Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Vampyromorphida is an order of cephalopods. There are one extant species (Vampyroteuthis infernalis) and several extinct taxa in it.

Classification
Order Vampyromorphida
?Suborder †Kelaenina
Family †Muensterellidae
Suborder †Prototeuthina
Family †Loligosepiidae  
Family †Plesioteuthididae  
Family †Geopeltididae  
Family †Leptotheuthididae  
Family †Lioteuthididae 
Family †Mastigophoridae 
Suborder †Mesoteuthina
Family †Palaeololiginidae
Subfamily †Teudopseinae
Subfamily †Palaeololigininae
Family †Trachyteuthididae
Subfamily †Trachyteuthidinae
Subfamily †Actinosepiinae
Suborder Vampyromorphina
Family Vampyroteuthidae

References

The Taxonomicon: Order Vampyromorphida 
Mikko's Phylogeny Archive: Vampyromorpha 

Cephalopods
Diana Burrell (born 25 October 1948) is an English composer. She was born in Norwich, Norfolk. She went to Norwich High School for Girls and then studied music at the University of Cambridge. She started her career as a viola player, but soon became well known for her compositions was able to be a full-time composer.

Her first big orchestral piece was called Landscape (1988). It describes the wild, windswept countryside. It won an Encore Award from the Royal Philharmonic Society and BBC Radio 3. Another orchestral work has a long title in German: Das Meer so gross und weit ist da wimmelts ohne Zahlgrosse kleine Tiere (The sea is so big and wide and swarming with numerous little animals). It describes the sounds and the atmosphere of the sea.
Burrell has written other orchestral works including concertos for viola, flute and clarinet, an opera The Albatross (1997), lots of choral works and chamber music. She likes modern architecture and her music sometimes shows this in the way it is shaped. She has also written music for young people such as Lights and Shadows (1989) which includes children’s choir, recorder group and lots of percussion.

Burrell teaches at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama and is artistic director of Spitalfields Festival in London. She lives in East London.

References

Other websites 
 United Music Publishers official website for Diana Burrell 

English composers
People from Norwich
1948 births
Living people
20th-century British composers
21st-century British composers
20th-century English musicians
21st-century English musicians
Violists
For people and places called Saint James, see the disambiguation page.

Saint James, son of Zebedee (death 44 AD) was one of the disciples (learners) of Jesus. He was the son of Zebedee and Salome and brother of John the Evangelist. He is called Saint James the Greater to distinguish (mark as different) him from the other apostle named James 
(James, son of Alphaeus). James is described as one of the first disciples who joined Jesus. The Synoptic Gospels tell that James and John were with their father by the seashore when Jesus called them to begin traveling (Mt.4:21–22, Mk.1:19–20). According to Mark, James and John were called Boanerges, or the "Sons of Thunder" (3:17). Acts of the Apostles 12:1–2 records that King Herod had James executed by sword (Ac.12:1–2).  He was likely the first of the apostles martyred for his faith.
Saint James and Hispania 
According to ancient local tradition, on 2 January of the year AD 40, the Virgin Mary appeared to James on the bank of the Ebro River at Caesaraugusta, while he was preaching the Gospel in Spain. She supposedly appeared upon a pillar, Nuestra Señora del Pilar, and that pillar is conserved and venerated within the present Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar, in Zaragoza, Spain. Following that apparition, St James returned to Judea, where he was beheaded by King Herod Agrippa I in the year 44.
The translation of his relics from Judea to Galicia in the northwest of Iberia was effected, in legend, by a series of miraculous happenings: decapitated in Jerusalem with a sword by Herod Agrippa himself, his body was taken up by angels, and sailed in a rudderless, unattended boat to Iria Flavia in Spain, where a massive rock closed around his relics, which were later removed to Compostela. The 12th-century Historia Compostellana gives a summary of the legend of St James as it was believed at Compostela. Two ideas are central to it: first, that St James preached the gospel in Spain as well as in the Holy Land; second, that after his martyrdom at the hands of Herod Agrippa I his disciples carried his body by sea to Spain, where they landed at Padrón on the coast of Galicia, and took it inland for burial at Santiago de Compostela. 

The authenticity of the sacred relics of Compostela was asserted in the Bull of Pope Leo XIII, "Omnipotens Deus," of 1 November 1884.
The tradition at Compostela placed the discovery of the relics of the saint in the time of king Alfonso II (791–842) and of bishop Theodemir of Iria. These traditions were the basis for the pilgrimage route that began to be established in the 9th century, and the shrine dedicated to James at Santiago de Compostela, in Galicia in Spain, became the most famous pilgrimage site in the Christian world. St James's Way is a tree of routes that cross Western Europe and arrive at Santiago through Northern Spain. Eventually James became the patron saint of Spain.

The name "James" in English comes from "Iacobus" (Jacob) in Latin. In eastern Spain, Jacobus became "Jacome" or "Jaime"; in Catalunya, it became Jaume, in western Spain it became "Iago", and Portugal and Galicia it was Tiago. "Saint James" ("Sanctus Jacobus") became "Sant' Iago", which was abbreviated to Santiago. James's emblem was the scallop shell (or "cockle shell"), and pilgrims to his shrine often wore that symbol on their hats or clothes.
Other websites 
Catholic Encyclopedia: St James the Greater
R. A. Fletcher, Saint James's Catapult: The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela Oxford University Press, 1984: chapter 3, "The Early History of the Cult of St. James"

References 
Henry Chadwick, Priscillian of Avila. Oxford University Press, 1976.
Richard A. Fletcher, 1984. Saint James's Catapult : The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela (Oxford University Press) (On-line text) 

Year of birth unknown
44 deaths
Early Christian saints
Twelve Apostles
1st-century births
Pharmacists
Saint James could mean any of the following:

People
Several men mentioned in the New Testament:
James, son of Zebedee, an apostle, brother of John the Apostle, venerated at Santiago de Compostela
James (son of Alphaeus), an apostle, brother of Matthew the Evangelist
James the Less, son of Clopas and Mary of Clopas, often identified with the son of Alphaeus
James the Just, the brother of Jesus, head of the early Christian Church in Jerusalem
James the Deacon, 7th century missionary to England
James the Confessor, Bishop of Catania in the 8th Century  
Rebecca St. James, Christian pop and rock artist

Places
In transportation,
Saint James station (disambiguation), several railway stations around the world
In the United States:
St. James, Maryland
St. James, Minnesota
St. James, Missouri
St. James, New York
Saint James Parish, Louisiana
The St. James Theatre, on Broadway in New York City
St. James Court Art Show in Louisville, Kentucky
St. James Catholic Church in Vancouver, Washington
St. James Middle School, a school in Horry County in South Carolina
St. James High School, also a school in Horry County in South Carolina

In the United Kingdom:
St. James's Palace, London
Court of St. James's, London
St. James's Park, London
St James' Park, Newcastle upon Tyne, home of football club Newcastle United.
St James Park, football stadium in Exeter
St. James' Church, Clitheroe
St James, County Antrim, Northern Ireland
St James's University Hospital, Leeds, a teaching hospital
Other nations:
St James, Western Australia
Saint James Parish, Barbados
St. James (electoral district), defunct electoral district in Canada
Saint James Parish, Jamaica
Saint-James, France
St. James' School, Kolkata, India
Saint James Cavalier Centre for Creativity, Malta
St. James Theatre (Wellington), New Zealand
St James, Cape Town, South Africa
St James Power Station, Singapore
The Vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis, 'vampire squid from hell') is a small, deep-sea cephalopod. It can be found throughout the temperate and tropical oceans of the world.

It has special filaments it can retract; because of this, it has been placed in its own order: Vampyromorphida (formerly Vampyromorpha). It is similar to both squid and octopus. It is the only surviving member of its order. It was first described and mistakenly identified as an octopus in 1903.

Physical description
The vampire squid can grow to about 30 cm (1 foot) in total length. It is no threat to humans. Its 15 cm (6 inch) gelatinous body varies in color between velvety jet-black and pale reddish, depending on location and lighting conditions. A webbing of skin connects its eight arms, each lined with rows of fleshy spines or cirri. The inside of this "cloak" is black. Only the distal half (farthest from the body) of the arms have suckers. Its limpid, globular eyes—which appear red or blue, also depending on lighting—are proportionately the largest in the animal kingdom at 2.5 cm (1 inch) in diameter.
Mature adults have a pair of ear-like fins. These fins stand out from the lateral sides of the mantle. They serve as the adult's primary means of propulsion (moving around): Vampire Squid are said to "fly" through the water by way of flapping their fins. Their powerful beak-like jaws are as white as ivory. Within the webbing are two pouches. These pouches hide the tactile velar filaments. The filaments are analogous to a true squid's tentacles, extending well past the arms, however, they are a different arm pair than the squid's tentacles. Instead, the filaments are the same pair that were lost by the ancestral octopuses.
The Vampire Squid is covered entirely in light-producing organs called photophores. The animal has great control over the organs. It is capable of producing disorienting flashes of light for fractions of a second to several minutes in duration. The intensity and size of the photophores can also be varied. Appearing as small white discs, the photophores are larger and more complex at the tips of the arms and at the base of the two fins. They are absent from the underside of the caped arms. Two larger white areas on top of the head were initially believed to be photophores too, but have turned out to be photoreceptors.

The chromatophores (pigment organs) common to most cephalopods are poorly developed in Vampire Squid. While this means the animal is not capable of changing its skin colour in the dramatic fashion of shallow-dwelling cephalopods, such trickery is not needed at the pitch black depths in which it lives.
Habitat and adaptations 
The Vampire Squid is an extreme example of a deep-sea cephalopod. People think it lives at aphotic (lightless) depths from 600 to 900 metres (2,000-3,000 feet) or more. Within this region of the world's oceans is a discrete habitat known as the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). Within the OMZ oxygen saturation is too low to support aerobic metabolism in most higher organisms. Nonetheless, the Vampire Squid is able to live normally in the OMZ at oxygen saturations as low as 3%; something no other cephalopod—and few other animals—can do.
Development 
Their development goes through three forms: the very young animals have a single pair of fins, an intermediate form has two pairs, and the mature form again has one. As the animals grow and their surface area to volume ratio drops, the fins are resized and repositioned in order to maximize gait efficiency. Whereas the young propel themselves primarily by jet propulsion, mature adults find flapping their fins to be the most efficient means. This unique ontogeny caused confusion in the past, with the varying forms identified as several species in distinct families (Young 2002).
Hatchlings are about 8 mm in length and are well-developed miniatures of the adults, with some differences. Their arms lack webbing, their eyes are smaller and their velar filaments are not fully formed. The hatchlings are transparent and survive on a generous internal yolk for an unknown period before they begin to actively feed. The smaller animals frequent much deeper waters, perhaps feeding on marine snow (falling organic detritus).

Behavior 
What behavioral data known has been gleaned from ephemeral encounters with ROVs; animals are often damaged during capture and survive for no more than about two months in aquaria. An artificial environment makes reliable observation of non-defensive behavior difficult.
With their long velar filaments deployed, Vampire Squid have been observed drifting along in the deep, black ocean currents. If the filaments contact an entity, or if vibrations impinge upon them, the animals investigate with rapid acrobatic movements. They are capable of swimming at speeds equivalent to two body lengths per second, with an acceleration time of five seconds. However, their weak muscles limit stamina considerably.

Unlike their relatives living in more hospitable depths, deep-sea cephalopods cannot afford to spend energy in protracted flight. Given their low metabolic rate and the low density of prey at such depths, Vampire Squid must use innovative predator avoidance tactics in order to save energy. Their aforementioned bioluminescent "fireworks" are combined with the writhing of glowing arms, erratic movements and escape trajectories. These features make it difficult for a predator to home in.
In a threat response called "pumpkin" or "pineapple posture", the Vampire Squid inverts its caped arms back over the body, presenting an ostensibly larger form covered in fearsome-looking though harmless spines (called cirri). The underside of the cape is heavily pigmented, masking most of the body's photophores. The glowing arm tips are clustered together far above the animal's head, diverting attack away from critical areas. If a predator were to bite off an arm tip, the Vampire Squid can regenerate it.

Copepods, prawns and cnidarians have all been reported as prey of Vampire Squid. Little else is known regarding their feeding habits. Considering their environment,they are unlikely to be picky about food. Vampire Squid have been found among the stomach contents of large deepwater fish, deep diving whales and pinnipeds such as sea lions.
Relationships 
The Vampyromorphida are characterized by the possession of photophores, a peculiar type of uncalcified endoskeleton called "gladius", 8 webbed arms and the 2 velar filaments. Until fairly recently known only from the modern species and some fossil remains tentatively allocated to this group, a batch of kirbys from the Middle Jurassic c.165-164 million years ago (mya) specimens found at La Voulte-sur-Rhône demonstrated that clearly vampyromorphid cephalopods were in existence for far longer than has been hitherto believed. These were described as Vampyronassa rhodanica.

The supposed vampyromorphids from Solnhofen limestone (156-146 mya), Plesioteuthis prisca, Leptoteuthis gigas, and Trachyteutis hastiformis, are large species, and show features not found in vampyromorphids. They are similar to the true squids, Teuthida (Fischer & Riou 2002).
References 
 Bolstad, Kat (2003): Deep-Sea Cephalopods: An Introduction and Overview. Version of 5/6/03, retrieved 2006-DEC-06.
 Ellis, Richard (1996): Introducing Vampyroteuthis infernalis. IN: The Deep Atlantic: Life, Death, and Exploration in the Abyss. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. . Online version retrieved 2006-DEC-06.
 Fischer, Jean-Claude & Riou, Bernard (2002): Vampyronassa rhodanica nov. gen. nov sp., vampyromorphe (Cephalopoda, Coleoidea) du Callovien inférieur de la Voulte-sur-Rhône (Ardèche, France). Annales de Paléontologie 88(1) 1−17. [French with English abstract]  (HTML abstract)
 Robison, Bruce H.; Reisenbichler, Kim R.; Hunt, James C. & Haddock, Steven H. D. (2003): Light Production by the Arm Tips of the Deep-Sea Cephalopod Vampyroteuthis infernalis. Biological Bulletin 205(2): 102-109. PDF fulltext
 Seibel, Brad (2001): Vampyroteuthis infernalis. Retrieved 2006-DEC-06.
 Young, Richard E. (2002): Taxa Associated with the Family Vampyroteuthidae . Version of June 2002, retrieved 2006-DEC-06.
Other websites

Images 
 Image with velar filament in view, detailed caption 
 The vampire squid's photophores and photoreceptors 
 Diagram and images of a Vampyroteuthis hatchling 
 Photomicrograph of arm tip fluorescence

Cephalopods
Classical Greece was the period in ancient Greece from about 500–323 BC. It had a civilisation and style which was considered by later observers to be outstanding. Politically, the classical period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League during the 5th century, or from the  beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars to the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. It is considered to have ended in 323 BC with the death of Alexander the Great and the subsequent collapse of the Macedonian Empire.

Classical Greece was followed by the Hellenistic period of history.

Ancient Greece
Gwinnett County is a county in the American state of Georgia. The county seat of Gwinnett County is Lawrenceville. The county was created on December 15, 1818.  The U.S. Census Bureau says there were 957,062 people living in Gwinnett County in 2020.

The county was named for Button Gwinnett, one of the people who signed the United States Declaration of Independence for Georgia.

References

Other websites 
Official Web site of Gwinnett County Government

Georgia (U.S. state) counties
 
1818 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
The University of Georgia (UGA) is a university that is in and around Athens, Georgia. The university was created January 27, 1785 and was the first state university in the United States. However, it was not the first state university to hold classes or to graduate students. That honor belongs to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

About 34,000 students go to the school. The university's mascot is a bulldog named "Uga".
Diversity
Only white male students studied at UGA during the first century of its history. UGA began educating female students during the summer of 1903. Women were not admitted as full-time undergraduates until 1918. Before official admission of women to the university, several women were able to complete graduate degrees through credit earned during the summer sessions. The first woman to earn such a degree was Mary Lyndon. She received a Master of Arts degree in 1914. Mary Creswell earned the first undergraduate degree in June 1919, a B.S. in Home Economics. Two UGA dormitories are named after these graduates: Creswell Hall and Mary Lyndon Hall.
Racial integration started in 1961, with the admission of Hamilton E. Holmes and Charlayne Hunter after notable tension with the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. In 2001, on the fortieth anniversary of their having first registered for classes, the university renamed a prominent campus building in their honor: Holmes-Hunter Academic Building. Although Hunter and Holmes were the first African-American students to matriculate at UGA, Mary Frances Early became the first African-American graduate by earning her master’s (MMEd) in music education in 1962. In 1963, Chester Davenport became the first African-American admitted to the UGA School of Law and its first African-American graduate (LL.B. 1966). A decade later, Sharon Tucker was the first female African-American law graduate, earning her J.D. in 1974.

References
References

Colleges and universities in Georgia (U.S. state)
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Southeastern Conference
1785 establishments in the United States
18th-century establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Gerhard Hendrik Armauer Hansen (July 29, 1841 - February 12, 1912) was a Norwegian doctor. He is famous for discovering the bacteria that causes leprosy in 1873. That disease is also called Hansen's disease in his honour. 

1841 births
1912 deaths
Norwegian physicians
A fire station (also known as a firehouse or fire hall) is a building for storing fire engines and other firefighting equipment.

Some fire stations are staffed by full-time firefighters. These fire stations have offices and living areas for them. There will also be beds, for when they are on duty at night. They wait at the fire station to be called out to an emergency. The firefighters often slide down a pole to get downstairs to the fire engine, as this is quicker than walking down stairs.

In small towns and villages, a fire station may not have full-time firefighters. Instead, these stations have part-time or volunteer firefighters. When there is an emergency, they will drive to the fire station and bring out the fire engine.

Buildings and structures
Firefighting
An outhouse is a small building that covers a toilet. The toilet inside is often either a pit latrine or a bucket toilet, but other forms of dry (non-flushing) toilets may be found.

References

Other websites

Toilets
A fence is something built like a low wall, often made of metal or wood, to keep something in or to keep something out.  It differs from a wall, which has a foundation. Fences are usually supported by fenceposts. Fences can be large or small.  Many are used in gardens but some are used in different places. A fence differs from a wall in not having a solid foundation along its whole length.

Alternatives to fencing include a ditch (sometimes filled with water, forming a moat).

Related pages 
 Hedge

References

Architectural elements
Walls
Uga or UGA can mean:

 Université Grenoble-Alpes
 University of Georgia
Princeton University is a private university in Princeton, New Jersey in the United States. It opened in 1746 with the name "The College of New Jersey". It was eventually named "Princeton University" in 1896. In conversation, it is simply called, "Princeton".

Princeton is one of the 8 Ivy League colleges. It was the fourth official college in the United States.

Princeton's main library, Firestone Library, is one of the biggest university libraries in the world.

In 2013 Forbes put Princeton at number three in their list of "America's Top Colleges".

Princeton works with Coursera.

References 

 
Association of American Universities
Collegiate Water Polo Association
ECAC Hockey
Ivy League
1746 establishments
1740s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
18th-century establishments in New Jersey
Dill (Anethum graveolens) is a short-lived annual herb that is often used as a spice, to make food taste better by adding a unique, slightly tangy flavor that goes well with savory foods.

Uses

Fresh and dried dill leaves (sometimes called "dill weed" to distinguish it from dill seed) are used as herbs.

Like caraway, its fernlike leaves are aromatic, and are used to flavor many foods, such as gravlax (pickled salmon), borscht and other soups, cream cheese and pickles. Dill is said to be best when used fresh, as it lose its flavor rapidly if dried; however, freeze-dried dill leaves preserve their flavor relatively well for a few months.

Dill seed is used as a spice, with a flavor similar to caraway.

Dill oil can be extracted from the leaves, stems and seeds of the plant.

Other websites 

Plants for a Future: Anethum graveolens
'A Modern Herbal' (Grieves, 1931)

Herbs
Apiaceae
Turk or Turks most often refers to:
 Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups that speak Turkic languages, predominant to West and Central Asia
 Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group that lives in what is now Turkey
Mummification is how the skin and flesh of a corpse can be preserved. Mummification can happen naturally, or people can do it. Natural mummification happens because the body was very cold (as can be found in a glacier), in acid (as can be found in a bog) or dry. The Egyptians wrapped bandages around the dead body to protect the body from rotting.  

Mummies of humans and other animals have been found on every continent, but as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats. They used a hook to remove the brain from taking it out from the nose and they would surgically remove all other organs but the heart, as this was needed for the weighing of the heart ceremony. The organs would then be buried with the mummy in separate containers called canopic jars.
Intentional mummification  
Intentional mummification was common in ancient Egypt, for burying Egyptian pharaohs. Osiris was probably the first mummy in Egypt.
It takes about 70 days to complete the mummification of a dead body. The first step is to push a sharp rod up the nose and into the  brain. From there, the brain is broken up into tiny pieces and removed through the nose, and then the nose is filled with sawdust. Next, they make a hole in the body to remove all the organs except for the heart. Jars which had the heads of gods on top were used to store the organs. The hole was then filled with linen and spices and the body was left under salt to become dry. Later, after 40 days the body was wrapped in linen bandages. Priests surrounded the body while it was being prepared and performed rituals. After the mummifying process was complete, a mask was placed over the head so it could be known in the afterlife. Ötzi the Iceman a mummy of a man who lived about 5,300 years ago was found to be naturally mummified by ice. Ötzi was found in 1991 in the Schnalstal glacier, Ötzti Alps, near Hauslabjoch on the border between Austria and Italy.
There were no restrictions on who could be mummified. Any Egyptian who could afford to pay for the expensive process of preserving their bodies for the afterlife was allowed to mummify themselves. Egyptians believed in life after death, and that death was just a transition from one life to another. They believed that they had to preserve their bodies so they could lead a new life. They would need all the things they had used when they were alive so their family would put those things in their grave. Egyptians paid vast amounts of money to have their bodies properly preserved. It took a very long time from start to finish. It took them 70 days to embalm a body. Canonical jars were used by Egyptians to hold the internal organs. It was very important to Egyptian religion that the human body was preserved. Anubis was a god of mummification, he had a human body and a head of a jackal. His job was to prepare the body of the dead to be received by Osiris, the god of the dead
. Osiris will then let the souls on and into the underworld.
Gallery

References 

Mummies
A bandage is strip of cloth or other material that is used to stop and absorb blood from wounds.

In common speech, the word "bandage" is often used to mean a dressing, though technically the two are different things.

How to apply a bandage 

See these links:
How to apply a bandage in a figure of 8 around an ankle. (YouTube)
How to apply a bandage in circular style around a wrist. (YouTube)
How to apply a compression bandage for lymphedema. 

Medical equipment
Xenophobia is the fear or dislike of strangers or unknown things. Xenophobia can also mean the fear of trying new things, but it is usually the fear of differences between people. Xenophobia may be about foreign things or people, or just the attitudes of a group towards other groups. It may increase because of immigration. Apparently, xenophobia has always existed. Even the Ancient Greeks believed that barbarians (non-Greeks) were naturally meant to be enslaved.

Sometimes xenophobia overlaps with other types of phobias such as Afrophobia, Islamophobia, Germanophobia or Anti-Mexican sentiment.

The Vienna Declaration by United Nations declares that all people should have equal human rights and toleration.

Related pages
Discrimination
Hate crime
Phobia
Racism

References

Phobias
Discrimination
The Confederacy of Independent Systems (also known as the CIS or Separatists) was an organization that appeared in the Star Wars movies. The CIS was led by the fallen Jedi Count Dooku. The armies of the Separatists had thousands of battle droids. The CIS launched attacks against the Galactic Republic. The Separatists stayed a strong power until the rise of the Empire.

Attack of the Clones
The Confederacy of Independent Systems was first shown in Attack of the Clones. This movement, led by chancellor Palpatine, gained support and soon had support from thousands of solar systems. The Galactic Republic feared that a war would begin. Count Dooku and the Separatist leaders were getting ready for a war. Nute Gunray, leader of the Trade Federation, gave thousands of battle droids to the Separatist army. Other leaders, such as Poggle the Lesser and San Hill, gave money and droids to the Separatist cause. On the planet Geonosis, Count Dooku met with the leaders of powerful companies. Count Dooku gave his offer and the Confederacy of Independent Systems was formed. The Jedi Obi-Wan Kenobi overheard the meeting and sent a warning to the Republic. The Republic sent a newly created clone army to fight the battle droids. This battle on Geonosis began the Clone Wars. The Geonosian Archduke Poggle the Lesser gives the plans of a new weapon to Count Dooku. Count Dooku leaves the planet and goes to Coruscant
. He gives the plans to Darth Sidious as well as telling him that the war has begun.
The Clone Wars

During the Clone Wars, fighting between the Republic and the Separatists continued. Jedi were sent to help the clone armies overcome their enemies. The droid armies fought to hold more planets in its grip. For three years the fighting took place across the Galaxy. The Separatists gained several new allies during the Clone Wars. After the death of Jango Fett on Geonosis, a new bounty hunter named Durge took his place. Count Dooku found a woman named Asajj Ventress who was powerful in the Force. Asajj Ventress proved to be a powerful commander in the Separatist army. A new leader of the Separatists rose at this time. General Grievous was half droid and half alien. He was trained in lightsaber combat by Count Dooku and became feared by Jedi throughout the Galaxy. One of the final and most daring attacks on the Republic came when General Grievous led a large fleet of starships to Coruscant to capture Supreme Chancellor Palpatine.

Revenge of the Sith
Supreme Chancellor Palpatine is taken from Coruscant and put on the starship The Invisible Hand. The Battle of Coruscant is fought both on the ground and in space. Obi-Wan Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker get on The Invisible Hand and rescue Palpatine. During this rescue, Anakin kills Count Dooku. General Grievous escapes and the Separatist forces are defeated. General Grievous, now the leader of the CIS, goes to Utapau to talk to the leaders of the businesses. Grievous is told by Darth Sidious to move the leaders to Mustafar. Droid armies' attack on Kashyyyk and Utapau. Obi-Wan Kenobi kills General Grievous on Utapau. Nute Gunray becomes the leader after both the deaths of Count Dooku and General Grievous. The new Sith apprentice, Darth Vader, was sent to Mustafar to kill the leaders. After he finished this job, all droid forces were stopped. This marked the end of the Confederacy of Independent Systems and the beginning of the Galactic Empire.
Separatist leaders
Darth Sidious, in charge of the CIS throughout its existence
Count Dooku, led the Separatist movement until his death
General Grievous, commander of the droid armies
Nute Gunray, led the Separatists after the deaths of Count Dooku and General Grievous 
 Wat Tambor, leader of the techo union

Other commanders
Asajj Ventress
Durge
OOM-9, during the Battle of Naboo
Separatist Council
 Wat Tambor
Star Wars
Hedone in Greek mythology (which the Romans called Voluptas) was the daughter of Eros and Psyche. She was seen as the personification of lust.

Other websites 
 Ode to Voluptas (Information about Voluptas, Daughter of Eros & Psyche)

Greek gods and goddesses
The psyche is the human mind, conscious and unconscious. The word has a long history, going back to the ancient Greek philosophers such as Heraclitus and Plato.

It was used in older psychology and philosophy as meaning the source or cause of human nature. It is not a scientific term, but the word "psychology" is derived from it. The English word soul was sometimes used synonymously in older texts.

In modern times the word is used as a synonym of mind.

References 

Psychology
Lamellibrachia is a genus of cold seep tube worms. These are related to giant tube worms. They live on the floor of the oceans, near cold seeps. There crude oil and methane leak out of the ocean floor. 

The worm forms a symbiosis with certain bacteria which can oxidise sulphides. The worm provides the bacteria with hydrogen sulphide and oxygen. It does this by taking them up from the environment and binding them to a haemoglobin molecule. In return, the bacteria feed the worm. The worms can grow to a length of about 3 metres.

Together, they form a 'biogenic habitat' by creating groups of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Living in these aggregations are over a hundred different species of organism, many of which are found only at these seeps.
Cold seeps and hydrothermal vents are the only known communities that do not rely on photosynthesis for food and energy production. Unlike hydrothermal vents, which are short-lived environments, cold seeps leak oil and gas slowly. Probably because of the cooler temperatures and stability, many cold seep organisms are much longer-lived than those inhabiting hydrothermal vents. These worm grow very slowly, but can reach lengths of over 10 feet (3 metres). This means individuals may live over 250 years.

References 

Annelids
The Giant tube worm (Riftia pachyptila) is an annelid. They live on the floor of the oceans (mainly Pacific Ocean), usually near black smokers, a type of hydrothermal vent. They can tolerate extremely high temperatures and levels of sulfur. They live in symbiosis with certain bacteria. The bacteria enter the mouth of a young tube worm, but when the worm gets older its mouth and gut seal up, trapping the bacteria forever. These bacteria are fed with sulfur compounds and oxygen. The bacteria then turn these compounds into organic molecules on which the host worms feed. 

Annelids
The Trans-Siberian Railway or Trans-Siberian Railroad is a set of railways that goes from Moscow and European Russia to the Russian Far East provinces, Mongolia, China and the Sea of Japan.

Because Russia is such a big country, travel from one end and the other is an important problem. In the 1890s, the Russians began building the longest railway in the world to connect Moscow to the Pacific Ocean. Before the railway was built, the trip took about a year along very rough roads. One reason for building the "Trans-Sib" was military: to transport troops to the East in order to protect the country against Japan and China. Another reason was to transport food from the farming areas of south-western Siberia to the people in the European part of Russia. Many cities and industries are built up along the route of the Trans-Siberian Railway. In 1900, it connected with the West Siberian Railway.

Transport in Russia
Rail transport in Asia
Rail transport in Europe
A nuclear reaction is a process involving an atomic nucleus or more than one nucleus. The most common kinds are
Nuclear fusion, a reaction in which two or more particles collide. The results are new particles which are different from the first ones. 
Nuclear fission, a nucleus breaking into pieces. 
Radioactive decay, in which a nucleus spits something out, changing itself into a different kind of nucleus.

In the case of radioactivity the reaction is spontaneous. Fission and fusion can be done on purpose, to release energy. This energy can then be used for different things, for example to make steam (as in a nuclear power plant). It can also be used as energy for a bomb.

In the example figure 6Li fuses with deuterium. This makes Beryllium which then decays into two alpha particles.
Nuclear reactions occur in the sun, in nuclear reactors, in particle accelerators, and in outer space.  Other than radioactive decay, very few nuclear reactions occur on earth except in these special places.  Nuclear reactors use nuclear reactions to make heat and electricity.  Accelerators sometimes cause nuclear reactions to make radioactive materials.  Particles from outer space cause nuclear reactions in earth's atmosphere that make air slightly radioactive.

Nuclear reactions differ from chemical reactions in that they do not need a catalyst.  Radioactive decay also cannot be stopped, sped up or slowed down.

Related pages 
Chemical reaction

Other websites 
Images for nuclear reaction
Videos for nuclear reaction

Nuclear physics
Nuclear energy
St Paul's Cathedral is an Anglican church in the City of London. The original version was built by Mellitus in 604 AD. He was Bishop of the East Saxons. 

In 962 and 1087, the cathedral burnt down and was built again. Before today's version of the cathedral, there were four others. The earlier ones burnt down. 

Today's cathedral is made of limestone. It was built after the Great Fire of London in 1666 had destroyed the "Old St Paul's". Its architect was Sir Christopher Wren, who designed a further 50 churches. Wren designed it in the Renaissance style. St Paul's is a popular tourist attraction and is still used as a church today. It is the cathedral of the Church of England Diocese of London.
It is 365 feet (111 meters) high to the cross on top.

Buildings and structures in the City of London
Anglican cathedrals in England
17th-century buildings and structures‎
Types of greenhouses
Greenhouses come in many shapes and sizes, with different functions. Some people have small greenhouses in their backyard, or as a lean-to attached to their home, called mini greenhouses, or tomato houses. They want to start off their seeds and seedlings in a protected environment as well as those growing plants that need warmer conditions. Others, wishing to extend their living space, have house extensions in the form of mini-conservatories. Commercial companies usually have larger greenhouses for horticultural purposes, but have more substantial structures for plant displays where the public is admitted. For the same reason, botanic gardens usually have a high proportion of greenhouses with substantial structures.
Role of greenhouses
Many vegetables and flowers are grown in greenhouses in late winter and early spring, when it is still too cold to grow plants outside. Then these plants move into the soil outside as the weather warms up. Greenhouses are used to grow crops in cold countries such as Canada. The largest group of greenhouses in the world is in Leamington, Ontario (in Canada), where about 200 acres (0.8 km²) of tomatoes are grown in glass greenhouses.

Gardening in greenhouses
Gardening and growing plants in greenhouses is different from growing plants outside as no rain can get inside a greenhouse, so gardeners have to water plants. Also, greenhouses can get very hot from the sun's heat, so gardeners have to make sure that it does not get too hot for the plants. Greenhouses usually have vents that can be opened to let excess heat out. Some greenhouses have electric exhaust fans that automatically turn on if it gets too hot in the greenhouse. A greenhouse is the place for tender plants such as tomatoes, cucumbers, and aubergines.

History 
Roman gardeners grew cucumbers in frames covered with oiled cloth or with sheets of mica. In the 1500s, Italian gardeners built structures for the tropical plants that explorers brought back to Italy. Jules Charles built the first modern greenhouse in Holland. In the 1800s, large greenhouses were built in England. The greenhouse concept also appeared in the Netherlands and then England in the 17th century

References
References

Further reading
 Woods, May (1988) Glass houses: history of greenhouses, orangeries and conservatories. Aurum Press, London, .
Mini Greenhouse nhà kính mini 

Gardening
Agricultural buildings
Apprenticeship is a system of training people who are learning how to do a job which needs special skill.  Someone who is learning in this way is called an "apprentice".  An apprentice will learn by working with someone who is already skilled at a job.  They are like a teacher and pupil.

Development 
The system of apprenticeship has been used for many hundreds of years.  In the late Middle Ages the craft guilds and town governments used to watch and control the system.  A master craftsman had the right to employ young people to work for them and pay them a small salary.  In return the apprentice would be learning the trade.  Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices are more common nowadays, especially in crafts such as embroidery, silk-weaving etc..

Related pages 
 Education
Further reading
Modern Apprenticeships: the way to work, The Report of the Modern Apprenticeship Advisory Committee, 2001  
Apprenticeship in the British "Training Market", Paul Ryan and Lorna Unwin, University of Cambridge and University of Leicester, 2001  
Creating a ‘Modern Apprenticeship’: a critique of the UK’s multi-sector, social inclusion approach Alison Fuller and Lorna Unwin, 2003 (pdf) 
Apprenticeship systems in England and Germany: decline and survival. Thomas Deissinger in: Towards a history of vocational education and training (VET) in Europe in a comparative perspective, 2002 (pdf)

Other websites 
The School of Applied Arts Apprentice program 
Facts about Germany: Apprenticeships, Federal Foreign Office 
Apprenticeships - a great idea (UK)
L'Apprenti, in French
Article on the history of apprenticeship in the U.S.  from EH.NET
Academic Apprentices: Still an Ideal?, Barry Yeoman, Duke Magazine

Training
In the Star Wars fictional universe, battle droids are robots that are made for fighting. They are seen in the prequel trilogy of the Star Wars movies. Battle droids are used by the Confederacy of Independent Systems to fight the Galactic Republic.Clones of the Republic could easily overcome these droids.The battle droids are controlled by a central droid control ship. If the control ship is destroyed, the droids shut off.

Types of battle droids

Other websites 
 Star Wars Databank |Battle droid

Fictional characters introduced in 1999
Star Wars characters
Fictional robots
The western long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus bruijni) is one of the echidnas which live in New Guinea. Fossils of this species have also been found in Australia. It is one of the four living echidnas, three of which are species of Zaglossus.

This echidna lives from 1300m to 4000m above sea level. It lives in alpine meadow and humid forests in the mountains. Unlike the short-beaked echidna which eats ants and termites, the long-beaked species eats earthworms. It is also larger that the short-beaked species. It can be told apart from the other Zaglossus species by the number of claws on the front and back feet. It has three (rarely four) claws.

It is an endangered species. Its population has been reduced by habitat loss and hunting. The long-beaked Echidna is good to eat. Although hunting the species has been banned by the Indonesian and Papua New Guinea governments, traditional hunting is permitted.
In February 2006, an expedition led by Conservation International found a population of them in what they described as a "lost world" of wildlife in the Foja Mountains of Papua Province, Indonesia.

The echidnas and Platypus are monotremes, the only mammals to lay eggs.

References

 Augee M and Gooden B. 1993. Echidnas of Australia and New Guinea. Australian National History Press 
 Flannery T.F. and Groves C.P. 1998 A revision of the genus Zaglossus (Monotremata, Tachyglossidae), with description of new species and subspecies. Mammalia, 62(3): 367-396

Monotremes
Mammals of Oceania
The short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) is the only member of its genus, and one of four living species of echidna.

The short-beaked echidna, Tachyglossus, is the spiny anteater because they eat ants and termites. It is covered in fur and spines. It has a special nose (snout) and a special tongue that lets the echidna catch its prey at a great speed. It lays eggs, like the other monotremes.

The echidna lives throughout Australia, and in coastal and highland regions of southwestern New Guinea. In Australia, it is the most widespread native mammal. It is not threatened with extinction, but human activities, such as hunting, habitat destruction, and the introduction of foreign predators and parasites, have reduced its range.

Distribution 
The animal was first described in 1792. Tachyglossus means "fast tongue". This is about the speed with which the echidna uses its tongue to catch ants and termites. The word aculeatus means "spiny" or "having spines".
The long-beaked echidna are all bigger than T. aculeatus. They eat mostly worms and grubs, rather than ants and termites.

There are five subspecies of the short-beaked echidna. Each live in a different area from the others. The subspecies are also different from each other as to hairiness, spine length and width, and the size of the claws on their back feet.
 T. a. multiaculeatus on Kangaroo Island;
 T. a. setosus on Tasmania and some islands in Bass Strait;
 T. a. acanthion in Northern Territory and Western Australia;
 T. a. aculeatus in Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria;
 T. a. lawesii in coastal regions and the highlands of New Guinea, and possibly in the rainforests of Northeast Queensland.

Description 
Short-beaked echidnas are usually 30 to 45 centimetres in length. They have a 75-millimetre beak, and weigh between two and five kilograms. The Tasmanian subspecies, T. a. setosus, is larger than the Australian mainland species.
Because the neck cannot be seen, the head and body appear to join together. The earholes are on either side of the head, with no external pinnae. The eyes are small and at the base of the wedge-shaped beak. The nostrils and the mouth are at the far end of the beak.

The legs of this echidna are adapted for rapid digging. Their legs are short and have strong claws. The claws on the back feet are longer and curve backwards to help cleaning and grooming between the spines. Like the platypus it has a low body temperature—between 30 and 32 °C. Unlike the platypus, which shows no evidence of torpor or hibernation, the body temperature of the echidna may fall as low as 5 °C. The echidna does not pant or sweat and normally seeks shelter in hot conditions. In autumn and winter the echidna shows periods of torpor or deep hibernation. Because of its low body temperature, the animal becomes sluggish in very hot and very cold weather.
Tongue 
The tongue of the short-beaked echidna is the animal's only way of catching prey. It can stick out up to 180 mm outside the snout. The tongue is sticky because of the presence of glycoprotein-rich mucous. This mucus both lubricates movement in and out of the snout and helps to catch ants and termites, which stick to it. The protruded tongue is stiffened by the rapid flow of blood, allowing it to penetrate wood and soil. Retraction requires the contraction of two internal muscles. When the tongue is retracted, the prey is caught on backward-facing keratinous "teeth" along the roof of the buccal cavity. This allows the animal to both capture and grind food. The tongue moves with great speed, and has been measured to move in and out of the snout 100 times a minute.
General physiology 
Many physiological adaptations fit the animal to its lifestyle. It burrows, and can tolerate high levels of carbon dioxide. Its ear is sensitive to low-frequency sound, which may be ideal for detecting sounds emitted by termites and ants underground. The leathery snout is covered in mechano- and thermoreceptors. These receptors provide information about the surrounding environment. The echidna has a well-developed olfactory system, which may be used to detect mates and prey, and its other senses perform well. Its brain and central nervous system have been extensively studied for comparison with placental mammals.

The short-beaked echidna has the largest prefrontal cortex, relative to body size, of any mammal. It takes up 50% of the volume of the cortex, compared to 29% for humans. This suggests good decision-making in its constant search for insect nests, and for a mate when reproducing.