-gods by their bravery, and would become "worth-ship"; that is, the chieftain would earn a "burial at sea". They also performed land burials which often still included a ship, treasure, weapons, tools, clothing and even slaves and women buried alive with the dead chieftain, for his journey to Valhalla and adventure in the after-life. Poets composed sagas about the exploits of these chieftains, keeping their memories alive.
Freyr and his sister Freya were gods of "fertility", which means being able to grow. They made sure that people had many children and that the land produced plenty of crops. Some farmers even called their fields after Freyr, in the hope that this would ensure a good harvest. Toward the end of the Viking Age, more and more Scandinavians were converted to Christianity, often by force. The introduction of Christianity did not immediately end Viking voyages, but it may have been a factor that helped the Viking Age to an end.

Trade centres 

Some of the most important trading ports during the period include both existing and ancient cities such as Jelling (Denmark), Ribe (Denmark), Roskilde (Denmark), Hedeby (Denmark, now Germany), Aarhus (Denmark), Vineta (Pomerania), Truso (Poland), Kaupang (Norway), Birka (Sweden), Bordeaux (France), Jorvik (England), Dublin (Ireland) and Aldeigjuborg (Russia).
Settlements outside Scandinavia 
Britain
 Jórvík (Yorkshire)
 Danelaw
 Hjaltland
Eastern Europe
 Bjarmland
 Garðaríki
 Serkland
 Miklagard
Atlantic
 Faroe Islands
 Greenland
 Helluland
 Iceland
 Markland
 Vinland

In fiction and theater

In the late 19th century (1800s), Richard Wagner and other artists in the Romantic period made operas and other artwork about ancient Germanic culture.  They liked the Vikings because they were not Greeks or Romans.  They came up with the idea of Vikings wearing fur clothes and helmets with wings or horns on them and drinking out of hollowed-out animal horns.  Some ancient Germans wore helmets with horns on them, but real Vikings did not.  Wagner and his partners deliberately dressed the actors in the opera Ring des Nibelungen so they would look like ancient Germans and so the audience would feel like modern Germans came from medieval Vikings.

Related pages
 Viking

Notes
Notes

References 
Carey, Brian Todd. “Technical marvels, Viking longships sailed seas and rivers, or served as floating battlefields”, Military History 19, no. 6 (2003): 70-72.
Downham, Clare. Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press, 2007
Forte, Angelo. Oram, Richard. Pedersen, Frederik. Viking Empires. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005
Henry, Francoise. Irish Art in the Early Christian Period. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1940
Hudson, Benjamin. Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in North America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Maier, Bernhard. The Celts: A history from earliest times to the present. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2003.
TimeRef - Viking Invasions of England

Other websites
Other websites 

 Jorvik and the Viking Age (866 AD - 1066 AD)
 Old Norse literature from «Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad» Norway.
 BBC - History - Blood of the Vikings 
 All About Vikings 
 Viking memories in Oslo 

History of Europe
Periods and ages in history
A collusion is a secret agreement between two or more people or groups, usually to create unlawful advantages over other groups. Collusions often organize secret agreements to gain an advantage by modifying the market unfairly. In businesses, this is often done by intentionally by secretly changing the supply and demand of goods and services.

Sometimes major companies will use collusions to make significant advantages over other companies by the use of cartels (the creation of unfair trade deals).

Social sciences
Clairet is a type of French red wine. It is also known as Bordeaux after its region of appellation d'origine contrôlée. This is the French system which certifies where food and drink comes from.

History 
The wine from Bordeaux was a dark rosé spiced drink in the Middle Ages. That's why it was called "claret", from the French clairet. It changed to the present dry dark red in the 18th century.

Crisis 
The wine industry in Bordeaux has economic problems. It faces fierce  competition from New World wines. Also, the French drink less wine nowadays.

In 2004, exports to the U.S. dropped 59% in value over the previous year. Sales in Britain dropped 33% in value during the same period. The UK, a major market, now imports more wine from Australia than from France. Chilean red wine is also extremely popular now.
The situation is quite different for sophisticated Bordeaux wines. The Waitrose wine list for 2015/16 lists 11 red Bordeaux wines which sell for over £100 a bottle, and the top prices are:
Château Lafite Rothschild 2007 Pauillac Premier Cru Classé: £750 per bottle
Château Mouton Rothschild 2009 Pauillac Premier Grand Cru Classé: £900 per bottle.

Notes 

French wines
The infinite monkey theorem says that a monkey randomly hitting keys on a typewriter will eventually type out one of William Shakespeare's works. When people talk about the infinite monkey theorem, the "monkey" is not always a real monkey. Instead, it is an example of a device that produces random letters. However, the chances of a monkey actually typing a text, like Shakespeare's Hamlet, are very small.

The "Monkey" does not need to type Shakespeare's work. It states that a monkey can type anything in an infinite amount of time.

Simplified Proof 
For example, let it be that Shakespeare wrote "Wikipedia is the best website in the world". If the monkey does not have extra characters like numbers (example: 4, 2) and symbols (example: #, ~) then the monkey will only have 53 things on his keyboard to press. Those are: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z, and the spacebar.
But, the monkey has infinite time. That means, in total, he will press the "W" button infinity times. After every time the monkey presses the "W" button, he has a 1 in 53 chance of pressing the "i" button. But, since the "W" button will be pressed infinite times, the word "Wi" will appear infinite times too. This is because the chance of "i" following "W" is equal to the chance of "W" which is 1/53 multiplied by the chance of "i" following it which is 1/53. That is 1/2809. That is really small, but since "W" and "i" appear an infinite amount of times in the monkey's words it becomes certain. Meaning there is a 100% chance that eventually, the word "Wi" will appear. However, since "W" and "i" both will be pressed by the monkey an infinite amount of time, "Wi" will actually appear an infinite amount of times too.
This goes on and on. Eventually, after even longer time, there will be the word "Wik" because "Wi" appears infinite times and "k" has a 1 in 53 chance of following it. Now, since "Wik" appears infinite times, we know that "Wiki" will eventually appear too. Not only that, we know "Wiki" will appear an infinite amount of times.

Following this logic, we will see "Wikip" and "Wikipe" and "Wikiped" and "Wikipedi" all the way until we will see "Wikipedia is the best website in the world". Not only that, but we will see it infinite times.

Since the sentence "Wikipedia is the best website in the world" was just any sentence, by using the proof above, one can know anything appears an infinite amount of times. Therefore, we know that all of Shakespeare's things will appear. Even the things he threw away, even the thoughts he had at night, and even Hamlet.

This is like how you can find any combination of numbers (example:1829192) in the number pi since it has an infinite amount of random numbers.
The above proof was an example of a Proof by induction.

Related pages
 Law of truly large numbers
 Randomness
 Law of large numbers
 Probability
 Infinity

References

Other websites 
 The Million Monkey Room , an essay by D.R. Belz from The Baltimore Examiner
 RFC 2795 - The Infinite Monkey Protocol Suite (IMPS)

Mathematics
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi (kingdom Fungi) which can live in practically every environment, from freshwater habitats to deserts and forests. It is currently has over 64000 species which makes it the largest phylum of fungi.

Members are commonly known as the sac fungi, due to the phylum having an ascus which is a sac like structure. Within this structure there are eight ascospores which are the sexual organ for ascomycetes. The ascospores get released by the ascus under humid conditions into the air where they can land on objects and spread the fungi. The ascus defines the group and distinguishes it from other fungi.

It was used in genetics because it contains the results of crossing-over between chromosomes.
There are currently three accepted classes in Ascomycota which are Saccharomycotina, Taphrinomycotina, and Pezizomycotina. Saccharomycotina mostly contains species which are single-celled (unicellular) like baker’s yeast (the yeasts that are commonly used in baking and result in the product rising) and Candida (the yeasts which cause the most fungal infections in the world). The species in Saccharomycotina reproduce by budding which is when an organism reproduces by forming a ‘bud’, this bud develops into a full organism. Taphrinomycotina are plant parasites that can has both a unicellular state and a filamentous (long, thread like structure) state when infecting plants. In their structure they do have an ascus but not ascomata. The largest subphylum in Ascomycetes is Pezizomycotina which contains all the species with fruiting bodies (except for Neolecta). Some examples members of the subphylum are cup fungi and truffles
. These fungi reproduce by binary fission which is when the bacterium divides into two (or more) and each part regenerates to become a new cell which resembles the original cell.
Ascomycetes are extremely useful to humans as the have multiple uses in different fields such as fermentation with bread, alcohol and cheese and producing compounds which can be used in antibiotics and other medicine. An example is the genus Pennicillium. Some species of the genus can produce penicillin which can stop the growth or kill certain bacteria when it is used in antibiotics. But also, there are other species of Penicillium are import in producing certain types of cheese. However, this phylum can also be very harmful to not only humans but also plants and other animals. Members are known to cause skin infections in humans, Dutch elm disease in trees and rice blast in oryza.

References

Fungi
A random variable is used in mathematics to study probability theory. It was developed to model the chance of events happening in all kinds of real-life scenarios.

Definition 
Take two measurable spaces, and name them  and . A measurable space is any pair of sets, called  and , that follow these rules:
  is not empty;
 The elements of  are subsets of ;
  and the empty set are both elements of ;
  is closed under complements and countable unions.
A random variable, named , is a measurable function from  to . This is written . A random variable is typically represented by capital roman letters such as , ,  and , and can be either discrete (taking on a countable set of values) or continuous (taking on an interval of values).

The set  is called the sample space. The set  is called the event space.

Use in Probability 
Take a probability measure  on . Take a set  in . Then  is defined to mean .
Examples with Dice 
When you roll a dice, 6 events can happen. These events are the different numbers that can show on the dice: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.

Dicing Fruit 
Here is an example of a random variable. You roll a fair dice once. If the number on the dice is odd, you eat an apple, and if the number is even, you eat an orange. The random variable is the type of fruit that you will eat. Before you roll the dice, you don't know if you will eat an apple or an orange. We can also write this with mathematics:

Take . Take  to be the power set of . Take . Take  to be the power set of . Our random variable follows the even/odd rule from above:

Here  represents the number on the dice after you roll it. We said the dice is fair. In mathematics, this means  for  and .

The event that you eat an apple is a set in the event space. It is . The probability that you eat an apple is the probability measure of this set. It is .
Dicing Fruit Unfairly 
Here is another example. Sometimes a dice is unbalanced. This means that it rolls some numbers more often than others. We can do the same experiment as above, but with an unbalanced dice.

For example, let's say that we use a dice that has been changed in one way: it never rolls the number 5. Then you are less likely to eat an apple, because 5 is an odd number. The random variable is exactly the same as before:

This is because end possibilities have not changed. After the dice is rolled, you will eat an apple or an orange. You don't know which. What has changed is the probability that you eat an apple or an orange. In mathematics, this means

The event that you eat an apple is the same set as for the fair dice. It is . But this event is now less likely to happen, because the dice cannot roll a 5. In other words, the probability that you eat an apple is different than for the fair dice. It is .
Probability spaces 
The examples show that a random variable doesn't automatically give probabilities. If we choose  differently, one random variable can give different probabilities. This can be confusing. For this reason, mathematicians often define a random variable on a probability space. The mathematical notation for this is . This fixes the probability measure. Then there is no confusion about the probabilities of events.

Related pages 

 Expected value
 Probability density function

References

Further reading 
 Klenke, Achim, Probability Theory: A Comprehensive Course : Springer (2013) 

Statistics
Probability theory
María Trinidad Sánchez is a province of the Dominican Republic. It is in the northeastern part of the country, along the Atlantic coast. Its capital city is Nagua.

It was created on 1958. It was a municipality of the Samaná province before being elevated to the category of province.

Name
María Trinidad Sánchez was an aunt of Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, one of the founders of the country. She helped the Dominican soldiers during the first days of the independence from Haiti. She was killed on 27 February 1845 by orders of the first Dominican president, Pedro Santana.
History
The territory of the province was part of the Duarte province and then it was made a municipality of the Samaná province. In 1958, it was made a province with the name Julia Molina, after the mother of the dictator Rafael Trujillo, with the municipalities of Julia Molina and Cabrera and the municipal district, later a municipality, of Río San Juan. In 1961, after Trujillo's death, the province was given the present name and the capital was named Nagua.

The municipality of El Factor was created in 1988.

San José de Matanzas was made a municipal district in 1996, Arroyo Salado in 2000, La Entrada and El Pozo in 2001, Las Gordas in 2003 and Arroyo al Medio in 2006.

Location
María Trinidad Sánchez is in the northeast of the country. The province has the Samaná province to the southeast, the Duarte province to the south and west and the Espaillat province to the northwest. The Atlantic Ocean is to the north and east of the province.
Population
In  (last national census), there were  people living in the María Trinidad Sánchez province, and 74,019 () living in towns and cities. The population density was  persons/km².

Its population represents  of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 20th (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

, the total estimated propulation of the province is 141,331 inhabitants.

The largest city of the province is Nagua, its capital, with a population (in ) of 40,611 inhabitants.

Geography
The María Trinidad Sánchez province has a total area of . It has  of the area of the Dominican Republic and it is ranked as the 20th (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province.

The altitude of Nagua, provincial capital, is .
The Cordillera Septentrional (in English, "Northern mountain range") is in the southern part of the province, going from the northwest to the southeast. The mountains here are not very high, and the mountain range ends in the southeastern part of the province, in a large swamp called Gran Estero close to the Samaná province.

Because the mountain range is close to the sea, the rivers are short.

The protected areas in the province are the Natural Scientific Reserve Loma Guaconejo (Reserva Científica Natural Loma Guaconejo), the National Park Cabo Francés Viejo and the National Park Gran Laguna.

Climate
The climate of the province is a tropical climate, hot most of the year.

Municipalities
There are 4 municipalities and 6 municipal districts (M.D.) in the province. The municipalities and its municipal districts (M.D.) are:
Economy
The main economic activities in the province are farming and fishing. In some partes of the province, mainly in the northern parte (Río San Juan and Cabrera), tourism is an important activity because there are many beautiful beaches.

References

Provinces of the Dominican Republic
1959 establishments in North America
1950s establishments in the Dominican Republic
Monseñor Nouel is a province of the Dominican Republic. It is in the central part of the country. Its capital city is Bonao.

The province was created in 1982. It was a municipality of the La Vega province before being elevated to the category of province.

Name
The province was named after Archbishop Adolfo Alejandro Nouel, who was President of the Dominican Republic in 1912-1913.

History
The valley where is the province was named by the Spanish conquistadors as Sabana de Bonao ("Bonao Savanna"; Bonao was the Taíno name of the region.

Bartholomew Columbus, younger brother of Christopher Columbus, founded here a fort in 1495-1497 and Bonao became one of the most important city of the Hispaniola island during the first years of the Spanish colony.
Later, the city was abandoned and was founded again during the Haitian occupation with the name of "Paraje del Yuna". In 1859, it became a military post in the municipality of La Vega. In 1936, it became a municipality of La Vega province under the name of Monseñor Nouel.

The province was created in 1982 with the municipality of Monseñor Nouel and the municipal districts of Piedra Blanca and Maimón. In 2005, the name of the municipality of Monseñor Nouel was changed to Bonao even if the name had been changed since 1960.

In 1982, Maimón became a municipality and in 1991 Piedra Blanca became the third municipality of the province. Villa Sonador became a municipal district in 1999, Sabana del Puerto in 2000, Juan Adrián in 2001, Juma Bejucal in 2004, and Arroyo Toro-Masipedro and Jayaco in 2006.
Location
The Monseñor Nouel province is bordered to the north and the west by the La Vega province, to the east by the Juan Sánchez Ramírez and Monte Plata provinces and to the south by the San Cristóbal and San José de Ocoa provinces.

Population
In  (last national census), there were  people living in the Monseñor Nouel province, and 112,305 () living in towns and cities. The population density was  persons/km².

Its population represents  of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 17th (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

, the total estimated propulation of the province is 171,040 inhabitants.

The largest city of the province is Bonao, its head municipality or capital, with a population (in ) of 76,241 inhabitants.

Geography
The Monseñor Nouel province has a total area of . It has   of the area of the Dominican Republic and it is ranked as the 24th (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province.
The altitude of Bonao, provincial capital, is  above sea level.

The province is mainly in a valley surrounded by mountains: the Cordillera Central ("Central mountain range" by the north, west and south, and by the Sierra de Yamasá ("Yamasá mountain range"), a branch of the Cordillera Central, by the east.

The most important river is the Yuna, one of the largest of the Dominican Republic and of the Hispaniola island.

Climate
The climate of the province is a tropical climate, hot most of the year.

Municipalities
There are three municipalities and seven municipal districts (M.D.) in the province.

Economy
The main economic activities in the province are farming and mining (mainly surface mining of nickel).

It is a province with an important production of rice. Cattle raising is also important, mainly for milk.

References

Provinces of the Dominican Republic
1982 establishments in North America
1980s establishments in the Dominican Republic
Monte Cristi is a province in the north-west of the Dominican Republic. The capital city is San Fernando de Monte Cristi (usually simply Monte Cristi). The spelling Montecristi is also seen.

Name
When Christopher Columbus visited for the first time the northern coast of the Hispaniola island, he saw on 4 January 1493 a mountain with the shape of a dromedary and named it as Monte Cristo or Monte Christi ("Mountain of Christ") to this mountain now known as El Morro, close to the city of San Fernando de Monte Cristi.

History
Nicolás de Ovando founded a small fishing hamlet in the place where is now Monte Cristi. In 1533, Juan de Bolaños brought a group of 60 families from the Canary Islands to live in the place. In 1545, other 30 families to live here.
The town was destroyed in 1606 by order of the Spanish Crown and the inhabitants were moved, together with the inhabitants of Puerto Plata inhabitants, away from the northern coast to form the new town of Monte Plata. In 1751, Monte Cristi was founded again by order of Ferdinand VI, king of Spain.

Monte Cristi was made as a Maritime District (a special administrative category similar to a province and that has been abandoned) in 1879. The 1907 Dominican Constitution changed its status to province. It was part of the Santiago province before being elevated to the category of province.

Guayubín is a municipality since 1855, Villa Vásquez since 1938, Pepillo Salcedo since 1949, Castañuelas since 1974 and Las Matas de Santa Cruz since 1985. Villa Elisa and Hatillo Palma became municipal districts in 1997, Cana Chapetón in 1999 and Palo Verde in 2002.
Location
The Monte Cristi province is bordered to the north and est by the Atlantic Ocean, to the east by the Puerto Plata and Valverde provinces and to the south by the Dajabón and Santiago Rodríguez provinces.

Population
In  (last national census), there were  people living in the Monte Cristi province, and 58,224 () living in towns and cities. The population density was  persons/km².

Its population represents  of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 21st (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

, the total estimated propulation of the province is 114,624 inhabitants.

The largest city of the province is Monte Cristi, its head municipality or capital, with a population (in ) of 24,644 inhabitants.

Geography
The Monte Cristi province has a total area of . It has   of the area of the Dominican Republic and it is ranked as the 9th (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province.
The altitude of San Fernando de Monte Cristi, provincial capital, is  above sea level.

The Monte Cristi province is in the northwestern part of the Cibao Valley; this part is also called the Yaque del Norte Valley or Línea Noroeste and is very dry because it does not rain much here.

The most important river in the province is the Yaque del Norte, the longest river of the Dominican Republic. Other rivers are Guayubín and Maguaca, tributaries of the Yaque del Norte.

The Cordillera Septentrional ("Northern mountain range") runs along the northern coast of the province; there are not high mountains, only low hills. At the western end of this mountain range is the "El Morro" mountain, forming a headland or a small peninsula.

Climate
The climate of the province is a tropical climate, hot most of the year.

Municipalities
There are six municipalities and four municipal districts (M.D.) in the province.
Economy 
The main economic activity in the province is farming and banana and rice are grown here. Fishing and salt production is also important in the capital city of San Fernando de Monte Cristi.

References

Provinces of the Dominican Republic
1879 establishments in North America
19th-century establishments in the Spanish West Indies
Monte Plata is a province of the Dominican Republic; its capital city has the same name, Monte Plata. It was split from San Cristóbal in 1982.

Name
The province was given the name of the capital city, Monte Plata. In colonial times, people from Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata came to live to this region by orders of the Spanish king and gave to the town a new name that comes from the two original towns, Monte Plata.

History
After the Dominican independence from Haiti in 1844, this region was part of the old Santo Domingo Province. During the Restoration War against Spain (1861 - 1865), there were several important battles in the region.

In 1932, the region was made part of the new San Cristóbal province and then it was made a province with the name of Monte Plata but soon the name was changed to Monseñor Meriño after the Archbishop Fernando Arturo de Meriño, who was President of the Dominican Republic in 1880-1882.
Then, in 1944, the province was made part of the San Cristóbal province again until 1982 when the new Monte Plata province was created with the municipalities of Monte Plata, Sabana Grande de Boyá, Yamasá and Bayaguana. In 2004, Peralvillo became a municipality.

Don Juan became a municipal district in 1987, Gonzalo in 1997, Los Botados in 1998, Majagual in 2001, Chirino in 2002, Boyá in 2004 and Mamá Tingó in 2010.

Location
The Monte Plata province is in the centre of the country. To the north, it has the Sánchez Ramírez, Duarte and Samaná provinces; to the east, the Hato Mayor and San Pedro de Macorís; to the south, the Santo Domingo province; and to the west, the San Cristóbal and Monseñor Nouel provinces.

Population
In  (last national census), there were  people living in the Monte Plata province, and 91,838 () living in towns and cities. The population density was  persons/km².
Its population represents  of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 15th (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

, the total estimated propulation of the province is 189,166 inhabitants.

The largest city of the province is Bayaguana, with an urban population (in ) of 20,303 inhabitants. The capital of the province, Monte Plata, has an urban population of 16,115 inhabitants.

Geography
The Monte Plata province has a total area of . It has   of the area of the Dominican Republic and it is ranked as the 5th (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province.

The altitude of Monte Plata, provincial capital, is  above sea level.

The Sierra de Yamasá is found to the east and north of the province. Los Haitises is a karstic region found in the northwestern part of the province; most of it is now a national park.
The river Ozama is the most important river in the province. Other rivers are Yabacao, Yamasá, Comate, Mijo and Guanuma, all tributaries of the Ozama.

Climate
The Monte Plata province has a tropical wet climate with no dry or cold season as it is constantly moist.

Municipalities
There are five municipalities and seven municipal districts (M.D.) in the province.

Economy
The most important economic activity of the province is farming. Some important crops are sugar cane, cacao and fruits like orange.

Cattle raising is also very important.

References

Provinces of the Dominican Republic
1982 establishments in North America
1980s establishments in the Dominican Republic