Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
A photocathode is a negatively charged electrode in a light detection device. They are the main type of photomultiplier. That means they take a little light, and make more of it.

There are instruments which need to magnify the amount of light coming in. Examples are astronomical telescopes and military night-sight equipment: binoculars and telescopes on helmets and rifles etc.

The lens of the telescope or binocular passes the light onto a layer of glass coated with a special light-sensitive metal. When this is struck by light, the absorbed energy causes electrons to jump off. This is called the 'photoelectric effect'. The freed electrons are then collected to produce the final image.
Some photocathode materials 
Ag-O-Cs, (silver oxide/caesium, also called S-1). This was the first compound photocathode material, developed in 1929. 
High temperature bialkali or low noise bialkali (sodium-potassium-antimony, Na-K-Sb). This material is often used in oil well logging since it can withstand temperatures up to 175 °C. At room temperatures, this photocathode operates with very low dark current, making it ideal for use in photon counting applications.
GaAs (gallium(II) arsenide). This photocathode material covers a wide spectral response range, from ultraviolet to 930 nm (nm = nanometre, a measure of the wavelength of the light or other electromagnetic radiation).
Cs-Te, Cs-I (caesium-telluride, caesium-iodide). These materials are sensitive to vacuum UV and UV rays, but not to visible light and are therefore referred to as solar blind. Cs-Te is insensitive to wavelengths longer than 320 nm, and Cs-I to those longer than 200 nm.
These devices are mostly based on alkali metals.
Physics
Tools
Alkali metals
The Space Shuttle Enterprise (OV-101) is a spacecraft used by NASA for testing of the space shuttles. Enterprise was built without engines and without the heat protection system needed for it to travel into space and return to the atmosphere. Enterprise began being built in June 4, 1974, and was completed on September 17, 1976. Enterprise was used for flight tests in 1977. Scientists wanted to test how the shuttle could be transported on top of a Boeing 747. They also did three test manned test flights with the shuttle still joined to the Boeing. When these test were finished they did another five tests with the shuttle flying without engines like a glider. The pilots practiced landing the shuttle at the Edwards Airforce Base. The pilots were astronaut Gordon Fullerton, Apollo 13 astronaut Fred Haise, Joe Engle and Dick Truly.   After the test flights, the Enterprise was used for vibration tests at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama
. After all the tests were finished, some parts of the Enterprise were used in the building of the other shuttles.
The Enterprise was going to be named the "Constitution", but many people wrote to the President and asked for it to be named after the space craft on the TV show Star Trek. Enterprise can be seen today by visitors to the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center near Washington, D.C.

References

Enterprise
Reginald Alfred "Reggie" Bush II (born March 2, 1985) is an American football player for the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL). He plays the position of running back.

Career history
Bush played football at Helix High School in La Mesa, California, then played football at the University of Southern California. Bush won the 2005 Heisman Trophy, which is for the best player in college football, but in 2010, he gave the award back because of claims that he took gifts while in college that would have made him a professional athlete while still in college.

NFL history
The New Orleans Saints chose Bush with the second pick in the 2006 NFL Draft. In 2010, Bush won a Super Bowl with the Saints over the Indianapolis Colts.

References

African American players of American football
American football running backs
Football players from California
Bush, Reggie
1985 births
Living people
Heisman Trophy winners
A globular protein is one of a common type of protein.

They are one of three types of protein. The others are fibrous and membrane proteins.

Their structure is a result of protein folding. They are made of polypeptide chains folded into a compact sphere shape. 

They are soluble in water because of the hydrophilic ('water-loving') side chains that project from the outside of the molecules. They play an important role in metabolic reactions.
Unlike proteins which only have a structural function, globular proteins can act as:
Enzymes, by catalyzing organic reactions taking place in the organism in mild conditions and with a great specificity. Different esterases fulfill this role.
Messengers, by transmitting messages to regulate biological processes. This function is done by hormones, i.e. insulin etc.
Transporters of other molecules through membranes
 Stocks of amino acids.
Regulation of other molecules is also done by globular proteins rather than fibrous proteins.
Structural proteins, e.g., actin and tubulin, which are globular and soluble as monomers, but polymerize to form long, stiff fibers.

Globular proteins include myoglobin and hemoglobin.

Globulins 
Globulins are all globular proteins except albumins. They have higher molecular weights than albumins. They are insoluble in pure water but dissolve in dilute salt solutions.
Some globulins have important function as antibodies, others are responsible for the transport of lipids, iron or copper in the blood.

Proteins
David Haye (born 13 October 1980) is a British boxer. He is the WBA heavyweight champion and is nicknamed "The Hayemaker". He is 1.91 metres (6 feet 3 inches) tall. Before he became a heavyweight, he boxed in the cruiserweight division, where he held all the major titles. His most famous cruiserweight fights were against Jean-Marc Mormeck and Enzo Maccarinell. He has lost only once in his career.

Haye moved up to the heavyweight division and beat Monte Barrett in 2008. In October 2009, he beat Nikolai Valuev, who is 7 feet tall, to become the WBA champion. In 2010, he beat John Ruiz.  He defended his title against fellow Briton Audley Harrison in November 2010.

Career
Career 

Haye started his career as an amateur. He reached the finals of the 2001 world amateur championship in the heavyweight class, where he lost to Odlanier Solis. He turned professional in the cruiserweight division in December 2002. His first professional fight was meant to be against Valeri Semishkur, but Semishkur pulled out. Instead, Haye fought and beat Tony Booth on 8 December 2002. He had seven fights in 2003, and won all of them. He won his tenth fight in a row when he beat Arthur Williams on 12 May 2004. He won those ten fights with a total of only 20 rounds. In his match against IBO champion Carl Thompson on 10 September 2004, he lost for the first time in his career. In his next match, on 10 December 2004, he beat Semishkur in the first round.
Haye won the European title on 16 December 2006 when he beat Alexander Gurov. He won the match after only 45 seconds. On 24 March 2007, in his first match as European champion, he beat Lasse Johansen. On 27 April 2007, he had his first heavyweight fight, against Tomasz Bonin. Haye won in the first round. Shortly after the fight, Haye said he had plans to move up to the heavyweight division. "I'm absolutely certain I can rule the heavyweight roost", he said. On 10 November 2007, he beat Jean-Marc Mormeck to win the WBA, WBC, and Ring magazine titles. Haye was knocked down in the fourth round, but hit Mormeck with a series of blows in the seventh to win by technical knockout. He became the UK's sixth boxing champion. On 8 March 2008, he beat Enzo Maccarinelli to win the WBO title. Haye hit Maccarinelli with two big punches before the referee stopped the match. Haye said he planned to move up to the heavyweight division
. A few weeks after the fight, Wladimir Klitschko, the IBF, IBO, and WBO heavyweight champion, said he wanted to fight Haye.
Haye was born on 13 October 1980 in Bermondsey, London. He went to Snowsfield primary school and Bacon's College. Jade Goody, winner of the television show Big Brother, was in his class.  Haye is married and has a son called Cassius, named after Cassius Clay, the birth name of Muhammad Ali. His training camp is based in Kyrenia, Northern Cyprus. He started training there in 2007 and sometimes fights with the Northern Cyprus flag on his shorts. He supports the football team Millwall. In September 2010, a newspaper in Northern Cyprus said Haye had become a citizen of Northern Cyprus.

References

Other websites 
Official website 
List of fights 

1980 births
Living people
Black British sportspeople
British boxers
People from the London Borough of Southwark
Sportspeople from London
Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide (a complex form of sugar).  It is added to certain foods, such as salad dressings, to make them thicker. It is also added to cosmetics to keep the ingredients from separating.  To make xanthan gum, workers add a kind of bacterium, Xanthomonas campestris, to glucose or sucrose.  They let the mixture ferment for a while, and then add isopropyl alcohol to separate the polysaccharide from the mixture.  They dry the polysaccharide, grind it into a powder, then add it to a liquid.  The xanthan gum is then ready to use.
History
Allene Rosalind Jeanes and her research team at the United States Department of Agriculture first discovered xanthan gum.  The team was studying many biopolymers to see whether some of them were useful, and how they could be used.  The Kelco Company was the first company to produce xanthan gum in the early 1960s.  At that time, Kelco called xanthan gum by its brand name, Kelzan.  Later, in 1968, xanthan gum was tested and declared safe to be used in food.  The USA, Canada, Europe, and many other regions and countries now accept xanthan gum as a safe food additive.

Uses
Uses

Xanthan gum is a very effective thickener.  It is stable under a wide range of temperatures and pH.  Only 0.5% of xanthan gum is added to most foods to thicken them.  The thickening property of xanthan gum decreases when a food is mixed, shaken or chewed, but it thickens up again when the force is removed.  This property is called pseudoplasticity.  Sometimes this property can be very useful.  For instance, the xanthan gum added to salad dressing makes the dressing thick enough to cling to a salad, but shaking the bottle of dressing makes it temporarily thin and easier to pour.
Salad dressings and sauces contain xanthan gum.  Even though xanthan gum is not an emulsifier, it helps to keep an emulsion stable so that the oil in it does not separate.  Xanthan gum also helps to keep spices and other solid bits of food evenly distributed in a liquid.  Xanthan gum, guar gum and locust bean gum help to give ice cream and other frozen foods a creamy texture.  Gluten-free bakers use xanthan gum instead of gluten to make bread dough or batter "sticky."  Packaged egg whites or egg substitutes contain xanthan gum to replace the fat and emulsifiers found in egg yolks.

Toothpaste often contains xanthan gum to give the toothpaste a smooth texture.  People who have trouble swallowing add xanthan gum to drinks and other liquids to make them thicker and easier to swallow.
Oil drillers use a lot of xanthan gum to make drilling mud thicker.  This thick fluid helps carry solids cut by the drill bit up to the surface of the earth.  When people need to pour concrete underwater, they add xanthan gum to the concrete to make it thicker and keep it from washing away.

Many cosmetics contain xanthan gum, which helps hold together oil and water emulsions.  Xanthan gum can also help keep skin moist.  Fake blood, toy slime and gunge all get their thickness from xanthan gum.

Possible health effects
Workers who were exposed to xanthan gum dust developed allergy-like symptoms from breathing in the dust.
Coeliac disease sufferers and other people who are sensitive to gluten and other allergens may need to be careful how much xanthan gum is in their food.  Some types of xanthan gum are made with wheat, corn or soy and could cause allergic reactions.  Xanthan gum is also a strong laxative and can cause diarrhoea in people who eat too much of it, or who are sensitive to it. There are many substitutes available for xanthan gum when used in baking such as guar gum or locust bean gum.

References 

Food ingredients
Carbohydrates
The pickerel frog (Lithobates palustris, formerly Rana palustris) is a small frog in North America. It has dark squares on its back. The squares are in lines instead of randomly scattered. Leopard frogs have circular spots. They have an orange or yellow coloration on the inside of their back legs. They are found in the east of North America. They have toxic glands in their skin that can kill other frogs.

Related pages
Bullfrog

Frogs of North America
The Northern green frog is a subspecies of the North American green frog. Its name is either Rana clamitans melanota, or Lithobates clamitans melanota.

It is moderately large. It is found in the northeast United States and some of eastern Canada. Its call sounds like a plucked banjo. It has a fold running from the top of its eyes down the side of its back. The bullfrog does not have these folds. It is normally found in swamps, marshes, and muddy streams.

Related pages
Pickerel frog

References

Frogs of North America
Wikitext language, or wiki markup, is a markup language  used to write pages in wiki websites, such as Wikipedia. It is a simplified alternative to HTML. It is converted by wiki software (like MediaWiki) into regular HTML, which the user's web browser will render.

Example 

(Quotation above from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll)

Purpose 
The main purpose of having Wikitext in wikis instead of HTML is because HTML is more complicated and not many people know how to use it. Therefore, it is easier to use Wikitext rather than HTML and thus makes editors contributing to a wiki easier to create content.

Related pages 
 HTML
 WYSIWYG editor

Other websites 
 Help on editing on Meta Wiki

Markup languages
Environmentally friendly (also eco-friendly, nature friendly, and green) are terms that refer to objects that people buy (called goods), services, laws, and rules that either do not harm the environment or do very little harm to it. To make people who buy the goods or services know that they are environmentally friendly, environmentally friendly goods and services often are marked  with eco-labels. But because there is no single type of eco-label, the International Organization for Standardization thinks that these labels do not mean much because they could mean different things.

Etymology 
Environmentally friendly is a term used to refer to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies claimed to inflict minimal or no harm on the environment. Companies sometimes use these terms to promote goods and services by making environmental marketing claims, sometimes falsely and with eco-labels. Also ecofriendly, by 1993, from eco- + friendly.

Other websites 
 No Impact Advice on sustainable living practices
References 

Environment
Green politics
An intranet is a private network website that only a few selected computers can have access to. Usually, they are being used as internal company websites for employees to know more about what is happening in the company without letting other people see.

An intranet works the same way as a normal website. The system administrator can add webpages to it and it can be accessed normally from a web browser.

Russia has successfully tested Runet, a country-wide alternative to the internet. An expert said "Increasingly, authoritarian countries who want to control what citizens see are looking at what Iran and China have already done... It means people will not have access to dialogue about what is going on in their own country, they will be kept within their own bubble".

Related pages 
 Internet

References 

Internet
Bold can mean the following:
 Bold (type) - making text darker
 Boldness - Being brave
Italic script and  type has a long history. It was based on handwriting.

Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi (1475–1527) was a papal scribe and type designer in Renaissance Italy. Present day cursive writing style known as "italic" is based upon the style he developed. It has been said that the style of cursive known as "italic" got its name from this Italian designer. Modern day scribes, also known as "calligraphers",  study the work of Arrighi to learn the structure of the style of writing known as "italic" , a modernized version of the Chancery hand which was first perfected by Roman scribes in the early part of the sixteenth century.

In typography, italic type is a cursive font based on a kind of calligraphic handwriting. Such letters normally slant slightly to the right.  

In modern texts, Italics can emphasise key points in a printed text. One manual of English usage described italics as "the print equivalent of underlining".
Calligraphy-inspired typefaces were first designed in Italy, to replace documents written in a handwriting style called chancery hand. As the illustration shows, there were flourishes copied from calligraphy. An alternative is oblique type: the type is slanted but the letterforms do not change shape: this less elaborate approach is used by many sans-serif typefaces.

Usage on the web 
Using italic is usually used as a place holder for a blank piece of information.
There are different ways in making a text italic.

HTML 
In HTML, the editor can add the <i> and the </i> tags to make text surrounded by these tags italic.

Wikitext 
In Wikitext, the editor can just add two apostrophes ('') around the text to become italic.

Related pages 
 Bold
 Underlined

References 

Typography
Writing
In formatting, bold type is a little bit darker and bigger than normal type. It is used to emphasize a few words as a bolded text can attract attention from the reader.

Usage 
Markup languages provide different ways to make a word bold. For example:

 In HTML, the <b> and the </b> tags are used to surround the text that needs to be bolded.
 In Wikitext, an editor can bold a text using three apostrophes (''') around the text to be bolded to produce the same results.

References

Related pages 
 Italic
 Underlined

Typography
To make a text underlined means to add a straight line below the text. It is commonly used to emphasize the text. However, it is usually not used.

Usage 
Both HTML and Wikitext uses the same way in making underlined text. They both use the <u> and the </u> tags to produce an underlined text.

References

Related pages 
 Bold
 Italic

Typography
Iodic acid is a chemical compound. It is also an acid. Its chemical formula is HIO3. It contains hydrogen and iodate ions. The iodine is in its +5 oxidation state.

Properties
Iodic acid is a white solid that can dissolve in water to make an acidic solution. Chloric acid and bromic acid only exist in solution and break down when crystallized. Iodic acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It can be converted to iodine pentoxide when it is heated gently. If it is heated strongly, it decomposes into iodine, oxygen, and other iodine oxides. 

It can form several things when it is reduced. If there is a lot of reducing agent, it is reduced to iodide. If there is a lot of iodic acid, it is reduced to iodine. If there is a lot of chloride, then it is reduced to iodine trichloride, a yellow liquid.

Preparation
It can be made by electrolysis of an acidic iodide solution.

Uses
Iodic acid is used to make other iodates by reacting bases with iodic acid. It is also used as a strong acid.

Related pages
Periodic acid
Iodine compounds
Acids
The Malays (Malay-; ; Rejang: ꤷꥁꤼ; Jawi: ) are an Austronesian ethnic group in Southeast Asia. They mainly live in the Maritime Southeast Asia region (especially within the Malay Archipelago; consist of Indonesian Archipelago and Philippines archipelago), such as Sumatra, Riau Islands, Singapore, Kalimantan (including Brunei), southern Thailand, and southern Philippines.

Overview 
Malay people were once a tribal group who inhabited the island of Sumatra. According to the Malay Annals, the origin of Malay people are from the area known as Palembang in modern-day South Sumatra.

Sang Sapurba also mentioned in the Malay Annals as the King of Malays who originated from the hill of Siguntang Mahameru area as well.
Malay people transformed from the tribal group into an ethnic group during the glorious era of Srivijaya—the empire that originated from Palembang— when the trading activities grew. Nowadays, Malay people are inhabiting areas that was under the Srivijayan empire rule, with the big population mainly in Sumatra and its surrounding regions such as Bangka Belitung Islands, Riau Islands, Malacca Peninsula ( Kra Peninsula), Kalimantan (including Brunei), southern Thailand, southern Vietnam, and southern Philippines.

Language
Language

Most ethnic Malays speak one or more of the many dialects (versions) of the Malay language, a language of the Austronesian family of languages. In Indonesia, the standardized form of Malay is Indonesian (),These naming policies were created to form national unities in the countries instead of making the Malays a ruling influence or the ruling class. In Malaysia, the standard form is called bahasa melayu (. About 80% of their words mean the same thing in either dialect. same like in Brunei. In Brunei, Thailand and Singapore it is also known as Bahasa Melayu. 

Today, the language is usually written a version of the Roman alphabet, called Rumi. Malay written using the Arabic alphabet is called Jawi, which is mostly used in official and religious contexts. Jawi is more common than Rumi in very conservative Muslim areas like Kelantan in Malaysia and Pattani in Thailand.

Religion
The vast majority of ethnic Malays today are Sunni Muslims and Islam has become a large part of the Malay identity.
References

Ethnic groups in Asia
Patrick Chukwuemeka Okogwu (born 7 November 1988) is a British rapper, singer and songwriter. He was born in Plumstead, London and is of Nigerian origin. He is better known by his stage name Tinie Tempah. He also founded the record label Disturbing London in 2006. 

Some of his more famous songs are "Pass Out", "Written in the Stars" and "Earthquake".

Tempah released his first album Disc-Overy in 2010. It went straight to number one in the UK Albums Chart. Seven singles were released from the album.

On 4 August 2013, the first single from Demonstration, "Trampoline", was released. 2 Chainz rapped in it. It reached number three in the UK Singles Chart. His second album Demonstration was released 4 November 2013. Twelve of the album's fifteen songs feature other musicians. Tempah won Best UK Hip Hop/Grime Act at the 2013 Music of Black Origin Awards.

References

Other websites 
 Official website

1988 births
Living people
Black British musicians
English rappers
Singers from London
The Orang Laut are a group of Malays living in the Riau Islands. Their name means the sea people. They used to be pirates. 

Ethnic groups in Indonesia
Riau Islands
The Japanese Occupation of Singapore is a time from 1942-1945 (during World War II) where the Japanese occupied Singapore. Japan attacked because Singapore was an important naval base for controlling other areas. The occupation started after the army of Japan defeated garrison troops from Australia, British Malaya, Britain, and India. This was at the Battle of Singapore. The British decided to surrender to the Japanese on 15 February 1942 at the Ford Motor Factory.

The city was renamed to Syonan-to (pronounced as Sho-nan-to), meaning Light of the South, during the rule. It was officially returned to the British after the peace treaty ending World War II was signed.
The Japanese did not treat the people very well during their occupation.  There was a large amount of inflation because the Japanese printed paper money for Singapore to use, which did not have any identification numbers.  Also called 'banana notes' as they had a picture of a banana tree on them, the paper notes could have been printed by people who had a modern-day printer and sufficient paper.

Timeline 
In 1941, due to the weak defenses, the Japanese attacked Singapore. They landed on Singaporean soil on the 9th of February 1942 and took control of the colony on 15 February 1942, soon renaming it Syonan-to (pronounced as Sio-nan-to or Sho-nan-to), meaning Light of the South Island, during the rule.  Many people suffered during this time till the Japanese surrendered and the British returned to Singapore in September 1945.
The Black Market 
During the Japanese Occupation, the trade was disrupted, resulting in scarcity of food and other kinds of goods, causing the price to drastically increase in a process known as inflation. Even if one were to try to buy a jar of jam from a shop, the shopkeeper would say that he had none. However, if one was prepared to pay a very high price for it, the shopkeeper would know just where to get it: the black market.

References 

1942
1943
1944 in Asia
1945 in Asia
1940s in Japan
20th century in Singapore
Wars involving Japan
A ligand is a biochemical substance. Its function is to bind to a biological molecule, and make the molecule perform a function. Ligand binding alters the shape of the receptor protein. This changes the protein's behaviour. 

In a narrower sense, it is a signal triggering molecule, binding to a site on a target protein.

The binding occurs by intermolecular forces, such as ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces. The docking (association) is usually reversible (dissociation).  

Ligands include substrates, inhibitors, activators, and neurotransmitters. The tendency or strength of binding is called affinity.

Related pages 
Signal transduction
Cytokine
Agonist
Receptor antagonist

References 
Biochemistry
Molecular biology
Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg (Polyxena Christina Johanna; 21 September 1706 – 13 January 1735) was the second wife of Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont, future King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia.

Biography

Polyxena was born at Langenschwalbach in Hesse and was baptised with the names Polyxena Christina Johanna . King Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia approached her family and proposed a union between Polyxena and Victor Amadeus II's son and heir Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont. A previous match organised by "Agostino Steffani" with a daughter of Duke Rinaldo d'Este of Modena had come to nothing. His first wife, Anne Christine of Sulzbach died March 1723 having given birth to a son.

The engagement was announced on 2 July 1724. The marriage was celebrated in person at Thonon in Chablais on 20 August 1724. The happy marriage produced six children.
Praised as an attractive, cultured and kind woman, Polyxena founded a home for penniless mothers in Turin in 1732, redecorated the Villa della Regina, the hunting lodge of Stupingi, and the Church of Saint Giuseppe in Turin. She popularised chinoiserie. She was also a patron of Giovanni Battista Crosato, a baroque painter.

Having been ill since June 1734, she died at the Royal Palace of Turin. Originally buried at the Cathedral of Saint Giovanni Battista, she was moved to the Royal Basilica of Superga in 1786 by her son Victor Amadeus III. Two years after her death, her husband married Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine, sister of the future Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor.

Issue
Issue

 Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia (26 June 1726 – 16 October 1796) married Maria Antonia of Spain and had issue.
 Princess Eleonora of Savoy (28 February 1728 – 14 August 1781) unmarried.
 Princess Maria Luisa of Savoy (25 March 1729 – 22 June 1767) unmarried.
 Princess Maria Felicita of Savoy (19 March 1730 – 13 May 1801) unmarried.
 Prince Emanuele Filiberto of Savoy (17 May 1731 – 23 April 1735) Duke of Aosta.
 Prince Carlo of Savoy (23 July 1733 – 28 December 1733) Duke of Chablais.

Titles and styles

21 September 1706 – 23 July 1724 Her Serene Highness Princess Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg. 
23 July 1724 – 3 September 1730 Her Royal Highness the Princess of Piedmont.
3 September 1730 – 13 January 1735 Her Majesty the Queen.

Other websites

1706 births
1735 deaths
Kings and Queens of Sardinia
Princes and Princesses of Savoy
Princes and Princesses of Piedmont
Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine (Élisabeth Thérèse de Lorraine; 15 October 1711 – 3 July 1741) was born a Princess of Lorraine and a Queen of Sardinia as wife King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia. She was a younger sister of Francis Stephan, Duke of Lorraine.

Life
Élisabeth Thérèse of Lorraine was born at the Château de Lunéville and was the ninth of eleven children of Leopold Joseph of Lorraine and his wife Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans. Her mother was a niece of Louis XIV. 

Her mother wanted her to marry her cousin Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans but the Duke of Orléans refused. As a result Elisabeth Therese was created the coadjutrice of Remiremont Abbey in October 1734.

In 1736 her brother the Duke of Lorraine married the Maria Theresa of Austria, daughter of Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor. The already twice widowed Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia asked for her hand in late 1736 and the marriage went ahead.
The couple married in person on 1 April 1737. Charles Emmanuel III was her first cousin, his mother being Anne Marie d'Orléans – a half sister of her mother Élisabeth Charlotte. The marriage produced three children, only one of whom survived infancy.

Élisabeth Thérèse died at the Palace of Venaria aged 29, having fallen ill with a fever after childbirth. She was buried in the Cathedral of Saint Giovanni Battista in Turin. She was moved to the Royal Basilica of Superga in 1786 by her stepson Victor Amadeus III.

Issue

 Prince Carlo of Savoy (Carlo Francesco Maria Augusto; 1 December 1738 – 25 March 1745) died young but given the title  Duke of Aosta.
 Princess Vittoria of Savoy (Vittoria Margharita; 22 June 1740 – 14 July 1742) died young.
 Prince Benedetto of Savoy (Benedetto Maria Maurizio; 21 June 1741 – 4 January 1808) married his niece Maria Anna of Savoy, no children.

Titles and styles
Titles and styles

15 October 1711 – 1 April 1737 Her Highness The Princess Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine.
1 April 1737 – 3 July 1741 Her Majesty the Queen of Sardinia.

Other websites

1711 births
1741 deaths
House of Lorraine
House of Savoy
Kings and Queens of Sardinia
Deaths in childbirth
Bronze  is the color of the alloy bronze. 

The first recorded use of bronze as a color name in English was in 1753.

Meaning of bronze 
 The color bronze means third place after gold (first place) and silver (second place) in awards such as the Olympic medals for the Olympic Games.

Tones of bronze color comparison chart

Related pages
List of colors

References
Bradley International Airport is an airport in Windsor Locks, Connecticut serving Hartford, Connecticut and Springfield, Massachusetts. 

It serves as a hub for UPS Airlines.

Bradley International Airport hosts the following airlines:
 Aer Lingus
 Air Canada
 American Airlines
 Delta Airlines
 JetBlue Airways
 OneJet
 Southwest Airlines
 United Airlines

It hosts an Admirals Club in Terminal A (West Concourse) and an Escape Lounge in the East Concourse.

References

Transport in Connecticut
Hartford, Connecticut
Springfield, Massachusetts
Airports in the United States
Dr. Dolittle is a comedy movie released in 1998 by Davis Entertainment/20th Century Fox. It stars Eddie Murphy who plays Dr. Dolittle. He is a doctor who lives in San Francisco. He discovers that he has the ability to talk to (and understand) animals. It was marketed as a family movie and earned $294,456,605. It had 1 sequel of the same format and 3 direct-to-video sequels. There was and is a video game based on the movie which was and is simulation game Dr. Dolittle by Blast! Entertainment Ltd/Aqua Pacific which was released in 2006.

Release Dates 

1998 comedy movies
1990s family movies
1990s fantasy movies
American comedy movies
American family movies
American fantasy movies
English-language movies
Movies set in San Francisco
20th Century Fox movies
In mathematics, the dot product is an operation that takes two vectors as input, and that returns a scalar number as output.  The number returned is dependent on the length of both vectors, and on the angle between them. The name is derived from the centered dot "·" that is often used to designate this operation. Another name is scalar product. It emphasizes the scalar (rather than vector) nature of the result.

In three-dimensional space, the dot product contrasts with the cross product, which produces a vector as result.

Definition
The dot product of two vectors a = [a1, a2, ..., an] and b = [b1, b2, ..., bn] is defined as:

where Σ denotes summation notation (the sum of all the terms) and n is the dimension of the vector space.

In dimension 2, the dot product of vectors [a,b] and [c,d] is ac + bd.
The same way, in a dimension 3, the dot product of vectors [a,b,c] and [d,e,f] is ad + be + cf.
For example, the dot product of two three-dimensional vectors [1, 3, −5] and [4, −2, −1] is
Geometric interpretation

In Euclidean geometry, the dot product, length, and angle are related. For a vector a, the dot product a · a is the square of the length of a, or

where ||a|| denotes the length (magnitude) of a. More generally, if b is another vector, then

where ||a|| and ||b|| denote the length of a and b and θ is the angle between them.

This formula can be rearranged to determine the size of the angle between two nonzero vectors:

One can also first convert the vectors to unit vectors, by dividing by their magnitude:

then the angle θ is given by

As the cosine of 90° is zero, the dot product of two orthogonal (perpendicular in 2D and 3D) vectors is always zero. Moreover, two vectors can be considered orthogonal if and only if their dot product is zero, and they both have a nonzero length. This property provides a simple method to test the condition of orthogonality.
Sometimes, these properties are also used for defining the dot product, especially in 2 and 3 dimensions; this definition is equivalent to the above one. For higher dimensions, the formula can be used to define the concept of angle.

The geometric properties rely on the basis being orthonormal (composed of pairwise perpendicular vectors with unit length).

Scalar projection
If both a and b are unit vectors (vectors of length one), then their dot product simply gives the cosine of the angle between them.

If only b is a unit vector, then the dot product a · b gives |a| cos(θ). This corresponds to the magnitude of the projection of a in the direction of b, with a minus sign if the direction is opposite. This is called the scalar projection of a onto b, or scalar component of a in the direction of b (see figure). This property of the dot product has several useful applications (see § Rotation below).
If neither a nor b is a unit vector, then the magnitude of the projection of a in the direction of b would be a · (b / |b|), as the unit vector in the direction of b is b / |b|.

Rotation
A rotation of the orthonormal basis in terms of which vector a is represented is obtained with a multiplication of a by a rotation matrix R. This matrix multiplication is just a compact representation of a sequence of dot products.

For instance, let
B1 = {x, y, z} and B2 = {u, v, w} be two different orthonormal bases of the same space R3, with B2 obtained by just rotating B1,
a1 = (ax, ay, az) represent vector a in terms of B1,
 a2 = (au, av, aw) represent the same vector in terms of the rotated basis B2,
u1, v1, w1 be the rotated basis vectors u, v, w represented in terms of B1.
Then the rotation from B1 to B2 is performed as follows:
Notice that the rotation matrix R is assembled by using the rotated basis vectors u1, v1, w1 as its rows, and these vectors are unit vectors. By definition, Ra1 consists of a sequence of dot products between each of the three rows of R and vector a1. Each of these dot products determines a scalar component of a in the direction of a rotated basis vector (see previous section).

If a1 is a row vector, rather than a column vector, then R must contain the rotated basis vectors in its columns, and must post-multiply a1:
Physics
In physics, magnitude is a scalar in the physical sense, in that it is a physical quantity independent of the coordinate system, expressed as the product of a numerical value and a physical unit, not just a number. The dot product is also a scalar in this sense, given by the formula, independent of the coordinate system. For example:
 Mechanical work is the dot product of force and displacement vectors.
 Magnetic flux is the dot product of the magnetic field and the area vectors.
 Volumetric flow rate is the dot product of the fluid velocity and the area vectors.

Properties
The following properties hold if a, b, and c are real vectors and r is a scalar.

The dot product is commutative:

The dot product is distributive over vector addition:

The dot product is bilinear:

When multiplied by a scalar value, dot product satisfies:

(these last two properties follow from the first two).

Two non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular if and only if a • b = 0.
Unlike multiplication of ordinary numbers, where if ab = ac, then b always equals c unless a is zero, the dot product does not obey the cancellation law:
 If a • b = a • c and a ≠ 0, then we can write: a • (b − c) = 0 by the distributive law; the result above says this just means that a is perpendicular to (b − c), which still allows (b − c) ≠ 0, and therefore b ≠ c.
Provided that the basis is orthonormal, the dot product is invariant under isometric changes of the basis: rotations, reflections, and combinations, keeping the origin fixed. The above mentioned geometric interpretation relies on this property. In other words, for an orthonormal space with any number of dimensions, the dot product is invariant under a coordinate transformation based on an orthogonal matrix. This corresponds to the following two conditions:
The new basis is again orthonormal (that is, orthonormal expressed in the old one).
The new base vectors have the same length as the old ones (that is, unit length in terms of the old basis).

If a and b are functions, then the derivative of a • b is a' • b + a • b'.

Triple product expansion

This is a very useful identity (also known as Lagrange's formula) involving the dot- and  cross-products. It is written as
which is easier to remember as "BAC minus CAB", keeping in mind which vectors are dotted together. This formula is commonly used to simplify vector calculations in physics.

Proof of the geometric interpretation
Consider the element of Rn

Repeated application of the Pythagorean theorem yields for its length |v|

But this is the same as

so we conclude that taking the dot product of a vector v with itself yields the squared length of the vector.
 Lemma 1

Now consider two vectors a and b extending from the origin, separated by an angle θ.  A third vector c may be defined as

creating a triangle with sides a, b, and c.  According to the law of cosines, we have

Substituting dot products for the squared lengths according to Lemma 1, we get
                   (1)
But as c ≡ a − b, we also have
,
which, according to the distributive law, expands to
                     (2)
Merging the two c • c equations, (1) and (2), we obtain

Subtracting a • a + b • b from both sides and dividing by −2 leaves

Q.E.D.
Q.E.D.

Generalization

The inner product generalizes the dot product to abstract vector spaces and is usually denoted by . Due to the geometric interpretation of the dot product, the norm ||a|| of a vector a in such an inner product space is defined as

such that it generalizes length, and the angle θ between two vectors a and b by

In particular, two vectors are considered orthogonal if their inner product is zero

For vectors with complex entries, using the given definition of the dot product would lead to quite different geometric properties. For instance, the dot product of a vector with itself can be an arbitrary complex number, and can be zero without the vector being the zero vector; this in turn would have severe consequences for notions like length and angle. Many geometric properties can be salvaged, at the cost of giving up the symmetric and bilinear properties of the scalar product, by alternatively defining
where bi is the complex conjugate of bi. Then the scalar product of any vector with itself is a non-negative real number, and it is nonzero except for the zero vector. However, this scalar product is not linear in b (but rather conjugate linear), and the scalar product is not symmetric either, since
.
This type of scalar product is nevertheless quite useful, and leads to the notions of Hermitian form and of general inner product spaces.

The Frobenius inner product generalizes the dot product to matrices. It is defined as the sum of the products of the corresponding components of two matrices having the same size.

Generalization to tensors
The dot product between a tensor of order n and a tensor of order m is a tensor of order n+m-2. The dot product is worked out by multiplying and summing across a single index in both tensors. If  and  are two tensors with element representation  and  the elements of the dot product  are given by
This definition naturally reduces to the standard vector dot product when applied to vectors, and matrix multiplication when applied to matrices.

Occasionally, a double dot product is used to represent multiplying and summing across two indices. The double dot product between two 2nd order tensors is a scalar.

Related pages
 Cauchy–Schwarz inequality
 Cross product
 Matrix multiplication

References

Other websites
 A quick geometrical derivation and interpretation of dot product
 Interactive GeoGebra Applet
 Java demonstration of dot product
 Another Java demonstration of dot product
 Explanation of dot product including with complex vectors
 "Dot Product" by Bruce Torrence, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.
 Intuitive explanation video 1 and video 2 from online Interactive 3D graphics course  

Linear algebra
Vectors
Sarcocystis is a genus of protozoa. Species in this genus can live in reptiles, birds, mammals, and sometimes pigs. The name came from the Greek language, sarx, which meant flesh, and kystis, which meant bladder. The organism was first found by Miescher in 1843, in a mouse.

Diseases caused by protozoa‎
The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN; ) is a political and militant group based in –Chiapas, the southernmost state of Mexico. Its members are called the Zapatistas. They advocate for libertarian socialism, environmental sustainability and indigenous rights.

It is led by the indigenous people of the Chiapas Mountains. The name Zapatista refers to Emiliano Zapata who was a leader of the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The group was formed in the 1980s and led a large rebellion in 1994. Where it captured a small region of Mexico and was granted control over it.
Subcomandante Insurgente Marcos 
Though the movement has many leaders, both women and men, Marcos has become the unofficial spokesperson for the movement. This is because he is very well educated, a good public speaker, and has written letters to and worked with writers and intellectuals from all over the world. He signs almost all of his letters with "Subcomandante Marcos, from the mountains of the southeast of Mexico." He is wearing a ski-mask in every picture and video of him and ski-masks have become a symbol of the EZLN in Mexico, as the majority of its supporters also wear them. Followers of the EZLN also paint murals of Marcos in his mask and Emiliano Zapata to show their support.
Rebel Autonomous Zapatista Municipalities 
Since 1994, the Zapatistas have been in control of a region in Southern Chiapas. The Zapatistas created a 'Council of Good Government' which is a direct democracy representing between 120,000 to 300,000 people. The economy is made up of a coordinated network of communal stores, worker cooperatives and family farms. Their autonomous government provides low-interest loans, free education and universal health care. The Zapatistas mainly produce corn, beans, coffee, bananas, sugar, cattle, chicken, pigs and clothing. The Mexican military has attacked communities several times with drones, infantry and helicopters.

References

Chiapas
Political organizations
Rebel militia groups
Rebellions in North America
Nationalist organizations in North America
1994 establishments in North America
1990s establishments in Mexico
Lead glass, also known as lead crystal, is a type of glass that has lead in it. Normal glass has calcium oxide in it, while lead glass changes the calcium oxide with lead(II) oxide. It looks nice because the lead is very large and heavy and changes how the glass looks. Lead glass rings when tapped while ordinary glass does not. This glass can absorb some X-rays. It is very insulating. 

It contains between 18 to 40% of lead (II) oxide by weight. Any glass that contains at least 24% PbO by weight is referred to as “lead crystal”. Any glass that contains less than 24% PbO by weight is referred to as "crystal glass". Lead glass has a chemical composition of silicon and lead oxides, with other elements added to get colours or properties.
Lead glass is also known as X-ray glass or radiation shielding glass as one of its major applications is in the absorbance of high energy radiation while maintaining optical transparency. The presence and quantity of PbO are what determines some of lead glass’ most important optical and physical properties.

Applications of lead glass 
The properties of lead glass make it useful for many applications. Here are a few examples:
In the medical and research fields where visibility is required during procedures or experiments that involve radiation, lead glass can achieve the same radiation attenuation as the surrounding walls or barriers while allowing visibility to the operator. A typical example is the viewing window of an X-ray room or a laboratory experimenting with radioactive materials.
 The high refractive index of lead glass is useful for the production of lenses as thinner lenses can be crafted to achieve similar focal lengths to ordinary ophthalmic glass. Lead glass is thus used for special medical glasses, binoculars, microscopes and telescopes.
 Digital projectors use lead glass because it has a high level of transmission over short wavelengths, which is typical of projector laser beams. Further, the temperature rise caused by the light source does not distort the image projected by lead glass because it has a lower thermal conductivity than lead-free glass.
It is useful in instruments that operate in the near-ultraviolet region and the near-infrared region as in bio-fluorescence, gene analyses, spectrometry and telecommunication.
 Lead glass is used in laser optics for printing and photocopying technologies.
References 

Glass
Lead compounds
The Summoner is one of the characters in the Canterbury Tales.
He is always drunk. Children are afraid of him. When he drinks too much wine, he starts speaking in Latin. He has pimples on his face but is rather intelligent. Chaucer used to write about the medieval age. Anachronism can be found in his writings easily. Everything that he has described about the Summoner is set in that time.

The Canterbury Tales
Lead(II) chloride, also known as plumbous chloride and lead dichloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is PbCl2. It contains lead and chloride ions. The lead is in the +2 oxidation state. Its use may lead to lead poisoning.

Properties
Lead(II) chloride is a colorless crystalline solid. It does not dissolve well in water. It can dissolve in solutions that have chloride ions in them. It reacts with molten sodium nitrite to make lead(II) oxide.

Preparation
Lead(II) chloride is made by reacting sodium chloride or hydrochloric acid with lead nitrate. It can also be made by reacting lead(IV) oxide with hydrochloric acid. It can also be made by reacting chlorine with lead.

Uses
It is used to make ceramics. A basic chloride is used in pigments.

Related pages
Lead(II,IV) oxide
Lead(II) acetate
Lead(II) carbonate

Chlorine compounds
Lead compounds