Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Roubaix is a city in the Nord department, in the Hauts-de-France region, in north France. About 94,000 live there at about 7,119 people per square kilometer. It is near the cities Lille and Tourcoing. There is a metro and tram line between Roubaix and these places. Roubaix is near the Belgian border. The city is well known for its cycling race Paris-Roubaix which is over 259.5 km and includes almost 50 km of cobblestone sections.

Twin towns 
Roubaix is twinned with:
 Bradford, United Kingdom, since 1969
 Mönchengladbach, Germany, since 1969
 Verviers, Belgium, since 1969
 Skopje, North Macedonia, since 1973
 Prato, Italy, since 1981
 Sosnowiec, Poland, since 1993
 Covilhã, Portugal, since 2000
 Bouïra, Algeria, since 2003

Other websites 

 City council website 
 Tourist office website
Pau is a commune in southwestern France, in the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is the prefecture (capital) of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department. It is also the capital of 6 cantons in the department: Jurançon, Pau-Centre, Pau-Est, Pau-Nord, Pau-Ouest and Pau-Sud.

Pau is the second city of Aquitaine, after Bordeaux. Pau was also the capital of the old historical province of Béarn.

Geography
Pau is at about  from Bordeaux and from Toulouse, on a 200 m elevation overlooking the valley of a mountain river called the Gave de Pau, and at  from the Atlantic Ocean and at  from the Pyrenees.

It has an area of  and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

Pau is surrounded by the communes Buros, Montardon, Morlaàs, Bizanos, Idron, Gelos, Jurançon,Lons and Billère.

Climate
The climate of Pau is Marine West Coast Climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb), with mild winters and warm summers.
The average temperature for the year in Pau is 13.5 °C (56.3 °F). The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of 20.7 °C (69.3 °F). The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 6.6 °C (43.9 °F).

The average amount of precipitation for the year in Pau is . The month with the most precipitation on average is December with  of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

Population
With a population of 77,575, Pau has a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

The inhabitants of Pau are known, in French, as Paulois (women: Pauloises).

Administration
Pau is the prefecture of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department since 1796. It is also the capital of four Cantons:
 Pau-1, formed with a part of Pau
 Pau-2, formed with a part of Pau and the commune Idron
 Pau-3, formed with a part of Pau and the communes of Bizanos and Mazères-Lezons
 Pau-4, formed with a part of Pau and the commune Gelos

Gallery
Gallery

Twin towns 
Pau is twinned with:

Related pages
 Arrondissement of Pau
 Communes of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department

References

Other websites

 Ville de Pau - Official site 
 General Council of Pyrénées-Atlantiques  
 Prefecture official website 
 Région Aquitaine  
 Grand Pau
John Dunn (14 December 1846 – 19 March 1866) was an Australian bushranger. He was only 17 years old when he joined up with Ben Hall and John Gilbert and became a member of their gang.

Early life
He was born at Murrumburrah near Yass, New South Wales. His parents were Michael Dunn and Margaret Kelly. Dunn was only a small youth and worked as a jockey. He had robbed a Chinese gold miner and been in trouble with the police.

Ben Hall's gang
Dunn was a member of the gang when they tried to rob the mail coach near Jugiong on 16 November 1864. Gilbert shot Sergeant Parry to death during the robbery. The government already had offered reward money for the capture of the Gilbert and Hall; they now offered £500 for John Dunn.
The bushrangers spent Christmas, 1864, with Dunn's parents at Murrumburrah. After visiting Dunn's grandfather, John Kelly, near Binalong they rode to Binda on Boxing Day, 26 December. Gilbert and Dunn spent the night dancing at the Flag Hotel. Hall stood at the door and stopped people from going to get the police.

On 26 January 1865, Hall, Gilbert and  Dunn were at Collector, south of Goulburn.  While Hall and Gilbert were robbing the hotel, John Dunn stayed outside to watch for the police. Most of the police were out in the bush searching for the bushrangers. Policeman, Constable Samuel Nelson, was told the bushrangers were at the hotel. He told his wife he would "have to do his best". As he walked up to the hotel Dunn fired two shots into his face. Nelson was the father of nine children. One of the children saw the shooting. The bushrangers stole Nelson's gun, and his personal belongings and then left the town. During the next three months, the gang continued to rob from farmhouses and mail coaches.
Outlaw
In May 1865, Hall, Gilbert, and Dunn were made "outlaws"; they could be killed by anyone at anytime. Hall was found by the police in the bush near Forbes, New South Wales and shot dead. A week later, Gilbert was shot by the police at the home of John Kelly, Dunn's grandfather, near Binalong, on 13 May. Dunn was able to escape, although he was also shot. Dunn's Grandfather had told the police where the bushrangers were so that he could get the reward money.
Dunn went into hiding near Quambone Station (a farm) but another friend told the police where he was living. Dunn was badly hurt when the police went to capture him on 26 December 1865. Even though he was hurt, he climbed out of the police station window but was soon caught again. He was taken to Sydney to be tried in court. On 19 January 1866, he was found guilty of killing Nelson and sentenced to death.  He was hanged on 19 March 1865 at the Darlinghurst Gaol. He was only 19 years old. He is buried in the old Devonshire Street cemetery in Sydney.

Other websites

References

Australian criminals
Bushrangers
People from New South Wales
1846 births
1866 deaths
Gianfranco Zola OBE (born 5 July 1966) is an Italian former football player, who is now the manager of West Ham United.

As a footballer he played for Napoli, Parma, Chelsea and Cagliari He was renowned for his technique, skill and dribbling. In total, he played in 632 league games and scored 184 goals in his career. He became manager of West Ham on 11 September 2008, replacing Alan Curbishley, after he stopped working as Italy Under-21's manager.

Club career statistics

|-
|1984/85||rowspan="2"|Nuorese||Serie C2||4||0
|-
|1985/86||||27||10
|-
|1986/87||rowspan="3"|Sassari Torres||Serie C2||30||8
|-
|1987/88||rowspan="2"|Serie C1||24||2
|-
|1988/89||34||11
|-
|1989/90||rowspan="4"|Napoli||rowspan="4"|Serie A||18||2
|-
|1990/91||20||6
|-
|1991/92||34||12
|-
|1992/93||33||12
|-
|1993/94||rowspan="4"|Parma||rowspan="4"|Serie A||33||18
|-
|1994/95||32||19
|-
|1995/96||29||10
|-
|1996/97||8||2
|-
|1996/97||rowspan="7"|Chelsea||rowspan="7"|Premier League||23||8
|-
|1997/98||27||8
|-
|1998/99||37||13
|-
|1999/00||33||4
|-
|2000/01||36||9
|-
|2001/02||35||3
|-
|2002/03||38||14

|-
|2003/04||rowspan="2"|Cagliari||Serie B||43||13
|-
|2004/05||Serie A||31||9
403||125
229||59
632||184
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1991||2||0
|-
|1992||1||0
|-
|1993||1||0
|-
|1994||6||0
|-
|1995||8||6
|-
|1996||8||0
|-
|1997||9||3
|-
!Total||35||9
|}

References

1966 births
Living people
1994 FIFA World Cup players
Chelsea F.C. players
Footballers from Sardinia
Italian football managers
Asnières-sur-Seine is a town in France near Paris. It is in the region Île-de-France and the department Hauts-de-Seine. About 76,000 people live there. It is one of the most densely populated municipalities in Europe (its density is 17,178/km²).

History
Asnières-sur-Seine used to just be called Asnières. The name Asnières was first mentionned in 1158 as Asnerias, from Medieval Latin asinaria, meaning "donkey farm". The soil of Asnières was poor, where heather grew in Medieval times, was probably only good enough for breeding donkeys.

Economy 
Different famous companies are located in Asnières:

 L'Oréal - cosmetics
 Lucas
 Lesieur
 Louis Vuitton - luxury products

Communes in Hauts-de-Seine
Fort-de-France is the capital of the French Caribbean oversees department of Martinique. It is one of the major cities in the Caribbean. Martinique exports sugar, rum, tinned fruit, and cacao from the port in Fort-de-France.

Sister city
Fort-de-France is twinned with:
 Belém, Brazil

Other websites

Communes in Martinique
Departmental capitals in France
Regional capitals in France
Drake Jared Bell (born June 27, 1986) is an American actor, singer. Bell has released a song for Nickelodeon television series Drake & Josh titled "I Found a Way".

Life 
Bell was born in Santa Ana, California in 1986. In December 2005, he was badly hurt in a car accident in Los Angeles. He was in the car with a friend. A truck went through a red light and hit Bell's car, a 1966 Ford Mustang. The steering wheel of Bell's car was made of wood and metal. Because the seatbelts of the car were only around the waist and there were no airbags, he hit his face against the steering wheel. This caused a broken neck, six dislodged teeth, a broken jaw and a deep cut across his chin. Bell had plastic surgery to fix his face.

In 2018, he married Janet Von Schmeling. They have one child, Schmeling filed for divorce in 2022.

Career
Career

Acting 
Bell started to act when he was 5 years old. At the age of 8, he wrote his first song. When he was 9, he played "Jesse Ramo" in the movie Jerry Maguire. In 1999, he started to act in The Amanda Show with Amanda Bynes. He played Drake Parker on the television series Drake & Josh. In 2008, Bell played in the movies Superhero Movie and Merry Christmas, Drake & Josh.

Music 
Bell learned to play guitar when he was 13. In September 1999, he started to sell his first album, Telegraph. In December 2006, he started to sell his second album, Its Only Time. His third album was released in 2008. Some songs of his new album appeared, including "Saturday Night", "All alone at the Disco", "Sea Song", "C.C.Rider", "To Hip gotta go", "Little Miss Prissy" and "Jingle Bells".
Controversies 
Bell has made comments that have upset a lot of people. He made a negative comment when Caitlyn Jenner appeared on the cover of Vanity Fair.  He deleted the comment soon after he posted it but it was still seen by many readers. In an interview with Buzzfeed he made comments against stars such as Justin Bieber, Lady Gaga and Ariana Grande.  He got into still another controversy with a Justin Bieber fan wishing him death.

On June 4, 2021, Bell was arrested in Cleveland, Ohio, on charges relating to "attempted endangering [of] children and disseminating matter harmful to juveniles." Bell had sent a minor "inappropriate social media messages" for "months. On June 23, Bell plead guilty to both charges.  On July 12, 2021, Bell's victim made a public appearance and statement accusing him of sexually assaulting her while she was underage. Bell was sentenced to two years of probation and 200 hours of community service.

References
References

Actors from Santa Ana, California
American child actors
American guitarists
American movie actors
American television actors
Movie directors from California
Musicians from California
Singers from California
1986 births
Living people
Saffron () (Persian: زَعْفَرَان) is a spice made from the stigma of the flower of the saffron plant. The spice is used in cooking as a seasoning and as a food colouring. It is native to Southwest Asia. It is the world's most costly spice, and has been for a long time.

Saffron has a bitter taste and smells like hay. This smell is caused by the chemicals picrocrocin and safranal. Saffron also contains a dye, crocin, that gives food a rich golden colour. Saffron is a part of many foods from around the world, and is also used in medicine.

The word saffron comes from the 12th century Old French word , which comes from the Latin word .  is also related to the Italian  and Spanish . Safranum comes from the Arabic word  (), which means "yellow".

Biology
Biology 

The cultivated saffron (saffron crocus C. sativus) flowers in the autumn and comes up every year, so it is known as a perennial plant. It does not grow wild, and is now a triploid form of the eastern Mediterranean plant called Crocus cartwrightianus. It is thought that C. cartwrightianus came from Crete. The saffron crocus resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to a lot of artificial selection by growers who wanted plants with longer stigmas. It can not reproduce because the saffron crocus's purple flowers do not produce useful seeds. This means that reproduction needs human help. The corms (underground bulb-like starch-storing organs) must be dug up, broken apart, and planted again. A corm lives for only one season, reproducing by splitting into up to ten "cormlets" that will grow into new plants. The corms are small brown balls up to  in diameter and are covered in thick parallel fibres.
After a period in summer known as "aestivation", some narrow green leaves come up from the ground. These can grow to up to  in length. The number of leaves is between five and eleven. In autumn, purple buds appear. In October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, the saffron grows its brightly-coloured flowers, which are coloured from light to dark purple. At the time of flowering, the plant is usually less than  in height. Inside each flower are three prongs, called the "style". Each prong has a crimson "stigma" of between 25 and 30 mm in length at the end of it.

Cultivation
The saffron crocus grows best in climates like that of the Mediterranean maquis or the North American chaparral, where hot, dry summer winds blow across the land. However, saffron can live through temperatures as cold as , and short periods of snow. Saffron needs no extra water if it grows in a wet place like Kashmir, where there is usually 1000–1500 mm of rain each year. It is also important for the rain to fall at the right time of year: there should be a lot of rain in the spring and little in the summer. Rainfall just before flowering also makes the plant give more saffron. Rainy or cold weather during flowering can cause disease, so the plant gives less saffron. Other things that can make the plant give less saffron are: the weather being damp or hot for a long time; rabbits, rats, and birds, digging in the ground near the plant; parasites such as the roundworm; fungus and corm rot. Saffron plants grow best in strong and direct sunlight. Planting is best done in fields that slope towards the sunlight (i
.e. south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere), giving the crocuses' more sunlight. In the Northern Hemisphere, planting is mostly done in June, with corms planted some 7–15 cm deep.
Growers have found that planting corms  deep and in rows spaced 2–3 cm apart makes more threads, whereas planting depths of 8–10 cm makes more flowers and corms. Saffron crocuses grow best in crumbly, moist and well-drained clay soils with high organic content. They are often planted in raised beds, to help with drainage. Farmers often use 20–30 tonnes of manure per hectare on the plants before plating the corms The buds do not start to grow until early autumn, then in the middle of autumn the plants begin to flower. Picking the flowers must be done quickly: they flower at dawn, but curl up and die during the day. The flowers of the saffron crocuses only last for one or two weeks. From 150 flowers, the farmer can get about 1 g of dry saffron threads. To produce 12 g of dried saffron (72 g freshly harvested) would take about 1 kg of flowers (1 lb for 0.2 oz of dried saffron). It can be worked out from this that one freshly picked flower makes 0.03 g of fresh saffron, or 0.007 g of dried saffron.

History
History 

The history of saffron growing reaches back more than 3,000 years. The wild plant from which the saffron crocus came was called Crocus cartwrightianus. Humans began choosing wild plants that had long "stigmas". Gradually, a form of C. cartwrightianus, C. sativus, came into being in the late Bronze Age Crete. Experts believe that the first document to mention saffron is a 7th century BC Assyrian book about botany which was written in the time of Ashurbanipal. There is evidence for the use of saffron in the treatment of about 90 illnesses during the past 4,000 years.
Mediterranean 
The Minoans had pictures of saffron in their palaces as long ago as 1500–1600 BC, showing how it could be used as a medicine. Later, Greek legends told of sea voyages to Cilicia, where adventurers hoped to find the world's most valuable saffron. Another legend tells how someone named Crocus was bewitched and transformed into the original saffron crocus. Ancient Mediterranean peoples–including perfumers in Egypt, physicians in Gaza, townspeople in Rhodes, and the Greek hetaerae courtesans–used saffron in their perfumes, ointments, potpourris, mascaras, divine offerings, and medical treatments.
In late Hellenistic Egypt, Cleopatra used saffron in her baths to make her feel good. Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all types of gastrointestinal ailments. Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such Levant cities as Sidon and Tyre. Aulus Cornelius Celsus prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the mithridatium.  Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took their saffron with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th century AD Moors or with the Avignon papacy in the 14th century AD.

Asia
Paints made from saffron were being used for drawing 50,000 years ago. These have been found in the country that is today called Iraq. Later, people called the Sumerians used wild-growing saffron in their medicines and magical potions. Traders carried saffron for long distances before the 2nd millennium BC. Ancient Persians were growing their own type of saffron (Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii') in Derbena, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC. Sometimes saffron threads were woven into textiles,. They were given as offerings to the gods and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes. Saffron threads were also scattered across beds and mixed into hot tea as a way of curing sad feelings. Other people were afraid that the Persians would use saffron as a drug and aphrodisiac. During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his tea, rice, and baths to help heal his battle wounds
. Alexander's troops copied their leader's actions and brought the habit of saffron-bathing back to Greece.
Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with Mongol invaders by way of Persia. On the other hand, saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume Shennong Bencaojing (神農本草經—"Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as Pen Ts'ao or Pun Tsao) pharmacopoeia, a tome dating from 200–300 BC. Traditionally attributed to the legendary Yan ("Fire") Emperor (炎帝) Shennong, it documents 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders. Yet around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. For example, Wan Zhen, a Chinese medical expert, reported that "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."

Europe
In Europe, saffron cultivation declined steeply following the Roman Empire's fall. Saffron was reintroduced when the Islamic civilization "Al-Andalus" spread to Spain, France, and Italy. During the 14th century Black Death, there was a huge increase in demand for saffron-based medicine. Much saffron had to be imported by Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen started the 14 week long "Saffron War". The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred significant saffron cultivation in Basel, which grew prosperous. Cultivation and trade then spread to Nuremberg, where epidemic levels of saffron adulteration brought on the Safranschou code. Under this law under saffron adulterers were fined, imprisoned, and executed. Soon after, saffron cultivation spread throughout England, especially Norfolk and Suffolk
. The Essex town of Saffron Walden, named for its new specialty crop, became England's main saffron growing and trading center. However, an influx of more exotic spices such as chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla from newly contacted Eastern and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of saffron to decline. Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain, did significant cultivation continue.
Europeans brought saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the Schwenkfelder Church left Europe with a trunk containing saffron corms; indeed, many Schwenkfelders had widely grown saffron in Europe. By 1730, the Pennsylvania Dutch were growing saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold. The trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-transporting merchant vessels were destroyed. Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes. American saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.

Trade and use
Trade and use 

Saffron's aroma is often described to be something like metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes. Its taste has also been noted as hay-like and somewhat bitter. Saffron gives a light yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Iranian (Persian), Arab, Central Asian, European, Indian,Turkish, Moroccan and Cornish cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Common saffron substitutes include safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "assafroa") and turmeric (Curcuma longa). Saffron has been used as a traditional medicine for a long time. Modern medicine has also discovered itas having anticarcinogenic (cancer-suppressing), anti-mutagenic (mutation-preventing), immunomodulating, and antioxidant-like properties. Saffron has also been used as a fabric dye, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.
Most saffron is grown in a belt of land ranging from the Mediterranean in the west to Kashmir in the east. Annually, around 300 tonnes of saffron are produced worldwide. Iran ranks first in the world production of saffron, with more than 94 percent of the world yield. Iran's annual saffron production is expected to hit 300 tons by the end of the nation's Fourth Five-Year Socioeconomic Development Plan in 2009. Other minor producers of saffron are Spain, India, Greece, Azerbaijan, Morocco, and Italy. A pound of dry saffron (0.45 kg) requires 50,000–75,000 flowers. These flowers would need about a football field's area of cultivation. Some forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers. Upon extraction, stigmas are dried quickly and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers. Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from US$500/pound to US$5,000/pound (US$1100–US$11,000 per kilogram)—equivalent to £250/€350 per pound or £5,500/€7,500 per kilo
. In Western countries, the average retail price is $1,000/£500/€700 per pound (US$2200/£1100/€1550 per kilogram). A pound comprises between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, recent harvest date, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.
Cultivars 

Several saffron cultivars are grown worldwide. Spain's varieties, including the tradenames 'Spanish Superior' and 'Creme', are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish, while the most intense varieties tend to be Iranian in origin. Westerners may face significant obstacles in obtaining saffron from India. For example, India has banned the export of high-grade saffron abroad. Aside from these, various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries, some organically grown. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its earthy notes—is marketed in small quantities.
Consumers regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron (zafferano dell'Aquila)—defined by high safranal and crocin content, shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour—is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's Abruzzo region, near L'Aquila. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition-era Spain. But in Italy the biggest saffron cultivation, for quality and quantity, is in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia. There, saffron is grown on 40 hectares (60% of Italian production); it also has very high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the Kashmiri "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron (Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir, combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its high prices
. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its extremely dark maroon-purple hue, among the world's darkest, which suggests the saffron's strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.
Saffron types are graded by quality according to laboratory measurements of such characteristics as crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance) content. Other metrics include floral waste content (i.e. the saffron spice sample's non-stigma floral content) and measurements of other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash"). A uniform set of international standards in saffron grading was established by the International Organization for Standardization, which is an international federation of national standards bodies. Namely, ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron. It establishes four empirical grades of colour intensity: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Saffron samples are then assigned to one of these grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, which is revealed by measurements of crocin-specific spectroscopic absorbance. Absorbance is defined as , with  as absorbance (Beer-Lambert law)
. It is a measure of a given substance's transparency (, the ratio of light intensity passing through sample to that of the incident light) to a given wavelength of light.
Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration–particularly among the cheapest grades–continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code. Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beet, pomegranate fibers, red-dyed silk fibers, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odorless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibers with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabeled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.
Gallery

Notes

References 

 .
 . PMID 11788779
 . PMID 16317646
 .
 .
 .
 .
 . PMID 16028982
 .
 .
 .
 . PMID 15259204
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 . PMID 8590890
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 . PMID 16180089
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 . PMID 2025883
 .
 .
 
 .
 .
 .
 .

Other websites 

 Crocus sativus List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's) 

Iridaceae
Spices
Kevin Michael "Toby" McKeehan (born October 22, 1964 in Fairfax, Virginia), better known as TobyMac, is a well known Christian singer from the band dc Talk. The band separated in 2000 to pursue solo careers. Some of his most notable songs are "Made to Love", "Burn for You", "Boomin", "City on Our Knees", "Me Without You", and "Feel It". He has also released a live album, Alive and Transported.

Discography

Studio albums

Remix albums

Live albums

References 

Singers from Virginia
1964 births
Living people
Christian music singers
People from Fairfax, Virginia
DC Talk (also written as dc Talk) is a well-known Christian rock/rap band, most famous for its song Jesus Freak. The band started in 1988, and was part of the rise in popularity of the contemporary Christian music genre during the 1990s. The band split up in 2000 to have solo careers.

Studio albums

American rock bands
Christian rock bands
Hip hop bands
Musical groups from Virginia
Argenteuil is a town northwest of Paris, France. Argenteuil is a sub-prefecture of the Val-d'Oise department.

Argenteuil is the second most populated town in the suburbs of Paris (after Boulogne-Billancourt) and the most populated commune in the Val-d'Oise department; however it is not the prefecture. Its population is about 94,000 (1999).

Claude Monet painted things in Argenteuil many times.

Twin towns
 Dessau (Germany) ;
 Clydebank (Scotland) ;
 Alessandria (Italy) ;
 Hunedoara (Romania)

References

Other websites

 Official website
Colombes is a town in the northwest suburbs of Paris, France. Its in the region Île-de-France and the department Hauts-de-Seine. Its population is about 77,000.

Twin town
  Frankenthal in Germany

Communes in Hauts-de-Seine
The virgin birth of Jesus is a belief held by Christians and Muslims.  It says that Mary, Jesus' mother, was a virgin even after she became pregnant with Jesus. By the 2nd century, most people in the Christian church believed this.  The idea of the virgin birth was included in the two most common Christian creeds, the Nicene Creed and the Apostles' Creed.  The Nicene Creed says that Jesus "was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary" (meaning that Jesus was God in human form, and was born to the Virgin Mary).  The Apostles' Creed also says that Jesus was "born of the Virgin Mary."  The belief was not challenged, except by some sects which were not very important, before the Enlightenment theology of the eighteenth century.
The Gospels of Matthew and Luke say that Mary was a virgin and that Jesus was created by the Holy Spirit.  These Gospels started the belief that Jesus' creation was a miracle.  This belief, which is now common in Christianity, says that Jesus had no natural father; no sexual intercourse and no male seed was involved in creating him. The Gospel of Matthew also says that the virgin birth of Jesus fulfills a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah.

Since the second century, the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church have taught that Mary gave birth as a virgin (meaning she stayed a virgo intacta - an "intact virgin" - even after giving birth).

The virgin birth of Jesus is also part of Islam. The Qur'an often describes Jesus as "Jesus, son of Mary" (Isa bin Maryam).

Beliefs about the virgin birth
Hidden meaning 
According to Uta Ranke-Heinemann, the idea that Jesus was born to a virgin was not meant to be taken literally (as if it really happened).  Instead, it is an allegory about something special that God did.  It is like the story about how God made Adam.  Both Adam and Jesus were God's creations.

Illegitimacy 
Raymond Brown argues that Jesus may have been an illegitimate child.  This idea first appeared around 177-180 AD.  Around this time, Celsus wrote that Jesus himself had made up the story about being born to a virgin.  In fact, Celsus wrote, Jesus' mother was a poor country woman who earned her money by spinning (making thread). She had been married to a carpenter, but he kicked her out.  He did this because she was convicted of adultery with a soldier named Panthera.  After this, she wandered around and secretly gave birth to Jesus.  Later, because he was poor, Jesus found work in Egypt.  There, he learned magical powers.  These made him confident, and he started calling himself God.
Epistles of Paul 
The letters of Paul of Tarsus are thought to be the earliest texts in the New Testament. They do not say that Jesus' mother was a virgin.

In Galatians 4:4, Paul wrote:

But when the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law ...

In this sentence, Paul says that Jesus was born of a woman, not of a virgin.  This could be evidence that Paul did not know about the virgin birth of Jesus.  However, when Paul was alive, when Hebrew people talked about a new baby, they usually listed only the child's father, or both parents.  The fact that Paul listed no father may suggest that there was no human father.
Some people think God created Jesus without a human father so Jesus could avoid a curse.  In the Old Testament (), God put a curse on Jeconiah, who had been King of Judah.  God told Jeconiah that none of his family would ever 'sit on the throne of David.'  David was one of Jeconiah's ancestors, and had been King of Jerusalem.   says that Jeconiah was an ancestor of Joseph, Mary's husband.  If Jesus was Joseph's child, Jesus would be related to Jeconiah.  God's curse would keep him from being King of Jerusalem.  However, because God created Jesus without a human father, Jesus was not related to Jeconiah, and could be King.

In his Epistle (letter) to the Romans, Paul says:
People argue about what Paul meant when he said Jesus was "descended from David according to the flesh."  David, Jeconiah, and Joseph were all in the same family line.  For Jesus to be part of David's family line, he would have to be related to Joseph.  This would mean Joseph had to be Jesus' human father.  However, some people think Paul did not mean Jesus was physically descended from Joseph, only that Joseph acted like Jesus' father.
The order of the Bible 
Raymond Brown argues that it is important to look at when each book in the Bible was written.  He says that looking at this shows:
 The oldest Christian writings about Jesus talked about his death and resurrection. 
 The people who wrote the New Testament talked about the things they did and said after learning from Jesus' teachings.  These writings were put together in an order that made sense, not based on which ones were written earliest.  The four Gospels grew from these.  The Gospel of Mark is thought to have been written earliest.
  and the Gospel of Mark both start with Jesus' baptism and end with his resurrection.  Neither talks about Jesus' birth.
 The Gospels of Matthew and Luke were written later.  They were the first parts of the Bible to talk about Jesus' birth.

However, Paul, in Epistle to the Colossians 1:15, calls Jesus the "first-born Son, superior to all created things."  This makes it clear that Paul saw Jesus as very special, unlike any other human being.
Related pages
 Jesus
 The Virgin Mary
 Joseph (Mary's husband)
 The Bible

References 

Christian theology
Mary, mother of Jesus
Jesus
th:การคืนพระชนม์ของพระเยซูคริสต์
Montreuil is a town in the east suburbs of Paris, France. Montreuil is near the Bois de Vincennes park in the Île-de-France region and the Seine-Saint-Denis department. About 91,000 people lived there in 1999. It is the third most populated suburb of Paris (after Boulogne-Billancourt and Argenteuil).

References

Other websites

 Official website 

Communes in Seine-Saint-Denis
Tourcoing  () is a town in the Nord department and Nord-Pas-de-Calais region in France. It is near Lille and Roubaix. There is a metro and tram line between Tourcoing and these places, which are all close to the Belgian border. There is a Napoleon III-style Hôtel de ville (town hall) built in 1885.

Twin towns 
Tourcoing is twinned with:

Related pages
 Communes of the Nord department

Other websites
 
 Tourcoing town council website (in French)
 Tourcoing Volley-Ball Lille Métropole (Official website of the top team, in French)
 See pictures from Antonio Mucherino's web site
ReLoad is an album by Metallica.  It was released in the United States on November 18, 1997 by Elektra Records. It went straight to No.1 in the Billboard 200. Three singles were released from it. "Better Than You" won the 1999 Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance. It was the last studio album by Metallica with Jason Newsted playing bass.

Track Listing
 Fuel
 The Memory Remains
 Devil's Dance
 The Unforgiven II
 Better Than You
 Slither
 Carpe Diem Baby
 Bad Seed
 Where the Wild Things Are
 Prince Charming
 Low Man's Lyric
 Attitude
 Fixxxer

Metallica albums
1997 albums
Hard rock albums
Heavy metal albums
Consensus is a term which describes general agreement among members of a group or community.  It also means the theory and process of bringing a group together in agreement.

Not majority rule
The cooperative spirit of consensus is different from the competitive spirit which is brought to a point in majority voting.  According to Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales,
We are really strongly focused on consensus. One criticism of Wikipedia is that the majority rules. But majority is not the right way to describe it. We strive for consensus rather than majority rule. If you are in a group of five or ten people working on an article, if 30 percent of those working on the article dissent, then continue to write the article until all but the most unreasonable agree. Those who continue to disagree are typically exhibiting non-collaborative, and sometimes abusive, behavior.

Related pages 
 Common sense
 Discussion
 Intensity of preference
 Majority rule

References
References

Other websites
  "Basics of Consensus" at Northwest Intentional Communities Association (NICA) 

Human communication
Community
Grantland Rice (November 1, 1880–July 13, 1954) was an early 20th century American sports-writer.

1880 births
1954 deaths
Writers from Tennessee
Joseph Charles "Chuck" Bernard (August 29, 1911 in Chicago, Illinois – March 1962) was a professional American football center who played for the Detroit Lions in 1934 and was a two-time All-American at the University of Michigan.

NFL Career
After graduating from the University of Michigan, Bernard played 10 games for the Detroit Lions in 1934.

References

American football centers
Sportspeople from Chicago
1911 births
Saint-Denis is a city and commune in the north suburbs of Paris, France. Saint-Denis is a sub-prefecture of the Seine-Saint-Denis departement, and is the seat of the Arrondissement of Saint-Denis. It is in the Île-de-France region. Inhabitants of Saint-Denis are called Dionysiens.

Saint-Denis is home to the Saint Denis Basilica. France's national football stadium, Stade de France, built in 1998 for the Football World Cup is in Saint-Denis.

Saint-Denis used to be an industrial suburb, but its reconverting its economic base.

History 
Almost every French king since Dagobert Ist, was buried in the Basilica. Saint-Denis dates back to the second century. It used to be a village called Catolacus. Saint Denis, the first bishop of Paris, was martyred in about 250 AD. He was buried in the cemetery of Catolacus. Denis' tomb became a place of worship.

During the French Revolution in 1793, the city was renamed Franciade, and the royal necropolis was looted and destroyed. The name was changed back in 1803.
During the Second World War, the Germans occupied Saint-Denis from June 13, 1940. The town was liberated by General Leclerc on August 27.

Twin towns 
  Córdoba, Spain
  Gera, Germany
  North Lanarkshire, Scotland
  Porto Alegre, Brazil
  Sesto San Giovanni, Italy
  Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Other facts 

The painter Claude Monet was born in Saint-Denis.

Other websites 
 City council website
Offensive may mean:

 Offensive (Netherlands), a political party 
 Offensive (military), an attack
The University of Minnesota, Twin Cities (U of M or The U) is a public university. Most of the buildings are in Minneapolis, and some more buildings are about 3 miles (4.8 km) away near Saint Paul. These two parts are called the Twin Cities campus, and together they are the oldest and largest part of the University of Minnesota system. The Twin Cities campus is the flagship of the system.

The University of Minnesota is one of the Public Ivy universities in America, which is like saying they can give people an experience in college similar to the Ivy League. The University of Minnesota was started in 1851, and they are now in the Association of American Universities.

There are lots of students and teachers at the University of Minnesota. Some of them have won Nobel Prizes and Pulitzer Prizes.  Some famous people who went to the University of Minnesota are Hubert Humphrey, Walter Mondale, and Bob Dylan. The nickname of the University of Minnesota is the Golden Gophers.

Areas of Study
Structure 
The University of Minnesota is structured into different units that study specific things. There are 19 units:
 Center for Allied Health Programs
 College of Biological Sciences
 College of Continuing and Professional Studies
 School of Dentistry
 College of Design
 College of Education and Human Development
 Extension
 College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences
 Graduate School
 Law School
 College of Liberal Arts
 Carlson School of Management
 Medical School
 School of Nursing
 College of Pharmacy
 Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs
 School of Public Health
 College of Science and Engineering
 College of Veterinary Medicine
The University of Minnesota also has some smaller parts made up of people from across the units working together:
 Center for Cognitive Sciences
 Consortium on Law and Values in Health, Environment, and the Life Sciences
 Institute for Advanced Study at University of Minnesota
 Institute for Translational Neuroscience
 Institute on the Environment
Discoveries 
 Gravity waves — the University of Minnesota has led studies to learn about gravity — the force that moves us toward the center of the earth — and how gravity moves like a wave. People who study gravity shared this discovery in February 2016.
 Gopher — the University of Minnesota made a tool called Gopher, which came before the World Wide Web. It used links to connect computers together. People liked the World Wide Web better though, because it was easier to share with people, and it worked with more stuff than just text. The University of Minnesota keeps the Charles Babbage Institute, a place that stores important examples of computer history. They started early with Seymour Cray who made powerful computers.

Campuses

Kinds of People 
The campus is made up of more than 50,000 people, so the University of Minnesota is the sixth largest in the United States. There are many kinds of people that are part of the University of Minnesota, from a lot of different places and groups.
Minneapolis Campus 
The campus started near the Saint Anthony Falls on the Mississippi River, but people moved about 1 mile (1.6 km) over to the place it is today. The old site is now a small park. They closed during the American Civil War, but they opened again in 1867 when John S. Pillsbury gave some money. They were bigger by 1869, so they stopped being called preparatory school and started being called a college instead. Today there are so many buildings, there are some on both sides of the Mississippi River. The part with buildings on the east side of the river is called the "East Bank", and the part with buildings on the west side of the river is called the "West Bank".

East Bank 
The University of Minnesota has many buildings on the east side of the Mississippi River. To help people find their way around, these buildings are divided into several areas: the Knoll area, the Mall area, the Health area, the Athletic area, and the Gateway area.
The Knoll area is the oldest part of the University of Minnesota, and it's in the northwestern corner. Some buildings in this area are over 100 years old.

The Mall area, or Northrop Mall is in the middle. It was based on a drawing by Cass Gilbert, but that drawing was too hard to follow. There are many buildings in the Mall area that are important.

The Health area is in the southeast corner. Some buildings are part of a hospital. There's also some buildings where students live, which called a residence hall.

The Athletic area is near the health area. Some buildings are for students who want to stay healthy to use like a gymnasium. There are also stadiums and arenas for people in sports to use in student athletics.

The Gateway area is on the east side. Most of these buildings are for offices, but there are also some buildings for people who are learning about medicine and living things.
West Bank 
The University of Minnesota has some buildings on the west side of the Mississippi River. Some are for people to learn about theatre, dance, music, and art. There's also a big library and some buildings for people to learn about social science.

Saint Paul Campus 
The place people call the Saint Paul Campus is not in Saint Paul. It's in a city called Falcon Heights, about 3 miles (4.8 km) away from the Minneapolis campus. Most of the buildings are for people to about farming and natural resources. There are also fields and quiet spots. The Saint Paul Campus is next to the Minnesota State Fairgrounds, where Minnesota has a big party every year.

Student Life

Clubs 
Many students at the University of Minnesota are part of clubs. Some clubs are fraternities and sororities— that is, a group of students who have things in common and are close together. There are also clubs for people who are studying the same thing, or for people who want to help like a charity.

Media
Media

Print 
The Minnesota Daily is a newspaper made all by students. It was first made on May 1, 1900. It gets made twice a week, except in the summer when it's made once a week.

There's another newspaper called The Wake Student Magazine, made all by students. It was first made in November, 2001.

Athletics 
Minnesota's sports teams mostly play in the Big Ten Conference. The women's ice hockey team plays in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA); the men's ice hockey team also played in the WCHA until 2013, when the Big Ten began a men's ice hockey league.

References

Colleges and universities in Minnesota
Association of American Universities
Big Ten Conference
Western Collegiate Hockey Association
1851 establishments in the United States
1850s establishments in Minnesota Territory
The Minnesota Golden Gophers are the college sports team for the University of Minnesota. The athletics director is Joel Maturi.

Other websites 
Official website

Colleges and universities in Minnesota
Big Ten Conference
Dixie Dean (William Ralph Dean, 22 January 1907 – 1 March 1980) was an English football player. He played for Everton FC during the 1920s and 30s. 

He scored more goals than any other player in English football history.

Dean was born in Birkenhead in Merseyside. He began his career at his hometown club Tranmere Rovers before moving on to Everton. He was particularly known for scoring goals with his head. Dean played most of his career at Everton. When injuries caught up with him, he moved on to Notts County. 

Dean is best known for his exploits during the 1927–28 season. He scored a record 60 league goals that season, when the English first division was by far the strongest football league in the world. He also scored 18 goals in 16 appearances for England. There were fewer international games in those days.
A statue of Dean was unveiled outside Goodison Park in 2001. A year later, he became one of the first 22 players inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame. Dean was the first Everton player to wear the number 9 shirt, and is regarded as one of the greatest footballers of all time.

References 

1907 births
1980 deaths
English footballers
Harry G. Kipke (March 26, 1899 - September 14, 1972) was the head football coach at the University of Michigan from 1929-1937. He is one of only three coaches in school history to direct teams to four consecutive conference championships.

American basketball players
Sportspeople from Michigan
1899 births
1972 deaths