Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Food and agriculture 
Stalin tried to collectivize farms. Collectivization meant taking the land from owners of all farms and joining it into large farms run by the government. Communist officials then let farmers work the new farms and told them to turn the harvest over to the government.

Collectivization did not work well. There was a famine 1932–33, in which millions died. Because farmers were not paid much money, and whatever they grew went to the state, the workers did not try their best. The best farming worked on very small bits of land given to the peasants to grow what they liked. On these pieces of land, farmers could keep what they grew. In 1938 these parts of land were 4% of Soviet farmland. However, they grew 20% of its produce.

There was a second great famine in the Soviet Union in 19461947. The conditions were caused by drought, made worse by the devastation caused by World War II. The grain harvest in 1946 totalled 39.6 million tons - barely 40% of the yield in 1940.

Mass executions
Mass executions 

To eliminate "enemies of the working class", Stalin instituted the "Great Purge". Over a million people were imprisoned and at least 700,000 executed between 1934 and 1939. Those executed included most of the generals in the Red Army, whom Stalin saw as a threat to his rule. This greatly weakened the army in the early months of the Wehrmacht's offensive against the Soviet Union in 1941.

World War II

Stalin cooperated with Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler. They signed a mutual non-aggression pact. However, Hitler hated communism. After invading and neutralising France, Germany attacked the Soviet Union. After the Operation Barbarossa invasion, the USSR began working with the Western Allies to defeat Germany. In the end, Germany lost, but the USSR had more casualties than any other country during the war.
When World War II was over, the Soviet army occupied many countries in Europe, such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and parts of Germany. They imposed Marxism-Leninism on these countries. This was done against the wishes, and over the protests, of the American and British governments.

Stalin continued to rule over the Soviet Union until he died. He also militarized Russia by focusing the country's time and energy towards weapons, vehicles, and the armed forces.

Death

In his later years, Stalin faced various health issues, including cardiovascular problems, high blood pressure, and a series of strokes. His health deteriorated, leading to his death on March 5, 1953, officially attributed to a stroke.
Led by Lavrentiy Beria, the leading group in the Kremlin were Vyacheslav Molotov and Georgy Malenkov and Nikita Krushchev. Much later, Krushchev began a process of "De-Stalinization", which meant taking apart much of the political system that Stalin made. Stalin was denounced as a tyrant. After outsmarting and defeating his rivals, Krushchev established a personal control over the government comparable to Stalin's own. Krushchev is himself a fascinating figure in Soviet history. His attempts to expand Soviet influence ended with the Cuban missile crisis.

Conspiracy theory

In 2003 a group of Russian and American historians claimed that Stalin had been poisoned with powerful rat poison warfarin, possibly by the men who took over the government after Stalin died. Bear in mind, however, that Stalin was in his mid-seventies when he died, and modern pharmacology was in the future (statins etc.). Those facts make it likely that his death was natural.

Legacy
Legacy

Stalin is a controversial figure in history. Many historians see him as a ruthless dictator, though some praise him as the Father of the Soviet State. Stalin has been criticized for his role in the Holodomor. A recent poll in Russia (2008) listed him as the third most popular person in Russian history. In 2006, a poll stated that almost half the adults in Russia thought Joseph Stalin was a good person. At over 29 years, he was Russia's longest serving Ruler throughout the 20th Century and his record remains unbroken till date.

Related pages
 Vladimir Lenin
 Leon Trotsky

References

1878 births
1953 deaths
Russian atheists
Former Christians
Former dictators
Politicians from Georgia (country)
Joseph Stalin
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Heads of government of the Soviet Union
Smallpox survivors
Soviet people of World War II
Time People of the Year
World War II political leaders
Antigua and Barbuda is an island nation in the eastern Caribbean Sea on the boundary with the Atlantic Ocean. Antigua and Barbuda are part of the Lesser Antilles archipelago.  In 2011, about 81,800 people lived there.  The capital and largest port and city is St. John's, on Antigua.  The country used to be a part of the British Empire. The nation still belongs to the British Commonwealth.

The original inhabitants of Antigua and Barbuda were indigenous the Taino and the Kalinago.

Divisions

Administration

Antigua and Barbuda is divided into six parishes and two dependencies:
 Parishes
 Saint George
 Saint John
 Saint Mary
 Saint Paul
 Saint Peter
 Saint Philip
 Dependencies
 Barbuda
 Redonda
Note: Though Barbuda and Redonda are called dependencies, they are important parts of the state. Dependency is simply a title.
Cities
Below is a list of the ten largest cities.  For other cities see List of cities in Antigua and Barbuda.
 Saint John's 22,634  
 All Saints 3,412 
 Liberta 2,239 
 Potter's Village 2,067 
 Bolans 1,785
 Swetes 1,573 
 Seaview Farm 1,486 
 Pigotts 1,363 
 Parham 1,276
 Clare Hall 1,273

Islands
Below is a list of the islands of the country.

 Antigua – largest island
 Barbuda
 Bird Island
 Bishop Island
 Blake Island
 Cinnamon Island
 Codrington Island
 Crump Island
 Dulcina Island
 Exchange Island

 Five Islands
 Great Bird Island
 Green Island
 Guiana Island
 Hale Gate Island
 Hawes Island
 Henry Island
 Johnson Island
 Kid Island
 Laviscounts Island

 Lobster Island
 Long Island
 Maid Island
 Moor Island
 Nanny Island
 Pelican Island
 Prickly Pear Island
 Rabbit Island
 Rat Island
 Red Head Island

 Redonda
 Sandy Island
 Smith Island
 The Sisters
 Vernon Island
 Wicked Will Island
 York Island
Economy
Tourism is the main part of the economy.  It is more than half of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Antigua is famous for its many luxury resorts. Investment banking and financial services are also important.

Military
The Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force has 285 members.

Languages
English is the official language, but many of the locals speak Antiguan Creole. The Barbudan accent is slightly different from the Antiguan.

Related pages
Antigua and Barbuda at the Olympics
Antigua and Barbuda national football team
List of rivers of Antigua and Barbuda

References

Other websites
 
 

Commonwealth realms
 
1981 establishments in North America
Caribbean Community
San Marino (officially called the Most Serene Republic of San Marino) is a country in Europe. It is one of the smallest countries in the world. It is found in southern Europe and is fully surrounded by Italy (this is called an enclave, and only the Vatican City, Lesotho and San Marino are like this). Fewer than 30,000 people live there. Its total area is 61 km2.  Its capital is the City of San Marino.

San Marino is the world's oldest republic that still exists. It was started on 3 September in A.D. 301 by a skilled builder called Saint Marinus. Its written constitution was adopted on October 8, 1600. The very small nation was recognized by Napoleon's France in 1797, and by the other European nations at the 1815 Congress of Vienna.

Even though it is an independent country, it depends very much on Italy. Since the 19th century, when Italy was unified, San Marino has been fully surrounded by Italy.
The biggest industry in San Marino is tourism. Selling postage stamps is an important source of income, too. San Marino is not a member of the European Union, but the euro is used in San Marino.

People in San Marino speak the Italian language. Most people in San Marino believe in Roman Catholicism.

History 
Saint Marinus left the island of Rab (today Croatia) with his lifelong friend Leo, and went to the city of Rimini to work as a stonemason. After the Persecution of Diocletianus following his Christian sermons, he escaped to the nearby Monte Titano. There he built a small church and founded what is now the city and state of San Marino.

The official founding date is 3 September 301 AD. In 1320 the community of Chiesanuova chose to join the country. In 1463 San Marino extended with the communities of Faetano, Fiorentino, Montegiardino, and Serravalle. Since then there have been no changes in the country's borders.
In 1503, Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI occupied the Republic for six months. It remained like that until  Pope Julius II intervened and restored the country's independence.

Geography

San Marino is covered by the Apennine mountain range, and it has a rugged terrain. The highest point in the country is Monte Titano.  There are no bodies of water of any significant size. San Marino has no natural level ground. It is hilly terrain.

San Marino is the third smallest country in Europe, Only Vatican City and Monaco are smaller.

Two rivers flow through San Marino. There is no major water transport, and no major port or harbour.

Municipalities
These are the 9 castelli (municipalities) of San Marino:
Cuisine
The cuisine of San Marino is very similar to Italian, especially the cuisine of the Emilia-Romagna and Marche regions. It has a lots of its own unique foods. It's best known food is the Torta Tre Monti ("Cake of the Three Mountains" or "Cake of the Three Towers"), a wafer cake covered in chocolate. The country also has a small wine industry.

Public holidays and festivals

References

 
Italian-speaking countries
Philippe's is a sit-down restaurant in downtown Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.. It is at 1001 North Alameda Street, near Olvera Street. Phillippe's is famous for inventing the French dip sandwich (though another restaurant called Cole's claims to have invented it, too). It has been in business since 1908, and is the oldest operating restaurant in Los Angeles. The traditional meal served at Phillippe's is a French dip sandwich, a bag of potato chips, a soft-drink (preferably root beer or cola), and a tapioca pudding cup for dessert.

American restaurants
Buildings and structures in Los Angeles
Companies based in Los Angeles
1908 establishments in the United States
1900s establishments in California
Orbit is also a word for an eye socket.

An orbit is the path that an object takes in space when it goes around a star, a planet, or a moon. It can also be used as a verb. For instance: “The earth orbits around the Sun.” The word ‘revolves’ has the same meaning, but 'rotates' is the spin of the object.
Many years ago, people thought that the Sun orbits in a circle around the Earth. Every morning the Sun came up in the East and went down in the West. It just seemed to make sense that it was going around the Earth. But now, thanks to people like Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, we know that the Sun is the center of the Solar System, and the Earth orbits around it.  Isaac Newton discovered that gravity controls the orbit of the planets and moons.  Since a satellite is an object in space that revolves around another object, the Earth is a satellite of the Sun, just like the moon is a satellite of the Earth. The Sun has lots of satellites orbiting around it, like the planets, and asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. The Earth just has one natural satellite (the Moon), but there are many artificial satellites orbiting the earth.
When people first began to think about orbits, they thought that all orbits had to be perfect circles, and they thought that the circle was a "perfect" shape. Copernicus and Galileo, for example, thought so. But when people began to study the motions of planets carefully, they saw that the planets were not moving in perfect circles. 

In a planetary system, planets, dwarf planets, asteroids and other minor planets, comets, and space debris orbit the system's barycenter in elliptical orbits.

Orbital period 
An orbital period is the time that it takes for one object - that is, satellite - to orbit around another object. For instance, the Earth's orbital period is one year: 365.25 days. (The extra ".25" is why we have a leap day once every four years).
The Moon takes 27 days (29.53 days as seen from Earth) to go around the Earth and also to rotate around its own axis. This is why only one side always faces the Earth and the "dark side of the Moon" faces away (it is called dark because we cannot see it, though all sides of the moon get light). One lunar year and one lunar day take the same amount of time.

Elliptical and eccentric orbits 
Johannes Kepler (lived 15711630) wrote mathematical "laws of planetary motion", which gave a good idea of the movements of the planets because he found that the orbits of the planets in our Solar System are not really circles, but are really ellipses (a shape like a "flattened circle"). That is why orbits are described as elliptical. 

The more elliptical an orbit is, the more eccentric the orbit is. This is called orbital eccentricity. Other numbers that describe an elliptical orbit include semi-major axis and orbital inclination.
Isaac Newton (lived 1642–1727) used his own ideas about gravity to show why Kepler's laws worked the way they did. Joseph-Louis Lagrange further advanced the study of orbital mechanics, using Newton's theory to predict perturbations which change the shapes of orbits.

References
A funeral is a ceremony that is held because someone has died. A funeral is a gathering of friends and family of the dead person. They will mourn the dead person, meaning that they will feel and show sadness that the person has died, and also say thanks for the life the person had. A funeral is usually held with the dead body present but hidden in a coffin, but there are also open casket funerals. During the funeral, or soon after it, the dead body will be buried, cremated (burned) or made to disappear in some other way. A memorial service or celebration of life is a funeral in which the dead body is not present.

Purpose
Funerals are held in all human cultures. Religion is an important part of funeral customs in most countries. At many funerals, they say a prayer for the dead so that his or her soul may rest in peace and have a good time in the afterlife.
There are other reasons why funerals are held. Many of them are to do with helping the dead person's friends and family (the mourners):
It allows the mourners to accept that the person has died. 'Accepting' that the person has died means that they fully believe that the person has died. Once they have done this, they can get used to life without the dead person.
It is a chance for the mourners to say goodbye to the dead person. Many mourners will not have had this chance before the person died.
It is a chance for the mourners to support each other. They will notice that they are not alone in feeling sad.
It is a chance to think about life and death.
It is a chance to remember happy memories of the dead person's life.

Modern funerals have greatly changed over time. Present day funeral or memorial services may often be more like a thanksgiving for the life of the dead person, rather than just thinking about the sadness of death.

Funeral traditions
A funeral ceremony can be held at a church, a temple, a public building for holding funerals or in many other places.

In North America, it is common for there to be a visitation (also called a viewing or a wake) a few days before the funeral. This is where people are invited to see the dead body.

In Madagascar, people have a ritual called famadihana or “the turning of the bones” in English.  Once every five or seven years, family members exhume the remains of their ancestors.  They clean the bones and spray them with perfume or wine.  They take the skeleton back home to dance with it and introduce it to the younger generation.

According to Balinese Hindu tradition, the soul of the deceased restarts the rebirth cycle once it is free through cremation.  Balinese cremation, or Ngaben, uses an open pyre to incinerate the corpse. The whole memorial often has a festive atmosphere, focusing on celebrating the life of the departed loved one.
Several things often happen at a funeral in a Western country:
 A procession, where the coffin travels to or from the funeral. Nowadays, the coffin is usually carried in a special car called a hearse.
 A eulogy, which is the story of the dead person's life.
 Prayers.  These include prayers to give thanks for the dead person's life, prayers that the soul of the dead person may rest in peace and enter the afterlife, and prayers that the mourners will be able to get on with their lives.
 Singing hymms (religious songs).
 The committal of the dead body, in which it disappears. At Christian funerals, the preacher may say that a person goes from "earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust".
 At a burial, the coffin is taken to the grave and lowered into it. Once it is in the grave, mourners may throw dirt onto the coffin. This is a symbol of how the body is returning to the ground.
On the other hand, mourners do not usually watch a cremation. Instead, the coffin might be hidden by curtains near the end of the funeral.
 The playing of music that the dead person loved.
At many present day funerals there is a video tribute played before, after, or during the funeral service. Memorial folders or prayer cards are handed out at many funeral services and this, too, is a way to make a funeral service personal. At funerals it is not uncommon to see a "life reflection" table. Family members sometimes bring favorite pictures or other reminders of the dead person. There are lots of different traditions that different religions use.
References

Related pages
State funeral

death customs
The Georgian Uprising of Texel (5 April 1945 – 20 May 1945) was an insurrection (a rebellion, or mutiny, when soldiers disobey their orders) by Soviet Georgian soldiers on the island of Texel. The uprising was against the Germans army who had taken over the Dutch island during the Second World War. The event  is sometimes described as Europe's last battlefield.

The island was very important in the German Atlantic Wall – the line of defences along the Atlantic coast. It was strong and had many defences. The Georgians were soldiers from the Soviet Republic of Georgia who had been captured (taken prisoner) on the Eastern front. They were now fighting for the Germans so that they did not have to stay in camps for prisoners. Their job was to help the German troops.
On the night of 5–6 April 1945 they thought that the Allies would land soon. They took over the island and killed 400 German soldiers. Some parts of the island stayed under German control and the Georgian soldiers could not capture them. More Germans were able to come to the island to help defeat the Georgians. After a few weeks of very tough fighting the Germans took control of the island again.

Unfortunately the British and Canadians, who were warned of the events on Texel by escapees who fled by boat to England, did not believe them, and did not take any action in order to stop the fighting. 

On Texel this is called the Russian war. Approximately 800 Germans, 500 Georgians, and 120 Tesselans (people from the island) were killed. Lots of farms were burned. Even after the Germans surrendered (gave up) in the Netherlands and Denmark on 5 May 1945, and after the full German surrender on 8 May, the fighting continued. Canadian soldiers stopped the fighting on 20 May.
The Georgian survivors did not have a happy ending. They were sent back to the Soviet Union. Stalin said that because the soldiers had been captured by the Germans, they had not fought until they died, so they were traitors. Some of the two million Soviet prisoners who were sent back to the Soviet Union by the Allied forces after the end of the war were executed (killed) when they got there. 

A museum at the airport on the island tells the story of this event.

1945 in Europe
1940s in the Netherlands
Battles involving Canada
Battles involving Germany
Battles involving the Soviet Union
Battles involving the Netherlands
European battles of World War II
April 1945 events
May 1945 events
Texel
Neutrinos are a type of elementary particle that exist all across the universe. The word neutrino means a small neutral particle. Physicists study these particles, but they are hard to find because they have a very small chance of interacting with regular matter. (For example, they usually pass through the whole earth without touching any other particles). Neutrinos travel near the speed of light.

Neutrinos are very difficult to detect. They are very unlikely to collide (interact) with other particles as they travel through space or through matter. Electrons have an electric charge, but neutrinos do not.  This means that neutrinos are unaffected by the electromagnetic force. The first detectors built to find neutrinos observed only 10 or 15 each year. Recent detectors use tanks that contain about a thousand tons of water or other liquid, which lets them detect about 10 to 100 neutrinos per day.
Neutrinos are generated in particle accelerators, in the sun, in other stars, and in nuclear reactions such as in nuclear reactors. They are generated whenever there is a nuclear reaction in the form of beta decay. This process starts off with one neutron, and ends with one electron, one proton, and one neutrino.

We used to think that neutrinos have no mass, but a few years ago physicists found that they have a very small mass, much lighter than electrons. By finding neutrinos, we can learn about the structure and the history of the universe. Since most of them pass easily through sun, physicists have learned about the reactions in the center of the sun that make the sun's heat, by detecting the neutrinos that come out from the sun's center.
The three types of neutrinos are named after the three leptons that have electric charge. There is the electron neutrino (ve), the muon neutrino (vµ), and the tau neutrino (vτ). Each neutrino has an antiparticle, called an antineutrino. Therefore, there is an electron antineutrino, a muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino.
The three types of neutrinos change into each other over time, so an electron neutrino could turn into a muon or tau neutrino and then back again. This is called neutrino oscillation. This oscillation was suggested when then number of electron neutrinos from the Sun was measured in the 1960s, and the amount was only about a third of what theories at the time said there should be. The result of neutrino oscillation is that most of the electron neutrinos made in the Sun change to another type of neutrino .
 
Most neutrinos passing through the planet Earth come from the Sun. About 65 billion () solar neutrinos per second pass through every square centimeter of area, including our own bodies.  
This is true even on the night side of Earth, because nearly all the neutrinos from the sun pass easily through the Earth.

Related pages
 Antares Telescope - uses neutrinos to make images

References

Astrophysics
Elementary particles
A play is a piece of writing (literature) which can be seen at a theatre or on television, or heard on the radio. Plays often show conversations between people. A play is usually watched, rather than being read.

The people who appear in a play are actors; in a theatre they stand on a stage so the people watching (the audience) can see them better. A director helps the actors to work better, or tells them how he wants the play to be.

Plays can be very interesting because they can be understood in many different ways. When the writer - the playwright - makes the play, he can not say how the actors or director will use it. Sometimes the playwright is also the director or an actor: Molière, for example, was often an actor in his plays. But the director can change the play in different ways: the actors' costume, the music, how people say things, how they move or what they hold. Modern directors can direct plays by Shakespeare, and these old plays seem modern now, too.
There are many sorts of plays, but there are six important sorts:

Tragedy - the end is sad, because of bad luck, because the hero is not perfect, or because of the gods.
Comedy - the end is happy. Some things in this sort of play are funny; it makes us laugh.
Domestic drama - the play is about normal life, family and friends.
Tragicomedy - this play is both a tragedy and a comedy.
Melodrama - this sort of play often has a happy ending. In it there is a villain - a bad person - but the hero (and often a heroine) win. The emotions are very strong.
Symbolic - this sort of play is about ideas. The people in the play are not so important.
Symbolic can also be called expressionistic. Its all about how the writer or director presents ideas in a very different point of view.
(Experimental) - this is a play in which the director and actors can try out new ideas.  Anything can be tried out.  It is an experiment.

Related pages 
Drama
Intermission
Phrasal verb is the name given to an English verb which is composed of two or three words. One verb is combined with a preposition (like on, in, under) or an adverb (like up, down, away). Sometimes a phrasal verb can have a meaning that is very different to the meaning of at least one of those two or three words separately. Some text books call these verbs multi-word verbs. Phrasal verbs are used more frequently in everyday speech than in formal, official writing or speaking. 

Here are some examples:

Maria didn't know the word, so she looked it up in the dictionary.

Oh no, we've run out of milk! I'll have to buy some more.

Farmers have to get up early in the morning.

The rocket took off with a loud roar.

Often these phrasal verbs have a one-word equivalent in other languages. 
In Spanish, to get up can be translated as levantarse, in French as se lever etc.
Types of phrasal verbs 
There are four different types of phrasal verbs.
These are:
 Phrasal verbs which take objects and are separable 
 Phrasal verbs which take objects and are inseparable
 Phrasal verbs which do not take objects  (these are always inseparable) 
 Three-word phrasal verbs

Instead of "separate" or "separable", some text books use the word "split" or "splittable".

A useful piece of advice to confused students of English is this:

If you do not know if a phrasal verb is separable or inseparable ALWAYS use a noun or noun phrase and do not try to separate the verb.

Parts of speech
English language
A season is a part of a year. Many areas of the Earth have four seasons in a year: spring, summer, autumn (British English) or fall (US English), and winter.

In some areas, there are a different number of seasons.  For example, the tropical parts of Australia (the northern parts of Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory) have wet and dry seasons.  These are in addition to, or replace the regular season names.

In places which are tropical and subtropical, there are two seasons: the rainy (or wet, or monsoon) season and the dry season. This is because the rain changes more than the temperature.
Summer is a warm season because the days are longer and the Sun is high in the sky, giving direct light to the ground.    Winter is a cold season because the days are shorter and the Sun is low in the sky, giving indirect light to the ground.  Both the changes in the length of the day and the height of the Sun at noon are caused by the tilt of the Earth's spin axis with respect to the plane of the Earth's path around the Sun.  At any time, in any season, the northern and southern hemispheres (halves of the Earth) have opposite seasons.
Dates 
Seasons begin and end on different dates in different countries. In the United States, people say the seasons begin at the solstices and equinoxes. The summer solstice is the longest day of the year, and the winter solstice is the shortest. The equinox is the time when the day and the night are the same number of hours, assuming the sun were a point of light at its center. Since civil dawn occurs when the edge of the sun first appears over the horizon and civil dusk occurs when the edge drops over the horizon, the civil length of day is 12 hours long several days prior to the equinoxes. In the US, summer begins at summer solstice, winter at winter solstice, spring at the spring (vernal) equinox and autumn at the autumnal equinox.
In Britain, people traditionally say that the seasons begin about seven weeks earlier: spring begins on Candlemas (February 2), summer on May Day (May 1), autumn on Lammas (August 1), and winter on All Hallows (November 1). These are near the cross-quarter days halfway between the solstices and the equinoxes. The Irish calendar is similar, but Spring begins on February 1.

In Denmark, spring begins on March 1, summer on June 1, autumn on September 1 and winter on December 1. In Australia, summer begins on December 1, autumn on March 1, winter on June 1, and spring on September 1.

In the Chinese calendar and the Northern parts of India, the solstices and equinoxes are in the middle of each season. Summer happens in the hemisphere tilted towards the sun.

High season 
High season is the time of year that people travel. During high season hotels and resorts increase their prices because demand is higher than in offseason. For example, winter is high season for skiing; summer is high season for beaches.
Related pages
 Northern Hemisphere
 Southern Hemisphere
 Eastern Hemisphere
 Western Hemisphere
 Equator
 Tropic of Cancer
 Tropic of Capricorn
 Arctic Circle
 Antarctic Circle

References

Other websites 
 Definition from Dictionary.com
 Names of seasons in various languages from Princeton University
 What causes the seasons?

 
Units of time
Carisbrooke Castle is the Isle of Wight's only remaining medieval castle. It was built on a Roman site. The castle earthworks were begun in 1070. 
The shell keep was built on the site some 70 years later.  None of the Norman domestic buildings now remain.  The gatehouse with its drum towers dates from the 14th and 15th centuries.

In 1377 the French landed on the island but the castle was not attacked.

During Elizabethan times the threat of a Spanish invasion was avoided when the Spanish Armada was turned away at a nearby battle.  However, the castle was considerably altered to resist the new artillery.  Outer lines of defence were built enclosing the old castle.  The curtain walls, bastions, and bulwarks remain in good condition to this day.

Charles I was held as prisoner at the castle in 1647. An attempt to escape failed when he got stuck in the bars.
Later the castle was the occasional residence of the governor of the Isle of Wight and it became home to Princess Beatrice, youngest daughter of Queen Victoria, when she was governor.

Buildings and structures in the Isle of Wight
Castles in England
11th-century buildings and structures
Atlantis is a name for a non-fictional large island or small continent that was in the Atlantic Ocean many years before it sank into the depth of the sea.

The name Atlantis first appears in the writings of Herodotus - he describes the western ocean as "Sea of Atlantis." Then, one generation later, Atlantis is described in detail in the stories Timaeus and Critias by the Greek philosopher Plato.  He used this story to help explain his ideas about government and philosophy. Plato was the only ancient writer who wrote specific things about Atlantis.

According to Plato, the Atlanteans lived 9000 years before his own time and were half human and half god.  They created a very good human society.  When they stopped being good people and did bad things, the gods sent earthquakes and fire to destroy Atlantis.
Many scholars think that Plato could mean a real place when he was writing about Atlantis. For example, there was a Minoan kingdom on the island of Santorini.  The Minoan kingdom was very powerful thousands of years before Plato, and their society was damaged when a volcano erupted on their island. According to Plato, Atlantis was very large, as big as North Africa, so it should not have been hard to find.

After the discovery of the Americas, some people in Europe thought they might be Atlantis. However, after Plato, the idea of Atlantis was mostly forgotten until 1882, when a writer named Ignatius Donnelly wrote a book saying that Atlantis was real and that the culture of Atlantis had started many other ancient cultures, such as the Egyptian and Mayan.  Then other people became interested in Atlantis.
Atlantis has appeared in many works of fiction.  In Marvel Comics, Atlantis is at the bottom of the ocean and exists in modern times, with people who breathe water.  Other works of fiction use Atlantis as background.  For example, Robert E. Howard set his Conan the Barbarian stories in a fictional time called the Hyborian Age, which began with the destruction of Atlantis and ended when real written history started.

References

Greek mythology
Ancient history
Adjectives and Adverbs can be comparative in English and some other languages. When people are talking about two or more nouns, they can compare them (say the differences between them). The word which explains how they compare is called the comparative. They can also compare actions using adverbs.

Examples: (The comparative is in bold).
 John is tall, but Mark is taller
 An hour is longer than a minute.

Many words can be made into a comparative by adding er to the end of the word. 
cool - cooler
big - bigger
wet - wetter
dark - darker

Words that end with the letter 'Y' can still be made into a comparative, but people change the 'Y' to an 'I' and then add 'ER'.
happy - happier
fluffy - fluffier
angry - angrier
costly - costlier

Some words cannot be made into a comparative by adding 'ER' Instead we use the word more in front. Most of these words have three or more syllables, such as beautiful, reliable.
If people are not sure about a word, it is always acceptable to say "more" (something), such as "more beautiful", "more expensive".

Warning:  The 'ER' ending and the word "more" together cannot be used. 
I am happier than you. - Correct.
 I am more happy than you. - Correct.
 I am more happier - WRONG. (Double comparative)

Related pages
 As
 Like

Grammar
Asbestos is a set of six silicate minerals which occur naturally. White asbestos makes up 95% of the asbestos found in buildings. It occurs in all parts of the world. It is fibrous, heat resistant and non flammable. These properties made it very attractive as a component in building materials and other products such as insulation and automobile brake pads. People have used asbestos throughout history. Ancient Egyptian people used asbestos. Asbestos is extremely dangerous for human health, as it can cause lung diseases such as asbestosis, emphysema and mesothelioma if the fibres get loose in the air. It can also harm animals such as livestock or pets.

Asbestos was linked to lung cancer in the early 1970s, and was replaced by other materials in most applications by 1980.

Types of asbestos 
There are six types of asbestos:

Chrysotile (white asbestos)
Crocidolite (blue asbestos)
Amosite (brown asbestos)
Anthophyllite asbestos
Tremolite asbestos
Actinolite asbestos
Substitutes 
 Fiberglass - This is the most popular substitute. Fiberglass is physically similar to asbestos and its safety is also being questioned. Fiberglass has been called "man-made asbestos".
 Carbon fiber - Lighter weight than fiberglass or asbestos, but not heat resistant
 Wood fiber mixed with cement (in non-heat applications)
 Various polymer and plastic fibers
 Asbestos rope can be replaced with synthetic or fiberglass rope.
 Vermiculite insulation is a common substitute, although vermiculite itself can be contaminated with asbestos
 Basalt fiber is a mineral fiber with properties similar to asbestos. It is suitable for high-heat applications.
 Mineral wool is a common substitute that is popular in Europe
 Silica aerogel is the best insulator available. It is non-fibrous and is not believed to cause cancer if inhaled into the lungs.
Lawsuits 
Many companies that use or used to use asbestos have been sued by current or former employees who got sick with mesothelioma or asbestosis. Many lawyers specialize in asbestos-related lawsuits.

References

Other websites 
Cancer Resource Center 
Asbestos Institute
A syllable is a unit of pronunciation uttered without interruption, loosely, a single sound. All words are made from at least one syllable.

Monosyllables are words that have only one vowel sound; polysyllables have more than one. If a syllable ends with a consonant, it is called a closed syllable. If a syllable ends with a vowel, it is called an open syllable. Patterns of syllables can be shown with C and V (C for 'consonant', V for 'vowel'). Closed syllables are often shown as CVC (such as got), and open syllables as CV (such as go). Some languages like English have many kinds of closed syllables. Other languages, like Japanese, have few kinds of closed syllables. Other languages still, like Hawaiian and Swahili, have no closed syllables. 

Notice that the consonant (C) and vowel (V) notation does NOT match the letters of English spelling in a one-to-one relationship (e.g. 'th' is one sound), but rather individual sounds.

There are many words in English that have only one syllable.
IPA has been added in slashes.
 He /hi/ (CV) - open
 The /ði/ (CV) - open
 Like /lɑɪk/ (CVC) - closed
 Run /ɹʌn/ (CVC) - closed
 Cat /kæt/ (CVC) - closed
 House /hoʊs/ (CVC) - closed
 It (VC) /ɪt/ - closed
 On (VC) /ɑn/ - closed
However, in several languages, such as English, syllables can have consonant clusters (having multiple consonants next to each other), which easily allow for words to have much more complicated syllables, such as:
 Crow /cɹow/ (CCV) - open
 Through /θruw/ (CCV) - open
 Spray /spɹej/ (CCCV) - open
 Ports /pɔɹts/ (CVCCC) - closed
 Sports /spɔɹts/ (CCVCCC) - closed
 Trip /tɹɪp/ (CCVC) - closed
 Dent /dεnt/ (CVCC) - closed
 Plant /plænt/ (CCVCC) - closed
 Sprint /spɹɪnt/ (CCCVCC) - closed
 Splints /splɪnts/ (CCCVCCC) - closed
 Strengths /stɹeŋθs/ (CCCVCCC) - closed
 Angsts /eɪŋsts/ (VCCCC) - closed
There are many more words that have two or more syllables.
 Basket /bæs.kεt/ (2 Bas-ket; CVC-CVC)
 Doctor /dɔc.tɔr/ (2 Doc-tor; CVC-CVC)
 Happy /ha.pi/ (2 Ha-ppy; CV-CV)
 Friendly /frεnd.li/ (2 Friend-ly; CCVCC-CV)
 Greenland /grin.lænd/ (2 Green-land; CCVC-CVCC)
 Computer /cəm.pju.tər/ (3 Com-pu-ter; CVC-CCV-CVC) [-pu- is pronounced "pyuu' or CCV]
 Merciful /mər.ci.fəl/ (3 Mer-ci-ful; CVC-CV-CVC)
Some languages do not use an alphabet with letters. Instead, each sign may stand for a syllable. For example: Japanese can be written using Kana. A writing system based on syllables is called a syllabary. Since words in languages like English can have many different complex syllables (well over 10,000 can be produced in English), writing such languages using a syllabary would be completely impractical, thus alphabets are much better suited to write languages with complex syllable structures. However, since words in Japanese can be made with just a few simple syllables (around 90), writing such languages are well suited for the type of language.

References 

Pronunciation
An umbrella is a hand tool that is used to stop rain from falling on a person. It is also used to make shade and protect people from sunlight. An umbrella made for protection from the sunlight is called a parasol. And a plastic umbrella is cheap but it is fragile.

Basic English 850 words
Tools
Usenet () is a type of discussion system on computers. It was created from the Unix-to-Unix Copy (UUCP) dial-up network architecture. Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis began the idea in 1979. The system was created in 1980. People read and post messages (called articles, postsor news) to one or more categories. These categories are called newsgroups. Usenet is similar to a bulletin board system (BBS) in many ways. It is the precursor to Internet forums. Discussions are threaded but posts are stored in order of when they were posted.

A main difference between a BBS and Usenet is that usenet has no administrator. Also, the network used to share the messages is not constant.  Usenet is spread over a large, constantly changing group of news servers. The servers store and forward messages to one another. Each user reads messages from and posts messages to a local server. The local server can be operated by anyone.
Usenet is important in the networked world. Many well known ideas and terms were either created on usenet or made popular there. These include "FAQ", "flame", sockpuppet, and "spam".  In the early 1990s,  Usenet connections via Fidonet's dial-up BBS networks made it more common for people to discus things worldwide. They did not need a server, just (local) telephone service.

Refernces

Internet communication
Internet culture
Diagonal is a kind of straight line.  A diagonal line does not go straight up, down, or across. It is a line that connects two corners of a shape.    

In mathematics, "diagonal" has different meanings.  For example, in geometry a diagonal is any line that goes between the corners of a polygon. So a square has two diagonals, and a five-sided shape has five diagonals. In general the count of diagonal can be identified by a formula [n(n-3)]/2 where n is the total number of sides of shapes.

Geometry
Kwashiorkor is a health condition of poor nutrition from not having enough protein in the diet.  If a person uses up energy from carbohydrates (starches) and lipids (fats), their body may begin to use protein for energy. 

The body breaks down protein into energy that can be used. They then do not have enough protein for other needed bodily functions such as growth and building tissues like bones. Usually this is a condition of children from aged 1 to 5 years, but rarely adults and older children get it. It is common in poor places in Africa. Symptoms include having a pot belly, swollen face, and hair that is dark then light then dark. This can be cured by having a protein- rich diet.

Kwashiorkor comes from a protein deficiency (lack) in the diet. Body parts becomes swollen due to an accumulation of water in the spaces between the body's cells. Other symptoms are poor muscle development, swollen legs, puffy face, difficulty in eating, diarrhea, and dry skin are the symptoms of this disease.
Nutrition problems
Hunger

References
Kwashiorkor - The New Oxford Dictionary of English, OUP 1998
Popocatépetl (also called El popo or Don Goyo) is an active volcano.   The volcano is the second highest mountain in Mexico after Pico de Orizaba (5,610m). It is  high .

History
Popocatépetl is the Aztec word for "Smoking Mountain". Popocatépetl was an Aztec warrior who loved Iztaccíhuatl. Iztaccíhuatl's father sent Popocatepetl to war in Oaxaca. He promised him his daughter as his wife if he returned (which Iztaccíhuatl's father thought he would not). Iztaccíhuatl's father told her that her lover had died in battle. She died of sadness. When Popocatépetl returned, and found out about the death of his lover, he killed himself by stabbing a knife into his heart. The gods covered them with snow and changed them into mountains. Iztaccíhuatl's mountain was called "La Mujer Dormida, (the "Sleeping Woman"), because it looks like a woman sleeping on her back. Popocatépetl became the volcano Popocatépetl, raining fire on Earth in anger at the loss of his lover.
Popocatepetl has had more than 20 big eruptions since the arrival of the Spanish in 1519. A major eruption happened in 1947. On December 21, 1994 the volcano threw out gas and ash which was carried as far as 25 km away by the wind. This led to people having to leave nearby towns. Scientists began to check the volcano for an eruption.The way scientists checked the volcano was by implementing 10 composite monitoring stations around the volcano, including broadband seismometers, thermal surveillance cameras, tiltmeters, electronic distance meters, lahar acoustic detectors and other instruments. In December 2000, tens of thousands of people were made to leave the area by the government based on the warnings of scientists. The volcano then made its largest display in thousands of years. The most recent eruption which was this year didn't have any injuries. Since it was so near Mexico City so many cameras were recording this eruption
. Officials recorded that the eruption had a column of smoke that went as high as 2 miles into the air, with moderate ash content.
Related pages 
 List of volcanos
 Dormant volcano
 Extinct volcano

Notes

References

De la Cruz-Reyna, Servando, et al. “Tectonic Earthquakes Triggering Volcanic Seismicity and Eruptions. Case Studies at Tungurahua and Popocatépetl Volcanoes.” Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, vol. 193, no. 1, 2010, pp. 37–48.
https://earthsky.org/earth/volcano-popocatepetl-eruption-mexico-jan-9-2020

Other websites

Volcanoes of Mexico
VEI-6 volcanoes
Mountains of Mexico
The North Sea is a sea that is part of the Atlantic Ocean in northern Europe. The North Sea is between Norway and Denmark in the east, Scotland and England in the west, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France in the south.

Borders 
The Skagerrak connects the North Sea to the Baltic Sea. In the south, the North Sea becomes the English Channel, a sea between England and France. This is called the Dover Straits and is very busy with ships.

The border between the North Sea and the Skagerrak is at an imagined line between Lindesnes in Norway, and Hanstholm in Denmark. In the North, the North sea is open towards the Atlantic. The border between the two is an imagined line from Northern Scotland, to Shetland, and then to Ålesund in Norway. According to the Oslo-Paris Treaty of 1962 it is a bit more to the west and the north though. The treaty puts it at 5° East longitude, and 62° North latitude. That is at the parallel of the Geirangerfjord in Norway.
Other facts 
On average, the North Sea has a depth of only 94 meters. About 80 million people live near the North Sea, at most 150 km away from the coast. Together with the English Channel in the south, the southern North Sea is the busiest body of water in the world.

Rivers that drain into it 
Well-known rivers that drain into the North Sea include the Tay (at Dundee), the Forth (at Edinburgh), the Tyne (South Shields), the Wear (at Sunderland),  the Tees (near Middlesbrough),  the Elbe (at Cuxhaven), the Weser (at Bremerhaven), the Rhine and Meuse or Maas (at Rotterdam), the Scheldt (at Flushing or Vlissingen), the Thames, and the Humber (at Hull), and the river Nairn (at Nairn)

The Kiel Canal, one of the world's busiest artificial waterways, connects the North Sea with the Baltic.
Name 
Its name comes from its relationship to the land of the Frisians (see Frisia). They live directly to the south of the North Sea, and to the west of the East Sea (Oostzee, the Baltic Sea), the former South Sea (Zuiderzee, today's IJsselmeer) and the today reclaimed Middle Sea (Middelzee). But the spread of the name could also be from the view of the cities of the Hanseatic League. Some of its main cities, like Lübeck, Bremen or Hamburg had the same view.

In classical times this body of water was also called the Oceanum Germanicum or Mare Germanicum, meaning German Ocean or Sea. This name was commonly used in English and other languages along with the name North Sea, until the early eighteenth century. By the late nineteenth century, German Sea was a rare, scholarly usage even in Germany. In Danish the North Sea is also named Vesterhavet (besides Nordsøen), meaning Western Ocean because it is west of Denmark.

Geographic divisions
Most of the North sea is on the European Continental shelf. On average, the depth is about 93 to 94 meters only. In the south it is very shallow, only 25 to 35 meters. In the north in the bathyal zone north of Shetland, this depth increases to between 100 and 200 metres. In the south, the depth is at most 50 metres. An exception to this is the Norwegian Trench. It is deepest there, with a depth of 725 metres. The most shallow part of it is a sand bank called Dogger Bank. In the southern part, there are many sand banks.

Looking at the satellite picture it is easy to see the geographic divisions of the North Sea:
a generally shallow southern North Sea
the central North Sea
 the northern North Sea, with the Norwegian Trench, near the Skagerrak.