Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
University of Trieste (Università degli Studi di Trieste) is a university in Trieste, Friuli-Venezia Giulia region, Italy. It was founded in 1924. The university is composed of 10 faculties.

Organization 
 Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences
 Department of Economic, Business, Mathematical and Statistical Sciences
 Department of Engineering and Architecture
 Department of Humanities
 Department of Legal, Language, Interpreting and Translation Studies
 Department of Life Sciences
 Department of Mathematics and Geosciences
 Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences
 Department of Physics
 Department of Political and Social Sciences

Notable alumni 
 Darko Bratina, sociologist and Member of Parliament
 Alberto Conti, mathematician
 Antonio Giordano, physician
 Albert O. Hirschman, economist
 Andrea Illy, entrepreneur
 Dušan Jelinčič, journalist and novelist
 Carlo Pelanda, economist
 Ermin Smrekar, architect
 Marta Verginella, historian
 Lamberto Zannier, diplomat

Other websites
Other websites 

University of Trieste - official homepage 

Trieste
1924 establishments in Europe
Trieste
1920s establishments in Italy
Ladies Code (Korean: 레이디스 코드) was a South Korean girl group formed by Polaris Entertainment and 1TheK (formerly LOEN Music) in 2013. 
The group originally consisted of five members; Ashley (애슐리), Sojung (소정), Eunb (은비), Rise (리세), and Zuny (주니). Their debut album was Code#01.                                         
They won 2 awards one in Gaon Kpop Chart Awards as New Artist of The Year and MelON music awards as MBC music star award 
In September 3 2014, at 1:20 kst time the group was invovled in a car crash which killed members Eunb and Rise, leaving the group as a trio.

In late 2015, Ladies' Code and the other Polaris artists held a memorial concert for the dead members.

In 2016,  Ladies Code returned for the first time since the accident with the single album, "Myst3ry."

Discography

Mini-Albums
CODE #01 Bad Girl (2013)
CODE #02 Pretty Pretty (2013)
Strang3r (2016)

Single Albums
Kiss Kiss (2014)
Myst3ry (2016)
Non-Album Singles
So Wonderful (2014)
I'll Smile, Even If It Hurts (2015)
K-pop music groups
2013 establishments in South Korea
South Korean girl groups
Jan Kochanowski (; 1530 – 22 August 1584) was a Polish Renaissance poet, translator and playwright. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest poets in Polish literature.

Biography 
Jan Kochanowski was born into a noble family in the village of Sycyna, Poland. His parents were
Piotr Kochanowski, a lawyer and judge, and Anna Białaczowska. Among their 11 children, two of Jan's brothers were also writers. He studied at the Jagiellonian University in Cracow. Then he attended the University of Königsberg (Królewiec), in Ducal Prussia, and Padua University in Italy. He returned to Poland in 1559. In 1563 he became a secretary at the royal court of Sigismund II Augustus. He married Dorota Podlodowska around 1575 and settled at the family estate at Czarnolas ("Blackwood"). Kochanowski is sometimes called "Jan z Czarnolasu" ("John of Blackwood"). He died of a heart attack in 1584 in the town of Lublin.
Works 
Jan Kochanowski wrote in Polish and Latin. He wrote Fraszki, a cycle of epigrams, Pieśni (Cantos) and Treny (Laments). The last work was written by the poet after death of his daughter Ursula. He lost another daughter, named Hanna, too. Kochanowski wrote also Pieśń świętojańska o Sobótce (Midsummer Night's Song) and Odprawa połów greckich (The Dismissal of the Grecian Envoys). Many of his poems are free translations from Horace. Kochanowski translated The Book of Psalms and Chess by Marco Girolamo Vida. Kochanowski established rules of Polish versification and introduced sonnet to Polish poetry. Many poems by Kochanowski were translated into English.

The translator Piotr Kochanowski was Jan Kochanowski's nephew.

References

Other websites
 Jan Kochanowski's Biography and Poems at Virtual Library of Polish Literature.

Polish writers
Polish translators
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, happened on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo. They were shot dead by Gavrilo Princip. 

Princip was one of a group of seven assassins (five from Serbia and one from Bosnia) from the Black Hand secret society. The political reason for the assassination was to break off Austria-Hungary's South Slav provinces so they could be combined into a new country, Greater Serbia. 

This led to the outbreak of war in Europe at the end of July 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Both country's allies became involved in the war.

References

Other websites 

 Map of Europe  at the time of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand at omniatlas.com
 Newsreels about Franz Ferdinand's assassination at www.europeanfilmgateway.eu
 Prison Interview with Gavrilo Princip after the Assassination

1914 in Europe
Assassinations in Europe
Murders by firearm
Sarajevo
World War I
South Mills is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Camden County, North Carolina, United States. Its population was 454 as of the 2010 census. South Mills has a post office with ZIP code 27976, which opened on March 2, 1840. The community is located near U.S. Route 17. U.S. Route 17 Business and North Carolina Highway 343 pass through the community.

The William Riley Abbott House, Dismal Swamp Canal, and Morgan House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

References

Unincorporated communities in North Carolina
Census-designated places in North Carolina
Quantum tunnelling is a part of the theoretical branch of physics known as quantum mechanics. It states that  electrons can behave like both particles and waves, and can cancel the effects of an energy barrier if the energy barrier is thin enough, due to quantum mechanics being  dependent on probability. In other words, particles can travel through walls, doors, etc. if the door or wall is thin enough. The particle—usually a subatomic or quark particle such as an electron or photon—can become a wave to focus a great deal of energy on the barrier, ultimately negating it. There is also a non-zero chance that it could be found inside the barrier. However, this only noticeably works for subatomic particles, as the chance for macroscopic objects to do this is very, very low, small enough to not be thought about much.

Quantum mechanics
The Caazapá department () is a department of Paraguay. The capital is the city of Caazapá. Its ISO 3166-2 code  is PY-06.

Its name comes from Guarani ka´aguy jehasapá, that means "beyond the forest".

People from the department are calle Caazapeño (women: Caazapeña).

Geography
The Caazapá department is in the southeast of the Oriental region. It has an area of . , the department has a population of 151,415 ( of the population of the country) for a population density of .

The Caaguazú mountain range crosses the department from east to west and divides the department in two regions: the northwestern region, with flat lands, and southeastern region, with small hills with forests.

The Tebicuary river flows from east to west in the south of the department; it serves as limit with the Itapúa department. The Tebicuary–mí river serves as limit with the Paraguarí department.
The protected areas in the department are the National park Caaguazú, the Golondrina Private Reserve and the Protected Wildlife Area Susu Island.

Limits
 To the north: Guairá and  Caaguazú departments.
 To the east: Alto Paraná department.
 To the south: Itapúa department.
 To the west: Paraguarí and Misiones departments.

Climate
, the total amount of precipitation in the city of Caazapá was . The month with the most precipitation was October with  of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation was August with .

The average temperature for the year 2012 in Caazapá was . The warmest month, on average, was January with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is June, with an average temperature of .

Districts
The department is divided in 11 districts:

Economy
Farming is the main economic activity in the department. The main crops are cotton and soybean. But cattle raising is the most important activity.

Related pages
 Departments of Paraguay
 ISO 3166-2:PY

References
References

Other websites

 Gobernación de Caazapá website  
 Statoids - Departments of Paraguay
 Secretaria Nacional de Turismo  

Departments of Paraguay
Olmec figurine is the name for figurines which were produced in Central America, from about 1000 BCE to about 500 BCE. Many come from the Olmec heartland, which is the gulf region of modern-day Mexico. Olmec figurines show the influence of the Olmec culture. In 2016, it is not known how far this influence extended. It is therefore possible that some of these figurines were produced by other people, who were influenced by the Olmec. 

Many of the figurines were found in household waste and in landfill used for construction. Outside the Olmec heartland they were also found in graves. Looters often took these figurines. It is impossible to tell where the looted figurines are from. 

Most of the figurines are made from terracotta. Since terracotta is fragile, most only survive in parts. Wooden busts have been discovered in the submerged site El Marati, but no figurines made of wood have been found.
The figurines best known to the public are made of stone or minerals,such as jade, serpentine, greenstone or basalt. Figurines of stone or minerals are often carved, while those made of terracotta are simpler in design.

Motifs 
The figurines found show different motifs or designs:
"Baby face": This is a common motf for the Olmec culture, and often occurs, at least in the early period.
"Elongated man": This shows a human figure in an artificial pose, with thin limbs. The head is often deformed. 
"Were-jaguar": This is theme that can be found in all of Olmec art, there are also figurines with the motif.
Transformation figurines: They show how an animal transforms into human form, or humans with animal masks.
Small humans, in a naturalistic pose
Dwarf figurines

Gallery

References

 

Pre-Columbian cultures
Sigismund II Augustus (1520-1572) was a Polish king, the last member of the Jagiellon dynasty. He was also the Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1548 to 1572.

Biography 
Sigismund II Augustus was born in Kraków on 1 August 1520. He was the only son (he had sisters) of king Sigismund I the Old and his wife, Italian princess Bona Sforza. His great grandfather was Wladislaw II Jagiello, the founder of the dynasty. Sigismund II Augustus was crowned as a child on 20 February 1530 when his father was still alive (in Latin vivente rege). From 1544 he ruled in Lithuania. He was married three times but remained childless. He died on 7 July 1572 in Knyszyn. He was a Roman Catholic, but was known for his tolerance for Protestants.
When king Sigismund II Augustus received diplomats or made important decisions, he did so in the audience hall in the royal castle. This room was also called "Under the Heads" for the carved heads set in the ceiling. One of these was a woman's head. The legend says whenever he would make a decision she would speak in Latin (using rhyme and alliteration): Rex Auguste, iudica iuste ("King August, judge justly"). He followed her advice but after that her mouth was covered with a ribbon so she would never again interfere in royal decisions.

References

Other sources 
 Stanisław Cynarski, Zygmunt August, Ossolineum, Wrocław 1988 (in Polish).

Other websites 
 Sigismund II Augustus

1520 births
1572 deaths
Kings of Poland
(born 9 February 1945) is a Japanese cell biologist. He won the 2016 Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries of how cell autophagy works.

Autophagy is the process that cells use to break down and recycle cellular components. This allows the orderly recycling of cellular components.

Ohsumi is a professor in Tokyo Institute of Technology's Frontier Research Center. He got the Kyoto Prize for Basic Science in 2012.

References 

1945 births
Living people
Cell biologists
Japanese academics
Japanese biologists
Japanese Nobel Prize winners
Autophagy (which means "eating itself"), is one of the basic cell mechanisms. It allows the controlled breaking down of cell parts which do not work, or are not needed. The cell parts can then be recycled as required. 

There are several ways this happens. Targeted cell parts may be isolated from the rest of the cell in an autophagosome (a double-membraned vesicle). The autophagosome fuses with lysosomes and the contents are broken down and recycled. In the extreme case of starvation, the breakdown of cellular components promotes cellular survival by maintaining cellular energy levels.

The name "autophagy" was coined by Belgian biochemist Christian de Duve in 1963. The identification of autophagy-related genes in yeast in the 1990s let researchers figure out the mechanisms of autophagy. This led to the award of the 2016 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Japanese researcher Yoshinori Ohsumi.

References 

Cell biology
Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński (c. 1550 – c. 1581) was a Polish nobleman and poet. He is generally regarded as one of the most important Polish writers and the first representative of Baroque in Poland.

Biography 
Little is known about life of Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński. He was born around 1550 in the village of Zimna Woda near Lviv (today in Ukraine, then in the Kingdom of Poland). He was a member of Protestant family. He was the son of Joachim Sęp called Szarzyński. He studied abroad in Germany at universities of Wittemberg and of Lepzig. Then he continued his studies at the University of Padua in Italy.

Szarzyński is believed to have become a Roman Catholic, but some scholars are not convinced of that.

Szarzyński's poems were written probably in the years 1568-1581. They were published by the poet's brother in 1601. The book was named Rytmy abo wiersze polskie (Rhythms or Polish Verses).
Works 
Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński did not write many poems. All his published works can be printed on one hundred pages. He wrote in Polish and in Latin. He wrote six sonnets and some other poems, cantos and epitaphs. His poetry focuses on religious themes. Thus it is similar to Sebastian Grabowiecki's work.

Szarzyński shaped his sonnets according to a French scheme that is abba abba cdcd ee. Julian Krzyżanowski, editor of Szarzyński's poems, points out the use of alliteration in them.

Szarzyński's poems were translated into English by Steven Clancy and Richard Sokoloski.

References

Further reading 
 Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature. Second edition, University of California Press, Berkeley 1983.

1581 deaths
Polish writers
1550s births
The Great Green Wall of Africa is a strip of trees being planted across Africa to stop the Sahara desert from moving south. The Sahara desert moving south is affecting countries such as: Niger, Chad, Sudan, Mali and many more. The expansion of desert areas may affect the lives of up to 19 million people, including more than 1 million children. 

The strip of trees is planned to be about 15 kilometers wide. 

Unfortunately some people, when they see these trees, gather wood as timber for them to make fire or other uses.

References

Forestry
Geography of Africa
California's Gold is a public television travel program that explores the natural, cultural, and historical features of the state of California. The series ran for 18 seasons from 1994 to 2012 and was produced and hosted by Huell Howser for its entire run. The minimal production allowed locations and people to remain the focal point of the program. The series ceased production after Howser's death in 2013, although reruns have continued to air after his death.

The series' theme song varies between several renditions of "California, Here I Come," but was most often played on the series by local musicians Eddie Enderle and Richard Chon.

References

Other websites
 Huell Howser Archives at Chapman University
 California's Gold
 Video Podcast Feed - California's Gold 
 
 California's Gold episodes available free on iTunes

1990s American television series
Taurine is an organic compound. It is up to 0.1% of total human body weight, and is a main constituent of bile. Taurine is essential for the heart, the skeletal muscles, the retina, and the nerves. The body makes it from the amino acid cysteine.

Taurine comes from the Latin /taurus/ which means bull or ox. It was first extracted from ox bile in 1827.

Food
Taurine is in fish and meat. The daily intake is around 58 mg (range from 9 to 400 mg). It is low or negligible from a strict vegan diet. Taurine intake is generally less than 200 mg/day.

Energy drinks
Synthetic taurine is used to make some "energy drinks".  Many contain 1000 mg per serving, and some as much as 2000 mg.

References

Other websites 
 Taurine MS Spectrum
 Taurine bound to proteins in the PDB

Physiology
Organonitrogen compounds
Organosulfur compounds
Wladyslaw I of Poland (1261  2 March 1333) was the ruler who united Polish lands into one state at the beginning of 14th century.

Biography 
Władysław was born probably in 1261. He was a son of duke Casimir of Kuyavia. He was the step-brother of duke Leszek the Black. He was called Łokietek, that means "the Short" or "Elbow-high".

At the time of his birth Poland was divided into many independent states. For years Władysław struggled to unite Poland into one strong state. He was at war with a powerful king of Bohemia, Wenceslaus II. His lands were also in danger of the Teutonic Knights who had seized the town of Gdansk. Despite all odds, Władysław united Greater Poland and lesser Poland and was crowned in 1320.

He had still to fight in defence of the country. In 1331 he defeated the Teutonic knights in the battle at Płowce. He was seventy then. He died two years later. His only son, Casimir III of Poland, succeeded him. Wladyslaw I was buried in the cathedral at Wawel Castle.
An anecdote 
At the time of Władysław's reign many Germans lived in Polish towns. They opposed him and rioted against him. After the riot of Lord Mayor Albert Władysław ordered his soldiers to expel all Germans from the town. One of them asked Władysław, how to recognise a German. The duke ordered them to make everyone speak aloud the words Soczewica, koło, miele, młyn (that means Lentil, wheel, grinds, mill). A man who could not speak it correctly was regarded as a German.

References

Bibliography 

 Paweł Jasienica, Polska Piastów, Ossolineum, Wrocław 1960.
 Henryk Samsonowicz, Łokietkowe czasy, Krakowa Agencja Wydawnicza, Kraków 1989.

1261 births
1333 deaths
Kings of Poland
Piast dynasty
Polish Roman Catholics
Having won a combined total of nineteen Olympic and World Championship medals, Biles is the most decorated American gymnast. She took this over from Shannon Miller, who had held this record since 1996. With her win in Rio, Biles became the sixth woman to have won an individual all-around title at both the World Championships and the Olympic Games.  With four Olympic gold medals, Biles set a new American record for most gold medals in women’s gymnastics at a single game.

On April 22, 2023, she married American football player Jonathan Owens.

References 

1997 births
Living people
American Olympic gold medalists
American Olympic bronze medalists
BBC 100 Women
Background 
From 1777 to 1863, topographical engineers were used in the United States Army. In 1813, Congress authorized eight officers to be a part of the general staff. Each was to have the brevet rank and pay of a major in the U.S. Cavalry. They also authorized eight assistants, each with the brevet rank and pay of a captain in the U.S. Infantry. They formed the Topographical Bureau as a branch of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

In 1829, John James Abert, became the head of the Topographical Bureau. In 1838, he used his political influence to persuade Congress to form an independent army unit separate from the Corps of Engineers called the Corps of Topographical Engineers. Informally they became known as “topogs".
Accomplishments 
Their first priority was to explore the American West to make it accessible. Early on they worked to make the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers navigable. The work of charting these rivers actually started under the Topographical Bureau over a decade before the establishment of the Corps of Topographical Engineers. During the mid-1800s, they worked on floodind issues of major rivers. They designed lighthouses, mapped navigational routes and worked on many other federal projects. The General Survey Act gave them the authority to survey all canals and roads in the United States. They surveyed the National Road that connected the Potomac and Ohio Rivers. This was a main transport path to the West for thousands of settlers.
During the 1840s and 1850s, the Corps was very active. John C. Frémont led several western explorations starting in 1841. He led an exploration of the North Platte River. He next explored west to what is now Pueblo, Colorado. His next exploration was south going through Bent's Fort on the Arkansas River. With Kit Carson as his guide, Fremont began a two year journey that greatly expanded the knowledge of what lay to the west. It took him as far as the Sacramento Valley in early 1846. They were also involved in surveying boundary lines, especially in Texas during the Mexican–American War. Until they were merged with the Corps of Engineers in 1863, they surveyed and built roads bridges and forts for the Union Army during the Civil War.

References

Other websites 
 Library of Congress, Maps, U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers

United States Army
1838 establishments in the United States
1860s disestablishments in the United States
1863 disestablishments
The Lluta is a river in the Atacama Desert. It is the most northern of the great transversal Chilean rivers that start in the Andes and flow into the Pacific Ocean. It flows through the Arica y Parinacota region.

It has a broad estuary near the port city of Arica that forms a wetland, a habitat used by many water birds (birds that live on or near water).

Geography
The Lluta river has a length of , and a drainage basin with an area of approximately .

Course
The Lluta river starts on the Andean mountain slopes near the border with Peru and Bolivia, at an elevation of about , in the place called Humapalca, comuna of General Lagos, Parinacota province, Arica y Parinacota.

The river is formed by the confluence of two streams:
 Caracarani. It starts on the eastern side of the Tacora volcano. It has a discharge of  with an average discharge of .
 Azufre. This river is formed by several streams that come from the southwestern side of the Tacora volcano. It is around  and a discharge of about .
Along its first , the river flows southeast and then slowly begins to turn towards the west. In its descent to the lower elevations of the valley, the river starts to run through a canyon formed by the same river; in some parts, the canyon could be  deep.

Near the village of Socoroma (in the comuna of Putre), the river turns directly west and, after getting out of the canyon, the river begins to widen. Near the village of Chironta, about  from the sea, appear the first farms.

Finally, the river flows in the Pacific Ocean north of the city of Arica, in the sector Chacalluta, near the airport.

The Lluta river only flows through small villages except Putre, a small town with only 1,977 inhabitants (2022 census).

Wetland of the Lluta river
The mouth of the Lluta river in the Pacific Ocean covers more of . The resulting coastal wetland is the most important of its kind in the region with extensive vegetation and many water birds, including migratory birds.
Main tributaries 
Because the Lluta river flows throug a very arid region, the Atacama desert, there are very few permanent tributaries, and most of them join the Luta by its left side; some of them are Allane, Putre, Socoroma and Colpitas.

Water quality
Apart from its problems of salinity and acidity, the river has very high levels of boron, arsenic, and sulfate, among other pollutants, which limit the agricultural activities that can be developed along the river.

Gallery

Related pages
 List of rivers of Chile

References

Other websites

 Cuenca del río Lluta  

Rivers of Chile
Arica y Parinacota Region
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517-1547) was an English nobleman and poet.

Biography 
Henry Howard was born in Hunsdon, Hertfordshire in 1517, during the reign of Henry VIII. His father was Thomas Howard. His mother was Elizabeth Stafford. He took the title of Earl of Surrey in 1524. Today he is known chiefly under that name. In 1532 he married Frances the Vere, who was fourteen years old at the time. Then he became a soldier and fought in Scotland in 1542 and in France and Flanders from 1543 to 1545. He was wounded in the siege of Montreuil. After he came back to England he was accused of treason, as was his father. Henry Howard was executed by beheading in the Tower of London at the age of thirty on 19 January 1547. His father was sentenced to death, too. He was however saved, as the king Henry VIII died. He was kept in prison for some years. He was set free by queen Mary.
Works 
Henry Howard is known mainly for two reasons. First, he wrote sonnets. He is often regarded as one of the fathers of English sonnet. He introduced a new rhyme pattern for English sonnet that runs abab cdcd efef gg. Today it is called Shakespearian sonnet, but Surrey was first to use it. Second, he invented blank verse that is unrhymed iambic pentameter. This metre was later used by Thomas Kyd in drama and by John Milton in epic poems. Everyone knows blank verse from Shakespeare's works. Henry Howard used blank verse in his translations from Virgil.

References 

1517 births
1547 deaths
English poets
Executed English people
People executed by decapitation
Writers from Hertfordshire
Harry Robinson Hamlin (born October 30, 1951) is an American actor. He is well known for his role as Perseus in the 1981 fantasy movie Clash of the Titans. He also played Michael Kuzack in L.A. Law.

1951 births
Living people
American movie actors
The Songbook follows the models of Castilian poems compilations performed earlier, as the Songbook of Baena 1445 and the General Songbook of Hernando del Castillo, published in 1511. [ 2 ] Garcia de Resende (c.1470-1536), who was a poet , chronicler and courtier in the court of D. Manuel I , gathered a set of almost a thousand poems of 286 authors, of which about 150 are written in Castilian and the rest in Portuguese. [ 2 ] The production period of poems ranges from the mid-fifteenth century to the early sixteenth century. [ 3 ]Unlike the Castilian songbook of 1511, the poems of the Portuguese work are not arranged by themes. [ 4 ]
The work of Resende was published for the first time in 1516, in the workshop of Hermão de Campos , and is dedicated to Prince John, future John III of Portugal . [ 3 ] The themes reveal a palatial character of poetry, on the day to day in court, and other religious themes, loving, elegiac , and some attempts to epic poetry . [ 3 ]Unlike the time troubadour , when poetry was meant to be sung and bailada, the poems of Cancioneiro are autonomous, and the pace is achieved by the sound of words and the Organizationverses and stanzas . [ 2 ]

Among the many authors include João Roiz de Castel-Branco , Sá de Miranda , Bernardim Ribeiro and Garcia de Resende himself. [ 2 ]

References 

Portuguese literature
Poetry books
16th-century books
1510s works
In 2015, Volkswagen was the world's leading spender in R&D

References

Other websites 

 Project Management for Research and Development; YouTube

Economics
Research
Innovation
Institut d'optique Graduate School (SupOptique) is a renowned graduate engineering school in France. It is in a campus of the University of Paris-Saclay.

Its different curricula lead to the following French & European degrees :
 Ingénieur SupOptique (SupOptique Graduate engineer Masters level program)
 Masters Recherche & Doctorat (PhD doctorate studies )
 Mastères Spécialisés (MS)

Academic activities and industrial applied research are performed mainly in French and English languages. Students from a dozen of nationalities participate to the different curricula at SupOptique.

Research labs 
Research activities at SupOptique relate to the following topics:
 Optics
 Metrology
 Imaging
 Photonics
 Nanotechnology

References

Further reading 

 Official website

Technical colleges and universities
Colleges and universities in France
1917 establishments in Europe
1910s establishments in France
Mary Sidney (1561-1621) was an English poet. She was the sister of more famous poet Philip Sidney.

Biography 
Mary Sidney was the daughter of Henry Sidney and Mary Dudley. She was born on 27 October 1561 at Tickenhall near Bewdley in Worcestershire. She was well educated, which was unusual for a girl at the time. She knew French, Italian, Latin and Greek.  When she was fifteen, she married Henry Herbert, Earl of Pembroke. Thus she became Countess of Pembroke. She had four children, Katherine, Anne, William and Philip. She died of smallpox in London on 25 September 1621. She is buried in the cathedral in Salisbury.

Works 
Mary Sidney was a poet and translator. She translated 107 Psalms, using 128 different verse forms. She wrote also the poem for her brother, named To the Angel Spirit of the Most Excellent Sir Philip Sidney. She is said to have been the most important woman poet in 16th century England save the queen.

References
References

Further reading 
 Margaret P. Hannay, Mary Sidney Herbert, Countess of Pembroke (1561-1621).

English poets
1561 births
1621 deaths
Vladimír Holan (September 16, 1905 – March 31, 1980) was a Czech poet.

Biography 
Vladimír Holan was born in 1905 in Prague. He got his high-school certificate in 1926 and started to study law. However, he was not much interested in it and left the university quickly. He worked in an office and after some years abandoned it because of ill health.

In 1926 Holan published his first book of poetry named Blouznivý vějíř (A Thoughtful Fan). The poet himself was not much pleased with the book. In 1930 he published another book which was more successful, named Triumf smrti (The Triumph of Death). Many other books followed that. The most important work by Holan is Noc s Hamletem (A night with Hamlet). Holan wrote poems till 1977 when his only daughter died. After it he wrote nothing more. Holan was awarded many times and nominated for Nobel prize. The poet died in Prague in 1980. He was buried at Olšany Cemetery in Prague.
Work 
Holan's poems are different and usually regarded as difficult. The poems are full of symbols and images that can be understood in different ways. He used classical verse forms and free verse as well. He is also known to have employed alliteration and puns. Holan was also a translator. He translated European literature into Czech.

Criticism 
 Úderem tepny. Sborník ze semináře k interpretaci básnického díla Vladimíra Holana, Edited by Vladimír Justl, Viola, Praha 1986

References

Bibliography 
 James Partridge, The Narrative Poetry of Vladimír Holan, 1939-1955, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2007.
 Józef Waczków, Vladimír Hola [in:] Literatury zachodniosłowiańskie czasu przełomów 1890-1990, Vol. 2, Katowice 1999 (in Polish).

Other websites 
 Vladimír Holan's poems at Art of Europe.

Czech poets
1905 births
1980 deaths
Writers from Prague
Iambic pentameter is a kind of verse. It is the most common kind of verse in English literature.

The two words seem difficult, because the words are Greek. Pentameter means "consisting of five measures" and iambic "consisting of iambs".

The rhythm which words make in the line is measured in small groups of syllables called "feet". The word "iambic" refers to the type of foot that is used, known as the iamb. This is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. The word "pentameter" indicates that a line has five of these "feet".

In theory every line is composed of ten syllables and have five stresses. Stresses fall on the second, the fourth, the sixth, the eighth and the tenth syllable. This is marked with two signs. The sign "x" stands for a syllable with no stress, and the sign "/" stands for a syllable with stress. So a line of iambic pentameter is:

 x / x / x / x / x /
Use in poetry 
In real poems lines have often an extra syllable at the end and sometimes lack the first unaccented syllable. A line can be divided in five units that are called "feet". The unit x / is called an "iamb" or "iambic foot". Sometimes the pattern is changed. First foot can be reversed: / x x / x / x / x /.
When iambic pentameter is unrhymed it is called blank verse. Blank verse was introduced into English poetry by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. Thomas Kyd used it in his The Spanish Tragedy.

 When this eternal substance of my soul
 Did live imprison'd in my wanton flesh,
 Each in their function serving other's need,
 I was a courtier in the Spanish court:
 My name was Don Andrea; my descent,
 Though not ignoble, yet inferior far
 To gracious fortunes of my tender youth.
 For there in prime and pride of all my years,
 By duteous service and deserving love,
 In secret I possess'd a worthy dame,
 Which hight sweet Bellimperia by name.
There are no rhymes in blank verse, but alliteration often occurs in it, for example "prime and pride".

William Shakespeare's dramas are written chiefly in blank verse. The first line of the famous Hamlet's monologue is an example:

 To be, or not to be, that is the question:

Examples 
John Milton used blank verse in Paradise Lost. Many other poets (for example Edwin Atherstone, John Fitchett, Alfred Tennyson, Robert Browning and Matthew Arnold employed it long poems. John Fitchett's King Alfred is perhaps the longest epic poem written in blank verse. It consists of more than 130 000 lines. But Alexander Pope wrote iambic pentameter with rhymes. One line rhymes with the next. It is called heroic couplet.
Dramatic monologues are usually written in blank verse. Good examples are Tennyson's St Simeon Stylites and Ulysses or Browning's The Ring and the Book. Robert Frost wrote similar poems in the United States.
Lines of iambic pentameter can be set also into stanzas. An example of a stanza is rhyme royal that consists of seven lines and rhymes ababbcc. It was used by Emma Lazarus in the poem Sympathy from the sequence Epochs.

 It comes not in such wise as she had deemed,	
 Else might she still have clung to her despair.	
 More tender, grateful than she could have dreamed,	
 Fond hands passed pitying over brows and hair,	
 And gentle words borne softly through the air,	        
 Calming her weary sense and wildered mind,
 By welcome, dear communion with her kind….

Iambic pentameter is used also in English sonnets.

The rhythm of iambic pentameter is close to the rhythm of everyday English speech. Iambic pentameter is common in German literature, too. This example is from The Flamingos by Rainer Maria Rilke:
In Spiegelbildern wie von Fragonard
 ist doch von ihrem Weiß und ihrer Röte
 nicht mehr gegeben, als dir einer böte,
 wenn er von seiner Freundin sagt: sie war

Bibliography 
 Joseph Berg Esenwein, Mary Eleanor Roberts, The Art of Versification, The Home Correspondence School, Springfield, 1920.

References

Other websites 
 Understanding Iambic Pentameter; YouTube
 Introducing Iambic Pentameter; About.com

Poetry forms
John Fitchett (1776-1838) was an English poet.

Biography 
John Fitchett was born on 21 September 1776. He became an orphan very early. He studied law and became an attorney. He lived in Warrington, England.  In 1796 he published his first work named Bewsey, a Poem. John Fitchett never married. He died on 20 October 1838.

King Alfred 
John Fitchett is remembered as the author of an epic poem named King Alfred. It was published in the years 1841-1842. It took forty years to write it. It tells about English King Alfred the Great, who lived during the 9th century and fought against the Vikings. The poem is a literary curiosity. It is probably the longest poem ever written in English. John Fitchett left it unfinished, but his friend Robert Roscoe finished and published it. King Alfred is over 131 000 lines long. 2585 more lines were added by Roscoe.

References 

Epic poems
English poets
1776 births
1838 deaths
Currituck    County is the northeastern-most county in the U.S. state of North Carolina. As of the 2010 census, the population was 23,547. Its county seat is Currituck. The county was formed in 1668 as a precinct of Albemarle County and later gained county status in 1739. The name is "traditionally said to be an Native American word for wild geese; Coratank."

Currituck County is included in the Virginia Beach-Norfolk-Newport News, VA-NC Metropolitan Area. It is in the northeastern section of the state and is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, Currituck Sound, Camden County, Dare County and the state of Virginia. Currituck Court House, mentioned as early as 1755, was the name of the county seat. Today the words "Court House" have been dropped and only Currituck is used as the town name.

References 

North Carolina counties
1730s establishments in North Carolina
1739 establishments
Tyrrell County is a county located in the U.S. state of North Carolina. As of the 2010 census, the population was 4,407 making it the least populous county in the state. Its county seat is Columbia. The county was created in 1729 as Tyrrell Precinct and gained county status in 1739.

Tyrrell County is included in the Kill Devil Hills, NC Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Virginia Beach-Norfolk, VA-NC Combined Statistical Area.

References 

1730s establishments in North Carolina
1739 establishments
North Carolina counties
Gates County is a small, rural county located in the northeast portion of the U.S. state of North Carolina, on the border with Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 12,197. Its county seat is Gatesville.

Gates County is included in the Virginia Beach-Norfolk-Newport News, VA-NC Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is part of the Albemarle Sound area of the Inner Banks.

References 

North Carolina counties
1779 establishments in North Carolina
History 
Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury suggested the creation of the Revenue Cutter Service in a letter dated October 2, 1789. After being approved by Congress, the service started with 10 boats called cutters. At the time a cutter was a small fast sailing vessel described as "a small, decked ship with one mast and bowsprit, with a gaff mainsail on a boom, a square yard and topsail, and two jibs or a jib and a staysail."  Before the Revenue Cutter Service began, the Continental Navy had been disbanded. Until the United States Navy was formed in 1794, the Revenue Cutter Service was the nation's only naval force.
After the American Revolutionary War, the United States was struggling financially. The new country depended on the money it received from import tariffs. Smuggling had been seen as a patriotic duty during the war, but was now a robbing the country of one of its major sources of revenue. Hamilton realized that if something was not done quickly, the country would suffer financially. He suggested that a fleet of 10 cutters could collect revenues and prevent smuggling.

The original specifications stated they were to be between  and  long. Each would be manned by two officers, six marines and crews of about 10 men and boys.

First 10 cutters 

Although it was not one of the first 10 cutters called for by Hamilton, the North Carolina was purchased in 1792 for use by the Revenue Marine Service. Before the first 10 were approved a number of vessels were used as revenue boats, some as early as the confederation period (March 1, 1781, to March 4, 1789). The first 10 cutters built were:
USRC Vigilant (1791) was launched in March 1791 in New York and was used to patrol New York waters. Patrick Dennis was her first master. In November of 1798, the first ship named Vigilant was sold.   

 USRC Active (1791) was built by the shipwright David Stodder in Baltimore, Maryland. It was launched on April 9, 1791 and was based in Baltimore. USRC Active was used to patrol the waters of the Chesapeake Bay. Her first master was Simon Gross. The first cutter named Active was sold in 1800.

 USRC General Green (1791) was launched at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on 7 July 1791. She was built by shipwright David Price and stationed in the Delaware Bay. Her first master was James Montegomery. The first General Green was sold in December, 1797.
USRC Massachusetts (1791) was built at Cohasset, Massachusetts by shipwright Adna Bates. On July 15, 1791 it was launched. Like several others, she was larger than the original specifications. She was  long by  wide and had a draft of . John Foster Williams was its first master. Massachusetts was sold on October 9, 1792.

 USRC Scammel (1791) was launched on August 24, 1791 at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. She was  long by  wide and had a draft of . Her first master was Hopley Yeaton and she was sold on August 16, 1798.

 USRC Argus (1791) was built and launched in 1791 at New London, Connecticut where she remained stationed. Jonathan Maltbie was her first master and the first Argus was sold in 1804. Argus was  long by  wide and had a draft of .

 USRC Virginia (1791) was built and launched in 1791 at Hampton, Virginia. She was stationed at Norfolk, Virginia. Richard Taylor was her first master and the first Virginia was sold in 1798. At  with a draft of , Virginia was built to the original specifications.
USRC Diligence (1791) was built at Washington, North Carolina and launched there in either June or July of 1792. William Cook was her first master; the first Diligence was sold in 1798. 

 USRC South Carolina (1791) was built at Charleston, South Carolina and launched in 1792. She was stationed out of  Charleston and patrolled North Carolina waters. Robert Cochrane was her first master. On June 5, 1798, the first South Carolina was sold. 

 USRC Eagle was built and launched at Savannah, Georgia in 1793 and patrolled Georgia waters. John Howell was the name of her first master. The first Eagle was sold on September 14, 1799.
Quasi-War with France 
Disagreements over treaties and America's status of neutrality during the French Revolution led to an undeclared war between France and the United States. The conflict was fought at sea from July 7, 1798, until the Treaty of Mortefontaine was signed on September 30, 1800. However, French privateers had been robbing American ships for several years before the Quasi-War began. American merchant ships were also being attacked by barbary pirates. USRC cutters were sent to deal with the pirates but soon the combination of French privateers and pirates were more than the service could handle alone. Congress passed the Naval Act of 1794 which established a permanent standing navy. The Naval Act ordered the construction and manning of six frigates. Three years later the first three ships were welcomed into the U.S. Navy. As the Quasi-War heated up, both the Navy and Revenue Cutter Service worked together to protect American ships.
Revenue Cutters were first sent to the Caribbean Sea to protect American shipping from French warships in the spring of 1799. About 12 French warships were captured by Revenue cutters in 1799 in the Caribbean. Of these, the 6-gun Bon Perre, captured by the USRC Eagle, was put into service as a Revenue cutter and served until 1801. In 1800, the brigantine Pickering and the frigate Insurgente both departed the East Coast to join the fleet in the Caribbean. Both were lost at sea. There were no survivors to explain what happened to the two cutters. On February 3, 1801 the treaty with France was ratified. At this time many in Washington, D.C. thought that the Revenue Cutter Service should be reduced in size. Many of its larger cutters were too big and too expensive to maintain. Many of the larger and older cutters were sold and many junior officers were let go.
When the war started, the Navy only had six vessels smaller than a frigate. None of these were the "small fast sailing ships" the cutters were. The shallow-draft cutters suffered significant losses but managed to distinguish themselves as a fighting force. The cutter Jefferson captured the first British merchant ship, the Patriot, in June 1812. In July the cutter James Madison captured the British ship Shamrock. In one battle, the cutter Surveyor put up such a fight against the larger British frigate HMS Narcissus, that when the Surveyor finally surrendered, The British Captain returned the sword of the American captain in recognition of his bravery. The cutter Commodore Barry was captured by British forces after putting up a strong defense. In one incident, the cutter Eagle was run aground during a battle with a British brig, the HMS Dispatch and a British sloop that was with her. The cutter's crew dragged the cutter's guns onto a bluff and kept fighting until late in the day
. When they ran out of shot, they began firing back the spent British cannonballs (according to the legend). The War of 1812 saw the only USRCS prisoners of war taken by an enemy until World War II. The War proved the USRCS could hold their own against even the greatest naval force of the time.
Mexican–American War 
During the Mexican–American War, President James K. Polk ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to have cutters in the Gulf of Mexico report to the United States Army (instead of the Navy). By the end of the war, eight cutters had served with the Army. This was out of a total fleet of only 14 cutters. They had capabilities the Navy (or Army) did not have. This was boats that could operate in shallow water and be used for amphibious landings. The Revenue cutters served on blockade duty, ferried men and supplies and supported Army and Navy operations.
On October 8, 1847, the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury informed his commanders that the service was low on funds. The expenses of operating in Mexico had reduced funds to a new low. The service needed to cut back on new ships and retire those too expensive to keep running. The USRCS was reduced to eight cutters. By 1849, six new cutters had been ordered but between the Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Florida, there were only two cutters. One more served in the Gulf of Mexico. Two of the new cutters, when they became available, would serve in the Atlantic while four would serve on the West Coast.

Civil War
Just before the start of the American Civil War the Revenue Cutter Service had just 24 cutters to guard both coasts of the United States. Of these, 23 were wooden sailing ships ranging in length of from  to .  All but one were either fore-and-aft rigged sloops or topsail schooners. The remaining cutter was a brig. The service also owned one modern (for that time) wooden paddle steamer measuring  in length, the USRC Harriet Lane built in 1857-1858. The Harriet Lane was the pride of the Revenue Cutter Service. It was also the only cutter that had a full crew. The rest of the fleet barely had enough officers and men to operate the ships. Cutbacks in funding during the 1840s and 1850s and no pay raises left the service short of men. During this same period, the service began winter patrols in the North Atlantic Ocean to protect sailors. They also took on the task of enforcing immigration laws, especially on the West Coast where large numbers of Chinese coolies were being brought in on overcrowded ships.
At the start of the war a small number of officers and men left the service to join the Confederacy and formed the core of the Confederate Revenue Marine. Six cutters had been seized by Confederate forces while in Southern ports. The Harriet Lane was temporarily transferred to the Union Navy. President Abraham Lincoln requested the Navy to transfer a number of ships to the Revenue Cutter Service, however no records show if any were actually transferred. During the remainder of the war, Revenue cutters protected Northern shipping and assisted the Navy in blockading Southern ports. The cutter Harriet Lane fired the first shots of the Civil War from a ship. But in 1863, in a battle with the Confederate Army and Navy, the Harriet Lane was captured and nearly all the crew members were killed.