Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
In 2010 the band members were:
Dobe Newton - vocals, lagerphone, percussion, whistle
Roger Corbett - vocals and guitar
Mark Oats - fiddle
Clare O'Meara - fiddle and accordion
Michael Vidale - bass
Adrian Cannon - drums

Recordings
The Shearers Dream (1974)
Beneath the Southern Cross (1981)
And The Band Played Waltzing Matilda (1976)
Murrumbidgee (1977)
Bushfire (1979)
The Bushwackers Dance Album (1980)
Faces In The Street (1981)
Warrigal Morning - music for the film Bush Christmas (1983)
Down There For Dancing (1982)
No Nuts 'Til Monday (2000)
Handy (2003)
April 25 (2006)
Ned (2007)
The Lawson Project (2008) - spoken word recording

References 

 http://www.bushwackers.com.au/index.htm 
 http://www.answers.com/topic/and-the-band-played-waltzing-matilda-rock-album?cat=entertainment
Australian musical groups
Folk music groups
Country bands
Musical groups from Melbourne
Musical groups established in 1973
1973 establishments in Australia
Musical groups disestablished in 1984
1984 disestablishments in Australia
Musical groups established in 1993
1990s establishments in Australia
The United States Department of Transportation (DOT) is a federal Cabinet department of the United States government concerned with transportation. It was established by an act of Congress on October 15, 1966 and began operation on April 1, 1967. It is administered by the United States Secretary of Transportation. Their current mission statement is, "The mission of the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) is to ensure our Nation has the safest, most efficient and modern transportation system in the world, which improves the quality of life for all American people and communities, from rural to urban, and increases the productivity and competitiveness of American workers and businesses."

References 

 
1967 establishments in the United States
The United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the department of the United States government's executive branch responsible for the operation and maintenance of land (and later air) forces from 1789 until September 18, 1947, when it became part of the National Military Establishment, renamed on August 10, 1949, the Department of Defense. The War Department also had responsibility for the young nation's naval affairs until the establishment of the Navy Department in 1798.

Former United States Executive Departments
1949 disestablishments
1789 establishments in the United States
1940s disestablishments in the United States
The United States Department of Commerce and Labor was a Cabinet department of the United States government.

The department was created on February 14, 1903. Later, on March 4, 1913 the name changed to the Department of Commerce. Then, its bureaus and agencies specializing in labor moved to the new Department of Labor.

The department was administered by the United States Secretary of Commerce and Labor.

Commerce and Labor
Commerce and Labor
Commerce and Labor
1903 establishments in the United States
1910s disestablishments in the United States
The United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (also known as HEW) was a cabinet-level department of the United States government from 1953 until 1979.  It was administered by the United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare.  In 1979, a separate Department of Education (ED) was created from this department, and HEW was renamed as the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).
History 
President Warren G. Harding proposed a Department of Education and Welfare as early as 1923, and similar proposals were also recommended by subsequent presidents, but for various reasons was not implemented.  It was only enacted as part of Reorganization Plan Number 1 of 1953, transmitted to Congress by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on March 12, 1953. HEW ran a Community Public Health Program, which was famous for its grants to cities like Chicago for rat control. It ran a Solid Waste program focused on municipal waste issues, like how to build sanitary landfills rather than dumps. It also had a radiation program under which it wrote standards on things like microwave ovens. When the EPA was created in 1970, it assumed a number of HEW’s programs that related to environmental protection, including its pesticides program and half of its radiation program.
To date, this was the only department of the U.S. government to be created through presidential reorganization authority, in which the president is allowed to create or reorganize bureaucracies as long as neither house of Congress passed a legislative veto. This power to create new departments was removed after 1962, but in the early 1980s, the Supreme Court declared legislative vetoes unconstitutional.

References

Former United States Executive Departments
United States Department of Education
United States Department of Health and Human Services
1953 establishments in the United States
1979 disestablishments in the United States
The Post Office Department is the former name of the United States Postal Service when it was a Cabinet department. It was headed by the United States Postmaster General.

The Postal Service Act signed by President George Washington on February 20, 1792 established the Department. Postmaster General John McLean was the first to call it the Post Office Department rather than just the "Post Office." The organization became more important in the government when President Andrew Jackson asked his Postmaster General, William T. Barry, to sit as a member of the Cabinet.

During the Civil War, postal services in the  Confederacy were provided by the Confederate States of America Post Office Department, headed by Postmaster General John Henninger Reagan.

The Postal Reorganization Act signed by President Richard Nixon on August 12, 1970, replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with the independent United States Postal Service.  The Act took effect on July 1, 1971.

References
References

Post Office Department
Post Office Department
1792 establishments in the United States
1971 disestablishments in the United States
The United States Department of Education (also referred to as ED, for Education Department) is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. Created by the Department of Education Organization Act (Public Law 96-88), it was signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on October 17, 1979 and began operating on May 4, 1980.

References

 
1979 establishments in the United States
The United States Department of Housing, often abbreviated HUD, is a Cabinet department of the United States federal government. Although its beginnings were in the House and Home Financing Agency, it was founded in 1965 to develop and execute policy on housing and cities. It has largely scaled back its urban development function and now focuses primarily on housing.

The department was established on September 9, 1965 when President Lyndon Johnson signed the Department of Housing and Urban Development Act  into law. It stipulated that the department was to be created no later than November 8, 60 days following the date of enactment. The actual implementation was postponed until January 13, 1966, following the completion of a special study group report on the federal role in solving urban problems.
HUD is administered by the United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. The former administrator of the US Small Business Association, Steve Preston, was nominated to the Position of Secretary of HUD by President Bush on April 18, 2008. He was confirmed by the Senate and his public swearing in ceremony was on June 6, 2008.

 
1965 establishments in the United States
The United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) is a government-run military veteran benefit system with Cabinet-level status. It is responsible for administering programs of veterans’ benefits for veterans, their families, and survivors. The benefits provided include disability compensation, pension, education, home loans, life insurance, vocational rehabilitation, survivors’ benefits, medical benefits and burial benefits.
It is administered by the United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs.

References
A particle accelerator, also called an atom smasher, is a machine that accelerates (speeds up) particles and makes them travel at very high speeds.  Accelerators work by pushing particles like electrons, protons, or atomic nuclei (the centers of atoms) with electric fields and by steering them with magnetic fields. Their main use is to study particle physics.
The largest accelerators are used to study particles smaller than atoms; smaller accelerators are used to study atomic nuclei and make radioactive materials.   There are two kinds of particle accelerators: linear accelerators and circular accelerators. Linear accelerators move the particles in a line, while circular accelerators move the particles in a circle.   One example of a particle accelerator is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. It is very big, stretching through two countries.  Another example is the Tevatron in the United States.  The cathode ray tube, used in 20th century televisions and computer monitors is also a simple accelerator for electrons.
When accelerated particles hit other particles such as atoms, smaller pieces come out. This helps people see particles smaller than an atom. Normally those particles cannot be seen, but they can in the particle accelerator.  This is because in some ways energy and matter are the same thing. At the high speed created in these machines, some of the movement energy is changed into matter. It is the opposite process that nuclear weapons use; nuclear weapons turn matter into energy.  Small amounts of antimatter are also created during the process.

The particle accelerator at CERN was set up to search for the Higgs Boson particle, which would complete the Standard Model of Particle Physics.

Particle accelerators often use very advanced technology. This makes them cost a lot of money which is usually paid by governments.

References 

Nuclear physics
The United States Secretary of Education is the head of the Department of Education. The Secretary is a member of the President's Cabinet, and 16th in line of United States presidential line of succession. The United States Secretary of Education deals with Education.

In 1979, President Jimmy Carter established the Department of Education as a cabinet-level agency. Previously, Education had been handled by the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, henceforth known as the Secretary of Health and Human Services.

Chronological list
Source

References

Secretary of Education

1979 establishments in the United States
The United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare was the head of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  The Secretary was a member of the President's Cabinet. In 1979, there was a division of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare's position into separate secretaries of Health and Human Services and Education.
Oveta Culp Hobby (January 19, 1905–August 16, 1995) was the first secretary of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, first commanding officer of the Women's Army Corps, and chairman of the board of the Houston Post.

References 
 Pando, Robert T. "Oveta Culp Hobby: A Study in Power and Control." Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 2008, 220 pages.
 Treadwell, Mattie. The Woman's Army Corps (1954)

United States Secretaries of Health, Education, and Welfare
Politicians from Texas
1905 births
1995 deaths
Patricia Roberts Harris (May 31, 1924 – March 23, 1985) served as United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the last United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare and the first United States Secretary of Health and Human Services in the administration of President Jimmy Carter. She was the first African American woman to serve as a United States Ambassador, representing the U.S. in Luxembourg under President Lyndon B. Johnson, and the first to enter the line of succession to the Presidency.

United States Secretaries of Health and Human Services
United States Secretaries of Health, Education, and Welfare
United States Secretaries of Housing and Urban Development
Politicians from Illinois
1924 births
1985 deaths
The Federal Housing Commissioner is appointed by the President and confirmed by the United States Senate. The Assistant Secretary is third in the order of succession for the office of Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. The Assistant Secretary is paid at level IV of the Executive Schedule, meaning he or she receives a basic annual salary of $143,000. The incumbent Federal Housing Commissioner is Brian D. Montgomery, who was confirmed in February 2005. The previous Federal Housing Commissioner was John C. Weicher.

References

United States Assistant Secretaries of Housing and Urban Development
The United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development is the head of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, concerned with urban housing matters.  The Secretary is a member of the President's Cabinet. Marcia Fudge is currently serving as Secretary.

On January 13, 1966, Robert C. Weaver became the first African American Cabinet member by being appointed to the position.

Chronological list 
Parties
 (9)
 (9)
 Status

References

Other websites
 

Secretary

1966 establishments in the United States
Henry Merritt "Hank" Paulson Jr. (born March 28, 1946) was the United States Treasury Secretary from 2006 to 2009 and member of the International Monetary Fund Board of Governors. He previously served as the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Goldman Sachs.

Paulson is co-chair with Tom Steyer and Michael Bloomberg for a  report called Risky Business  by a coalition of top U.S. political and economic leaders from the political left, right, and center on the dire economic consequences from climate change (global warming), from lost property to ruined crops.

References

Living people
1946 births
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
Politicians from Florida
Christian Scientists
The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest"; Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing") was a period of 800 years in the Middle Ages during which the several Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula expanded themselves (grew) by conquering the Muslim states of Al-Andalus (Arabic الأندلس), the Muslim states on the Iberian Peninsula, and pushing them out of the peninsula.

The Reconquista began shortly after the Islamic conquest. Much of the ideology of the Reconquista was common to most Crusading: soldiers from all Christendom travelled to Iberia to fight the Muslims as an act of Christian repentance.

The Reconquista came to an end on the 2 January 1492 with the capture of Granada. The last Muslim ruler of Granada surrendered (gave up) his kingdom to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic kings (los Reyes Católicos). This event marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia.

Bibliography
Bibliography 

 Watt, W. Montgomery: A History of Islamic Spain. University Press of Edinburgh (1992).
 Watt, W. Montgomery: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. (Edinburgh 1972).
 Timothy Reuter, Christopher Allmand, David Luscombe, Rosamond McKitterick (eds.), " The New Cambridge Medieval History", Cambridge University Press, Sep 14, 1995, .
 Bishko, Charles Julian, 1975. The Spanish and Portuguese Reconquest, 1095–1492 in A History of the Crusades, vol. 3: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, edited by Harry W. Hazard, (University of Wisconsin Press)

Other websites 

 Timeline of the Reconquista , The University of Calgary.
 Battles of Castile & Leon : 844–1521.
 Exiles from Andalusia .

History of Spain
John William Snow (born August 2, 1939, in Toledo, Ohio) served as the 73rd United States Secretary of the Treasury. He replaced Secretary Paul O'Neill on February 3, 2003 and was succeeded by Henry Paulson on July 3, 2006, in a move that had been anticipated for several weeks. Snow submitted a letter of resignation on May 30, 2006, effective "after an orderly transition period for my successor."  To replace him, U.S. President George W. Bush nominated Henry M. Paulson, Jr.. Snow announced on Thursday, June 29, 2006 that he had completed his last day on the job; Robert Kimmitt served as acting secretary until Paulson was sworn in.

References 

1939 births
Living people
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
Politicians from Ohio
Paul Henry O'Neill (December 4, 1935 – April 18, 2020) was an American businessman and politician.

He served as the 72nd United States Secretary of the Treasury for part of President George W. Bush's first Administration. He resigned in December 2002 under pressure from the administration and became a harsh critic.

O'Neill was chairman and CEO of Pittsburgh-based industrial giant Alcoa from 1987 to 1999, and retired as chairman at the end of 2000. In 1995, he was made chairman of the RAND Corporation.

O'Neill died of lung cancer on April 18, 2020 in Pittsburgh, aged 84.

References

2020 deaths
Deaths from lung cancer
Businesspeople from St. Louis, Missouri
Republican Party (United States) politicians
Businesspeople from Pittsburgh
Politicians from Pittsburgh
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
Politicians from St. Louis, Missouri
1935 births
Oliver Wolcott Jr. (January 11, 1760 – June 1, 1833) was United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1795 to 1800 and governor of Connecticut from 1817 to 1827.

1760 births
1833 deaths
Governors of Connecticut
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
Yale University alumni
19th-century American politicians
18th-century American politicians
Samuel Dexter (May 14, 1761 – May 4, 1816) was an early American statesman who served both in Congress and in the Presidential Cabinet.

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the Rev. Samuel Dexter, the 4th minister of Dedham, he graduated from Harvard University in 1781 and then studied law at Worcester under Levi Lincoln, Sr., the future Attorney General of the United States. After he passed the bar in 1784, he began practicing in Lunenburg, Massachusetts.

United States Secretaries of the Treasury
United States Secretaries of War
Politicians from Boston
1761 births
1816 deaths
The United States Secretary of the Army is a civilian office within the Department of Defense with statutory responsibility for all matters relating to the United States Army: manpower, personnel, reserve affairs, installations, environmental issues, weapons systems and equipment acquisition, communications, and financial management. Nominated by the President and confirmed by the U.S. Senate, the Secretary of the Army is a non-Cabinet position serving under the Secretary of Defense. This position was created September 18, 1947, when the Department of War became the Department of the Army and made a branch of the new Department of Defense.

Chronological list of Secretaries of the Army

References
Kenneth Claiborne Royall (July 24, 1894–May 25, 1971) was a United States Army general and the last person to hold the office of Secretary of War. That position was abolished in 1947, and Royall served as the first Secretary of the Army (a successory position) from 1947 to 1949.

1894 births
1971 deaths
American generals
American military personnel of World War I
American military personnel of World War II
Politicians from North Carolina
United States Secretaries of the Army
United States Secretaries of War
Military people from North Carolina
Preston M. Geren, III (born January 29, 1952 in Fort Worth, Texas) was the 20th United States Secretary of the Army from 16 July 2007 to 16 September 2009.

He had already been acting United States Secretary of the Air Force, between 29 July 2005 and position he served in until the confirmation of his successor Michael Wynne on 4 November 2005.

Geren was also a member of the United States House of Representatives from Texas.

References

1952 births
Living people
United States Secretaries of the Air Force
Politicians from Texas
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
United States Secretaries of the Army
The Astor Markhor or the Flare-horned Markhor (Capra falconeri falconeri) is an endangered species of Markhor. It is native to Kashmir and northern Pakistan. The Astor Markhor has large, flat horns, branching widely and then going up nearly straight with only a half turn. It is synonymous with Capra falconeri cashmiriensis or Pir Panjal Markhor, which has heavy, flat horns, twisted like a corkscrew. The Astor Markhor also has a tendency to sexually segregate outside the mating season because of multiple different mechanisms. The females are usually confined to cliffs with less forage coverage, while the males live in areas with a lot more forage coverage.
Within Afghanistan, the Astor Markhor is limited to the east in the high and mountainous monsoon forests of Laghman and Nuristan. In Indian-occupied kashmir, this subspecies is restricted to a portion of the Pir Panjal range in southwestern Jammu and Kashmir. Throughout this range, Astor Markhor populations are scattered, starting east of the Banihal Pass (50 km from the Chenab River) on the Jammu–Srinagar highway westward to the disputed de-facto border with Pakistan. Recent surveys indicate it still occurs in catchments of the Limber and Lachipora Rivers in the Jhelum Valley Forest Division, and around Shupiyan to the south of Srinagar. In Pakistan, the Astor Markhor there is restricted to the Indus and its tributaries, as well as to the Kunar (Chitral) River and its tributaries
. Along the Indus, it inhabits both banks from Jalkot (Kohistan District) upstream to near the Tungas village (Baltistan), with Gakuch being its western limit up the Gilgit River, Chalt up the Hunza River, and the Parishing Valley up the Astore River. It has been said to occur on the right side of the Yasin Valley (Gilgit District), though this is unconfirmed. The flare-horned Markhor is also found around Chitral and the border areas with Afghanistan, where it inhabits a number of valleys along the Kunar River (Chitral District), from Arandu on the west bank and Drosh on the east bank, up to Shoghor along the Lutkho River, and as far as Barenis along the Mastuj River. The largest population is currently found in Chitral National Park in Pakistan.
References 

Caprids
Mammals of Pakistan
Plants and animals of Kashmir
Near threatened species
The Kabul markhor (Capra falconeri megaceros) is a goat-antelope native to Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is an endangered subspecies of the markhor. It is the 'Provincial animal of Afghania'.

Related pages

Markhor

Caprids
Mammals of Asia
Junagarh City () was the former capital of the former princely state of Junagadh, which was integrated into the Indian Union in 1948. It is now in the state of Gujarat.

Cities in Gujarat
Nirvana is a greatest hits album by American grunge band Nirvana, who disbanded in 1994 because the lead singer, Kurt Cobain died. The album was released on October 29, 2002.  It was almost not released because of a lawsuit by Cobain's wife Courtney Love. This was because of a song on the album, "You Know You're Right", that Love thought would be wasted on a box-set album. She thought it would work better on one CD. Soon after the lawsuit was settled, the album was released.

List of songs
"You Know You're Right"
"About a Girl"
"Been a Son"
"Sliver"
"Smells Like Teen Spirit"
"Come as You Are"
"Lithium"
"In Bloom"
"Heart-Shaped Box"
"Pennyroyal Tea"
"Rape Me"
"Dumb"
"All Apologies" (live at MTV Unplugged)
"The Man Who Sold the World" (live at MTV Unplugged. David Bowie cover)
"Where Did You Sleep Last Night" (live at MTV Unplugged. Only on Vinyl and International Versions)
"Something In The Way" (live at MTV Unplugged. (Only on Vinyl and Japanese CD Versions)

Nirvana albums
2002 albums
The Hindustan–Pakistan Border, known locally as the International Border (IB), is the international boundary between the Republic of India and Pakistan that demarcates the Indian states of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat from the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh except for Kashmir that is disputed (Line of Control). The border resulted from the Partition of India in 1947.

Wagah, the ceremonial point of crossing between India and Pakistan lies along this border between the Indian city of Amritsar and the Pakistani city of Lahore.
"Working boundary"
The border between two countries is called an international border from Gujrat/Sindh to the Line of Control. The Kashmir region is divided by the 1949 UN ceasefire line into two parts and the de facto border dividing Pakistan-administered Kashmir from Indian-administered Kashmir has been called the Line of Control since 1972. On the south side of the border of the Jammu Division is Pakistan's Punjab border, and is called the working boundary by Pakistan (which is a recent term) but the "international border" by India.

Other disputes
Rann of Kutch and the Kori Creek
Ferozpur District
Pathankot Tehsil

Borders of India
Borders of Pakistan
The Coat of arms of Afghanistan has appeared in some form on the Flag of Afghanistan since the inception of that nation. The most notable absence was during the 1980s when a Communist regime ruled the nation, and in the late 1990s, during the rule of the Taliban. 

The latest incarnation of the coat of arms has the added inscription of the shahadah in Arabic at the top. Below it is the image of a mosque with a mehrab that is facing Mecca with a prayer mat inside. Attached to the mosque are two flags, taken to stand for flags of Afghanistan. Beneath the mosque is an inscription that states the name of the nation. Around the mosque is a garland. It is white

Afghanistan
National symbols of Afghanistan
USB is an international standard of technology for connecting peripherals to computers and other devices that support it. An interface where a USB device can be connected is called a port. A USB hub is a special device which allows adding more USB ports. The additional ports share one USB connection to the computer; for this reason,  each of them cannot carry as much data as a direct USB connection can. 

A hub may be bus-powered, which means it gets all its electrical power from the computer. This makes simple wiring, but it cannot give full power to its peripherals. A self powered hub has its own power cord, and can give full power to peripherals that need it.  

There are different versions of the USB standard; main difference between the version is the maximum speed that is supported. The USB standard also defines different types of USB plugs.
A USB hub is a normal USB device, which was built for a given version of the standard. Certain models may support different versions of USB, while others may not.  As an example: USB 3.0 can transfer payload data at up to 4 GBits per second. USB 2.0 is limited to a transfer rate of 280 MBits per second. Connecting an USB 3.0 device to the computer using an USB 2.0 hub will limit the transfer rate to that of USB 2.0. 

Computer hardware
USB
A digital signature or digital signature scheme is a type of asymmetric cryptography. For messages sent through an insecure channel, a good implementation of digital signature algorithm is one that makes the receiver believe that the message was sent by the claimed sender, and trust the message.

Digital signatures are equivalent to traditional handwritten signatures in many respects; properly implemented digital signatures are more difficult to copy than the handwritten type. Digital signature are implemented using cryptography. Digital signatures can also provide acknowledgement, meaning that the signer cannot successfully claim they did not sign a message, while also claiming their private key remains secret. Digital signatures are regularly used in USA, European countries and India in government as well as private offices. In India certificate called Digital Signing Certificate (DSC) is widely used for e-filing the business related documents and income tax return filing etc.
Digital signatures are often used to implement electronic signatures, a broader term that refers to any electronic data that holds a meaning of a signature, but not all electronic signatures use digital signatures. In some countries, including the United States, and in the European Union, electronic signatures may have legal significance. In India electronic signature do not have any legal significance but digital signature does have legal validity and considered as legally valid signature as per the information technology  act, 2000.

Digital signatures scheme 
A digital signature system typically consists of two algorithms:

 A signing algorithm which inputs a message and a private key to output a signature.
 A signature verifying algorithm which given a message, public key and a signature, decides either to accept or reject.
Two main properties are required by the digital signature system:
 A signature generated from a fixed message and fixed private key should verify on that message and the corresponding public key. 
 It should be computationally infeasible to generate a valid signature for a person who does not own the private key.

Digital signature security and attacks
The GMR signature scheme:

In 1984, Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali, and Ronald Rivest became the first to strictly define the security requirements of digital signature schemes. They described a hierarchy of attack models for signature schemes, they also present the GMR signature scheme. GMR scheme was proven to be secure against adaptive chosen-message attacks — even when an attacker receives signatures for messages of his choice, this does not allow him to copy a signature for a single additional message.

In their foundational paper, Goldwasser, Micali, and Rivest lay out a hierarchy of attack models against digital signatures:
In a key-only attack, the attacker is only given the public verification key.
 In a known message attack, the attacker is given valid signatures for a variety of messages known by the attacker but not chosen by the attacker.
 In an adaptive chosen message attack, the attacker first learns signatures on arbitrary messages of the attacker's choice.

They also describe a hierarchy of attack results:

 A total break results in the recovery of the signing key.
 A universal forgery attack results in the ability to forge signatures for any message.
 A selective forgery attack results in a signature on a message of the adversary's choice.
 An existential forgery merely results in some valid message/signature pair not already known to the adversary.

The strongest notion of security, therefore, is security against existential forgery under an adaptive chosen message attack.

Related pages
 Electronic signature
 Cryptography

References
References

Other websites
 Introduction to cryptography  from the PGP international website

Cryptography

 Introduction to Digital Certificate vs Digital Signature
Key generation is the process of generating keys for cryptography. The key is used to encrypt and decrypt data whatever the data is being encrypted or decrypted.

Modern cryptographic systems include symmetric-key algorithms (such as DES and AES) and public-key algorithms (such as RSA).  Symmetric-key algorithms use a single shared key; keeping data secret requires keeping this key secret.  Public-key algorithms use a public key and a private key.  The public key is made available to anyone (often by means of a digital certificate).  A sender will encrypt data with the public key; only the holder of the private key can decrypt this data.
Since public-key algorithms tend to be much slower than symmetric-key algorithms, modern systems such as TLS and its predecessor SSL as well as the SSH use a combination of the two in which:  
 One party receives the other's public key, and encrypts a small piece of data (either a symmetric key or some data that will be used to generate it).
 The remainder of the conversation (the remaining party) uses a (typically faster) symmetric-key algorithm for encryption.

The simplest method to read encrypted data is a brute force attack–simply attempting every number, up to the maximum length of the key.  Therefore, it is important to use a sufficiently long key length; longer keys take exponentially longer time to attack, making a brute force attack invisible and impractical.  

Currently, commonly used key lengths are:
 128-bits for symmetric key algorithms.
 1024-bits for public-key algorithms.
Key generation algorithms 
In computer cryptography keys are integers.  In some cases keys are randomly generated using a random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG), the latter being a computer algorithm that produces data which appears random under analysis. Some types the PRNGs algorithms utilize system entropy to generate a seed data, such seeds produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess.  

In other situations, the key is created using a passphrase and a key generation algorithm, using a cryptographic hash function such as SHA-1.

Related pages
 Distributed key generation: For some protocols no party should be in the sole possession of the secret key. Rather, during distributed key generation every party obtains a share of the key. A threshold of the participating parties need to work together in order to achieve a cryptographic task, such as decrypting a message.

References

Cryptography
Symmetric-key algorithms is a method in cryptography. It is when the keys for decryption and encryption are exactly the same shared secret. You can generate the secret randomly, or from a password, or through a secret key-exchange procedure like Diffie-Hellman.

Symmetric-key algorithms are very important because they are faster on computers than the other kind:public-key algorithms. In public-key cryptography (asymmetric-key cryptography) the key for encryption can be given to the public with no problem, and everyone can send you secret messages. The key for encryption is "open" because, in practice, it cannot be used to get the key for decryption. This is very useful, but public-key cryptography algorithms are very slow on computers, so they are only used to send a secret key. Then symmetric-key algorithms are used for everything else because they are faster.
There are two kinds of symmetric-key algorithms, called stream ciphers and block ciphers. Stream ciphers encrypt a message as a stream of bits one at a time. Block ciphers take blocks of bits, encrypt them as a single unit, and sometimes use the answer later too. Blocks of 64 bits have been commonly used; though modern ciphers like the Advanced Encryption Standard use 128-bit blocks.

Examples of popular symmetric cyphers include Twofish, Serpent, AES (aka Rijndael), Blowfish, CAST5, RC4, TDES, and IDEA.

In history, some cryptanalysis methods exploited symmetry, so symmetric systems were less secure. Some attacks are called known-plaintext attacks, chosen plaintext attacks, differential cryptanalysis and linear cryptanalysis. 

Other terms for symmetric-key encryption are secret-key, single-key, shared-key, one-key and eventually private-key encryption. This last term does not have the same meaning that the term private key has in public-key cryptography.
Symmetric vs. asymmetric algorithms 
Unlike symmetric algorithms, asymmetric key algorithms use a different key for encryption than for decryption. Meaning, a user knowing the encryption key of an asymmetric algorithm can encrypt messages, but cannot calculate the decryption key and cannot decrypt messages encrypted with that key. A short comparison of these two types of algorithms is given below:

Speed 
Symmetric-key algorithms are generally much less computationally intensive than asymmetric key algorithms. In practice, asymmetric key algorithms are typically hundreds to thousands times slower than symmetric key algorithms.
Key management 
One disadvantage of symmetric-key algorithms is the requirement of a shared secret key, with both parties holding the same copy at each end. 
In order to ensure secure communications between everyone in a group of n people a total of n(n - 1)/2 keys are needed, which is the total number of possible communication channels.
To limit the impact of a potential discovery by a cryptographic attacker, they should be changed regularly and kept secure during distribution and in service. The process of selecting, distributing and storing keys is known as key management, and is difficult to achieve reliably and securely.
Hybrid cryptosystem 
In modern cryptosystems designs, both asymmetric (public key) and symmetric algorithms are used to take advantage of the best of both.  
Asymmetric algorithms are used to distribute symmetric-keys at the start of a session. Once a symmetric key is known to all parties of the session, faster symmetric-key algorithms using that key can be used to encrypt the remainder of the session. This simplifies the key distribution problem, because asymmetric keys only have to be distributed authentically, while symmetric keys need to be distributed in both an authentic and confidential manner.

Systems that use such a hybrid approach include SSL, PGP and GPG, etc.

Related pages
Asymmetric key algorithms

References

Cryptography
John Marshall (September 24, 1755 – July 6, 1835) was an American statesman and jurist who shaped American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court more powerful. Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice of the United States, working from February 4, 1801, until his death in 1835. He worked in the United States House of Representatives from March 4, 1799, to June 7, 1800, and, under President John Adams, was Secretary of State from June 6, 1800, to March 4, 1801. Marshall was from the Commonwealth of Virginia and a leader of the Federalist Party.
The longest working Chief Justice in Supreme Court history, Marshall ruled the Court for thirty years and was an important part of making the American legal system. His most important addition was judicial review; the power to stop laws that violate the Constitution. Marshall has been called the one that made the judicial branch special and powerful. Marshall also balanced the power between the federal and state government. He made sure the federal law was more powerful than state law and agreed with an expansive reading of the enumerated powers.

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William Harris Crawford (February 24, 1772–September 15, 1834) was an important American politician and judge during the early 19th century. He served as United States Secretary of War from 1815 to 1816 and United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1816 to 1825, and was a candidate for President of the United States in 1824.

Legacy
In 1875, Crawford appeared on the 50 cent bill.

The town of Crawfordsville, Indiana, as well as Crawford County, Illinois; Crawford County, Iowa; Crawford County, Missouri; Crawford County, Arkansas; Crawford County, Wisconsin; Crawfordville, Georgia; and Crawford County, Georgia, are named for Crawford.

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James McHenry (November 16, 1753 – May 3, 1816) was an early American statesman. McHenry was a signer of the United States Constitution. He was from Maryland. Fort McHenry was named for him. He was also a delegate to the Continental Congress from Maryland, and the third United States Secretary of War from January 27, 1796 to May 13, 1800, under Presidents George Washington and John Adams.

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Timothy Pickering (July 17, 1745 – January 29, 1829) was a politician from Massachusetts who served in a variety of roles, most notably as the third United States Secretary of State, serving in that office from 1795 to 1800 under Presidents George Washington and John Adams.

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John Jay (December 12, 1745 – May 17, 1829) was an American politician, statesman, slave owner, and diplomat. He was a Supreme Court Chief Justice and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Jay served in the Continental Congress and was elected President of that body. During and after the American Revolution, he was a minister (ambassador) to Spain and France, helping to fashion American foreign policy and to secure favorable peace terms from the British and French. He co-wrote the Federalist Papers with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.
Jay served on the U.S. Supreme Court as the first Chief Justice of the United States from 1789 to 1795. In 1794 he negotiated the Jay Treaty with the British. A leader of the new Federalist party, Jay was governor of New York from 1795 to 1801. He was the leading opponent of slavery and the slave trade in New York. His first attempt to pass emancipation legislation failed in 1777 and failed again in 1785, but he succeeded in 1799, signing the law that eventually emancipated the slaves of New York; the last were freed before his death.

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Evan Michael "Longo" Longoria (born October 7, 1985) is a third baseman for the San Francisco Giants. Longoria began his MLB career with the Tampa Bay Rays before being traded to the Giants in 2017. He won the 2008 American League Rookie of the Year award. In 2009, he won the Silver Slugger and Gold Glove awards for American League third basemen. Longoria once again won the Gold Glove award in 2010 and 2017.

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A nucleolus (plural: nucleoli) is the part of a eukaryotic cell where ribosomes are made. Seen under a microscope, the nucleolus is a dark spot inside the cell's nucleus. It is made up of dense RNA and proteins. Prokaryotic cells also have ribosomes, but they don't make as many as eukaryotes do, and there is no visible nucleotatius. There is usually more than one nucleolus in a eukaryote cell. The nucleolus is not bounded by a membrane.  

The nucleolus is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR), which is a chromosome region around which the nucleolus forms. Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made. Ribosomes are molecular machines that synthesizes proteins. The ribosomes are exported through the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm, where they do their work.

Nucleoli play a role in the cell's response to stress. They also help in the assembly of signal recognition particles.  Malfunction of nucleoli can be the cause of several human diseases.

References 

Cell biology
Candice Bergen (born May 9, 1946) is an American actress.  In 1980, she was nominated for an Academy Award for "Best Actress in a Supporting Role" for her role in Starting Over. Bergen later acted as the title character in Murphy Brown. (1988-98, 2018-present).

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Duke Nukem 3D is a first-person shooter video game. It was made by 3D Realms and sold by Apogee Software. It was first sold on January 29, 1996. Duke Nukem 3D is based on the main character from the platform games Duke Nukem and Duke Nukem II which were also published by Apogee. The character is voiced by Jon St. John.

Gameplay 
In the game, players control Duke Nukem, an action hero from Earth. Players must fight invading aliens that want to take over Earth. The game is made up of 28 levels spread over three chapters. An add-on pack called The Plutonium Pak, later added a fourth episode of 11 new levels, new enemies, and one new weapon.
The game is a first person shooter, so the player sees the game from Duke's eyes. Instead of following the character around like a third-person shooter, Duke Nukem is like being inside Duke, and the player can see Duke's hands and weapons on the screen. The player fights the aliens, most often by shooting at them with different guns, but Duke can also kick, and throw pipe bombs like grenades. The player must also sometimes solve puzzles to find the way through the level.

Duke Nukem 3D is set "sometime in the early 21st century", starting in a badly worn down Los Angeles. The game moves on to places such as lunar space stations. An alien transgenic species has invaded Earth while Duke has been fighting in space. Duke crash lands back on Earth and finds most humans are gone. Only a few women remain as slaves for the aliens. America has been turned into a wasteland, and pornography has become the only entertainment.

Structure
Structure

Level design 
The levels of Duke Nukem 3D take the player outdoors and indoors, on the street, inside military bases, deserts, flooded cities, space stations, moon bases and Japanese villas. Levels were designed with many routes so that players can climb through air ducts, back doors and sewers to avoid enemies or find hidden secrets. This makes the levels well suited to multiplayer deathmatchs. The secret items also include (light switches to make it easier to see, water fountains and broken hydrants provide some health points) or simply provide a touch of diversion and strippers who Duke tells jokes to and sometimes they open up their clothes.

Weapons and equipment 
The game includes a range of weapons, some of which, even today, are still unique to the Duke Nukem series. They range from Duke's foot for kicking, a pistol, a "Chain gun" (similar in design to the Nordenfelt gun), pipe bombs, freeze- and shrink-rays, and laser-trip-mines.
Monsters 
There are many monsters in the game. Some of these are aliens, others mutated humans (the LAPD has been turned into monster pigs). Similar to many first-person shooter games, Nukem encounters a large number of weaker enemies, and a small number of boss enemies (extremely powerful). Like Duke, these "boss" enemies have a wide range of weapons and equipment (some weaker enemies have jet packs).
Multiplayer 
In 1996, at the time of the game's release, Internet-based gaming was just beginning and Duke Nukem 3D could be played on IPX LAN or modem. Duke Nukem 3D players often used the IPX network utility Kali or the Total Entertainment Network (TEN) online service.  Kali allowed users to join a chat room to find opponents. The Total Entertainment Network had hundreds of Duke 3D players online at any time, but players had to pay money monthly for it. The game's levels are often used as the battlegrounds for these online players, bur users are able to create their own levels ("maps"). The game also features co-operative play (co-op) which allows players to fight against the aliens instead of each other. In the "Atomic" version, a new game play mode was introduced: Duke Tag, a "capture the flag" style mode.
Technology 
Ken Silverman's Build engine allowed complicated levels.  The game could use slopes in the floors. It also supports upwards and downwards mouse aiming (though aiming up and down distorts the graphics due to not having perspective correction).

Duke Nukem 3D Build engine had doors/walls that can move sideways. The Build scripting system allows a whole string of moving and sliding parts with sound effects, such as buildings falling down, earthquakes, and walls that break apart when hit with explosives. One of the more advanced effects is the horizontal sliding platform that can move the player inside a small sliding room, which made it possible to create subway cars moving in a timed sequence around a ring-shaped track.