Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Clermont-Ferrand is a commune in the Puy-de-Dôme department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in central-southern France.

It is the prefecture of the department and the capital of the arrondissement of Clermont-Ferrand and the historical capital of the region of Auvergne.

History
The modern city was born from the union of two separate towns, Clermont and Montferrand. This union has been imposed by Louis XIII in 1630 (Edict of Troyes) and was confirmed by Louis XV.

While Montferrand was founded in the early twelfth century by the Counts of Auvergne on the model of fortified cities in the Southwest, Clairmont is much older, as it existed in ancient times. The earliest mention of the existence of Clairmont contained in the work of Strabo, the early first century. The city was then known Nemossos described as a "metropolis of Arvernes." She later took the name of Augustonemetum then Arverni.
Geography
To the west of Clermont-Ferrand, there is a plateau where is the Chaîne des Puys, a chain of dormant volcanoes including the Puy de Dôme. To the north of the city is the plain de Limage, a large plain in the Auvergne region in the valley of the Allier river.

Clermont-Ferrand has an area of , and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

The distances from Clermont-Ferrand to other cities are:
 Paris, the national capital - ;
 Lyon, the regional capital - ;
 Bordeaux - ;
 Marseille - ;
 Montpellier - ;
 Nantes - ;
 Nice - ;
 Strasbourg - ;
 Toulouse - .

Clermont-Ferrand is surrounded by the communes:

Climate
The climate of Clermont-Ferrand is an oceanic climate, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

The average temperature for the year in Clermont-Ferrand, at an altitude of , is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .
The average amount of precipitation for the year in Clermont-Ferrand is . The month with the most precipitation on average is May with  of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is January with an average of .

Population
The inhabitants of Clermont-Ferrand are known, in French, as Puydômois (women: Puydômoises).

With a population of 141,365, Clermont-Ferrand has a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

Evolution of the population in Clermont-Ferrand

Clermont-Ferrand forms, together with other 16 communes, the urban area of Clermont-Ferrand with a population of 264,704 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Clermont-Ferrand, formed by 184 communes, with a population of 475,694 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .
Administration
Clermont-Ferrand is the prefecture of the Puy-de-Dôme department since 1790. It is also the capital of the arrondissement of Clermont-Ferrand and the administrative centre () of six cantons:
 Clermont-Ferrand-1, formed by part of Clermont-Ferrand, with 22,260 inhabitants (2014).
 Clermont-Ferrand-2, formed by part of Clermont-Ferrand, with 23,991 inhabitants (2014).
 Clermont-Ferrand-3, formed by part of Clermont-Ferrand, with 23,934 inhabitants (2014).
 Clermont-Ferrand-4, formed by part of Clermont-Ferrand, with 21,592 inhabitants (2014).
 Clermont-Ferrand-5, formed by part of Clermont-Ferrand, with 25,415 inhabitants (2014).
 Clermont-Ferrand-6, formed by part of Clermont-Ferrand, with 24,173 inhabitants (2014).

It is part of the intercommunality Clermont Auvergne Métropole.

Sister cities 
Clermont-Ferrand is twinned with:

Education 
 ESC Clermont Business School

Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Puy-de-Dôme department
 Communes of the Puy-de-Dôme department

References
References

Other websites

 City council website 
 Local tourism website  

 
Former regional capitals in France
Villeurbanne is a city in France. About 130,000 people live there.

References

Other websites
Exile On Main St. was one of The Rolling Stones'  albums. It was released in 1972 and includes the hit songs "Happy" and "Tumbling Dice".

The Rolling Stones albums
1972 albums
Rock and roll albums
R&B albums
Blues albums
Soul albums
Country albums
Blues rock albums
OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) is a programming interface for 3D graphics which helps computer programmers make their 3D graphics perform better and faster by running parts of their programs on a video card (GPU) rather than just the central processor (CPU). Programming interfaces like OpenGL are usually called an "API," which stands for "Application Programming Interface".

OpenGL is often compared to Direct3D, an API for 3D graphics on Windows. Programming for Direct3D is different in some ways because the APIs use different naming schemes for talking to a computer's graphics driver, which means that programmers need to write different code for OpenGL and Direct3D to do the same things.

OpenGL is owned by the Khronos Group, and is an example of open source software. This means that all of OpenGL's programming, and the explanations for how the programming all works, can be viewed, copied, revised, and re-released by anyone.

References

Further reading

Other websites
Other websites

 GLFW -- Library for creating OpenGL contexts.
 GLEW -- Extension wrangler library for newer OpenGL features.

 
 OpenGL Overview and OpenGL.org's Wiki with more information on OpenGL Language bindings
 SGI's OpenGL website
 
 Khronos Group, Inc.
 

Free software
Graphics software
Māori might mean:

Māori people
Māori language
The Māori language (, shortened to Te Reo) is the language of the Māori and an official language of New Zealand. It is an Austronesian language.

Although it is an official language, not many people speak it fluently. In the 2013 census, about 149,000 people, (3.7% of the population) said that they could have a conversation in Māori about a lot of everyday things.

The language can be seen everywhere throughout New Zealand, as many of the placenames are Māori, such as Whangarei, Rotorua, and Timaru. Lots of government or city buildings use te reo on their signs as well as English, and most of the public schools have a Māori name as well as an English one. Some Māori people living in Australia also speak the language.

Te Reo Māori did not have a writing system until the Europeans arrived. In 1817, a Ngāpuhi chief, Tītori, and his relative Tui worked with Professor Samuel Lee and prepared a writing system for te reo.

References

Polynesian languages
Languages of Oceania
Movie criticism is the evaluation of a movie. People who write their opinions about movies in newspapers and magazines or talk about movies on television, the Internet or on radio shows are called movie critics. Some movie critics also write books about movies and the history of movies.

Training
Some movie critics studied movie or movie history in a university before becoming a movie critic. Other movie critics are people who have experience making movies, for example as a movie director or screenwriter. Some movie critics studied other subjects in university that are related to movie, such as English Literature or theatre.
Related occupations
 Movie theorists study the way stories are told in movies, and examine how movie directors, screenwriters, and cinematographers use images and sounds on the movie screen. Movie theorists usually work in universities, in movie studies or media departments. Some movie theorists, such as Francois Truffaut are also involved in other movie-related jobs, such as being a movie critic and a director.
 Movie historians study the history of different aspects of movie production and distribution.
 Television critics write their opinions about television shows in newspapers and magazines or talk about television shows on television or on radio shows. Some television critics also write books about television and the history of television shows. Movie critics Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel once hosted a successful movie review show called At the Movies. 
 Television scholars study the impact of television shows on culture.
Awards
Roger Ebert became the first movie critic to win a Pulitzer Prize. After his win, many other critics were awarded with this honor.

Notable movie critics

 Roger Ebert
 Gene Siskel
 Gene Shalit
 A. O. Scott
 Kenneth Turan
 Steven Rea
 Anthony Lane
 Peter Travers
 David Denby 
 Rex Reed
 Joe Morgenstern
 Joe Siegel
 Andrew Sarris 
 Vincent Canby
 Michael Phillips
 Jonathan Rosenbaum
 Colin Covert
 Leonard Maltin
 Richard Roeper
 Armond White

 
Movie occupations
McCarthyism is the term describing a period of intense anti-Communist suspicion in the United States which began during the start of the Cold War, that lasted roughly from the late 1940s to the mid to late 1950s. The term gets its name from U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy, a Republican of Wisconsin. The period of McCarthyism is also referred to as the Second Red Scare (The First Red Scare happened after the Bolshevik October Revolution of 1917, that lasted from the late 1910s to the late 1920s). It happened at the same times as increased fears of Communist influence on American institutions, espionage by Soviet agents such as the Rosenbergs, heightened tension from Soviet control over Central and Eastern Europe, the success of the Chinese Communist Revolution (1949) and the Korean War (1950-1953). There is a play called 'The Crucible' which is about the beginning of the Salem Witch Trials, but also about McCarthy.

20th century in the United States
Political movements
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by a bacterium called Treponema pallidum. Syphilis is usually spread by sexual contact. However, a fetus can get syphilis from its mother while she is pregnant or during childbirth. This is called congenital syphilis.

There are four stages of syphilis: the primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary stages. In each stage, the signs and symptoms of syphilis are different.

In the primary stage, a person usually just has a wound on their skin, called a "chancre." In the secondary stage, a person usually gets a rash. In the "latent" stage, syphilis has few or no symptoms. If syphilis reaches the tertiary stage, which is the most severe, it causes many serious symptoms. These can include problems with the nervous system (the brain and nerves) and problems with the heart. Eventually, many people with tertiary syphilis will die if they do not get medical treatment.
Syphilis is usually diagnosed with blood tests. The bacteria that causes syphilis can also be seen under a microscope. Most people who have syphilis can be treated and cured with antibiotics.

By 1999, more than 12 million people around the world had gotten syphilis. More than 90% of these people (10.8 million) lived in the developing world. Syphilis got much less common after penicillin became available in the 1940s. At that time, penicillin was used as a treatment for syphilis, and often cured the disease. However, since 2000, syphilis is becoming more common again.

Syphilis can be a very dangerous disease if it is not treated. Without treatment, 8% to 58% of people with syphilis die from the disease. Syphilis also makes a person two to five times more likely to get Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

Stages of syphilis

Primary stage
Primary stage

After a person gets syphilis, the disease begins in the primary stage. A person gets syphilis by having sex with a person who has syphilis. Usually, the person who has syphilis has wounds on their genitals caused by syphilis. Touching these wounds during sex (including oral sex or anal sex) can give a person syphilis.

Later, a chancre (skin sore) usually appears at the place on the body that touched the infected wounds. The chancre can be painful. The most common type of chancre gets bigger and bigger until it becomes an ulcer.

Chancres can appear in places other than the genitals. In women, chancres most often appear on the cervix - the bottom of the uterus. Some people get no chancres at all. Many people who have secondary syphilis (40–85% of women and 20–65% of men) say they never had a chancre during the primary stage.
Around the place where syphilis entered the body, the lymph nodes usually get bigger about 7 to 10 days after the chancre forms. If the person does not get treatment, their wound(s) can last for three to six weeks.

Secondary stage

If a person does not get treatment, syphilis will get worse. The secondary stage of syphilis will start about four to ten weeks after the person first got infected. Secondary syphilis can cause many different symptoms. However, the most common three symptoms are:
 Sores on the mucous membranes (like the nose, throat, genitals, or anus)
 A rash on the chest, back, hands, and/or feet
 Swollen lymph nodes

All of the sores that people get during this stage can spread syphilis. The bacteria lives inside the wounds.

The symptoms of secondary syphilis usually get better after three to six weeks. However, in about 25% of cases (1 out of every 4), these symptoms can return.
Latent stage
In the latent stage of syphilis, a person has no symptoms, but blood tests show that he has syphilis. Latent syphilis is described as either early or late.
 The early latent stage: In the United States, latent syphilis is called "early" if it has been less than one year since the person had secondary syphilis. In the United Kingdom, latent syphilis is called "early" if it has been less than two years.
 In this stage, the symptoms of secondary syphilis can still come back.
 The late latent stage: People enter this stage when it has been more than one year (in the U.S.) or more than two years (in the U.K.) since they had secondary syphilis.
 People in this stage have no symptoms, and do not spread syphilis as easily as people in the early latent stage.

Tertiary stage
Tertiary stage

If a person with syphilis does not get treatment, the disease can reach the worst stage - tertiary syphilis. Usually this happens about three to 15 years after the person first got infected. Without treatment, one-third of people with syphilis get tertiary disease. People with tertiary syphilis cannot infect other people with syphilis.

There are three different forms of tertiary syphilis.

Gummatous syphilis (late benign syphilis) 
Gummatous syphilis can happen anywhere from one to 46 years after the person first got syphilis. On average, it happens after 15 years. It causes soft, tumor-like balls of inflammation (swelling), of many different sizes. Usually they appear on the skin, bone, and liver, but they can happen anywhere.

About 15% of people who do not get treated for syphilis get gummatous syphilis.

Neurosyphilis
Neurosyphilis 

In neurosyphilis, the syphilis infects the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord). In some people, neurosyphilis happens soon after they get syphilis. (This is called early neurosyphilis.) Some of these people have no symptoms of neurosyphilis. Others get syphilitic meningitis, a dangerous infection of the meninges (the protective layers which line the brain and spinal cord).
Neurosyphilis can also appear later, usually four to 25 years after a person first got syphilis. (This is called late neurosyphilis.) Late neurosyphilis can cause many serious problems. For example:
 Meningovascular syphilis, which causes seizures
 General Paresis: In this brain disease, syphilis causes chronic meningoencephalitis - an infection of both the meninges and the brain which does not go away. This causes parts of the brain to die.
 Because of this, the person gets dementia (which causes problems with the way a person thinks, remembers, acts, and behaves toward other people)
 The person also gets tabes dorsalis (which causes problems with balance, and pain in the legs and feet)

About 6.5% of people who do not get treated for syphilis get late neurosyphilis.

Cardiovascular syphilis 
This type of tertiary syphilis causes problems with the cardiovascular system (the heart and blood vessels). It usually happens 10 to 30 years after the person first got infected with syphilis.
The most common problem it causes is syphilitic aortitis, which affects the aorta. The aorta is the most important artery in the heart; it helps carry blood to the entire body. Syphilitic aortitis can make the aorta become too big. If the aorta is too big, it cannot work correctly.

About 10% of people who do not get treated for syphilis get cardiovascular syphilis.

Congenital syphilis 
Congenital syphilis is spread from a mother to her fetus during pregnancy or childbirth.

Two out of every three infants born with syphilis have no symptoms. In the other infants, symptoms can appear as the baby gets older. The most common symptoms are:
 Hepatosplenomegaly (where two important organs, the liver and spleen, are larger than usual)
 Rash
 Fever
 Neurosyphilis
 Swelling in the lungs

If babies with syphilis do not get treated, they can get late congenital syphilis, which has much more serious symptoms. For example, the child can have seizures, and their body and brain may not grow normally.

Cause

Bacteria
Cause

Bacteria

Syphilis is caused by the Treponema pallidum bacterium. Treponema pallidum is a species of bacterium which is shaped like a spiral: a spirochaete. There are different types of Treponema pallidum bacteria, which are called subspecies.

Scientists think that Treponema pallidum can only live inside humans. The bacterium cannot survive outside a human for more than a few days.

Transmission: how syphilis is spread 
Syphilis is spread mostly by sexual contact or during pregnancy from a mother to her fetus. Syphilis can pass through undamaged mucous membranes, or through damaged skin. Because of this, syphilis can be spread through oral sex, vaginal sex, and anal sex. It can also be spread by kissing, if the person with syphilis has a sore in their mouth.

Only a very small amount of the Treponema pallidum bacterium needs to get into a person's body to cause syphilis. However, not everybody who is exposed to primary or secondary syphilis will get the disease.
A person can get syphilis if they get a blood transfusion from someone with the disease. However, many countries test blood donations for syphilis. In countries that do not do this, getting syphilis from a blood transfusion is much more likely.

Scientists think syphilis is usually not spread by sharing needles (using the same needles to inject drugs).

A person cannot get syphilis from sitting on a toilet seat; using a hot tub or a swimming pool; sharing plates, cups, or utensils; sharing clothing; or doing other regular daily activities.

Diagnosis

It is hard for doctors to diagnose syphilis just from the signs and symptoms that happen early on, because many diseases can cause skin sores and rashes. Instead, they can diagnose syphilis by doing a blood test, or by looking at the blood under a microscope. Blood tests are used more often, because they are easier to do. However, blood tests cannot tell which stage of syphilis a person has.

Prevention
, there is no vaccine that prevents syphilis.
Safer sex 
Not having sexual contact with a person who has syphilis is one of the best ways to prevent getting syphilis.

If a person does not know if their sexual partner has syphilis, having safer sex can help protect them. For example, using a latex condom the right way lowers the risk of getting a sexually transmitted disease like syphilis. However, even if a person uses a condom, it is still possible for him to get syphilis.

Because of this, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says that the best ways to prevent syphilis are:
 To be in a long-term relationship with a partner who does not have syphilis;
 For both partners to be loyal in their relationship and not have sexual contact with anyone else; and
 To avoid using alcohol or other drugs, because they make people more likely to have risky, unsafe sex, which can spread syphilis.
Preventing congenital syphilis 
Congenital syphilis in newborn babies can be prevented by testing mothers for syphilis during early pregnancy and treating women who are infected. By following these steps, in 2015, Cuba became the first country in the world to eradicate the spread of syphilis from Cuban mothers to their babies.

The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and the World Health Organization say that all pregnant women should be tested for syphilis. If a woman tests positive, her sexual partners (the people she has had sex with) should also be treated.
In most developed countries, congenital syphilis is not common. It still happens once in a while, when women do not get any health care during pregnancy. However, congenital syphilis is much more common in developing countries. Many women in these countries do not get healthcare during pregnancy, and others get healthcare that does not include testing for syphilis. When there are programs that make syphilis testing easier to get, fewer babies get congenital syphilis in these countries.

Preventing syphilis from spreading 
If people do certain things, they are more likely to get syphilis. Medical professionals say that these people should get tested regularly. For example, the CDC says that men who have sex with men should be tested at least every year. Getting tested regularly helps prevent syphilis from being spread. If a person is tested and finds out that they have syphilis, they are more likely to get treatment, and will not accidentally spread syphilis to other people.
Syphilis is a notifiable disease in many places, including Canada, the countries in the European Union, and the United States. This means that if a healthcare provider (like a doctor or a nurse) knows that a patient has syphilis, the provider has to tell public health authorities that the patient is infected. Public health workers then talk to all of the patient's sexual partners. They tell them someone might have given them syphilis, without telling them who that person is. Doctors might also try to get patients with syphilis to tell their sexual partners to get treatment.

Treatment

Early infections
Syphilis that is not complicated can usually be treated and cured by antibiotic medications.
Usually, people need just one dose of penicillin G or azithromycin. If a person cannot take either of these medicines (for example, because they are allergic to them), some other medications work too. For example, Doxycycline and tetracycline are two other possible choices; however, they cannot be used in pregnant women.

The Treponema pallidum bacterium has become resistant to many different antibiotics, including macrolides, clindamycin, and rifampin. This means that these antibiotics no longer kill the bacterium.

Late infections
Once a person is in the later stages of syphilis, the disease is harder to treat.
Once a person has late-stage syphilis, treatment will keep their syphilis from getting any worse. However, if syphilis has already damaged the person's body, the treatment will not make that damage go away. At best, treatment can only have a very small effect on the damage that has already happened.

Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction
Sometimes, the treatment for syphilis can cause a side effect called the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction. This reaction usually starts within one hour after treatment begins, and lasts for 24 hours. Its symptoms include fever, muscle pains, headache, and a fast heart rate.

Antibiotic medication breaks open syphilis bacteria to kill them. As the bacteria break open, proteins come out of them. These proteins cause the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction.

Epidemiology

By 1999, syphilis had infected about 12 million people. More than 90% of these people lived in the developing world.
Syphilis causes problems in 700,000 to 1.6 million pregnancies every year. Syphilis can cause a pregnant woman to have a miscarriage, a stillbirth, a premature baby, a baby with congenital syphilis, or a baby that dies before it is a month old. In sub-Saharan Africa, syphilis causes up to 20% of perinatal deaths (deaths that happen soon after a baby is born).

Syphilis used to be very common, and it caused sickness and death all over the world. It was especially very common in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries. During the early 20th century, syphilis quickly became less common in the developed world, because antibiotics were being used more and more. Syphilis kept becoming less common until the 1980s and 1990s. Since the year 2000, syphilis is getting more common again in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Europe, mostly among men who have sex with men.
In China and Russia, syphilis has gotten more common among heterosexual ("straight") people since the 1990s. Studies say this is because of unsafe sexual practices, like having sex with many different people, prostitution (getting paid to have sex), and not having safer sex to protect against sexually transmitted diseases.

Over the 19th and 20th centuries, the symptoms of syphilis have become less severe (not quite as bad). This is partly because there are more treatments that work well, and if they are given early, syphilis does not get as bad. Also, the bacteria that causes syphilis has become weaker.

If people with syphilis get treated early on, they can usually be cured without the disease causing damage that cannot be fixed. However, syphilis is still very dangerous. It still causes serious problems, and sometimes death, if it is not treated.
Syphilis also makes a person two to five times more likely to get HIV. Confection (having both syphilis and HIV) is common. In some big cities, it happens in as many as 30% to 60% of people with syphilis.

History 

Nobody knows exactly where and how syphilis started. There are two major ideas about where the disease came from.

The first idea is called the "Columbian hypothesis." (A hypothesis is an educated guess about how something happened). This hypothesis says that when Christopher Columbus's crew came back to Europe after exploring the "New World", they brought syphilis back to Europe and spread the disease there.

The other idea is called the "pre-Columbian hypothesis." ("Pre-Columbian" means "before Columbus.") This hypothesis says that syphilis was already in Europe before Columbus, and people just did not realize that the disease existed.

While there is evidence that can be used to say that either of these ideas are right, there is more evidence for the Columbian hypothesis.
The first written records that talk about an outbreak of syphilis in Europe are from 1494 to 1495. The outbreak happened in Naples, Italy, when France was invading (trying to take over Italy). Because syphilis was spread by French soldiers who were coming back from Italy, at first it was called the "French disease."

The name "syphilis" was first used in 1530 by an Italian doctor and poet named Girolamo Fracastoreo. He used the word "syphilis" as the title of a Latin poem that talked about the damage the disease was causing in Italy. At other times in history, syphilis was also called the "Great Pox".

In 1905, two men named Fritz Schaudinn and Erich Hoffmann discovered that syphilis is caused by the Treponema pallidum bacteria. Five years later, Paul Ehrlich created the first treatment that helped treat syphilis (called Salvarsan). After that, scientists started to study penicillin. In 1943, it was officially decided that penicillin worked for syphilis.
This was a major success in the treatment of syphilis. Before penicillin, the treatments used for syphilis were often even worse than the disease. For example, people were treated with mercury (which is poisonous and causes serious health problems), or people were just kept away from everyone else.

From 1932 to 1972, the United States Public Health Service did a study on syphilis in Alabama. They wanted to see how syphilis got worse when it was not treated. The researchers chose a group of poor African-American sharecroppers, but never told them they had syphilis. Even after the 1940s, when the researchers knew penicillin could cure these people, they refused to let them get treatment or even tell them that penicillin could help them. This study, now called the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, was very important in creating medical ethics.
Many famous people in history may have had syphilis. For example, some people think that Franz Schubert, Arthur Schopenhauer, Édouard Manet, and Adolf Hitler had the disease.

Related pages
 Sexually transmitted disease
 Treponema pallidum bacterium
 Safer sex
 Tuskegee syphilis experiment

References

Sexually transmitted diseases
Diseases caused by bacteria
Gonorrhea is a disease. It is transmitted by having sex. It is among the most widespread sexually transmitted diseases.  Gonorrhea is also sometimes called "the clap."  Gonorrhea can be cured using antibiotics but the entire course of antibiotics must be used.  

Its presence was found up to 700 years ago. At that time, this disease was described by coming from the "Le Clapiers" part of the city of Paris. This part of the city was known to be where prostitutes lived.

Cleanup 
It is caused by a bacterium, Neisseria gonorrheae. Since it is caused by a bacterium, it can be treated with antibiotics. The use of latex condoms when having sex can prevent it from spreading. Sometimes antibiotics do not cure gonorrhea. This is because the bacterium is becoming immune or resistant to the medicine. When this happens, the infection is more difficult to cure.

References

Sexually transmitted diseases
Diseases caused by bacteria
Cichlids (pronounced 'sick-lids') are fishes from the family Cichlidae, in the order Cichliformes.

It is a very large family of fish made up of more than 2500 species.
Cichlids come in many different sizes, from 2.5 centimeters to almost a meter long. All cichlids have some form of parental care for their eggs and fry. That parental care may come in the form of guarding the eggs and fry or it may come in the form of mouthbrooding. Cichlids are famous for their speciation in East African lakes.

References 

Teleosts
The Battle of Hastings (14 October 1066) was a pitched battle between the Anglo-Saxon English and an invading Norman army. The battle lasted a day and ended in the death of the Anglo-Saxon king, Harold Godwinson, and a decisive victory for the Normans. William, the Duke of Normandy, was crowned as King William I of England 10 weeks later. The Norman conquest was a major turning point in England's history.

Background 
In 1002 Ethelred, the King of England, married Emma, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. The alliance formed by the marriage had far-reaching effects. When King Canute came to the throne of England in 1016, he took Queen Emma of Normandy as his wife. Her two sons by her former marriage fled to Normandy for their own safety.
Edward the Confessor, the older son, stayed in Normandy for many years at the court of the dukes. The last duke who protected him there was his cousin Duke William. Edward became King of England in 1042. In 1052, Edward, who was childless, made William his heir. In 1065, Harold Godwinson was in Normandy and promised Duke William that he would support William as successor to the English throne. 

On 5 January 1066, Edward the king died, but Harold did not respect his oath to William. The next day, the day of the funeral, Harold was crowned king of England. The story was that on his deathbed the king had changed his mind and promised Harold the throne. Harold was not royalty himself and had no legal claim on the throne. For weeks William must have known Edward was dying, but the news of the king's death and Harold's taking the throne must have been a surprise.
William may have had as many as 1,000 ships in his invasion fleet. They had favourable winds to leave Normandy on the night of 27 September 1066. William's ship, the Mora, was a gift of his wife, Matilda, and led the fleet to the landing at Pevensey the next morning. As soon as he landed, William got news of Harold's victory over the Norwegian king at Stamford Bridge, in northen England. Harold also received news that William had landed at Pevensey and went south as quickly as he could. Harold rested at London for a few days before he took his army to meet William and his French forces.
Battle  

Harold's army took up a position on an east-west ridge north of Hastings. The ridge itself was called Senlac Hill. It found the Norman army marching up the valley in front of them. Harold had more soldiers, but they were tired from the forced march from London. William formed his lines at the base of the hill facing the Englsh shield wall and sent his archers halfway up the slope to attack the English. He sent his mounted knights to the left and right to find any weak spots.
Next, William used something new. His attacks by knights and soldiers had been separate movements, but he now used them together. His archers had not succeeded against the shield wall, but he now had them shoot high into the air so that the arrows came down on top of the English. Harold was killed, perhaps by an arrow through his eye at the time. The shield wall finally broke, and the Normans were on top of them. By nightfall, the English were dead on the field or being hunted down by William's men. William called his men back, and they spent the night camped on the battle field.

Aftermath

The battle was won, but the English still had smaller armies that had not joined King Harold at Hastings. They had lost their king but were still trying to reorganise. William rested his army for five days before he moved toward London. His line of march took him through several towns that he either captured or destroyed. When William reached London, the English briefly resisted but in the end surrendered.
The Battle of Hastings was a major turning point in English history. William's claim to the throne was strong, and he had backed it up with force. On Christmas Day in 1066, William was crowned King of England.
 
Sometime later, the battle was pictured on a series of panels called the Bayeux Tapestry. William's victory at Hastings gave him the nickname he has been known by ever since: 'William the Conqueror'.

Notes

References 

1066 in England
Hastings
October events
Hastings
The Asiatic peafowl is a kind of bird.  They are the genus Pavo from the Phasianidae family. They originate from Southeast Asia.

 Genus Pavo
 Blue peafowl or Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus): originally from India, and Pakistan. In Pakistan, it is the provincial/regional bird of the province of the Punjab
 Green peafowl (Pavo muticus): was very widespread in southeast Asia, including northern Myanmar and southern China, Laos, Thailand,  Vietnam, Cambodia, peninsular Malaysia and the islands of Java. Habitat destruction and hunting have reduced its range.

The male is called a peacock, the female a peahen.

The males are very colorful, and they have very long train feathers (or tail feathers), which they can move up like a fan. Females are less colorful, and do not have the long train-feathers. Both the male and the female have a little "crown" of feathers on their head.
Males show their train feathers to court a female peafowl, or to scare other animals away by making them afraid.
Peafowl are omnivorous and eat plant parts, flower petals, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates, like reptiles and amphibians.

Phasianidae
Birds of Asia
Reading (pronounced: "Redding") is a large town in Berkshire in England. It is the largest settlement in Berkshire. It is home to about 230,000 people. Reading is found in South East England, between London and Bristol. The River Thames goes through the town. Reading replaced Abingdon as the county town of Berkshire in 1867.

History 
There is a large statue of a lion in Forbury Gardens, and local legend has it that the sculptor killed himself by jumping off the top because he had sculpted the legs wrong. The lion is a memorial to soldiers from Berkshire who were killed in Maiwand, (Afghanistan) in a war in 1880.

Reading is the home of a school which used to be a Hospital in World War I and World War II. It is named Redlands Primary School. 

Madejski stadium is home to the Reading Football Club whose nickname is "The Royals". They are also known as the "Biscuit Men". The stadium was opened on 22 August 1998.
Reading is the largest town in England. Of course, there are larger cities in England but Reading has not been granted city status and it doesn't have a cathedral. Also, Reading is home to the Oracle, a huge shopping centre and a large university named University of Reading.  

Reading began life as a Saxon Settlement. Reading was originally called Reada Ingas, which means people of Reada. Reada was a Saxon leader in the area with his tribe in the 6th century.    

The Normans built a  wooden castle in Reading. It was later replaced by a stone castle. The king then demolished the castle in 1152 fearing it might come into the hands of his enemies.    

Reading was an important centre in the medieval period, as the site of Reading Abbey, a monastery with strong royal connections    

The Huntley and Palmer's biscuit factory was the biggest in the world in 1914 and one factory was built on Kings Road by George Palmer in 1846.
"The Blade" in central Reading is the tallest building in Reading. It is 86 metres tall. It is visible from many places in the town.  

Palmer Park was founded by George Palmer and it has a statue of George Palmer in it. Palmer Park was built for his workers to rest and people still enjoy using the park today.   

There is a very famous hospital called The Royal Berkshire Hospital. It was opened in 1839.  

Lots of schools in Reading took part in "Beat The Street" in 2015.

Notable people 
TV presenter Chris Tarrant (Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?) and comedian Ricky Gervais are from Reading, and also actress Kate Winslet, who has a road named after her. Musician Mike Oldfield is also from Reading. Tony Sullivan (local legend) is also a resident in the town. The town has two universities and is famous for its rock festival. Reading is home to Championship football and rugby teams.

Related pages
 Reading railway station
 Great Western Railway

References

Other websites
Other websites

County towns in England
Towns in Berkshire
Unitary authorities
A "dozen" is a unit of measurement. It means twelve (12) items of something. The term goes back to duodecim, which means 12 in  Latin. Humans might have started to count on a base 12 because there are approximately 12 cycles of the moon in one cycle of the sun. In other words, a solar year has 12 months. The first to have used the unit were probably the Mesopotamians.

12 dozen  (144 items) are a gross. 12 gross (1728 items) are called a great gross. 
A great hundred is 120 or ten dozen (a dozen for each finger on both hands).

The dozen is convenient because its multipliers and multiples are convenient: 12 = 3 × 2 × 2, and 360 = 30 × 12. The French word douzaine means "about twelve" and is part of a family of words with similar meanings, e.g. vingtaine – "about 20"  centaine – "about 100"  etc. A baker's dozen, also known as a long dozen, is thirteen.

Examples:

I have a dozen doughnuts 

There is a dozen members in a team

Numbers
The European sprat is a kind of fish. It is related to the herring. It lives in the ocean, all around Europe. It has about 12% fat in its flesh. It is a source of many vitamins. It is an important fish for commercial fishing, and can be found in many cans in shops. It can also be salted, to preserve it better.

Clupeiformes
"The Little Mermaid" is a literary fairy tale by Hans Christian Andersen. It was first published in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1837 in the third volume of Fairy Tales Told for Children with "The Emperor's New Clothes".  The tale glorifies suffering and self-denial. There is a statue of The Little Mermaid in the harbor of Copenhagen. The story has been adapted to opera and animated movies.
Story 
A Beautiful mermaid princess , red hair delicate white skin and blue eyes swims to the surface of the sea. 
As it happens, she sees a human prince and falls in love with him. She wants to meet him again; however, she is a mermaid, and her father, who is the king of the sea, would not let her do so. She wants to find a way to win the prince's love, so she goes to the sea witch's cave. She will get an immortal soul if she wins the love of a human. She sacrifices her voice and her tail to the sea witch for two human legs. The prince becomes her companion. But, he falls in love with another person. The mermaid has the chance to return to the sea. She must kill the prince to go back, and so she refuses. She dies, and is transformed into a daughter of the air. She will receive an immortal soul if she does good deeds for three hundred years.
Adaptations 
In 1957, Germaine Tailleferre wrote a three act opera with the subject. In 1968, there was a Soviet animated movie. In 1976, a co-production of the Soviet Union and Bulgaria resulted in a live-action movie. In 1989, The Walt Disney Company also made an animated movie. In 2008, Studio Ghibli made a movie inspired by the story called Ponyo.

Notes

References 
 Zipes, Jack. 2000. The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales. Oxford UP.

Other websites 

 Den lille Havfrue Original text in Danish from the Danish Royal Library website.
 The Annotated Little Mermaid  by Heidi Anne Heiner, Paull's translation, with scholarly annotations, scans from six illustrated editions, bibliography.

Fairy tales
Works by Hans Christian Andersen
1830s books
Hans Christian Andersen (2 April 1805 – 4 August 1875) was a Danish writer. 

Andersen was born in Odense, Denmark. His father was a shoemaker, and his mother washed clothes for customers. The family was poor. When Andersen was 11, his father died. At 14, Andersen left his mother and his home. He moved to Copenhagen. 

The king helped Andersen finish his education. Andersen wanted to be an actor or dancer. He did not have the talent for either. He started to write novels, plays, poems, short stories, and travel books. In 1835, he published four fairy tales that were liked by the readers. After this success, he wanted to write more fairy tales. 

Andersen's stories were popular all over Europe. He was invited into the homes of rich and powerful people. He fell in love with several men and women. He was in love with singer Jenny Lind. He also fell in love with ballet dancer Harald Scharff.
Andersen was a happy and carefree man. He travelled all over Europe. He wanted to see the sights. He hoped travelling would make him even happier. He always carried a rope with him. He planned to use this rope as a fire escape if needed. In the spring of 1872, Andersen fell off of his bed and suffered major injuries. He never recovered fully. Soon after that, Andersen showed signs of liver cancer. He died on 4 August 1875 from liver cancer.

Works  
 The Princess and the Pea (1835)
 The Tinderbox (1835)
 Thumbelina (1835) 
 The Little Mermaid (1837)
 The Emperor's New Clothes (1837)
 The Steadfast Tin Soldier (1838)
 The Wild Swans (1838)
 Ole Lukøje (1841)
 The Swineherd (1841)
 The Angel (1843)
 The Nightingale (1843)
 The Ugly Duckling (1843)
 The Little Match Girl (1845)
 The Red Shoes (1845)
 The Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep (1845)
 The Snow Queen (1845)
 The Fir Tree (1845)
 The Shadow (1847)
 The Story of a Mother (1847)
 The Marsh King's Daughter (?)

Related pages
List of Danish writers
References

1805 births
1875 deaths
Accidental deaths from falls
Bisexual people
Children's writers
Danish poets
Deaths from liver cancer
Cancer deaths in Denmark
LGBT writers
Danish novelists
Odense
The Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium is a football stadium in Istanbul in Turkey. It is home to the club Fenerbahce.

Other websites 
 Fenerbahçe SK Stadium Link

 Satellite Photo of Fenerbahçe Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium

Football stadiums in Turkey
Buildings and structures in Istanbul
This is a list of commercial airlines sorted by country.

List of passenger airlines

Africa

: Top - A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Algeria
Air Algérie
Ecoair International
Khalifa Airways
Star Aviation

Angola
Aeronáutica
Sociedade de Aviação Ligeira
Son Air
TAAG Angola Airines

Benin
Afrique Airlines
Benin Golf Air
Trans Air Benin
Air Kenya Connect
West African Airlines
Benin Airlines SA

Botswana
Air Botswana

Burkina Faso
Air Burkina
Burkina Airlines

Burundi
Air Burundi
Royal Air Burundi

Cameroon
Camair-Co
Cameroon Airlines
Elysian Airlines

Cape Verde
TACV

Comoros
Air Comores International
Comores Aviation

Democratic Republic of the Congo
Bravo Air Congo
Business Aviation
Compagnie Africaine d'Aviation
Hewa Bora Airways
Wimbi Dira Airways

Republic of the Congo
ECAir
Trans Air Congo

Côte d'Ivoire
Air Ivoire

Djibouti
Daallo Airlines
Djibouti Airlines

Egypt
EgyptAir

Equatorial Guinea
Ecuato Guineana

Eritrea
Eritrean Airlines
Nasair Eritrea

Ethiopia
Ethiopian Airlines
Gabon
Air Gabon
Air Service Gabon
Avirex Gabon

The Gambia
Afriat International Airlines
Gambia Bird
Gambia International Airlines
Slok Air Gambia
West African Airways Corporation

Ghana
Afra Airlines
African World Airlines
CTK - CiTylinK
Ghana Airways
Ghana International Airlines
Meridian Airways
MK Airlines

Guinea
Air Guinee
Air Guinee Express

Guinea-Bissau
Guine Bissau Airlines (status unknown)

Ivory Coast
See the section titled "Côte d'Ivoire" above

Kenya
African Express Airways
African Safari Airways
Airkenya Express
Fly540
Kenya Airways
Jambojet

Liberia
LoneStar Airways

Libya
Afriqiyah Airways
Air Libya Tibesti
Buraq Air
Libyan Arab Airlines

Madagascar
Air Madagascar

Malawi
Air Malawi
Malawian Airlines

Mali
Compagnie Aerienne du Mali

Mauritania
Air Mauritanie
Mauritania Airways
Mauritania Airlines International

Mauritius
Air Mauritius
Catovair

Morocco
Royal Air Maroc
Atlas Blue
Jet4you
Regional Air Lines
Air Atlas Express

Mozambique
Air Corridor
LAM - Linhas Aéreas de Moçambique
Namibia
Air Namibia
Kalahari Express Airlines
Namibia Commercial Aviation
Scenic Air Namibia

Nigeria
ADC Airlines
Aero Contractors of Nigeria
Air Nigeria
Albarka Air
Bellview Airlines (Nigeria)
Capital Airlines (Nigeria)
Chanchangi Airlines
Dornier Aviation Nigeria
EAS Airlines
Freedom Air Services
IRS Airlines
Nigeria Airways
Overland Airways
Pan African Airlines
Sosoliso Airlines
Virgin Nigeria Airways

Réunion
Air Austral
Air Bourbon

Rwanda
 
Air Rwanda
RwandAir

São Tomé and Príncipe
Air São Tomé and Príncipe

Senegal
Air Afrique
Air Senegal International

Seychelles
Air Seychelles
Lignes Aérienne Seychelles
Seychelles International Airways

Sierra Leone
Air Leone
Bellview Airlines (Sierra Leone)
Eagle Air
Leone Airways
Sierra Leone Airways

South Africa
1Time Airline
Comair
Interair South Africa
Kulula.com
Mango (airline)
Nationwide Airlines
South African Airways
South African Airlink
South African Express

Sudan
Mid Airlines (Sudan)
Sudan Airways

Swaziland
Aeroafrica
Swazi Airways
Swaziland Airlink
Tanzania
Air Tanzania
Precision Air
Regional Air Services (Tanzania)

Tunisia
Karthago Airlines
Nouvelair
Tunisair
Tunisavia
Tuninter

Uganda
Eagle Aviation
East African Airlines

Zambia
Airwaves Airlink
Nationwide Airlines (Zambia)
Zambezi Airlines
Zambian Airways
Zambia Skyways

Zimbabwe
Air Rhodesia
Air Zimbabwe
Airlink Zimbabwe
Expedition Airways
Fastjet Zimbabwe
FlyAfrica.com Zimbabwe
Mid Airlines
Zimbabwe Express Airlines

Asia
: Top - A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
For countries in the Middle East, refer to the section below.

Afghanistan
Ariana Afghan Airlines
Balkh Airlines
Kam Air
Khyber Afghan Airlines
Marcopolo Airways
Pamir Airways

Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan Airlines
Imair Airlines
Silk Way Airlines
Turan Air

Bangladesh
Air Bangladesh
Biman Bangladesh
Bismillah Airlines
GMG Airlines
Z-Airways and Services

Bhutan
Druk Air

Brunei
Royal Brunei
Cambodia
Air Cambodia
Angkor Airlines
Cambodia Airlines
President Airlines
Royal Khmer Airlines
Royal Phnom Penh Airways
Siem Reap Airways

China, People's Republic of
Air China
Chang'an Airlines
China Eastern Airlines
China Flying Dragon Aviation
China Postal Airlines
China Southern Airlines
China United Airlines
China Xinhua Airlines
Deer Jet
East Star Airlines
Guizhou Airlines
Hainan Airlines
Huaxia Airlines
Okay Airways
Shandong Airlines
Shanghai Airlines
Shanxi Airlines
Shenzhen Airlines
Sichuan Airlines
Spring Airlines
United Eagle Airlines
Wuhan Airlines
Xiamen Airlines

Hong Kong
Cathay Pacific
Dragonair
Heliservices
Hong Kong Airlines
Hong Kong Express
Jet Aviation Business Jets
Metrojet
Oasis Hong Kong Airlines
WOW Asia

Macau
Air Macau
JetAsia

China, Republic of
China Airlines
Daily Air
EVA Air
Far Eastern Air Transport
Mandarin Airlines
TransAsia Airways
Uni Air

East Timor
East Timor Air