Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Sui dynasty 
The Sui Dynasty (隋朝 Suí cháo; 581-618) was founded by Emperor Wen, or Yang Jian. Its capital was Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). The dynasty is important because it reunited Southern and Northern China and the Grand Canal was built in that time.

Tang dynasty 
The Tang Dynasty was founded by the Li (李) family, who came to power during the fall of the Sui Empire. The dynasty was interrupted for a short time by the Second Zhou Dynasty (16 October 690–3 March 705) when Empress Wu Zetian managed to claim the throne, becoming the first and only Chinese Empress.

The capital of the Tang, Chang'an (today Xi'an), was the biggest city in the world at the time. Many historians see the Tang dynasty as a high point in Chinese civilization and as a golden age of cosmopolitan culture.

The concept of inalienable private property grew in China since the Tang dynasty. Chinese land deeds are preserved from medieval times and there were even land deeds for the afterlife in tombs in the Six dynasties.
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Song dynasty 

The Song dynasty maintained the image and memory of the "universal empire" of the Han dynasty and Tang dynasty periods despite contracting in size.

One of the descendants of the Yan clan during the Song dynasty was Yan Zhengqing. When Eastern Jin was set up by Han Chinese nobles fleeing south, Yan Han was among the nobles and he was the ancestor of the Yan clan, who were related by blood with the Langye nobles who they married including the Wang clan of Langye, the Yin Clan of Chen commandery and Shen clan of Wuxing. Yan Han was the 13th generation ancestor of Yan Zhenqing.

Yuan dynasty 
The Yuan Dynasty was first ruled by Genghis Khan, a Mongolian leader who took control from the Song Dynasty. He was considered a barbarian and not civilized. His grandson, Kublai Khan, was one of the most famous and liked rulers of the Yuan dynasty. He opened up China to many other cultures and improved life for the Chinese very much.
In 1368, a rebellion led by Zhu Yuanzhang broke out in southern China, and eventually overthrew the Yuan Dynasty. Then Zhu Yuanzhang founded the Ming Dynasty at Nanjing, its capital until Emperor Yongle changed the capital to Beijing. In the 15th century, a man named Zheng He took the majority of the Ming navy and explored the Indian Ocean, and brought wealth and power to the Ming Dynasty. The empire experienced a prosperous period until 1449, when the Battle of Tumu Fortress broke out. In the battle the Mongol descendants of Yuan captured the emperor and surrounded the capital. After the war with the Mongols, the Ming started to decline. During this time, the empire had two wars with the Japanese (the first against the Japanese pirates took place at southeastern China; the second against the armies of Toyotomi Hideyoshi that invaded Korea), and one war with the Portuguese of Macao. These wars eventually weakened the declining empire. In 1616, rebellions broke out at Manchuria and Shanxi
. Twenty-eight years later, the Manchus crossed the Great Wall, invaded the capital, and destroyed the Shanxi rebels.
Qing dynasty 

Horses, cattle, farms, villages, servants, slaves, homes and wives were given by Nurhaci to Jurchens who defected like Guwalca, Hurha and Warka as well as Han Chinese defectors and Mongol defectors to the Later Jin.

Jurchen chiefs were given Korean women as wives by Joseon to control them.

Scholars commission by Qianlong when editing historical texts and making commentaries on them often made up fanciful and completely fictional etymologies. One of the works they did was analyzing Jurchens clans mentioned in History of Jin and trying to match their names to Manchu clans still existing.

Some Han bannermen promoted to Manchu banners added giya to the end of their surname. The ethnic identity of the Tong family of Liaodong during the late Ming and early Qing has been debated by historians.
The Oirat Torghut Kalmyk Mongol leader Khatun Khan was jailed by Yaqub Beg as he was attacking the Oirats in Kurla and attacking Hui forces for Tuo Ming, Daud Khalifa in Ürümqi with the help of Han militia under Xu Xuegong.

Modern era

The Republic of China

People's Republic of China 

Mao Zedong was the leader of the People's Republic of China from 1949 until his death in 1976.

In the 21st century, China became the richest country in the world in terms of GDP.

References

Other websites
History of China: Table of Contents - Chaos Group at University of Maryland
 Chinese Database by Academia Sinica
 Manuscript and Graphics Database by Academia Sinica
 China Chronology World History Database 
 Ancient Asian World  History, culture and archaeology of the ancient Asian continent. Many articles and pictures
 A universal guide for China studies 
 Chinese History Forum 
 History Forum - Discuss Chinese history at History Forum's Asian History section
 Chinese Siege Warfare - Mechanical Artillery and Siege Weapons of Antiquity - An Illustrated History bought to you by History Forum
 A Simplified History of China
  Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home  Explore the historical contents of domestic architecture during the Qing dynasty and its pertinence to Chinese heritage and historical culture.
 Early Medieval China  is a journal devoted to academic scholarship relating to the period roughly between the end of the Han and beginning of the Tang eras.
 Cultural Revolution Propaganda Poster
China Rediscovers its Own History 100 minute lecture on Chinese history given by renowned scholar/author Yu Ying-shih, Emeritus Professor of East Asian Studies and History at Princeton University.
 Resources for Middle School students Readable resources for students in grades 5-9 - more than 250 links.
 China, history -Citizendium
Briefs are a type of short underwear for males or females. They provide a close fit, and come in either white, or in other colors like blue, pink, or red.

For male briefs, before the 2000s, briefs often came with hard elastic waistbands. This would cause stretch marks, and this was eventually replaced by the soft elastic waistband. However, hard elastic waistbands are still found on generic store brand underwear (that save consumer and manufacturing costs by not being fashion forward).

Female briefs are also called knickers or panties.

Underwear
Bottoms (clothing)
Kayastha is one of the social groups of India. They have a long history. They number around 10-12 million people and most of them live in India.

Hindus believe that Lord Brahma created the world. He then created 16 sons from different parts of his body. His 17th son, Shree Chitraguptjee, was created from his mind and soul. He is the only son to be made from the whole body, not just parts. In human form he is called kayastha, kaya meaning whole. Kayastha's have two roles in the caste system, as Kshatriya (a warrior) and Brahmin (a learned person or scribe). The Kayastha caste is divided into 12 sub-castes. Subdivision of Kayastha:- Chitragupta Kayastha of North India, Prabhu Kayastha of Maharashtra, Karnam/Karuneegar (Kayastha) of South India, Karanas (Kayastha) of Orissa, Bengali Kayastha of Bengal and Kalitas (Kayastha) of Assam.

References

Ethnic groups in India
Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer is an animated movie from 1985. It was produced by DiC Entertainment and Hallmark Cards, and released by Warner Bros.

This is the only movie in which the title character, Rainbow Brite, appears.

Other websites 

Moria.co.nz review 
Kiddie Matinee overview 

1980s animated movies
1985 fantasy movies
American animated movies
American fantasy movies
English-language movies
Warner Bros. movies
Arctic Monkeys are an indie rock band from Sheffield, England. Arctic Monkeys' first album was Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not. It reached #1 in the United Kingdom album charts. Over 300 thousand copies of the album were sold in the first week. This makes it the fasting selling first album by a band in British music history. It was nominated for Best Alternative Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards. Their second album, Favourite Worst Nightmare was first released in Japan on April 18, 2007. Their third album, Humbug was released in England on 24 August 2009. In 2011 their fourth album Suck It and See was released. AM, the Monkeys' fifth album, was released 6 September 2013. The sixth Arctic Monkeys album, Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino was released in 2018. 

The members are:
Alex Turner (guitar and singing)
Jamie Cooke (guitar)
Nick O'Malley (bass guitar)
Matthew Helders (drums)
Andy Nicholson (bass guitar, left in 2006)
Studio albums 
 Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not (2006)
 Favourite Worst Nightmare (2007)
 Humbug (2009)
 Suck It and See (2011)
 AM (2013)
 Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino (2018)
 The Car (2022)

References

2002 establishments in England
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
Brit Award winners
English rock bands
Indie bands
Musical groups established in 2002
Musical groups from Sheffield
A swarm is a big group of animals. The term is usually used for insects, but other animals such fish and birds can make a swarm also. A good example of animals that swarm are locusts. Mammals do not build swarms, but herds.

Insects
Queen's University is a public university in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Queen's University was started on October 16, 1841.

References 

Queen's University
A string quartet is a piece of music for four string instruments.
A string quartet can also mean the four people who play a piece for four string instruments.
The four instruments in a string quartet are almost always 2 violins, 1 viola and 1 cello. The reason that a double bass is not used is that it would sound too loud and heavy. The balance between 2 violins, viola and cello is considered ideal.
String quartets are the most popular form of chamber music. Many composers have written string quartets.

String quartet writing started in the 18th century. Italian composers like Sammartini (1698-1775) wrote music for two violins, viola and continuo. The continuo was either just a harpsichord or harpsichord with cello. Gradually composers started to leave the harpsichord out. The cello often played the same as the viola but one octave lower.
By the time Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) was growing up, string quartets treated each of the four instruments as important. Beethoven wrote 16 string quartets. The middle ones became particularly famous and later composers took ideas from them, for example the slow introductions, and the idea of having a fast scherzo instead of a minuet and trio for one of the middle movements. Beethoven’s last quartets are very beautiful, but also very complicated and sometimes quite aggressive. Beethoven was becoming very frustrated because he was deaf and could not hear his own music, but he could imagine it all in his head. Franz Schubert (1797-1827) admired them and wrote several string quartets himself.

In the Romantic period many composers wrote string quartets: Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), Robert Schumann (1810-1856), Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904) and many others. Some of them, like Dvořák, included folk song from their own country in their quartets.
In the 20th century, composers have continued to write string quartets. Claude Debussy (1862-1918) and Maurice Ravel (1875-1934) each wrote one. Arnold Schoenberg even added a voice to his first String Quartet. Béla Bartók (1881-1945) wrote six string quartets which are very hard to play. They have very exciting rhythms which often come from his native Hungarian folk music, as well as complex harmonies. Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-1975) wrote fifteen and Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) wrote three.

String quartet groups 
Playing in a string quartet is highly enjoyable. There are many great works by famous composers, as well as some music which has been written for young players who are learning.

There are professional players who form string quartets and who play together for many years. In the early part of the 20th century the Rosé Quartet was thought by many to be the best in Europe. Later the Amadeus Quartet became very famous.

Musical forms
Opus or the shortened form op.  after the title of a piece of music means “work”.  It is followed by a number.  When a composer writes their first piece of music it is followed by the term “opus 1”.  The next composition would then be called “opus 2”, etc.

Giving pieces of music opus numbers helps us to identify which piece of music (from a certain composer) that composition is.  For example: Beethoven wrote lots of piano sonatas. His first Piano sonata in A flat major has the opus number of op.26. This shows that he wrote this sonata when he was young in his composing career.  Many years later, he wrote another piano sonata which is also in A flat major, and this piece one has the opus number of 110 (op. 110).

You cannot always tell from a composer’s opus numbers the order in which the works were composed.  Until around the end of the 18th century, opus numbers were only given to pieces of music which were published.
Some musicologists (people who study and write about music) have studied all the works by a famous composer and have given them a catalogue number.  For example Mozart’s music does not have opus numbers.  Some of them are long operas, others are tiny little pieces for the piano he might have written in a hurry one day.  A man called Köchel made a list of every single work by Mozart and gave them K numbers (K for Köchel). His numbering goes up to 622.  This is useful, for example, to tell the difference between his Symphony in G minor K183 and his Symphony in G minor K550.

The plural of “opus” is “opuses” in English.  This is because the Latin plural is opera which is rather confusing to English speakers as the word is already used in musical terminology. 

The word "opus" can also refer to the "work" of an artist. (For example: "This opus was composed by Chopin," or "This opus is the last Piano sonata that Beethoven composed")

An artist's "magnum opus" means his or her "greatest" work.
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. In eukaryotes, there are 20 "standard" amino acids out of which almost all proteins are made.

In biochemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that has both amine (NH2+R) and carboxyl (C=O) functional groups. In biochemistry, this term refers to alpha-amino acids with the general formula H2NCHRCOOH, where R is one of many side groups (see diagram).

There are hundreds 
Across all forms of life, about 500 amino acids are known. The most important thing that amino acids do is to be part of proteins, which are long chains of amino acids. Every protein has its own sequence of amino acids, and that sequence makes the protein take different shapes, and have different functions. Amino acids are like the alphabet for proteins; even though you only have a few letters, if you connect them, you can make many different sentences.
Nine of the 20 standard amino acids are "essential" amino acids for humans. They cannot be built (synthesised) from other compounds by the human body. They must be taken in as food. Others may be essential for some ages or medical conditions. Essential amino acids may also differ between species. Herbivores have to get their essential amino acids from their diet, which for some is almost entirely grass. Ruminants such as cows get some amino acids via microbes in the first two stomach chambers.

Structure 
An amino acid is an organic chemical. It consists of an α-carbon atom that is covalently bonded to four groups.

 a hydrogen atom
 an amino group (-NH2) 
 a carboxyl group (-COOH) 
 a variable R group

Every amino acid has at least one amino group (-NH2) and one carboxyl group (-COOH), except proline.

Gene expression and biochemistry 
These are the proteinogenic amino acids, which are the building blocks for proteins. They are produced by cellular machinery coded for in the genetic code of any organism.
* UAG is normally the amber stop codon, but encodes pyrrolysine if a PYLIS element is present.
** UGA is normally the opal (or umber) stop codon, but encodes selenocysteine if a SECIS element is present.
† The stop codon is not an amino acid, but is included for completeness.
†† UAG and UGA do not always act as stop codons (see above).
‡ An essential amino acid cannot be synthesized in humans. It must be supplied in the diet. Conditionally essential amino acids are not normally required in the diet, but must be supplied to populations which do not make enough of it.

To these α-amino acids further in biosynthesis processes appearing non-essential ones are structurally (here by using SMILES notation) related:
OC(=O)C(N)–
├ H .. 🅖 Glycine
├ C .. 🅐 Alanine
│├ C .. 2-Aminobutanoic acid
││├ C .. Norvaline
│││├ –2H .. 🅟 Proline (Dehydronorvaline)
│││├ C .. Norleucine
││││└ N .. 🅚 Lysine
││││    └ C(=O)C1N=CCC1C .. 🅞 Pyrrolysine
│││└ NC(=N)N .. 🅡 Arginine
││├ C(=O)N .. 🅠 Glutamine
││├ C(=O)O .. 🅔 Glutamic acid
││├ O .. Homoserine
││└ S .. Homocysteine
││    └ C .. 🅜 Methionine
│├ C(C)C .. 🅛 Leucine
│├ C(=O)N .. 🅝 Asparagine
│├ C(=O)O .. 🅓 Aspartic acid
│├ C1=CNC=N1 .. 🅗 Histidine
│├ c1ccccc1 .. 🅕 Phenylalanine
│├ c1ccc(O)cc1 .. 🅨 Tyrosine
│├ C1=CNc2ccccc12 .. 🅦 Tryptophan
│├ C1=CNc2ccc(O)cc12 .. Oxitriptan
│├ c(cc1I)cc(I)c1-O-c2cc(I)c(O)c(I)c2 .. Thyroxine
│├ O .. 🅢 Serine
│├ S .. 🅒 Cysteine
│└ [SeH] .. 🅤 Selenocysteine
├ C(C)C .. 🅥 Valine
├ C(C)O .. 🅣 Threonine
└ C(C)CC .. 🅘 Isoleucine

References
Enlightenment has several meanings. Some of them are given below:

A concept in philosophy and psychology.
Nirvana, the goal of Buddhism
Moksha, a religious concept of Hinduism
Age of Enlightenment, a period in European history
Enlightenment (Window Manager), A window manager for Linux distributions
A miscarriage is the natural death of an embryo or fetus in the womb, before it is old enough to live on its own, outside the mother.  The medical words for a miscarriage are spontaneous abortion.  ("Spontaneous" means something that a person did not expect to happen.  An "abortion" is when a pregnancy ends early, before birth.)

Among women who know they are pregnant, about 15-20% have miscarriages.  (This means that up to 1 in every 5 women who know they are pregnant miscarries.) It is the most common complication (serious problem) that happens in early pregnancy in humans.

Miscarriage vs. Stillbirth
In the United States, if a fetus dies after it is 20 weeks old, its death is no longer called a miscarriage.  Its death is called a stillbirth, a fetal demise, or a fetal death.  ("Demise" means "death.") Different countries have different ways of defining the difference between a miscarriage and a fetal death.  For example:
Causes of miscarriage
Nobody knows all of the reasons why a woman may miscarry.  However, some common causes include:
 Genetic problems, like aneuploidy
 Problems with the mother's uterus or hormones
 An infection somewhere in the mother's reproductive system
 Tissue rejection (where the mother's body reacts to the fetus like it is something that does not belong in her body)
 Serious physical trauma (injury, like a bad car accident
 Very rarely, medical procedures that are used to diagnose problems with the fetus can cause miscarriage.  This happens in only about 1% of cases (1 out of 100) when a woman has had chorionic villus sampling (CVS) or amniocentesis)

The most common causes of miscarriage change depending on what trimester the mother is in.  (Each trimester lasts about three months.)

First trimester (Weeks 1-12)
Most miscarriages happen during the first trimester.  Some studies say that two-thirds (two out of three) to three-quarters (three out of four) of all miscarriages happen during this trimester. About 30% to 40% (3 to 4 in every 10) of all fertilized eggs miscarry, often before a woman knows she is pregnant.

In more than half of embryos miscarried in the first 13 weeks of pregnancy, the embryo has chromosomes that are not normal. These chromosomal problems may happen because of problems as the embryo grows and its cells make copies of themselves.  It is also possible for chromosomal problems to happen because of a problem with a parent's genes.  However, this is more likely to happen in women who have had other miscarriages, or if one of the parents has a child or other relatives with birth defects. Genetic problems are more likely to happen with older parents; this may be why miscarriages are more common in older women.
Another cause may be the mother not having enough progesterone.  If a woman is diagnosed with low progesterone levels in the second half of her menstrual cycle (the luteal phase), she may be prescribed progesterone, to take during the first trimester of her pregnancy.  However, when a woman might already be miscarrying, there is no evidence that first-trimester progesterone pills decrease the risk of having a miscarriage.  Scientists have even questioned whether problems with the luteal phase really can cause miscarriages.

Second trimester (Weeks 13-27)
Common causes of miscarriage during the second trimester are:
 Uterine malformation (when the mother's uterus is not shaped normally)
 Growths in the mother's uterus (these are called fibroids)
 Problems with the mother's cervix
These problems can also cause premature birth (when a baby is born earlier than expected). One study found that 19% of second-trimester miscarriages were caused by problems with the umbilical cord.  The fetus gets blood and oxygen through the umbilical cord.  Every part of the body needs blood and oxygen to survive.  If the baby cannot get enough oxygen because of a problem with the cord, it can die. Problems with the placenta may also cause second-trimester miscarriages.  Nutrients and blood pass through the placenta in order to get from the mother to the umbilical cord.  The placenta also helps filter out some things that could hurt the fetus.  If there is a problem with the placenta, the fetus could die because it did not get enough nutrients and oxygen, or because the placenta did not filter out harmful things.
How is miscarriage diagnosed?
Miscarriage is usually diagnosed when a pregnant woman notices that she is having certain symptoms and goes to see a doctor.  The most common symptom of a coming miscarriage is bleeding during early pregnancy.  The woman may not have any pain.

Usually, if a pregnant woman is bleeding or having pain, an ultrasound should be done.  The ultrasound can show that the fetus's heart is not beating, which means that the fetus has miscarried.  If this happens, special tests should be done to make sure the woman does not have an ectopic pregnancy, which can kill a woman.

Not all light bleeding during early pregnancy means a woman is having a miscarriage.  But any woman having light bleeding during pregnancy should see her doctor.  If the bleeding is heavy, the woman is having a lot of pain, or she has a fever, she should go to an Emergency Room or call an ambulance to take her to the hospital.
If a woman has bleeding during her pregnancy, she may be diagnosed with a "threatened miscarriage."  In the past, if a doctor thought a pregnancy might miscarry in the future, they would suggest bed rest for the mother (lying in bed for most of the time).  Today, most doctors and scientists think that bed rest does not help.

How is miscarriage treated?
There are a few different types of miscarriage:
 In a complete miscarriage, the fetus has totally left the mother's body.  So has the placenta.  There are no pieces of fetal or placental tissue left in the uterus.
 In a missed miscarriage, the fetus has miscarried but is still inside the mother's body.  This often happens when the mother does not realize she had a miscarriage (which is common when the pregnancy is very early on).
 In an incomplete miscarriage, parts of the fetus or the placenta are still in the uterus.

The treatment is different for each kind of miscarriage.
Complete miscarriage
If a woman has a complete miscarriage, she usually does not need any medical treatment.
Incomplete or missed miscarriage
If a woman has an incomplete miscarriage or a missed miscarriage, there are three different choices for treatment:
Watchful Waiting means that a doctor will keep checking on the woman, but will not give any treatment unless a problem happens.  With watchful waiting, most of these miscarriages will pass naturally in two to six weeks.  This means that the tissue left in the woman will leave her body, through the vagina, without any treatment.
With no treatment (watchful waiting), most of these cases (65–80%) will pass naturally within two to six weeks.  This path avoids the side effects and complications possible from medications and surgery, but increases the risk of mild bleeding, need for unplanned surgical treatment, and incomplete miscarriage.
Medical Management means that medicine is given.  Usually, a medicine called misoprostol is given.  Misoprostol makes the uterus contract (get tighter) to push out whatever is inside.  In about 95% of cases (95 out of 100), the fetal or placental tissue that is left in the uterus will leave the woman's body within a few days.
Surgery is the fastest way to complete a miscarriage.  It also makes bleeding less heavy and makes it not last as long.  Also, the woman will not have to go through the physical pain of the miscarriage.  Most often, one of two surgeries are used to complete the miscarriage: 
Vacuum aspiration, sometimes called dilation and evacuation (D&E).   In a D&E, a tube attached to a pump sucks the tissue left in the uterus out through the cervix.
Dilation and curettage (D&C).  In a D&C, the cervix is widened, and the tissue left in the uterus is scraped and scooped out ("curettage").  Compared to giving medications, D&C has a higher risk of causing problems.  For example, the cervix or uterus may be injured.  Because of this, some women prefer not to have a D&C because they want to have children in the future and want to lower the chances of problems during future pregnancies.  However, if a woman has had more than one miscarriage, D&C is the most convenient way to get tissue samples, which can be studied to see if a reason for the miscarriages can be found.
Which treatment should be used?
The choice of which treatment to use depends on many things, including what the mother wants.  However, there are guidelines that doctors use to suggest what treatment to use.

Missed Miscarriage

The most important things that help doctors decide what to do are the age and size of the embryo, and the size of the gestational sac (the fluid around the embryo.  
 For embryos that were less than 7 weeks old, and the smallest gestational sacs, watchful waiting is the best choice, because the embryo will often leave the mother's body naturally.
 For embryos that were 7–9 weeks old with larger sizes and gestational sacs, medicine is suggested, but either watchful waiting or surgery might be used depending on the situation.  
 For the embryos that were over 9 weeks old, with the largest gestational sacs, surgery is suggested because the mother is likely to have a lot of pain and bleeding when she miscarries.

Incomplete Miscarriages
For an incomplete miscarriage, the size of the tissue left in the uterus is the most important thing that helps doctors decide what to do.  Ultrasound is used to find out how large the tissue is. 
 If the tissue left is smaller than 15mm (millimeters): Watchful waiting is usually the best choice because it is likely that the tissue will leave the mother's body on its own.
 If the tissue is between 15 and 20mm: Medical or expectant management is suggested.  Surgery is chosen only if there is a specific reason why the mother needs it.
 If the tissue is over 35 to 50mm, these things are suggested:
 Giving misoprostol to make the tissue left in the uterus leave the mother's body on its own more quickly.
 Having the mother stay in the hospital to be watched for a few hours or overnight.  She should stay until most of the tissue left in her uterus has passed, and she has stopped bleeding.
 If misoprostol has not worked, surgery may be needed.
Risk factors
A risk factor for miscarriage is something that makes a woman more likely to miscarry.  There are many risk factors for miscarriage.  For example:
 The age of the mother.  Women older than age 35 have a higher risk of miscarriage than younger women. At age 35, a woman has about a 20 percent risk. At age 40, the risk is about 40 percent. And at age 45, it's about 80 percent.
 Multiple pregnancies (pregnancies with more than one fetus, like twins and triplets).  The more fetuses in the womb, the higher the risk.
 If the mother has certain diseases, like:
 Diabetes, especially the mother needs insulin and her diabetes is still not controlled well.
 Hypothyroidism, especially when the hypothyroidism is very bad.
 Some infections, like HIV, rubella, malaria, and some sexually transmitted diseases like chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis.
 If the mother or father smokes tobacco (cigarettes).
If the mother drinks alcohol while she is pregnant, especially if she drinks often, or drinks a lot at once.  The United Kingdom's National Health Service says that drinking alcohol becomes a risk factor if a mother drinks more than one glass of wine, more than one shot of whiskey, or more than two-thirds of a pint of beer a week.  Most doctors say that no amount of alcohol during pregnancy is safe.
 If the mother uses illegal drugs, like cocaine, while she is pregnant.  
 If the mother is injured, exposed to certain poisons, or is using an IUD when she gets pregnant.
 Problems with the mother's uterus or cervix.
 Some types of food poisoning.
Further reading 
 Congenital disabilities that can cause miscarriage
 Ultrasound (used to diagnose miscarriage)
 Dilation and curettage
 Dilation and evacuation
 Stillbirth

References 

Abortion
Pregnancy and childbirth
The Yuan dynasty was a Mongol dynasty that ruled Mongolia and China from 1271 to 1368. Before this dynasty, China was ruled by the Song dynasty. After the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty ruled China. Genghis Khan and his army of Mongols conquered many parts of China. His grandson Kublai Khan added more parts of China to his kingdom. He founded the Yuan dynasty in 1271.

In the year of 1206, Genghis Khan ruled the Mobi tribes(a part of a country)  to establish the Mongol country at the Onon River. Jin was the main race in Mongolia, but Jin and Xia were in decline, Mongolia had attacked the Western Xia and Jin in August 1227, and Jin lost, so Mongolia occupied the whole north of China in March 1234.
In 1259, Möngke Khan died after the Song Yuan dynasty war. His brothers all wanted to be king. His fourth brother, Kublai, and his seventh brother, Ali Khan, fought to rule the Mobi tribes. And finally in 1264, Kublai won. Kublai made the name "DaYuan" in 1271 and proclaimed the Yuan Dynasty and said its founder was his grandfather Genghis. In 1276, Yuan ruled southern of Song, so yuan ruled the whole China in this year. In 1279, the Kublai subdued southern Song dynasty. The Yuan dynasty ruled China and brought different parts of China together that had been split since the late Tang dynasty. They were the first foreign dynasty to rule just about all of China. 

For centuries, most of what the West knew about China came from the book by Marco Polo about his visit to Kublai's empire. The Yuan dynasty  ended in 1368 when the Ming dynasty took control.

Related pages
 History of China

Notes

References
Notes

References 

Chinese dynasties
1271 establishments
1368 disestablishments
13th-century establishments in Asia
14th-century disestablishments in Asia
The History of India covers thousands of years and discusses many diverse languages, cultures, periods, and dynasties. Indian civilization began in the Indus Valley and some literature survives from that time. More is known of the time after the Persian Empire conquered India.

Stone age

Paleolithic era 
Remains (stone tools and a skull) in central India show presence of an early species of humans, Homo erectus. Archeologists think they lived in India between 200,000 and 500,000 years ago. This period is known as the paleolithic era.

The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the paleolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley. Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across India, Pakistan and Nepal.
Mesolithic 
Modern humans (Homo sapiens) settled in the Indian subcontinent at least 70,000 years ago. At that time, the last ice age had just ended and climate became warm and dry. First settlements of human beings in India are found in Bhimbetka, a place near Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh, India). Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering.

Neolithic 
Neolithic agriculture sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 7000 years ago, in the lower Gangetic valley around 5000 years ago. Later, in South India, agriculture spread southwards and also into Malwa around 3800 years ago.

Bronze Age
Bronze Age 

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 5300 years ago with the early Indus Valley Civilisation, which included cities such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal, and Kalibanga. The civilization was based on the Indus River and its tributaries, extending into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley, the Ganges-Yamuna Doab, Gujarat, and southeastern Afghanistan. Today, the civilization's old territory is split between India and Pakistan. In Pakistan, the provinces of Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan overlap with ex-Indus Valley territory. In India, the provinces Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan also share territory with the Indus Valley Civilization.
The first cities on the Indian subcontinent were part of the Indus Valley Civilisation. They made the Indus Valley Civilization similar to early Mesopotamian civilisations and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

The mature Indus civilization flourished from about 4600 to 3900 years ago. The civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibanga, Ropar, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India, and Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan. The cities were built of brick, with roadside drainage system and multi-storied houses.
During the later period of this civilisation, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge. By about 3700 years ago, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly. Some parts of the Indus Civilization may have survived in the smaller villages and isolated farms.

Vedic civilization 
The Vedas are the oldest teachings of India, though the transmission of these teachings was mainly oral until around the 5th century. There are four Vedas, and the first one is the Rigveda. As per Rigveda the whole regions is SaptaSindhawa. The other three are Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. The Vedas have verses in praise of gods and others. They also have other information. At that time, the society was pastoral.
After the Rigveda, society became more agricultural. People became divided into four classes depending on the type of the work. Brahmins were priests and teachers. Kshatriyas were the warriors. Vaishyas did agriculture, trading and commerce. The shudras were the general working class. A common misconception is that the Vaishyas and Shudras were generally looked down upon, and treated badly by Brahmins and Kshatriyas, which was true for the later part of the Vedic age. But was untrue for the earlier part. This type of social division is called the Varna system in Hinduism.

During the period of the Later Vedic civilization, there were many Aryan clans and tribes. Some of them combined and became bigger like the kingdom of the Kurus.

Persian and Greek invasion 
The names "India" and "Hind" came from the Greeks and Persians. It means land of the river Indus in both their languages.
Around the 5th century BC, north-western parts of India faced invasion by the Achaemenid Empire and by the Greeks of Alexander the Great. A Persian way of thinking, administration and lifestyle came to India. This influence became bigger during the Mauryan dynasty.

From around 520 BC, the Achaemenid Empire’s Darius I ruled large part of northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
Alexander later conquered these areas. Achaemenid rule lasted about 186 years. In modern times, there are still traces of this Greek heritage to be found in parts of northwestern India.

Greco-Buddhism (also spelled as Græco-Buddhism) is a combination of the cultures of Greece and Buddhism. This mixture of cultures continued to develop for 800 years, from the 4th century BC until the 5th century AD. The area where it happened is modern day’s Afghanistan and Pakistan. This mixture of cultures influenced Mahayana Buddhism and spread of Buddhism to China, Korea, Japan and Tibet.
The Magadha empire 
The Magadha formed one of the sixteen kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges. Its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna).

Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Odisha. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It was also mentioned in the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The state of Magadha, possibly a tribal kingdom, is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier than 600 BC.

Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advances in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy. This was the Indian "Golden Age."

Early middle kingdoms
Satavahana empire 
The Satavahanas came to power from around 230 BC. They are also called Andhras. For about 450 years, many Satavahanas kings ruled most parts of the southern and central India.

Western Kshatrapas 
For about 350 years, from the years 35-405, Saka kings ruled India. They ruled the western and central parts of India. These areas are in today's states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh. There were 27 independent rulers, collectively known as the Kshatrapas.

Saka kings ruled India along aside the Kushan kings and the Satvahana kings. Kushan kings ruled the northern parts of India. Satvahana kings ruled the central and some of the southern parts of India.

Indo-Scythians 
Indo-Scythians came to India from Siberia passing through several places like Bactria, Sogdiana, Kashmir and Arachosia. Their coming to India continued from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century BC. They defeated the Indo-Greek rulers of India, and ruled India from Gandhara to Mathura.
Gupta dynasty 
The Gupta dynasty reigned from around 320 to 550 AD. The Gupta Empire covered most of North-central India, and what is now western India and Bangladesh. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs. The time of the Gupta Empire is seen as the Golden Age of India. Historians place the Gupta dynasty alongside the Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty and Roman Empire as a model of a classical civilization.

Hun invasion
Hun invasion 

By the first half of the fifth century, a group of people known as Huns had settled in Afghanistan. They became powerful. They made Bamiyan as their capital city. They started attacking northwestern parts of India. Skandagupta, an emperor of the Gupta dynasty fought back and kept them away for some years. At last the Huns won and could enter most parts of northern India. With this the Gupta dynasty came to an end. Most of north India became badly affected by this invasion. However, Huns could not go up to the Deccan Plateau and the southern parts of India. These parts remained peaceful. No one knows definitely about the fate of Huns after the end of the sixth century. Some historians believe that they mixed up fully with the Indian people of that time.
Late Middle Kingdoms 
In the history of India, Middle kingdoms of India covers a period beginning from around the 6th-7th century. In South India, Chola kings ruled Tamil Nadu, and Chera kings ruled Kerala. They also had trading relationships with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. In north India, Rajputs ruled in many kingdoms. Some of those kingdoms continued for hundreds of years.

Harsha's empire 
After the collapse of the Gupta Empire, it was Harsha of Kanauj (a place now in Uttar Pradesh state of India) who united the northern parts of India in one kingdom. After his death several dynasties tried to control north India and ruled from time to time from 7th century till the 9th century as described in some of the sections below. Some of these dynasties were the Pratiharas of Malwa and later Kannauj; the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.
The Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas 
The Pratihara kings ruled kingdoms in Rajasthan and some other parts of northern India from the 6th century to the 11th century. The Palas ruled the eastern part of India. They ruled over areas which are now parts of the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, and the west Bengal, and of Bangladesh. The Palas ruled from 8th century to the 12th century. In the southern parts of India, Rashtrakutas of Malakheda (Karnataka) ruled the Deccan during the 8th-10th centuries after the end of Chalukya rule. All these three dynasties always tried to control the entire north India. During all this time lasting for three to four hundred years, the Chola kings were growing in power and influence.

The Rajputs 
In the 6th century several Rajput kingdoms came into being in Rajasthan. Many other Rajput kings ruled in different parts of north India. Some of these kingdoms continue to survive for hundreds of years during different periods of the history of India.
Vijayanagar empire 
In 1336, two brothers named Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara Empire in an area which is now in Karnataka state of India. The most famous king of this empire was Krishnadevaraya. In 1565, rulers of this empire were defeated in a battle. But, the empire continued for about next one hundred years.

A number of kingdoms of south India had trading relations with the Arabs in the west, and with Indonesia and other countries of the east.
Islamic sultanates 
Islam spread across the Indian subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks,Persians(Muslims from Persia) and Afghans invaded India and established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century, descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for 200 years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties. During this time, the two systems—the prevailing Hindu and Muslim—mingled, left lasting cultural influences on each other.
Delhi sultanate. 
The Delhi sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based mostly in Delhi. It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526) Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate. They are the mamaluk, khilji, tughlaq, sayyid and the lodi dynasties. The mamluk dynasty was started by Qutbuddin Aibak. He was a slave and thus this dynasty is also called Slave Dynasty. Qutubuddin Aibak also made Qutub minar. His son in law, Iltutmish became the ruler after Qutubuddin aibak. He completed the qutub minar.

The Kingdom of Mysore 
The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India. People known as Wodeyars founded this kingdom in the year 1400. Later on, Hyder Ali and his son, Tipu Sultan, fought with the Wodeyar rulers. They also fought with the forces of the British Raj, but were defeated. Under the British Raj, Wodeyar kings continued to rule a large part of Karnataka. When India became independent on 15th August 1947, Wodeyars’ kingdom chose to become a part of India.
The Punjab 
Guru Nanak founded Sikhism and his followers were called Sikhs. The power of Sikhs continued to increase in the northwestern part of India. The Sikhs became rulers of large part of the northwestern India. This is called the Sikh Kingdom or Empire. Ranjit Singh was the most famous ruler of the Sikh Empire. He expanded the borders of the Sikh Empire and at the time of his death, this empire covered areas of Punjab, and present day Kashmir and parts of Pakistan. The Sikhs and forces of the British Raj fought many wars. Till Maharaja Ranjit Singh was alive, Britishers were not able to cross the Sutlej river. After his death, the they took over the entire Punjab after battles with disorganised Sikh troops.
Durrani Empire 
For a short period, a person named Ahmed Shah Durrani the founder of Afghanistan ruled some parts of northwestern India. Historians have named his rule as the Durrani Empire. In 1748, he crossed the Indus River and attacked Lahore, now a part of Pakistan. He also attacked many parts of Punjab. Then, he attacked Delhi. At that time, Delhi was the capital of the Mughal Empire. He took many valuable things from India. This included the Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan and the famous diamond named Kohinoor.

Colonial era 
Colonial period means the time when Western countries ruled India. Western countries also ruled many other countries of Asia, Africa, and South America.
Company Raj 
Starting in the 1600s the British East India Company began a very profitable trading empire in India, centered in Bengal. In the mid-1700s Robert Clive (1725-1774) led the company to an expanded influence in India with victories over the French, the Bengalis, and the Mughals. With a victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 Clive became the first British Governor of Bengal.

In the hundred years after the battle, the East India Company conquered the entire subcontinent of India. They did this by trade, political intrigue, and direct military action. The British were very efficient administrators of their domains. But in 1857 the Indian Mutiny almost destroyed the company's rule of India. Afterward the British government took control away from the company. In 1858, India became a part of the British Empire and Queen Victoria became the empress of India.
The British 
For 100 years the British ruled India and Burma as a unified territory under the British king or queen. It was divided into eight provinces each with a governor. These provinces were Burma, Bengal, Madras, Bombay, UP, Central Provinces, Punjab, and Assam. A Governor-General (Viceroy) in Calcutta was head of the government.

The way the British conquered India was often divide and rule. In the end, many kingdoms were defeated by the British and the riches taken. For example, many of the Royal Crown Jewels were taken from previous kingdoms in India- including the Koh-I-Noor diamond (one of the world's largest diamonds) and also stole many other large diamonds and gold.
During famines and floods many people died because the government did not help enough. Any Indian not able to pay the British taxes could be forced into prison and/or publicly beaten. Political opponents were jailed and sometimes killed for speaking out against colonial rule. After taking much of India's natural resources for hundreds of years, England was criticized for not protecting Indians during the partition of India and Pakistan. During the partition of India and Pakistan, millions of Indians and Pakistanis died.

The British also did good things. They built railroads, telegraphs and telephones, improved trade, standardized laws, and water supplies. Many of these things were done to help improve commerce in India and taxes provided to England. They created the Indian Civil Service for administering rules and regulations. They also tried to eliminate practices like burning widows.