Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
2000s
 2000: Interpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri
 Close Range: Wyoming Stories by Annie Proulx
 Waiting by Ha Jin
 2001: The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay by Michael Chabon
 Blonde by Joyce Carol Oates
 The Quick and the Dead by Joy Williams
 2002: Empire Falls by Richard Russo
 The Corrections by Jonathan Franzen
 John Henry Days by Colson Whitehead
 2003: Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides
 Servants of the Map: Stories by Andrea Barrett
 You Are Not a Stranger Here by Adam Haslett
 2004: The Known World  by Edward P. Jones
 American Woman by Susan Choi
 Evidence of Things Unseen by Marianne Wiggins
 2005: Gilead by Marilynne Robinson
 An Unfinished Season by Ward Just
 War Trash by Ha Jin
 2006: March by Geraldine Brooks
 The Bright Forever by Lee Martin
 The March by E. L. Doctorow
 2007: The Road by Cormac McCarthy
 After This by Alice McDermott
 The Echo Maker by Richard Powers
 2008: The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Diaz
 Shakespeare's Kitchen by Lore Segal
Tree of Smoke by Denis Johnson
 2009: Olive Kitteridge by Elizabeth Strout
 All Souls by Christine Schutt
 The Plague of Doves by Louise Erdrich
2010s
 2010: Tinkers by Paul Harding
 In Other Rooms, Other Wonders by Daniyal Mueenuddin
 Love in Infant Monkeys by Lydia Millet

References

Other websites
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction

Pulitzer Prizes
Lists of books
Raymond Clevie Carver, Jr. (May 25, 1938 – August 2, 1988) was an American short story writer and poet. Carver is considered a major American writer of the late 20th century. He also helped improve short story writing in the 1980s.

Life

Early life and first marriage
Carver was born in Clatskanie, Oregon, a mill town on the Columbia River, and grew up in Yakima, Washington. His father was a skilled sawmill worker from Arkansas. He was a fisherman and a heavy drinker. Carver's mother sometimes worked as a waitress and as a clerk in a shop. He had one brother, James Franklin Carver, was born in 1943.
Carver studied at local schools in Amery, Wisconsin. In his spare time he read mostly novels by  Mickey Spillane or publications such as Sports Afield and Outdoor Life and hunted and fished with friends and family. After graduating from Yakima High School in 1956, Carver worked with his father at a sawmill in California. In June 1957, aged 19, he married 16-year-old Maryann Burk. She had just graduated from a private Episcopal school for girls. Their daughter, Christine La Rae, was born in December 1957. When their second child, a boy named Vance Lindsay, was born the next year, Carver was 20.  Carver supported his family by working as a janitor, sawmill laborer, delivery man, and library assistant. During their marriage, Maryann worked as a waitress, salesperson, administrative assistant, and high school English teacher.
California and beginning to write
Carver became interested in writing in California. He had moved there with his family because his mother-in-law had a home in Paradise. Carver attended a creative-writing course taught by the novelist John Gardner. Gardner became his mentor and had a major influence on Carver's life and career. Carver continued his studies first at Chico State University and then at Humboldt State College in Arcata, California, where he studied with Richard Cortez Day. Carver received his B.A. in 1963. During this period he was first published and served as editor for the university literary magazine called Toyon. Carver included some of his own writing under pen names. He later attended the Iowa Writers' Workshop, at the University of Iowa, for one year. Maryann graduated from San Jose State College in 1970 and taught English at Los Altos High School until 1977.
In the mid-1960s Carver and his family lived in Sacramento. He worked as a night custodian at Mercy Hospital. He sat in on classes at what was then Sacramento State College including workshops with poet Dennis Schmitz. Carver and Schmitz soon became friends, and Carver's first book of  poems, Near Klamath, was later written and published with helpful advice from Schmitz.

With his appearance in the respected "Foley collection," the impending publication of Near Klamath by the English Club of Sacramento State College, and the death of his father, 1967 was a landmark year for Carver. That was also the year that he moved his family to Palo Alto, California, so that he could take a job as a textbook editor for Science Research Associates. He worked there until he was fired in 1970 for his inappropriate writing style. In the 1970s and 1980s as his writing career began to take off, Carver taught for several years at universities throughout the United States.
Alcoholism
During his years of working different jobs, rearing children, and trying to write, Carver started to drink heavily. He said that he eventually more or less gave up writing and started drinking all of the time. In the fall semester of 1973, Carver was a teacher in the Iowa Writers' Workshop with John Cheever, but Carver said that they did less teaching than drinking and almost no writing. The next year, after leaving Iowa City, Cheever went to a treatment center to try to overcome his alcoholism, but Carver continued drinking for three years.  After going in the hospital three times (between June 1976 and February or March 1977), Carver began his 'second life' and stopped drinking on June 2, 1977, with the help of Alcoholics Anonymous.
Later life and second marriage
Carver met the poet Tess Gallagher at a writers' conference in Dallas, Texas in November, 1977. Beginning in January, 1979, Carver and Gallagher lived together in El Paso, Texas, in a borrowed cabin near Port Angeles, in western Washington state, and in Tucson, Arizona. In 1980, they moved to Syracuse. Gallagher was the coordinator of the creative writing program at Syracuse University. Carver was a professor in the English department. He and Gallagher bought a house in Syracuse, at 832 Maryland Avenue. Later, the house became so popular that the couple had to hang a sign outside that read "Writers At Work" so that people would leave them alone. In 1982, Carver and first wife, Maryann, were divorced.  He married Gallagher in 1988 in Reno, Nevada. Six weeks later, on August 2, 1988, Carver died in Port Angeles, Washington, from lung cancer at the age of 50. In the same year, he was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters.
Raymond Carver is buried at Ocean View Cemetery in Port Angeles, WA. The words on his grave are:

LATE FRAGMENT

And did you get what

you wanted from this life, even so?

I did.

And what did you want?

To call myself beloved, to feel myself

beloved on the earth.

Writing

Carver's career was dedicated to short stories and poetry.  He often wrote about blue-collar experiences. These were similar to his own life. In the same way, he often included themes of alcoholism and recovery from his life.

His first published story appeared in 1960, titled "The Furious Seasons." His first collection, Will You Please Be Quiet, Please?, was published in 1976. The story with the same name had already appeared in the collection, Best American Short Stories 1967.
Tess Gallagher published five Carver stories after he died in a book called Call If You Need Me. One of the stories, "Kindling", won an O. Henry Award in 1999. Throughout his lifetime Carver won six O. Henry Awards: the winning stories were: "Are These Actual Miles" (originally titled "What is it?") (1972), "Put Yourself in My Shoes" (1974), "Are You A Doctor?" (1975), "A Small, Good Thing" (1983), and "Errand" (1988).

Carver believed he would have died of alcoholism at the age of 40 if he had not found a way to stop drinking. When he knew the cancer would kill him, he wrote a poem about that bonus of 10 years, called "Gravy."

Works

Fiction

Collections
Will You Please Be Quiet, Please? (first published 1976)
Furious Seasons (1977)
What We Talk About When We Talk About Love (1981)
Cathedral (1983)
Elephant (1988)
Compilations
Where I'm Calling From (1988)
Short Cuts: Selected Stories (1993) - (film tie-in)
Collected Stories (2009) - Complete Short Fiction including 'Beginners'
Ayale Dahir (2009) - Skidz My Friend

Poetry

Collections
Near Klamath (1968)
Winter Insomnia (1970)
At Night The Salmon Move (1976)
Fires (1983)
Where Water Comes Together With Other Water (1985)
Ultramarine (1986)
A New Path To The Waterfall (1989)

Compilations
In a Marine Light: Selected Poems (1988)
All of Us: The Collected Poems (1996)

Screenplays
Dostoevsky (1985, with Tess Gallagher)
Movies and theatre
Short Cuts directed by Robert Altman
Everything Goes directed by Andrew Kotatko
Jindabyne (based on So Much Water So Close to Home) directed by Ray Lawrence
Everything Must Go directed by Dan Rush and starring Will Ferrell
What's in Alaska? directed by Jim Fields
Carver, a production directed by William Gaskill at London's Arcola Theatre in 1995, adapted from five Carver short stories including What's in Alaska, Put Yourself in My Shoes, and Intimacy.
Studentova žena (Croatian), directed by Goran Kovač, based on The Student's Wife

Books and articles about Carver
The novel Name Your Poison: A Max Mitchum Mystery, by Lucas Stensland, was a comical attempt by the author to combine the styles of "the two Raymonds": Carver and Chandler.  The book was intended to be a tribute.
   Ródenas, Gabri (2009), “Jarmusch y Carver: Se ha roto el frigorífico” in Fernández, P. (Ed.), Rompiendo moldes: Discursos, género e hibridación en el siglo XXI. Zamora/Sevilla: Editorial Comunicación Social. . Available at Google Books.

References

Other websites
 
 
  A review of Maryann Burk Carver's What It Used To Be Like; A Portrait of My Marriage to Raymond Carver
  A review of Raymond Carver A Writer's Life by Carol Sklenicka and Raymond Carver Collected Stories edited by William L. Stull and Maureen P. Carroll
  A review of Raymond Carver A Writer's Life by Carol Sklenicka and Raymond Carver Collected Stories edited by William L. Stull and Maureen P. Carroll
  Historian Carol Polsgrove interviews Carver biographer Carol Sklenicka
Rights Battle Brews over Un-Edited Carver Stories, All Things Considered, January 7, 2008
 Carversite  Features story, video, photographs, poems, quotations, bibliography, more
 An indepth interview from 1985  in which Carver talks about his father, his early writing, his characters, and the 'dark humour' in some of his stories.
 The Raymond Carver Page 
   Little Things short story by Raymond Carver
 The International Raymond Carver Society 
 The Raymond Carver Review 
 Map of Port Angeles marked with Carver's 'haunts' such as the Odyssey Bookshop 
Tell it All  this review site for the posthumously published Tell it All, provides numerous links to Carver sites on the web and links to his work
Manga and Minimalism: The Shared Visions of Yoshihiro Tatsumi and Raymond Carver

1938 births
1988 deaths
Deaths from lung cancer
American poets
Writers from Oregon
O. Henry Award winners
Oscar Jerome Hijuelos (August 24, 1951 – October 12, 2013) was an American novelist. He is the first Hispanic to win a Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.

Early life and education
Hijuelos was born in New York City, in Morningside Heights, Manhattan. His parents were Cuban immigrants. He studied at the Corpus Christi School in Morningside Heights. Later, he attended Bronx Community College, Lehman College, and Manhattan Community College. He studied writing at the City College of New York and earned two degrees in Creative Writing there: his B.A. in1975 and M.A. in 1976. He had several jobs before becoming a full-time writer.

Writing career
His first novel, Our House in the Last World, was published in 1983 and received the 1985 Rome Prize, awarded by the American Academy in Rome. His second novel, The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love, received the 1990 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. It was adapted for the film The Mambo Kings in 1992 and as a Broadway musical in 2005.
Teaching career
Hijuelos has taught at Hofstra University. He is a faculty member in the Department of English at Duke University.

Death
Hijuelos collapsed due to a heart attack while playing tennis in Manhattan and never regained consciousness. He was 62 and is survived by his wife Lori Marie Carlson.

Works

Major works 
Our House in the Last World (1983)
The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love (1990)
The Fourteen Sisters of Emilio Montez O'Brien (1993)
Mr. Ives' Christmas (1995)
Empress of the Splendid Season (1999)
A Simple Habana Melody (from when the world was good) (2002)
Dark Dude (2008)
Beautiful Maria of my Soul (2010)
Contributions 
 Preface, Iguana Dreams: New Latino Fiction, edited by Delia Poey and Virgil Suarez. New York, HarperPerennial, 1992.
 Introduction, Cool Salsa: Bilingual Poems on Growing up Latino in the United States, edited by Lori M. Carlson. New York, Holt, 1994.
 Introduction, The Cuban American Family Album by Dorothy and Thomas Hoobler. New York, Oxford University Press, 1996.
 Contributor, Best of Pushcart Press III. Pushcart, 1978.
 Contributor, You're On!: Seven Plans in English and Spanish, edited by Lori M. Carlson. New York, Morrow Junior Books, 1999.

Notes

Other websites
Perales, Contreras Jaime and Lozano, Tovar Wendolyn. "Two Pulitzer Prize (Junot Diaz and Oscar Hijuelos) Talk to Literal Magazine" 
 Oscar Hijuelos Papers at the Rare Book & Manuscript Library at Columbia University
Oscar Hijuelos's page  at HarperCollins
Biography of Oscar Hijuelos from Thomson Gale
1990 Real Audio interview with Oscar Hijuelos at Wired for Books.org  by Don Swaim
American novelists
Pulitzer Prize winners
Writers from New York City
Deaths from myocardial infarction
1951 births
2013 deaths
A Roman consul was the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic.

Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. Each consul was given veto power over his colleague and the officials would alternate each month.

The consuls were usually patricians, though after 367 BC plebs (common people; plebeians) could stand for election as consul.

Consuls had extensive power in peacetime (administrative, legislative and judicial), and in wartime often held the highest military command. They conducted some religious rites which could only be done by the highest state officials. Consuls also read auguries, an essential step before leading armies into the field.
Civil administration 
The consuls could convene the Senate, and presided over its meetings. Each consul served as president of the Senate for a month. They could also summon any of the Roman assemblies and preside over them. Thus, the consuls conducted the elections and put legislative measures to the vote. When neither consul was within the city, their civic duties were assumed by the praetor urbanus (city prefect).
Each consul was accompanied in public by twelve lictors, who displayed the magnificence of the office and served as his bodyguards.  Each lictor held a fasces, a bundle of rods that contained an axe.  The rods symbolized the power of scourging, and the axe the power of capital punishment.  When inside the city, the lictors removed the axes from the fasces to show that a citizen could not be executed without a trial.  Upon entering the democratic assembly, the lictors would lower the fasces to show that the powers of the consuls derive from the senate and people of Rome (senatus populusque romanus).

Military powers 
Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the consuls were far greater in their role as commanders-in-chief of all Roman legions. It was in this function that the consuls were vested with full imperium (power).
When legions were ordered by a decree of the Senate, the consuls conducted the conscription. Upon entering the army, all soldiers had to take their oath of allegiance to the consuls. The consuls also oversaw the gathering of troops provided by Rome’s allies.

Within the city a consul could punish and arrest a citizen, but had no power to inflict capital punishment. When on campaign, however, a consul could inflict any punishment he saw fit on any soldier, officer, citizen or ally.

Each consul commanded an army, usually two legions strong, with the help of military tribunes and a quaestor who had financial duties. In the rare case that both consuls marched together, each one held the command for a day in turn. A typical consular army was about 20,000 men strong and consisted of two citizen and two allied legions. In the early years of the republic, Rome's enemies were in central Italy, so campaigns lasted a few months.
As Rome's frontiers expanded, in the 2nd century BC, the campaigns became lengthier. Rome was a warlike society, and very seldom did not wage war. So the consul upon entering office was expected by the Senate and the people to march his army against Rome's enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiers expected to return to their homes after the campaign with spoils. If the consul won an overwhelming victory, he was hailed as imperator by his troops, and could request to be granted a triumph.

The consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, and had unlimited powers. However, after the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his misdeeds.

Status in the Empire period
In the Roman Empire, the consuls were merely a figurative representative of Rome’s republican heritage. The consulate then held much less power and authority, since the emperor was the supreme leader. However, consuls were often high-ranking and important in their own right. Some were designated successors of their emperor. Also, emperors frequently appointed themselves as consuls.

The office survived (much altered) until the early 9th century AD.

References 

Roman Republic
Government by country
TESOL has more than one meaning:

 The letters may stand for "Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages", used in English as a Foreign or Second Language (EFL/ESL)
 TESOL Inc. is a professional organization based in the United States for people working in this field.
TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.) is a global education association for English language teachers who teach speakers of others languages.

Interest Sections 
TESOL has some special interest groups called "Interest Sections".  They promote research and continuing education in areas that are important to TESOL members.  Current Interest Sections include the following:

 Adult Education
 Applied Linguistics
 Bilingual Education
 Computer-Assisted Language Learning
 Elementary Education
 English as a Foreign Language
 English for Specific Purposes
 Higher Education
 Intercultural communication
 Intensive English Programs
 International Teaching Assistants
 Materials Writers
 Non-native English-Speaking Teachers
 Program Administration
 Refugee Concerns
 Second Language Writing
 Secondary Schools
 Speech, Pronunciation, and Listening
 Teacher Education
 Video and Digital Media
History 
TESOL was founded in 1966 and has corporate headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia. TESOL has more than 13,000 members in more than 120 different countries. TESOL is an NGO under the United Nations.

Affiliates 
TESOL has relationships with 98 independent organizations worldwide: 41 in the United States and 57 in Asia, the Pacific, Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, and Africa.

Annual conference 
TESOL convenes an annual conference with papers, symposia, key note speakers, workshops, and annual meetings for the Interest Sections. Presenters speak on topics ranging from practical advice for the classroom to new theories for explaining language learning. The event also has a large book fair where most major publishers have displays. Usually around 10,000 people attend the conference. It was first held in 1966.

Awards 
Each year, TESOL gives four awards, each to one of its members.
The James E. Alatis Award for Service to TESOL is for outstanding and extended service by TESOL members at international, regional, and local levels.
The TESOL Virginia French Allen Award for Scholarship and Service
The D. Scott Enright TESOL Interest Section Service Award is for outstanding and extended service to and leadership in TESOL interest sections.
The TESOL Award for Excellence in Teaching is for educators who are considered excellent by other teachers.

References

Other websites 
TESOL Home Page
TESOL France Home Page
TESOL Greece Home Page
Dates and locations of past TESOL Conferences 
 TESOL Asia http://www.tesol.asia
TESOL India Home Page 
TESOL Costa Rica Home Page 

Language education
1966 establishments
Educational organizations
The O. Henry Award is given for especially good short stories. The prize is given each year. The award is named after the American short story author, O. Henry.

The PEN/O. Henry Prize Stories is a book that is published each year with that year's twenty best stories from magazines in U.S. and Canadian, written in English.

The award itself is called The O. Henry Award, not the O. Henry Prize, though until recently there were first, second and third prize winners.
History and format
The award was first given in 1919. Money to support the award comes from the Society of Arts and Sciences.  As of 2003, the series editor chooses twenty short stories and each one is called an O. Henry Prize Story. All stories originally written in English and published in an American or Canadian magazine can possibly win. Three people become jurors each year. The jurors get the twenty prize stories in text form. The author or publication name are not listed. Each juror works alone and chooses one special short story  and comments on it.

The goal of The O. Henry Prize Stories is to improve the art of the short story.  Starting in 2003, The O. Henry Prize Stories is dedicated to a writer who has made a major contribution to the art of the short story. The O. Henry Prize Stories 2007 was dedicated to Sherwood Anderson, a U.S. short-story writer. Jurors for 2007 were Charles D'Ambrosio, Lily Tuck, and Ursula K. Le Guin.

Laura Furman is now the series editor for The O. Henry Prize Stories.
Partnership with PEN American Center

In 2009 Anchor books announced a change in the series tittle. Anchor is the publisher of The O. Henry Prize Stories. They worked with the PEN American Center and renamed the series the PEN/O. Henry Prize Stories collection. Profits from selling The PEN/O. Henry Prize Stories 2009 books went to PEN's Readers & Writers Program. This program sends well-known authors to under served inner-city schools. 

In an interview for the Vintage Books and Anchor Books blog, editor Laura Furman called working with PEN a "natural partnership."

Juror favorites, first-prize winners
For more information or complete lists of yearly winners, visit The O. Henry Prize Stories website.

References

Other websites
Complete list of winners 1919–1999

Literary awards
SimCity DS, or SimCity Creator, is a simulation video game made in 2007 by Electronic Arts. The player can build a city, while trying to keep it healthy.

Gameplay
The player will be known as the "Mayor" throughout the game. They will have to look at five sheets to run their city.

Zoning
Zones are the places where buildings can develop. They are different, and the "heavier" the zone, the more buildings grow. However, land value has a greater effect.

Needs
Certain facilities are called "needs". Power and water are considered needs in the game, although one is not completely mandatory.

Adviser
"Advisers" are people you choose to help you build a city.

SimCity
Real-time strategy video games
Power lines are wires that conduct electricity through to another place. Many have transformers.  The original power is made at a power plant.  The voltage of the power at the end is usually 100V (Japan), 120V (North and Central America, parts of South America and Africa, and Saudi Arabia), or 220-240V (most of the rest of the world). "Step-up" transformers increase the voltage in electric power distribution grids, and increase it greatly in long electric power transmission lines. The power at the end is "stepped-down" by another transformer so it can be distributed and used. 

Very long power lines carry high voltage DC.  Alternating current (AC) from the power plant is stepped up to a high voltage and rectified to make it Direct Current.  At the other end it goes through an inverter to make the electricity AC again, and stepped down.

Related pages
 Electricity
 Static electricity
 Power line communication

Electricity
Dean of Invention is a TV show on Planet Green. The presenters, Dean Kamen and Joanne Colan investigate new inventions.

References

Science and culture
American television series
The Greco–Persian Wars were a series of wars fought between Classical Greece and Persia's Achaemenid Empire in the 5th century BC. The struggle lasted 50 years, from 499–449.  Herodotus wrote a history of the war.  Fifty years before the war started, Cyrus the Great had conquered the Greek colonies on the western coast of Asia Minor, an area the Greeks called Ionia. The Persians put a tyrant in charge of each city or polis. About 530 BC Cyrus died in battle.

Aristagoras, the Tyrant of Miletus was on an expedition to conquer the island of Naxos with Persian support, but that was a failure. Before he could be dismissed, Arisagoras encouraged Ionia to rebel against the Persians. This led to the Ionian Revolt.  Aristagoras got support from Athens and Eretria, and together they burnt the Persian regional capital city, Sardis. The Persian king, now Darius the Great, vowed revenge.
First invasion of Greek kingdoms 
The first Persian invasion of Greek majority kingdoms began in 492 BC, led by the Persian general Mardonius. They successfully beat Thrace and Macedon, but several mishaps forced an early end to the rest of the campaign.p135-138.

The Battle of Marathon 
In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece, this time across the Aegean Sea. This expedition captured the Cyclades, then destroyed Eretria. On the way to Athens, the Persian force was decisively defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon, ending Persian efforts at that time.

Darius then began to plan to completely conquer Greece, but died in 486 BC. Command passed to his son Xerxes. In 480 BC, Xerxes personally led the second Persian invasion of Greece with one of the largest ancient armies ever assembled.
Victory over the allied Greek states at the famous Battle of Thermopylae allowed the Persians to burn Athens (which had been evacuated) and overrun most of Greece. However, against the combined Greek fleet, the Persians suffered a severe defeat at the Battle of Salamis. The following year, the confederated Greeks went on the offensive, decisively defeating the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea, and ending the invasion of Greece by the Achaemenid Empire.

List of main events 
Ionian revolt 499–493 BC
First invasion of Greece 492–490
Battle of Marathon 490
Second invasion of Greece 480–479
Battle of Thermopylae 480
Battle of Artemisium 480
Battle of Salamis 480
Greek counter-attack 479–478
Battle of Plataea
Wars of the Delian League 477–449

Much of what is known of these wars comes from Herodotus.
Peloponnesian War 
Although 449 BC saw the end of the wars started by the Ionian revolt, the two civilisations continued for more than a hundred years. The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta allowed Persia to take back all she had lost in the Greco–Persian wars. This is a brief summary of the later conflict:

First part: Sparta vs Athens: 460–445 BC
Second part: 431–404.  Persians join Sparta in return for Ionia.  Persian king Artaxerxes II demands return of Ionian cities.  Humiliating peace treaty follows.

References

Other websites 

 The Persian Wars at History of Iran on Iran Chamber Society
 Batchelor, J. The Graeco-Persian Wars Compared . Clio History Journal, 2009.
 1320: Section 2: Herodotus and the Persian Wars

History of the Middle East
Wars
Achaemenid Empire
Battles of ancient Greece
5th century BC
Windows Live is an internet product of Microsoft. Until 2005 its many services were under MSN.  They moved them to Windows Live to show people that these services are made to work with Windows operating system. They used the term less after 2012.

The Windows Live family features many different services. The most famous service being Windows Live Hotmail. However, there are also many more free services provided by Windows Live which only requires one account to access. Google and Yahoo! compete against Windows Live with similarly diverse services.

References

Other websites 
 Windows Live homepage
 MSN homepage

Microsoft
The Battle of Corinth was a battle fought between the Roman Republic and the Ancient Greek state of Corinth and its allies in the Achaean League in 146 BC. This was a few months after the Romans destroyed Carthage in the Third Punic War. It resulted in total destruction of Corinth, which was previously famous for its wealth. The Romans burnt it to the ground and went on to conquer the rest of Greece.

Wars and battles of Ancient Rome
146 BC
Battles of ancient Greece
Perm Krai is a krai (federal territory) of Russia that came into existence on 1 December 2005 as a result of the 2004 referendum on the merger of Perm Oblast (province) and Komi–Permyak self-governing district. The city of Perm became the administrative center of the new federal subject.

Perm Krai is located in the east of the East European Plain and the western slope of the Middle Ural Mountains. The length from north to south is ; length from west to east is .

Rivers of Perm Krai belong to the Kama River Basin, the largest tributary of the Volga River. There are more than 29,000 rivers in Perm Krai. Together they are more than  long, but only two rivers have lengths exceeding ; the Kama () and the Chusovaya ().

The landscape is mostly low rolling hills covered by forests and fields. The Ural Mountains are in the eastern part of Perm Krai. The highest mountain Tulysmsky Kamen () is in the north east of the territory.

Principal inhabited places
Other websites
Official website of Perm Krai 
Perm State University 
Tourist Resourses of Perm Krai

Krais of Russia
The Caro–Kann Defence is a chess opening. It begins: 
1.e4 c6
Black's idea for playing c6 is to support 2...d5. Usually, the next moves are:
2.d4 d5 
Common next moves are 3.Nc3 (the Modern Variation), 3.Nd2 (the Classical Variation), 3.exd5 (the Exchange Variation), or 3.e5 (the Advance Variation). 3.Nc3 is the most popular. 

The Caro–Kann is an asymmetrical defence to 1.e4. These are sometimes called 'semi-open games'. The Caro–Kann is thought to be more solid and less dynamic than the Sicilian Defence and the French Defence. Games in the Caro–Kann are often quiet and positional. It may lead to good endgames for Black, who has the better pawn structure.

The opening is named after the English player Horatio Caro and the Austrian Marcus Kann, who studied the opening in 1886.
Classical or Capablanca variation 
The most common way of handling the Caro–Kann, the Classical variation (often called the Capablanca variation) happens after the moves: 
1.e4 c6
2.d4 d5
3.Nc3 (or 3.Nd2) dxe4
4.Nxe4 Bf5
For a long time, this was thought to be the best play for both sides in the Caro–Kann. White usually continues:
5.Ng3 Bg6
6.h4 h6
7.Nf3 Nd7
8.h5 Bh7
9.Bd3 Bxd3
10.Qxd3
Although White's pawn on h5 looks ready to attack, it can prove to be a weakness in an endgame.

This variation is why people think the Caro-Kann is a solid defence. Black has a very good pawn structure, and can play c5 at the right time to fight for the d4 square. Black can castle queenside or kingside, or even leave his king in the centre.  Black often has good chances in the because of his solid pawn structure and kingside pawn majority.
Smyslov or Modern Variation 
Another line is the Modern Variation. It happens after the moves: 
1.e4 c6
2.d4 d5
3.Nc3 (or 3.Nd2) dxe4
4.Nxe4 Nd7
It was played by the first World Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz. Today, the variation is called the Smyslov Variation, or more commonly, the Modern variation. 

The move 4...Nd7 prepares Ngf6. If 4...Nf6 is played immediately, then White can trade knights and double Black's pawns.

The plans are similar to the Classical variation, except Black's bishop is not on the g6 square. However, this freedom comes at a cost because White is able to take up space in the center. White often plays the aggressive 5.Ng5!?, which puts pressure on the f7-square.

This variation can also lead to a quick mating trap with 5.Qe2 Ngf6?? 6.Nd6#.

4...Nf6 variations 
The variations begins:
1.e4 c6
2.d4 d5
3.Nc3 dxe4
4.Nxe4 Nf6!?
5.Nxf6+
The Bronstein–Larsen Variation is after:
5...gxf6!?
Black has a worse pawn structure, and often castles queenside. However, Black does have compensation with the open g-file for the rook and active play. It is considered double-edged.

The Korchnoi Variation arises after:
5...exf6
Viktor Korchnoi has played 5...exf6 many times (including his first world championship match with Anatoly Karpov). This line has also been employed by Ulf Andersson. Black's 5...exf6 is thought to be sounder than 5...gxf6!?. It offers Black fast development, bu it gives White better pawn structure

Advance variation 
The Advance variation is 3.e5:
1.e4 c6
2.d4 d5
3.e5 

The main replies are:
3...Bf5 is most often played. Moves against it are aggressive lines such as the Bayonet Attack (4.Nc3 e6 5.g4), a popular line in the 1980s and later favoured by Latvian Grandmaster Alexei Shirov. A more natural development 4.Nf3 e6 5.Be2 c5 6.Be3, known as the Short Variation, was popularised by English Grandmaster Nigel Short and was often played in the 1990s.

3...c5 is an alternative which avoids the opening theory of 3...Bf5. It was used by Botvinnik in his 1961 match with Tal. In comparison to the French defense, Black gains the tempo normally spent on ...e6. However, White can counter this by opening the centre with 4. dxc5. This exposes the black pawn on d5.

3...e6 is playable, but when Black plays c5, he will be is a tempo behind the advance line of the French Defence (1.e4 e6 2.d5 d5 3.e5 c5).

Exchange Variation and Panov-Botvinnik Attack 
The Exchange Variation is 1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.exd5 cxd5. The Panov-Botvinnik Attack begins with the move 4.c4.
This system often leads to isolated queen's pawn (IQP) positions. White gains rapid development, a grip on e5, and kingside attacking chances to make up for the long-term weakness of the isolated d4 pawn. The common continuation in this line is 4...Nf6 5.Nc3 e6 6.Nf3. Black's main alternatives are 6...Bb4 (a position which often transposes into lines of the Nimzo-Indian defence) and 6...Be7. 6...Nc6?! is not as good because of 7.c5!, and White plans on controlling the e5-square through the advance of his b-pawn to b5, or by exchanging Black's Knight on c6 after Bb5.

The "true" Exchange Variation begins with 4.Bd3 Nc6 5.c3 Nf6 6.Bf4 Bg4 7.Qb3. It was was tried by Bobby Fischer. The position is equal. Some of the strategic ideas are silimar to the Queen's Gambit Declined, Exchange Variation, (1.d4 d5 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.cxd5 exd5) with colours reversed.
Two Knights Variation 
This line is 1.e4 c6 2.Nf3 d5 3.Nc3. It was played by Bobby Fischer in his youth. White gets rapid development and has options with the d-pawn. Black's logical and probably best reply is 3...Bg4. After 4.h3 Bxf3 5.Qxf3, Black has the option of 5...Nf6 or 5...e6. 4....Bh5 is a complicated line, in which White can trap the bishop, although Black has much compensation.

The variation sets a trap: if Black plays along the lines of the Classical Variation, he gets in trouble after 3...dxe4 4.Nxe4 Bf5 (4...Nd7 is playable) 5.Ng3 Bg6?! (5...Bg4) 6.h4 h6 7.Ne5 Bh7 (7...Qd6 may be best) 8.Qh5! g6 (forced) 9.Bc4! e6 (9...gxh5?? 10.Bxf7#) 10.Qe2 with a huge advantage for White. Now 10...Qe7! is best. Instead, Lasker–Radsheer, 1908 and Alekhine-Bruce, 1938 ended quickly after, respectively, 10...Bg7?? 11.Nxf7! and 10...Nf6?? 11.Nxf7!
Other lines 
White can play 2.c4. Then Black may play 2...d5 (see 1.e4 c6 2.c4 d5). This can transpose to the Panov–Botvinnik line given above, with 3.exd5 cxd5 4.d4 or White can capture twice on d5. Alternatively, Black may play 2...e5.

Also, White can play 2.Nc3. Then Black may play 2...d5. If White replies 3.d4 then we get the main Capablanca line or the Two knights variation. Or Black may play 2...g6.

The Caro–Kann can also be reached through the English Opening: 1.c4 c6 2.e4 d5.

ECO codes 
The Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings has ten codes for the Caro–Kann Defence, B10 to B19.

Related pages
 List of chess openings

More reading

 
 Martin, Andrew 2007. The ABC of the Caro Kann. ChessBase Publications. Fritz Trainer DVD.
 

Also, more advanced:

References

Chess openings
The Bronze Age collapse is so called by historians who study the end of the Bronze Age.

The palace economies of the Aegean and Anatolia of the late Bronze Age were replaced, eventually, by the village cultures of the 'Greek Dark Ages'.

Between 1200 and 1150 BC, the cultural collapse of the Mycenaean kingdoms, the Hittite Empire in Anatolia and Syria, and the Egyptian Empire in Syria and Canaan, interrupted trade routes and extinguished literacy. 

In the first phase of this period, almost every city between Troy and Gaza was violently destroyed, and often left unoccupied: examples include Hattusa, Mycenae, Ugarit.

The gradual end of the Dark Age saw the rise of settled Neo-Hittite Aramaean kingdoms of the mid-10th century BC, and the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

Regional evidence
Regional evidence

Anatolia
Every important Anatolian site during the preceding late Bronze Age shows a destruction layer. It appears that civilization did not recover to the same level as that of the Hittites for another thousand years.  Hattusa, the Hittite capital, was burned and abandoned, and never reoccupied. Troy was destroyed at least twice, before being abandoned until Roman times.

Cyprus
The sacking and burning of the sites of Enkomi, Kition, and Sinda may have happened twice, before they were abandoned. Originally, two waves of destruction, ca. 1230 BC by the Sea Peoples and ca. 1190 BC by Aegean refugees  have been proposed.

Syria
Syrian sites previously showed evidence of trade links with Egypt and the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age. Evidence at Ugarit shows that the destruction there occurred after the reign of Merenptah.
The last Bronze Age king of Ugarit, Ammurapi, was a contemporary of the Hittite king Suppiluliuma II. The exact dates of his reign are unknown. A letter by the king is preserved on one of the clay tablets found baked in the extensive fires that brought about the destruction of the city. Ammurapi stresses the seriousness of the crisis faced by many Near Eastern states from invasion by the advancing Sea Peoples in a dramatic response to a plea for assistance from the king of Alasiya (Cyprus):

My father, behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the Land of Lukka?...Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us.
Unfortunately for Ugarit, no help arrived and Ugarit was burned to the ground at the end of the Bronze Age. A cuneiform tablet found in 1986 shows that Ugarit was destroyed after the death of Merneptah, about 1178 BC.

Levant
All centres along a coastal route from Gaza northward were destroyed, and not reoccupied for up to thirty years.

Greece
None of the Mycenaean palaces of the Late Bronze Age survived. Destruction was heaviest at palaces and fortified sites. Thebes was one of the earliest examples of this. Its palace was sacked repeatedly between 1300 and 1200 BC. Eventually it was destroyed by fire. 

At many other sites it is entirely unclear what happened. It is clear that Athens saw a significant decline during the Bronze Age Collapse. There is no evidence of any significant destruction at this site. Fortification at this site suggests fear of the decline in Athens. It is possible that the abandonment of Athens was not a violent affair and other causes have been suggested.
The Peloponnese was the worst affected in Greece by far. Up to 90% of small sites in the region were abandoned, which suggests a major depopulation in the region.  Again, as with many of the sites of destruction in Greece, it is unclear how this destruction came about. The city of Mycenae for example was initially destroyed in an earthquake in 1250 BC as evidenced by the presence of crushed bodies buried in collapsed buildings. However, the site was rebuilt only to face destruction in 1190 BC as the result of a series of major fires. There is a suggestion by Robert Drews that the fires could have been the result of an attack on the site and its palace. This is denied by Eric Cline who points out the lack of archaeological evidence for an attack.
We see a similar situation  in Tiryns in 1200 BC when an earthquake destroyed much of the city including its palace. It is likely however that the city continued to be inhabited for some time following the earthquake. As a result there is a general agreement that earthquakes did not permanently destroy Mycenae or Tiryns because physical destruction  cannot fully explain the collapse. The cause of the continued decline of these sites could be environmental. In particular There was a lack of homegrown food. Palaces were important in managing and storing food imports. Their destruction made worse the more crucial factor of food shortage. The importance of trade is further supported by  the lack of any evidence for violent or sudden decline in Mycenae.
The destruction on Pylos by fire around 1180 suggests a violent destruction to the city. There is some evidence of Pylos expecting a seaborne attack with tablets at Pylos discussing "Watchers guarding the coast". The tablets do not give any context as to what is being watched for and why. Regardless of what the threat from the sea was, it likely played a role in the decline. It would have hindered trade and perhaps vital food imports.

The end Bronze Age collapse marked the start of a period that has been called the Greek Dark Ages, which lasted for more than 400 years. The occupation of some cities, like Athens, did continue however their existence was of a much different nature. They had a more local sphere of influence, limited trade and an impoverished culture. It took centuries for Greece to recover.
Mesopotamia
Several cities were destroyed, Assyria lost northwestern cities which were reconquered by Tiglath-Pileser I after his ascension to kingship. Control of the Babylonian and Assyrian regions extended barely beyond the city limits. Babylon was sacked by the Elamites.

Egypt
After apparently surviving for a while, the Egyptian Empire collapsed in the mid twelfth century BC (during the reign of Ramesses VI). This led to the Third Intermediate Period, that is, non-dynasty.

Conclusion
Robert Drews describes the collapse as "the worst disaster in ancient history, even more calamitous than the collapse of the Western Roman Empire".  A number of people have spoken of the cultural memories of the disaster as stories of a "lost golden age".  Hesiod for example spoke of Ages of Gold, Silver and Bronze, separated from the modern harsh cruel world of the Age of Iron by the Age of Heroes.
Possible causes of collapse
It was a period associated with the collapse of central authority, a depopulation, particularly of urban areas, the loss of literacy in Anatolia and the Aegean, and its restriction elsewhere, the disappearance of established patterns of long-distance international trade, and increasingly vicious struggles for power.

There are various theories put forward to explain the situation of collapse, many of them compatible with each other.

Volcanos 
The Hekla 3 eruption was about this time, and is dated at 1159 BC by  Egyptologists and British archeologists.

Earthquakes
Earthquakes tend to occur in sequences or 'storms', where a major earthquake above 6.5 on the Richter magnitude scale can set off later earthquakes along the weakened fault line. When a map of earthquake occurrence is superimposed on a map of the sites destroyed in the Late Bronze Age, there is a very close correspondence.
Migrations and raids
Evidence includes the widespread findings of Naue II-type swords (coming from South-Eastern Europe) throughout the region, and Egyptian records of invading "northerners from all the lands". 
The Ugarit correspondence at the time mentions invasions by tribes of such as the mysterious Sea Peoples. Equally, the last Linear B documents in the Aegean (dating to just before the collapse) reported a large rise in piracy, slave raiding and other attacks, particularly around Anatolia. Later fortresses along the Libyan coast, constructed and maintained by the Egyptians after the reign of Ramesses II, were built to reduce raiding.
This theory is strengthened by the fact that the collapse coincides with the appearance in the region of many new ethnic groups. Indo-European tribes such as the Phrygians, Thracians, Macedonians and Dorian Greeks seem to have arrived at this time – possibly from the north. There also seems to have been widespread migration of the Aramaeans – possibly from the South-East.

Ultimate reasons for these migrations could include drought, developments in warfare/weaponry, earthquakes or other natural disasters. This means that the migrations theory is not incompatible with the other theories mentioned here.
Ironworking
The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region, beginning with precocious iron-working in what is now Bulgaria and Romania in the 13th and 12th centuries BC.
Leonard R. Palmer suggested that iron, whilst inferior to bronze weapons, was in more plentiful supply and so allowed larger armies of iron users to overwhelm the smaller armies of bronze-using chariotry.

It now seems that the disruption of long distance trade cut easy supplies of tin, making bronze impossible to make. Older implements were recycled and then iron substitutes were used.
Drought
Drought could have easily precipitated or hastened socio-economic problems and led to wars. More recently Brian Fagan has shown how the diversion of mid-winter storms, from the Atlantic to north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, bringing wetter conditions to Central Europe but drought to the Eastern Mediterranean, was associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse.

Changes in warfare
Robert Drews argues that massed infantry used newly developed weapons and armor.192ff Cast rather than forged spearheads and long swords, a revolutionizing cut-and-thrust weapon, and javelins were used. The appearance of bronze foundries suggests "that mass production of bronze artifacts was suddenly important in the Aegean". For example, Homer uses "spears" as a virtual synonym for "warrior", suggesting the continued importance of the spear in combat.
Such new weaponry, used by a proto-hoplite model of infantry able to withstand attacks of massed chariotry, would destabilize states that were based upon the use of chariots by the ruling class. This precipitated an abrupt social collapse as raiders and/or infantry mercenaries began to conquer, loot, and burn the cities.

General systems collapse
A general systems collapse has been put forward as an explanation for the reversals in culture. This theory raises the question of whether this collapse was the cause of, or the effect of, the Bronze Age collapse being discussed.

In the Middle East, a variety of factors — including population growth, soil degradation, drought, cast bronze weapon and iron production technologies — could have combined to push the relative price of weaponry (compared to arable land) to a level unsustainable for traditional warrior aristocracies. In complex societies which were increasingly fragile, this combination of factors may have contributed to the collapse.