Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Massachusetts Bay Colony was an English settlement in the 17th century on the east coast of North America.  The colony was later called New England and what is now the cities of Salem and Boston.  The Bay Colony also included what is now known as the States of Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

John Winthrop, the founder of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, continued to work on the colony, and improve it any possible way. He knew that the Church of England was bad, so he decided to improve it at the New World; either colonizing the natives or getting rid of them.

There were two companies who  brought settlers in the New World.  The first company was the Dorchester Company but was a failure.  The second company was in 1628 and called the Massachusetts Bay Colony.  This was successful and brought approximately 20,000 people to the Colony.
At first the colonists had a good friendship with the Native Americans but as more Europeans moved to these areas there were problems over land borders.  The Native Americans also had many different customs.  These differences led first to the Pequot War (1636–1638), and then to King Philip's War (1675–1676).  After these wars, the Native Americans became peaceful and others moved to different places.

The colony was doing well and made money trading with England.  They also traded with the West Indies.  In 1686 there was a civil war in England. King James II wanted to have total control over the colonies. After the war, the colonies remained the same until 1692.  Then Sir William Phips arrived and Massachusetts Bay and the Plymouth Colony were combined. The colonists helped in the running of the government and how it would spend its money.

Earlier times
Earlier times

From the earliest times many Native American lived in this area.  They farmed and hunted within their own land borders and did not cross each other's land.  Early in the 1600s, explorers, Samuel de Champlain and John Smith made a map of the area.

Living in the New World was very hard work for the first settlers. Many became ill and died though the cold winter.  There was not enough food, and the rest of the people decided to return to England after one year.  For awhile there was no more talk of settling people in those parts.  English ships did still come to the New England area for fishing and trading with the Indians.

Plymouth Colony

In November 1620, a group of Europeans arrived and started Plymouth Colony.  Other settlements were tried near there but they failed and the people either joined the Plymouth Colony, returned to England, or lived nearby the Colony.
The people of Plymouth faced many problems during the first years and could not pay back their investors.  In 1627 the companies left the colonists to take care of themselves.  Edward Winslow and William Bradford, two of its leaders, wrote about the Mayflower and the colony they created, called Plymouth Colony.  It was published in England in 1622 called Mourt's Relation. The two men have different opinions but it was written to encourage people to come to the New World to live.

References

References and further reading 

 (five volume history of Massachusetts until the early 20th century)

17th century in Massachusetts
British North America
About a Girl is a Canadian comedy television series, which was first shown on October 5, 2007 on The N in the United States, and Global in Canada. It is the first scripted comedy for The N. On February 25, 2008, actor Sandy Robson announced that the show was getting cancelled. The show ended with 13 episodes in one season.

Plot 
The series centers around Amy, a young college student who moves in an apartment off campus with four guys, when she finds out her dorm room is a uninhabitable sty. Her new roommates are wild, unpredictable, and...kind of hot.
Characters 
 Amy - A major overachiever, Amy thought college would be just a walk in the park, but when she's forced to move in with four guys, instead of the mess they called a dorm, things get a little complicated for her.
 Jason - The hottie that Amy has a thing for. He's the loveable-commiment phobe. If he does not like how a relationship is going, he tries to "fizzle" things out. He's hot, he's super hot, and did we mention...he hot?
 Dude - Flaky and easy-going. What more can a dude ask for? Dude has many words to live by. He's full of advice for his roommates, even though they might not know what he's talking about. He's afraid of pelicans, because of their "big flapping beaks", and he does not like chiuahuas, because "they shake".
 McRitchie - Ever stereotypical, McRitchie is a manly stud. He's adventurous and does not think about the consequences of his actions.
Benny - As the youngest, smartest, and neatest roommate, Benny kind of ignores the pigsty he lives in. He figures his little crush on Amy will never work out.
 Erin - As Amy's best friend, Erin is always there to give Amy the other point of view...usually the boy crazy, sorority-member point of view.
Cast 
 Chiara Zanni - Amy
 Jesse Hutch - Jason
 Sandy Robson - Dude
 Braden Williams - McRitchie
 Marshall Porter - Benny
 Kristie Mardsen - Erin

Episodes

Season 1

Other websites 
 
 

2007 Canadian television series debuts
2008 television series endings
2000s sitcoms
2000s teen television series
English-language television programs
A number line is a line with integers (simply ordinary numbers, ...-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3...) on it extending forever in both directions. Usually, zero (0) is placed in the middle of the line. The numbers have an equal space from each other. Other numbers in between the numbers on the line represent rational, irrational, and other types of real numbers.

There is another number line, equally valid and useful, that extends vertically through 0 (the origin) at right angles to our traditional number line and uses imaginary numbers (i). These so-called imaginary numbers extend above and below the traditional number line and are used in very real calculations in many areas of science and technology and also extend in both directions forever (into infinity).
Different forms
A number line is usually drawn as a simple horizontal line. Another form is the helical number line. If the line of numbers is wrapped around a cylinder following an upward helical path, it becomes a helical number line.
If the circumference of the cylinder is equal to the length occupied by ten numbers on the number line, it then becomes a decimal helical number line, and the numbers arrange themselves into columns, each number in a particular column having the same number ending.

Related pages
 Real number
 Complex plane

Mathematics
Numbers
Tunicates (sea squirts or Urochordata) are a subphylum of the Chordates. 

They are sea filter-feeders: they live mainly on plankton. They are called tunicates because the adult form is covered by a leathery tunic. This tunic supports and protects the animal. The adults are sessile, stuck to rocks.  

Many tunicates are colonial or semi-colonial in their adult stage. They are quite a large group, containing about 3,000 species. The adults live mostly on the sea floor, in the littoral zone.

Feeding 
The sea squirt has two openings in its small body. One opening, called the oral siphon, sucks water into the animal; the other opening, called the atrial siphon, squirts water out of the animal. Inside is a little basket-like sieve which traps food: so these sea squirts are filter feeders. The Sea squirt can close the holes in its siphons, like a drawstring can close the opening in a bag.
Life cycle 
When in its larval state, it looks like a tadpole and is sometimes called a tadpole larva. Like many sea creatures, a sea squirt larva looks very different from an adult sea squirt. The larva swims for a short time and then attaches itself to something on the sea floor, like a rock, transforming into its adult form. It usually stays in one place for the rest of its life.

Relationships 
Tunicates are more closely related to craniates (hagfish, lampreys, jawed vertebrates) than to lancelets, echinoderms, hemichordates, or other invertebrates.

Discoveries 
Chemical substances which might help fight diseases like cancer or  various viruses have been found in some species. 

Scientists have also found out that some species can heal some damage done to them, over several generations. A similar process might be possible for humans.

Related pages 
Salp: these are noticed in the Southern Ocean near Antarctica. Their huge swarms may outnumber the krill.

References
References

Solomon E. Berg L. & Martin D. 2002. Biology. Brooks/Cole.

Chordates
Invertebrates
Zheng He or Ma He (Chinese 郑和; 1371–1433) was an explorer, diplomat, and admiral from China. He lived during the  Ming Dynasty. Zheng He was the leader of a very large fleet of ships that traveled all over the Indian Ocean and Southwest Asia. Zheng He was an eunuch of China's Imperial Court. The fleet that Zheng He commanded had 317 ships that were very large. 28,000 Chinese soldiers were on board these ships.

Early life 
Zheng He was born in Kunyang, a village in Yunnan. He was born with the name Ma He (Chinese 马三宝). He and his family were Muslim. At the time, Yunnan was ruled by Mongols. In 1381, however, a Ming army invaded and took control of the area.

Ma He was taken as a prisoner by the Ming armies. He was about 10 years old. He was castrated and then taken away to serve the Prince, Zhu Di (the future emperor). Ma He became a servant at the Imperial Court. The name Zheng He was given to him by the Prince. He also came to be called "Sanbao", a reference to the Three Jewels of Buddhism.
Journeys 
From 1405 to 1433, Zheng He went on seven journeys to the Indian Ocean, or what the Chinese people called the "Western Ocean". He was the leader of a large fleet of ships and a big army.

In his first three journeys he visited the countries of Southeast Asia, India and Sri Lanka. In his fourth to seventh journeys he went as far as the east African coast. In his journeys he gave the countries he visited gifts of silk, porcelain, gunpowder and other goods. He got lots of unusual gifts as well, including giraffes and zebras.
Zheng He had his first journey from 1405–1407, but it is not known why the journey was made. He travelled from the mouth of the Yangtze River to Vietnam, as well as the south of India. His fleet was made up of 317 ships, more than 27,000 men, and the cargo included porcelain, silk, and lacquerware. He used a treasure fleet which is known as the largest wooden ships ever built, being  long, and about  wide. On his first voyage, he defeated a famous pirate in the Strait of Malacca.

For the next 28 years, Zheng He traveled on six more voyages. From 1407–1409, he visited Calicut, Thailand and Java. From 1409–1411, he saw Ayutthaya, Malaya, Sumatra and Sri Lanka. From 1413–1415, he went to Sri Lanka, Bengal, India, Hormuz, Arabia and Aden. On his fifth journey, from 1417–1419, he visited the Ryukyu Islands, Brunei, and east Africa. Then from 1421–1422, he expanded on his fifth journey. His final journey, from 1433–1435, he revisited many of the previous places and brought back gifts from many rulers.
Zheng He visited over 30 countries, and is believed to have died in 1433 on the journey home during the final treasure fleet voyage. After Zheng He died at sea in 1433, his treasure fleet quickly faded, even though his voyages had been a success. Less than 100 years after his death, all of the ships from China were destroyed.

Notes

References 
 "Zheng He Maritime Expeditions (Overview)." World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras. ABC-CLIO, 2013. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. 
 "Voyages of Zheng He." World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras. ABC-CLIO, 2013. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. 
 "Cheng Ho." Explorers & Discoverers of the World. Gale, 1993. Biography in Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.

Other websites
 
 Ancient History Encyclopedia - The Seven Voyages of Zheng He
 TIME magazine special feature on Zheng He (August 2001) 

1371 births
1433 deaths
Admirals
Chinese military people
Chinese diplomats
Asian explorers
Sailors
This page shows a list of all 118 chemical elements that have been identified.

Legend
Categories and subcategories in the metal–nonmetal range

List
Notes
 The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets, e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element. However, three elements, Thorium, Protactinium, and Uranium, have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and thus their atomic mass given.
 The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table.
 The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value.
 The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given.
 The atomic weight of commercial Lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996–analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.
This element does not solidify at a pressure of one atmosphere. The value listed above, 0.95 K, is the temperature at which helium does solidify at a pressure of 25 atmospheres.
 This element sublimes at one atmosphere of pressure
 The transuranic elements 99 and above do not occur naturally, but some of them can be produced artificially.
 The value listed is the conventional value suitable for trade and commerce. The actual value may differ depending on the isotopic composition of the sample. Analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.
 Electronegativity on the Pauling scale. Standard symbol: χ
References 

 (for atomic weights of elements with atomic numbers from 1–102)

 (for atomic weights of elements with atomic numbers 103–118)
IUPAC (2016). "Elements 113, 115, 117, and 118 are now formally named nihonium (Nh), moscovium (Mc), tennessine (Ts), and oganesson (Og)"

Elements
The Georg Büchner Prize (German: Georg-Büchner-Preis) is the most important literary prize of Germany. It was created in 1923 in memory of German writer Georg Büchner and was only given to artists who came from or were closely tied to Büchner's home of Hesse. 

In 1951, the prize changed to a general literary prize, given yearly by the Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung. It goes to German language authors, and the annual speech by the recipient takes place in Darmstadt. Since 2002, the prize has been endowed with 40,000 Euros.

Famous recipients of the literary prize, since 1951 

2004 Wilhelm Genazino (1943-2018)

1998 Elfriede Jelinek (1946–)

1986 Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–1990)

1973 Peter Handke (1942–) 

1972 Elias Canetti (1905–1994)

1967 Heinrich Böll (1917–1985)

1965 Günter Grass (1927-2015)

Famous recipients 1923-1950

1947  Anna Seghers (1900-1983)

Other websites
 http://www.deutscheakademie.de/preise_buechner.html 
 The spell of a tender eel, on 2006 prizewinner Oskar Pastior
Literary awards
Darmstadt
Brigham Young University Hawaii, or BYU-Hawaii for short, is an undergraduate university that educates 2,400 students from Asia, the Pacific islands, the United States, and other parts of the world. 

The campus is in Laie, Hawaii. It is owned and operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It was founded in 1955 by the President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints - David O. McKay.

Colleges and universities in Hawaii
Mormonism
1955 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Hawaii
Austalopithecus africanus was first discovered by Raymond Dart in 1925. He found a well-preserved skull of a young australopithecine, three to four years old. This skull is often called the Taung Child, after Taung, South Africa where it was found. It is perhaps the most complete skull of A. africanus known. Based on current data A. africanus dates to between 3.03 and 2.04 million years ago.

Australopithecus africanus had a dish shaped facial structure with teeth that were large compared to modern humans. While it had larger front teeth compared to the back, the emphasis was on back tooth grinding. Males had a sagital crest on the tops of their skulls. Large muscles were attached to this ridge that helped to support the heavy jaw.

Related pages
 Taung Child
 Human evolution

References 

Australopithecines
Australopithecus is a genus of extinct hominids closely related to humans.

The first Australopithecus described was the Taung Child, discovered by Raymond Dart, and described in 1925.

Their remains are mostly found in East Africa, and the first fossil is from 3.9 million years ago (mya). The split from other apes would have taken place earlier, perhaps about 5 mya.

It is widely believed that the group of which they are part gave rise to the genus Homo, and hence to human beings.

The genus Australopithecus originally included two rather different forms. One form was lightweight: the gracile australopithecines. The other form was bulkier, the robust australopithecines.

It is still under discussion whether they should be put in separate genera. Here we treat the gracile forms; the robust forms are described elsewhere as Paranthropus.

Gracile australopithecines shared several traits with modern apes and humans. They were widespread throughout Eastern and Northern Africa 3.9 to 3 million years ago.
Morphology

Skull

Brain size 
The brains of most species of Australopithecus were roughly 35% of the size of that of a modern human brain. This is not much more than the brain of a chimpanzee. Brain size in hominins does not increase significantly until the arrival of the genus Homo.

Other features 
The Taung specimen had short canine teeth, and the position of the foramen magnum was evidence of bipedal locomotion.

Skeleton 
Most species of Australopithecus were diminutive and gracile, usually standing between 1.2 and 1.4 m tall (approx. 4 to 4.5 feet). There is a considerable degree of sexual dimorphism. Modern hominids do not show sexual dimorphism to the same degree — particularly, modern humans display a low degree of sexual dimorphism, with males being only 15% larger (taller, heavier) than females, on average.

In Australopithecus, however, males can be up to 50% larger than females, though usually less pronounced than this.
Summary 
The skeleton, the fossil footprints found at Laetoli, Tanzania, the canine teeth and the foramen magnum all show that these apes had achieved bipedalism.

Evolution 
Australopithecus africanus used to be regarded as ancestral to the genus Homo (in particular Homo erectus).

However, fossils assigned to the genus Homo have been found that are older than A. africanus. Thus, the genus Homo either split off from the genus Australopithecus at an earlier date (the latest common ancestor being A. afarensis or an even earlier form, possibly Kenyanthropus platyops), or both developed from a common ancestor independently.

According to the Chimpanzee Genome Project, both human (Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and Homo) and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes and Pan paniscus) lineages diverged from a common ancestor about 5 to 6 million years ago, if we assume a constant rate of evolution.
However, hominins discovered more recently are somewhat older than the molecular clock would suggest. Sahelanthropus tchadensis, commonly called "Toumai" is about 7 million years old and Orrorin tugenensis lived at least 6 million years ago. Since little is known of them, they remain controversial because the molecular clock in humans has determined that humans and chimpanzees had an evolutionary split at least a million years later.

One theory suggests that the human and chimpanzee lineages diverged somewhat at first, then some populations interbred around one million years after diverging. More likely, the assumptions behind molecular clocks do not hold exactly. The key assumption behind the technique is that, in the long run, changes in molecular structure happen at a steady rate.
Researchers such as Ayala have challenged this assumption.

Related pages 
 Human timeline

References 

Australopithecines
Homo is a genus of upright primates that walk on two legs. The only living species is Homo sapiens (humans).

The genus began about 2.3 million years ago. Their ancestors were almost certainly some line of Australopithecine apes. Species of Homo have:
A larger brain (above 900ml)
Improved walking and running ability. 

As the process continues, the forehead becomes more vertical, the skull becomes rounder, the teeth are reduced in size, arms are shorter and legs are longer. The skeleton becomes more delicate. particularly in our species. 

All species used stone tools, but there is no evidence of when language developed. Human evolution is a much studied topic.

Species
 Homo habilis
 Homo rudolfensis
 Homo ergaster
 Homo erectus
 Homo floresiensis
 Homo rhodesiensis
 Homo georgicus
Homo naledi
 Homo antecessor
 Homo cepranensis
 Homo heidelbergensis
 Homo neanderthalensis
 Denisovans
 Homo sapiens

References 

Hominins
Poverty in India is an issue that has been important in India however the population of those in poverty has started to decrease.

The Government of India says that the poverty line for rural areas is ₹ 816 per month and ₹ 1000 per month in urban areas. This means that many people do not have enough money. India's proposed but not yet adopted official poverty line is ₹972 (US$14) a month in rural areas or ₹1,407 (US$21) a month in cities.

In India, the average calorie requirement of an average man is 2400 calories per day in Rural area and 2100 calories per day in Urban area.

In 2012, the latest report by the Planning Commission of India (Tendulkar Committee) reported that 26% of all people in India fall below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. Over the last decade, poverty has been witnessed a consistent decline with the levels dropping from 37.2% in 2004-05 to 29.8% in 2009-10. The number of poor people is now estimated at 250 million.

Analysis
Analysis 

In 1947 the average income in India was similar to South Korea. South Korea became a developed country by the 2000s, but India did not.

For the first 40 years, India followed the Soviet-style economic planning, nationalization programs and government ownership of industry. Its economic growth averaged about 3.5%, while Asian economies such as South Korea grew on average more than twice that rate annually. Adjusted for population growth in India, its  income per head grew at 1.49% annually, while incomes of South Koreans - rich and poor - rose rapidly.
India's Soviet-style economy included the "Licence Raj": the elaborate licences, regulations and red tape needed to set up and run a business in India between 1947 and 1990. The License Raj was a result of India's decision to have a planned economy, where all aspects of the economy are controlled by the state. Licences were only given to a select few. Corruption flourished under this system. Under this system, the country created few jobs and little wealth. Widespread poverty remained.

References 

Economy of India
Poverty
The Christian Community (original German name: Die Christengemeinschaft) is a Christian denomination. It was founded in 1922 in Dornach (Switzerland) by a group of theologians and pastors, led by the Protestant pastor Friedrich Rittelmeyer. He was helped by Rudolf Steiner, the Austrian philosopher and founder of anthroposophy.

Other websites
The Christian Community in North America with extensive introductory articles
The Christian Community in the UK and Ireland also with introductory articles

Protestant denominations
This is a list of the 200 currently operating suburban railway stations (216 including greater metropolitan stations) in Melbourne, Australia. The stations make up 16 railway lines going out from the city (and 4 greater metropolitan lines), as well as the central City Loop.

There are also a further 19 stations on 3 old, volunteer-operated, tourist railways. These are not a part of the suburban network.

Stations are broken up into 2 Myki ticketing zones (some stations are included in both zones, where tickets for either zone may be used), as well as the City Saver area, which is within Zone 1 and covers the central business district. On March 4, 2007 zone 3 was made part of zone 2.

Stations listed in bold are "terminus" stations, where trains sometimes stop and change direction.  On some lines, some trains will be timetabled not to go to the end of the line.  Shuttle trains are also run back and forth between terminus stations on some lines.
Stations listed in italics are "premium stations" that are manned first to last train by staff who provide extra help and information to commuters.

Stations followed by a star ( * ) are "host stations". These stations are manned during peak hours only. Some are manned only during morning peak, some during both morning and evening peaks.

Listed in brackets after each station is that station's 3-letter code. These codes are used by the railway control system, but can also be used when looking up the Connex SMS Timetable.

For detailed travel information, do not rely only on this page; please go to the Metlink website.

City Loop
Zone 1 & City Saver
Flinders Street (FSS)
Southern Cross (SSS) – used to be Spencer Street
Flagstaff (underground) (FGS)
Melbourne Central (underground) (MCE) – used to be Museum
Parliament (underground) (PAR)

Southeastern lines (Caulfield group)
56 stations

Frankston line
Separates from the Pakenham line at Caulfield station.

19 stations
19 stations

Zone 1
Glenhuntly (GHY) *
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Ormond (OMD) *
McKinnon (MCK)
Bentleigh (BEN)
Zone 2
Patterson (PAT)
Moorabbin (MRN)
Highett (HIG)
Cheltenham (CTM)
Mentone (MEN) *
Parkdale (PKD)
Mordialloc (MOR)
Aspendale (ASP)
Edithvale (EDI)
Chelsea (CSA)
Bonbeach (BON)
Carrum (CAR)
Seaford (SEA)
Kananook (KAN)
Frankston (FKN)

The Stony Point line is a greater metropolitan line that joins the Frankston line.

Pakenham line
Separates from the Sandringham line at South Yarra station.

23 stations
23 stations

Zone 1
Hawksburn (HKN)
Toorak (TOR)
Armadale (ARM) *
Malvern (MAL) *
Caulfield (CFD) - Frankston line separates
Carnegie (CNE) *
Murrumbeena (MRB) *
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Hughesdale (HUG)
Oakleigh (OAK)
Huntingdale (HUN) *
Zone 2
Clayton (CLA)
Westall (WTL)
Springvale (SPG)
Sandown Park (SNP)
Noble Park (NPK) *
Yarraman (YMN)
Dandenong (DNG) - Cranbourne line separates, trains run back and forth to Cranbourne station
Hallam (HLM)
Narre Warren (NWA)
Berwick (BEW)
Beaconsfield (BFD)
Officer (OFC)
Pakenham (PKM)

The Traralgon line is a regional line that continues the Pakenham line.

Cranbourne line
Separates from the Pakenham line at Dandenong station.

Zone 2
Merinda Park (MPK)
Cranbourne (CBE)

Sandringham line
Separates from the Eastern lines (Burnley group) at Richmond station.

12 stations
12 stations

Zone 1
South Yarra (SYR) - Pakenham line separates
Prahran (PRA) *
Windsor (WIN) *
Balaclava (BCV) *
Ripponlea (RIP) *
Elsternwick (ELS)
Gardenvale (GVE)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
North Brighton (NBN) *
Middle Brighton (MBN) *
Brighton Beach (BBH)
Zone 2
Hampton (HAM)
Sandringham (SHM)

Western and northwestern lines (Northern group)
53 stations

Craigieburn line
Separates from the City Loop at Southern Cross and Flagstaff stations.

14 stations

Zone 1 & City Saver
North Melbourne (NME) - Upfield and Sydenham lines separate
Zone 1
Kensington (KEN)
Newmarket (NKT) * - Flemington Racecourse line separates
Ascot Vale (ASV) *
Moonee Ponds (MPD) *
Essendon (ESD) *
Glenbervie (GBV)
Strathmore (SME)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Pascoe Vale (PVL)
Oak Park (OKP)
Glenroy (GRY)
Zone 2
Jacana (JAC)
Broadmeadows (BMS)
Roxburgh Park (RXP)
Craigieburn (CGB)

Upfield line
Separates from the Craigieburn railway line at North Melbourne station.

13 stations
13 stations

Zone 1
Macaulay (MAC)
Flemington Bridge (FBD)
Royal Park (RPK)
Jewell (JWL)
Brunswick (BWK)
Anstey (ASY)
Moreland (MLD)
Coburg (COB)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Batman (BAT)
Merlynston (MYN)
Fawkner (FAK)
Zone 2
Gowrie (GOW)
Upfield (UFD)

Sydenham line
Separates from the Craigieburn railway line at North Melbourne station.

12 stations

Zone 1
South Kensington (SKN)
Footscray (FSY) - Williamstown line separates
Middle Footscray (MFY)
West Footscray (WFY)
Tottenham (TOT)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Sunshine (SUN) - greater metropolitan Melton line separates
Albion (ALB) *
Zone 2
Ginifer (GIN)
St Albans (SAB)
Keilor Plans (KPL)
Sydenham/Watergardens (SDM)

The Sunbury line is a greater metropolitan line that joins the Sydenham line.

Williamstown line
Separates from the Sydenham line at Footscray station.

7 stations
7 stations

Zone 1
Seddon (SEN)
Yarraville (YVE) *
Spotswood (SPT)
Newport (NPT) - Werribee line separates, trains go back and forth to Williamstown station, separates to Newport railway workshops
North Williamstown (NWN)
Williamstown Beach (WBH)
Williamstown (WIL)

Werribee line
Separates from the Williamstown line at Newport station.

7 stations

Zone 1
Seaholme (SHE)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Altona (ALT)
Westona (WTO)
Laverton (LAV)
Zone 2
Aircraft (ACF)
Hoppers Crossing (HCG) *
Werribee (WER)

The Geelong and Warrnambool regional lines  join the Werribee line.

Flemington Racecourse line (Special events only)
Separates from the Craigieburn railway line at Newmarket station. Trains may start running on this line every day, as part of renewing the Royal Melbourne Showgrounds.

Zone 1
Showgrounds (SGS)
Flemington Racecourse (RCE)

Eastern lines (Burnley group)
49 stations

Lilydale line
Separates from the City Loop at Flinders Street and Parliament stations.

23 stations
23 stations

Zone 1
Richmond (RMD)
East Richmond (ERM)
Burnley (BLY) * - Glen Waverley line separates
Hawthorn (HAW)
Glenferrie (GFE)
Auburn (AUB) *
Camberwell (CAM) - Alamein line separates, trains run back and forth to Alamein station
East Camberwell (ECM)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Canterbury (CBY)
Chatham (CHM)
Surrey Hills (SHL)
Mont Albert (MAB)
Zone 2
Box Hill (BOX)
Laburnum (LAB)
Blackburn (BBN)
Nunawading (NWG) *
Mitcham (MCH)
Heatherdale (HTD) *
Ringwood (RWD) - Belgrave line separates
Ringwood East (RWE)
Croydon (CDN)
Mooroolbark (MLK)
Lilydale (LIL)

Glen Waverley line
Separates from the Lilydale line at Burnley station.

12 stations

Zone 1
Heyington (HEY)
Kooyong (KYG)
Tooronga (TGA) *
Gardiner (GAR)
Glen Iris (GIR)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Darling (DLG)
East Malvern (EMV)
Holmesglen (HOL) *
Zone 2
Jordanville (JOR)
Mount Waverley (MWY)
Syndal (SYN) *
Glen Waverley (GWY)

Belgrave line
Separates from the Lilydale line at Ringwood station.

8 stations
8 stations

Zone 2
Heathmont (HMT)
Bayswater (BAY)
Boronia (BOR)
Ferntree Gully (FTG)
Upper Ferntree Gully (UFG)
Upwey (UPW)
Tecoma (TCM)
Belgrave (BEG)

Alamein line
Separates from the Lilydale line at Camberwell station.

6 stations

Zone 1
Riversdale (RIV)
Willison (WSN)
Hartwell (HWL)
Burwood (BWD)
Ashburton (ASH)
Alamein (ALM)

Northeastern lines (Clifton Hill group)
37 stations

Hurstbridge line
Separates from the City Loop at Flinders Street and Parliament stations.

23 stations

Zone 1 & City Saver
Jolimont (JLI)
Zone 1
West Richmond (WRM)
North Richmond (NRM)
Collingwood (CWD)
Victoria Park (VPK)
Clifton Hill (CHL) - Epping line separates
Westgarth (WTG)
Dennis (DEN)
Fairfield (FFD) *
Alphington (ALP)
Darebin (DBN)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Ivanhoe (IVA)
Eaglemont (EAG)
Heidelberg (HDB)
Zone 2
Rosanna (ROS)
Macleod (MCD)
Watsonia (WAT) *
Greensborough (GRN)
Montmorency (MMY)
Eltham (ELT)
Diamond Creek (DCK)
Wattle Glen (WTT)
Hurstbridge (HBE)
Epping line
Separates from the Hurstbridge line at Clifton Hill station.

14 stations

Zone 1
Rushall (RUS)
Merri (MER)
Northcote (NCE)
Croxton (CXT)
Thornbury (TBY)
Bell (BEL)
Zones 1 & 2 overlap
Preston (PRE)
Regent (REG)
Reservoir (RES)
Zone 2
Ruthven (RUT)
Keon Park (KPK)
Thomastown (TSN)
Lalor (LAL)
Epping (EPP)

Greater metropolitan lines
These lines have trains pulled by diesel engines and railcar services, and use Myki tickets. All trains are run by V/Line, except for the Stony Point line run by Metro Trains Melbourne using engines borrowed from V/Line Passenger.

15 stations

Stony Point line
Begins at Frankston station on the Frankston line.

9 stations

Zone 2
Leawarra (LWA)
Baxter (BXR)
Somerville (SVE)
Tyabb (TAB)
Hastings (HST)
Bittern (BIT)
Morradoo (MRO)
Crib Point (CPT)
Stony Point (STY)

Melton line
Separates from the Sydenham line at Sunshine station.

Zone 2
Ardeer (ADE)
Deer Park (DRP)
Rockbank (RKB)
Melton (MVT)

The Ballarat regional line is joined to the Melton line.
Sunbury line
Continues from the Sydenham line.

Zone 2
Diggers Rest (DIT)
Sunbury (SBY)

The Bendigo regional line is joined to the Sunbury line.

Tourist railways
These lines are run part-time (full-time in the case of Puffing Billy) by groups of people who want to keep old trains running, and are do not use Myki tickets.

19 stations

Puffing Billy Railway
12 stations.  In this list only, a star ( * ) shows stations at which trains do not normally stop, and are there mainly to be historic.

Belgrave (Puffing Billy station)
Selby*
Menzies Creek
Clematis*
Emerald
Nobelius*
Lakeside
Wright*
Cockatoo
Fielder*
Gembrook

Mornington Railway
Moorooduc
Tanti Park
Mornington

Yarra Valley Tourist Railway
Yarra Glen
Tarrawarra
Healesville

Maps
Official map of Melbourne's railway network 
Unofficial map of Melbourne's train and tram network

References
References

Other websites
Metlink - official website of Melbourne's public transport
Vicsig - Victorian railways information
RailPage - Australian railways community 
Victorian Railway Stations

Rail transport lists
The Flag of Kurdistan (Kurdish: Alaya Kurdistanê) has three colours and are placed horizontally. The top colour is red, the middle is white and the bottom is green. In the middle of the white is a sun with 21 rays. The 21 rays represent Navruz.

Kurdistan
Kurdistan
K
Vector graphics (also called graphical modeling, or object-oriented graphics) is a type of computer graphics. Vector graphics uses geometrical objects, like points, lines, curves, and polygons to model the image. Mathematics can be used to describe the graphics. Most often vectors and matrices are used. The first major use of vector graphics was in the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment air defense system.

The other way to model computer graphics is to use raster graphics. Raster graphics model images as a collection of pixels. Unlike raster images, vector-based images can be scaled indefinitely without loss of quality. Vector graphics are most often used for diagrams, and other things that can be described using simple shapes. Photographs are most often raster images.

Related pages
Raster graphics

Computer graphics
Vector graphics
Silence is a German rock - heavy metal band. It was founded in 1995 in Bavaria, Germany. Its founding members were Stefan Mueller (guitar), Holger Kronester (drums), and the brothers Bernd (guitar) and Marco Wolf (bass). They played a mix of rock and metal music. Their music always had a dark, depressive side.

The band's first successful album was Enola. It was listed as "Album of the month" in German Metal-Hammer. The album was released in 2000. Three years later they recorded the p/o/u/r letters. It got very good reviews all over Germany and Europe. In 2007 they released their 5 track EP The Badtime Stories. With this album they got a record deal with the German record label Biohazzard Records, a sublabel of Danse macabre.

In 2010 they released the follow-up full-length album to the p/o/u/r letters. It was titled Life: Failed. 

The today's members of the band consists of Stefan (singer), Bernd (guitar), Sebastian (keyboard), Bastian (guitar), Oliver (bass) and Bastian (drums).
Discography 
 1996 Empty Souls (Demo)
 2000 Enola
 2003 The p/o/u/r letters
 2007 The Badtime Stories
 2010 Life: Failed

Other websites 
 Official website 
 Myspace-Site

German rock bands
German heavy metal bands
Karl Georg Büchner (17 October 1813 – 19 February 1837) was a German dramatist and writer of prose. He was the brother of physician and philosopher Ludwig Büchner. Many people think that he might have become as important as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller if he had lived longer.
He was the son of a doctor and born in Goddelau near Darmstadt, Hesse-Darmstadt. Büchner went to a secondary school that focused on Latin, Greek and on modern languages (including French, Italian and English). But he was mainly interested in science and when he went to university he studied medicine in Strasbourg.

In 1828 he became interested in politics and joined a group which later on probably became the Gießen and Darmstadt section of the "Gesellschaft für Menschenrechte" (Society for Human Rights). In Strasbourg, he studied not only medicine but French literature and political thought as well.
While Büchner continued his studies in Gießen he started a secret society which wanted revolutionary change. With the help of the Protestant theologian Friedrich Ludwig Weidig he published the leaflet Der Hessische Landbote, a revolutionary text that criticized social problems in the Grand Duchy of Hesse. The authorities charged them with treason and issued a warrant of apprehension. While Weidig was arrested, tortured and died imprisoned in Darmstadt, Büchner fled across the border to Strasbourg where he wrote most of his literary work and translated two plays by Victor Hugo, Lucrèce Borgia and Marie Tudor. Two years later, his dissertation, "Mémoire sur le Système Nerveux du Barbeaux (Cyprinus barbus L.)" was published in Paris and Strasbourg. The ideas of François-Noël Babeuf and Claude Henri de Saint-Simon had an important influence on his work
. In October 1836 he got a job at the University of Zürich as a lecturer in anatomy and went back to Zürich where he spent his final months writing and teaching until he died of typhus at the age of twenty-three.
In 1835, his first play, Dantons Tod (Danton's Death), about the French revolution, was published, followed by Lenz. It is a novella based on the life of the Sturm und Drang poet Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz. In 1836 his second play, Leonce and Lena he describes the nobility. His unfinished and most famous play, Woyzeck, was the first literary work in German whose main characters were members of the working class. Published after Büchner's death, it became the basis for Alban Berg's opera Wozzeck which was first performed in 1925.

By the 1870s, Büchner was nearly forgotten in Germany when Karl Emil Franzos edited his works; these later became a major influence on naturalism and expressionism. Arnold Zweig described Lenz, Büchner's only work of prose, as the "beginning of modern European prose".

Other websites 
 
 Büchner's birthplace

Editions 
 Georg Büchner, Werke und Briefe. Münchner Ausgabe (dtv, 1997). .
Translations 
 Georg Büchner, Complete Plays and Prose, trans. Carl Richard Mueller (Hill and Wang, 1963)
 Georg Büchner, The Complete Plays: Danton's Death; Leonce and Lena; Woyzeck; Lenz; the Hessian Messenger; on Cranial Nerves; Selected Letters trans. John Reddick (Penguin Classics, 1993) .
 Georg Büchner, Danton's Death, Leonce and Lena and Woyzeck, trans. Victor Price, (Oxford World's Classics, 1998). .
There are many translations of the individual plays.

1813 births
1837 deaths
Deaths from typhus
Disease-related deaths in Switzerland
German playwrights
Writers from Hesse
Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig Büchner (29 March 1824 – 1 May 1899) was a German philosopher, physiologist and physician who became one of the exponents of 19th century scientific materialism. 

Büchner was born at Darmstadt, Germany, on 29 March 1824. From 1842 to 1848 he studied physics, chemistry, botany, mineralogy, philosophy and medicine at the University of Giessen. In 1852 he became lecturer in medicine at the University of Tübingen, where he published his great work Kraft und Stoff: Empirisch-naturphilosophische Studien (Force and Matter: Empiricophilosophical Studies, 1855). In this work, he sought to demonstrate the indestructibility of matter and force. The extreme materialism of this work excited so much opposition that he was compelled to give up his post at Tübingen. He retired to Darmstadt, where he practiced as a physician and contributed regularly to pathological and physiological magazines. 

He died at Darmstadt on 1 May 1899.
Ludwig Büchner was the brother of Georg Büchner, a famous playwright.

References

Other websites
Some brief excerpts from Büchner's Force and Matter 

1824 births
1899 deaths
German philosophers
Scientists from Darmstadt
Writers from Hesse
A goitre or goiter (Latin: struma), also called a bronchocele, is a swelling in the neck (just below Adam's apple or larynx).  It happens when the thyroid gland gets larger (usually because the body is not getting enough iodine).

Classification 
Goitres are classified in different ways (put into different categories): 

 A diffuse goitre is a goitre that has spread through all of the thyroid.  A diffuse goitre can be a "simple goitre" or a "multi nodular goitre."
 Toxic goiter is a goitre with hyperthyroidism.  These most commonly caused by Graves disease, but they can also be caused by inflammation or a multinodular goitre.
 Any other type of goitre is called a non-toxic goitre.  These may be caused by lithium, some kinds of autoimmune diseases, or other problems.  People with non-toxic goiters have low thyroid levels (hypothyroidism) or normal thyroid levels.

Causes
Causes 

Some of the causes of goitre include:
 Thyroid cancer
 Iodine deficiency (not having enough iodine in the body)
 Hashimoto's thyroiditis
 Graves-Basedow disease
 Congenital hypothyroidism (hypothyroidism that babies have when they are born, caused by errors in the way the body makes thyroid hormone)
 Thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid gland)
 Side effects of certain medications

New research says that some people may be more vulnerable to goitre (more likely to have goiters) because they inherited that vulnerability (it was passed down to them from their parents).

Famous goitre sufferers 
 Within two years of each other, President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara Bush both were diagnosed with Graves disease and larger-than-normal thyroid glands.  President Bush's disease caused hyperthyroidism and cardiac dysrhythmia (irregular heart rate).

References
References

Other websites 
 National Health Services, UK 
 Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency
 Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency  - alternate site at Emory University's School of Public Health

Diseases
The Cincinnati Reds are a Major League Baseball team from Cincinnati, Ohio, are the oldest team in professional baseball, established in 1869. The team was known as the Cincinnati Red Stockings until 1878, when the team changed the name to the current Cincinnati Reds. The Reds joined the National League in 1876 The Reds have won World Series championships in 1919, 1940, 1975, 1976 and 1990. The strong Reds teams of the 1970s were nicknamed "The Big Red Machine".  From 1912 to 1970, the Reds home stadium was Crosley Field, from 1970-2002 home games were played at Riverfront Stadium. Since 2003 the Reds have played home games at Great American Ballpark.

Other websites
Official Website

 
Sports in Cincinnati
1869 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Ohio
Joshua Patrick Beckett (born May 15, 1980) is an American former Major League Baseball starting pitcher. He has played for the Florida Marlins, Boston Red Sox, and the Los Angeles Dodgers.

Other websites 

1980 births
Living people
American baseball players
Boston Red Sox players
Sportspeople from Texas
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Curtis Montague (Curt) Schilling (born November 14, 1966 in Anchorage, Alaska) is an American Major League Baseball starting pitcher. Schilling is a right-handed starting pitcher for the Boston Red Sox. He has won World Series championships in 2001 with the Arizona Diamondbacks and in 2004 and 2007 with the Red Sox. Schilling began his career on September 7, 1988 playing for the Baltimore Orioles.

On Wednesday, February 5, 2014 Schilling revealed that he has been diagnosed with and is being treated for cancer.

In 2016, Schilling announced that he is interested in running for President of the United States in the future if Hillary Clinton were to win.

References

Other websites 
 Official Curt Schilling's Blog 
 
 Curt Schilling  - Official Red Sox Web Site

1966 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Anchorage, Alaska
American baseball players
Boston Red Sox players
Arizona Diamondbacks players
National League All-Stars
Adam Troy Dunn (born November 9, 1979, in Houston, Texas), nicknamed "Big Donkey", is an American retired Major League Baseball first baseman, outfielder, and designated hitter. He played for the Cincinnati Reds, Arizona Diamondbacks, Washington Nationals, Chicago White Sox and Oakland Athletics. He batted left-handed and throws right-handed. Dunn retired after the 2014 season.

References

Other websites

Official Facebook
 JockBio.com profile 

1979 births
American baseball players
American football quarterbacks
American League All-Stars
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Chicago White Sox players
Cincinnati Reds players
Living people
National League All-Stars
Oakland Athletics players
Sportspeople from Houston
Washington Nationals players
A stroke is an illness in which part of the brain loses its blood supply. This can happen if an artery that feeds blood to the brain gets clogged, or if it tears and leaks.

A stroke is when there is a lack of blood flow to the brain. There are two types of strokes. One is when there is a blood clot blocking the artery. The other type of stroke is when a blood vessel bursts and there is blood moving around freely in the brain.

A stroke is the rapid loss of brain function(s) due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can happen because of ischemia (lack of blood flow) caused by blockage (thrombosis, arterial embolism), or a haemorrhage (leakage of blood).

As a result, the affected area of the brain cannot work properly. Symptoms might include: hemiplegia (an inability to move one or more limbs on one side of the body), aphasia (inability to understand or use language), or an inability to see one side of the visual field.
A stroke is a medical emergency. It can cause permanent damage. If it is not quickly treated, it may lead to death. It is the third most common cause of death and the most common cause of disability for adults in the United States and Europe.

Strokes happen on both the left and right side of the brain. When a stroke happens on the left side of someone’s brain, it affects the right side of the body. It can also cause problems with the patient’s speech and language. If a stroke affects the right side of the brain, it affects the left side of the body. It also changes patient’s spatial (relating to space) perceptions. Getting a stroke on the right side of the brain can also cause people to not acknowledge their illness. Patients behave impulsively and neglect the side of their body.
Factors that increase the risk of a stroke include old age, high blood pressure, a previous stroke, diabetes, high cholesterol, smoking, atrial fibrillation, migraine with aura, and thrombophilia (a tendency to thrombosis). Of those factors, the most easy to fix are high blood pressure and smoking.

How are strokes identified?

Pre-hospital 
The Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale was designed to help "pre-hospital" medical professionals (like EMTs) identify a possible stroke before the patient gets to the hospital. It tests three basic signs.  If any of these signs are not normal, the patient may be having a stroke and should be transported to a hospital as soon as possible.