Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The basic problem of Grade 1 braille is that braille letters are much larger than printed ones. The standard page is 11"x11" (28 cm by 28 cm) in size and only has room for twenty-five lines of forty characters.  This means a book would need to be very thick compared to a standard printed book.

Grade 2 braille 
For this reason almost all English braille books use a transcription known as Grade 2 braille. Grade 2 braille uses contractions, which allows to save space and increase reading speed. Grade 2 braille was developed by linguists (people who study languages), who also looked at customs, styles and practices. Transcribing a text into Grade 2 braille is difficult, and the people doing the transcription need to have a special education.
In English, there are 23 words which are replaced with a single letter. That way, the word but is contracted (shortened) to the single letter b, can to c, do to d, and so on. Even this simple rule has exceptions and special cases, which must be thought of. As an example, only the verb to do is replaced by d, the noun do (which stands for a note in music) is a different word, and is written in full.

Sometimes, part of words are contracted, and a character can mean different things in different parts of a word. There are many rules for this process. For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter "f" lowered in the braille cell) stands for "ff" when used in the middle of a word.  At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word "to" although the character is written in braille with no space following it.  At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point.
The contraction rules cannot be used when it would make a problem with a prefix or suffix on the word. Also, some rules are flexible and may depend on the situation. So when the rules permit the same word to be written in more than one way, preference is given to "the contraction that is closer to the correct pronunciation."

Grade 3 braille 
Grade 3 Braille is a system that includes many additional contractions. It is almost like a shorthand. It is rarely used for books, but people use it to be able to write and read fast, for themselves.  It can be used for taking notes.

Grade 4 braille 
Only very few people can use grade 4 braille. It uses many rules to shorten grade 3 even further. It allows a blind person to use shorthand to follow spoken conversation. Very often, systems of seven or eight dots are used.
Braille on banknotes 
The current Canadian paper money has raised dots on the bills that shows its value. This helps blind people who might otherwise be cheated. This 'tactile feature' does not use standard braille but, instead, a system developed by working with blind and visually impaired Canadians after they found that not all people who needed it could read braille.

Writing systems other than Braille 
Braille may not be the main way blind people read and write. In Britain (for example), of the two million visually impaired people, only about 15-20 thousand use Braille. In the U.S.A. according to the 2015 Annual Report from the American Printing House for the Blind, there were 61,739 legally blind students registered in the U.S. Of these, only 8.6% (5,333) were registered as braille readers, 31% (19,109) as visual readers, 9.4% (5,795) as auditory readers, 17% (10,470) as pre-readers, and 34% (21,032) as non-readers.
Currently, among the estimated 85,000 blind adults in the United States, 90% of those who are Braille-literate are employed. Among adults who do not know Braille, only 33% are employed.

Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers which can be read aloud by software  programs. This is a good communication method they can use with their friends. Inevitably, software will go on advancing, as it does in all its functions. Also, there are audio sources for literature: some are available for use without computer links. Much thought is going into all these issues.
A term which is useful to know is "accessible publishing": Accessible publishing means books and other texts are available in formats designed to aid or replace the reading process. Examples are: varieties of larger fonts, specialised fonts for certain kinds of reading disabilities, Braille, e-books, and automated Audiobooks and digital talking books. This means that Braille is only one way for sighting-impaired people to go; also that there are many more partially sighted people than registered blind people. The partially sighted obviously have more choices.

Braille for other scripts 
There are many extensions of Braille for additional letters with diacritics, such as ç, ô, é.
When braille is adapted to languages which do not use the Latin alphabet, the blocks are generally assigned to the new alphabet according to how it is transliterated into the Latin alphabet, not the alphabetic order of the national script. This is the case with Russian (Cyrillic alphabet), Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chinese. In Greek, for example, gamma is written as Latin g, even though it is the third letter of that alphabet (like the Latin c). Hebrew beth, the second letter of the alphabet and cognate with the Latin letter b, is instead written v, as it is commonly pronounced. Esperanto letters with circumflexes, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ and ŝ, are written as those letters without circumflexes with a filled sixth dot.
More differences are in Chinese braille. In Mandarin Braille, which is based on Zhuyin rather than the Latin Pinyin alphabet, the Latin braille values are used for the first consonants and the simple vowels. There are additional blocks for the tones, diphthongs, and any following vowel + consonant combinations. Cantonese Braille is also based on Latin braille for many of the initial consonants and simple vowels, but the blocks also have different values depending on whether they are in a leading syllable or following syllable position. For instance, the block for Latin k represents old-style Cantonese k (g in Yale and other modern Romanizations) when initial, but aak when final, while Latin j represents Cantonese initial j but final oei.

However, at least two adaptations of Braille have completely reassigned the Latin sound values of the blocks. These are:
 Japanese Braille
 Korean Braille
In Japanese Braille, alphabetic signs for a consonant and vowel are combined into a single syllable block; in Korean Braille, the consonants have different leading and following syllable forms. These changes made Braille much more compatible with Japanese kana and Korean hangul, but meant that the Latin sound values could not be kept.

Reading Braille 
Trained readers of Braille can read about 100 words per minute; trained readers who do not have sight problems can get to around 250 to 300 words per minute.

References

Other websites 

 The National Library for the Blind
 Unified (English) Braille Code (including information specific to British braille)
 English Braille: American Edition
 Online Braille Translation
 How Braille Began —a detailed history of braille's origins and the people who supported and opposed the system.
 A braille alphabet card
A switch is something that changes the flow of an electrical circuit. The most common kind of switch is something (for example a railroad switch) which can be taken off of one course and put onto another. The term "switch" usually means electrical power. In applications where more than one switch is needed, (i.e. a telephone service) mechanical switches have been replaced by electronic switches which can be controlled automatically.

The switch is called a "gate" when used in a mathematical form. In logic, arguments are represented as logic gates. The use of electronic gates to work as a system of logical gates is the basic idea behind the computer —i.e. a computer is a lot of electronic switches that work as logic gates.

Types of switch 
There are many types of switches. Some of these are: 
DIP switch
Reed switch
Rocker switch
Micro switch
Relay switch
Rotary switch
Surface mount switch
Toggle switch
Tilt switch
Time switch

Other meanings
Other meanings 

The word 'switch' can also mean to change between two things. For example, on a railway line, sometimes the track can split into two different tracks. If the train is travelling on one line and changes over to the other, it has just done a switch.

Related pages
Electricity
Railway

Electronic components
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St. Alban  KC, (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626), was an English philosopher, statesman, and author. He has been described as one of the greatest thinkers ever whose ideas have changed the way people think.

Life
He was born in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, and the nephew of Queen Elizabeth's advisor, William Cecil. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. His first job was as a lawyer. He later became a Member of Parliament and in 1586 he took a leading part in having Mary Queen of Scots executed. He became a friend of Robert Deveraux, the Earl of Essex, in 1591, and received many valuable gifts from him. After Essex led a rebellion against the Queen, Bacon was one of the people who led the investigation which led to Essex's execution in 1601.
Bacon was often in trouble for spending too much, and in 1601 he was arrested for debt. When King James became king in 1603, Bacon's position improved. He was knighted in 1603. He was one of the people who argued for the joining of England and Scotland together as one country, which happened after his lifetime, in the 1700s. Bacon married Alice Barnham in 1606, and the next year he was made the Solicitor General. He continued to be given better paying positions including Attorney General, Lord Keeper, and Lord Chancellor.

He was made Baron Verulam in 1618, and Viscount St Albans in 1621. Because he did not have children both titles ended when he died.

He used his positions to make more money for himself, and in 1621 the Parliament found that he was corrupt. He was fined £40,000 and removed from all his jobs. King James overturned the fine, but he was kept as a prisoner in the Tower of London for a while.
Studies
He became best known as a leading thinker in new ways of looking at the world. His writings started and made famous a way of thinking about science. This way of thinking is now called the Baconian method. It is based on looking at the world by making experiments. After watching the results the scientist comes up with an idea to explain what has happened. This idea or hypothesis is then further tested by more experiments. This way of thinking about science is called inductive methodology. In Bacon's time these methods were linked with magic including hermeticism and alchemy. Alchemy was the study of fire, earth, water and air. Alchemists tried to make gold from lead.

Notes

Other websites

The Francis Bacon Society 
Contains the New Organon, slightly modified for easier reading
Francis Bacon of Verulam. Realistic Philosophy and its Age  (1857) by Kuno Fischer and John Oxenford in English
1561 births
1626 deaths
16th-century philosophers
17th-century English philosophers
Attorneys general
Lord Chancellors
Spies
Writers from London
Sled dogs, known also as sleigh dogs, sledge dogs or sleddogs are types of dogs that are used to pull a wheel-less vehicle on runners (a sled or sleigh) over snow or ice, by means of harnesses and lines.
 

Working dogs
The rescue was ordered by then-U.S. President William McKinley. McKinley later talked about the rescue in a letter dated January 17, 1899 to the United States Congress, in which he asked Congress to award the officers Congressional Gold Medals, and to pay the civilians for their help:
It will be remembered that in the month of October, 1897, reports were
received here of the probable loss of the whaling fleet in the Arctic
regions, and of the likelihood that nearly 300 men, composing the
officers and crews of the fleet, would perish from hunger unless succor [an old word for help] could reach them early in the spring. ...
The overland expedition was formed, and consisted of First Lieut. David
H. Jarvis, Revenue-Cutter Service, commanding; Second Lieut. Ellsworth
P. Bertholf, Revenue-Cutter Service, and Dr. Samuel J. Call, surgeon of
the Bear, all volunteers. ...
They were materially aided by Mr. W.T. Lopp, agent of the American Missionary Society at Cape Prince of Wales, and Artisarlook, a native of that region, both of whom, at great personal sacrifice, left their families and accompanied the reindeer herd to Point Barrow.
The overland expedition, after a difficult and hazardous journey of
nearly 2,000 miles through the storms and bitter cold of an Arctic
winter, reached Point Barrow with the herd on the 29th of March, 1898,
three months and twelve days from their landing from the Bear at
Cape Vancouver, Alaskan coast of Bering Sea. They arrived none too soon. ... [due to] bad sanitary conditions and want of proper food, the men from the whale ships quartered there were found upon the verge of great suffering, while sickness had broken out among them. ...
I have therefore the honor to submit the following recommendations and
to ask your favorable action: ...
That gold medals of honor of appropriate design, to be approved by
the Secretary of the Treasury, be awarded to Lieutenants Jarvis and
Bertholf and Dr. Call, commemorative of their heroic struggles in aid of
suffering fellow-men. ...
That the sum of $2,500 be appropriated to be disbursed by the
Secretary of the Treasury in bestowing rewards upon W.T. Lopp,
Artisarlook, and native herders, who rendered material aid to the relief
expedition.
References
Fog, Men, and Cutters: A Short History of the Bering Sea Patrol, by Dennis L. Noble, Ph.D. from the USCG website
William McKinley papers from Project Gutenberg
List of Congressional Gold Medal Recipients from the Office of the Clerk of the United States House of Representatives

1890s in the United States
Number theory is a part of mathematics. It explains what some types of numbers are, what properties they have, and ways that they can be useful.

Topics in number theory are: 
 Prime numbers 
 Factorization 
 Matrix

Important theorems in number theory are: 
 Chinese remainder theorem
 Fundamental theorem of arithmetic 
 Fermat's last theorem 
 Fermat's little theorem

Applications 
A well-known application of number theory is encrypted messaging (encryption).  Data compression also makes use of the field.
Further reading
 G.H. Hardy; E.M. Wright (2008) [1938]. An introduction to the theory of numbers. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921986-5.
 Vinogradov, I.M. (2003) [1954]. Elements of Number Theory (reprint o 1954 ed.). Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
 Ivan M. Niven; Herbert S. Zuckerman; Hugh L. Montgomery (2008) [1960]. An introduction to the theory of numbers (reprint of the 5th edition 1991 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-81-265-1811-1.
Kenneth H. Rosen (2010). Elementary Number Theory (6th ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-321-71775-7.
 Borevich, A. I.; Shafarevich, Igor R. (1966). Number theory. Pure and Applied Mathematics. 20. Boston, MA: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-117850-5. MR 0195803.
 Serre, Jean-Pierre (1996) [1973]. A course in arithmetic. Graduate texts in mathematics. 7. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-90040-7.

Other websites
 
 Number Theory
 Number Theory Web
Tear gas is the name for a number of chemical compounds.  They are not actually gases.  They are fine powders or mists of liquid.  The chemicals are acidic and cause  pain in the eyes.  Tear gas may cause temporary blindness for up to 45 minutes.  Tear gas is commonly used by police to control crowds.  Phenacyl chloride (CN) liquid and CS powder are two of the chemicals that are often found in tear gas.  Pepper spray is another chemical compound that acts very similarly and is sometimes used to control crowds.

Tear gas is a chemical weapon, and was used as a weapon in the First World War.  The 1925 Geneva Protocol is not specific enough about the use of irritating agents, such as tear gas in war.  The Chemical Weapons Convention, of 1992 prohibits the use of tear gas for warfare.  The use as a riot control agent is not covered by the treaty.

Problems of using tear gas
The use of tear gas also has problems: Usually, cartidges of tear gas are thrown; they can hit and injure people. A case of serious injury to the blood vessels from tear gas shells has also been reported from Iran, with high rates of associated nerve injury (44%) and amputation (17%), as well as instances of head injuries in young people. Directly exposing skin to tear gas may lead to chemical burns and allergic reactions of the skin.
In the short term, the medical consequences are usually limited to  skin inflammation. delayed complications are also possible: people with respiratory conditions such as asthma are likely to need medical attention and may sometimes require hospitalization or even ventilation support. Skin exposure to CS may cause chemical burns or induce allergic contact dermatitis. When people are hit at close range or are severely exposed, eye injuries involving scarring of the cornea can lead to a permanent loss in visual acuity. Frequent or high levels of exposure carry increased risks of respiratory illness.

References

Related pages 
 Chemical warfare

Other websites
 Riot Agents

Chemical warfare
Law enforcement equipment
Chemicals
The National Anthem (; ) is the national anthem of Myanmar. The song and lyrics were made by Saya Tin with help from a Burmese nationalist group called Thakins. It is made up of two parts. The first half is a traditional Burmese part. The second half is a Western-style orchestra part. Because of the second half, the "National Anthem" is commonly known as "" (, ; ).

Lyrics

Notes

References

1930 works
Myanmar
Asian anthems
Yangon () also known as Rangoon, is the largest city in Myanmar. It was also the capital city until 2006. The city is by a river called Hlaingthayar, and is close to the sea. Yangon has more than 4 million people living there.

History 
Yangon was founded as Dagon in the 6th century AD by the Mons, who ruled Lower Burma at that time. Dagon was a small fishing village centered about the Shwedagon Pagoda. In 1755, King Alaungpaya conquered Dagon and renamed it "Yangon". The British captured Yangon during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26) but returned it to Burma after the war. The city was destroyed by a fire in 1841.
The British took Yangon and all of Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, and then changed Yangon into the most important city of British Burma. The British constructed a new city on a grid plan on delta land. It was bound to the east by the Pazundaung Creek and to the south and west by the Yangon River. Yangon became the capital of all British Burma after the British had captured Upper Burma in the Third Anglo-Burmese War of 1885. By the 1890s Yangon's increasing population and commerce gave birth to prosperous residential suburbs to the north of Royal Lake (Kandawgyi) and Inya Lake. The British also established hospitals including Rangoon General Hospital and colleges including Rangoon University.
Colonial Yangon, with its spacious parks and lakes and mix of modern buildings and traditional wooden architecture, was known as "the garden city of the East." By the early 20th century, Yangon had public services and infrastructure on par with London.
Before World War II, about 55% of Yangon's population of 500,000 was Indian or South Asian, and only about a third was Bamar (Burman). Karens, the Chinese, the Anglo-Burmese and others made up the rest.

After World War I, Yangon became the center of Burmese independence movement. The leftist Rangoon University students led the way. Three nationwide strikes against the British Empire in 1920, 1936 and 1938 began in Yangon. Yangon was under Japan's occupation (1942–45), and was heavily damaged during World War II. Yangon became the capital of Union of Burma on 4 January 1948 when the country regained independence from the British Empire.

Gallery

References 

Cities in Myanmar
Former national capitals
Pyinmana (, ; population: 100,000 (2006 estimate)) is a small town in Mandalay Division of Myanmar. The government in 2005 decided to move the capital city from Yangon to an area  away west of Pyinmana on November 6, 2005, near the town, named Naypyidaw, which means Royal City. Pyinmana is approximately  north of Yangon.

Towns in Asia
Geography of Myanmar
A kyat () is a kind of money used in Myanmar. The symbol for it is K. One kyat is equal to 100 pya. One kyat is almost equal to 1000 US dollars.

Currency of Asia
Myanmar
Burmese  (in Burmese , pronounced /baa-MAA-saa/) is a language spoken in Myanmar (also known as Burma). Burmese is a Sino-Tibetan language, meaning that is close to Chinese and Tibetan.

Writing system 
Burmese is written in Burmese script.

Tones 
Burmese is a tonal language. Burmese has three tones (high, medium, low: plus two 'stops or abbreviated additional, qualifying 'tones)

Burmese has no gender. For instance, the word သူ (pronounced "thew") could mean "he" or "she". However, some words have natural gender e.g. ဆရာ saya (male teacher) and ဆရာမ sayama (female teacher).

Unlike in English, verbs in Burmese do not change based on tense. Instead, other words are added after to show tense.

Loan words 
Burmese has many English and Indian words (loan words) due to colonization by the British and interaction with the neighboring country of India. However, is a very distinct and full language itself with a long history and many different dialects.
Examples
Here are some examples of words and sentences in Burmese.

Hello = min-ga-la-ba

How are you? = Nei kaun la?

I am (name) = Cha-naw yè nan-bè ga ___

(Kya-naw is replaced with kya-ma for females.

What is your name? = Ka-mya na mei be' lo khal le'   (OR) na mei be' lo khal le' (You can omit  "Ka-mya=You")

Are you from Burma? = Nae ba-ma pyi ga la da la?

(Note: To ask if someone is from other countries, just replace ba-ma pyi with any of the countries below.)

 America = A-mè-ree-ka
 France = Pyin-thit
 Britain = In-ga-lan
 Germany = Ja-ma-nee
 Russia = Ra-sha
 Thailand = Yoe-da-ya
 Japan = Ja-pan
 Chinese = Ta-yote
 Indian =  in-di-yah

References

Burmese
Danielle Fernande Schuelein-Steel (born August 14, 1947 in New York City) is an American writer. Steel was an only child. Her parents divorced when she was young. She was looked after by relatives and family employees in Paris and New York City. She was a lonely child and read a lot of books and poetry.

1947 births
Living people
American novelists
New York University alumni
Writers from New York City
A coat of arms is a unique design painted on a shield.  These designs may be inherited, meaning that they pass from a father to his children.  In the Middle Ages, these designs were shown on real shields, but today they are usually only drawn or painted on the paper that makes them legal which is called a grant of arms. The grant of arms is usually allowed only when it is given by the government of a country or its agent. In England, this is called the College of Arms and in Scotland is called the Lord Lyon.

Coats of arms are normally issued for real people but nowadays lots of countries and businesses also have coats of arms. Each symbol on the coat of arms will represent something that has an important meaning to that person, country or company.
Coats of arms have many base shield designs that can be added on to, such as the Fess, Pale, Bend, Chevron, Saltire, and many more. These examples shown are called "Ordinaries". An example of an item to add on to the base designs are called charges. These charges can be classified as emblems added on to the coat of arms base shield. It is also optional to have a supporter. In simple terms, the supporter is usually an animal seeming like it is holding up the shield of the coat of arms. The Royal Coat of Arms of The United Kingdom seen below is an example of supporters. Lastly, the final main piece of many coats of arms is called the crest. The crest is a symbol of some sorts usually resting on top of the shield base of the coat of arms. This crest can be any shape, but usually has to fit within the color pallete.

Examples

Related pages
Officer of arms

Other websites
 Heraldry in the SCA 
 Modar's Heraldry
A spear is a weapon used in Antiquity and the Middle Ages.  It is meant  to primarily stab.  Some spears can also slash.  Some kinds of light weight spears were also meant to be thrown.

A lance is a special spear used from horseback.  Knights often used it during medieval times.  A pike is a very big spear for infantry to fight horsemen.

Examples 

weapons
A hat is a type of covering for the head, and there are many types of hats. 

Hats are different in different parts of the world. Some hats are worn by women, other hats by men, others by both; infants and children may also wear hats, and some hats are not worn by anyone at all. These hats are just used for decoration. People who make hats for men are called hatters, and those who make hats for women are called milliners. The kinds of hats (or caps, which are like hats) worn by different groups within various societies in different countries are very numerous. 

Some types of hats or caps are worn as a sign of social roles. For example, bishops wear mitres and some lawyers wear wigs. In these cases the special headware is only worn on specific occasions. Monarchs wear crowns on special occasions.
Examples
Some examples of hats:
 baseball cap, for baseball players and many others
 beaver hat, made of beaver skin 
 beret, for fishermen or peasants in parts of western Europe
 bowler hat, for men practising some traditionally middle class occupations
 coonskin cap, for some hunters or trappers
 cowboy hat, for cowhands
 fedora, a felt hat of a particular shape
 fez, similar to a tarboush, found in many Islamic countries
 helmet, either for those serving in the armed forces or for sportsman (e.g. motorcyclists)
 mitre, for formal use by bishops
 riding helmet, a helmet for horse riders
 sombrero, for the Latin American peasant
 ten-gallon hat, a type of cowboy hat
 top hat, for the smart men of the world

Etiquette and dress codes
Traditionally during the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was considered bad form to wear hats indoors, except in barns and the most public spaces inside public buildings. Women traditionally were exempt during church services and formal dinners. Today, certain establishments such as banks, schools and military facilities ban hats, and many companies ban hats as part of their employee dress codes.

Related pages

 wig
 cap
 hair
 headgear

Basic English 850 words
Postage stamps are pieces of paper which signal that payment has been made for the item to be mailed.

These days they have adhesive on the back. They are put on the top right-hand corner of an envelope. They pay the fee for having the postal service take the envelope to where it is being sent. 

The idea was British, and the first postage stamps were issued in Britain in the mid-nineteenth century. On 1 May 1840, the Penny Black, the first adhesive postage stamp, was issued in the United Kingdom.

There are a lot of different postage stamps in the world. Most countries have their own stamps. People used to collect them in books called stamp albums. Sometimes, the stamps all have errors in the printing like in the "Inverted Jenny" picture with the aeroplane printed upside down.

People on stamps
People on stamps is one more common topic in stamp collecting. For instance, many famous people are featured on stamps in the United States.
Maps on stamps
Maps on stamps is a common topic on stamp collecting. Almost every country has featured maps on stamps. There are also topic maps including demographic and cross topic ones (showing explorer routes over maps).

Related pages
 Mail
 Penny Black
 Philately
 War tax due stamp

Other websites

References
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a country in Europe. It split off from Austria-Hungary in 1918 and split apart in 1993.

In mid-1938 Nazi Germany took over Czechoslovakia and split off Slovakia. Sudetenland was annexed by Germany, other parts of Czechia became its protectorate named Bohemia and Moravia. After World War II the USSR liberated these lands and kept Zakarpattia because of the Ukrainian (Rusyn) majority in that region. 

By 1948 pro-Soviet communists got the power finally and declared the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic.  It was a member of Warsaw Treaty Organization and COMECON , one of the richest countries of the Eastern Bloc.  In thePrague Spring of the late 1960s, Czechoslovak leader Alexander Dubcek pursued his own policy of a ‘socialism with a human face’.  In 1968 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia to restore the old system.
In 1989 Czechoslovakia peacefully changed its political system in the Velvet Revolution.  On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.  The countries separated in peace.

Official names
1918–1920: Republic of Czechoslovakia (abbreviated RČS)/Czecho-Slovak State, or Czecho-Slovakia/Czechoslovakia
1920–1938: Czechoslovak Republic (ČSR), or Czechoslovakia
1938–1939: Czecho-Slovak Republic, or Czecho-Slovakia
1945–1960: Czechoslovak Republic (ČSR), or Czechoslovakia
1960–1990: Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (ČSSR), or Czechoslovakia
April 1990: Czechoslovak Federative Republic (Czech version) and Czecho-Slovak Federative Republic (Slovak version)
The country subsequently became the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic, ČSFR, or Československo (Czech version) and Česko-Slovensko (Slovak version).

Notes

References
Notes

References 

1918 establishments in Europe
1990s disestablishments in Europe
 
States and territories established in the 20th century
States and territories disestablished in the 1990s
The 1410s was a decade that began on 1 January 1410 and ended on 31 December 1419.

Events 
 The power of the Teutonic Knights is broken at the Battle of Grunwald by Polish and Lithuanian armies.
 Under Henry V of England, England invades France and wins the Battle of Agincourt.
 The Council of Constance happens.

Births 
 Joan of Arc, French soldier and saint
 Jami, Persian poet

Deaths 
 Pope Alexander V
 King Albert of Sweden
 Dawit I of Ethiopia
 Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury
 Jan Hus, religious reformer
William Randolph Hearst (April 29, 1863–August 14, 1951) was an important American newspaper owner who was born in San Francisco, California.

He was the only child of Phoebe Apperson Hearst, a former schoolteacher from Missouri, and George Hearst, a successful miner who became a multimillionaire and later a US Senator from California.

Hearst was a member of the US House of Representatives for New York between 1903 and 1907, as a member of the Independence Party, which he started.

Hearst was a media tycoon. He started a newspaper empire, which is now the Hearst Corporation. He became known for publishing sensationalist stories, which were often false or only very loosely based on the truth.

Hearst used most of the profits to build his own private palace, Hearst Castle.

The film Citizen Kane by Orson Welles is based upon the story of Hearst's life.

Learned at Harvard
Learned at Harvard

1863 births
1951 deaths
United States representatives from New York (state)
Newspaper publishing
Businesspeople from San Francisco
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Politicians from California
Joseph Pulitzer (April 10, 1847 – October 29, 1911) was an American publisher of Jewish descent. He is best known for the Pulitzer Prizes, which were started after his death by his will.

He is also known, long with William Randolph Hearst, for starting yellow journalism as a way to sell more papers by printing sensationalism in articles.
Early days: The Post-Dispatch 
Joseph Pulitzer was born in Makó, in present-day Hungary. Originally, he wanted to do a military career, but was turned down by the Austrian army. They said his health was bad and that he did not see very well. He went to live in the United States in 1864 to serve the Union in the American Civil War. After the war he settled in St. Louis, Missouri. In 1868 he began working there for a German-language daily newspaper, the Westliche Post. He joined the Republican Party and was elected to the Missouri State Assembly in 1869. In 1872, Pulitzer bought the Post for $3,000. Then, in 1878, he bought the St. Louis Dispatch for $2,700 and merged the two papers, which became the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, which remains St. Louis' daily newspaper. It was at the Post-Dispatch that Pulitzer developed his role as a champion of the common man with exposés and a hard-hitting populist approach.
The New York World 
By 1883, Pulitzer had made a lot of money. In that year, he bought the New York World. That newspaper had been losing $40,000 a year. He paid $346,000 to Jay Gould, the owner. Pulitzer changed its focus to human-interest stories, scandal, and sensationalism. In 1885, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, but resigned after a few months' service. He did not like politics. In 1887, he recruited the famous investigative journalist Nellie Bly. In 1895 the World introduced the popular Yellow Kid comic by Richard F. Outcault. This was the first newspaper comic printed with color. Under Pulitzer's leadership, circulation grew from 15,000 to 600,000, making The New York World the largest newspaper in the nation.
Health problems 
The editor of the rival New York Sun attacked Pulitzer in print. He called him "The Jew who gave up his religion". This was in 1890. This was intended to turn away Pulitzer's Jewish readership. Pulitzer's already failing health deteriorated rapidly, and he left the newsroom. He continued to actively manage the paper from his vacation retreat in Bar Harbor, Maine and his New York mansion.

In 1895, William Randolph Hearst purchased the rival New York Journal, which led to a circulation war. This competition with Hearst, particularly the coverage before and during the Spanish-American War, linked Pulitzer's name with yellow journalism.

After the World exposed a fraudulent payment of $40 million by the United States to the French Panama Canal Company in 1909, Pulitzer was indicted for libeling Theodore Roosevelt and J. P. Morgan. The courts dismissed the indictments, in a victory for freedom of the press.
Tries to set up a school for journalism 
In 1892, Pulitzer offered Columbia University's president, Seth Low, money to set up the world's first school of journalism. The university initially turned down the money, evidently unimpressed by Pulitzer's unscrupulous character. In 1902, Columbia's new president Nicholas Murray Butler was more receptive to the plan for a school and prizes, but it would not be until after Pulitzer's death that this dream would be fulfilled. Pulitzer left the university $2 million in his will, which led to the creation in 1912 of the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, but by then the first school of journalism had been created at the University of Missouri. Columbia's Graduate School of Journalism remains one of the most prestigious in the world.
Joseph Pulitzer died aboard his yacht in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina in 1911. He is interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York. In 1917, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded, in accordance with Pulitzer's wishes.

In 1989, Pulitzer was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.

References 
 Brian, Denis. Pulitzer: A Life (2001)

Other websites 
 A well-researched paper on Pulitzer's life and journalism 
 A well-written detailed biography 
 St. Louis Walk of Fame 

1847 births
1911 deaths
American journalists
Hungarian Jews
Jewish American politicians
Jewish American writers
Jewish military people
Military personnel of the American Civil War
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Politicians from New York City

United States representatives from New York (state)
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Writers from New York City
Horace Greeley (February 3, 1811 – November 29, 1872) was an American newspaper editor, reformer and politician. His New York Tribune was the most influential newspaper of the period 1840 - 1870. Greeley used it to promote the Whig and Republican parties.

He is best known for his socially colored journalism. He wanted to convince people of his ideas. He thought that the role of a journalist must be to convince people with sound arguments. He did not like the sensationalist approach of Joseph Pulitzer and others.

Greeley ran for president in 1872, but died before the election results came. Whether or not if he died he would have lost to Ulysses S. Grant.

1811 births
1872 deaths
Republican Party (United States) politicians
American journalists
United States representatives from New York (state)
Writers from New York (state)
The arachnids are a class of eight-legged arthropods. They are a highly successful group of mainly terrestrial invertebrates: spiders, scorpions, harvestmen, ticks, and mites, and a number of smaller groups.

In 2019, a molecular phylogeny study put horseshoe crabs in the Arachnida.

Definition 
Arachnids are defined as coming from the class of Arachnida. The requirements for this class is to have two body regions; a cephalothorax and an abdomen; 4 pairs of legs; and 2 pairs of mouthpart appendages, the chelicerae and the pedipalps.

Anatomy
All adult arachnids have four pairs of legs, and arachnids may be easily distinguished from insects by this fact, since insects have three pairs of legs. However, arachnids also have two further pairs of appendages that have become adapted for feeding, defense, and sensory perception. The first pair, the chelicerae, serve in feeding and defense. The next pair of appendages, the pedipalps have been adapted for feeding, locomotion, and/or reproductive functions.
Like all arthropods, arachnids have an exoskeleton. They also have an internal structure of cartilage-like tissue, to which certain muscle groups are attached.

Arachnids have no antennae or wings. Their body is organized into two parts: the cephalothorax, and the abdomen.

Physiology
There are some adaptations for life on land. They have internal respiratory surfaces. These may be trachea (tubes), or a modification of gills into a 'book lung'. This is an internal series of lamellae used for gas exchange with the air.

Diet and Digestive System
Arachnids are mostly carnivorous, feeding on the pre-digested bodies of insects and other small animals. Only the harvestmen and some mites eat solid food particles. Predigestion avoids exposure to internal parasites. Several groups secrete venom from specialized glands to kill prey or enemies. Several mites are external parasites, and some of them are carriers of disease (vectors).
Arachnids pour digestive juices produced in their stomachs over their prey after killing it with their pedipalps and chelicerae. The digestive juices  rapidly turn the prey into a broth of nutrients which the arachnid sucks into a pre-buccal cavity located immediately in front of the mouth. Behind the mouth is a muscular, pharynx, which acts as a pump, sucking the food through the mouth and on into the oesophagus and stomach. In some arachnids, the oesophagus also acts as an additional pump.

Myth 
The word Arachnida comes from the Greek for 'spider'. In legend, a girl called Arachne was turned into a spider by the goddess Athena. Arachne said she'd win a weaving contest against the goddess. Athena  won, but Arachne became angry, and started to weave an insult to the gods. Then Athena turned her into a spider for her disrespect.
Orders 
The subdivisions of the arachnids are usually treated as orders. Historically, mites and ticks were treated as a single order, Acari. However, molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the two groups do not form a single clade; morphological similarities are probably due to convergence. They are now usually treated as two separate taxa – Acariformes, mites, and Parasitiformes, ticks – which may be ranked as orders or superorders. The arachnid subdivisions are listed below alphabetically; numbers of species are approximate.
 Acariformes – mites (32,000 species)
 Amblypygi – "blunt rump" tail-less whip scorpions with front legs modified into whip-like sensory structures as long as 25 cm or more (153 species)
 Araneae – spiders (40,000 species)
†Haptopoda – extinct arachnids apparently part of the Tetrapulmonata, the group including spiders and whip scorpions (1 species)
 Opilioacariformes – harvestman-like mites (10 genera)
 Opiliones – phalangids, harvestmen or daddy-long-legs (6,300 species)
Palpigradi – microwhip scorpions (80 species)
 Parasitiformes – ticks (12,000 species)
†Phalangiotarbi – extinct arachnids of uncertain affinity (30 species)
 Pseudoscorpionida – pseudoscorpions (3,000 species)
 Ricinulei – ricinuleids, hooded tickspiders (60 species)
 Schizomida – "split middle" whip scorpions with divided exoskeletons (220 species)
 Scorpiones – scorpions (2,000 species)
 Solifugae – solpugids, windscorpions, sun spiders or camel spiders (900 species)
 Thelyphonida (also called Uropygi) – whip scorpions or vinegaroons, forelegs modified into sensory appendages and a long tail on abdomen tip (100 species)
†Trigonotarbida – extinct (late Silurian to early Permian)
†Uraraneida – extinct spider-like arachnids, but with a "tail" and no spinnerets (2 species)
Xiphosura – horseshoe crabs (4 living species)
It is estimated that 98,000 arachnid species have been described, and that there may be up to 600,000 in total.

Images

References
Arthropods (Greek language for "joint-legged") are a large group of invertebrate animals. Insects, spiders, crabs, shrimp, millipedes, and centipedes are all arthropods. In the scientific classification, all arthropods are members of the phylum Arthropoda. Arthropods have segmented body, an exoskeleton and legs with joints. Most arthropods live on land, but some live in water. Arthropods have by far the greatest number of species of any animal group. Arthropods are a source of food for many animals, including humans.

Diversity 
Scientists know of more than 1 million species of arthropods. 80% of all known animal species are arthropods. Many more species have not yet been described.

Most arthropod species are insects. "Insects are the most diverse organisms in the history of life".

Most arthropods live on land. The phylum Arthropoda is the only phylum of invertebrates that mostly live on land. But crustaceans (crabs, shrimp and their relatives) mostly live in water.
Arthropods are also the first phylum to develop genuine flight.

Description 
Arthropods have a hard exoskeleton. The exoskeleton reduces the loss of water (dessication). This helps them to live on land without drying out.

Classification 
Arthropods are made up of four groups of living animals and one group of extinct animals:
 Chelicerates include horseshoe crabs, spiders, mites, and scorpions. 
 Myriapods include millipedes and centipedes. 
 Crustaceans include lobsters, crabs, barnacles, crayfish and shrimp. Most crustaceans live in water. 
 Hexapods include insects and a few other organisms. Hexapods have six legs.
 Trilobites are a group of extinct arthropods. Trilobites all lived in oceans. Trilobites disappeared in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, about 252 million years ago. The trilobites are the second most famous type of fossils, after the dinosaurs.

Images

References
The University of Alabama (UA) is a university in the U.S. state of Alabama. The University of Alabama is in the city of Tuscaloosa. People can usually just say Alabama or UA for short when they are talking about the university.

UA opened in 1831 and now about 35,000 students study there. UA is one of the three largest universities in Alabama. Auburn University and University of Alabama at Birmingham are the other two main schools in Alabama. Students study many things at UA, such as liberal arts, science, engineering, communication, engineering, education, social work, nursing, human sciences (such as fashion design) and law. People study to get bachelor's degrees, Master's degrees and doctorates at Alabama. Also, graduates can get an Education Specialist degree.
Many people have heard about the University of Alabama because it has many good sports teams. These sports teams are called the Crimson Tide. The football team from UA has won the national football championship 12 times in the past 83 years and play at Bryant–Denny Stadium.

In 1963, Alabama Gov. George Wallace announced in his inaugural address, "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever" as his policy. He personally blocked the door to Foster Auditorium at the University of Alabama to prevent the enrollment of two black students. He moved aside only when confronted by General Henry Graham of the Alabama National Guard, who was ordered by President John F. Kennedy to intervene.

References

Other websites
 

Colleges and universities in Alabama
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Southeastern Conference
1831 establishments in the United States
1830s establishments in Alabama
Buttercups are a large genus of flowering plants called Ranunculus. It has yellow, shiny petals, and grows wild in many places. It is poisonous to eat for humans and cattle, but when dry the poison is not active.

Types of buttercup
There are about 200 to 600 species in this one genus. They mostly have yellow or sometimes white flowers. Buttercups include a wide variety of flower types, grouped by a plant naming system in the genus Ranunculus. Among them are the Meadow Buttercup (Ranunculus acris), Goldilocks Buttercup (R. auricomus), Creeping Buttercup (R. repens), Large White Buttercup (R. platanifolius), Celery-leaved Buttercup (R. sceleratus), Corn Buttercup (R. arvensis), Bulbous Buttercup (R. bulbosus) and Glacial Buttercup (R. glacialis).

Lesser Celandine (R. ficaria), Lesser Spearwort (R. flammula), and Greater Spearwort (R. lingua) also belong to the buttercup family.
Plants of the commonly named buttercup family grow in many different variations but most can be identified by their yellow cupped flowers and free-growing habit. The plants often climb or sprawl, with leaves arranged in spirals. Some may contain leaves without stipules and flowers with many stamens.

Molecular investigation of the genus shows that Ranunculus is not monophyletic. Proposals are under way to split up the genus.

Folklore and Pop Culture
 Highlights shining on the reflective petals of the buttercup can be seen in the images at left and above.
People sometimes hold a fresh buttercup flower under the chin of a friend or family member. If a yellow reflection from the flower's shiny petals can be seen under the chin, the person is said to "like butter". This custom is still taught to young children and shows how buttercup petals reflect light.
Some other plants and people are named buttercup, based on the name of the yellow wild flower. These include a type of pumpkin, and the girl's name Buttercup.

"Build Me Up Buttercup" was the name of a popular song by The Foundations during the 1960s.  A song called "Buttercup" was released by Jack Stauber in 2017. A cartoon character from The Powerpuff Girls television series was also named Buttercup. Buttercups and their poisonous effect are used as a theme in the PC game Undertale.

Michael Avenatti, the lawyer of adult movie star "Stormy Daniels" (real name: Stephanie Clifford) against US President Donald Trump's ex lawyer and "fixer" Michael Cohen used on 29 July 2018 the phrase "You better buckle up buttercup" in a tweet addressing Donald Trump's lawyer Rudy Giuliani, which soon became the hashtag #BuckleUpButtercup.

References 

Flowers
Ranunculales