Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Breast milk may not have enough vitamin D in it to prevent rickets.  Babies who are only breastfed, and not fed any other foods, may be given vitamin D drops to make sure they do not get rickets. However, this is not a significant risk if mothers and child have some exposure to sunlight. Children with dark skin are more likely to need additional vitamin D.

Risk factors
These things make a person more likely to get rickets:
They are between three and 36 months old.  Children this age are at the.      greatest risk for rickets because their bones are growing so quickly, and are supposed to get bigger and stronger during this time
 They were born prematurely (earlier than normal)
 They live in the Northern parts of the world, where there is less sunshine
They spend too little time outside
They always wear sunscreen when going out
 Even mild sunscreen decreases the amount of vitamin D the body makes by 95% (by stopping the body from taking in vitamin D from sunlight)
 However, people should still wear sunscreen when they might get sunburned
They do not eat enough food that has calcium or vitamin D in it, because of lactose intolerance or a strict vegan diet
They cannot make or use vitamin D because of a medical disorder, like coeliac disease, or because they take certain anti-seizure medications

Symptoms
Signs and symptoms of rickets include:
 Brittle (easily broken) bones or teeth
 Bleeding more than normal
 Stunted growth (not growing like a healthy child would)
 Sweating
 Weakness (feeling tired all the time)
 Body pain

Related pages
 Vitamin D
 Calcium

References

Diseases and disorders of bones
Vitamin deficiencies
Bile or gall is an alkaline, green-yellow fluid. It is secreted from the liver of most vertebrate animals, and is often stored in the gall bladder. Bile helps digest fat.

The components of bile are, in descending order of composition, are:
 Water 
 Cholesterol
 Bile pigments
 Bile salts

The name gall comes from the Greek word cholè meaning green or yellow. These colours come from the bile pigments. One of them is green and the other is yellow. When they are mixed together, they make feces brown. The term cholesterol and the illness cholera were named after gall.

Bile is also stored in bile ducts. Often after liver transplants, bile comes out of the body.

Bile increases fats' total surface area to volume ratio so their digestion is easier and faster. Hence, more fats and fat-soluble vitamins like vitamins A, D, E and K can be absorbed. This keeps fat out of feces so they are brown instead of white, grey or greasy. 

Physiology
The dental pulp is the part in the center of a tooth (pulp cavity). It is made up of living soft tissue and cells. It is surrounded by dentine and contains nerves and blood and lymph vessels.

Teeth
Protoplasm is an old term, which  means the living substance that makes up a cell. It is no longer much used. Biologists prefer to talk about the cytoplasm and the cell nucleus.

In plant cells, it is surrounded by a cell wall. In animal cells, the whole cell is made of protoplasm, surrounded by a cell membrane. Protoplasm in living beings is made up of about 7580% water. However, this is rather misleading because the cytoplasm is full of structures called organelles, which do various tasks. The endoplasmic reticulum is the largest of these structures; there are many other organelles.  

The word "protoplasm" was first used in 1846 by Hugo von Mohl to describe the substance in plant cells, apart from the cell wall, the cell nucleus and the vacuole. After the invention of the electron microscope it was clear that a living cell is much more complicated than von Mohl knew.

 

Cells
Amylase is an enzyme which breaks down starch into sugars which the body can use.

More accurately, it is a family of similar enzymes which work in a wide range of animals, plants and fungi. There are two variants in humans: alpha-amylase, and gamma-amylase.

Alpha-amylase is a major digestive enzyme. Its optimum pH is 6.7–7.0. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice. It takes starch chains and breaks them into smaller pieces with two or three glucose units. It can break down starch into maltose. It works in the mouth and stomach during digestion.

The gamma-amylase has most acidic optimum pH of all amylases because it is most active around pH 3. Therefore, it works best in the stomach, which does have an acidic pH.
Human evolution
Apparently, early humans did not possess salivary amylase. The closest evolutionary relatives of humans, chimpanzees and bonobos, have either one or no copies of the gene for producing salivary amylase.  A duplication event of the AMY1 gene led to the production of amylase in the saliva. The same event occurred independently in rodents. This shows the importance of salivary amylase in organisms that eat relatively large amounts of starch.

Carbohydrates are a food source rich in energy. After the agricultural revolution, human diet began to rely more on plant and animal domestication in place of hunting and gathering. This shift marked the beginning of a diet composed of 49% carbohydrates as opposed to the previous 35% observed in Paleolithic humans. As such, starch became a staple of human diet. Humans that contained amylase in the saliva would benefit from increased ability to digest starch more efficiently and in higher quantities.
Not all humans have the same number of copies of the AMY1 gene. Populations which rely on carbohydrates have a higher number of AMY1 copies than populations that eat little starch. The number of AMY1 gene copies in humans can range from six copies in agricultural groups such as European-American and Japanese (two high starch populations) to only 2-3 copies in hunter-gatherer societies such as the Biaka, Datog, and Yakuts.

The correlation between starch consumption and number of AMY1 copies suggests that more AMY1 copies in high starch populations is caused by natural selection. It is a favorable phenotype for those individuals. Therefore, it is likely that having more copies of AMY1 in a high starch population increases fitness and produces healthier, fitter offspring. Geographically close populations with different eating habits possess a different number of copies of the AMY1 gene. This offers strong evidence that natural selection has acted on this gene.

References 

Enzymes
Evolution
A variegated leaf is a type of leaf.

Uses 
A variegated leaf is useful in conducting experiments to show that chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis to happen. They are also popular in horticulture.

Experiments 
The easiest of these experiments is to stain the places where starch is produced (starch is a more compact form of glucose).

Place the leaves in boiling water for six minutes to soften the cells, and then in ethanol (alcohol). When the leaves are drained of colour, spread them out on a flat surface. Soak the leaves in iodine and the green parts will turn blue/black and the non green parts will stay the yellowish brown colour of iodine liquid. The green parts contain starch, which makes iodine turn blue/black. The blue/black stain is what shows starch is present. You could take "before & after" photos to prove the black areas were green at the start.

Plant anatomy
Experiments
A seam ripper is a cutting tool. It is used for removing stitches in sewing and cutting open buttonholes made on a sewing machine. Sometimes it is also called a thread ripper.

The tool usually has a handle, shaft, and head. The head has two points: one flattened to form a pointed blade and the other  forming a small point. 

To use a seam ripper to remove sewn threads, the blade is placed underneath the thread to be cut. The thread slips down between the two points, and the tool is then lifted upwards allowing the blade to cut through the thread. Then the loose thread ends can be removed.

Cutting tools
Needlework
Plaque: a word meaning a flat, plate-like object.

a plaque in biology is a flat growth-form, as for example, 
the growth of bacterial colonies on an agar plate
a sticky, white film or fluid on the teeth, a mixture of bacteria and food
in atherosclerosis, a fat layer inside an artery.

a flat man-made object, such as a memorial plaque or other flat object
A pin cushion is small cushion used for holding pins and needles. It is used so that the pins and needles are stored safely and can be taken out by pulling the head.

Tools
A chemical cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Most batteries are chemical cells. A chemical reaction takes place inside the battery and causes electric current to flow.

There are two main types of batteries - those that are rechargeable and those that are not.

A battery that is not rechargeable will give electricity until the chemicals in it are used up. Then it is no longer useful. It can be rightly called 'use and throw'.

A rechargeable battery can be recharged by passing electric current backwards through the battery; it can then be used again to produce more electricity. It was Gaston Plante, a French scientist who invented these rechargeable batteries in 1859.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from very small ones used in toys and cameras, to those used in cars or even larger ones. Submarines require very large batteries.

Types of chemical cells 
 Simple cell
 Dry cell
 Wet cell
 Fuel cell
 Solar cell
 Electric cell
Electrochemical cells 
An extremely important class of oxidation and reduction reactions are used to provide useful electrical energy in batteries. A simple electrochemical cell can be made from copper and zinc metals with solutions of their sulphates. In the process of the reaction, electrons can be transferred from the zinc to the copper through an electrically conducting path as a useful electric current.

An electrochemical cell can be created by placing metallic electrodes into an electrolyte where a chemical reaction either uses or generates an electric current. Electrochemical cells which generate an electric current are called voltaic cells or galvanic cells, and common batteries consist of one or more such cells. In other electrochemical cells an externally supplied electric current is used to drive a chemical reaction which would not occur spontaneously. Such cells are called electrolytic cells.
An electrochemical cell which causes external electric current flow can be created using any two different metals since metals differ in their tendency to lose electrons. Zinc more readily loses electrons than copper, so placing zinc and copper metal in solutions of their salts can cause electrons to flow through an external wire which leads from the zinc to the copper. As a zinc atom provides the electrons, it becomes a positive ion and goes into aqueous solution, decreasing the mass of the zinc electrode. On the copper side, the two electrons received allow it to convert a copper ion from solution into an uncharged copper atom which deposits on the copper electrode, increasing its mass. The two reactions are typically writtenZn(s) --> Zn2+(aq) + 2e-Cu2+(aq) + 2e- --> Cu(s)The letters in parentheses are just reminders that the zinc goes from a solid (s) into a water solution (aq) and vice versa for the copper
. It is typical in the language of electrochemistry to refer to these two processes as "half-reactions" which occur at the two electrodes.
In order for the voltaic cell to continue to produce an external electric current, there must be a movement of the sulfate ions in solution from the right to the left to balance the electron flow in the external circuit. The metal ions themselves must be prevented from moving between the electrodes, so some kind of porous membrane or other mechanism must provide for the selective movement of the negative ions in the electrolyte from the right to the left.

Energy is required to force the electrons to move from the zinc to the copper electrode, and the amount of energy per unit charge available from the voltaic cell is called the electromotive force (emf) of the cell. Energy per unit charge is expressed in volts (1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb).
Clearly, to get energy from the cell, you must get more energy released from the oxidation of the zinc than it takes to reduce the copper. The cell can yield a finite amount of energy from this process, the process being limited by the amount of material available either in the electrolyte or in the metal electrodes. For example, if there were one mole of the sulfate ions SO42- on the copper side, then the process is limited to transferring two moles of electrons through the external circuit. The amount of electric charge contained in a mole of electrons is called the Faraday constant, and is equal to Avogadro's number times the electron charge:Faraday constant = F = NAe = 6.022 x 1023 x 1.602 x 10-19 = 96,485 Coulombs/moleThe energy yield from a voltaic cell is given by the cell voltage times the number of moles of electrons transferred times the Faraday constant.Electrical energy output = nFEcellThe cell emf Ecell may be predicted from the standard electrode potentials for the two metals
. For the zinc/copper cell under the standard conditions, the calculated cell potential is 1.1 volts.
Simple cell

A simple cell typically has plates of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) in dilute sulphuric acid. The zinc dissolves and bubbles of hydrogen appear on the copper plate. These hydrogen bubbles interfere with the passage of current so a simple cell can only be used for a short time.  To provide a steady current, a depolarizer (an oxidizing agent) is needed to oxidize the hydrogen. In the Daniel cell, the depolarizer is copper sulphate, which exchanges the hydrogen for copper. In the Leclanche battery, the depolarizer is manganese dioxide, which oxidizes the hydrogen to water.

Daniel cell 

English chemist John Frederick Daniell developed a voltaic cell in 1836 which used zinc and copper and solutions of their ions.

Key
 Zinc rod = negative terminal
 H2SO4 = dilute sulphuric acid electrolyte
 Porous pot separates the two liquids
 CuSO4 = copper sulphate depolarizer
 Copper pot = positive terminal

Physical chemistry
Energy
Batteries
Deutschlandlied (; "Song of Germany"), officially known as Das Lied der Deutschen (; "The Song of the Germans"), is a song written by Joseph Haydn and Hoffmann von Fallersleben. Part of this song is the national anthem of Germany (German National Anthem).

A line from this song, "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit" ("Unity and Justice and Freedom") is the considered to be the unofficial motto of Germany.

History
The music was written by Haydn in 1797 as the personal anthem of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. It was called "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" ("God protect our Emperor Franz"). The words which are used today were written by the poet August Heinrich Hoffman von Fallersleben in 1841.
Today, the first line "Germany, Germany above all" sounds too strong for some people, and is often misunderstood. Fallersleben wanted a united Germany when he wrote it. At that time, Germany was not one country, but many small countries. So "Germany above all" meant that the most important thing to do was to have a unified Germany. Also, the poet was written in Heligoland, where people spoke German but were ruled by the British.

Fallersleben's music was very popular in Germany during the second part of the 19th century. This song was not a national anthem then, but a patriotic song supporting a united German state. On 11 August 1922, after 4 years of the end of the First World War and the abdication of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, it replaced the previous anthem "Heil Dir im Siegerkranz" ("Hail Thee in the Victor's Crown"). In 1921, a "fourth stanza", a new part or verse, was written by poet Albert Matthai with words about the difficult life in Germany at that time.  This verse was rarely used.
During the time of Adolf Hitler, only the first stanza of the song was used. This offended the international audience as the first stanza supports Germany holding colonial powers in non-consenting nations. This was often followed by Horst-Wessel Lied, the anthem of the Nazi Party.

After the Second World War, Germany was divided into two countries. In 1949, the new West Germany tried to get a new song for the national anthem. Another song was chosen, written by poet Rudolf Alexander Schröder. It was not very popular. Finally, on 2 May 1952, President Theodor Heuss approved the decision to make Das Lied der Deutschen the national anthem of Germany. However, only the third stanza was used.

In the other part of Germany, known as East Germany, the words of poet Johannes R. Becher ("Auferstanden aus Ruinen" - "Risen from Ruins") were used with a song written by Hanns Eisler. It was not very popular, and from the 1970s the words were not sung, because of the line "Germany, [our] unified fatherland".
After East and West Germany united in 1990, the song again became the national anthem of Germany but only the third stanza is used. Today, the first part of the song is popular with nationalist extremists.



Lyrics

Metrical English Translation 

Translated by Kevin Kallande

Unity and Right and Freedom,
For the German Fatherland!
Let us all be strive towards them;
Brotherly with Heart and Hand!

𝄆 Unity and Right and Freedom,
Are the pledge of Happiness;
Flourish in this pledge of fortune,
Flourish, German Fatherland! 𝄇

Flourish in this pledge of fortune,
Flourish, German Fatherland!

Related pages
Auferstanden der Ruinen, the national anthem of East Germany when it existed

 
1840s songs
Mottos
National symbols of Germany
A cavity is a hole.

It can also mean:
Dental cavity, damage to teeth.
Another hollow area within the body. Such as a nasal cavity.
Evidence is something that is used to support an argument.  It gives examples of why something is true. 

Evidence is defined by Merriam-Webster dictionary as: 
1a : an outward sign : INDICATION
1b : something that furnishes proof : TESTIMONY
specifically: something legally submitted to a tribunal to ascertain the truth of a matter
2 : one who bears witness
especially: one who voluntarily confesses a crime and testifies for the prosecution against one's accomplices

Choo states “Evidence is the information with which the matters requiring proof in a trial are proved.” The study of evidence, therefore, is the study of the process by which such matters are proved in court.” (Choo, 42). 

Peter Achinstein defines evidence as “information that increases probability of a hypothesis” or “information on the basis of which a hypothesis has high probability.” (Achinstein, 44).
The Division of Extension Research and Training at the University of Arkansas defines evidence as “the outward sign, the indication, the proof” (University of Arkansas, 1).

For example, if someone come across a cup of spilled milk, that person could look for evidence as to how the milk was spilled. If hairs of a cat and paw prints were found on the ground, they could be evidence that a cat was the cause of the spilled milk. If a witness saw the cat spilling the milk, her testimony would also be evidence.

References 
Law
Criminal investigation
Epistemology
Choo, Andrew. Evidence. Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2006, https://archive.org/details/evidence0000choo/page/n9/mode/2up.

Webster, Merriam. “Evidence.” Merriam Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/evidence.

Miller, Colin. Evidence: Best Evidence Rule. 1st ed., CALI, eLangdell Press, 2012,https://www.cali.org/sites/default/files/BestEvidenceRule_Miller_Dec2014.pdf.
Achinstein, Peter. The Book of Evidence. Oxford University, 2001, https://books.google.com/books?id=cZHflkcvCEUC&q=evidence.&pg=PP9

Forsyth, Stewart. “What Is Opinion and What Is Evidence?” InfoKat, 2019, https://saalck-uky.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01SAA_UKY/ija67f/cdi_webofscience_primary_000486649800003.

What Is Evidence? University of Arkansas, June 1955, https://archive.org/details/CAT10680953/mode/2up.
A dyadic is a math function that needs two things in order to give something out.  Addition and multiplication are dyadic.  Powers are also dyadic.  There are many more functions that are dyadic.

Dyadic may specifically refer to:

Dyad
Dyadic communication
Dyadic counterpoint, the voice-against-voice conception of polyphony
Dyadic fraction
Dyadic product
Dyadic rational (also known as Dyadic solenoid)
Dyadic Relation (usually known as a Binary relation)
Dyadic tensor
Dyadic transformation
A hill is a landform that is higher than the surrounding terrain and that is smaller than a mountain. Hill is a  highland  of much lower elevation than a mountain. Normally it is not as steep as a mountain. By definition, a hill is often described as being lower than 600 meters (about 2,000 feet). However, some definitions say a hill is lower than 300 meters (about 1,000 feet). The surface of a hill is much more stable than that of a dune. Hill have long been used for hill forts

Pictures

Other websites 

 

nds:Kommun Ås
An enzyme is a protein molecule in cells which works as a biological catalyst. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in the body, but do not get used up in the process, so they can be used over and over again.

Almost all biochemical reactions in living things need enzymes. With an enzyme, chemical reactions go much faster than they would without the enzyme.p39  Other biocatalysts are catalytic RNA molecules, called ribozymes.

The substances at the start of a reaction are called substrates. The substances at the end of a reaction are the products. Enzymes work on the substrates, and turn them into products. The study of enzymes is called enzymology.

The first enzyme was found in 1833 by Anselme Payen.

Enzyme structure
Enzyme structure 

There are thousands of different enzymes and each one is specific to the reaction which it catalyses. Enzymes have names which show what they do. Enzyme names usually end in –ase to show that they are enzymes. Examples of this include ATP synthase. It makes a chemical called ATP. Another example is DNA polymerase. It reads an intact DNA strand and uses it as a template to make a new strand.

One example of an enzyme is amylase, found in saliva. It breaks down starch molecules into smaller glucose and maltose molecules. Another kind of enzyme is lipase. It breaks down fats into smaller molecules, fatty acids and glycerol.

The proteases are a whole class of enzymes. They break down other enzymes and proteins back into amino acids. Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA or RNA, often in specific place in the molecule.
Enzymes are not only for breaking large chemicals into smaller chemicals. Other enzymes take smaller chemicals and build them up into bigger chemicals, and do many other chemical tasks. The classification below lists the main types.

Biochemists often draw a picture of an enzyme to use as a visual aid or map of the enzyme. This is hard to do because there may be hundreds or thousands of atoms in an enzyme. Biochemists can not draw all this detail. Instead, they use ribbon models as pictures of enzymes. Ribbon models can show the shape of an enzyme without having to draw every atom.

Most enzymes will not work unless the temperature and pH are just right. In mammals the right temperature is usually about 37oC degrees (body temperature). The correct pH can vary greatly. Pepsin is an example of an enzyme that works best when pH is about 1.5.

Heating an enzyme above a certain temperature will destroy the enzyme permanently. It will be broken down by protease and the chemicals will be used again.
Some chemicals can help an enzyme do its job even better. These are called activators. Sometimes, a chemical can slow down an enzyme or even make the enzyme not work at all. These are called inhibitors. Most drugs are chemicals that either speed up or slow down some enzyme in the human body.

Lock and key model 
Enzymes are very specific. In 1894 Emil Fischer suggested that both the enzyme and the substrate have specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another. This is often referred to as "the lock and key" model. However, this model fails to explain what happens next.
In 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model. Since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is reshaped by interactions with the substrate. As a result, the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site. The amino acid side-chains of the active site are bent into positions so the enzyme does its catalytic work. In some cases, such as glycosidases, the substrate molecule also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site.

Function 
The general equation for an enzyme reaction is:
Substrate + Enzyme –> Substrate:Enzyme –> Product:Enzyme –> Product + Enzyme

Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction by forming an intermediary complex with the substrate. This complex is called an enzyme-substrate complex.
For example, sucrase, 400 times the size of its substrate sucrose, splits the sucrose into its constituent sugars, which are glucose and fructose. The sucrase bends the sucrose, and strains the bond between the glucose and fructose. Water molecules join in and make the cleavage in a fraction of a second. Enzymes have these key features:
 They are catalytic. They commonly increase the rate of reaction 10 billion-fold.p39 The enzyme itself is not changed by the reaction.
 They are effective in tiny amounts. One enzyme molecule may convert 1000 molecules of substrate a minute, and some are known to convert 3 million in a minute.p39
 They are highly specific. One enzyme will only carry out one of the many reactions of which a substrate is capable.

Control of enzyme activity 

There are five main ways that enzyme activity is controlled in the cell.
Enzyme production (transcription and translation of enzyme genes) can be increased or reduced in response to changes in the cell's environment. This form of gene regulation is called enzyme induction and inhibition. For example, in bacteria which are resistant to antibiotics such as penicillin, enzymes are induced which hydrolyse the penicillin molecule.
 Enzymes can occur in different cellular compartments. For example, fatty acids are synthesized by one set of enzymes in the cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Then they are used by a different set of enzymes as a source of energy in the mitochondria.
Enzymes can be regulated by their own products. For example, the end product(s) often inhibit one of the first enzymes of the pathway. Such a regulatory mechanism is called negative feedback, because the amount of the end product produced is regulated by its own concentration. This prevents the cells making too much enzyme. The control of enzyme action helps keep a stable internal environment in living organisms.
 Enzymes can be regulated by being modified after their production. An example is the cleavage of the polypeptide chain. Chymotrypsin, a digestive protease, is produced in inactive form in the pancreas and transported in this form to the stomach where it is activated. This stops the enzyme from digesting the pancreas or other tissues before it enters the gut. This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a zymogen.
Some enzymes may become activated when they move to a different environment (e.g. from high pH to low pH). For example, haemagglutinin in the influenza virus is activated by a change in shape. This is caused by the acidic conditions which occur inside the host cell's lysosome.
Enzyme inhibitors 
Inhibitors can be used to stop an enzyme from binding to a substrate. This may be done to slow down an enzyme-controlled reaction. The inhibitors fit loosely or partially into the enzyme's active site. This prevents or slows down an enzyme-substrate complex being formed.

Denaturation 
Denaturation is the irreversible alteration of an enzyme's active site, caused by an extreme change in temperature or pH. It will decrease the rate of reaction because the substrate molecule will not be able to fit into the active site, so products cannot be formed.
Cofactors 
Cofactors, or coenzymes, are helper molecules which are needed to make an enzyme work. They are not proteins, and may be organic or inorganic molecules. Both types of molecules sometimes contain a metal ion at the centre, such as Mg2+, Cu2+, Mn2+ or iron-sulphur clusters. This is because such ions may act as electron donors, and this is important in many reactions. The need of enzymes for various little helpers is the basic reason why animals, including ourselves, need trace elements and vitamins.
Classification 
Enzymes have been classified by the International Union of Biochemistry. Their Commission on Enzymes has grouped all known enzymes into six classes:
 Oxido-reductases: catalyse transfer of electrons
 Transferases: move functional group from one molecule to another
 Hydrolases: add –OH (hydroxyl) group
 Lyases: split chemical bonds, and often add double bond or ring structure
 Isomerases: A –> B where B is an isomer of A
 Ligases: join two large molecules: Ab + C –> A–C + b
The individual enzymes are given a four-figure number which classifies them in the database.p145

Uses of enzymes 
Enzymes are used commercially for:
 making baby food - pre-digesting food for babies
 softening the centres of chocolates
 biological washing powder - which contains protease enzymes to break down the grime and dirt. It breaks the large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules. It works at a lower temperature, so less energy is needed (thermostable)

Related pages 
 Burst kinetics

References
References 

Molecular biology
Definition of a mountain 
 A mountain is landform that rises prominently above its surroundings. It usually has steep slopes, and a summit area.
The highest point of a mountain is called the peak. A mountain's summit is the highest area where an individual can reach. A mountain climber will not reach the peak of the mountain but can reach the summit.
 Britannica Student Encyclopedia says that the term "mountain" usually means a rise of over 2,000 feet (610 m)". 
 Polytechnic Student Encyclopedia says that the term "mountain" usually means a rise of over 1,000 feet (300 m)".
 The standard height for a mountain in England is 600 metres.  In England, this is important  because in English law people have the "Right to Roam" in mountains, but they do not have the same right to walk on someone-else's land.

Formation
Formation 

The forming of a mountain is called orogeny. Mountains are formed when rock layers in the ground are pushed from opposite sides, and by being pushed, they push the crust up.  A mountain range is a large group of mountains beside each other. There are three main ways a mountain may be made:

Fold mountains 

Fold mountains occur when two plates collide. The less dense continental crust "floats" on the denser mantle rocks beneath. The continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can fold either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines. The Jura Mountains are an example of fold mountains.
Folded mountains make up some of the highest mountains in the world. Folded mountains commonly form along boundaries, where 2 continents meet. Some really complex folds are in parts of the Andes, Alps, Himalayas, Appalachians, and Russia's Ural Mountains. These long mountain chains also show lots of signs of folding.

Block mountains 
Block mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a seam where rocks can move past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The dropped blocks are called graben. They can form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range province of Western North America and the Rhine valley. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned.

Volcanic mountains
Volcanoes are formed in one of these ways:
When a tectonic plate is pushed below another tectonic plate, 
at a mid-ocean ridge or hotspot.  At a depth of around , melting occurs in rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms magma that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a volcanic mountain, such as a shield volcano or a stratovolcano.

Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the states of Utah and Arizona, in the United States.
Volcanic mountains form when molten rock erupts onto the Earth's surface. They can either form on land or in the ocean. The Cascade Range in Washington, Oregon and northern California is made of volcanoes. Some of the largest volcanoes are on divergent boundaries, which form the mid-ocean ridges. The mid-ocean ridges have big volcanic mountain chains that run through the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. The mountains in the mid-ocean ridges can grow tall enough to create islands such as Iceland or the Azores.

Other volcanic mountains form over hot spots, pockets of magma beneath the crust which erupt onto Earth's surface. The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of really high volcanic islands that have formed over a hot spot on the sea floor. The main Hawaiian island is a volcano about  above the ocean floor. Its base is about  wide. Almost  of this island is above sea level.

Other terms
Other terms

Dome mountains 
Dome mountains, like those in the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Adirondack Mountains of New York, are an unusual domish type of mountain that is formed when molten rock rises through the crust and push up the rock layers above it. This creates a circular dome on the Earth's surface. The molten rock later cools off and forms hardened rock. When the pushed up rocks are worn away, the hardened rock is shown. This hardened rock then wears away in places. When it wears away, it leaves mountains, and they are called dome mountains.

Plateau mountains 
Plateau mountains are formed a bit like folded mountains. They are large areas of flat topped rocks that have been lifted high above the crust by continental plates. Most plateaus are near folded mountains.

Height 
The height of a mountain is measured as distance above sea level.

Tallest mountains
Tallest mountains 

The highest known mountain in the Solar System is Olympus Mons (27 km high) on Mars. The highest mountain on earth is Mount Everest (8,848m) which is in Nepal and Tibet, in Asia.

The "tallest" mountain in the world is Mauna Loa, in Hawaii.  The "height" of a mountain is measured from sea level, but the "tallness" of a mountain is measured from its base, even if under water.  The highest mountain in North America is Mount McKinley (6,194m) in Alaska in the USA. The highest in South America is Aconcagua (6,962m) in Argentina. For Africa, it is Kilimanjaro (5,963m) of Tanzania. In Europe, the highest mountain is in Russia called Elbrus (5,633m). Antarctica's highest mountain is Vinsin Massiff (5,140m). In Oceania, a mountain called Puncak Jaya (5,030m) is the highest there. This particular mountain is in Papua New Guinea / Indonesia.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Machine code is a computer program written in machine language. It uses the instruction set of a particular computer architecture. It is usually written in binary. Machine code is the lowest level of software. Other programming languages are translated into machine code so the computer can execute them.

An instruction tells the process what operation to perform. Each instruction is made up of an opcode (operation code) and operand(s). The operands are usually memory addresses or data. An instruction set is a list of the opcodes available for a computer. Machine code is what assembly code and other programming languages are compiled to or interpreted as.

Program builders turn code into another language or machine code. Machine code is sometimes called native code. This is used when talking about things that work on only some computers.

Writing machine code
Machine code can be written in different forms:
 Using a number of switches. This generates a sequence of 1 and 0. This was used in the early days of computing. Since the 1970s, it is no longer used.
 Using a Hex editor. This allows the use of opcodes instead of the number of the command.
 Using an Assembler. Assembly languages are simpler than opcodes. Their syntax is easier to understand than machine language but harder than high level languages. The assembler will translate the source code into machine code on its own.
 Using a High-level programming language allows programs that use code that is easier to read and write. These programs are translated into machine code. The translation can happen in many steps. Java programs are first optimized into bytecode. Then it is translated into machine language when it is used.
Typical instructions of machine code
There are many kinds of instructions usually found in an instruction set:
 Arithmetical operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
 Logical operations: Conjunction, disjunction, negation.
 Operations acting on single bits: Shifting bits to the left or right.
 Operations acting on memory:  copying a value from one register to another.
 Operations that compare two values: bigger than, smaller than, equal.
 Operations that combine other operations: add, compare, and copy if equal to some value(as one operation), jump to some point in the program if a register is zero.
 Operations that act on program flow: jump to some address.
 Operations that convert data types: e.g. convert a 32-bit integer to a 64-bit integer, convert a floating point value to an integer (by truncating).
Many modern processors use microcode for some of the commands. More complex commands tend to use it. This is often done with CISC architectures.
Instructions
Every processor or processor family has its own instruction set. Instructions are patterns of bits that correspond to different commands that can be given to the machine. Thus, the instruction set is specific to a class of processors using (mostly) the same architecture.

Newer processor designs often include all the instructions of an earlier one and may add more instructions. Sometimes, a newer design will discontinue or alter the meaning of an instruction code (typically because it is needed for new purposes), affecting code compatibility; even nearly completely compatible processors may show slightly different behavior for some instructions, which may or may not be a problem.

Systems may differ in other details, such as memory arrangement, operating systems, or peripheral devices. Because a program normally relies on such factors, different systems will typically not run the same machine code, even when the same type of processor is used.
Most instructions have one or more opcode fields. They specify the basic instruction type. Other fields may give the type of the operands, the addressing mode, and so on. There may also be special instructions that are contained in the opcode itself. These instructions are called immediates.

Processor designs can be different in other ways. Different instructions may or may not have the same length. Having all instructions with the same length can simplify the design.

Example
The MIPS architecture has instructions which are 32 bits long. This section has examples of code. The general type of instruction is in the op (operation) field. It is the highest 6 bits. J-type (jump) and I-type (immediate) instructions are fully given by op. R-type (register) instructions include the field funct. It determines the exact operation of the code. The fields used in these types are:
6      5     5     5     5      6 bits
 [  op  |  rs |  rt |  rd |shamt| funct]  R-type
 [  op  |  rs |  rt | address/immediate]  I-type
 [  op  |        target address        ]  J-type

rs, rt, and rd indicate register operands. shamt gives a shift amount. The address or immediate fields contain an operand directly.

Example: add the registers 1 and 2. Place the result in register 6. It is encoded:
     
 [  op  |  rs |  rt |  rd |shamt| funct]
     0     1     2     6     0     32     decimal
  000000 00001 00010 00110 00000 100000   binary

Load a value into register 8. Take it from the memory cell 68 cells after the location listed in register 3:

 [  op  |  rs |  rt | address/immediate]
    35     3     8           68           decimal
  100011 00011 01000 00000 00001 000100   binary

Jump to the address 1024:

 [  op  |        target address        ]
     2                 1024               decimal
  000010 00000 00000 00000 10000 000000   binary
Related pages
 Binary numeral system
 Quantum computers
 Instruction set
Reduced instruction set computer

Other websites 

 Machine Code -Citizendium

References

Computer architecture
Programming languages
Area is the amount of space a two dimensional (flat) surface takes up. It is useful because it is how much of a material is needed to make a hollow container.  Area is the amount of surface covered by a close object or shape. 

Some units used to measure area are square foot, square mile, square metre and square kilometre. The area of a planar figure is often written as . Areas of regular shapes such as square, rectangle, triangle and circle can be calculated through formulas. The area of an irregular shape can be approximated through grid or graph paper.

One can use different formulas to find the area of different shapes. For example:

 Area of a rectangle is the length of any two touching sides multiplied together. In other words, length times width.
 Area of a triangle is half of the base multiplied by the perpendicular height. In other words, .
 Area of a circle: 

The area of a flat object is related to the surface area and volume of a three-dimensional object.
The area under a curve can be found using integration, a concept from calculus.

Related pages 

 Mu (unit of area)

References 

Geometry
Air space is the area of the air that is controlled by a country or organisation. You have to have the permission of the controller to enter their air space in an airplane.  The air traffic controllers make sure the planes go in the right place and do not hit each other or something else. Some countries are very protective of their air space.

References

Aviation safety
Geography
Swamp coolers are simple type of air conditioning device that can cool a room of a house or a car by using the cooling effect of the evaporation of water. This is known as evaporative cooling. Swamp coolers can cool the air temperature in a small space by drawing the air through wet pads (some are made of aspen wood) using an electric fan. Swamp coolers work best in dry climates such as the American Southwest and the American South. They are usually much cheaper to buy and operate than refrigerated air-conditioning devices. This type of air conditioner was first used thousands of years ago in ancient Iran. 

Home appliances
HVAC
Saskatoon is a city in Saskatchewan, Canada.  Saskatoon is the biggest city in Saskatchewan. Saskatoon, though, is not the capital of Saskatchewan. Regina is the capital of Saskatchewan.   The South Saskatchewan River flows through the centre of the city and many people enjoy boating, biking and walking in this area.  The University of Saskatchewan is also in Saskatoon.

The name Saskatoon [in Cree: sâskwatôn, "Saskatoon"] comes from the Cree inanimate noun misâskwatômina "saskatoon berries", which refers to the sweet, violet-coloured berry that grows in the area.

Media 
CKOM 650

CJWW 600

Other websites 
Saskatoon City Information

References
Glass rods are sometimes used as stirrers in laboratory environments.

Glass rods are often used to spread liquids evenly onto something. An example would be to coat glass surfaces with liquids to look at them under a microscope.

Glass rods rubbed with silk or fur were used in early demonstrations of electrical energy. 

Glass rods are commonly manufactured in diameters of 3 mm, 6 mm, and 10 mm.

Glass is used for these rods because it does not react with most laboratory chemicals.

laboratory equipment
A thermometer is an instrument for measuring or showing temperature (how hot or cold something is). One type of thermometer is a narrow, concealed glass tube containing mercury or alcohol which extends along the tube as it expands. Another type is a digital thermometer, which uses electronics to measure temperature.

Early thermometers from the time of Galileo measured the expansion and contraction of air. After the middle 17th century many used alcohol or mercury. In the 19th century a mechanical thermometer was in invented that used a bimetallic strip to move a pointer. This kind is still popular where people like to read temperature from a distance.
Laboratory thermometers (Lab Thermometer) 
A laboratory thermometer is a tool used in laboratories, places where scientists and science techs perform experiments and measure things.  A laboratory thermometer can measure temperature very closely.  A laboratory thermometer can be put into the liquid or other thing that the scientist wants to measure.  A laboratory thermometer has a long stem with a silver bulb at the end. The silver color in the bulb usually means there is mercury in it.  Mercury becomes bigger as the temperature becomes hotter.  But mercury is a poison to humans.  Mercury-in-glass thermometers are less used in the 21st century because people want digital, alcohol-filled, and organic-based thermometers instead.

Medical thermometers 

In the 20th century, the traditional clinical thermometer was a mercury-in-glass thermometer. People put the end of this in their mouth (oral temperature), under their arm, or in their rectum (rectal temperature).
It is only possible to find oral temperatures on patients who can hold the thermometer correctly in their mouth. So small children cannot use this method. It is also a problem for people with a cough or people who are vomiting. In the past it was a big problem because mercury thermometers needed a long time to measure the temperature. Today's digital thermometers are faster. If a person drinks something hot or cold, one still needs to wait before testing their oral temperature. 

When measuring a person's rectal temperature, it helps to use a cream on the thermometer. Rectal thermometers are usually more reliable since they aren't as much influenced by other factors. In some countries people think it is embarrassing to use them for people older than two or three. In other countries, it is considered normal for children and adults to use rectal thermometers.
In the 1990s, people in many countries thought mercury thermometers were too risky, as mercury is dangerous if it leaks out. Today we use electronic thermometers. Sometimes thermometers with liquids are used, but not with mercury. 

There are other kinds of medical thermometers: tympanic thermometers test the temperature of the tympanic membrane (the eardrum) with infrared; band thermometers test a person's temperature on the front of their head.

Kinds of thermometers 
 Liquid-in-glass thermometer
 Mercury-in-glass thermometer
 Alcohol-in-glass thermometer
 Clinical thermometer
 Digital thermometer
 Rotary thermometer
 Resistance thermometer
 Liquid crystal thermometer
 Infra-red thermometer

References 

Laboratory equipment
Measuring tools
Temperature
Weather instruments
Thermometers
A week is 7 days in connecting order. There are usually 52 weeks in a year.

In the English language, the days of the week are named after gods in Norse mythology, except for Saturday, which is named after a Roman god.

Depending on the law of a country, the week either starts on Monday and ends on Sunday, or starts on Sunday and ends on Saturday. In most countries, Saturday and Sunday are the weekend. Friday, Saturday, and Sunday is a religious day for Muslims, Jews, and Christians, respectively.

Other websites 
 The Mysterious 7-Day Cycle (history with Christian editorial) 
 The Week (part of Claus Tøndering's Calendar FAQ)

Units of time
Basic English 850 words
A suffix is a few letters put at the end of a word to change its meaning.  It is a type of affix mostly used to show inflection.

Verb examples:
 -ed
 -or
 -ing
 -s
 es
 -ing
 walk
 walked
 walker
 walking
 walks
 wishes

Adjective examples:
 -er
 -est
 -ful
 -ness
 -less

 easy
 easier
 easiest
 handful
 kindness
 baseless 

Compare to prefix. Prefixes are letters put at the beginning of a word to change its meaning.

References 

Grammar