Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Klaus Schütz (17 September 1926 in Heidelberg – 29 November 2012 in Berlin) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party (SPD).

Biography 
He was Mayor of West Berlin from 1967 to 1977, and was President of the Bundesrat in 1967/68. After his resignation he worked as German Ambassador to Israel until 1981 and Director General of the Deutsche Welle broadcaster from 1981 to 1987. He was also president of the German Red Cross.

Other websites

References 

1926 births
2012 deaths
People from Heidelberg
Politicians from Baden-Württemberg
Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany
Rabiu Afolabi (born 18 April 1980 in Osogbo, Nigeria) is a Nigerian soccer player. He plays for F. C. Red Bull Salzburg in the Austrian Bundesliga as defender.

Career
After playing good in the UEFA-CAF Meridian Cup in 1997 he went to Europe and played for Standard Liège. He signed 2000 for SSC Napoli in the Seria A but had no breakthrough. So he went back to Belgium. 2003 till 2005 the played the first time in Austria for FK Austria Wien. After his time in France( FC Sochaux 2005-2009) he signed for F.C. Red Bull Salzburg. 2011 he his in AS Monaco now playing in the League 2 in France

International
He started with the team of Nigeria in the 1999 African Youth Championship. The he was captain of the Nigerian team at the  1999 FIFA World Youth Championship in Nigeria, where they reached the quarter finals. On 17 June 2000, he made his first match in the senior team in a 2002 World Cup qualifing match against Sierra Leone. Rabiu Afolabi was member of the Nigerian team for the 2002 and 2010 World Cups.
References

Other websites
Official Website 
Players profile Official Website FC Red Bull Salzburg
Guardian football stats-Rabiu Afolabi 

Nigerian footballers
1980 births
Living people
Scotch-Irish or Scots-Irish may refer to;

 Ulster Scots people, an ethnic group in the Ulster province of Ireland which can trace its roots back to settlers from Scotland and northern England
 Ulster Scots language a protected language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
 Scots-Irish American, descendents of the Ulster Scots people who first migrated to North America in large numbers beginning in the early 18th century
Ulster Scots are an ethnic group in Ireland, descended from Lowland Scots and English from the border of those two countries, were "Border Reivers".  These people first began to occupy Ireland in large numbers with the Plantation of Ulster, ordered by James I of England on land taken from the Irish nobility, mostly in the Province of Ulster. The term "Ulster-Scots" refers to both these colonists of the 17th century and, less commonly, to the Gallowglass who began to arrive from what is now northwest Scotland centuries earlier.

Ulster-Scots were largely descended from colonists from Galloway, Ayrshire, and the Scottish Borders Country, although some descend from people further north in the Scottish Lowlands and the Highlands. Ulster-Scots emigrated in significant numbers to the United States and all corners of the British Empire — Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa — and to a lesser extent to Argentina and Chile in South America.
Scotch-Irish is a traditional term for Ulster Scots who later emigrated to what is now the United States;  "Scots-Irish" is a more recent form of the American term, the term has usually been Scotch-Irish in America, as evident in Merriam-Webster dictionaries, where the term Scotch-Irish is recorded from 1744, while Scots-Irish is not recorded until 1972.  and is not to be confused with Irish-Scots, i.e., recent Irish immigrants to Scotland.

References

 
Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom
Dharamshala is a city in northern India. It is the winter seat of government of the state of Himachal Pradesh and the district headquarters of the Kangra district.

McLeod Ganj, a village within Dharamshala municipality, is the home of the Dalai Lama and the exiled Tibetan government. It is a popular place for Indian and foreign tourists, including students studying Tibet.

Photo gallery 

Tibetan Buddhism
Cities in India
Himachal Pradesh
The Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (), is a royal order of chivalry established in 1831 and found today throughout the Commonwealth of Nations, Hong Kong, Ireland and the United States of America.  Its world-wide mission is "to prevent and relieve sickness and injury, and to act to enhance the health and well-being of people anywhere in the world." It is often simply called the Order of St. John, or as the Venerable Order of Saint John (VOSJ) to distinguish it from other similarly named orders.
The order's approximately 25,000 confrères, supported by 4,000 employees and 250,000 volunteers, are mainly Anglicans, though those of other Christian denominations or other religions are accepted into the order, and honorary membership is presented to distinguished adherents of other religions. Membership in the order is by invitation only, except via appointment to certain government or ecclesiastical offices in some realms.  People may not petition for admission. It is perhaps best known through its service organizations, St. John Ambulance and St John Eye Hospital Group, the memberships and work of which are not limited to any denomination or religion.

History

The original order was divided into langues (tongues).  These were groups based on the tongue, or language, that the group spoke.
The Order of St. John's biggest leap forward came in 1888, when Queen Victoria granted the society a royal charter, yet again renaming the order, this time as the Grand Priory of the Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem in England. This was altered in 1926 to the Grand Priory in the British Realm of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, and then in 1936 as the Grand Priory in the British Realm of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem. In 1961 it played a role in the establishment of the Alliance of the Orders of St. John of Jerusalem, and thereafter finally received through a concordat in 1963 collateral recognition by the Order of Malta. The most recent royal charter was issued in 1955, with a supplemental charter released in 1974, recognizing the world-wide scope of the organization by setting its present name. In 1999, the order was granted special consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council.

Structure
Structure

Officers and grades
The reigning monarch of each of the Commonwealth realms is the Sovereign Head of the Order of St. John

Knights and Dames receive the award from the Grand Prior when they are touched on the shoulder with a sword and are given their robes and insignia. Post-nominal letters of the order are not used outside the organization itself, and a Knight and Dame may not use the prefix sir or dame, though they may request from their local heraldic authority a personal coats of arms, should they not already possess any, and have it adorned with emblems of the Order of St. John. Further, membership in the order only grants precedence within the society, which is as follows:
The Sovereign Head
 The Grand Prior
 The Lord Prior of St. John
 The Prior of a Priory or the Knight or Dame Commander of a Commandery when within the territory of the establishment
 The Prelate of the Order
 The Deputy Lord Prior or the Deputy Lord Priors and if more than one in the order of seniority in their grades
 The Sub-Prior of the Order
 Former Great Officers
 Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross
 The Prior of a Priory or the Knight or Dame Commander of a Commandery outside the territory of the establishment
 Members of the Grand Council not included above in the order of seniority in their grades
 The Principal Officers in the order of their offices
 The Sub-Prelates and the Honorary Sub-Prelates
 The Hospitaller of the Order
 Knights and Dames
 Chaplains
 Commanders
 Officers
 Serving Brothers and Serving Sisters
 Esquires
Precedence within each grade is dictated by dates of appointment, save for those in Grade I who are either a head of state or a member of the royal family of a Commonwealth realm, another Commonwealth country, or foreign state, in which case they all precede the other members of the grade in the following order:

 Members of the Commonwealth realms' royal family
 Heads of state from the Commonwealth of Nations
 Foreign Heads of State
 Members of other Commonwealth royal families
 Members of foreign royal families
Priories and commanderies
Following constitutional changes made in 1999, the Priory of England and The Islands was established (including the Commandery of Ards in Northern Ireland) alongside the existing Priories of Wales, Scotland, Canada, Australia (including the Commandery of Western Australia), New Zealand, South Africa, and, since 1996, the United States, each of which is governed by a Prior and a Priory Chapter. Commanderies, governed by a Knight or Dame Commander and a Commandery Chapter, may exist within or wholly or partly without the territory of a Priory, known as Dependent or Independent Commanderies, respectively. Any country without a Priory or Commandery of its own is assumed into the "home priory" of England and The Islands, many of these being smaller Commonwealth of Nations states in which the order has only a minor presence.
Vestments and insignia
Upon admission into the Order of St. John, confrères are gifted various insignia of the organization, each level and office being represented by different emblems and robes for wear at important occasions for the order. Common for all members except Esquires is the badge, consisting of an eight-pointed Maltese cross embellished in the four principal angles alternately with two lions passant guardant and two unicorns passant. That for the Sovereign Head is gold with arms of white enamel and the embellishments rendered in gold, all surmounted by a jeweled St. Edward's Crown, while those for the officers of the order are the same save for the Grand Prior's having the crown made only of gold; the Lord Prior's having in place of the St. Edward's Crown the coronet in gold of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales; and the Prelate's having instead a representation of a Mitre in gold. Thereafter, the badges are prescribed as follows:
All Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross may wear their badges either at the left hip on a  (for men) or  (for women) wide, black watered silk ribbon over the right shoulder or from a  wide black band at the collar. Male Knights Justice or Grace must carry their badges on a 16.5mm wide ribbon at the neck, and Commanders, Officers, and Members have theirs on a  straight ribbon suspended from a medal bar on the left breast, while females in all grades may wear their insignia either on a ribbon bow pinned at the left shoulder or hung from a medal bar in the men's fashion, depending on the circumstance and clothing worn. Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross, Knights and Dames of Justice or Grace, and Chaplains may all also wear a breast star, which appears the same as their badges, only at a diameter of  and without embellishments for those in Grade I and  for those in Grade II
. Further, those in these groups are also given a button for wear on the lapel of non-formal civilian clothing, for events such as business meetings of the order. In general, the insignia of the Order of St. John may be worn at all occasions where other decorations are worn, not only those connected with the ceremonies of the order.
All members of the Order of St. John are also required to wear specific robes for formal occasions of the society, including a mantle, sopra vest, and hat. The mantles of the Sovereign Head and Grand Prior are all of black silk velvet and lined with white silk, the former's differentiated by an additional train. Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross and, prior to 1926, Knights of Justice formerly wore black silk robes with a lining of the same material and colour; these members now wear the same mantle as Commanders, Officers, and Esquires, which are made of black merino wool faced with black silk. The only other unique mantles are those of the Medical Officer of the St. John Ophthalmic Hospital, which bears a special pattern, and of Chaplains, which is a black silk robe with full sleeves
. Each cloak also bears on its left side a rendition of the order's star in white silk: the Sovereign Head, Grand Prior, and those in the first two grades of the order all have a  diameter emblem; the Sovereign's and Grand Prior's are of white silk with gold adornments, the former's also surmounted by a St. Edward's Crown, while those for Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross, Knights and Dames of Justice, and Knights and Dames of Grace are rendered in white linen, the first two groups having embellishments in gold silk, the latter in white silk. Similarly, the star for Commanders and Officers is of white linen with white silk ornamentation, though they are only  and  in diameter, respectively. The Secretaries of the order, the priories, and the commanderies also wear the badge superimposed upon two goose quill pens embroidered saltire-wise in white silk.
The sopra (or supra) vest is a long drape of thin, black cloth that buttons close down the neck and to one side, falling to the ankles and cut so as to entirely cover the body. It is similar to a cassock, though it is actually derived from the supra vesta a black surcoat worn in the mid 13th century by the Knights of St. John. Confrères in Grade I have a plain, white, 300mm diameter Maltese cross on their sopra vests, while members of Grades II and III, plus Chaplains, have a plain garment, though the wearer's Order of St. John medallion hangs outside the vest, 152mm below the collar. Clerical inductees of the order may, when officiating, wear over their cassock and surplice a tippet of black with red lining, edging, and buttons, a 76mm wide star worn on the left breast and the accordant badge suspended at the neck. When full mantles and sopra vests are worn a black velvet Tudor style hat is included.
Eligibility and appointment
The Sovereign makes all appointments to the order as she, in her absolute discretion, shall think fit, though the constitution does impose certain limitations: the maximum number of members is set at 35,000,

To be inducted, new members must recite the organization's declaration:
"I do solemnly declare that I will be faithful and obedient to The Order of St. John and its Sovereign Head as far as it is consistent with my duty to my [Sovereign/President] and to my country; that I will do everything in my power to uphold its dignity and support its charitable works; and that I will endeavour always to uphold the aims of this Christian Order and to conduct myself as a person of honour."
Notwithstanding the order's devotion to Christian ideals of charity, and its official position that the order has a "Christian character," its Grand Council has since 1999 affirmed that "profession of the Christian Faith should not be a condition of membership of the Order." The issue of the order's Christian character and the issue of "inclusive membership" was dealt with in the Grand Council's Pro Fide Report in 2005, wherein it was said that the order's life is shaped by Christian faith and values, but that "[r]ather than the emphasis being primarily upon 'spiritual beliefs or doctrine' it is on works of mercy rendered through St. John"; therefore, while the Great Officers are required to profess the Christian faith, the same is "not an essential condition of membership" and "[t]he onus is on the man or woman who is invited to the privilege of membership to decide whether he or she can with a good conscience promise to be faithful to the stated aims and purposes of this Christian lay order of chivalry
." On the subject of inclusive membership, the report stated "Christian hospitality is a criterion which can be applied to the Order's relationships to persons of other religious faiths," and "the Order needs to be characterized by a hospitable disposition towards other faith traditions while holding fast to its own origins and foundational identity in Christian faith."
Precedence in each realm
As the Order of St. John is open to the citizens of sixteen different countries, each with their own system of orders, decorations, and medals, the order's place of precedence varies from country to country. Unlike with other multi-level orders, all the Order of St. John's grades rank between the society's predecessor and successor; some examples follow:

Related pages
 List of the priors of St John of Jerusalem in England
 Museum of the Order of St John
 Sovereign Military Order of Malta
 Service Medal of the Order of St John

Notes

References

Bibliography

Other websites
Jasenovac concentration camp was the largest death camp and concentration camp in the Independent State of Croatia (ISC) during World War II.  The camp was created by the Ustaše regime in August 1941 and destroyed in April 1945.  Most of the people killed at Jasenovac were ethnic Serbs, who the ISC saw as their main ethnic enemy. The camp also held Jews, Roma, and a number of Croat and Bosniak Yugoslav Partisans and anti-Fascist civilians.

Jasenovac was a complex of five sub-camps  covering over  on both banks of the Sava River.  The largest camp was at Jasenovac, about  southeast of Zagreb. The complex included large grounds at Donja Gradina directly across the Sava River; a children's death camp in Sisak; and a Stara Gradiška concentration camp.

The camp's history website says, "We cannot be sure of the exact number of victims of the Ustasha camp in Jasenovac. According to research completed so far, the number can be estimated at between 80,000 and 100,000".

Background
Background 

The Independent State of Croatia (ISC) made three orders in 1941:
 The "Legal order for the defense of the people and the state" (dated April 17, 1941) ordered the death penalty for "infringement of the honour and vital interests of the Croatian people and the survival of the Independent State of Croatia."  (This meant that anyone who was against the government of the ISC, or the things the ISC did, could be killed.)
 "Legal order of races" and the "Legal order of the protection of Aryan blood and the honour of the Croatian people" (dated April 30, 1941)
 "Order of the creation and definition of the racial-political committee" (dated June 4, 1941)
These orders were enforced through the regular court system, and through new special courts and mobile courts-martial with special powers.  By July 1941, there were too many new prisoners to fit in the jails that existed.  The Ustaše government began building the Jasenovac concentration camp.
The Independent State of Croatia was created and supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.  Because of this, the ISC took on their ideas about race and politics.  Jasenovac had a role in the Nazis' "Final Solution."  However, the ISC also used the camp for the ethnic cleansing of Romani and Serbian people in Croatia.

The Nazi organizations that directed the Ustaše's death camps were:
The Office of Foreign Affairs, represented in Croatia by Siegfried Kasche.
The Schutzstaffel (SS), represented by a Gestapo official whose identity is not known, but whom Jewish witnesses knew as "Miller"
The Reichfuhrung and the Wehrmacht
The Nazis encouraged the Ustaše's anti-Jewish and anti-Roma actions and showed support for the anti-Serb policy. Soon, it became clear that the Nazis wanted to commit genocide.  In a meeting on July 21, 1941, Hitler said to the Croatian military commander, Slavko Kvaternik:
The Jews are the bane of the human kind. If the Jews will be allowed to do as they will, like they are permitted in their Soviet heaven, than they will fulfill their most insane plans. And thus Russia became the center to the world's illness... if for any reason, one nation would endure the existence of a single Jewish family, that family would eventually become the center of a new plot. If there are no more Jews in Europe, nothing will hold the unification of the European nations... this sort of people cannot be integrated in the social order or into an organized nation. They are parasites on the body of a healthy society, that live off of expulsion of decent people. One cannot expect them to fit into a state that requires order and discipline. There is only one thing to be done with them: To exterminate them. The state holds this right since, while precious men die on the battlefront, it would be nothing less than criminal to spare these bastards
. They must be expelled, or -- if they pose no threat to the public -- to be imprisoned inside concentration camps and never be released."
Creation of the camp
The Jasenovac complex was built between August 1941 and February 1942. The first two camps, Krapje and Bročica, were closed in November 1941.

The three newer camps continued to function until the end of the war:
 Ciglana (Jasenovac III)
 Kozara (Jasenovac IV)
 Stara Gradiška (Jasenovac V)

The camp was built, managed and supervised by Department III of the Ustaška Narodna Služba or UNS (lit. "Ustaše People's Service"), a special police force of the ISC.  Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić was head of the UNS.  At different times, Miroslav Majstorović and Dinko Šakić managed the camp.
The Ustaše interned, tortured and executed men, women and children in Jasenovac. The largest number of victims were Serbs, but other victims included Jews, Bosnian Muslims, Gypsies, and Croatian resistance members opposed to the ISC regime.  When they got to the camp, the prisoners were marked with colors: blue for Serbs, and red for "communists" (non-Serbian resistance members).  Gypsies had no marks (this was later changed).

Most people who were sent to Jasenovac were killed at execution sites near the camp: Granik, Gradina, and other places.  Prisoners who were kept alive were mostly people who had special skills (for example, doctors, pharmacists, electricians, shoemakers, and goldsmiths).  They were forced to work at Jasenovac.

Living conditions
Living conditions

The living conditions in the camp were terrible, as was usual for Nazi death camps.  Prisoners were fed very little, not given enough clothing or shelter to stay warm, had no health care, and were abused by the Ustaše guards.  Also, as in many camps, conditions would be improved temporarily when special groups visited.  For example, when members of the press visited in February 1942, and later when a Red Cross delegation visited in June 1944, the prisoners were treated better until the visitors left.  Then the living conditions would go back to usual.
Food 
Like at all Nazi death camps, the food given to prisoners at Jasenovac was not enough to keep them alive.  The kind of food they were given changed over time.  In camp Brocice, inmates were given a "soup" made of hot water with starch for breakfast, and beans for lunch and dinner.  (These "meals" were served at 6:00, 12:00 and 21:00.)  Food in Camp No. III was better at first, with potatoes instead of beans.  However, in January, prisoners started getting only one daily serving of thin "turnip soup".  By the end of the year, the diet had been changed again, to three daily portions of thin gruel made of water and starch.  More changes were made, but prisoners never got enough food to keep them from starving.

Water 
The water at Jasenovac was even worse than at most death camps.  There was no clean water at the camp.  Prisoners were forced to drink water from the Sava River, which was contaminated with hren (horseradish).
Shelter 
In the first camps, Brocice and Krapje, inmates slept in regular concentration-camp barracks.  These were made of wood and had three tiers (levels) of bunks.

In Camp No. III, which housed about 3,000 prisoners, there was not enough shelter for everyone.  At first, inmates slept in the attics of the camp's workshops, in an open depot used as a railway "tunnel", or simply outside in the open.  A short time later, eight barracks were built.  Inmates slept in six of these barracks.  The other two were used as a "clinic" and a "hospital."  These were not places where inmates could get medical treatment and get better.  They were places where sick inmates were put together to die or be killed.

Forced labor 
As in all concentration camps, prisoners at Jasenovac had to work about 11 hours a day.  They did hard, forced labor, and were always watched by the Ustaše guards.  These guards would execute inmates even for small reasons, and say the inmates were "sabotaging labor."
Ustasas Hinko Dominik Picilli and Tihomir Kordić controlled the labor section.  Picilli would personally whip inmates to make them work harder.  He divided the "Jasenovac labor force" into 16 groups, including groups of construction workers, brick-workers, metal-works, and agricultural workers.  Many inmates died from the hard work.  Brick-working was especially hard and dangerous.  Inmates working as blacksmiths were forced to make knives and other weapons for the Ustaše.  Building dikes was the most feared job of all.

Sanitation 
Inside the camp, there was no sanitation.  Prisoners had no way to keep things clean, and had to live in terrible conditions.  Blood, vomit and dead bodies filled the barracks.  The barracks were also full of pests like lice and rats, which spread disease.  The barracks smelled terrible because inmates had to use a bucket for a toilet during the evenings.  The bucket often spilled.
During breaks from work (from 5:00-6:00; 12:00-13:00, and 17:00-20:00), inmates were allowed to empty their bowels in public latrines.  These were big pits that lay bare in the open field, covered with planks of wood.  Inmates often fell inside and died. The Ustaše encouraged this by having prisoners separate the planks.  Sometimes, the Ustaše would even drown inmates inside the pits.  When it rained, these pits would overflow and drain into the lake.  This meant that urine and feces would mix into the water which the prisoners had to drink.

Inmates were given rags and blankets, but they were very thin.  The barracks were also not enough to keep inmates warm from the cold.  Prisoners' clothes and blankets were rarely cleaned.  Inmates were allowed to wash them quickly in the lake once a month, except during the winter, when the lake froze.  Then, inmates were sometimes allowed to boil a few clothes, but not well enough to get them clean.
Because of these terrible living conditions, inmates suffered from illnesses that led to epidemics of typhus, typhoid, malaria, lung infections, influenza, dysentery, and diphtheria.

Belongings 
The Ustaše took away all of the inmates' clothes and other things.  They were given only prison uniforms, made out of rags.  In winter, inmates were given thin "rain-coats," and they were allowed to make light sandals.  Inmates were given a small personal food bowl, to hold the 0.4 litres of "soup" they were fed.  An inmate whose bowl was missing (because another inmate had stolen it to use it as a toilet) would get no food.

During delegation visits, inmates were given bowls twice as large as usual, with spoons. Also, during these visits, inmates were given colored tags.

Anxiety 
Prisoners were affected by a constant fear of death, and terrible stress of being in a situation in which the living and dead are very close together.
When they first arrived at the camp, inmates would be shocked by the terrible conditions on the trip to the camp, and in the camp itself.  The Ustaše would increase this shock by murdering a number of inmates as soon as they got to the camp, and by temporarily housing new-arrivals in warehouses, attics, in the train tunnel and outdoors.

After the inmates grew familiar with life in camp, they would have to get used to living through the hardships, abuse, torture, and deaths of other prisoners.  The danger of death was greatest during "public performances for public punishment," also called selections.  Inmates would be lined up in groups, and individuals would be randomly pointed out to be killed while facing the rest. The Ustaše would make this worse by making the process take a long time.  They would walk around and ask questions; gaze at inmates; choose one person, then change their mind and choose another.
Inmates reacted to being in Jasenovac in two basic ways.  Some became activists.  They formed resistance movements (groups who tried to fight the Ustaše in different ways, like stealing food, planning escapes and revolts, and trying to get in touch with people outside the camp).  But most of the inmates reacted by just trying to survive, and get through the day unharmed.  This was not "going in line to slaughter," but rather another strategy to try to survive.

All inmates suffered from some kind of mental health problems.  Some could not stop thinking about food; others became paranoid; some had delusions; some lost control of themselves.  Others seemed to lose their sense of hope.  Some inmates reacted by trying to write about what was happening to them.  For example, Nikola Nikolić, Djuro Schwartz, and Ilija Ivanović all tried to memorize and even write about events, dates and details.  This was very dangerous, since writing was punishable by death and tracking dates was hard.
Most of the executions of Jews at Jasenovac occurred before August 1942.  After that, the ISC started to deport Jewish prisoners to the Auschwitz concentration camp.  In general, Jews were first sent to Jasenovac from all parts of Croatia after being gathered in Zagreb, and from Bosnia and Herzegovina after being gathered in Sarajevo. Some, however, were sent directly to Jasenovac from other cities and smaller towns.

Systematic extermination of prisoners

Many inmates sent to Jasenovac were scheduled to be murdered.  Strong men who could do hard work, and were sentenced to less than 3 years in prison, were allowed to live.  However, anyone who was sentenced to 3 years in prison or longer was immediately scheduled for execution.

The Ustaše used many different kinds of systematic extermination (killing many people at once, using a system).  However, they liked using manual methods of killing - killing prisoners with their hands, using tools like knives, saws, and hammers.
Cremation 
The Ustaše cremated living inmates.  Some were given drugs, but others were fully awake.  They also cremated dead bodies.

When the Ustaše first started cremating people in January 1942, they used brick factory ovens.  An engineer named Hinko Dominik Picilli made cremation much easier for them by creating seven better-working crematories.

Crematories were also placed in Gradina, across the Sava River.  The State Commission says "there is no information that [the Gradina crematory] ever went into operation." Later testimony, however, says this crematory was used.

Some bodies were buried rather than cremated.  Their bodies were dug up late in the war.
Gassing and poisoning 
The Nazis had used poison gas to kill many prisoners in their concentration camps.  Following this example, the Ustaše tried to use poison gas to kill inmates that arrived in Stara-Gradiska.  At first, they tried to gas the women and children that arrived from camp Djakovo with gas-vans that Simo Klaić called "green Thomas".  Later, they built gas chambers and used Zyklon-B and sulphur monoxide to kill prisoners.

Granik 
Granik was a ramp used to unload goods from boats on the Sava River.  In winter 1943-44, prisoners who did farming work had no jobs to do, since the ground was frozen.  Meanwhile, large numbers of new prisoners arrived.  By this time, the Axis powers were expected to lose World War II, and the Ustaše wanted to kill as many people as possible before that happened.  They decided to execute people on the ramp, so that after they were killed, their bodies could be dumped into the river.
Every night for about 20 days, Ustaše officers brought in lists of prisoners who they planned to execute.  They stripped, chained, and beat these prisoners.  Then they took them to the Granik.  There, weights were tied to them; their intestines and necks were cut; they were hit in the head; and then they were thrown into the river.  Over time, the Ustaše changed this method, so that inmates were tied in pairs, back to back, and their bellies were cut open before they were tossed into the river alive.

Gradina and Ustice 
Gradina and Ustice were villages around Jasenovac.  The Ustaše chose some empty areas near these villages, and used wire to mark off an area for a massacre and mass graves.  They gathered many prisoners there and killed them with knives or by smashing their skulls with hammers.
When Roma people (Gypsies) arrived in the camp, they did not undergo selection, because they were all scheduled to be killed.  They were taken to Gradina.  In between massacres, the men would be forced to work on the dike, and the women would be forced to work in the cornfields in Ustice.  Eventually, they would all be killed.  Thus Gradina and Ustice became Roma mass grave sites.  The Ustaše killed more and more people Gradina, until it became the main killing-ground in Jasenovac. Grave-sites were also located in nearby Ustica and in Draksenic.

Mlaka and Jablanac 

Mlaka and Jablanac were used as camps where women and children were held and forced to work.  However, many women, children, and men were killed at the Sava River bank between the two camps.

Velika Kustarica 
According to the State Commission, as many as 50,000 people were killed here in the winter of 1941 to 1942.  Evidence says that more people were also killed here after that winter.

August 29, 1942, mass murder
In the late summer of 1942, the ISC sent tens of thousands of Serbian villagers were to Jasenovac.  The villagers had lived in the Kozara mountain area (in Bosnia), where ISC soldiers were fighting against the Yugoslav Partisans.  The women villagers were sent to do forced labor in Germany.  Children were taken from their mothers and either killed or sent to Catholic orphanages.  However, most of the men were killed at Jasenovac.
On the night of August 29, 1942, the camp's guards made bets about who could kill the most prisoners.  One of the guards, Petar Brzica, reportedly cut the throats of about 1,360 of the new prisoners, using a butcher knife that became known as srbosjek ("Serb-cutter").  Other guards who admitted taking part in the bet included Ante Zrinušić, who killed about 600 inmates, and Mile Friganović, who gave a detailed and consistent report of what happened.  Friganović admitted to killing 1,100 inmates.  He specifically talked about how he tortured an old man named Vukasin.  He ordered the man to bless the Ustaše leader, Ante Pavelić.  The old man refused, even though Friganović cut off his ears, nose, and tongue every time he refused.  Eventually, he cut out the old man's eyes, tore out his heart, and cut his throat.  Dr. Nikola Nikolić saw this happen.
End of the camp
In April 1945, as Yugoslav Partisan units neared the camp, the Ustaše guards tried to get rid of evidence of their crimes and the people who knew what they had done.  They tried to kill as many prisoners as possible, as fast as they could.  On April 22, 600 prisoners revolted; 520 were killed and 80 escaped.  Not long after the prisoners revolted, the Ustaše abandoned the camp.  However, first, they killed the prisoners who were still alive.  They also blew up and destroyed the buildings, guardhouses, torture rooms, crematoriums, and other parts of the camp.  When they entered the camp, the Partisans found only ruins, soot, smoke, and dead bodies.

By the end of 1945, the rest of Jasenovac was destroyed.

Victims

Total number
Historians have had difficulty figuring out exactly how many people died at Jasenovac.  Today, the most common estimate is that tens of thousands of people died at the camp.  Before the 1990s, the most common estimate was that hundreds of thousands had died.
These estimates are very different for many reasons.  The Ustaše did not keep accurate records.  Different people use different ways of estimating deaths.  Sometimes, the people making estimates have political biases.  In some cases, entire families were killed at the camp, leaving no one to submit their names to lists of the dead.  On the other hand, the lists sometimes include the names of people who died in other places; people who survived; or people who are on more than one list.

Victim lists
The Jasenovac Memorial Area keeps a list of the names of 69,842 Jasenovac victims, including 39,580 Serbs; 14,599 Roma (Gypsies); 10,700 Jews; 3,462 Croats; 1,128 Bosniaks; and people of other ethnicities.  The Memorial estimates that between 85,000 and 100,000 people died at the camp.  However, the Memorial's former director, Simo Brdar, estimated that there were at least 360,000 total deaths.
The Belgrade Museum of the Holocaust keeps a list of the names of 80,022 victims (mostly from Jasenovac), including approximately 52,000 Serbs; 16,000 Jews; 12,000 Croats; 12,000 Bosniaks; and 10,000 Roma.  Milan Bulajic, the Museum's former director, estimated total deaths at 500,000 to 700,000.
The Jasenovac Research Institute estimates that there were 300,000 to 700,000 deaths at the camp.
In 1998, the Bosniak Institute published SFR Yugoslavia's final List of war victims from the Jasenovac camp (created in 1992). The list contained the names of 49,602 victims at Jasenovac, including 26,170 Serbs; 8,121 Jews; 5,900 Croats; 1471 Roma; 787 Muslims (whose nationalities are unknown); 6,792 people of unknown ethnicities; and some people listed simply as "others."
Estimates by Holocaust organizations

The Yad Vashem center claims that over 500,000 Serbs were killed in the Independent State of Croatia.  This includes Serbs who were killed at Jasenovac.  The Simon Wiesenthal Center estimates the same.

According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Jasenovac's victims included "between 45,000 and 52,000 Serb residents of the so-called Independent State of Croatia; between 12,000 and 20,000 Jews; between 15,000 and 20,000 Roma (Gypsies); and between 5,000 and 12,000 ethnic Croats and Muslims, who were political and religious opponents of the regime."

Historical documents
There are many different documents from the time that Jasenovac existed, written by many different people.  At the time, the Germans and Italians were fighting Yugoslav Partisans for control of Yugoslavia.  People from both sides of that fight wrote about Jasenovac.  The Ustaše themselves also wrote about the camp; so did the Vatican. Comparing all of these different accounts can help with estimates of how many people died at the camp.
As the war went on, German generals wrote reports on the number of Serbs, Jews, and others killed in the Independent State of Croatia.  In 1943, three different generals estimated that 300,000 to 400,000 Serbs had been killed.  By March 1944, Ernst Fick wrote that 600,000 to 700,000 Serbs had been killed. Hermann Neubacher wrote:
"When prominent Ustashi [Ustaše] leaders claimed that they slaughtered a million Serbs (including babies, children, women and old men), that is, in my opinion, a boastful exaggeration. On the basis of the reports submitted to me, I believe that the number of defenseless victims slaughtered to be three quarters of a million. (Neubacher, Dr. Hermann. Special Assignment in the Southeast, p. 18-30.)
Italian generals reported similar figures to their commanders. The Vatican's sources also wrote of similar figures.  For example, Eugen Tisserant reported that 350,000 Serbs had been killed by the end of 1942.  Godfried Danneels estimated that a total of "over 500,000 people" were killed.
The Ustaše themselves claimed that they had killed many more people.  Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić, commander-in-chief of all the Croatian camps, once bragged about Jasenovac's "efficiency."  At a ceremony on October 9, 1942 - just a year after the camp was created - he said: "We have slaughtered here at Jasenovac more people than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe."  The Ustaše general headquarters once published a pamphlet that said: "the concentration and labor camp in Jasenovac can receive an unlimited number of internees [prisoners]."  Finally, Miroslav Filipovic-Majstorovic, once captured by Yugoslav forces, tried to minimize the crimes committed in Jasenovac by saying that during the three months that he ran the camp, 20,000 to 30,000 people died.  In other sources, that three months' death toll is displayed as 40,000.
In 1945, the new Yugoslavian government, led by Tito, paid for a report by the National Committee of Croatia.  The report looked into the crimes committed by the Ustaše and their allies.  The report, dated November 15, 1945, stated that 500,000 to 600,000 people were killed at the Jasenovac complex. These figures were used by researcher Israel Gutman in the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust; by the Simon Wiesenthal Center; and by others.

Qualities of the camp
Logically, the number of deaths in Jasenovac would depend on a few different things:
The camp's size: Jasenovac was a complex of various camps, including Krapje and Brocice, Ciglana, Stara-Gradiska, Sisak, Djakovo, Jablanac, Mlaka, Draksenic, Gradina and Ustice, Dubica, Kosutarica, and Jasenovac's tannery. These camps and mass graveyards covered 120 square miles. In the list of names found in the Jasenovac memorial, only 4000 victims are from Stara-Gradiska, where inmates were killed with poison gas as early as 1942.  This suggests that the victim list may not be complete.
How long the camp existed: Jasenovac existed from mid-August 1941 to May 1945.  Mass extermination took place during all of 1941 and 1942, and again in the second half of 1944.  From March to December 1943, almost no mass atrocities took place.  However, deaths from illness and individual killings continued (any guard could still kill any inmate at any time).
The camp's classification: Besides being a concentration camp, Jasenovac was an extermination camp.  The Kulmhof and Bełżec extermination camps were both small, and both existed for a much shorter period of time.  However, at Bełżec, over 300,000 people were killed; at Kulmhof, 128,000 were killed.
The camp's population: Jasenovac was used as a death camp for Serbs, Jews, Roma, Sinti, Slovens, and people of other ethnicities.  In other death camps, only Jews and Roma were systematically exterminated.  Therefore, more people may have died at Jasenovac.
Also, crematories were built in Jasenovac as far back as January 1942, because the Ustaše were having trouble burying all of the camp's dead bodies.  This suggests that many people were already dying at the camp.  In addition, later that year, prisoners were being killed with poison gas in Stara-Gradiska, in both gas chambers and vans.

Camp officials and their fate
Some of the camp's officials and their post-war fates are listed below:
Miroslav Majstorović: An Ustaše who commanded Jasenovac and Stara-Gradiska at different times.  He was nicknamed Fra Sotona (brother devil) because he was very cruel and because his family was Christian.  He was captured by the Yugoslav communist forces, tried, and executed in 1946.
Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić: The commander of the Ustaska Obrana, or Ustaše defense.  This means he was responsible for all crimes committed under his supervision in Jasenovac, which he visited a few times a month.  He ran away to Spain, but was assassinated by a Yugoslav agent in 1969.
Dinko Šakić: He ran away to Argentina.  However, he was eventually extradited back to Croatia.  After a trial, in 1999 he was sentenced to 20 years in prison.  He died in prison in 2008.
Petar Brzica: An Ustaše officer who was accused of killing about 1,360 people on August 29, 1942.  He ran away to the United States.  His name was on a list of 59 Nazis living in the U.S., which a Jewish organization gave to the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service during the 1970s.  It is not clear what happened to him after that.
Later events 
The Jasenovac Memorial Museum was temporarily abandoned during the Yugoslav wars.  In November 1991, Simo Brdar, a former associate director of the Memorial, collected the documentation from the museum and brought it to Bosnia and Herzegovina.  Brdar kept the documents until 2001, when he gave them to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, with the help of SFOR and the government of Republika Srpska.

With the help of former U.S. Congressman Anthony Weiner, the New York City Parks Department, the Holocaust Park Committee, and the Jasenovac Research Institute created a public monument to the victims of Jasenovac in April 2005 (on the sixtieth anniversary of the camp's liberation).  Ten Yugoslavian Holocaust survivors were there, along with diplomats from Serbia, Bosnia, and Israel.  It is the only public monument to Jasenovac victims outside of the Balkans.  Ceremonies are held there every April.

Related pages
The Holocaust
World War II casualties
Concentration camps

Notes
References 
The Yugoslav Auschwitz and the Vatican, Vladimir Dedijer (Editor), Harvey Kendall (Translator) Prometheus Books, 1992.
Witness to Jasenovac's Hell Ilija Ivanovic, Wanda Schindley (Editor), Aleksandra Lazic (Translator) Dallas Publishing, 2002
Crimes in the Jasenovac Camp, State Commission investigation of crimes of the occupiers and their collaborators in Croatia, Zagreb, 1946.
Ustasha Camps by Mirko Percen, Globus, Zagreb, 1966. Second expanded printing 1990.
Ustashi and the Independent State of Croatia 1941-1945, by Fikreta Jelic-Butic, Liber, Zagreb, 1977.
Romans, J. Jews of Yugoslavia, 1941- 1945: Victims of Genocide and Freedom Fighters, Belgrade, 1982
Antisemitism in the anti-fascist Holocaust: a collection of works, The Jewish Center, Zagreb, 1996.
The Jasenovac Concentration Camp, by Antun Miletic, Volumes One and Two, Belgrade, 1986. Volume Three, Belgrade, 1987. Second edition, 1993.
Hell's Torture Chamber by Djordje Milica, Zagreb, 1945.
Die Besatzungszeit das Genozid in Jugoslawien 1941-1945 by Vladimir Umeljic, Graphics High Publishing, Los Angeles, 1994.
Srbi i genocidni XX vek (Serbs and XX century, Ages of Genocide) by Vladimir Umeljić, (vol 1, vol 2), Magne, Belgrade, 2004. 
Magnum Crimen, by Viktor Novak, Zagreb, 1948.
Kaputt, by Curzio Malaparte, translated by Cesare Foligno, Northwestern University Press Evanston, Illinois, 1999.
Der kroatische Ustascha-Staat 1941-1945, by Ladislaus Hory and Martin Broszat, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1964.
Other websites 
 Holocaust Encyclopedia: Jasenovac, hosted at USHMM
 US Holocaust Memorial Museum: Jasenovac 
 Spomen Područje Jasenovac
 Jasenovac Memorial Museum 
 Jasenovac victims list 
 Balkan Repository Project - Jasenovac
 Jasenovac commander Šakić trial documents by Republic of Croatia 
 Concentration camp Jasenovac, Archive of Republika Srpska 
 Jasenovac  at the Simon Wiesenthal Center Museum of Tolerance
 Pavelic Papers' Documents on Jasenovac (includes "Encyclopedia of the Holocaust" quotes)
 Jasenovac Committee of the Holy Assembly of Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church
 Kosta Brandic Archives: Jasenovac
 Jasenovac Research Institute
 Eichmann Trial - Alexander Arnon testimony
 Unscrambling the History of a Nazi Camp, The New York Times, 6 December 2006
 New expanded Jasenovac Memorial opened 

Nazi concentration camps
20th century in Croatia
Buildings and structures in Croatia
Geshe Sonam Rinchen was born in Kham in Eastern Tibet in 1933. In 1945, he joined Dhargyey Monastery, and entered Sera monastery in Lhasa in 1952, where he studied until he was forced to leave Tibet in 1959.

In India he completed his studies for the degree of Geshe Lharampa which he received in 1980. He also received the degree of Acarya from the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies in Sarnath. He was appointed resident teacher at the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives in Dharamsala, India in 1978, where he teaches Buddhist philosophy and practice, mainly to westerners. He has also taught in Japan, Australia, Great Britain, South Korea, Ireland, New Zealand and Switzerland.
Books
 Atisha's Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, 
 The Bodhisattva Vow,  
 Eight Verses for Training the Mind,  
 The Heart Sutra,  
 How Karma Works,  
 Nagarjuna's "Seventy Stanzas", 
 The Six Perfections, 
 The Thirty-seven Practices of Bodhisattvas, 
 The Three Principle Aspects of the Path, 
 Yogic Deeds of Bodhisattvas,  
 Aryadeva's Four Hundred Stanzas on the Middle Way 
 Buddha Nature, 2003 Library of Tibetan Works & Archives,

Other websites
 Library of Tibetan Works and Archives 
 Snow Lion Publications 

Tibetan Buddhism