Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Eastern Harbour Crossing extension
In 1984, the government approved the construction of the Eastern Harbour Crossing, a tunnel to be used by cars and MTR trains. The Kwun Tong Line was extended across the harbour to Quarry Bay, which became an interchange station for the Kwun Tong Line and the Island Line. The extension was launched on 5 August 1989. An intermediate station, Lam Tin, started operations on 1 October 1989.

Airport Express and Tung Chung Line
The decision was made in October 1989 to construct a new international airport at Chek Lap Kok on Lantau Island to replace the overcrowded Kai Tak International Airport. The government invited the MTR to build a train line, then known as the Lantau Airport Railway, to the airport. But construction did not begin until the Chinese and British governments settled their financial and land disagreements in November 1994.
In the end, the new line was included in the financing plans of the new Hong Kong International Airport as the airport was not considered viable without direct public transport links. Construction costs were also shared by the MTR which was granted many large-scale developments in the construction plans for the new stations.

The Lantau Airport Railway turned into two MTR lines, the Tung Chung Line and the Airport Express. The Tung Chung Line was officially opened on 21 June 1998 by Hong Kong Chief Executive Tung Chee Hwa, and service commenced the next day. The Airport Express opened for service on 6 July 1998 along with the new Hong Kong International Airport.

The Airport Express line is the second most popular means of transport to the Hong Kong International Airport. In 2005, 22% of the commuters took the Airport Express to and from the airport.

Tseung Kwan O Line
The Quarry Bay Congestion Relief Works involved extending the Hong Kong Island end of the Kwun Tong Line from Quarry Bay to North Point via a 4.2–kilometre tunnel. The project was initiated due to overcrowding at Quarry Bay and persistent passenger complaints about the five-minute walk from the Island Line platforms to the Kwun Tong Line platform. Construction began in September 1997 and was completed in September 2001 at a cost of HK$3.0 billion (US$385 million). The tried-and-true cross-platform interchange arrangement is repeated here.
Construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line was approved on 18 August 1998 to serve new housing developments. Construction began on 24 April 1999 and the line officially opened in 2002, taking over the train tracks running through the Eastern Harbour Tunnel from the Kwun Tong Line, running from Po Lam to North Point. When the line was opened, the Kwun Tong Line was diverted to Tiu Keng Leng on the new line. Construction costs were partly covered by the Hong Kong Government and private developers which linked construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line to new real estate and commercial developments. Previously less developed areas were opened up for development with more transport options.

West Rail Line
West Rail Line 

While the construction of the Tung Chung Line was still underway, the plan to build a railway corridor serving the northwestern New Territories was conceived. Space had been reserved for the addition of an interchange station and two extra tracks (to allow nonstop service for the Airport Express) between Olympic and Lai King. Originally known as the Airport Railway Phase 2, the contracts of the West Rail Line Interface Works were awarded shortly after construction works of the West Rail commenced. The project comprised Mei Foo Interchange (modification of the existing Mei Foo station on the Tsuen Wan Line to provide a pedestrian link to the West Rail Line Mei Foo Station); Nam Cheong Station (an interchange station on the Tung Chung Line, jointly operated by the MTRCL and KCRC) and quadruplication works (the additional two tracks, four kilometres in length, allow the Tung Chung Line trains to stop at Nam Cheong without blocking the passage of Airport Express trains).
The works were completed in stages. The Tung Chung Line trains have been diverted to the new track since mid May 2003, whereas the Mei Foo station interchange subway and the Nam Cheong station were opened at the same time the West Rail Line opened for public use in December 2003. The Kowloon Southern Link extension from Nam Cheong Station to East Tsim Sha Tsui Station was opened on 16 August 2009, with West Rail Line trains now terminating at Hung Hom Station, interchange station for East Rail Line.

Interchange stations
The interchange between the Tsuen Wan Line and the Kwun Tong Line, the Island Line and the Tseung Kwan O Line, as well as that between the Kwun Tong Line and the Tseung Kwan O Line, are two stations long, allowing cross-platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line. For example, when passengers are travelling on the Kwun Tong Line towards Tiu Keng Leng, getting off at Yau Tong would allow them to switch trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards North Point. Whereas, staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow them to board the Tseung Kwan O Line trains towards Po Lam/LOHAS Park. This design makes interchanging more convenient and passengers do not have the need to change to different levels
. However this interchange arrangement is not available for all transferring passengers at Kowloon Tong, Central, Hong Kong, Nam Cheong (Except transfer between Tuen Mun and Hong Kong bound trains), Mei Foo, Tai Wai Station (Except alighting from Ma On Shan Line to change southbound trains for East Rail Line) and Sunny Bay (Except alighting from Tung Chung bound trains to Disneyland Resort Line) stations, mainly because this service is available only when there are two continuous stations shared as interchange stations by two lines.
Two major works were undertaken to facilitate interchange between Kwun Tong Line and East Rail Line. The modification of Kowloon Tong Station started in June 2001. A new pedestrian link to Kowloon Tong Station southern concourse and a new entrance (Exit D) were opened on 15 April 2004 to cope with the increase in interchange passenger flow. Modification to Tsim Sha Tsui Station involved upgrading station facilities and concourse layout to facilitate access from the East Tsim Sha Tsui Station via its pedestrian links. New entrances to the subway links were opened on 19 September 2004 (Exit G) and 30 March 2005 (Exit F), with the whole scheme completed in May 2005.

Ma On Shan Line
Ma On Shan Line 

The Ma On Shan Line was constructed by the KCR to serve Ma On Shan and City One residential areas and operation of the line was outsourced to the MTR. The system mostly runs on a viaduct between the middle of roads with stations, stopping right next to major buildings. The only time the trains don't run on viaducts is when the railway meets the route 2 highway, where it runs in the middle and then raises back to a viaduct. The railway is slightly different from all other Hong Kong railways because the trains run on the right, not the left; this is so that passengers can easily interchange from the Ma On Shan line to the East Rail Line towards Hong Hum. The majority of passengers using the line get off the train at Tai Wai to interchange to the East Rail Line, using the line as a feeder route.

Disneyland extension
The Disneyland Resort Line, previously known as Penny's Bay Rail Link, provides service to the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort which was opened on 12 September 2005. Service to Sunny Bay station on the Tung Chung Line started in 2005. The new line and the Disneyland Resort station opened on 1 August 2005. It is a 3.5–kilometre single-track railway that runs between Sunny Bay station and Disneyland Resort station. The Disneyland Resort station itself was designed to blend in with the ambience of the resort. The line currently operates fully automated, trains running every four to ten minutes without a driver, and the carriages were changed from the existing M-Train rolling stock to match the recreational and adventurous nature of the 3.5-minute journey.

Further expansion of the Airport Express
The new AsiaWorld-Expo Station is an extension of the Airport Express serving the new international exhibition centre, known as the AsiaWorld-Expo at Hong Kong International Airport. The station opened on 20 December 2005 along with the exhibition centre. To cope with the projected increase in patronage, Airport Express trains have been expanded to utilise eight carriages from the previous seven. Additional trains will also be deployed on the Tung Chung line during major exhibitions and events.

Privatisation and merger
On 5 October 2000, the operator of the MTR network, MTR Corporation Limited (MTRCL), became Hong Kong's first rail company to be privatised, marking the beginning of the Hong Kong government's initiative to dissolve its interests in public utilities. Prior to its listing on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) was wholly owned by the Hong Kong government. The offering involved the sale of about one billion shares, and the company now has the largest shareholder base of any company listed in Hong Kong. In June 2001, MTRCL was transferred to the Hang Seng Index.

MTRCL has often developed properties next to stations to complement its already profitable railway business. Many recently built stations were incorporated into large housing estates or shopping complexes. For example, Tsing Yi station is built next to the Maritime Square shopping centre and directly underneath the Tierra Verde housing estate.
On 2 December 2007 the Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC) granted a 50-year service concession (which may be extended) of the KCR network to MTRCL, in return for making annual payments to KCRC, thereby merging the railway operations of the two corporations under MTRCL's management. At the same time MTRCL changed its Chinese name from "地鐵有限公司" (Subway Limited Company) to "香港鐵路有限公司" (Hong Kong Railway Limited Company), but left its English name unchanged. After the merger, the MTR network included three more lines, East Rail Line, West Rail Line and Ma On Shan Line, as well as the Light Rail network and Guangdong Through Train to Guangzhou.

On 28 September 2008, fare zones of all commuter lines which is ex-KCR were merged. A passenger could travel on these networks with only one ticket, except where a transfer is made between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations, where two tickets are required. Student discounts on Octopus Card were also issued.

Safety on the MTR
Safety on the MTR

Various campaigns and activities are taken to help ensure that the MTR is a safe system to travel on. Poster campaigns displaying information on topics such as escalator safety are a common sight in all MTR stations, and announcements are made regularly as safety reminders to travelling passengers.

Bylaws have been recently introduced to deter potentially dangerous actions on the MTR, such as the ban of flammable goods on the MTR and rushing into trains when the doors are closing. Penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment have been imposed for such offenses. Metallic balloons are also banned due to previous incidents on KCR and on MTR's Island Line where a metallic balloon interfered with the operation of the overhead power lines.

Police officers patrol on trains and stations, and police posts are available at some stations. The Hong Kong Police Force has a Railway District responsible for the MTR and the KCR. Closed-circuit television cameras are installed in stations.
In June 2000, The MTR Corporation proceeded with its plans to retrofit 2,960 pairs of platform screen doors at all 30 underground stations on the Kwun Tong Line, Tsuen Wan Line, and Island Line in a six-year programme. The programme made MTR the world's first railway to undertake the retrofitting of PSDs on a passenger-carrying system already in operation. A prototype design was first introduced at Choi Hung station in the 3rd quarter of 2001. HK$0.10 per passenger trip was levied on Octopus card users to help fund the HK$2 billion retrofit programme. The whole installation scheme was completed in October 2005. The original completion year was 2006. The MTR Corporation said that part of the cost had to be assumed by passengers.

Station facilities, amenities and services
With the high level of daily passenger traffic, facilities of MTR stations are built with durability and accessibility in mind. The elevators and escalators in stations are heavy duty, with the elevators installed by Otis Elevator Company/Fujitec and the escalators installed by Constructions Industrielles de la Mediterranée and Otis Elevator Company.

After extensive retrofits, the MTR system has become, in general, disabled-friendly—the trains have dedicated wheelchair space, the stations have special floor tiles to guide the blind safely on the platforms, and there are extra wide entry and exit gates for wheelchairs as well.

Unlike many other metro systems around the world, "main line" MTR stations do not have toilet facilities, although their installation has been contemplated. Only stations on the Airport Express and Disneyland Resort Line have access to toilet facilities.
Interchange stations
The MTR network is unique in its arrangement of interchange stations. Interchange stations between the Island, Tsuen Wan, Kwun Tong and Tseung Kwan O lines are arranged in pairs; such an arrangement allows cross-platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line.

Most of those stations make use of a cross-platform interchange system, where the commuter can change to another line on the opposite platform. For example, when a person is travelling on the Kwun Tong Line towards Tiu Keng Leng, getting off at Yau Tong would allow him to change trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards North Point. Whereas, staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow you to change trains for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards Po Lam.
This not only makes it more convenient for passengers, it also reduces the amount of traffic per station. Riders are made aware of the closest connection point by way of in-train visual and auditory messages. Although riders can disregard these tips, the design of the stations are for the convenience of passengers.

Telecommunications network coverage
A full GSM (GSM-900 and GSM-1800), CDMA and TDMA mobile phone network is in place throughout the MTR system of stations and tunnels. Passengers can stay connected underground.

Currently, full 3G network coverage in all stations and tunnels (except West Rail Line) for the MTR system has been provided by 3 Hong Kong, SmarTone-Vodafone and PCCW Mobile. Passengers with subscription services will be able to make video calls and access high speed video content on their mobile phones regardless whether the train is above ground or under ground.
Shops and other services
Until recently, MTR stations only had branches of the Hang Seng Bank and Maxim's Cakes stores, owned by Jardine Matheson, and a handful of other shops. Since the privatisation of the MTR, however, numerous shops have been added to certain stations, turning them into miniature shopping centres. Services available at most stations include:
 Hang Seng Bank branches and ATMs
 Bank of China ATMs
 7-Eleven or Circle K convenience stores

Apart from retailers, there are also dentists and medical clinics, drycleaners, and florists along the Tseung Kwan O Line. Standard services include payphones, vending machines (Coca-Cola only), and self-service photo-booths.
Free magazines and newspapers
Recruit was the first free magazine which was solely distributed in MTR stations since July 1992. However, in July 2002, the contract between the magazine and MTR was terminated. Another recruitment magazine Jiu Jik (招職), published by South China Morning Post, replaced Recruit as the only free recruitment magazine distributed in MTR stations on every Tuesdays and Fridays.

At the same time, there was another entertainment magazine Hui Kai Guide (去街 Guide). However, it is no longer distributed in MTR stations since 2006.

The Metropolis Daily (都市日報), published by Metro International, is the first free newspaper distributed free in MTR stations from Monday to Friday (except public holidays); and in 2005, there is another weekend newspaper Express Post (快線周報), distributed every Saturday except public holidays.
The Metropop (都市流行), also published by Metro International, started its distribution in MTR stations every Thursdays since April 27 2006, few months after the termination of Hui Kai Guide. It is a weekly magazine featuring cultural affairs and city trends.

Extra services for Airport Express
The Airport Express also offer value-added services to travellers on the line. Toilets and check-in facilities are available at every station on the line. A free Airport Express shuttle bus service transports travellers from stations to their respective hotels as well. Flight passengers can even have in-town check-in at the station, which offers a more convenient and time-saving routine.

Fares and tickets
As of January 2005, there are two different fare classes on the MTR: Adult and concessionary. Only children below the age of 12, senior citizens 65 years or older, or full-time Hong Kong students between the ages of 12 and 25 qualify for the concessionary rate. Children below the age of 3 travel free.
Similar to some other metro systems in the world, the fare payable by a passenger depends on the approximate distance travelled. However, taking any particular station as the origin, the other stations fall into fare "zones" depending on the distance from the origin. The fare to all stations in a "zone" is the same and increases with distance, especially if the journey involves a harbour crossing. Adult fares range from HK$3.80 to $26.00. Concessionary fares are usually half the adult fare, and range from HK$2.40 to $13.00. Fares for the Airport Express Line are significantly higher.

The price of using MTR is very low. For example, the price of going from Tsing Yi to Causeway Bay by taxi is around HK$200. Travelling the same distance by MTR costs HK$11.80 for grown up people and HK$5.40 for young and very old people. People can buy a one way ticket or a Octopus card to enter MTR. Octopus card is a contact-less smart card.
Octopus cards
The Octopus card is a rechargeable contactless smart card used in an electronic payment system in Hong Kong. It was launched in September 1997 for use on both the MTR and the KCR and now is the most widely used electronic cash system for transactions in Hong Kong as many retailers are fitted with readers.

The Octopus card uses radio frequency identification (RFID) technology so that users need only hold the card in front of the reader. Physical contact is not required, and the card need not even be taken out because the reader can penetrate through material. This fare collection system has been so popular that many cities such as Singapore, London, Chicago, and Taipei have adopted the idea, launching their own version of smart cards, respectively named EZ-link, Oyster card, and EasyCard.
Except for the Airport Express, MTR fares are slightly lower when using an Octopus card compared to using single journey tickets. For example, the cost of the 3-minute journey from Admiralty to Tsim Sha Tsui across the Victoria Harbour is (as of 2005) HK$7.9 using the Octopus card, compared with HK$9.0 for a single-journey ticket.

Tourist pass
Two types of tourist passes are available: one allows unlimited rides for a single day (at HK$50), while the other allows three days of unlimited rides on the MTR, with a stored value of HK$20, refundable deposit of HK$50 and choice of either a single (HK$220) or return (HK$300) trip on the Airport Express.

Tourists are required to produce proof of tourist status, (e.g. passports or, in the case of Mainland travellers, entry permits) when purchasing the pass, and whenever requested by a ticket inspector during spot-checks.
Other fares
The magnetic fare card system is used for single journey tickets. These tickets are pre-paid for between pre-determined stations, and are good for only one trip. There are no return tickets, except on the Airport Express.

Fares for the Airport Express are substantially different from main line fares. Apart from single tickets, same-day return tickets (same price as a single), and one-month return tickets are also available.

A one-day pass can be used to unlimited travel to/from Hong Kong Disneyland within the same day, and costs HK$50. This pass can be purchased from any MTR Customer Service Centres or Airport Express Customer Service Centres.

MTR rolling stock
MTR rolling stock

Four variations of rolling stock operate on the MTR on 1.5kV DC overhead electrification. All trains are electric multiple units (EMUs), with ATC and ATP, operating on 1432 mm rail gauge. Except for the rolling stock of the Airport Express, all trains are designed with features to cope with high density passenger traffic on stopping services. Examples are the latitudinal seating arrangement, additional ventilation fans and 5 doors on each side per car.

The Tung Chung Line and the Airport Express use dedicated rolling stock designs specified to their respective lines. Initially run in 7-car formations, they have now been lengthened to eight cars. These two variations are built jointly by Adtranz (now Bombardier Transportations) and Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles between 1994 and 1997.
The other lines are operated using a mixture of the other two variations, known as the "M-Train" and the "K-Stock". The "M-Stock" (or CM-Stock") of "M-Train" are the oldest trains on the MTR, built originally by Metro Cammell (now Alstom) and refurbished by United Goninan. The "M-Train" is the only variation that uses sliding doors, as opposed to others which use plug-doors. The "K-Stock" are built jointly by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and ROTEM, and a further order of 32 cars is due to be in service on the Tung Chung Line by 2007.

The Disneyland Resort Line uses driverless "M-Trains" with their appearance overhauled to suit the atmosphere and theme of the line. Windows on each carriage and the handrails inside are made into the shape of Mickey Mouse's head, and there are bronze-made Disney characters decorating the interior of the carriages.

Tsuen Wan Line
 MTR Metro Cammell EMU (DC)

Kwun Tong Line
 MTR Metro Cammell EMU )DC)
 MTR CNR Changchun EMU
Tsueng Kwan O Line
 MTR Metro Cammell EMU (DC)
 MTR Rotem EMU

Island Line
 MTR Metro Cammell EMU (DC)

Airport Express
 MTR Adtranz-CAF EMU

Tung Chung Line
 MTR Adtranz-CAF EMU
 MTR Rotem EMU

East Rail Line
 MTR Metro Cammell EMU (AC)
 MTR SP1900 EMU

West Rail Line
 MTR SP1900 EMU

Ma On Shan Line
 MTR SP1950 EMU

Light Rail
Varies

Art promotion
Art promotion

With the objective "not only bring MTR passengers more time for life, but also more time for art", the "Art in MTR" Initiative has been a success since its reception in 1998, where the Airport Express Artwork Programme was the pioneer project. Thereafter, live performances, art exhibitions, display of artwork by established and emerging artists, students and young children have been brought into the MTR stations. MTR Corporation Limited have even made art part of the station architecture when building new stations or renovating existing ones. Artworks are exhibited in different forms on the network, including "arttube", open art gallery, community art galleries, roving art, living art, and art in station architecture.
By incorporating elements of art into the railway network, the travelling environment for the passengers is not only enhanced, but also makes their journeys even more pleasant and enjoyable. Moreover, with MTR stations being an integral part of the neighbourhood, the programme also provides opportunities to promote Hong Kong's community art, encourage art appreciation among the public and give residents a feeling of home at the stations.

The future
The future

MTR Corporation Limited has suggested several future projects to the Hong Kong Government, with some already being built. The network is also set to grow quite much when MTR Corporation Limited joins with the government-owned Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC), with the non-binding "Memorandum of Understanding" agreement signed on 11 April 2006 to give MTR Corporation control of the KCR network for 50 years. The new Sha Tin to Central Link that was first given to KCRC would now also be run by MTR Corporation Limited, which will run from Tai Wai Station in Tai Wai to Central.
It has also been suggested to improve parts of MTR that are running now. Airport Station on the Airport Express will have a new platform to serve passengers flying out of Hong Kong International Airport's Skyplaza. New subway links to the stations are also being made, and it has been proposed to lengthen the Tseung Kwan O Line with a branch line to Tseung Kwan O South, and the Kwun Tong Line as far as Whampoa Garden, also linking with the Sha Tin to Central Link expansion.

The West Island Line and South Island Line, first suggested to the government by MTR on 21 January 2003, was finally accepted on 30 June 2005. It was made up of the West Island Line that took the Island Line to Kennedy Town, and the South Island Line (East section) from Admiralty to Ap Lei Chau and South Island Line (West section) that connects the other two lines. This is being talked about now and the whole longer line should be finished and running by 2012.

References

Other websites
Other websites

 MTR service
 MTR Corporation Limited
 Map of the Hong Kong MTR 
 Journey time and Fare Information 

Related products
 Information on Octopus Cards 

 Other
 Video of the effect of SARS on the Hong Kong MTR (Subway System)—Video of the effect of SARS on the Hong Kong MTR (Subway System)
The ribcage is a part of the skeleton of humans and some animals. It is made up of curved bones called ribs. The rib cage is found in the chest area. It protects a person's internal organs from damage. Most humans have 12 pairs of rib bones with one from each pair on each side of the chest. Some people may have 11 or 13 pairs of rib bones. The bones are also filled with bone marrow. The bones that are connected to the sternum directly are called true ribs, and the bones that are connected to the sternum indirectly, through the seventh bone, are called false ribs (eighth, ninth, and tenth bones), and the bones which are not connected to the sternum, and is connected to the back bone, are called floating ribs. If these floating ribs were connected to the sternum, we could not breathe properly, as the chest needs space to expand and decrease. The rib cage is also called the thoracic cavity.

Bones
Founder could mean:
 Entrepreneur, in the sense of one who founds (starts) a company
 Laminitis, a horse illness in which "foundering" is a common symptom
 Founder Group, China's second-largest personal computer vendor
 Founder effect, a biological idea used to explain genetics in a small isolated population

Founders could mean:
 Founding Fathers, often called the "Founders", people who are important in starting an institution
 Founding Fathers of the United States, the political leaders who participated in the American Revolution as leaders of the Patriots
 Founders, a race of beings in the fictional Star Trek universe
An interview is a conversation where somebody is trying to get information from another person. The person asking questions is the interviewer and the person answering questions is the interviewee.  

Employers interview people trying to get a job to find out if they are a good person for the job. Researchers use an interview to ask people to find how they feel or what they know about something. Since the middle 19th century, interviews have often been used in journalism to get information for stories on news shows or in newspapers.  

Police interview witnesses to a crime to find out what happened. Military intelligence agents interview prisoners to learn about enemy plans and capabilities. These interviews are often called interrogation.

References 

Human communication
Television genres
Athelstan or  Æthelstan, (893/4–27 October 939), called the Glorious, was the first King of England. He reigned from 924 to 939. He was the son of King Edward the Elder. Athelstan's reign is sometimes overlooked but it was of great importance to political developments in the 10th century.

Athelstan was the son of Edward the Elder, and grandson of Alfred the Great. His father succeeded, after some difficulty, to the Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons formed by Alfred. His father had also been the King of Mercia. When Edward died Athelstan quickly became King of Mercia but he was not immediately accepted as King of England. His brother, Ælfweard, had more support in England but died soon after Edward. This made it easier for Athelstan to become king.
For Athelstan it was very important to have many allies. A year after his crowning he married one of his sisters to the Viking King of Northumbria, Sithric. However, Sithric died only a year later, and Athelstan seized Northumbria. This move made him king of more land than any other before him, roughly the same as modern England. Historical records indicate that the other rulers in Great Britain accepted him as king at Bamburgh around this time.

Athelstan died at Gloucester in 939 and was succeeded by his half-brother, Edmund I.

References 

890s births
939 deaths
House of Wessex
Firefly is an American science fiction television series. It first aired in the United States and Canada on September 20, 2002. It is set in the future, but also has many things about it which would be expected in a story of the American Old West. This combination of past and future gives a unique science fiction setting for the story. It was created by writer and director Joss Whedon, creator of Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel. He created it with his production company, Mutant Enemy. Whedon was the executive producer, along with Tim Minear.
Firefly was first broadcast on the FOX network. It was cancelled after only eleven of the fourteen episodes were shown. Even though the show did not last long, it sold very well when it was released onto DVD and had great fan support. Because of this, Whedon and Universal Pictures made a movie based on the series, titled Serenity. The movie was named after the fictional spaceship in the show.  It won an Emmy in 2003 for "Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series".
The series is set in 2517 AD. It follows the adventures of the crew of Serenity, a Firefly-class spaceship. The cast play the nine characters who live on Serenity. Whedon described the show as "nine people looking into the blackness of space and seeing nine different things". The show looks at the changing lives of people who fought on the losing side of a civil war. It also shows the pioneer culture that is on the edges of their star system. It is a future where the only two superpowers, the United States and China, joined to create a single government. This government was called the Alliance. This also caused the two cultures to blend into each other. Whedon said that nothing has changed in the future. There are more people with better technology, but they still have the same problems politically, morally and ethically.

Production

Creation
Creation 

Whedon came up with the idea for the show after reading The Killer Angels, a novel about the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. He wanted to follow people who had fought on the losing side of a war. He wanted to look at their lives after the war on the edges of civilization. It was meant to be the kind of drama with a lot of people trying to figure out their lives in a pioneer environment. Whedon wanted to have a show that was about when life was physical and things did not come easy to people. Whedon was also very interested in science fiction and wanted to make something for television that was character-driven and dirty.

For the name of the show, Joss Whedon wanted something that had strength and movement. He felt that the word "firefly" had both. The fact that it was also something small with a powerful name made him like it more. From there, he created the ship in the image of a firefly.
Format 
While making the first episode, Whedon was arguing with FOX that the show should be shown in widescreen format. Because of this, he filmed scenes with actors on the edge of both sides so that they would have to show it that way. However, the pilot was turned down by the FOX executives. They thought that it did not have enough action. They also did not like the captain. FOX told Whedon on a Friday afternoon that he had to make a new script by Monday morning or they would not do it. Whedon and Tim Minear spent the weekend writing a new episode, "The Train Job". In this new episode, the captain was more "happy" and they added "larger than life" characters. These characters were the henchman "Crow", and the "hands of blue" men, that also introduced a X-Files-type ending.
Set design 
Production designer Carey Meyer built the ship Serenity in two parts. It was built as a complete set. It had ceilings and working lights built in as part of the set that the cameras could use. It also had movable parts. This helped with moving the camera around inside the set. There were other good things about this set design. One was that it let the people watching feel that they were really in a ship.  For Whedon, the design of the ship was very important. It defined the known space for the viewer. He wanted to show that it was simple and that it was "beat-up but lived-in and ultimately, it was home". Each room had a feel to it, usually shown by the paint color.

Their small budget was a reason to use the ship for much of telling the story. When the characters did go off of the ship, the worlds all had Earth atmosphere and colors. They could not afford to build alien worlds.

Music
Music 

The theme song, "The Ballad of Serenity", was written by Joss Whedon and performed by Sonny Rhodes. Whedon wrote the song before the series was approved by Fox. An early recording done by Whedon can be found on the DVD release.
The soundtrack to the series was released on CD on November 8, 2005 by Varèse Sarabande. The musical score matches the blending of cultures in the show. Cowboy guitar blended with an Asian feel was the musical background for the series. Greg Edmonson wrote the music for the series. He said that he wrote for the emotion of the moment.

Casting 

In casting his nine-member crew, Whedon looked first at the actor and how they got along with others.  All nine cast members were chosen before filming began. However, while filming the original pilot "Serenity", Whedon saw that the actress cast as Inara Serra (Rebecca Gayheart) was not right for the role.Morena Baccarin auditioned for the role and two days later was on the set in her first television show.
Whedon asked Nathan Fillion to play the lead role of Malcolm Reynolds. After telling him the idea for the show and showing him the pilot, Fillion wanted the role. Fillion was called back several times to read for the part before he was cast.

Alan Tudyk auditioned and was told to come back in to test with the possible Zoes (the character's wife). It was down to him and one other person. The Zoes did not work out and Tudyk was sent home. He got a call telling him he had the part anyway.

Veteran science fiction-fantasy actress Gina Torres (The Matrix Reloaded, Xena: Warrior Princess) did not at first want to do another science fiction show, but "was won over by the quality of the source material." As she recalled, "So you had these challenged characters inhabiting a challenging world and that makes for great storytelling. AND NO ALIENS!"

Adam Baldwin grew up watching westerns. The character of Jayne Cobb was a role that was perfect for him.
Canadian actress Jewel Staite has been an actress since age nine. She videotaped her audition from Vancouver. she was asked to come to Los Angeles to meet Whedon, where she was cast for the role of Kaylee Frye, the ship's engineer.

Sean Maher remembers reading for the part and liking the character of Simon Tam. He said it was Whedon's personality and vision that "sealed the deal" for him. For the role of Simon's sister, Whedon called in Summer Glau for an audition and test the same day. Glau had first worked for Whedon on an episode of Angel. Two weeks later Whedon called her to tell her she had the part. This was Glau's first speaking role.

The veteran television actor Ron Glass (Barney Miller, All in the Family), has said that until Firefly, he had not thought about a science-fiction western role but he fell in love with the pilot script and the character of Shepherd Book.

Plot
Plot

Back story 
The series takes place in the year 2517, on several planets and moons. The television series does not say if these are in one star system. The movie Serenity makes clear that all the planets and moons are in one large system. The characters refer to "Earth-that-was" and in the movie, it is said that long before the events in the series a large population had left from Earth to a new star system: "Earth that was could no longer sustain our numbers, we were so many." The people settled in this new star system, with "dozens of planets and hundreds of moons." Many of these were terraformed, a process in which a planet or moon is altered to resemble the Earth. The terraforming process was only the first step in making a planet livable. Only the most central planets got more treatment. This caused many of the border planets and moons to have environments that fit the Western setting.
Synopsis 
The show takes its name from the Firefly-class spaceship Serenity that the main characters call home. Its tail section lights up during acceleration, looking like the glowing part of a firefly.

The Alliance is shown to control the star system through an organization of "core" planets. DVD commentary suggests that two main "core" planets make up the Alliance. One is mostly Occidental in culture, the other is Asian. This explains the series' mixed linguistic and visual themes. The central planets are under Alliance control, but the outer planets and moons resemble the 19th century American West, with little government control. Settlers people on the outer worlds have relative freedom from the central government. The outer areas also have Reavers, a cannibalistic race.
The captain of the crew of Serenity is Malcolm "Mal" Reynolds (Nathan Fillion). The episode "Serenity" shows that the captain and his first mate Zoe Washburne (Gina Torres) are veteran "Browncoats" of the civil war. A later episode, titled "Out of Gas", shows that Mal bought the spaceship Serenity to continue living beyond Alliance control. Much of the crew's work is made up of cargo runs or smuggling. One of the main story arcs is that of River Tam (Summer Glau) and her brother Simon (Sean Maher). River was a child prodigy. Her brain was experimented on. She seems to have schizophrenia and often hears voices. It is later found out that she is a "reader", someone with psychic abilities. Simon gave up a very good career as a surgeon to save her from the Alliance. They join the crew in the original "Serenity". Because of this rescue, they are both wanted criminals.
Signature show elements 
Firefly takes place in a multi-cultural future. Because of this, Mandarin Chinese is a common second language. It is used in advertisements, and characters in the show often use Chinese words and curses.

The show also has slang not used in today's culture. There are changes to modern words, or new words ("shiny" is a synonym of "cool"). The Japanese katakana and an Old West dialect are also used.

One of the problems that Whedon had with FOX was the tone of the show, especially with the main character Malcolm Reynolds. FOX wanted Whedon to make his character more "jolly". They felt he was too dark in the original pilot.

Cast

Main characters
Main characters 

Firefly had an ensemble cast that played the nine crew members of the ship, Serenity. These characters fight criminals, Alliance security forces, the insane Reavers, and the mysterious men with "hands of blue" - who seem to work for a secret agency which is part of the huge corporation, The Blue Sun Corporation. The crew needs to get enough income to keep their ship working. While doing this, they must stay hidden from people looking for them.
Malcolm "Mal" Reynolds, played by Nathan Fillion, is Serenity's captain and former sergeant in the Battle of Serenity Valley during the war.
 Zoe Alleyne Washburne, played by Gina Torres, is second-in-command of Serenity. She is a loyal wartime friend of Captain Reynolds, and wife of Wash.
 Hoban "Wash" Washburne, played by Alan Tudyk, is Serenity's pilot and Zoe's husband. He is jealous about his wife's "war buddy" relationship and total support of their captain.
 Inara Serra, played by Morena Baccarin, is a "Companion". A companion is the 26th century version of a courtesan or geisha. Inara has high social position. She and Mal have a hard relationship, with romantic tension playing a big part in several episodes.
Jayne Cobb, played by Adam Baldwin, is the hired muscle. He joined the crew for mercenary reasons. He is often the "main gun" for jobs and is someone that can be counted on in a fight. He thinks he is the smartest guy in space but he is just the opposite. As Whedon says several times, he is the person that will ask the questions that no one else wants to talk about.
 Kaywinnit Lee "Kaylee" Frye, played by Jewel Staite, is the ship's mechanic. In the episode "Out of Gas", it is shown that she has no formal training. She keeps Serenity running with an intuitive gift for the workings of mechanical equipment. A very happy young woman, Kaylee has a romantic crush on Dr. Simon Tam. Kaylee's character is the soul of the ship: according to Joss Whedon, if Kaylee believes something, it is true.
Dr. Simon Tam, played by Sean Maher, is a very good doctor. He is on the run after getting his sister River out of a government facility. His lack of social skill in a relationship with Kaylee is shown many times in the series. His life is defined by caring for his sister.
 River Tam, played by Summer Glau, was smuggled onto the ship by her brother. River was a child prodigy of unmatched genius. She was experimented on by Alliance doctors. This made her delusional. It also caused her to act very strangely. Her trying to figure out what became of her is a theme shown throughout the series and the movie.
 Derrial Book, played by Ron Glass, is a "Shepherd" (much like of a reverend, minister or pastor). In the episode "Safe", it is shown that he has very high status in the Alliance but it is never said why. Throughout the series, he shows an unusual knowledge about firearms and criminal activities.
All nine major characters are in every episode, with one exception: Book is absent from "Ariel".

Related pages
Serenity

References

Other websites 
FireflyFans.net - Primary Firefly Fansite
Firefly and Serenity at Wikia
Firefly and Serenity  on Whedonesque.com
Firefly Timeline
Done the Impossible - A documentary about Browncoats and their drive to bring back Firefly.
Worlds of Serenity  - A hard SF author examines the plausibility of the 'Verse.

2002 American television series debuts
2002 American television series endings
2000s American television series
American science fiction television series
Fox television series
Television series created by Joss Whedon
Whedonverse
Emmy Award winning programs
English-language television programs
Cnut II and I (Danish: Knud II; 25 May 994 — 12 November 1035) nicknamed the Great (Danish: den Store) was the King of Denmark as Cnut II from 1018, King of England as Cnut I from 1016, and King of Norway from 1028 until his death in 1035. Cnut was considered one of Europe's most powerful rulers during his time. He ruled over England, Denmark, Norway, and a part of Sweden on which are called the North Sea Empire.

Conquest of England 
In the summer of 1015, Canute's fleet set sail for England with a Danish army of perhaps 10,000 in 200 longships. Cnut was at the head of an array of Vikings from all over Scandinavia. The invasion force was to be in often close and grisly warfare with the English for the next fourteen months. Practically all of the battles were fought against Aethelred's son, Edmund Ironside.

After ascending the throne in 1016, Canute executed many of Edmund's followers, to make his crown safe.
Family 
Canute, a Christian, had two wives. His first wife, or perhaps concubine, was called Ælfgifu. She was a handfast wife, meaning the marriage was made by joining hands, not by a church ceremony. This was legal at that time. She became his northern queen.

His second wife was Emma of Normandy, who was also called Ælfgifu in Old English. Their wedding was a Christian wedding. She was kept in the south, with an estate in Exeter.

Both wives bore sons who became kings of England. Canute kept the Church sweet with many gifts.

Issue 
1 – Ælfgifu of Northampton
Sweyn Knutsson, King of Norway
Harold Harefoot, King of England
2 – Emma of Normandy
Harthacanute, King of Denmark and England
Gunhilda of Denmark, wed Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor.

Canute and the waves 
There is a story that Canute sat on his throne ordering the sea to turn back. We do not know whether this really happened. It seems to come from Henry of Huntington (c. 1088 – c. 1154). He relates it as follows:
"When King Cnute had reigned for twenty years, he departed this life at Shaftesbury and was buried at Winchester in the Old Minster. A few words must be devoted to the power of this king. Before him there had never been in England a king of such great authority. He was lord of all Denmark, of all England, of all Norway, and also of Scotland. In addition to the many wars in which he was most particularly illustrious, he performed three fine and magnificent deeds....The third, that when he was at the height of his ascendancy, he ordered his chair to be placed    on the sea-shore as the tide was coming in. Then he said to the rising tide, 'You are subject to me, as the land on which I am sitting is mine, and no one has resisted my overlordship with impunity. I command you, therefore, not to rise on to my land, nor to presume to wet the clothing or limbs of your master.' But the sea came up as usual, and disrespectfully drenched the king's feet and shins
. So jumping back, the king cried, 'Let all the world know that the power of kings is empty and worthless, and there is no king worthy of the name save Him by whose will heaven, earth, and sea obey eternal laws.' Thereafter King Cnut never wore the golden crown on his neck, but placed it on the image of the crucified Lord, in eternal praise of God the great king. By whose mercy may the soul of King Cnut enjoy rest."
Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum (VI.17)

References

Other websites 
Canute the Great At Find A Grave
Canute the Great

990s births
1035 deaths
Kings and Queens of Denmark
Kings and Queens of Norway
People buried in Winchester Cathedral
11th century in England
Saint Henry II (972 – 13 July 1024), called the Holy or the Saint, was the fifth and last Holy Roman Emperor of the Saxon or Ottonian dynasty. 

 

972 births
1024 deaths
Holy Roman Emperors
Christian saints
Ottonian dynasty
German Roman Catholics
11th century in Germany‎
The TCP/IP model and other related protocols are not maintained by the  Internet Engineering Task Force, whose parent organisation is the Internet Society, and which also cooperates closely with other standards bodies such as the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) and ISO/IEC.

Other websites 

 Internet History – Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn).
  – Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974 Version
  A TCP/IP Tutorial – from the Internet Engineering Task Force (January 1991)
 TCP/IP FAQ
 The TCP/IP Guide – A comprehensive look at the protocols and the procedures/processes involved
 A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest
 TCP/IP Sequence Diagrams
 Daryl's TCP/IP Primer – Intro to TCP/IP LAN administration, conversational style
 Introduction to TCP/IP
 A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication, Cerf & Kahn, IEEE Trans on Comms, Vol Com-22, No 5 May 1974

Internet
Computer protocols