Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
1984 - XIV Olympic Winter Games - Sarajevo, Yugoslavia
 1988 - XV Olympic Winter Games - Calgary, Alberta, Canada
 1992 - XVI Olympic Winter Games - Albertville, France
 1994 - XVII Olympic Winter Games - Lillehammer, Norway
 1998 - XVIII Olympic Winter Games - Nagano, Japan
 2002 - XIX Olympic Winter Games - Salt Lake City, Utah, United States
 2006 - XX Olympic Winter Games - Torino, Italy
 2010 - XXI Olympic Winter Games - Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
 2014 - XXII Olympic Winter Games - Sochi, Russia
 2018 - XXIII Olympic Winter Games - Pyeongchang, South Korea
 2022 - XXIV Olympic Winter Games - Beijing, China
 2026 - XXV Olympics Winter Games - Milan and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy
References

 
Olympics-related lists
Woodside is a town in California with a population of about 5,000 people and over 5,000 horses. It is in the northern region of Silicon Valley and has the highest per-capita population of billionaires, as well as being the home of celebrities including Shirley Temple, Neil Diamond, Joan Baez, Michelle Pfeiffer and a gorilla named Koko that knew more than a thousand words of American Sign Language.

References

Other websites 
 Town of Woodside home page
 Woodside Public Library - a branch of the San Mateo County Library
 Woodside Fire District

Towns in California
Cities in the San Francisco Bay Area
Settlements in San Mateo County, California
A pathogen is an infectious thing, such as a virus, bacteria, fungi or parasite, which causes a disease. This ability is called pathogenicity.

The body has many ways to defend against some of the common pathogens (such as Pneumocystis) in the form of the human immune system and by some "helpful" bacteria present in the human body's normal human flora. However, if the immune system or "good" bacteria is damaged in any way (for example, chemotherapy, HIV, or antibiotics being taken to kill other pathogens), pathogenic bacteria that were being held back can grow and cause harm to the host. Such cases are opportunistic infections.

Some pathogens cause epidemics. These include the bacterium Yersinia pestis which may have caused the Black Death, the Variola virus, and the malarial protozoa. They hurt or even kill large numbers of people.
The most famous and lethal outbreak was the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic (type A influenza, H1N1 subtype), which lasted from 1918 to 1919. It is not known exactly how many it killed, but estimates range from 20 to 100 million people. This pandemic has been described as "the greatest medical holocaust in history" and may have killed as many people as the Black Death. 

The huge death toll was caused by an extremely high infection rate of up to 50% and the extreme severity of the symptoms. One observer wrote, "One of the most striking of the complications was hemorrhage from mucous membranes, especially from the nose, stomach, and intestine. Bleeding from the ears and skin also occurred". The majority of deaths were from bacterial pneumonia, a secondary infection caused by influenza, but the virus also killed people directly, causing massive bleeding and oedema in the lungs.

In plants, fungi are the main cause of infectious disease.

References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kava
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Plant_disease_epidemiology&action=edit&section=2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_pathology

Microbiology
Infectious diseases
Epidemiology
A pesticide is a chemical that is used to kill or prevent small animals (or organisms) which are considered to be unwanted. These organisms are called pests. Some of these pests that people do not want are insects, microbes that destroy plants, and other things that affect humans in a bad way and it may kill humans too. Many pesticides are poisonous, and are bad for not only the organisms they kill, but for humans too. A pesticide also affects the environment
and the atmosphere. 

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants lists chemicals that are very hard to destroy, or very toxic. In total, twelve chemicals are listed. Nine of them can be used as pesticides.

Types of Pesticides 
There are different types of pesticides for getting rid of different pests.
 Herbicides kill weeds 
 Insecticides kill insects that eat plants and crops
 Fungicides kill any bad fungi
Effects of pesticides 
Pesticides are used to kill pests, but many are bad for human health. They may pollute water, and go into rivers, lakes, and ponds. This will cause acid rain, and organisms living in the water can get sick and die, because the water where they live has more acid.

Pesticides used to protect crops are very damaging to the general ecosystem. They kill not just pests but vital insects which do pollination and other things. Every area needs a balance, but generally we do not have a system which does this.

Alternatives 
In many cases, there are alternatives to the use of (chemical) pesticides. These include:
 Use of genetic engineering
 Release of other organisms to control the pests, such as predators or parasites. That way, ducks can be used in rice fields to act against snails, for example
 Some foods can be processed and used to control certain pest
 Use of polycultures, that is growing many different crops together, rather than just one crop.

References

Gardening
Pesticides
Inhalation is half of what occurs when people or animals breathe. Air is moved from the outside through the respiratory system into the lungs. The lungs take out some oxygen and put it into the blood. Drugs can also be inhaled with an inhaler to put them into the blood. The air is then moved out of the lungs again. This is the other half of breathing, called exhalation.

Respiratory system
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was an atypical pneumonia. It started in November 2002 in Guangdong Province, in the city of Foshan, of the People's Republic of China. The disease was caused by the SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV), a new coronavirus. It was also a part-time STD, it can be spread through both sexual and casual contact. 

SARS is a zoonosis: it is a disease which comes from animals: it came from  Asian palm civets to cave-dwelling horseshoe bats. Exactly how the virus got to humans is not known.

SARS was first reported in Asia in February 2003. Over the next few months, the illness spread to more than 24 countries in Asia, North America, South America, and Europe before the SARS global outbreak of 2003 was contained. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a total of 8098 people worldwide became sick with SARS during the 2003 outbreak. 774 of them died.
After the Chinese government suppressed news of the SARS outbreak, the disease spread rapidly, reaching Hong Kong and Vietnam in late February 2003, and then to other countries via international travellers. The last case in this outbreak occurred in June 2003. There were a total of 8437 known cases of the disease, with 813 deaths (a mortality rate of 9.636%).

In May 2005 the disease itself was declared 'eradicated' by the WHO and it became the second disease in mankind to receive this label (the other was smallpox). The New York Times reported that "not a single case of severe acute respiratory syndrome has been reported this year or in late 2004. It is the first winter without a case since the initial outbreak in late 2002. Also, the epidemic strain of SARS that caused at least 813 deaths worldwide by June of 2003 has not been seen outside a laboratory since then."

References 

Diseases caused by viruses
Pulmonology
Coronaviruses
Zoonoses
Ballet is a type of dance. It is only done by dancers who have had special training. The dancers are employed by a dance company, and they perform in theatres. The first reference to ballet is found in a work of Domenico da Piacenza, who lived in the early 14th century.  

Ballet involves the creation of the dance itself, often a type of imaginary story. The story is told with the help of dance and mime. Ballet is a form of expression. It presents a story in a new form to the audience. The creation of a dance is called choreography. The choreography is learnt by the dancers under the supervision of a trainer, called a ballet master or mistress. Ballet is always performed to music, and in many cases the music was specially composed for a particular ballet. Ballet is a major part of theatre, and a popular example is The Nutcracker.

History
History

Early stages 
Ballet grew out of Renaissance spectacles which, rather like big pop music events today, used every type of performance art. These Italian ballets were further developed in France. Le Ballet Comique de la Reine (The Queen's Ballet Comedy) was performed in Paris in 1581. It was staged by Balthazar de Beaujoyeux, a violinist and dancing master at the court of Catherine de Medici. It was danced by amateurs in a hall. The royal family were watching at one end and the others in galleries on three sides. Poetry and songs came with the dances.

The basis of classical ballet was formed in the Court of Louis XIV in France, in the 17th century.p40 Even his title (the 'Sun King') came from a role he danced in a ballet. Louis founded the first ballet company, the Ballet de l'Opera de Paris. Many of the ballets presented at his court were created by the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully and the choreographer Pierre Beauchamp. Also during this time, the playwright Molière invented the comedie-ballet.
Modern technique begins 
In the early 19th century ballet technique was codified (sorted out and written down) by Carlo Blasis (1797–1878) of Naples. His dance classes, four hours long, were famous for being the toughest training there was at that time. 'Romantic ballet' flourished in France in the first half of the 19th century.

Ballet with a more athletic style was developed in Imperial Russia of the late 19th century. This company performed in the Mariinsky Theatre at St. Petersburg. The three famous Tchaikovsky ballets, Swan Lake, The Sleeping Beauty, and The Nutcracker, date from that time. 

The next stage was the Diaghilev ballet. Diagelev was a great impresario (showman). In 1909 he founded Les Ballets Russes de Sergei Diaghilev, considered by many to be the greatest ballet company of all time.
"Its success was so extraordinary, its ballets so revolutionary, and its artists so electrifying that its appearance in Paris before the First World War sparked an international ballet boom".p47
His dancers included the legendary Nijinsky and the Imperial primaballerina Karsavina; also Pavlova, Danilova and Spessivtseva. His choreographers included Fokine, Massine and Balanchine; his composers included Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Ravel and Debussy; his set designers included Picasso, Cezanne, Matisse, Utrillo, Bakst  and Braque; and the ballets created changed the course of ballet history.

Later in the 20th century, permanent ballet companies were set up in English-speaking countries. The Royal Ballet in London was started, and in New York a company called the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo was founded (1938–1962).

Technique
Technique is the physical ability to perform whatever steps a dance may need. Specific methods for refining technique are named after the ballet master or mistress who started them, such as the Vaganova method after Agrippina Vaganova, the Balanchine method after George Balanchine, and the Cecchetti method after Enrico Cecchetti.

Other websites
Other websites 

Beginner's Guide to Ballet  
Ballet Videos  
Andros on Ballet

References
Lazio (Latin: Latium) is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in central Italy. The capital is Rome.

Geography
The region is in Central Italy with an area of . It is bordered to the northwest by the Tuscany region, to the north by the Umbria region, to the northeast with the Marche region, to the east with the Abruzzo and Molise regions, to the southeast is the Campania region and to the west is the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Vatican City is within the region.

The main river in the region is the Tiber. The highest mountain in the region is Monte Gorzano, on the border with the Abruzzo region, with an altitude of .

The Pontine Islands () are an archipelago in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the west coast of Italy. They are part of Lazio.

Provinces
Lazio has four provinces: Viterbo, Rieti, Latina, Frosinone, Rome (The Regional Capital)

Largest municipalities
The 10 communi with more people living in it are:

References

Other websites

 Lazio Region Official site
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (March 18, 1858 – September 30, 1913) was a German engineer and inventor. His best known invention is Diesel engine. He was born in Paris and died on the English Channel.

He had the idea to develop an engine which relied on a high compression of the fuel to ignite it. With this he could do without a spark. The technique with a spark was developed by Niklaus Otto. The engine based on this is called internal combustion engine.

In 1892 he got a patent for the engine.

He got a lot of money from licensing his invention.

1858 births
1913 deaths
German inventors
Nikolaus August Otto (June 14, 1832 - January 28, 1891) was a German engineer. He is the inventor of the internal-combustion engine. This engine was the first to burn fuel directly in a piston chamber. Up until his invention, all engines were external-combustion engines steam engines and burnt their fuel in a separate compartment.

1832 births
1891 deaths
German mechanical engineers
German inventors
Scientists from Cologne
Quito is the capital city of Ecuador. As of 2020, about 2.011 million people lived there. Quito is the second largest city in Ecuador after Guayaquil. The Historic Center of Quito, Ecuador is one of the largest, least-changed and best-preserved historic centers in the Americas. Quito was designated a World Cultural Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1978. It is the first city to be honored in such a way.

The Historic Centre of Quito is located in the center south of the capital on an area of 320 hectares (790 acres), and is thought of as one of the most important historic areas in Latin America. There are about 130 monumental buildings (which have a variety of pictorial art and sculpture, mostly of religious inspired in a range of schools and styles) and 5,000 properties registered in the municipal inventory of heritage properties.

Presidential Palace
Carondelet Palace (Spanish: Palacio de Carondelet) is the seat of government of the Republic of Ecuador, located in the historical center of Quito. Axis is the nerve of the public space known as Independence Square or Plaza Grande (colonial name), around which were built in addition the Archbishop's Palace, the Municipal Palace, the Hotel Plaza Grande and the Metropolitan Cathedral. The history of this symbolic building dates back to colonial times, around 1570, with the acquisition of the former royal houses located in the city of Quito.
During the Republican era, almost all of the presidents (constitutional, internees and dictators) have dispatched from this building, which is the seat of Government of the Republic of Ecuador. In addition to the administrative units in the third level of the Palace is the presidential residence, a luxurious colonial-style apartment in which they live the President and his family. Rafael Correa, president since 2007, thinking that Carondelet Palace and its offices are Ecuadoran heritages, converted the presidential compound into a museum accessible to all who wish to visit it. To this end, areas were organized to place objects within their cultural contexts, to make them accessible to the world, which used several rooms and spaces within the palace.

Church of La Compañía de Jesús
Construction began in 1605, with Mastrilli laying the first stone. The building was not completed until 1765. La Compañía is among the best-known churches in Quito because of its large central nave, which is decorated with gold leaf, gilded plaster and wood carvings. Inspired by two Roman Jesuit churches—the Chiesa del Gesù and the Chiesa di Sant'Ignazio di Loyola—La Compañía is one of the most significant works of Spanish Baroque architecture in South America.

Independence Square
Also known as Big Square (Spanish: Plaza de la Independencia, Plaza Grande). Historic public square of Quito (Ecuador), located in the heart of the old city. This is the central square of the city and one of the symbols of the executive power of the nation. Its main feature is the monument to the independence heroes of August 10, 1809, date remembered as the First Cry of Independence of the Royal Audience of Quito from Spanish monarchy. The environment of the square is flanked by the Carondelet Palace, the Metropolitan Cathedral, the Archbishop's Palace, the Municipal Palace and the Plaza Grande Hotel.

Church of San Fransisco
Church and Monastery of St. Francis, colloquially known as El San Francisco, is a colonial-styled church and monastery located in Quito, Ecuador. Construction of the building began a few weeks after the founding of the city in 1534 and ended in 1604. The founder of the church was Franciscan missionary Jodoco Ricke.
Church of El Sagrario
In colonial times, the Church of El Sagrario was one of the largest architectural marvels of Quito. The construction is of the Italian Renaissance style and was built in the late 17th century. It has a screen that supports its sculptures and decorations. This structure was built by Bernardo de Legarda. Its central arch leads to a dome decorated with frescoes of biblical scenes featuring archangels, work by Francisco Albán. The altarpiece was gilded by Legarda. It is located on Calle García Moreno, near the cathedral.

Church of Santo Domingo
Although they arrived in Quito in 1541, in 1580 the Dominicans started to build their temple, using the plans and direction of Francisco Becerra. The work was completed in the first half of the 17th century. Inside the church are valuable structures, such as the neo-Gothic main altar. This was placed in the late 19th century by Italian Dominicans. The roof of the Mudéjar style church features paintings of martyrs of the Order of Saint Dominic. The roof of the nave is composed of a pair and knuckle frame, coated inside by pieces of tracery. In the museum located on the north side of the lower cloister are wonderful pieces of great Quito sculptors such as the Saint Dominic de Guzmán by Father Carlos, the Saint John of God by Caspicara, and the Saint Thomas Aquinas by Legarda. Another Baroque piece that stands is the Chapel of Nuestra Señora del Rosario, which is a recognizable feature of the architecture of Quito. This chapel was built beside the church, in the gospel side
El Panecillo
El Panecillo is a hill located in the middle west of the city at an altitude of about 3,016 metres (9,895 ft) above sea level. A monument to the Virgin Mary is located on top of El Panecillo and is visible from most of the city of Quito. In 1976, the Spanish artist Agustín de la Herrán Matorras was commissioned by the religious order of the Oblates to build a 41 metres (135 ft)–tall aluminum monument of a madonna, which was assembled on a high pedestal on the top of Panecillo.

The Quito School
The Quito School 

The Quito School originated in the school of Artes y Oficios, founded in 1552 by the Franciscan priest Jodoco Ricke, who together with Friar Pedro Gocial transformed the San Andrés seminary, where the first indigenous artists were trained. As a cultural expression, it is the result of a long process of acculturation between indigenous peoples and Europeans, and it is one of the richest expressions of miscegenation (mestizaje) and of syncretism, in which the participation of the vanquished Indian is seemingly of minor importance as compared to the dominant European contribution.

The Quito School (Escuela Quiteña) is an artistic tradition that developed in the territory of the Royal Audience of Quito, from Pasto and Popayán in the north to Piura and Cajamarca in the south, during the colonial period (1542-1824). This artistic production was one of the most important activities in the economy of the Royal Audience of Quito.
The major artists of the Quito School are the sculptors Bernardo de Legarda , Manuel Chili (Caspicara) and Miguel Angel Tejada Zambrado and the painters Fray Pedro Gosseal, Fray Pedro Bedón, Nicolás Javier Goríbar, Hernando de la Cruz, Miguel de Santiago, Manuel de Samaniego

Basilica del Voto Nacional

The Basilica of the National Vow is a Roman Catholic church in the historic center of Quito. It is sometimes also called the Catedral Consagración de Jesús or the Basílica de San Juan. It is the largest neo-Gothic basilica in the Americas.
Metropolitan Cathedral 
Construction began in 1562, seventeen years after the diocese of Quito was created (1545) and located in the heart of the historic city and its status as the main church of the city, is one of the largest religious symbols of spiritual value for the Catholic community in the city.

Church of San Agustín

It is one of the seven monumental churches of the 16th and 17th centuries whose main portico was built on stone in the Spanish Baroque-architecture style.

The church includes a small atrium (decorated by a large stone cross), an inside yard with a large garden and a large session hall where the frayers held dissertations or "capitulations" of faith.
The cloister and convent have a separate entrance which leads to the garden. The bell tower reaches a high of twenty-two meters (seventy feet) and houses two bronze bells of the period.
Guápulo, Quito 
Guápulo is a district of Quito, Ecuador, also called an electoral parish (parroquia electoral urbana). The parish was established as a result of the October 2004 political elections when the city was divided into 19 urban electoral parishes. Set behind Hotel Quito, the neighborhood of Guápulo runs down the winding Camino de Orellana, from González Suárez to Calle de los Conquistadores, the main road out of Quito and to the neighboring suburbs.
 Often considered an artsy, bohemian neighborhood of Quito, Guápulo is home to many local artists and a couple of hippy cafés/bars. Every year on September 7 the guapuleños honor their neighborhood with the Fiestas de Guápulo, a fantastic celebration complete with costumes, parade, food, drink, song, dance, and fireworks.
Guápulo Park is a 19.5 hectares, 48 acre public park. The park is administered by the Public Sector under the Parks and Public Spaces Urban Spaces that is under the National Plan for Good Living as to the creation of green spaces for cultural practices, recreational and sports activities.

References

World Heritage Sites in South America
1534 establishments
 
Capitals of Ecuadorian provinces
1530s establishments in South America
The Uralic languages are a language family. They were originally spoken in Eastern Europe and Asia but originated somewhere in eastern Siberia near Lake Baikal.

There are two modern main kinds: the Samoyedic languages and the Finno-Ugric languages.

Origin 
The proto-Uralic languages and the early Uralic people originated somewhere in eastern Siberia or possibly Northeast Asia. They were closely related to other Siberian and East Asian but also Inuit people. They migrated into central Siberia and then about 3,000 years ago started to migrate to the Baltic region in northeastern Europe. They assimilated many Paleo-European tribes. Genetic and anthropologic studies show that the early Uralic people were similar to various Siberian and East Asian people (Mongoloids).

External relations
Several linguists and geneticists suggest that the Uralic languages are related to various Siberian languages and possibly also some languages of northern Native Americans. A proposed family is named Uralo-Siberian. It includes Uralic, Yukaghir, Eskimo–Aleut (Inuit), possibly Nivkh and Chukotko-Kamchatkan.

List of Uralic languages
Finno-Ugric languages
Hungarian
Khanty
Mansi
Estonian
Finnish
Karelian
Livonian
Votic
Ingrian
Saami
Erzya
Moksha
Mari
Udmurt
Komi
Samoyedic languages
Nenets

References

Other weblinks
The Indo-Aryan languages are a branch of Indo-Iranian languages. They are mostly spoken in Southern Asia, including India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, the Maldives and Bangladesh. However, some are also spoken in other places, such as Europe. The Indo-Aryan languages come from a common ancient ancestor, Proto-Indo-Aryan, and today include many modern languages like Marathi, Odia, Hindustani (including modern Hindi and Urdu), Romani, Domari, Lomavren, Rohingya language
Prakrit  and Sanskrit, which is the sacred language of Hindus.And Gujarati is also a official language of India.

Related pages 
Languages of South Asia
Iranic languages

References

Further reading
Morgenstierne, Georg. "Early Iranic Influence upon Indo-Aryan." Acta Iranica, I. série, Commemoration Cyrus. Vol. I. Hommage universel (1974): 271-279.

Other websites 
 The Indo Aryan languages
Iranian language may refer to:
Languages of Iran
Iranic languages
The Indo-Iranian languages or Indo-Iranic languages are the largest group of the Indo-European language family. They include the Indo-Aryan (Indic) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages.) and Iranic (Iranian) languages. They are mostly spoken in the Indian subcontinent and the Iranian plateau. Originally, they were spoken in Central Asia, to the east and the north of the Caspian Sea.

Indo-Aryan languages

There are about 221 Indo-Aryan (Indic) languages, with more than 800 million speakers.

Below are the most widely spoken Indo-Aryan languages.

 Punjabi (regional official language in India; regional de facto co-official provincial language in Pakistan)
 Bengali (official language in Bangladesh; regional official language in India)
 Marathi (regional official language in India)
 Hindustani (in the form of Urdu; official language in Pakistan; regional official language in India alongside Hindi, another form of Hindustani)
Sanskrit, the sacred language of the Hindus, is also an Indo-Aryan language. Today it is spoken by around 14,000 people, is an official language in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, and is one of the 22 official languages of India.

Iranic languages

There are about 86 Iranian languages, or Iranic languages as argued by some scholars, with between 150 and 200 million speakers.

Below are the most widely spoken Iranian languages.
 Persian (official language in Iran; also official as Dari in Afghanistan and as Tajik in Tajikistan)
 Pashto (official language in Afghanistan)
 Kurdish (official language in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq)

The Iranian languages also contain the extinct language Avestan, which is used in the Zoroastrian scriptures of Zoroastrianism. It is similar to Sanskrit but is not widely spoken today.

Nuristani, Bangani, and Badeshi
Further reading
 
 Pinault, Georges-Jean. "Contacts religieux et culturels des Indo-Iraniens avec la civilisation de l'Oxus". In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 149ᵉ année, N. 1, 2005. pp. 213–257. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3406/crai.2005.22848 ; www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_2005_num_149_1_22848
 Pinault, Georges-Jean. "La langue des Scythes et le nom des Arimaspes". In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 152e année, N. 1, 2008. pp. 105–138. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3406/crai.2008.92104 ; www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_2008_num_152_1_92104
 Baly, Joseph. Eur-Aryan roots: With their English derivatives and the corresponding words in the cognate languages compared and systematically arranged. Vol. 1. K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1897.

Notes

References
The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) are the largest language family of the Indo-European group. Slavic languages and dialects are spoken in Central Europe, Eastern Europe, the Balkans and North Asia.

List of Slavic languages

East Slavic languages 

These languages are usually written with the Cyrillic alphabet.

 Ukrainian
 Belarusian
 Russian
 Rusyn

West Slavic languages 
These languages are usually written with the Roman alphabet.

 Czech-Slovak languages
 Czech
 Knaanic
 Slovak
 Pannonian Rusyn
 Lechitic languages
 Polish
 Silesian
 Pomeranian
 Kashubian
 Slovincian
 Polabian
 Sorbian
 Upper Sorbian 
 Lower Sorbian

South Slavic languages 
These languages may be written with the Cyrillic or Latin script, depending on the language.
 Eastern 
 Bulgarian
 Macedonian
 Western
 Serbian
 Montenegrin
 Bosnian
 Croatian
 Burgenland Croatian
 Molise Croatian
 Bunjevac Croatian
 Slovenian

Pan-Slavic languages 
 Interslavic

Other websites 
 Slavic Grammar Matrix
Languages of Europe
Language-related lists
Sienna is a city in the Italian region of Tuscany. Its name is spelt Siena in Italian. The city has a population of about 54,000.

The historic centre of Siena has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. It is one of the nation's most visited tourist attractions, with over 163,000 international arrivals in 2008. Siena is famous for its cuisine, art, museums, medieval cityscape and the Palio, a horse race held twice yearly.

Siena began as Etruscan, before it was conquered by Ancient Rome. Sienna prospered under the Lombards, who became the first Kings of Italy. Lombard nobles governed it until the 8th century, when they were conquered by Charlemagne and his Franks. Feudal rule eded with the death of the Countess Matilda in 1115, and Sienna became an independent city with its own government. There were struggles between Siena and Florence during the Middle Ages and the renaissance. The city did well in wool and money lending or usury, the charging of interest on loans.
History 
- 900 to 400 BC: Sienna, like other Tuscan hill towns were occuped by Etruscans that changed the territories with their technology of irrigation.

- 390 Battle of the Allia

- At the time of the Emperor Augustus, a Roman town called Saena Julia  in the territories previously occupied by Etruscans.

- Siena did not prosper under Roman rule. It was not sited near any major roads and therefore missed out on the resulting opportunities for trade.

- 774 BC: the oldest aristocratic families in Sienna date their line to the Lombards' surrender to Charlemagne.

- 1115: the death of Countess Matilda, an important point for the history of Sienna, because after this the Mark of Tuscia which had been under the control of her family – the Canossa – broke up into several autonomous regions.

- Sienna became a major center of money lending and an important for trade. It was governed at first directly by its Bishop.
- During the 1100s: power of Bishop lost energy and at the same thime the biggest build of Sienna, the Duomo, was completed.

- 1167: Sienna, after a trouble about territories with Arezzo, became independence from the Bishop.

- 1179: Sienna had a written constitution.

- Early 12th century a self-governing commune replaced the earlier aristocratic government. The consuls who governed the republic slowly became more inclusive of the poblani, or common people, and the Commune increased its territory as the surrounding feudal nobles in their fortified castles submitted to the urban power. Sienna's republic, struggling internally between nobles and the popular party, usually worked in political opposition to its great rival, Florence.

- 1203: Siena's university was founded.

- 4 September 1260: the Senese Ghibellines, supported by the forces of King Manfred of Sicily, defeated the Florentine Guelphs in the Battle of Montaperti.

-1348: Sienna was devastated by the Black Death.
- 1355: with Charles IV of Luxembourg in the city, the population rose and suppressed the government of the Nove (Nine), establishing that Dodici (Twelve) nobles assisted by a group with a popular majority.

- Years later gave the power Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan in order to defend it from the Florentine attacks.

- 1404: the Visconti were expelled and a government of Ten Priors established, in alliance with Florence against King Ladislas of Naples. With the election of the Sienese Pius II as Pope, the Piccolomini and other noble families were helped to return to the government, but after his death the control returned into popular hands.

- 1472: the Republic founded the Monte dei Paschi, a bank that is still active today and is the oldest surviving bank in the world.

- 1487: The noble legacy returned in the city under Pandolfo Petrucci with the support of Florence and of Alfonso of Calabria;
- Pandolfo was succeeded by his son Borghese, who was ousted by his cousin Raffaello, helped by the Medici Pope Leo X. The last Petrucci was Fabio, exiled in 1523 by the Sienese people.

- Emperor Charles V took advantage of the chaotic situation to put a Spanish garrison in Sienna. The citizens expelled the garrison in 1552, and made allies with France. This was unacceptable for Charles, who sent his general Gian Giacomo Medici to lay siege to it with a Florentine-Imperial army.

- August 1554: Sienna lost against Florence at the Battle of Marciano. After 18 months of resistance, it surrendered to Florence on 17 April 1555, marking the end of the Republic of Siena. The new Spanish King Philip, owing huge sums to the Medici, gave it (apart from some coastal fortresses) to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany,

- Until the unification of Italy Sienna was controlled by Florence.

The city is an important centre for art and culture.
Important places in Siena 
 Siena's cathedral
 baptistery 
 Piazza del Campo
 Palazzo Pubblico 
 Torre del Mangia
 Basilica dell'Osservanza
 Santa Maria dei Servi
 San Domenico
 San Francesco
 Santo Spirito
 San Martino
 Palazzo Chigi
 Villa Chigi
 Castle of Belcaro
 Villa Celsa
 Villa Cetinale
 Villa Volte Alte
 Palazzo Salimbeni, (On the "Piazza Salimbeni") a notable building and also the medieval headquarter of Monte dei Paschi di Siena, one of the oldest banks of the World.
 Sanctuary of Santa Caterina, incorporating the old house of St. Catherine of Siena. It houses the miraculous Crucifix (late 12th century) from which the saint received her stigmata, and a 15th-century statue of St. Catherine.
 The Museo dell'Opera del Duomo (Museum of Opera in the Duomo) where we can see the Duccio's famous Maestà (1308–1311) and various other works by Senese masters.
Sports 
Siena has enjoyed a long tradition in sports. Basketball and football are popular in Siena. However, other sports such as rugby union and track-and-field are also practiced.

The Palio 

July 2 and August 16 are the dates when the Palio di Siena is held. The Palio is a traditional medieval horse race is run around the Piazza del Campo each year. This event is attended by large crowds, and is shown on TV. televised. Seventeen Contrade run for the prize,a painted flag, or Palio bearing an image of the Blessed Virgin Mary.

Sister cities 
 Weimar, Germany, since April 15 1994
  Wetzlar, Germany
  Avignon, France

Related pages
Province of Siena

References

Other websites
 Official site
 Siena information for the independent traveler
 360° Photo Tour & Information on Siena
 Images from Siena 
 Siena tourist guide
 Siena historical picture gallery
 Siena photos 

World Heritage Sites in Italy
 
Capital cities in Italy
Padua () is an Italian city near Venice. It has about 210,000 people.

An old myth says that Padua was founded by the Trojan Antenore. There was a settlement since the 4th century before Christ. It got under Roman power in 215 B.C. In 426 A.D. Padua became destroyed by Attila. Narses reconstructed the city, but the Langobardes destroyed it a second time. Charles, the Great got Padua in 774 under power of the Francs, later the city joined the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation.

After struggles with Frederic Barbarossa it declared peace in 1177. In 1222 the second university of Italy was founded in Padua. The Gulfs got Padua in 1256, later the Republic of Venice got control about the city until Napoleon Bonaparte got it.

References

Other websites 
 The official site in Italian language

 
Capital cities in Italy
4th-century BC establishments
Mary Patricia McAleese (born 27 June 1951) was the eighth President of the Republic of Ireland from 1997 to 2011. She was first elected president in 1997 and was re-elected to another seven years from 2004 to 2011. She was ranked the 55th most powerful woman in the world on a list of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women by Forbes, despite the ceremonial nature of the presidency.

She is the first President of Ireland to be born in Northern Ireland.  She is also Ireland's second woman president, and the first in the world to succeed another woman.

Related pages
 President of Ireland

1951 births
Living people
Fianna Fáil politicians
Politicians from Belfast
Divorce is a process where a marriage is ended in the eyes of the law; after a couple divorces, they are no longer married. When a divorce happens, the couple must do many things, like decide who gets to care for the child or who owns certain things.

There are many reasons why a couple may divorce one another. One of the married people may have had sex with someone who wasn't their partner, or the two married people didn't like each other.

Divorce is different from annulment. In annulment, the couple is said to not have been married in the eyes of the law. In divorce, the couple was married, but isn't anymore.

Methods of divorce 
The laws are different in every country, but usually there are two ways reasons for a divorce in law: because of a bad act by one person and divorce with no bad act. In some countries it is important who did the bad act. This may have an effect on decisions about the money and property of the two people. Normally a divorce comes in force some time after the decision of approval.
Divorce with no bad doing 
Under this system, divorce is possible with no argument about a bad act by one of the married people. In some countries it is enough to make a statement that the relation is broken and it is not possible for it to be fixed. This is true in the United States for example. It is not necessary to say that one of the married people was responsible. The system lets two married people make a request together or only one.
Divorce with facts in support of a bad deed by one person 
In most systems of law it is necessary to give facts about a bad act by one married person to get a divorce. The person may give arguments against the decision. Examples of this sort of reason for a divorce are:
 One person did violent or unsafe acts against the other person or their sons or daughters
 addiction (where the person is dependent on a substance)
 crimes or support for crimes by other people
 the other person was untrue
 the other person got married a second time
 the other person went far from the family with no reason

Different ways of getting a divorce
Quick divorce 
In some systems it is possible to get a quick divorce with simple rules. The important questions then are:
 Were they married for a short time? (normally less than 5 years)
 Do they have sons or daughters? If yes, is there an agreement about who is responsible for them?
 Do the people have a house or land?
 Does their common property have a low value in money?
 Does the separate property of the two persons have a low value?

Divorce with no argument 
About 95% of divorces in the United States are without argument because the two people are able to come to an agreement about the property, their sons and daughters, and other questions. The agreement may be made with the help of lawyers (experts on laws).
In some countries, there are special systems which give help to people. For example, they are able to go a hearing with a judge but no lawyers. Lawyers may have discussions with the people to make an agreement. In some systems, an expert with experience of divorces makes decisions in place of a judge.
In Russia two people are able to get a divorce in the office where the government keeps records of births marriages and deaths. One person or the two married persons make the request and it will be given if:
 they are in agreement about the divorce; and
 they do not have sons or daughters less than 18 years old.
Then, the office will give knowledge of the request to the other person. After this time, the other person has one month to make an argument in writing against the request. Then the office will put a stop to the request.
Impacts 
A divorce can be very stressful; some people become depressed or sad after a divorce. If there are children, the children may also feel sad when the parents are divorced. However, there are many resources that can help people who are divorcing, such as therapists, counselors, books, and DVDs.

The biggest impact is always felt the children who are often force to grow up with only one parent. This reaches its climax when the one parent taking care of the child is forced to work all day and doesn't have time for the child. Children who have broken homes are twice as likely to drop out of high school dropout
If the parents remarry, the children of their new husband or wife are their stepchildren. "Step-" can be put before any relation to show it is from another marriage. If there are children in the new marriage, children from a former marriage are called half-brothers or half-sisters, since they are "half" related.

People who are trapped in abusive relationships might divorce as a way of help.
Divorce in different cultures 
The law of divorce is different in every country. Only two countries do not allow divorce, the Philippines and the Vatican. In the Philippines, only Muslims,  are allowed to divorce, and the Vatican is the only country with no law of divorce. In the Philippines and the Vatican, married people are not able to end their relation, but it is possible for them to say they were never married for example, because of an error. Most religions do not agree with the couples divorcing. Divorce in Australia follows the no-fault principle, which was established by the Family Law Act 1975. This means that the court does not need to know the reason for the divorce, just that the marriage has broken down irretrievably.

Related pages
 Child custody
 Disengagement

References

Other websites 

 Armchair Advice - Divorce Information  UK specific information & advice on divorce.
Family law
Marriage
A writing system (also called a script) is a system of symbols used to represent language. There are different kinds of writing systems, with symbols that represent different things. For example, English uses an alphabet (the Latin alphabet).

The fundamental principle is that symbols stand for sound, but there is more to it than that. The term "writing system" includes more than just (for example) an alphabet. Alphabets are part of a "graphic inventory" which includes punctuation, diacritics, ideograms (e.g. numbers) and logograms (standing for specific words such as $, & etc.).

Types of writing systems 
There are many different types of writing systems. Each grapheme, or symbol, can mean different things in different writing systems. Depending on what an individual symbol means, such as a whole word or a sound, each writing system is categorized as a different type.
Logography 
A logography is a writing system with symbols that mean whole words or symbols that represent ideas. These symbols are called "logograms" or "logographs". Examples of logographies are Chinese characters (used in Chinese) and hieroglyphs.

Syllabary 
A syllabary is a writing system with symbols that each mean a syllable. Examples of syllabaries are hiragana and katakana (used in Japanese) and the Cherokee syllabary (used in Cherokee).

Alphabet 

An alphabet is a writing system with symbols that mean individual sounds (or phonemes). There are different types of alphabets.

True alphabets 
A true alphabet is a writing system with symbols that mean both consonants and vowels. Examples of alphabetic writing systems are the Latin alphabet, (used in large parts of the world), the Greek alphabet (used in Greek), and the Cyrillic alphabet (used in many countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, where Russia had a major influence during the days of the Soviet Union).

Abjad
Abjad 

Alphabets that only write consonants (and do not write vowels) are called abjads. Examples of abjads are the Arabic alphabet, which is used in much of the Muslim world, and the Hebrew alphabet used for Jewish languages like Hebrew and Yiddish. Both of these abjads are written in lines that run from right to left. The logic is that people in those areas know what vowels are used when the words are spoken.

Abugida 

Abugidas are alphabets where consonants are written as a symbol, and vowels are written as diacritics. Examples of abugidas are many writing systems of India and Southeast Asia, such as Devanagari (used in Hindi and Sanskrit).

Direction of writing 
Each writing system can be written in different directions. English (which uses the Latin alphabet) is written from left to right. Some languages, like Arabic, are written from right to left.

Some languages, like Chinese and Japanese, can be written vertically (from top to bottom).
Related pages 
 Writing tool
 Constructed script - a writing system made by someone for a specific purpose

References
A cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) is a herbaceous plant in alpine, tundra and boreal forest. The fruit is an amber-colored edible fruit similar to the raspberry or blackberry.

Despite great demand as a delicacy (particularly in Russia, Norway, Sweden and Finland) the cloudberry is not widely cultivated. It is mainly a wild plant. Wholesale prices vary widely by the size of the yearly harvest, but cloudberries have gone for as much as €10/kg (in 2004). 

The ripe fruits are golden-yellow, soft and juicy, and are rich in vitamin C. When eaten fresh, cloudberries have a distinctive tart taste. When over-ripe, they have a creamy texture somewhat like yogurt, and a sweetened flavour. They are often made into jams, juices, tarts, and liqueurs. They are very popular in Scandinavia.

The plant spreads by two means. Its seeds are spread by birds and mammals. Locally, its rhizomes develop into wide berry patches.

References 

Rubus
For people see Human migration; for data see Data migration.

Migration is when animals move on a regular cycle. For example, caribou in the Arctic go south in winter and return in summer when it is warmer. Many birds migrate, such as geese and storks.

Migration is the travelling of long distances in search of a new habitat. The trigger for the migration may be local climate, local availability of food, or the season of the year. To be counted as a true migration, and not just a local dispersal, the movement should be an annual or seasonal event.

Many birds fly to warmer places for the winter, as do some insects such as the migratory locust. Young Atlantic salmon leave the river of their birth when they have reached a few inches (cm) in size.

Many species in the sea have a daily migration. Plankton go up for the day where there is light, and down at night, where they are less easy to find. The many species which feed on them follow them up and down.
Migration is an evolutionary force. This is because it is a major source of natural selection. The success of migratory animals to make the journey is usually needed for them to reproduce.

Many parts of the world have a strongly seasonal climate. In order to survive, many species need to breed in one place and, later, eat in another place. The simplest example is the African herbivores, who follow the growth of grass in East Africa. This region has seasonal rainfall, and so it has seasonal growth of grass. Their predators follow them.

Bird migration 

Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement, usually north and south along a 'flyway', between breeding and wintering grounds. Many species of bird migrate. Many birds die when they are migrating, and is mainly to get food. It occurs mostly in the northern hemisphere, where birds are funnelled on to specific routes by natural barriers such as the Mediterranean Sea or the Caribbean Sea.
The Arctic tern holds the long-distance migration record for birds. It flies between Arctic breeding grounds and the Antarctic each year. Albatrosses circle the earth, flying over the southern oceans. The Manx shearwater migrates  between its northern breeding grounds and the southern ocean. Shorter migrations are common, including altitudinal migrations up and down mountains like the Andes and Himalayas.