Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Laws

EU
The European Union member nations have broadly adopted the recommendation of the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) which measures percentage of alcohol by volume at 20 °C.

British proof spirits
In Britain, this replaced the Sikes hydrometer system (based on proof spirit) which was used since 1816, although officially the Customs and Excise Act of 1952 defined "spirits of proof strength" (or proof spirits):

"Spirits shall be deemed to be at proof if the volume of the ethyl alcohol contained therein made up to the volume of the spirits with distilled water has a weight equal to that of twelve-thirteenths of a volume of distilled water equal to the volume of the spirits, the volume of each liquid being computed as at fifty-one degrees Fahrenheit."

Previously, Clarke's hydrometer had been used since the 1740s when Customs and Excise and London brewers and distillers began to use Clarke's hydrometer.
United States
In the definition of the United States, the proof number is twice the percentage of the alcohol content measured by volume at a temperature of 60°F (15.5°C). Therefore, "80 proof" is 40% alcohol by volume (most of the other 60% is water). If a 150 proof beverage is mixed half-and-half with water, the drink is approximately 75 proof (actual proof in this example would be 76.28 due to the nature of ethanol/water solutions).

US Federal regulation (CFR 27 5.37 Alcohol Content) requires that liquor labels state the percentage alcohol by volume (sometimes abbreviated ABV). The regulations permit (but do not require) a statement of the degrees proof as long as it is right next to the percentage alcohol by volume.
Alcohol during production
Alcohol is produced by yeast during the process of fermentation. The other product of fermentation is carbon dioxide, which is the gas that can make beer bottles explode or blow their tops off. The amount of alcohol in the finished liquid depends on how much sugar there was at the beginning for the yeast to convert into alcohol. In beer, the alcohol is generally 3% to 12% (6 to 24 proof) and usually about 4% to 6% (8 to 12 proof). Depending on the strain of yeast, wines top out at about 14% to 16% (28 to 32 proof), because that is the point in the fermentation process where the alcohol concentration denatures the yeast. Since the 1990s, a few alcohol-tolerant 'superyeast' strains have become commercially available, which can ferment up to 20%.
Very few microorganisms can live in alcoholic solutions. The main three are yeast, Brettanomyces, and Acetobacter. In what is essentially disinfection, yeast keeps multiplying as long as there is sugar to "eat", gradually increasing the alcoholic content of the solution and killing off all other microorganisms, and eventually themselves. There are "fortified" wines with a higher alcohol concentration than that because stronger alcohol has been mixed with them.
Stronger liquors are distilled after fermentation is complete to separate the alcoholic liquid from the remains of the grain, fruit, or whatever it was made from. The idea of distillation is that a mixture of liquids is heated, the one with the lowest boiling point will evaporate (or "boil off") first, and then the one with the next lowest boiling point, and so on. The catch is that water and alcohol form a mixture (called an azeotrope) that has a lower boiling point than either one of them, so what distills off first is that mixture of 95% alcohol and 5% water.  Thus a distilled liquor cannot be stronger than 95% (190 proof); there are other techniques for separating liquids that can produce 100% ethanol (or "absolute alcohol"), but they are used only for scientific or industrial purposes. 100% ethanol does not stay 100% for very long, because it is hygroscopic and absorbs water out of the atmosphere.

References

Other websites 
History of the Sikes Hydrometer 

Alcoholic drinks
Acetobacter is a kind of bacteria. These bacteria are 
known by their ability to change alcohol to acetic acid in the presence of air. There are several species within this genus, and there are other bacteria that can form acetic acid under different conditions; but all of the Acetobacter are known by this ability.

Why Acetobacter is important 
Acetobacter are important to people, because:
 they are used to make vinegar (intentionally converting the ethanol in the wine to acetic acid)
 they can destroy wine which it infects by producing big amounts of acetic acid or ethyl acetate.

Sometimes, Acetobacter is not wanted. It can be killed by adding preservatives like Sulfur dioxides, or by getting rid of the air when the wine is stored. 

Gram-negative bacteria
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the spiritual leader of the Church of England and in the Anglican Communion the leader of its mother church. He is the head of the Church, and lives in the English city of Canterbury. The Archbishop is chosen by the English monarch (the church's "supreme governor"), under guidance from senior bishops, acting in cooperation with the prime minister of the UK. 

The office of Archbishop of Canterbury was founded in the year 597. In that year, Saint Augustine came to England, to the area called Kent. He had been sent by the Pope to convince the local people to become Christians. The people accepted him and Christianity when their King (Ethelbert of Kent) became a Christian. Augustine became the first bishop in the kingdom of Kent and was later recognised as archbishop when a second diocese was created. Since then, there has been an Archbishop at Canterbury in Kent.
The archbishop oversees the Province of Canterbury that is all the Church of England dioceses in the south and midlands of England. The dioceses of Wales were also within the Province of Canterbury until 1920 when the Church in Wales became independent. In the north of England another archbishop has the Diocese of York and other northern dioceses (including the diocese of Sodor and Man) to oversee. Both archbishops are members of the House of Lords and rank very high in the official English order of precedence. When a new monarch is crowned the placing of the crown on his head is done by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The principal home of the archbishops is at Lambeth Palace in the south of London rather than at Canterbury itself. Within the Diocese of Canterbury (which consists of eastern Kent and a small enclave in Surrey) the archbishop has at least two assistant bishops.

Justin Welby (formerly the Bishop of Durham) became Archbishop on 21 March 2013.

References

Other websites 
Official web site
Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol or just alcohol, is a flammable, colorless chemical compound. Its chemical formula is C2H5OH, also written as C2H6O. It is the active part of alcoholic drinks, which are drunk in most cultures worldwide. It is also used as a solvent because it can dissolve many other chemicals and is not very toxic. Yeast makes most of the ethanol that people use.

Ethanol fuel 

Ethanol fuel can be used instead of gasoline in cars and other engines. Engines can use pure ethanol or ethanol mixed with gasoline.

In Brazil, ethanol fuel made from sugar cane provides 18 percent of the country's fuel for cars. Because of this, Brazil does not have to buy oil from other countries.
To do this, Brazil cut down much of the rain forests to grow more sugar cane, which is then fermented into Ethanol.
Most cars in the U.S. can run on fuels that have of up to 10% ethanol in them. Car makers like Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM also make vehicles specifically designed to run on higher ethanol blends. Some of their engines can run on up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were about six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.

References

Other websites 
 US E85 refueling map 
 International Chemical Safety Card 0044
 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk  See Ethanol in 3D (may take over a minute to load using a dial-up connection)

Fuel
2
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance boils, or enters a state of rapid evaporation.  For pure water this is 100° Celsius or 212° Fahrenheit, at standard pressure.  Standard pressure is 1.0 Atmosphere (unit)

Boiling points can be changed in several ways. The addition of solutes or other substances usually changes the boiling point. Additionally, changing the pressure on a liquid changes its boiling point. 

The boiling point of a liquid depends on the pressure of the surrounding air. An increase in air pressure increases the boiling point; a decrease decreases the boiling point. In the low pressure environment at the top of Mt Everest for example, water boils at only 69 °C. (156.2 °F).
It can also be defined in terms of vapour pressure as the temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure
Sugar, salt or other non-volatile solutes in water will usually make the boiling point higher. Alcohol, in contrast, is a volatile chemical that lowers the boiling point of water. Even a large amount dissolved in the water will usually make only small changes in the boiling point.

Thermodynamics
Basic physics ideas
A Platonic solid is a kind of polyhedron (a three-dimensional shape). It has the following traits:

 Each of their faces is built from the same type of polygons.
 All the edges are the same, and all of them join two faces at the same angle.
 There are the same polygons meeting at every corner of the shape.
 The shape is convex, meaning the faces do not go through each other (intersecting), or span the same range (coplanar).

The Platonic solids
The following Platonic solids exist; there are only 5:

Triangular pyramid, or Tetrahedron, has 4 sides, is made of triangles, and is the simplest kind of polyhedron.
Cube, or Hexahedron, has 6 sides, and is made of squares. It is a kind of prism.
Octahedron, has 8 sides, and is made of triangles. It is a kind of antiprism.
Dodecahedron, has 12 sides, and is made of pentagons. It has the most vertices.
Icosahedron, has 20 sides, and is made of triangles. It has the most faces.

Uses
Uses

There are a lot of uses for Platonic solids, but some of the main reasons are:the shapes are often used to make dice, because dice of these shapes can be made fair. 6-sided dice are very common, but the other numbers are commonly used in role-playing games. Such dice are commonly referred to as D followed by the number of faces (d8, d20 etc.).

The tetrahedron (4 sided), cube (6 sided), and octahedron (8 sided), are found naturally in crystal structures. The dodecahedron (12 sides) is combinatorially identical to the pyritohedron (in that both have twelve pentagonal faces), which is one of the possible crystal structures of pyrite. However, the pyritohedron is not a regular dodecahedron, but rather has the same symmetry as the cube.
In meteorology and climatology, global numerical models of atmospheric flow are of increasing interest which use grids that are based on an icosahedron (20 sides,refined by triangulation) instead of the more commonly used longitude/latitude grid. This has the advantage of better spatial resolution without singularities (i.e. the poles) at the expense of somewhat greater numerical difficulty.

Geometry of space frames is often based on Platonic solids.

Other websites 
Stella: Polyhedron Navigator Tool for exploring polyhedra
Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links
The Uniform Polyhedra
Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia o  Polyhedra
London South Bank University Water structure and behavior
Book XIII of Euclid's Elements.
Interactive 3D Polyhedra  in Java
The Euclidean algorithm is an algorithm. It can be used to find the biggest number that divides two other numbers (the greatest common divisor of two numbers).

What the algorithm looks like in words 
Euclid solved the problem graphically. He said
If you have two distances, AB and CD, and you always take away the smaller from the bigger, you will end up with a distance that measures both of them.

The algorithm as an enumerated list 
Start out with two positive integers m and n.
 If the value of m is less than the value of n, switch the values of m and n
 Find a number r equal to m modulo n
 Let m have the same value as n
 Let n have the same value as r
 If n does not have the value of 0, go to step 2
 The wanted value is in m.

The algorithm in pseudocode 
Note: This pseudocode uses modular arithmetic instead of subtraction. It does the same thing as above, but gets the answer faster.
Precondition: two positive integers m and n
Postcondition: the greatest common integer divisor of m and n
if m < n, swap(m,n)
while n does not equal 0
   r = m mod n
   m = n
   n = r
endwhile
output m

C/C++ source code 
Iterative (Non-recursive):
int euclid_gcd(int m, int n)
{
	int temp = 0;
	if(m < n)
	{
		temp = m;
		m = n;
		n = temp;
	}
	while(n != 0)
	{
		temp = m % n;
		m = n;
		n = temp;
	}
	return m;
}

Recursive:
int euclid_gcd_recur(int m, int n)
{
	if(n == 0)
		return m;
	
	return euclid_gcd_recur(n, m % n);
}

Algorithms
Number theory
An eukaryote is an organism with complex cells, or a single cell with complex structures. In these cells the genetic material is organized into chromosomes in the cell nucleus.

Animals, plants, algae and fungi are all eukaryotes. There are also eukaryotes amongst single-celled protists. 

In contrast, simpler organisms, such as bacteria and archaea, do not have nuclei and other complex cell structures. Such organisms are called prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes evolved in the Proterozoic eon. The oldest known eukaryote is Grypania, a coiled, unbranched filament up to 30 mm long. The oldest Grypania fossils come from an iron mine near Negaunee, Michigan. The fossils are dated as 1874 million years old. Grypania lasted into the Mesoproterozoic era.

Another ancient group is the acritarchs, believed to be  stages of algal plankton. They are found 1400 million years ago, in the Mesoproterozoic era.p57
The classification of the Eukaryota is under active discussion, and several taxonomies have been proposed. Modern versions  disagree about the number of kingdoms.

Structure 
Eukaryotic cells are usually much bigger than prokaryotes. They can be up to 10 times bigger. Eukaryote cells have many different internal membranes and structures, called organelles. They also have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is made up of microtubules and microfilaments. Those parts are very important in the cell's shape. Eukaryotic DNA is put in bundles called chromosomes. They are separated by a "spindle" during cell division. 

Eukaryotes usually have some sort of sexual reproduction by fertilisation. Prokaryotes do not do this.

Prokaryotes do not have sexes, but they can pass DNA to other bacteria. Their cell division is asexual. Bacterial conjugation is when bacteria move a genetic element from one to another.
Eukaryotes have sets of linear chromosomes in the nucleus and the number of chromosomes is usually typical for each species.

Internal membrane 
In eukaryotic cells, there are many things with membranes around them. All of them together are called the endomembrane system. Simple bags, called vesicles or vacuoles, are sometimes made by budding off other membranes, just like how children make bubbles with their toys. Many cells take in food and other things using something called endocytosis. In endocytosis, the membrane closest to the outside bends inwards and then pinches off to make a vesicle. Many other organelles that have membranes probably started off as vesicles.

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membranes that has holes in it so things can go in and out. The nuclear envelope has things sticking out of it that look like tubes and sheets. These are called the endoplasmic reticulum which is often shortened to ER. The ER is covered with ribosomes which make proteins.
The ER has two parts, the rough ER and the smooth ER. The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it. The proteins made by the ribosomes attached to the rough ER. Lysosomes have enzymes inside them that break down the food the comes from food vacuoles

Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which are vacuoles that can fuse or pinch off from the outer membrane. Contractile vesicles are often used to get and get rid of unneeded water. Extrusomes shoot out stuff that make predators go away or catch food. In multicellular organisms, hormones are often made in vesicles. In the complicated plants, most of the inside of a plant cell is taken up by a central vacuole. That central vacuole is the main thing that keeps osmotic pressure so the cell can hold its shape.

Origin 
Because the cell organelles of eukaryotes have different (polyphyletic) origins, the question arises as to whether the group is a unified clade or not. It is certain that the protists are not.
Cell organelles are specialised units which carry out well-defined functions, like mitochondria and plastids. It is fairly clear now that all or most of these organelles have their origin in once-independent prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea), and that the eukaryote cell is a 'community of micro-organisms' working together in 'a marriage of convenience'. The first such events took place between ancient bacteria to produce the double-membrane class known as gram-negative bacteria. Since the gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, this was the first of several such events in the history of the eukaryotes.

Role of the Archaea 
Recent research shows that "the known repertoire of ‘eukaryote-specific’ proteins in Archaea [indicate] that the archaeal host cell already contained many key components that govern eukaryotic cellular complexity".
Taxonomy 
Protista is a group of different single-celled organisms. More accurate taxonomies have been proposed, but scientists are still discussing them. For this reason, Protista is still useful for talking about these organisms. One modern scheme for the classification of the Eukarya is as follows:

The Eukarya may only be unified in the sense that the cells are a community derived from bacteria and archaea; opinions vary. Like the Protista, the Eukarya may be a polyphyletic assembly, though a useful one. However, as mentioned above, all branches of the Eukarya have sexual reproduction. That, and the general organisation of the nucleus, are the defining features. These two points are the main evidence for monophyletic origin.

Etymology
The feature that defines eukaryotes is that their cells have nuclei. Eukaryote comes from the Greek words εὖ (eu, "well" or "good") and  karyon, "nut" or "kernel", here meaning "nucleus".

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References 

Cell biology
Taxonomy
Unicellular organisms are organisms that have one  cell. They are divided into two quite different types, from  different classification kingdoms. 

The prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, have cells with no nucleus and a simple cell structure.
Eukaryotes have a nucleus, and a more complex cell structure.

The differences between the prokaryota and eukaryota are significant. Eukaryotes possess a nucleus and various subcellular organs called organelles, and prokaryotes do not.

Observations 
Almost all unicellular organisms are microorganisms but you can observe eukaryotes and many prokaryotes by using a compound microscope. Bacteria just appear as dark dots. To gather unicellular organisms for observation, one can place a cover slip on the surface of pond water, and leave it overnight. By the next morning, numerous unicellular organisms will have grown entire colonies on the bottom of the slip. They multiply fast: colonies can double their size in between 30 minutes and a few hours.
Of all the six eukaryote supergroups, four are exclusively composed of unicellular organisms. Unicellular organisms vary in size, with the smallest bacteria measuring only a third of a micron (300 nanometers) across, ranging up to the titanic plasmodial slime molds, which can grow to 20 cm (8 in) across. The largest unicellular organisms may have millions of nuclei scattered throughout the cellular envelope. To observe some of the smallest unicellular organisms requires an electron microscope, while the very largest can be seen with a microscope or anything that enhances images.

Related pages
 Life timeline
 Multicellular organisms
 Microorganism

Other websites
About the kingdom Protista 

Microbiology
Multi-cellular organisms are  organisms with more than one cell. This is the case for animals, plants and most fungi. In such organisms, cells are usually specialised. All the cells with the same function work together. Such a group of cells is then called a tissue. 

Multi-cellular organisms have a set of cells that specialize in reproduction. Reproduction in such organisms is usually sexual. The sex cells are either sperm or ovum (also named "egg") cells. If they are sperm cells, the organism is male, if they are egg cells it is female. If both are present, the organism is a hermaphrodite.
Evolutionary history 
We know, from their cell structure, that multicellularity has evolved independently many times in Earth history, for example in plants and animals.
The earliest forms of life in the fossil record are cyanobacteria from the Archaean era at 3.5 billion years ago. They grew as single cells but lived in colonies as stromatolites. 
 
The first multicellular fossils have been found in 2.1 billion years old Palaeoproterozoic rocks from the Gabon in Africa. These are eukaryotic cells which live colonially. The fossils are visible to the naked eye, and hence much larger than bacteria. The authors comment that one advantage of  multicellularity is larger size, and that an adequate level of oxygen is required to support this kind of life.
Consequences of multicellularity 
To reproduce, multicellular organisms must solve the problem of regenerating a whole organism from germ cells (i.e. sperm and egg cells), an issue that is studied in developmental biology. 
   
Multicellular organisms, especially long-living animals, also face the challenge of cancer, which occurs when cells fail to regulate their growth within the normal program of development.

Related pages 
 Life timeline
 Metazoa
 Unicellular organism

References 

Evolutionary biology
Cell biology
A hexahedron (plural: hexahedra) is any polyhedron with six faces. A cube, for example, is a regular hexahedron with all its faces square, and three squares around each vertex.

There are seven topologically distinct convex hexahedra, one of which exists in two mirror image forms. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)

There are three further topologically distinct hexahedra that can only be realised as concave figures:

Related pages
Prismatoid

References

Other websites
Polyhedra with 4-7 Faces  by Steven Dutch

Polyhedra
Kazan (Volga region) Federal University (, Kazanskiy (Privolzhskiy) federalnyy universitet; ) is a university in Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia. It was founded in 1804. The famous Russian mathematician Lobachevsky was its headmaster from 1827 till 1846. The post is now being held by Myakzyum Salakhov (Mäğzüm Säläxev).

Kazan University is also known as "the birthplace of organic chemistry" because of the works of Aleksandr Butlerov, Vladimir Markovnikov, Aleksandr Arbuzov, and others.

Notable graduates 
 Aleksandr Arbuzov
 Mily Balakirev
 Aleksandr Butlerov
 Vladimir Lenin (expelled)
 Nikolay Lobachevski
 Vladimir Markovnikov
 Leo Tolstoy
 Nikolay Beketov
 Afanasy Shchapov
 Vladimir Galkin
 Michael Minsky (Spirin)

Other websites 

 List of Kazan State University's rectors
 Kazan State University Official Site 

Colleges and universities in Russia
Tatarstan
The New World is a name used for the western hemisphere. It specifically refers to the Americas. It can also refer to certain Atlantic and Pacific islands (like Bermuda) and sometimes Oceania. The name started in the early 16th century, shortly after America was colonized. The people of the European Middle Ages thought the world was only Africa, Asia, and Europe. These continents are called the Old World. The Americas were also referred to as the "fourth part of the world".

The continent (North America and South America) was named America after Amerigo Vespucci.

The term New World is considered problematic. This is because it only presents the view of colonists. It does not consider the geographical complexities.

Related pages
 Americas
 Colonization
 Old World
 Western hemisphere

References 

History of North America
History of South America
Rabbits are mammals of the order Lagomorpha. There are about fifty different species of rabbits and hares. The order Lagomorpha is made of rabbits, pikas and hares. Rabbits can be found in many parts of the world. They live in families and eat vegetables and hay. In the wild, rabbits live in burrows, that they dig themselves. A group of rabbits living together in a burrow is called a warren. Rabbits are famous for hopping and eating carrots. 

A male rabbit is called a buck, and a female is called a doe. A baby rabbit is called a kit, which is short for kitten. Rabbits have a gestation period of around 31 days. The female can have up to 12-13 kits, very rarely litters as big as 18 and as small as one. When the doe gives birth her babies are collectively referred to as a litter. Some people have rabbits as pets.  Rabbits are also raised for their meat. Rabbits are of a different biological classification than hares.
Since rabbits are prey animals, they are careful in open spaces. If they sense danger, they freeze and watch. Rabbit vision has a very wide field, including overhead scanning. Their predators are foxes, wolves, coyotes, cougars, lynxes, cats, dogs, bears, raccoons, skunks, weasels, badgers, snakes, and birds of prey. People are also known to shoot rabbits, because they eat crops. Their escape method is to run for their burrow, where they are usually safe.

Rabbits have a complex social structure and, like dogs, they have a hierarchy. Rabbit ears probably have several functions. The main function is to give warning of predators, but they may be used for signalling, and temperature regulation.

Rabbits as pets 
In the wild, rabbits have plenty to keep them occupied, from foraging to reproduction to territorial defence. Captive rabbits, on the other hand, often lack stimulation. This can lead to behavioural problems and poor health. Pet rabbits often live eight to twelve years.

References 

Lagomorphs
Pets
Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist and chemist.
He and his wife, Marie, are best known for their experiments supporting the germ theory of disease, and he is also known for his vaccinations, most notably the first vaccine against rabies and anthrax.

Career 
He made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry (different shapes) of crystals. He is also well known for his way of keeping milk and wine from going sour for longer periods of time. That process is called pasteurization. It is when the milk and or wine is put under about 161 Fahrenheit (72 Celsius) for fifteen seconds. 

Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, Pasteur noticed how a culture of the responsible bacteria had spoiled, and it failed to induce the disease in some chickens, which he was infecting, with the disease.

Personal life
Personal life 

Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822 in Dole in the Jura region of France, into the family of a poor tanner. Louis grew up in the town of Arbois. He gained degrees in Letters and in Mathematical Sciences before entering the École Normale Supérieure, an elite college. 

After serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector, in 1849.

Louis Pasteur and Marie were married on May 29, 1849, and together had five children. Only two survived to adulthood; his other three children had died of typhoid fever. These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try to find cures for diseases, such as typhoid.

Death 
In 1895 at Marnes-la-Coquette, a commune in Paris, Pasteur died after several strokes.

References 

1822 births
1895 deaths
Deaths from stroke
French chemists
French microbiologists
Vaccinologists
Akrotiri and Dhekelia are two British overseas territories that border the Republic of Cyprus. They are used as military bases by the United Kingdom. The bases were kept by the United Kingdom after Cyprus changed from being a colony in the British Empire, to being an independent republic. The United Kingdom kept them because of the important location of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.

Military bases 
The smallest of the bases is known as Akrotiri Sovereign Base Area or even the Western Sovereign Base Area.

References

Other websites

British overseas territories
Geography of Cyprus
Military buildings and structures
A transcontinental country is a country that is in more than one continent.

Examples 

Africa and Asia
 Egypt, though the vast majority lives in Africa, and mostly around the Nile, and few people live in the Sinai Peninsula, which is in Asia. 

Africa and Europe
 Spain, because the exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla are in mainland Africa and the Canary Islands are part of the African continental plate.

Asia and Europe
Cyprus
Georgia
Kazakhstan
Russia
Turkey

Asia and Oceania
Indonesia, controlling large islands in Oceania.

America and Oceania
United States, because Hawaii is in Oceania.

America, Oceania and Antarctica
Chile, because Easter Island is a province in Oceania and Chilean Antarctic is a claimed (but not officially accepted) territory in Antarctica.

Oceania and Antarctica
Australia,  Australian Antarctic Territory is a territory in Antarctica.
New Zealand,  Ross Dependency is a territory in Antarctica.
Europe, Africa, and America
 France, because Réunion, Mayotte, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana are regions of France.
 Portugal, because Madeira is part of the African continental plate and the westernmost islands of Corvo and Flores in the Azores are part of the North American continental plate.

References 

Country classifications
For the place of similar name in New Zealand see: Kurow

Kurów is a village in south-eastern Poland, near Puławy and Lublin, on the Kurówka River. It is the main village of a gmina within the Lublin Voivodship and has 2826 people living there (as of 2010). The village was built before 1185 and made bigger between 1431 and 1442 with city rights based on the Magdeburg Law. The former President of Poland, Wojciech Jaruzelski was born in Kurów in 1923.

Other websites 
 Wiki about Kurów

Villages in Lublin Voivodeship‎
Scorpions are eight legged venomous arachnids of the order Scorpiones. They have a long body with an extended tail with a sting. The average adult scorpion is about  in length. The longest scorpion is the Gigantometrus swammerdami (Giant forest scorpion) from India, which can be  long. There are about 1,750 species of scorpions worldwide.

The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back to the Silurian, 430 million years ago. They have adapted to a wide range of environments, and live on all continents except Antarctica. There are 13 living families. Only about 25 species have venom which can kill a human being.

Anatomy 
They have eight legs and a pair of grasping pedipalps (like claws). The tail is narrow, with segments. It usually has a forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger.

Their body is in three parts. The front section is the cephalothorax; the abdomen is called the mesosoma, and the tail is the metasoma. The body is covered by an exoskeleton which gives them good protection.
Survival in the desert 
Scorpions have many ways to survive in the desert. They can slow down their metabolism. This allows them to survive on as little as one insect per year. This ability also allows them to shelter from the sun and heat for extended periods of time, using only little amounts of oxygen. 
Many people also believe that their claws, or pincers, were once front legs that have turned into what they now are by going through evolution. Nevertheless, the scorpions' claws play a crucial part in their hunting and mating rituals.
Scorpions also possess a special, feather-like pair of organs, called pectines that they use to sense even the smallest of movements around them. This allows them to effectively track down and hunt their prey, either above or below the surface. This also warns them of possible dangers, such as other bigger hunters.
Breeding cycle 
The mating ritual of scorpions begins when the male and female connect claws. After this they verify that the other scorpion is of the same species, and is the opposite gender. After this, the male leads the female around until it finds a suitable spot to deposit its spermatophore. Once the male has found a suitable spot, he guides the female over it, where it enters her and fertilizes her. The mating ritual can take anywhere between 1 and 26 hours, depending on the male’s ability to find a suitable spot. Only a scorpion that has reached maturity may go through the mating ritual. A scorpion reaches maturity after it has gone through 5 to 7 moults.

Related pages 
Arachnid
Desert scorpion
Scorpion Tattoo

References 

Arachnids
1216 was a leap year starting on a Friday in the Julian calendar.

Events 

 April 10 – Eric X of Sweden dies. He is succeeded by Johan Sverkersson.
 April – Prince Louis of France, the future King Louis VIII, invades England in the First Barons' War
 July 24 – Ascension of Pope Honorius III; in the same year, he officially recognises the Order of Preachers (the Dominican Order)
 October 19 – Henry III becomes King of England, after the death of King John of England.
 Dresden, Germany becomes a city
 Ballintubber Abbey is founded by King Cathal Crovdearg O'Connor of Connaught in Ireland.

Births 
 Eric IV of Denmark (d. 1250)
 September 17 – Robert I, Count of Artois (d. 1250)

Deaths 

 Shota Rustaveli, Georgian poet (b. 1172)
 April 10 – King Eric X of Sweden (b. 1180)
 June 11 – Henry of Flanders, Emperor of the Latin Empire (b. 1174)
 July 16 – Pope Innocent III (b. 1161)
 October 19 – King John of England (b. 1167)
John Richard Schlesinger, CBE (16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was a British movie director. He was born into a Jewish family in London. He was openly gay. He died of a stroke in Palm Springs, California, United States.

Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s. He started to direct in 1956. By the 1960s he was not acting so he could just direct. His documentary Terminus (1961), got a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award.  A Kind of Loving won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962.  Schlesinger's movie, Midnight Cowboy (1969), made in the United States, was internationally successful. A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first movie shot in the U.S. It won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture. In 1996 he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award.
Filmography
Feature and television movies (as Director)
 A Kind of Loving (1962)
 Billy Liar (1963)
 Darling (1965)
 Far From the Madding Crowd (1967)
 Midnight Cowboy (1969)
 Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971)
 Visions of Eight (1973)
 The Day of the Locust (1975)
 Marathon Man (1976)
 Yanks (1979)
 Honky Tonk Freeway (1981)
 Privileged  (1982)
 Separate Tables (1983) (TV)
 An Englishman Abroad (1983)  (TV)
 The Falcon and the Snowman (1985)
 The Believers (1987)
 Madame Sousatzka (1988)
 Pacific Heights (1990)
 A Question of Attribution (1991) (TV)
 The Innocent (1993)
 Cold Comfort Farm (1995) (TV)
 Eye for an Eye (1996)
 The Tale of Sweeney Todd (1998) (TV)
 The Next Best Thing (2000)

References

Other websites
Other websites 

1926 births
2003 deaths
Academy Award winning directors
Actors from London
BAFTA Award winners
British television directors
Deaths from stroke
English movie actors
English movie producers
English television actors
English LGBT people
Jewish British actors
LGBT directors
Gay Jews
Jewish screenwriters
Movie directors from London
Landjäger (or Landjaeger) is a type of German sausage. The name stands for "hunter's sausage". It is smoked, so it does not need refrigeration. Usually, some of the water has also been taken out (they are dehydrated).

Sausage
The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were a British protectorate from 1892 and colony from 12 January 1916. They are formed from two groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. On 1 January 1976 the islands were split into two different colonies that became independent states. The Gilbert Islands have been the biggest part of the nation of Kiribati since 1979, and the Ellice Islands became Tuvalu in 1978.

Islands of Kiribati
Pacific islands
History of the United Kingdom
1892 establishments in the United Kingdom
19th-century establishments in Oceania
Former colonies in Oceania
Casablanca (classical Arabic name: الدار البيضاء, "the white house"; Spanish:Casablanca, "whitehouse") is a city in western Morocco, on the Atlantic Ocean. 

With 2.95 million people (September 2004 census), Casablanca is Morocco's biggest city.

Casablanca has a Mediterranean Climate with hot dry summers and wet rainy winters.

Education 
 EMLYON Business School
 Toulouse Business School

References

Other websites 

 Official web site of Casablanca
Flatulence or farting is when gas leaves the anus. This often happens with a sound that can be embarrassing to some people, but in some cultures it is treated like humor. The word flatulence comes from the Latin word flatus, which means blowing or breath, but people today usually call it farting.

In mammals like humans, the gases come from two sources: swallowed air (for example, while eating, talking or drinking) and gases naturally created by bacteria in the body during digestion. Of the gases that come out during flatulence, most of it is nitrogen (which has the chemical formula N2 and makes up between 21% to 89% of all the gases), followed by hydrogen (H), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) and methane (CH4).

References

Other websites
7 Easy Ways to Tame Excessive Gas

Digestive system
Computability theory is part of computer science. Scientists want to know what can be computed, and what can not. 

There is a model of a computer that is used for this. It is called the Turing machine. A Turing machine basically is a special typewriter with an endless ribbon. The machine is named after the mathematician Alan Turing.

A problem is computable if it can be expressed in such a way that a Turing machine can solve it. 

One of the best known examples is the Halting problem. The task is to write a program which says for all programs whether they will finally stop. This is impossible to decide. Mathematicians say the problem is undecidable.

Theoretical computer science
Batman is a city in southeast Turkey. It is the capital (city) of the province with the same name. In 2010, 325,000 people lived there. There are many Kurds in that area. The area has much oil and gas.

There is a railway track at Kurtalan, near this city. The track runs all the way to Istanbul. There is also an airport near Batman. The name is short for the Bati Raman mountains.

Other websites 
 Batman Municipality 

Batman
A typewriter is a machine that is for typing on a piece of paper instead of writing by hand.  It has keys for typing letters, numbers, and symbols one at a time.  Typewriters were created in 1829.  Typewriters were originally invented to make writing faster and printing.  The earliest typing was done on stone, clay, or metal sheets by inscribing them. 

A typewriter does not have computer memory.  As with writing with a pen, it is difficult to correct mistakes.  One advantage is that many of them are not electrical, so you do not need to plug them in.  Hackers cannot see what you have typed.  On many typewriters, a separate type element (called a typebar) corresponds to each key.  The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874. They did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s.
Typewriters quickly became a necessary tool for almost all writing other than personal handwritten letters.  They were used a lot by professional writers, in offices, and for business correspondence in private homes.  Typewriters were common in most offices up to the 1980s.  After that, computers often replaced them. Nevertheless, typewriters are still common in some parts of the world. They are needed for a few specific applications, and they are popular in certain subcultures.  Early typewriters, and later cheap ones, were "manual" typewriters. This means they were powered completely by the user.  After the mid-20th century, electric typewriters with a motor became most common.

Related pages 
 Teletypewriter

Writing tools
Nocturnal (Latin: nox - night, darkness) animals are animals that are mainly active during the night. They hunt or feed during the night, and sleep during the day. Diurnal animals do it the other way around.

Crepuscular animals are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the full moon throws light. Domestic cats hunt mice and voles mostly at this time.

Cathemeral animals are equally likely to be awake and active at any time of day or night. 

Many nocturnal animals have good night vision.  Their large eyes may be highly reflective when a bright light flashes on them. Owls and bats are typical nocturnal predators. More specifically, they have a larger cornea relative to their eye size than diurnal creatures. This increases their visual sensitivity in low-light conditions.

Examples of nocturnal animals
Owls
Bats

References

Zoology
Censorship is when an authority (such as a government or religion) or other group cuts out or suppresses communication.

This has been done widely. All countries, religions and societies have their limits as to what can be said, or written or communication by art or nowadays by computer.

Certain facts are changed or removed on purpose. This may be done because it is considered wrong, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the government or other authority. This can be done for different reasons.

A censor is a person whose job is to look at all types of media and remove material.  There are many reasons to censor something, like protecting military secrets, stopping immoral or anti-religious works, or keeping political power.  Censorship is almost always used as an insult, and there is much debate over what censorship is and when it is okay.
When there is freedom of speech and freedom of the press, most information can published.  However, even in developed countries with much freedom of the press, there are some things that cannot be published.  For example, journalists are usually not allowed to publish many secrets about the military, like where troops will be sent on a mission.  Pornography is censored in some countries because it is seen as not moral.  For these reasons, the government might arrest anyone who publishes it.
Reasons
Most often things are censored for one or more of the following reasons:
 Moral censorship: It is thought that certain facts may be inappropriate for the audience. There are many countries that limit who may see pornography. Additionally, it may be forbidden to show or write about certain forms of pornography, such as child pornography. Obscene words may be forbidden. Since about 1960 pressure groups have tried to stop the use of some words in favour of others. This has happened especially with words that describe race and gender. 
 Military censorship: In a war, all news reports might be censored.  This is done to prevent the enemy getting information that might be used to plan fighting.  Censored information may include the existence, size, location, and movements of armed forces, and their strategies and tactics.
Political censorship: A government (or a political party) may hold back certain kinds of information. This is done to avoid rebellions or embarrassment, or control the population by withholding certain information which those in power feel would damage their reputation or image,
 Religious censorship: Often, there is a dominant religion which removes or changes certain kinds of information. Examples for this are the Vatican censoring Galileo Galilei, or the Iranian Ayatollah Khomeini banning The Satanic Verses, a novel by Salman Rushdie. In Romania, many schools no longer teach evolution, and many schools in the US and UK refuse to discuss Creationism. 
 Corporate censorship: (Often large) businesses stop the publication of material because it shows some of their business idea or their employees as bad.
Debate 
There is much debate about when censorship should be allowed.  For example, U.S. President Richard Nixon censored the New York Times when they tried to publish articles about the Pentagon Papers, a group of classified military documents that showed that Nixon and the military lied about the Vietnam War.  The Supreme Court in New York Times Co v. United States overturned the censorship, saying that Nixon had not shown it would be dangerous to the military, just embarrassing.  In other countries, journalists and bloggers (who are usually not seen as journalists) are sometimes arrested for saying bad things about the government.  In Egypt, Kareem Amer was famously arrested for insulting Islam and calling the president of Egypt, Hosni Mubarak, a dictator.
Non-governmental censorship 
Governments are not the only ones who censor information. For example, when the history department at Middlebury College did not allow professors to accept Wikipedia as a source in papers, some said it was censorship. This was because the department was telling professors (who usually have academic freedom) what works they should or should not accept.  Sometimes, a group or a website will not allow some facts, articles, and pictures that they do not think should be seen. There is much debate over the difference between censorship and editing, that is, deciding what should or should not be published.

Censorship of knowledge
Sometimes there is censorship of knowledge because it is believed  that the average person can be harmed by access to it.

Slate Magazine wrote that in the 18th century the French king’s council stopped the distribution of Encyclopédie because it was “destroying royal authority and encouraging a spirit of independence and revolt,”
The Chinese government has blocked the Chinese-language Wikipedia since June 2015.

On July 16, 2019 the National Post ran an article about a woman who was banned fromTwitter.  Lindsay Shepherd who is described as a Free speech advocate claimed that twitter has been too eager  to censor  right-wing public figures. Shepherd was a teaching assistant at Wilfrid Laurier University.

Related pages 
 Movie censorship
 Censorship by Google
 Censorship of YouTube
 Reporters Without Borders
 Wikileaks

References 

 
Freedom
Częstochowa is a city in south Poland on the Warta River. It has 248,894 residents. It has been in the Silesian Voivodeship (administrative division) since 1999, and was once the capital of Częstochowa Voivodship (1975-1998).

The town is known for the famous monastery of Jasna Góra Monastery, which is the home of the Black Madonna painting, a shrine of the Virgin Mary. Every year, thousands of people from all over the world come to Częstochowa to see it.

City name 

The name Częstochowa means Częstoch's place, and comes from the name of a person, Częstoch. It is mentioned in medieval documents also as Częstobor and Częstomir. Częstochowa is also known as Czestochowa, Czenstochov, and Chenstochov.

Tourism 

Currently, the city is one of the main tourist attractions in the area. It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors every year.
The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, kept at the Jasna Góra Monastery, is a very popular attraction.

Cities in Silesian Voivodeship
A Voivodeship is one of 16 different divisions of land in Poland. The word comes from the Polish "wojewoda" meaning a governor.