Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Territoire de Belfort is a department in eastern France, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. The largest city in the department, and its prefecture (capital), is Belfort.

History
The Territoire de Belfort was made a French department on 11 March 1922.

Geography 
Territoire de Belfort is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region; it is in the northeast of the region. It has an area of , the fifth smallest department of France (after Paris and its suburbs Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, and Val-de-Marne).

Rhw Territoire de Belfort borders with 4 departments in 2 regions:
 Grand Est region
 Vosges (north), a short distance
 Haut-Rhin (east)
 Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region
 Doubs (south)
 Haute-Saône (west)

It also borders, to the southeast, with Switzerland for a distance of about .

The highest point of the department is Ballon d'Alsace (),  high, in the Vosges Mountains, commune of Lepuix.
The lowest point in the department,  high, is where the Savoureuse river leaves the department in the commune of Châtenois-les-Forges.

Administration
Territoire de Belfort is managed by the Departmental Council of Territoire de Belfort in Belfort. The department is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

Administrative divisions
There is 1 arrondissement (districts), 9 cantons and 102 communes (municipalities) in Territoire de Belfort.

The following is a list of the 9 cantons of the Territoire de Belfort department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

 Bavilliers (9001)
 Belfort-1 (9002)
 Belfort-2 (9003)
 Belfort-3 (9004)
 Châtenois-les-Forges (9005)
 Delle (9006)
 Giromagny (9007)
 Grandvillars (9008)
 Valdoie (9009)

Demographics 
The inhabitants of Territoire de Belfort are known, in French, as Terrifortains (women: Terrifortaines).
Territoire de Belfort had a population, in 2014, of 144,334, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

Evolution of the population in Territoire de Belfort

Gallery

References

Related pages
 Arrondissement of Belfort
 Communes of the Territoire de Belfort department

Other websites

 Departamental Council website 
 Prefecture website  
 Tourist Office website
Essonne is a department to the south of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Évry. About 1,172,000 people live there (2006 estimation). 

Essonne
Seine-Saint-Denis is a department. It is in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Bobigny. About 1,459,000 people live there (2006 estimation). 

Seine-Saint-Denis
Val-de-Marne is a department in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Créteil. About 1,279,000 people live there (2006 estimation). 

Val-de-Marne
Val-d'Oise is a department to the north of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Cergy. About 1,139,000 people live there (2006 estimation).

Val-d'Oise
Quimper () is a town in France. It is the prefecture of the Finistère department in the Brittany region. Its population is around 65,000 (2006).

Sister cities
Quimper is twinned with:
  Limerick, Ireland
  Remscheid, Germany
  Falkirk, Scotland
  Ourense, Spain
  Yantai, China

Communes in Finistère
Departmental capitals in France
Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier (23 August 1769–13 May 1832), usually called Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist.

Cuvier was a very important figure in scientific circles in Paris during the early 19th century. He helped establish the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology by comparing living animals with fossils. He proved extinction was a fact. He was the most influential person believing in  catastrophism in geology in the early 19th century. His most famous work is the Règne animal distribué d'après son organisation 1817; translated into English as The Animal Kingdom.

Cuvier was a member of the elite Académie française and the French Academy of Sciences. He is remembered for strongly opposing the evolutionary theories of Lamarck and Geoffroy. Cuvier believed there was no evidence for the evolution of organic forms, but there was evidence for successive creations after catastrophic extinction events.
Some of Cuvier's most influential followers were Louis Agassiz, and Richard Owen. His is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

He was the elder brother of Frédéric Cuvier (1773–1838), also a naturalist. Cuvier died in Paris, of cholera.

References 

1769 births
1832 deaths
Paleontologists
French scientists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Members of the Académie française
Deaths from cholera
George Washington Campbell (February 9, 1769–February 17, 1848) was an American statesman. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives as the Representative from Tennessee's at-large congressional district in 1803. He served in the House from 1805-1809, in the 8th, 9th, and 10th Congresses. During the 10th Congress, he was the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. He was also one of the managers appointed in 1804 to conduct the impeachment hearings for John Pickering, judge of the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire, and later in the same year, the impeachment hearings against Samuel Chase, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

Life
Born in Scotland, he immigrated to North Carolina in 1772 with his parents. He graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1794 and began studying law. He was admitted to the bar in North Carolina and began practicing in Knoxville, Tennessee.
Political life
He left Congress in 1809 to become judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court, serving until 1811.

He served as a United States Senator from Tennessee twice, once from 1811 to 1814, having been elected to fill the seat of Jenkin Whiteside, and again from 1815 to 1818. His first service was from October 8, 1811 to February 11, 1814, when he resigned to accept appointment as the United States Secretary of the Treasury. He returned to the Senate on October 10, 1815. He served as the first chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and its predecessor from December 4, 1815, until his resignation from the Senate on April 20, 1818; on this occasion to accept appointment as United States Ambassador to Russia, a position he held from 1818-1821. Campbell served as a member of the French Spoliation Claims Commission in 1831.
Appointed Secretary of the Treasury by James Madison, he faced national financial disorder brought on by the War of 1812. Congress had failed to recharter the First Bank of the United States after its charter expired in 1811, and appropriations for the war were unavailable, so Campbell had to convince Americans to buy government bonds. He was forced to meet to lenders terms, selling government bonds at exorbitant interest rates. In September, 1814 the British occupied Washington, D.C. and the credit of the government was lowered even further. Campbell was unsuccessful in his efforts to raise money through additional bond sales and he resigned that October after only eight months in office, disillusioned and in bad health.

He died in 1848 and is buried at Nashville City Cemetery in Nashville, Tennessee.

Campbell County, Tennessee, is named in his honor.

1769 births
1848 deaths
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
Samuel Chase (April 17, 1741 – June 19, 1811), was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court and earlier was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Maryland.

References

1741 births
1811 deaths
Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
United States Supreme Court justices
Chloroform (also called trichloromethane) is a chemical substance. It is an organic compound. Chloroform is one of the intermediate substances that occur in the production of Polytetrafluoroethylene, better known as Teflon. Chloroform is used as a solvent. It is a colourless liquid. In the 19th century, it was a widely used anaesthetic.

History 
The first who reported to have produced Chloroform was the French chemist Eugène Soubeiran, in 1831. Soubeiran took acetone and ethanol, and used bleach powder for the reaction.  The American physician Samuel Guthrie prepared gallons of the material and described its "deliciousness of flavor."  Independently, Justus von Liebig also described it. Chloroform was named and chemically characterised in 1834 by Jean-Baptiste Dumas. Starting in the 1850s factories made large amounts. Its use as an anesthetic declined in the early 20th century as safer chemicals were more used.
Production 
Chloroform is produced by mixing methane and chlorine at a temperature of 400 to 500°C. In this reaction, the result is a mix of chloromethane, methylene chloride, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride.

The four compounds get then separated with a distillation.

In laboratories, chloroform can be produced by mixing sodium hypochlorite and acetone together. This is an exothermic reaction, meaning it makes a lot of heat.

Uses 
The main uses of Chloroform are:
 as a solvent
 as an anaesthetic (though no longer used, as there are side-effects)
 as a catalyst to help other reactions

Problems
Problems 

Chloroform was used as an anaesthetic during childbirth and surgery, from about 1847. It replaced ether which was used before. Chloroform is very poisonous, and can cause breathing problems, and problems with the heart. Death from chloroform can come from cardiac arrest. When Chloroform is stored for a longer time period, it can decay into Phosgene. Phosgene was a chemical weapon (poison gas) used during the First World War. Chloroform can cause birth defects and lead to miscarriages. It may cause cancer.

References 

Organochlorides
Carcinogens
Santa Cruz de La Sierra, also known as Santa Cruz, is the largest city in Bolivia. It is the capital city of the Santa Cruz department (in the eastern region of the country). In 2006, the municipality's population was 1,528,683. In 2008, the urban population was 1,545,161.

Santa Cruz is not only the most populated city in Bolivia, but the department is also the richest, with over 30% of the national GDP. The city is a major center of petrochemical production in Bolivia, especially because the production of natural gas that exports to neighboring countries. The main sectors that drive the economy are the oil, forestry and agrobusiness firms.
History 
Santa Cruz de la Sierra was founded on February 26, 1561 by Ñuflo de Chaves, after an expedition composed of 158 soldiers who left the city of Asunción del Paraguay. The new town was baptized with the name of Santa Cruz de la Sierra in honor of the founder's hometown in the Castilian Extremadura. The foundation was made on the banks of the Sutús stream in the Chiquitos mountain range.

In 1601, the city was moved to Cotoca, about  to the west (Santa Cruz La Nueva).

At the same time, most of the population of the original Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz La Vieja) moved to San Lorenzo el Real de la Frontera, a nearby town founded in 1590 and moved in 1595.

In 1622, Santa Cruz and San Lorenzo el Real de la Frontera merged. The new city resulting from this union, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, is on the Piraí River.

References 

Cities in Bolivia
Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia)
In computing, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a basic building block of the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer,  even the simplest microcontrollers contain one for purposes such as timing. 

Now, modern microprocessors, microcontrollers and CPUs have very powerful and very complex ALUs. Also, more recent CPUs may contain up to more than 4 ALUs (see superscalar CPUs).

Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945.

Related pages
 FPU
 Execution unit

References

Other websites
A Simulator of Complex ALU in MATLAB 

ALU full Form 

Microprocessor design
A floating point unit (FPU) is a part of a computer system specially designed to carry out operations on floating point numbers. Typical operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and square root. 

Some systems can also perform more advanced functions as exponential or trigonometric functions calculations, however in most modern processors these functions are done with software library routines, not by hardware.

In most modern general purpose CPUs, one or more FPUs are integrated inside the CPU; however many embedded microcontrollers, especially older designs, do not have hardware support for floating point operations. 

In the past, some systems as the Intel 8086 have implemented floating point via a coprocessor that is controlled by the CPU rather than as an integrated unit.

Most modern computers have integrated FPU hardware; but not all. In the absence of an FPU, many FPU functions can be emulated, which saves the added hardware cost of an FPU but is significantly slower.
Related pages
 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
 Execution unit

Computer science
On 1 December 2013 the Daily Telegraph reported that the number of children under thirteen treated in hospital for eating disorders in the UK had tripled.

References

Other websites 
 National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders
 National Eating Disorders Association
 Effects of Eating Disorders
Derealization (DR) is a change in the way someone views the world so that it seems unreal. Derealization can also make someone feel as if their environment does not have emotion or depth. This is a symptom of other problems, such as sleeping disorders, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders. It can also be caused by drug intoxication.

Similar to derealization is depersonalization, but the two are different. Depersonalization is a sense of unreality about oneself. Derealization is a sense of unreality of the outside world.

Derealization often happens during a traumatic or tragic event.

Psychology
Paresthesia (pron. ; paraesthesia in British English, pron. ) is a feeling of tingling, prickling, or numbness with no permanent effects. It is commonly called "pins and needles". This feeling may last a short while, or may be more long-lasting. A long-term effect means there is something wrong with neurons in the body.

An example of this can be felt when sitting cross-legged for a long time and your foot "falls asleep". The tingling feeling you get when you move is paresthesia.

Causes

Paresthesia has many known causes, including the following:
Alcoholism
Anticonvulsant drugs such as topiramate, sultiame, and acetazolamide
Anxiety and/or Panic Disorder
Decompression sickness
Dehydration
Fabry disease
Fibromyalgia
Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)
Heavy metals
Hyperventilation
Hyperkalemia
Hypothyroidism
Immune deficiency, such as Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP)
Ingestion of Beta-alanine
Lidocaine poisoning
Lomotil
Low blood-sugar (Hypoglycaemia)
Menopause
Migraines
Multiple sclerosis
Nitrous Oxide, long term exposure 
Obdormition
Radiation poisoning
Vitamin B5 deficiency
Vitamin B12 deficiency
Withdrawal from certain SSRIs, such as paroxetine

References

Other websites
 Paresthesia in detail 
 What makes your arms, legs and feet fall asleep?

Neurology
Perfectionism, in psychology, is a type of personality where there is a need for oneself or others to be the best in any given part of life. There are only two outcomes; anything less than perfect is taken to be unacceptable. The belief holds that one can achieve perfection and should aim for it. A person who believes this is called a perfectionist.

At first, some consider perfectionism as helpful. Perfectionism can lead people to achieve great things and give them motivation. However, it is considered to be a belief that is mostly unhealthy and harmful. Perfectionism makes people set goals that are unrealistic and cannot be reached. This leads to many problems like depression, anxiety, eating disorders and low self-esteem. Perfectionism may also lead to procrastination as it allows one to avoid being less than perfect ("I can't do this project until I can do it the right way."). This can mean low productivity.
Perfectionistic behaviour is growing in the newer generation. Perfectionism has received more attention by popular sayings like “practice makes perfect”. There are also more and more people who see themselves as a perfectionist. These people also mentioned their difficulties which comes with this behaviour.

Normal vs Neurotic Perfectionism 
In 1978, D. E. Hamachek shows that there are two types of perfectionists: normal and neurotic. Normal perfectionists are people who set high goals for themselves. The main thing is that they are open to making some errors. Neurotic perfectionists also set high goals, but with no room for error. They view themselves strictly at all times. This makes them feel like nothing is done well enough.

Both types set high standards for themselves. This shows that the psychological problems that come with perfectionism come from viewing oneself strictly.
The Comprehensive Model of Perfectionism (CMPB) 
There are a few models of perfectionism. In 2017, Hewitt et al. released one of the most detailed models. Their Comprehensive Model of Perfectionistic Behaviour splits perfectionism into many levels of a personality style. There are three levels:

1.     Trait level

2.     Self-presentational or other-relational level

3.     Cognitive or self-relational level

The first part of this model is multiple perfectionistic traits that are linked. They include self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism. These are measures of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS).
The second level is concerned with the image oneself presents to others. The relational part says that rather than needing to be perfect, there is a need to only appear so. This leads to displays of perfection and hiding imperfections. They avoid making mistakes in front of others or speaking about their imperfections. This is due to a fear of being judged badly by others which will cause feelings of low self-esteem.

The cognitive part of this model refers to repeated and automatic cognitive thoughts of needing to be perfect. There is a rumination of the difference between one’s present actual self and the perfect self that one can / should be.

Measuring Perfectionism
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) 
Early theorists suggest perfectionism as firm unrealistic goals for oneself. These clinical observations were important. However, it was not possible, to sum up perfectionism as a single term. This led Frost et al. in 1990 and in 1991, Hewitt and Flett, to come up with their own multidimensional scales of perfectionism.

Frost's Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS) measures 6 different dimensions of perfectionism:

1.     Concern over mistakes (CM),

2.     Very high personal standards (PS),

3.     Views of parental expectations (PE),

4.     Views of parental criticism (PC),

5.     Doubts about one’s actions (D), and

6.     Organisation (O).

Examples of CM: “If I fail at work / school, I fail as a person”, “If I do not do as well as others, I am a worse human” and “The less mistakes I make, the more people will like me”.
Examples of PS: “If I do not set the highest standards for myself, I will end up second” and “I expect a higher performance of myself than normal people”.

Examples of PE: “My parents wants me to be the best at everything”.

Examples of PC: “I was punished if I did something less than perfect” and “I felt like I cannot meet my parent’s standards”.

Examples of D: “Feeling like a task is not done right, even though it was done very carefully”.

Examples of O: Liking to be neat and organised.

Hewitt & Flett’s MPS is a 45-item scale measuring three parts of perfectionism:

1.     Self-oriented perfectionism,

2.     Other-oriented perfectionism, and

3.     Socially prescribed perfectionism.

The difference between these parts is not behavioural displays. It is to whom perfectionism is directed to (self or others) or to whom the perfectionistic behaviour is placed by (socially prescribed).
Self-oriented perfectionism refers to the setting of impossible standards and strictly examining oneself. Although there are harmful effects, it also results in motivation by aiming to achieve perfection while avoiding failure.

Other-oriented perfectionism is placing unrealistic standards for significant others. There is a focus on others being perfect and strictly examining them. This leads to blaming, lack of trust, and unkind feelings towards others. However, this dimension may link to leadership ability and giving motivation to others.

Socially prescribed perfectionism is the believed need to achieve unrealistic standards placed by other people on oneself. As the standards placed by others are felt as too much, it may often lead to anger, anxiety and depression.

References
References

Other websites 
 
 Why Perfect Is Not Always Best (BBC article)
 Seeking Perfection BBC Science and Nature
 The RIGHT Stuff - Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder: A Defect of Philosophy, not Anxiety  Steven Phillipson, Ph.D., Center for Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy

Psychology
The Garonne is a river that runs through northern Spain and the southwest France. Its mouth is at the Atlantic Ocean. It is  long.

Rivers of Spain
Catalonia
Rivers of Nouvelle-Aquitaine
Rivers of Occitanie
Haute-Garonne
Physical abuse is a form of abuse which causes feelings of pain, injury, or other physical suffering. Physical abuse may lead to low self-esteem and other mental problems.

Types of physical abuse
Physical abuse has many forms. A few examples of physical abuse are:

 Striking or hitting
 Punching
 Slapping
 Whipping
 Striking with an object
 Pinching
 Kicking
 Strangling
 Drowning
 Sleep deprivation
 Freezing
 Burning
 Electric shock
 Cutting
 Poisoning
 Withholding food or medication
 Assault
 Neglect
 Torture
 Any other excessive physical treatment.
Abuse
Sexual abuse (also called sexual molestation) is when one person forces another person to commit a sexual act, harassment or  sexual assault. A person who commits sexual abuse is called a molester, abuser, or sexual abuser. When a victim of sexual abuse is under the age of consent, it is known as child sexual abuse. 

Sexual abuse can lead to many psychological problems, including low self-esteem, clinical depression, psychological trauma and other mental disorders, especially if the victim is a child and/or the abuse is severe.
Some groups of people are more likely to be sexually abused than others. It is common knowledge that girls and women are sexually abused more often than boys and men, and that abusers are usually men. Disabled people, especially disabled girls, are much more likely than non-disabled people to be sexually abused. They are often abused by authority figures in their lives, such as carers. Disabled people are more vulnerable to sexual assault for a number of reasons. People of different races have different rates of being sexually abused. African American girls and women 12 years old and older experience higher rates of sexual abuse.

Other websites 
 
 Rape, Abuse, & Incest National Network RAINN is the largest anti-sexual assault organization and operates the National Sexual Assault Hotlines.
 Gender Male - False Accusations of Sexual Abuse  First-hand accounts from men falsely accused of rape and its effect on their lives.

References
The Sakas were a population of Iranic nomadic tribesmen lived in the plains of Eurasia from Eastern Europe to China, from the Old Persian Period to the Middle Persian Period. Then Turkic language speakers took their place.

The ancient Greeks called the Sakas the Scythians.

Sakas came across the river Indus and overan Sind and Saurashtra (near Gujrat) .They finally settled down in Kathiawar and malwa. They were often in war with the Satavahanas. Rudradaman, one of their best known king was the one who stopped the expansion of Sata ahana power to the north of river Narmada. The Sakas themselves could not expand to the north as they would have liked to, because Kushanas held them back.

References

Books and Articles
Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. 2002. Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines. Warner Books, New York. 1st Trade printing, 2003.  (pbk).
 Lebedynsky, Iaroslav. (2006). Les Saces: Les <<Scythes>> d'Asie, VIIIe av. J.-C.-IVe siècle apr. J.-C. Editions Errance, Paris.  (in French).

Other websites 
Genetic journeys and ancestors 
Hill, John E. 2004. The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. Draft annotated English translation.
Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation.

Punjab, India
History of Pakistan
Hill Auditorium is the largest performance place on the University of Michigan campus in Ann Arbor in the United States. The auditorium was named after Arthur Hill (1847-1909), who was a regent of the university from 1901 to 1909. He gave 200,000 dollars to the university to build it. Opened in 1913, the auditorium was designed by Albert Kahn and Associates. It was recently fixed up by the same firm beginning in 2002 and was re-opened in 2004.

University of Michigan campus
1913 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Michigan
2002 disestablishments in the United States
Disestablishments in Michigan
2004 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in Michigan
Goulburn () is a city in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia. It is 190 km south-west of Sydney on the Hume Highway. It is 690 metres above sea-level. In 2006 there were 20,127 people living in Goulburn. Goulburn calls itself as "Australia's first inland city". The city of Bathurst also claims to be the first inland city in Australia. 

Goulburn was named by James Meehan after Henry Goulburn, a British politician. The Governor Lachlan Macquarie approved the choice of name. The Aboriginal name for Goulburn is Burbong. This is a Murring/Wiradjuri word meaning a special place.

Goulburn has a railway station on the Main Southern railway line. It is a service centre for the many farms in the area. It also provides a rest stop for those travelling on the Hume Highway. It has a central park and many historic buildings, including old houses near the railway station on Sloane Street. It also has two 19th-century cathedrals. It is home to the Big Merino, the world's largest cement sheep.

References
References

Other websites 

Cities in New South Wales
Women's suffrage is the right of women to take part in elections. This means two things, which are not necessarily related: First of all, women are allowed to vote for a candidate in an election, and their vote will be treated the same as any other vote. The second thing is that women can be a candidate, and get elected to hold a political office. There's also the idea that all adult citizens should be allowed to vote. 

Before the 19th century, a few countries had this idea that all adults should be able to vote, but it only applied to men. 

The modern movement for women to gain the right to vote started in France in the late-18th century. The French Republic had been founded after a revolution, and political scientist Antoine Condorcet and activist Olympe de Gouges campaigned for women to be allowed to vote in the national election.
Several British colonies recognised women's suffrage before most countries. The female descendants of the Bounty mutineers who lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from 1838. This right was kept when they were resettled on Norfolk Island in 1856. Women in South Australia were allowed to vote in local elections from 1861, and those on the Isle of Man could vote in parliamentary elections from 1881. In 1893, New Zealand became the first independent country to give all adult women the right to vote in national elections. The women in South Australia got the same right in 1894, and became the first to get the right to stand (run) for seats in parliament.
Many countries did the same soon after, following similar battles. Limited voting rights were also gained by women in several Western countries in the late 19th century, including Sweden, Finland and the United Kingdom. Russian Empire was the first European country to introduce women's suffrage, in 1906. It also elected the world's first female members of parliament in its 1907 elections. At that time it was a part of the Russian Empire. In the years before World War I, women in Norway (1913) and Denmark (1915) also won the right to vote, as did women in the other Australian states. In most other Western countries, women's suffrage came at the end of World War I.

Ceylon, now called Sri Lanka, recognised the right in 1931. It elected the world's first female head of government, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, in the country's 1960 elections. Women's suffrage was explicitly recognised as a right by the United Nations in 1979.

Related pages 
Suffrage
Suffragette

References

Feminism
Grenfell is a country town in the central west of New South Wales, in Australia. It is in the Weddin Shire. It is  west of Sydney. It is close to Forbes, Cowra and Young.  In 2006 there were 1,994 people living in Grenfell.

History
The Grenfell area was the home of the Wiradjuri Aborigines. Europeans first settled when gold was found at Emu Creek. The town was renamed after John Grenfell, the Gold Commissioner at Forbes. He had been killed in 1866 when bushrangers attacked a stagecoach on which he was travelling.

By 1870-71 more gold was found at Grenfell than in any other town in NSW. By the middle of the 1870s the gold was running out.  Wheat was first grown in the area in 1871.  The railway reached Grenfell in 1901.

The Grenfell area has been badly affected by drought since 2001.
Events
The poet and story writer Henry Lawson was born on the gold fields at Grenfell. On the Queen's Birthday weekend in June every year, the town has The Henry Lawson Festival of Arts. Thousands of people come from all over Australia for the art, poetry and writing competitions. Over the years, famous visitors have included Chips Rafferty, Barry Humphries, Patrick White and Sigrid Thornton.

In June 2007, the Spirit of the Bush Concert was held. It was organized by Australian of the Year, Lee Kernaghan, local and international star Steve Forde and the Flange, Adam Brand, Leo Sayer, Diesel, and The McClymonts.

Famous people
Cricketer Stan McCabe, cyclist Reggie "IronMan" McNamara and tennis player Jan Lehane and Creative Writer Adam Burn were born in Grenfell.

References

Other websites
 Grenfell's web site
 About the town
 Sydney Morning Herald 5 January 2003: Grenfell's attempts to woo people to move to the town.

Towns in New South Wales
Michael "Mike" Vernon (born 24 February 1963 in Calgary, Alberta, Canada) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player. For 21 years he played in the National Hockey League, he played as a goaltender for the Calgary Flames, Detroit Red Wings, San Jose Sharks and the Florida Panthers. He won the Stanley Cup twice as a member of the Flames in 1989 and then again in 1997 with the Red Wings, where he also won the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP. In 2002 he retired and started working as a Special Assistant to Vice President of Hockey Operations for Tampa Bay Lightning.

Awards
 Hap Emms Trophy, Outstanding Goaltender, Memorial Cup Championship - 1983
 William M. Jennings Trophy (shared with Chris Osgood) - 1996
 Conn Smythe Trophy - 1997
 Played in NHL All-Star Game 5 times - 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993
 His number 30 was retired by the Calgary Flames on February 6, 2007.

Records
Mike Vernon holds the following Calgary Flames franchise records:
Most games played by a goaltender (526)
 Most wins (262)
 Most minutes played by a goaltender (29,649)
 Most playoff games played by a goaltender (81)
 Most playoff minutes played by a goaltender (4,773)
 Most playoff wins (43)

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

International

Other websites

References

1963 births
Calgary Flames players
Calgary Wranglers players
Canadian ice hockey goaltenders
Conn Smythe Trophy winners
Detroit Red Wings players
Florida Panthers players
Ice hockey people from Alberta
Living people
Portland Winterhawks players
San Jose Sharks players
Sportspeople from Calgary
Stanley Cup champions
The UK general election, 1997 was an election held on 1 May 1997 to elect 659 members to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The three main candidates to become Prime Minister are shown to the right: 

The Labour Party and its leader Tony Blair gained the majority of seats and created the first Labour government since 1979. The Labour Party won 418 seats which was the highest majority of seats for any party since the Conservatives in the 1931 General Election. The Conservative Party suffered it's lowest number of seats since 1906 and lost all of its seats in Scotland and Wales. Several prominent Conservative politicians lost their seats such as Defence Secretary Michael Portillo, Foreign Secretary Malcolm Rifkind, Scottish Secretary Michael Forsyth as well as Edwina Currie, David Mellor and Ian Lang.
The Liberal Democrats won 46 seats, which was the highest number of seats for a third party since 1929. The Referendum Party ran on the single issue of taking Britain out of the European Union and won 2.6% of the vote but no seats.

The final results of the election were:
Labour Party (418 MP's, 43.2% of vote)
 Conservative Party (165 MP's, 30.7% of vote)
 Liberal Democrats (46 MP's, 16.8% of vote)
 Referendum Party (0 MP's, 2.6% of vote)
 Scottish National Party (6 MP's, 2.0% of vote) - Scotland only
 Ulster Unionist Party (10 MP's, 0.8% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Social Democratic and Labour Party (3 MP's, 0.6% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Plaid Cymru (4 MP's, 0.5% of vote) - Wales only
 Sinn Fein (2 MP's, 0.4% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Democratic Unionist Party (2 MP's, 0.3% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 UK Independence Party (0 MP's, 0.3% of vote)
 Green Party (0 MP's, 0.3% of vote)
 Alliance Party of Northern Ireland (0 MP's, 0.2% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Socialist Labour Party (0 MP's, 0.2% of vote)
 Liberal Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
 British National Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)

Notes

References

1997 in the United Kingdom
1997 elections
United Kingdom general elections
May events
Metropolitan France ( or la Métropole) is the part of France that is in Europe. It can also be described as mainland France plus the island of Corsica. By contrast, Overseas France (France d'outre-mer) is the collective name for all of the French overseas departments, territories and collectivities and New Caledonia. Metropolitan France and Overseas France together form the French Republic.

Metropolitan France covers an area of 551,695 km² (213,011 sq. miles). Excluding the territory of Adélie Land in Antarctica, this is 81.8% of the nation's territory. As of January 1, 2011, 63,136,180 people lived in metropolitan France. This is 95.9% of the nation's population.
The five overseas departments – Martinique, Guadeloupe, Réunion, French Guiana, and Mayotte – have the same political status as the departments in metropolitan France. Metropolitan France and these five overseas departments together are sometimes called France entière ("entire France") by the French administration, especially by INSEE. This grouping does not include the French overseas collectivities and territories, which have more autonomy than the overseas departments.

Related pages 
 French colonial empire

References 

Geography of France
Overseas France () is the part of France that is outside of the European continent. It consists of all overseas departments, territories and collectivities. These territories have several different legal statuses and levels of autonomy. Overseas France includes island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, French Guiana in South America, and Adélie Land in Antarctica. Each inhabited territory is represented in both the French National Assembly and the French Senate (which together make up the Parliament of France).

2,685,705 people lived in the overseas departments and territories in January 2011.

Types of territories

Overseas departments and regions
Overseas departments and regions are completely part of France.
Guadeloupe (since 1946)
Martinique (since 1946)
French Guiana (since 1946)
Réunion (since 1946)
Mayotte (since 2011)
From 1976 to 2003, Mayotte was a unique overseas territory. Between 2003 and 2011, it was an overseas community. It became an overseas department on 31 March 2011, after its citizens voted to become a full part of France.

Overseas collectivities
The category of overseas collectivity was created by changes made to France's constitution in 28 March 2003. Each overseas collectivity has its own written laws.
 French Polynesia (since 2003)
From 1946 to 2003, French Polynesia was an overseas territory. In 2004, it was given the designation of overseas country ().
 Saint Pierre and Miquelon (since 2003)
From 1976 to 1985, Saint Pierre and Miquelon was an overseas department. Between 1985 and 2003, it was a unique overseas territory.
 Wallis and Futuna (since 2003)
From 1961 to 2003, Wallis and Futuna was an overseas territory.
 Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy (since 2007)
Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy both separated from Guadeloupe in 2003. They became separate overseas collectivities of their own on 22 February 2007.
Special collectivity 
 New Caledonia (since 1999)
New Caledonia was classified as an overseas territory from 1946. It gained a special status in 1999 as a result of the Nouméa Accord. It has its own citizenship, and power is gradually being passed from the French state to New Caledonia itself. A referendum on independence is to be called any time between 2014 and 2019.

Overseas territories 
 French Southern and Antarctic Lands (since 1956)

Minor territories 
 Clipperton Island is held as private property under the direct authority of the French government. It has no permanent population.
Representation 
The overseas departments and territories are represented by 27 députés in the French National Assembly and 21 senators in the French Senate. This is 4.7% of the 577 députés and 6% of the 343 senators.
Réunion: 7 députés and 4 senators
Guadeloupe: 4 députés and 3 senators
Martinique: 4 députés and 2 senators
French Polynesia: 3 députés and 2 senators
French Guiana: 2 députés and 2 senators
Mayotte: 2 député and 2 senators
New Caledonia: 2 députés and 2 senators
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: 1 député and 1 senator
Wallis and Futuna: 1 député and 1 senator
Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin: 1 député and 2 senators

List of territories

Inhabited departments and collectivities 
The 11 French Overseas Territories are :

Uninhabited lands 

Lands generally uninhabited, except by researchers in scientific stations.

Antarctica

Related pages 
French colonial empire
Government of France
Communes in France
Metropolitan France
Organisation internationale de la Francophonie

References
References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Subdivisions of France
Justin Raimondo (born Dennis Raimondo; November 18, 1951 – June 27, 2019) was an American writer and the editorial director of the website Antiwar.com. He was born in White Plains, New York.

Raimondo died on June 27, 2019 in Sebastopol, California from lung cancer at the age of 67.

References

Other websites

 Raimondo's Online Work at AntiWar.com
 Raimondo's Online Work at TakiMag.com 

Politicians from California
Politicians from New York (state)
Writers from New York (state)
Writers from San Francisco
Anarcho-capitalists
LGBT people from New York (state)
LGBT people from California
Gay men
American LGBT writers
American LGBT politicians
1951 births
2019 deaths
American bloggers
People from White Plains, New York
This article is about the basic notions. For advanced topics, see Group theory.

In mathematics, a group is a kind of algebraic structure. A group is a set with an operation. The group's operation shows how to combine any two elements of the group's set to get a third element from the set in a useful way. A familiar example of a group is the set of integers with the addition operation.

Instead of "an element of the group's set", mathematicians usually save words by saying "an element of the group".

Mathematicians use capital letters to stand for groups. They often use G, H, or K. They also use lower-case letters to stand for group elements. For example, they would say "a is in G" to mean "a is an element of G".

They write group operations with symbols like • or *, or by writing two elements next to each other.  So "a • b", "a * b", and "ab" can all mean "the element formed when the group's operation combines a and b".
Group axioms
Not every set and operation make a group.  A group's set and operation must obey some special rules. These are called group axioms.  The following list has each axiom in both words and mathematical symbols.
Closure: When a group's operation puts together two elements, the element that is made must also be part of the group.
For all a, b in G,
a • b is also in G.
Identity element: One element of the group is special. It is called the identity element. If the operation puts together the identity element and any second element, the answer will be that second element. The identity element is usually written as e. Sometimes the identity element is written as 0 or 1 (it does not mean it is zero or one only, but has a similar purpose).
There exists e in G, so that for all a in G,
 e • a = a • e = a.
Associativity: When the operation is used twice to combine three elements, it does not matter in what order it is done, because the answer will be the same.
For all a, b and c in G,
(a • b) • c = a • (b • c).
Inverse element: Every element in the group has another element in the group that is called its inverse. When the operation combines any element and its inverse, the answer is the identity element. Sometimes, the inverse is indicated by writing either a '-' in front, or by writing -1 in superscript, so the inverse of the element a is either -a or a-1 (it depends on how one writes the identity element; once again it is only a way of writing and does not say that elements must be numbers).
For each a in G, there must be b in G so that
 a • b = b • a = e,
 where e is identity element of G.
Some more ideas

To name the group, one should say all three parts: (G, •, e). But when it is clear, one may just say that G is a group.

For most groups, one can find two elements a and b such thata • b is different fromb • a. That means, maybea • b = c, butb • a = d. This is why we say thata • b andb • a are not the same.

The number of elements in a group is called the group's order.

Abelian groups

For some special groups,a • b = b • a for every a and b in the group. These groups have a special name. They are called Abelian groups and their operation is said to be commutative.

Subgroups
Subgroups

Sometimes, part of the group is also a group. In that case, the part is called a subgroup. For example, the even numbers form a subgroup of the integers, when the operation is addition, because adding any two even numbers gives another even number. Another example is the group of isometries of a shape, which is the set of ways the shape can be moved, including rotating or mirroring it. Performing any two movements in a row gives another movement, so the set of movements forms a group.  A subgroup of movements that do not rotate the shape, but only shift it to another place in space, form a subgroup.

Examples of groups

Integers, addition, zero
One everyday example of a group is the set of integers with the addition operation. It is easy to see that when adding two integers, the result is always an integer. So, closure is true.

The identity element for this group is zero.
Because the order of additions does not matter (in other words, ), associativity rule is also true.  And the inverse of any integer is its opposite number (the inverse element of zero is zero).  This group is also an abelian group.  It is an infinite group (also called a group of infinite order) because it has an infinite number of elements: all the integers.

The set of integers with the multiplication operation is not a group, because with multiplication, most integers have no inverse that is also an integer (inverse element is not in the set).

Symmetries
Another important kind of groups are groups of symmetries. Symmetry groups provide many examples of groups. It can be proved that every group of finite order is a group of symmetries. For this reason, group theory is called the mathematical study of symmetry.

Objects are symmetric if keep some interesting features when changed. Those changes of objects (of any kind) are called symmetries.
Symmetries of finite sets
Sets only have elements in them, so they are one of the simplest objects to think of. Symmetries of a set are one-to-one functions that shuffle the elements of this set. Those functions change elements one with other but for example keep their amount the same as before shuffling.

When such group is finite (has finite order), say it has n elements, one can think of this group as the set of those shuffles (one-to-one functions) of n elements. The symmetric group given on n elements is often written as .

Shuffles can be combined one after another—function composition is the operation of this group.

Because making shuffling after shuffling is yet another shuffling, that means that there is closure. 

Also three shuffles can be combined in any of two ways: first two in the beginning to give a shuffle to combine with a third one, or last two in the beginning to give a shuffle to be combined with the first one (associavity).
The identity element is the shuffle in which nothing changes.

Any shuffle can be undone by reversing the change. That reverse is the inverse element.

Because order of shuffling matters—it is important which of the shuffles go first—group of symmetries are almost never abelian.

 Symmetries in geometry
Think of a square and (one-to-one) functions can that shuffle the place of points of the square but keep the square as a whole in one place. Interesting features are size and place of the square. Such symmetries are called (global) isometries (see congruence).

Here are all of the isometries of a square: turn the square clockwise 90o, 180o, or 270o; turn the square counter-clockwise 90o, 180o, or 270o; reflect the image of the square in a vertical mirror, or in a horizontal mirror, or a diagonal mirror to the right or the left; or leave the square as it was.
This is a finite group, or a group of (finite) order 8, because there are 8 different isometries in total. It is a non-abelian group because it makes a difference which order when making a turn and a reflection.

This is not only kind of symmetry for this square. When position is not an interesting feature then there are many more symmetries. Then infinitely many moves are allowed. If the shape of a square is all that matters then there is even more symmetries of this square, those are similarities.

This shows that it is important to say what one exactly mean by ‘symmetry’. What are interesting features of objects that keep the same during a change.

Idea to study geometry by studying symmetries of figures goes back to XIX century. It is how mathematicians think of geometry today. They even use those methods when studying different objects and speak about ‘geometry’ and ‘symmetries’ of strange objects.
Other groups
Many things in mathematics are groups. This is mostly because groups help to benefit from a brilliant idea of ‘a change that keeps interesting feature unchanged", which are called symmetries. For example, equations. The ways of solving equations can be a group. Physical things can be studied as groups. There are important symmetries about physical things which are groups (this can be place, turn, time, energy, electric charge).                                                                       

Many useful things can be proved about groups and their subgroups, which is a study called group theory. For example, the order (number of elements) of any subgroup is always a factor of the group's order.

Related pages 
 Field (mathematics)
 Ring (mathematics)

References

Other websites 
 

Group theory