Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
General information 
Shingles is a viral disease produced by the varicella zoster virus (VZV), the same virus that causes chicken pox. Its symptoms include pain and a blistering rash that occurs along the nerves that contain dormant virus. You can not catch shingles. However, you can catch chicken pox through direct contact with someone who has shingles, by touching the area of the rash. Most people who get shingles are old.  It sometimes infects younger people, or people with a weakened immune system.  Stress may trigger shingles.  The disease starts with tingling, itchiness, or pain on an infected person's skin.  After a few days, the disease causes a blistering rash.  This rash may be on the trunk or face.  The rash  grows into small blisters filled with fluid.  These blisters dry out and crust over for several days.  The rash causes anything from mild itching to extreme pain.  The rash stays in one region of the body.
The shingles virus is contagious from person to person only by direct contact.  For this reason, persons with shingles are advised to limit contact with those who are not immune to chicken pox, those with increased risk are young children and pregnant women.  Contracting chickenpox when one is pregnant can be dangerous to the unborn child.

If people have had chickenpox, they cannot get chickenpox from someone else again.  However, it is thought that contact with a shingles patient may trigger a person's own dormant chickenpox virus to become shingles.

Treatment 
Doctors recommend antiviral drugs, steroids, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and topical agents to treat shingles.  The antiviral drugs acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famcyclovir can reduce the severity of shingles.
Prognosis 
Shingles can be very painful and itchy.  It is not very dangerous to healthy people, and it usually ends without major problems. The rash and pain last 3 to 5 weeks. Sometimes, serious problems like temporary, partial facial paralysis, ear damage, or
encephalitis may occur. Persons with shingles on the upper half of the face need immediate medical attention: the virus may cause serious damage to the eyes. Most people who have shingles have only one attack of the disease in their lifetime. However, people with AIDS, cancer or weak immune systems may have multiple attacks.

References

Other websites 
 NIH Facts About Shingles
 NINDS Shingles Information Page 

Diseases caused by viruses
A Brief History of Time (1988) is a book written by the scientist and mathematician Stephen Hawking. The subject of the book is cosmology, the story of the universe.

There are two other versions of this book: The Illustrated A Brief History of Time and A Briefer History of Time. The Illustrated A Brief History of Time has pictures to help explain its ideas. It was also updated because new information was found. A Briefer History of Time is shorter than the first version and was also updated.

This book is very popular and well-known. This book was on the London Sunday Times bestseller list for over 4 years.

Summary
Summary 

In this book, Hawking talks about many theories in physics. Some of the things that he talks about are the history of physics, gravity, how light moves in the universe, space-time, elementary particles (very small objects that make up things in the universe), black holes, the Big Bang (the theory that the universe started from one point), and time travel (the idea that travel can be done to the past and to the future.)
Space and Time 

Hawking describes the motion of planets moving around the sun and how gravity works between the planets and the sun. He also talks about the ideas of absolute rest and absolute position. These ideas are about the thought that events stay in place over a period of time. This was found not to be true by Newton's laws of gravity. The idea of absolute rest did not work when objects move very fast (at the speed of light, or light speed).

The speed of light was first measured in 1676 by the Danish astronomer Ole Christensen Roemer. The speed of light was found to be very fast, but at a finite speed. However, scientists found a problem when they tried to say that light always travelled at the same speed. The scientists created a new idea, called the ether, which tried to explain light's speed.
Albert Einstein said the idea of the ether was not needed if another idea, the idea of absolute time (or time that is always the same) was dropped. Einstein's idea was also the same as Henry Poincare's idea. Einstein's idea is called the theory of relativity.

Hawking also talks about light. He says that events can be described by light cones. The top of the light cone tells where the light from the event will travel. The bottom tells where the light was in the past. The center of the light cone is the event. Besides light cones, Hawking also talks about how light can bend. When light goes past a big mass, like a star, the light changes direction slightly towards the mass.
After talking about light, Hawking talks about time in Einstein's theory of relativity. One prediction that Einstein's theory makes is that time will go by slower when something is near huge masses. However, when something is farther away from the mass, time will go by faster. Hawking used the idea of two twins living at different places to describe his idea. If one of the twins went to live on a mountain, and another twin went to live near the sea, the twin who went to live on the mountain would be a little bit older than the twin who went to live at the sea.

The Expanding Universe
Hawking talks about the expanding universe. The universe is getting bigger over time. One of the things he uses to explain his idea is the Doppler shift. The Doppler shift happens when something moves toward or away from another object. There are two types of things that happen in Doppler shift - red shifting and blue shifting. Red shifting happens when something is moving away from us. This is caused by the wavelength of the visible light reaching us increasing, and the frequency decreasing, which shifts the visible light towards the red/infra-red end of the electromagnetic spectrum. Red-shift is linked to the belief that the universe is expanding as the wavelength of the light is increasing, almost as if stretched as planets and galaxies move away from us, which shares similarities to that of the Doppler effect, involving sound waves
. Blue shifting happens when something is moving toward us, the opposite process of red-shift, in which the wavelength decreases and frequency increases, shifting the light towards the blue end of the spectrum. A scientist named Edwin Hubble found that many stars are red shifted and are moving away from us. Hawking uses the Doppler shift to explain that the universe is getting bigger. The beginning of the universe is thought to have happened through something called the Big Bang. The Big Bang was a very big explosion that created the universe.
The Uncertainty Principle 
The uncertainty principle says that the speed and the position of a particle cannot be found at the same time. To find where a particle is, scientists shine light at the particle. If a high frequency light is used, the light can find the position more accurately but the particle's speed will be unknown (because the light will change the speed of the particle). If a lower frequency light is used, the light can find the speed more accurately but the particle's position will be unknown. The uncertainty principle disproved the idea of a theory that was deterministic, or something that would predict everything in the future.

How light behaves is also talked more about in this chapter. Some theories say that light acts like particles even though it really is made of waves; one theory that says this is Planck's quantum hypothesis. A different theory also says that light waves also act like particles; a theory that says this is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
Light waves have crests and troughs. The highest point of a wave is the crest, and the lowest part of the wave is a trough. Sometimes more than one of these waves can interfere with each other - the crests and the troughs line up. This is called light interference. When light waves interfere with each other, this can make many colors. An example of this is the colors in soap bubbles.

Elementary Particles and Forces of Nature 
Quarks are very small things that make up everything we see (matter). There are six different "flavors" of quarks: the up quark, down quark, strange quark, charmed quark, bottom quark, and top quark. Quarks also have three "colors": red, green, and blue. There are also anti-quarks, which are the opposite of the regular quarks. In total, there are 18 different types of regular quarks, and 18 different types of anti quarks. Quarks are known as the "building blocks of matter" because they are the smallest thing that make up all the matter in the universe.
All elementary particles (for example, the quarks) have something called spin. The spin of a particle shows us what a particle looks like from different directions. For example, a particle of spin 0 looks the same from every direction. A particle of spin 1 looks different in every direction, unless the particle is spun completely around (360 degrees). Hawking's example of a particle of spin 1 is an arrow. A particle of spin two needs to be turned around halfway (or 180 degrees) to look the same. The example given in the book is of a double-headed arrow. There are two groups of particles in the universe: particles with a spin of 1/2, and particles with a spin of 0, 1, or 2. All of these particles follow Pauli's exclusion principle. Pauli's exclusion principle says that particles cannot be in the same place or have the same speed. If Pauli's exclusion principle did not exist, then everything in the universe would look the same, like a roughly uniform and dense "soup".
Particles with a spin of 0, 1, or 2 move force from one particle to another. Some examples of these particles are virtual gravitons and virtual photons. Virtual gravitons have a spin of 2 and they represent the force of gravity. This means that when gravity affects two things, gravitons move to and from the two things. Virtual photons have a spin of 1 and represent electromagnetic forces (or the force that holds atoms together).
Besides the force of gravity and the electromagnetic forces, there are weak and strong nuclear forces. Weak nuclear forces are the forces that cause radioactivity, or when matter emits energy. Weak nuclear force works on particles with a spin of 1/2. Strong nuclear forces are the forces that keep the quarks in a neutron and a proton together, and keeps the protons and neutrons together in an atom. The particle that carries the strong nuclear force is thought to be a gluon. The gluon is a particle with a spin of 1. The gluon holds together quarks to form protons and neutrons. However, the gluon only holds together quarks that are three different colors. This makes the end product have no color. This is called confinement.

Some scientists have tried to make a theory that combines the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force. This theory is called a grand unified theory (or a GUT). This theory tries to explain these forces in one big unified way or theory.

Black Holes
Black Holes 

Black holes are stars that have collapsed into one very small point. This small point is called a singularity.This singularity is a point of space-time which rotates at a high speed.That is the reason that black holes have no  time. Black holes suck things into their center because its gravity is very strong. Some of the things it can suck in are light and stars. Only very large stars, called super-giants, are big enough to become a black hole. The star must be one and a half times the mass of the sun or larger to turn into a black hole. This number is called the Chandrasekhar limit. If the mass of a star is less than the Chandrasekhar limit, it will not turn into a black hole; instead, it will turn into a different, smaller type of star. The boundary of the black hole is called the event horizon. If something is in the event horizon, it will never get out of the black hole.
Black holes can be shaped differently. Some black holes are perfectly spherical - like a ball. Other black holes bulge in the middle. Black holes will be spherical if they do not rotate. Black holes will bulge in the middle if they rotate.

Black holes are difficult to find because they do not let out any light. They can be found when black holes suck in other stars. When black holes suck in other stars, the black hole lets out X-rays, which can be seen by telescopes. Hawking talks about his bet with another scientist, Kip Thorne. Hawking bet that black holes did not exist, because he did not want his work on black holes to be wasted. He lost the bet.
Disorder, also known as entropy, is related to black holes. There is a scientific law that has to do with entropy. This law is called the second law of thermodynamics, and it says that entropy (or disorder) will always increase in an isolated system (for example, the universe). The relation between the amount of entropy in a black hole and the size of the black hole's event horizon was first thought of by a research student (Jacob Bekenstein) and proven by Hawking, whose calculations said that black holes emit radiation. This was strange, because it was already said that nothing can escape from a black hole's event horizon.

This problem was solved when the idea of pairs of "virtual particles" was thought of. One of the pair of particles would fall into the black hole, and the other would escape. This would look like the black hole was emitting particles. This idea seemed strange at first, but many people accepted it after a while.
The Origin and Fate of the Universe 
Most scientists believe that the universe started in an explosion called the Big Bang. The model for this is called the "hot big bang model". When the universe starts getting bigger, the things inside of it also begin to get cooler. When the universe was first beginning, it was infinitely hot. The temperature of the universe cooled and the things inside the universe began to clump together.

Hawking also talks about how the universe could have been. For example, if the universe formed and then collapsed quickly, there would not be enough time for life to form. Another example would be a universe that expanded too quickly. If a universe expanded too quickly, it would become almost empty. The idea of many universes is called the many-worlds interpretation.

Inflationary models are also discussed in this chapter, and so is the idea of a theory that unifies quantum mechanics and gravity.
Other editions 
 1988 — The first edition is published. This edition had an introduction by Carl Sagan.
 1990 - Similar to the 1996 but with an introduction by Carl Sagan, uncolored pictures, and it was printed in paperback
 1996 — An illustrated, updated and expanded edition is published, called The Illustrated A Brief History of Time. This hardcover edition contains full color illustrations and photographs to help explain the text. It also has topics not in the original book, including a new chapter on wormholes and time travel.
 1998 — The Tenth Anniversary Edition is published. It has the same text as the one published in 1996, but was also released in paperback and has less diagrams.
 2005 — The release of A Briefer History of Time (written with Leonard Mlodinow), which is a shorter version of the original book. It was updated again to include new scientific developments..

Notes

References 
  

1988 books
Science books
Early life
Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His family was known for teaching people how to speak English clearly (elocution). Both his grandfather, Alexander Bell, and his father, Alexander Melville Bell, taught elocution. His father wrote often about this and is most known for his invention and writings of Visible Speech. In his writings he explained ways of teaching people who were deaf and Mute. It also showed how these people could learn to speak words by watching their lips and reading what other people were saying.
Education
Alexander Graham Bell went to the Royal High School of Edinburgh. He graduated at the age of fifteen. At the age of sixteen, he got a job as a student and teacher of elocution and music in Weston House Academy, at Elgin in Morayshire. He spent the next year at the University of Edinburgh. While still in Scotland, he became more interested in the science of sound (acoustics). He hoped to help his deaf mother. From 1866 to 1867, he was a teacher at Somersetshire College in Bath, Somerset.
Career
In 1870 when he was 23 years old, he moved with his family to Canada where they settled at Brantford, Ontario. Bell began to study communication machines. He made a piano that could be heard far away by using electricity. In 1871 he went with his father to Montreal, Quebec in Canada, where he took a job teaching about "visible speech". His father was asked to teach about it at a large school for deaf mutes in Boston, Massachusetts, but instead he gave the job to his son. The younger Bell began teaching there in 1872. Alexander Graham Bell soon became famous in the United States for this important work. He published many writings about it in Washington, D.C.. Because of this work, thousands of deaf mutes in the United States of America are now able to speak, even though they cannot hear.
Inventions 
Bell's genius is seen in part by the eighteen patents granted in his name alone and the twelve that he shared with others. These included fifteen for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aeronautics, four for hydrofoils, and two for a selenium cell. In 1888, he was one of the original members of the National Geographic Society and became its second president.

He was given many honors.
 The French government gave him the decoration of the Legion of Honor.
 The Royal Society of Arts in London awarded him the Albert medal in 1902.
 The University of Würzburg, Bavaria, granted him the Degree of PhD
Telephone 
His past experience made him ready to work more with sound and electricity. He began his studies in 1874 with a musical telegraph, in which he used an electric circuit and a magnet to make an iron reed or tongue vibrate. One day, it was found that a reed failed to respond to the current. Mr. Bell desired his assistant, who was at the other end of the line, to pluck the reed, thinking it had stuck to the magnet. His assistant, Thomas Watson complied, and to his surprise, Bell heard the corresponding reed at his end of the line vibrate and sound the same - without any electric current to power it. A few experiments soon showed that his reed had been set in vibration by the changes in the magnetic field that the moving reed produced in the line. This discovery led him to stop using the electric battery current. His idea was that, since the circuit was never broken, all the complex vibrations of speech might be converted into currents, which in turn would reproduce the speech at a distance.
Bell, with his assistant, devised a receiver, consisting of a stretched film or drum with a bit of magnetised iron attached to its middle, and free to vibrate in front of the pole of an electromagnet in circuit with the line. This apparatus was completed on June 2, 1875. On July 7, he instructed his assistant to make a second receiver which could be used with the first, and a few days later they were tried together, at each end of the line, which ran from a room in the inventor's house at Boston to the cellar underneath. Bell, in the room, held one instrument in his hands, while Watson in the cellar listened at the other. The inventor spoke into his instrument, "Do you understand what I say?" and Mr. Watson rushed back into the upstairs and answered "Yes." The first successful two-way telephone call was not made until March 10, 1876 when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you." and Watson answered back and came into the room to see Bell
. The first long distance telephone call was made on August 10, 1876 by Bell from the family home in Brantford, Ontario to his assistant in Paris, Ontario, some 16 km (10 mi.) away.
On March 7, 1876, the U.S. Patent Office gave him patent #174465 for the telephone.

Metal detector 
Bell is also credited with the invention of an improved metal detector in 1881 that made sounds when it was near metal. The device was quickly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of U.S. President James Garfield. The metal detector worked, but did not find the bullet because of the metal bedframe the President was lying on. Bell gave a full description of his experiments in a paper read before the "American Association for the Advancement of Science" in August, 1882.

Personal life
Bell married Mabel Hubbard on July 11, 1877 and they had four children. He died of problems caused by anemia and diabetes at his home near Baddeck, Nova Scotia in 1922. He was 75 years old.
Opinions 
Bell was an active supporter of the eugenics movement in the United States. He was the honorary president of the "Second International Congress of Eugenics" held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York in 1921.

As a teacher of the deaf, Bell did not want deaf people to teach in schools for the deaf. He was also against the use of sign language. These things mean that he is not appreciated by some deaf people in the present day.

References

Other websites 

 Bell Homestead, National Historic Site
 Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 

Scientists from Edinburgh
Royal Society of Arts
Scottish inventors
1847 births
1922 deaths
British inventors
Canadian inventors
Canadian engineers
American inventors
People from Nova Scotia
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Naturalized citizens of Canada
Electrical engineers
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist. In 1888 he discovered the radio waves previously predicted by Maxwell's equations. He also proved that light is a kind of electromagnetic waves. The unit for frequency is named after him.

Hertz was born in Hamburg in 1857. He studied engineering in Frankfurt and later at the University of Munich. He completed his PhD at the University of Berlin. He taught and continued research at the University of Bonn and University of Kiel.

He died from blood poisoning in 1894.

References

Other websites

1857 births
1894 deaths
German academics
German physicists
Scientists from Hamburg
Events 
 The speed of light in water was observed to be slower than that in air.

Books 
 The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Births 
 January 21 – Paul Vinzenz Busch, ringmaster (d. 1927)
 January 27 – Samuel Gompers, English-born labor leader (d. 1924)
 January 27 – Edward J. Smith, Captain of the Titanic (d. 1912)
 May 1 – Prince Arthur of the United Kingdom (d. 1942)
 May 8 – Ross Barnes, baseball player (d. 1915)
 May 12 –  Henry Cabot Lodge, U.S. statesman (d. 1924)
 May 21 – Giuseppe Mercalli, Italian volcanologist (d. 1914)
 July 12 – Otto Schoetensack, German anthropologist (d. 1912)
 September 2 – Albert Spalding, baseball player and sporting goods manufacturer (d. 1915)
 November 13 – Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish writer (d. 1894)
 December 9 – Emma Abbott, American opera singer (d. 1891)
 December 21 – Zdenek Fibich, Czech composer (d. 1900)

Deaths 
 July 2 – Robert Peel
1869 was a common year.

Events 
 The Periodic table was developed.
Births 
 January 1 – Sigma Nu, First Anti-Hazing Honor/Social Fraternity
 January 4 – Tommy Corcoran, baseball player
 January 10 – Grigori Rasputin, Russian mystic
 January 15 – Stanisław Wyspiański, Polish dramatist, poet, painter, and architect
 February 11 – Helene Kroller-Muller, Dutch museum founder and patron of the arts
 February 14 – Charles Wilson, Scottish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
 March 3 – Michael von Faulhaber, German cardinal and archbishop
 March 12 – George William Forbes, New Zealand Prime Minister and first leader of the New Zealand National Party
 March 14 – Algernon Blackwood, English writer
 March 18 – Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
 April 2 – Hughie Jennings, baseball player
 April 5,6 – Tom Adam, Named number one in the world
 April 11 – Gustav Vigeland, Norwegian sculptor
 April 27 – May Moss, Activist
 May 5 – Hans Pfitzner, German composer
 May 20 – John Stone Stone, American physicist and inventor
June 27 – Hans Spemann, German embryologist, won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
 August 10 – Lawrence Binyon, English poet and scholar
 September 3 – Fritz Pregl, Austrian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
 September 17 – Christian Lous Lange, Norwegian pacifist, won the Nobel Peace Prize
 September 21 - Carlo Airoldi, Italian marathon runner
 September 23 – Mary Mallon, "Typhoid Mary"
 October 2 – Mahatma Gandhi, Indian political leader, Father of the Nation
 October 25 – John Heisman, American football coach
 November 11 – Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, King)
 November 25 – Herbert Greenfield, Premier of Alberta, Canada
 December 16 – Hristo Tatarchev, Bulgarian revolutionary, leader of the revolutionary movement in Macedonia and Eastern Thrace
 December 22 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet
 December 30 – Stephen Leacock, British-Canadian writer and economist
 December 31 – Henri Matisse, French painter
Deaths 
 July 18 – Laurent Clerc, co-founder of the first American school for the deaf.
 January 1 – Martin W. Bates, U.S. Senator from Delaware (b. 1786)
 January 30 – William Carleton, Irish novelist (b. 1794)
 February 15 – Mirza Ghalib, poet of Urdu (b. 1796).
 March 8 – Hector Berlioz, French composer (b. 1803)
 March 24 – Antoine-Henri Jomini, French general (b. 1779)
 April 20 – Carl Loewe, German composer (b. 1796)
 June 16 – Charles Sturt, Australian explorer (b. 1795)
 June 20 – Hijikata Toshizou, Japanese military commander (b. 1835)
 August 31 – Mary Ward (scientist), first car accident victim
 September 12 – Peter Roget, British lexicographer (b. 1779)
 October 13 – Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French literary critic (b. 1804)
 October 23 – Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1799)
 December 18 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American composer and pianist (b. 1829)
Hit songs 
 "Little Brown Jug" by R.E. Eastburn
 "Now the Day is Over" by Joseph Barnby
 "Shoo, Fly! Don't Bother Me!" by T. Bringham Bishop
 "Sweet Genevieve" by Henry Tucker
Events 
 February 9 – Gregory XV is elected pope.
 February 17 – Miles Standish is appointed as first commander of Plymouth Colony.
 March 16 – Samoset, a Wampanoag, visits the settlers of Plymouth Colony and greets them, "Welcome, Englishmen! My name is Samoset."
 March 22 – The Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony sign a peace treaty with Massasoit of the Wampanoags.
 April 5 – The Mayflower sets sail from Plymouth on a return trip to Great Britain.
 The Swedish city of Gothenburg is founded by Gustavus Adolphus
 Riga falls under rule of Sweden
 Willebrord Snell discovers the laws of refraction.
1619 was a common year.

Event 
 Johannes Kepler proposes his three laws of planetary motion.
Year 1687 was a common year that started on a Wednesday when using the Gregorian calendar.

Events 
 March 19 – The men under explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle murder him while searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River.
 April 4 – King James II of England issues the Declaration of Indulgence, suspending laws against Catholics and non-conformists.
 May 6 – Emperor Higashiyama succeeds Emperor Reigen on the throne of Japan.
 July 5 –  Isaac Newton's three laws of motion (Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica) is published.
 August 12 – Battle of Mohács, fight between Sultan Mehmed IV's Ottoman Turks and Emperor Leopold I's Austrian Habsburgs' forces commanded by Charles of Lorraine.
 September 28 – The Parthenon explodes, while being used as a gunpowder store.
 December 31 – The first Huguenots set sail from France to the Cape of Good Hope.

Undated 
 Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mehmed IV (1648-1687) to Suleiman II (1687-1691).
Births 
 January 27 – Johann Balthasar Neumann, German architect (died 1753)
 March 7 – Jean Lebeuf, French historian (died. 1760)
 June 24 – Johann Albrecht Bengel, German scholar (died 1757)
 September 7 – Durastante Natalucci, Italian historian (died 1772)
 October 4 – Robert Simson, Scottish mathematician (died 1768)
 October 21 – Nicolaus I Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (died 1759)
 November 7 – William Stukeley, English archaeologist (died 1765)
 December 5 – Francesco Geminiani, Italian violinist and composer (died 1762)
 December 26 – Johann Georg Pisendel, German musician (died 1755)
 date unknown Shahzada Assadullah Khan Abdali, Persian Governor of Herat (died 1720)
Deaths 
 January 13 – Jean Claude, French Protestant clergyman (born 1619)
 January 28 – Johannes Hevelius, astronomer (born 1611)
 March 19 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, French explorer (born 1643)
 March 22 – Jean-Baptiste Lully, French composer (born 1632)
 March 28 – Constantijn Huygens, Dutch poet and composer (born 1596)
 April 12 – Ambrose Dixon, Virginia Colony pioneer (born c.1628)
 April 16 – George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, English statesman (born 1628)
 September 1 – Henry More, English philosopher (born 1614)
 September 12 – John Alden, Mayflower pilgrim (born c.1599)
 September 28 – Francis Turretin, Swiss theologian (born 1623)
 October 13 – Geminiano Montanari, Italian astronomer (born 1633)
 October 21 – Edmund Waller, English poet (born 1606)
 November 14 – Nell Gwyn, English mistress of Charles II of England (born 1650)
 December 16 – Sir William Petty, English philosopher (born 1623)
Events 
 André-Marie Ampère discovered the attraction between current-carrying wires.
 The law of electric current and magnetic field was developed.
 The Sunday Times newspaper is first published in the United Kingdom.

Births 
 February 25 – Princess Charlotte of Cambridge, British royal (died 1916)
 April 27 – Ulysses S. Grant, 18th American President (died 1885)
 October 4 – Rutherford B. Hayes, 19th American President (died 1894)
 December 27 – Louis Pasteur, French scientist (died 1895)
1824 was a leap year.

Events 
 Heat was discovered to be transferred from hot to cold objects.
 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals founded.
 Brauerei C & A Veltins brewery founded
 Thomas Jefferson University founded
Events 
 The first photograph was taken.

 John Adams second president, and third president Thomas Jefferson both died same day Independence Day.
Births 
 January 12 – William Chapman Rawlston, banker and financier
 January 26 – Louis Favre, Swiss engineer (d. 1879)
 February 16 – Joseph Victor von Scheffel, German poet (d. 1886)
 February 16 – Julia Grant, First Lady of the United States (d. 1902)
 March 4 – Theodore Judah, railroad engineer (d. 1863)
 March 24 – Matilda Joslyn Gage, pioneering feminist (d. 1898)
 March 29 – Wilhelm Liebknecht, German journalist and politician (d. 1900)
 April 6 – Gustave Moreau, French painter (d. 1898)
 May 3 – King Charles XV of Sweden and Norway (d. 1872)
 May 4 – Frederic Edwin Church, American painter (b. 1900)
 June 24 – George Goyder, Surveyor-General of South Australia (d. 1898)
 July 4 – Stephen Foster, American songwriter and poet (d. 1864)
 September 17 – Bernhard Riemann, German mathematician (d. 1866)
 November 13 – Charles Frederick Worth, English couturier (d. 1895)
 November 24 – Carlo Collodi, Italian writer (d. 1890)
Deaths 
 July 4 – John Adams, President of the United States
 July 4 – Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States

Books 
Biographical Sketches and Interesting Anecdotes of Persons of Color – Abigail Mott
The Broken Heart – Catherine Gore
Cinq-Mars – Alfred de Vigny
Deeds of the Olden Time – Anne Hatton
Gaston de Blondeville – Ann Radcliffe
Granby – T.H. Lister
Die Harzreise (The Heart's Journey) – Heinrich Heine
Henry the Fourth of France – Alicia Lefanu
Honor O'Hara – Anna Maria Porter
The Last Man – Mary Shelley
The Last of the Mohicans – James Fenimore Cooper
Tales Round a Winter Hearth – Jane Porter & Anna Maria Porter
Vivian Grey – Benjamin Disraeli
Woodstock – Sir Walter Scott
1827 was a common year.

Events 
 People see individual particles of water move.

Births 
 February 5 – Peter Lalor, leader of miners rebellion at Eureka Stockade, Ballarat, Australia

Deaths 
 March 26 – Ludwig van Beethoven

New Books 
 Book of Songs  (poetry) – Heinrich Heine
 Herzog Theodor von Gotland (play) – Christian Dietrich Grabbe
 Hope Leslie – Catharine Maria Sedgwick
 Intrigue – Henrietta Rouviere Mosse
 I Promessi sposi (The Betrothed) – Alessandro Manzoni
 The Lettre de Cachet – Catherine Gore
 The O'Briens and The O'Flaherties – Sydney Owenson
 The Prairie – James Fenimore Cooper
 The Red Rover – James Fenimore Cooper
 The Reign of Terror – Catherine Gore
 The Wolf of Badenoch – Sir Thomas Dick Lauder
1815 was a common year.

Events 
 Fresnel developed the theory of light diffraction.
 Napoleon loses the Battle of Waterloo and is sent to Saint Helena.
Births 
January 10 – John A. Macdonald, first Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1891)
February 15 – Constantin von Tischendorf, German Biblical scholar (d. 1874)
April 1 – Otto von Bismarck, German statesman (d. 1898)
 April 1 – Edward Clark, Governor of Texas (d. 1880)
April 6 – Robert Volkmann, German composer (d. 1883)
April 24 – Anthony Trollope, British writer (d. 1882)
June 11 - Julia Margaret Cameron, British Indian photographer (d. 1879)
August 5 – Edward John Eyre, explorer
October 16 – Francis Lubbock, Governor of Texas (d. 1905)
October 31 – Karl Weierstraß, German mathematician (d. 1897)
November 2 – George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1864)
December 10 – Augusta Ada King (née Byron), Countess of Lovelace, early English computer pioneer (d. 1852)
November 12 – Elizabeth Cady Stanton, American women's rights activist (d. 1902)
December 21 – Thomas Couture, French painter (d. 1879)
Deaths 
January 8 – Edward Pakenham, British general (killed in battle) (born 1778)
January 16 – Emma, Lady Hamilton, English mistress of Horatio Nelson (born 1765)
February 24 – Robert Fulton, American inventor (born 1765)
February 26 – Prince Josias of Coburg, Austrian general (born 1737)
March 4 – Frances Abington, English actress (born 1737)
March 5 – Franz Mesmer, German developer of hypnotism (born 1734)
April 21 – Joseph Winston, American patriot and Congressman from North Carolina (born 1746)
June 1 – Louis Alexandre Berthier, French marshal (born 1753)
June 16 – Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Brunswick, German noble and general (killed in battle) (born 1771)
June 18 – Thomas Picton, British general (killed in battle) (born 1758)
June 18 – Claude-Etienne Michel, French general (killed in battle) (born 1772)
June 18 – Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (killed in battle) (born 1766)
August 2 – Guillaume Marie Anne Brune, French marshal (murdered) (born 1763)
August 6 – James A. Bayard (elder), U.S. Senator from Delaware (born 1767)
September 9 – John Singleton Copley, American painter (born 1738)
September 20 – Nicolas Desmarest, French geologist (born 1725)
October 13 – Joachim Murat, French marshal and King of Naples (executed) (born 1767)
December 3 – John Carroll (priest), first American Roman Catholic Archbishop (born 1735)
December 7 – Michel Ney, French marshal (executed) (born 1769)
December 29 – Saartjie Baartman, sideshow performer
Deep house is a type of house music. It has influences from disco music and jazz music. The BPM of deep house is usually 100 - 128. 

Music genres
House music genres
Cytokines are a group of signalling molecules made by cells. They help to control the immune system and fight disease. They are similar to hormones and, as we learn more about each, distinctions between the two are fading.

Cytokines carry signals locally between cells, and these signals have an effect on other cells. They are made of proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins. The cytokines are a large family of polypeptide regulators that are produced throughout the body by many groups of cells.

Some well-known cytokines include interferon, prostaglandin and interleukins. Cytokines can be detected using the ELISA and ELISPOT techniques.

Cytokines work by signal transduction. Each cytokine has a matching cell-surface receptor. Then cascades of signals inside the cell changes cell functions. This may include the regulation of several genes, the production of other cytokines, or an increase in surface receptors for other molecules.

Related pages 
Cytokine storm
Signal transduction
Signal (biology)

References
References 

Proteins
Immunology
Cell biology
Bristol is a city and ceremonial county in England. It is home to nearly 430,000 people. The River Avon runs through it to the Severn estuary.

Geography 
It is between the counties of Gloucestershire and Somerset. In 1373, King Edward III ordered that it should be a county itself forever. However, it lost county status in 1974, the year after its 600-year celebrations. It became the largest district within the new Avon county. Avon was never popular and was abolished in 1996, when county status returned to Bristol, which became a unitary council.

History 
The Bristol name means "the place where the bridge is" in Old English. It has been a port for 800 years. Now, ships are too big to reach it. It has a new seaport at Avonmouth.

Historical sites 
It has many historic churches and other buildings. The Clifton Suspension Bridge crosses high above the river. The University of Bristol is also in Clifton.
Bristol was a centre for the slave trade.  During the 2020 George Floyd protests, a crowd pushed down the statue of 17th century slave trader Edward Colston and threw it in the harbour.

Bristol was badly damaged during World War II. It now has many new factories and offices. The Concorde supersonic airliner was made here.

It is also the birthplace of the music genre trip hop, with 3 trip hop bands originating there: Massive Attack, Portishead (named after a North Somerset town) and Tricky.

Notable people 
Some of the most notable people who are currently living, or who are from the city include:

 Banksy - graffiti artist 
 Stephen Merchant - writer and comedian 
 Russell Howard - comedian and television presenter

References

Other websites

 

Unitary authorities
 
Ceremonial counties of England
Port cities and towns of England
This is a link page for towns and cities in England. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, a town is any settlement which has received a charter of incorporation, more commonly known as a town charter, approved by the monarch. Cities are indicated in bold.



A
Abingdon, Accrington, Acton, Adlington, Alcester, Aldeburgh, Aldershot, Aldridge, Alford, Alfreton, Alnwick, Alsager, Alston, Alton, Altrincham, Amble, Amersham, Amesbury, Ampthill, Andover, Appleby-in-Westmorland, Arundel, Ashbourne, Ashburton, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Ashford, Ashington, Ashton-in-Makerfield, Ashton-under-Lyne, Askern, Aspatria, Atherstone, Attleborough, Axbridge, Axminster, Aylesbury, Aylsham.
Bacup, Bakewell, Baldock, Banbury, Barking, Barnard Castle, Barnet, Barnoldswick, Barnsley, Barnstaple, Barnt Green, Barrow-in-Furness, Barton-upon-Humber, Barton-le-Clay, Basildon, Basingstoke, Bath, Batley, Battle, Bawtry, Beaconsfield, Beaminster, Bebington, Beccles, Bedale, Bedford, Bedlington, Bedworth, Beeston, Belper, Bella,Bentham, Berkhamsted, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Beverley, Bewdley, Bexhill-on-Sea, Bicester, Biddulph, Bideford, Biggleswade, Billericay, Bilston, Bingham, Birmingham, Bishop Auckland, Bishop's Castle, Bishop's Stortford, Bishop's Waltham, Blackburn, Blackpool, Blandford Forum, Bletchley, Blyth, Bodmin, Bognor Regis, Bollington, Bolsover, Bolton, Bordon, Borehamwood, Boston, Bottesford, Bourne, Bournemouth, Brackley, Bracknell, Bradford, Bradford-on-Avon, Bradley Stoke, Bradninch, Braintree, Brentford, Brentwood, Bridgnorth, Bridgwater, Bridlington, Bridport, Brierley Hill, Brigg, Brighouse, Brightlingsea, Brighton, Bristol, Brixham, Broadstairs, Bromley, Bromsgrove, Bromyard, Brownhills
, Brownhills, Buckfastleigh, Buckingham, Bude, Budleigh Salterton, Bungay, Buntingford, Burford, Burgess Hill, Burnham-on-Crouch, Burnham-on-Sea, Burnley, Burntwood, Burton Latimer, Burton-upon-Trent, Bury, Bury St Edmunds, Buxton, Blackburn
C
Caistor, Calne, Camberley, Camborne, Cambridge, Camelford, Cannock, Canterbury, Carlisle, Carnforth, Carterton, Castle Cary, Castleford, Chadderton, Chagford, Chard, Charlbury, Chatham, Chatteris, Chelmsford, Cheltenham, Chesham, Cheshunt, Chester, Chesterfield, Chester-le-Street, Chichester, Chippenham, Chipping Campden, Chipping Norton, Chipping Ongar, Chipping Sodbury, Chorley, Christchurch, Church Stretton, Cinderford, Cirencester, Clacton-on-Sea, Cleckheaton, Cleethorpes, Clevedon, Cleveleys, Clitheroe, Clun, Coalville, Cockermouth, Coggeshall, Colchester, Coleford, Colne, Congleton, Conisbrough, Corbridge, Corby, Cotgrave, Coventry, Cowes, Cramlington, Cranfield, Crawley, Crayford, Crediton, Crewe, Crewkerne, Cromer, Crowborough, Crowle, Crowthorne, Croydon, Cuckfield, Cullompton, connor town
D
Dagenham, Dalton in Furness, Darley Dale, Darlington, Dartford, Dartmouth, Darwen, Daventry, Dawlish, Deal, Denholme, Denton, Derby, Dereham, Desborough, Devizes, Dewsbury, Didcot, 
Dinnington, Diss, Doncaster, Dorchester, Dorking, Dover, Downham Market, Driffield, Dronfield, Droitwich Spa, Droylsden, Dudley, Dukinfield, Dunstable, Durham, Dursley

E
Ealing, Earley, Easingwold, Eastbourne, East Grinstead, East Ham, Eastleigh, Eastwood, Edenbridge, Egham, Ellesmere, Ellesmere Port, Ely, Enfield, Epping, Epsom, Epworth, Erith, Esher, Eton, Evesham, Exeter, Exmouth, Eye

F
Failsworth, Fairford, Fakenham, Falmouth,Fareham, Faringdon, Farnborough, Farnham, Farnworth, Faversham, Featherstone, Felixstowe, Fenny Stratford, Ferndown, Ferryhill, Filey, Filton, Fleet, Fleetwood, Flitwick, Folkestone, Fordingbridge, Fordwich, Fowey, Framlingham, Frinton-on-Sea, Frodsham, Frome, Foxley,
G
Gainsborough, Gateshead, Gillingham, Gillingham, Glastonbury, Glossop, Gloucester, Godalming, Godmanchester, Goole, Gosport, Grange-over-Sands, Grantham, Gravesend, Grays, Great Dunmow, Great Torrington, Great Yarmouth, Grimsby, Guildford, Guisborough

H
Hackney, Hadleigh, Hailsham, Halesworth, Halewood, Halifax, Halstead, Haltwhistle,Handforth,
Harlow, Harpenden, Harrogate, Harrow, Hartlepool, Harwich, Haslemere, Hastings, Hatfield, Havant, Haverhill, Hawley, Hayle, Haywards Heath, Heanor, Heathfield, Hebden Bridge, Hedon, Helston, Hemel Hempstead, Hemsworth, Henley-in-Arden, Henley-on-Thames, Hendon, Hereford, Herne Bay, Hertford, Hessle, Heswall, Hetton-le-Hole, Heywood, Hexham, Higham Ferrers, Highworth, High Wycombe, Hinckley, Hitchin, Hoddesdon, Holmfirth, Holsworthy, Honiton, Horley, Horncastle, Hornsea, Horsham, Horwich, Houghton-le-Spring, Hounslow, Hoylake, Hove, Hucknall, Huddersfield, Hugh Town, Hull, Hungerford, Hunstanton, Huntingdon, Hyde, Hythe
I
Ilchester, Ilford, Ilfracombe, Ilkeston, Ilkley, Ilminster, Ipswich, Irthlingborough, Ivybridge

J
Jarrow

K
Keighley, Kempston, Kendal, Kenilworth, Kesgrave, Keswick, Kettering, Keynsham, Kidderminster, Kidsgrove, Killingworth, Kimberley, Kingsbridge, King's Lynn, Kingston-upon-Hull, Kingston upon Thames, Kington, Kirkby, Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Kirkham, Knaresborough, Knottingley, Knutsford, Kingsteignton

L
Lancaster, Launceston, Leatherhead, Leamington Spa, Lechlade, Ledbury, Leeds, Leek, Leicester, Leigh, Leighton Buzzard, Leiston, Leominster, Letchworth, Lewes, Lewisham, Leyland, Leyton, Lichfield, Lincoln, Liskeard, Littlehampton, Liverpool, Lizard, London, London, Long Eaton, Longridge, Looe, Lostwithiel, Loughborough, Loughton, Louth, Lowestoft, Ludlow, Luton, Lutterworth, Lydd, Lydney, Lyme Regis, Lymington, Lynton, Lytchett Minster, Lytham St Annes, Lofthouse
M
Mablethorpe, Macclesfield, Maghull, Maidenhead, Maidstone, Maldon, Malmesbury, Maltby, Malton, Malvern, Manchester, Manningtree, Mansfield, March, Margate, Market Deeping, Market Drayton, Market Harborough, Market Rasen, Market Weighton, Marlborough, Marlow, Maryport, Marston Moretaine, Matlock, Melksham, Melton Mowbray, Mexborough, Middleham, Middlesbrough, Middleton, Middlewich, Midhurst, Midsomer Norton, 
Milton Keynes, Minehead, Morecambe, Moretonhampstead, Moreton-in-Marsh, Morley, Morpeth, Much Wenlock

N
Nailsea, Nailsworth, Nantwich, Needham Market, Nelson, Neston, Newark-on-Trent, Newbiggin-by-the-Sea, Newbury, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Newcastle upon Tyne, Newent, Newhaven, Newmarket, New Mills, New Milton, Newport, Newport, Shropshire, Newport Pagnell, Newquay, New Romney, Newton Abbot, Newton Aycliffe, Newton-le-Willows, Normanton, Northallerton, Northam, Northampton, North Walsham, Northwich, Norton Radstock, Norwich, Nottingham, Nuneaton
O
Oakham, Okehampton, Oldbury, Oldham, Ollerton, Olney, Ormskirk, Orpington, Ossett, Oswestry, Otley, Ottery St Mary, Oundle, Oxford, Outwood

P
Paddock Wood, Padstow, Paignton, Painswick, Peacehaven, Penistone, Penrith, Penryn, Penzance, Pershore, Peterborough, Peterlee, Petersfield, Petworth, Pickering, Plymouth, Pocklington, Pontefract, Polegate, Poltimore, Poole, Portishead, Portland, Portslade, Portsmouth, Potters Bar, Potton, Poulton-le-Fylde, Prescot, Preston, Princes Risborough, Prudhoe, Pudsey

Q
Queenborough, Quintrell Downs

R
Ramsgate, Raunds, Rayleigh, Reading, Redcar, Redditch, Redhill, Redruth, Reigate, Retford, Richmond, Richmond-upon-Thames, Rickmansworth, Ringwood, Ripley, Ripon, Rochdale, Rochester, Rochford, Romford, Romsey, Ross-on-Wye, Rothbury, Rotherham, Rothwell, Rowley Regis, Royston, Rugby, Rugeley, Runcorn, Rushden, Rutland, Ryde, Rye

Walden,

S
St Albans, St Asaph, St Austell, St Blazey, St Columb Major, St Helens, St I Cambridgeshire, St Ives, Cornwall, St Neots, Salcombe, Sale, Salford, Salisbury, Saltash, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Sandbach, Sandhurst, Sandown, Sandwich, Sandy, Sawbridgeworth, Saxmundham, Scarborough, Scunthorpe, Seaford, Seaton, Sedgefield, Selby, Selsey, Settle, Sevenoaks, Shaftesbury, Shanklin, Sheerness, Sheffield, Shepshed, Shepton Mallet, Sherborne, Sheringham, Shildon, Shipston-on-Stour, Shoreham-by-Sea, Shrewsbury, Sidcup, Sidmouth, Sittingbourne, Skegness, Skelmersdale, Skipton, Sleaford, Slough, Smethwick, Snodland, Soham,  Somerton, Southall, Southam, Southampton, Southborough, Southend-on-Sea, South Molton, Southport, Southsea, South Shields, Southwell, Southwold, South Woodham Ferrers, Spalding, Spennymoor, Spilsby, Stafford, Staines, Stainforth, Stalybridge, Stamford, Stanley, Stapleford, Staunton, Staveley, Stevenage, Stockport, Stocksbridge, Stockton-on-Tees, Stoke-on-Trent, Stone, Stony Stratford, Stotfold
, Stotfold, Stourbridge, Stourport-on-Severn, Stowmarket, Stow-on-the-Wold, Stratford-upon-Avon, Streatham, Street, Strood, Stroud, Sudbury, Sunderland, Sutton, Sutton Coldfield, Sutton-in-Ashfield, Swadlincote, Swaffham, Swanage, Swanley, Swindon, Swinton
T
Tadcaster, Tadley, Tamworth, Taunton, Tavistock, Teignmouth, Telford, Tenbury Wells, Tenterden, Tetbury, Tewkesbury, Thame, Thatcham, Thaxted, Thetford, Thirsk, Thong, Thornaby, Thornbury, Thorne, Tickhill, Tilbury, Tipton, Tiverton, Todmorden, Tonbridge, Torpoint, Torquay, Totnes, Tottenham, Totton, Towcester, Tring, Trowbridge, Truro, Tunbridge Wells, Twickenham

U
Uckfield, Ulverston, Uppingham, Upton-upon-Severn, Uttoxeter, Uxbridge

V
Ventnor, Verwood
W
Wadebridge, Wadhurst, Wakefield, Walden, Wallasey, Wallingford, Walmer, Walsall, Waltham Abbey, Waltham Cross, Walthamstow, Walton-on-Thames, Walton-on-the-Naze, Wandsworth, Wantage, Ware, Wareham, Warminster, Warwick, Washington, Watchet, Watford, Wath-upon-Dearne, Watton, Wednesbury, Wellingborough, Wellington, Wells, Wells-next-the-Sea, Welwyn Garden City, Wem, Wendover, West Bromwich, Westbury, Westerham, West Ham, Westhoughton, West Kirby, West Mersea, Westminster, Weston-super-Mare, Westward Ho!, Wetherby, Weybridge, Weymouth, Whaley Bridge, Whiston, Whitby, Whitchurch, Whitehaven, Whitley Bay, Whitnash, Whitstable, Whitworth, Wickford, Widnes, Wigan, Wigston, Willenhall, Wimbledon, Wimborne Minster, Wincanton, Winchcombe, Winchelsea, Winchester, Windermere, Winsford, Winslow, Wisbech, Witham, Withernsea, Witney, Wivenhoe, Woburn, Woking, Wokingham, Wolverhampton, Wombwell, Woodbridge, Woodstock, Wooler, Woolwich, Wootton Bassett, Worcester, Workington, Worksop, Worthing, Wotton-under-Edge, Wymondham