Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Sentence and imprisonment
On 25 December, Liu Xiaobo was sentenced to eleven years' imprisonment and two years' deprivation of political rights by the Beijing No. 2 Intermediate Court on charges of "inciting subversion of state power." According to Liu's family and counsel, he plans to fight this and ask for a new trial. The court said that Charter 08 was part of the evidence supporting his conviction.

International response

Many individuals, states, and organizations around the world asked the Chinese government to release Liu. The Chinese government said no and told people outside China not to become involved.
On 11 December 2008, the United States Department of State called for Liu's release.
On 22 December 2008, an organization of scholars, writers, lawyers, and human rights workers wrote an open letter to ask the government to let Liu out of prison. On 21 January 2009, 300 international writers, including Salman Rushdie, Margaret Atwood, Ha Jin and Jung Chang, called for Liu's release in a statement put out through PEN. In March 2009 Liu Xiaobo was awarded with the Homo Homini Award by the One World Film Festival, organized by the People in Need foundation, for promoting freedom of speech, democratic principles and human rights.

In December 2009, the European Union and United States both officially asked the Chinese government to release of Liu Xiaobo without any special rules or conditions.

Before the court decision, China said that other nations should "respect China's judicial sovereignty and to not do things that will interfere in China's internal affairs."
Nobel Peace Prize
Events leading up to the prize
On 18 January 2010, Liu was named by many people as a nominee (possible winner) of the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize. These included Václav Havel, the 14th Dalai Lama, André Glucksmann, Vartan Gregorian, and Desmond Tutu. China's Foreign Ministry spokesperson Ma Zhaoxu said that awarding the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu would be "totally wrong". Geir Lundestad, a secretary of the Nobel Committee, stated the award would not be influenced by Beijing's opposition. On 25 September 2010, The New York Times reported that a petition in support of the Nobel nomination was being circulated in China.

In September 2010 Václav Havel, Dana Němcová, and Václav Malý published an open letter in The International Herald Tribune calling for the award to be given to Liu. All three had been leaders of Czechoslovakia's Velvet Revolution. Soon after,  people began signing a petition."A Nobel Prize for a Chinese Dissident". The New York Times. 20 September 2010.
Freedom Now is a non-governmental organization and works as a lawyer for Liu Xiaobo outside China. On 6 October 2010, they publicly released a letter from 30 U.S. Members of Congress to President Barack Obama (the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize winner). This letter strongly asked President Obama to talk directly to Chinese President Hu Jintao at the G-20 Summit in November 2010. They wanted Obama to talk about Liu Xiaobo and another political prisoner named Gao Zhisheng .

Prize announcement
On 8 October 2010 the Nobel Committee awarded Liu the Prize "for his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China". The Norwegian Nobel Committee president Thorbjørn Jagland said the choice of Liu as the recipient of the prize had become clear early on in the process. The Chinese foreign ministry had already warned the Nobel committee not to give Liu the prize. They said that it would be against Nobel principles.
All news about the announcement of the award was immediately censored in China. Foreign news broadcasters including CNN and the BBC were immediately blocked after mentioning the award in China. Web searches for Liu Xiabo were immediately deleted and no information can be searched about him in China. The Chinese Foreign Ministry issued a statement that said, "The Nobel Peace Prize is meant to award individuals who promote international harmony and friendship, peace and disarmament. Liu Xiaobo is a criminal who has been sentenced by Chinese judicial departments for violating Chinese law. Awarding the peace to Liu runs completely counter to the principle of the award and is also a desecration of the Peace Prize." The state-run Xinhua News Agency later carried a report saying that awarding Liu Xiaobo the prize “defiles” (亵渎) Alfred Nobel's purpose of creating this prize and "may harm China-Norway relations"
. The spokesperson added that Liu had broken Chinese law and his "actions run contrary to the purpose of the Nobel Peace Prize."
Responses from world leaders
Many world leaders congratulated Liu for the award. These included Jose Manuel Barroso, President of the European Commission, The British Foreign Secretary William Hague, US President Barack Obama, and  The Dalai Lama.

Official Chinese government response
The Chinese Foreign Ministry called the Norwegian ambassador to the People's Republic of China to the ministry on 8 October 2010. The Chinese gave the ambassador an official complaint against awarding the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu Xiaobo. The Norwegian foreign minister replied that the Chinese government complaint was not needed because the group of people who decide the Nobel Prize is independent from the Norwegian government. However, the Norwegian Nobel Committee that gives the peace prize is appointed by the Norwegian parliament.
Major publications
 
  Beijing Normal University Publishing.
  Shanghai's People publishing.
  Times Literature and Art Publisher.
  Taiwan Times Publishing.
  Taiwan Tangshan Publishing.
  Hong Kong Xiafeier International Publishing Ltd.
 
  Jieyou Publishing.
  Labor Reform Foundation.
  Boda Publishing.
  Yunchen Culture publisher.

Awards
 Hellman-Hammett Grant (1990, 1996)
 China Foundation on Democracy Education (2003): Outstanding Democratic Activist
 Fondation de France Prize (2004): Award for Defending Freedom of Speech
 Hong Kong Human Rights Press Awards (2004, 2005, 2006)
 Homo Homini Award (2009)
 PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award (2009)
 Hermann Kesten Award (2010)
 Nobel Peace Prize (2010)

Personal life
He is married to Liu Xia, who lives in the couple's apartment in Beijing.

Health and death
In May 2017, Liu was diagnosed with terminal liver cancer. On 10 July 2017, Liu was listed in critical condition in hospital in Shenyang.
Liu died at a hospital in Shenyang, Liaoning, China on 13 July 2017 of multiple organ failure as a set of complications of the disease at the age of 61.

Related pages 
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country
 List of Chinese writers
 List of Chinese dissidents

References

Other websites

 Freedom Now (International Lawyers Representing Liu Xiaobo)
 Free Liu Xiaobo now! 
 English language articles and interviews
 Film Excerpts of Liu Xiaobo from The Gate of Heavenly Peace 
 The Poet in an Unknown Prison letter by Liu from The New York Review of Books 
 Unofficial English translation of Liu Xiaobo's 2009 criminal verdict 
 "Further Questions about Child Slavery in China's Kilns"  - the Chinese court supporting Liu Xiaobo's subversion conviction
 Jailed Chinese Dissident Liu Xiaobo Awarded Nobel Peace Prize - video report by Democracy Now!''
1955 births
2017 deaths
Chinese educators
Chinese Nobel Prize winners
Anti-communists
Atheists
Chinese historians
Chinese journalists
Chinese poets
Chinese politicians
Civil rights activists
Columbia University alumni
Columbia University faculty
Chinese human rights activists
Literary critics
Nobel Peace Prize winners
Nonviolence advocates
Peking University alumni
Political prisoners
People from Jilin
Beijing Normal University is a public university in Beijing, China It is one of the most highly ranked universities in China, and focuses on teaching humanities and sciences. It was first opened in 1902, which makes it one of the oldest universities in China. Its nickname is Beishida.

Originally, it was called a "normal school" because it was only a school for teachers, and all teacher schools were named the same way. It was attached to the Imperial University of Peking. Later, it became a university on its own, teaching subjects other than education, but kept its name the same.

Rankings 

 QS World University Ranking: 292nd, 7th in China 
 Academic Ranking of World Universities: 201-300th, 7th-12th in China
 Humanities and Social Sciences overall ranking in China: 3rd

Nobel laureates
Liu Xiaobo (Peace)
Mo Yan (Literature)

References

Other websites
University website 

Colleges and universities in Beijing
1902 establishments in Asia
1900s establishments in China
The University of Oslo (, ) is the oldest and largest university in Norway. It is in the Norwegian capital, Oslo.

The university began in 1811 as The Royal Frederick University (in Norwegian Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet and in Latin Universitas Regia Fredericiana). The university was modelled after the recently established University of Berlin, and originally named after King Frederick of Denmark and Norway. In 1939 it changed to the name it has now.

The university has faculties of (Lutheran) Theology, Law, Medicine, Humanities, Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Dentistry, Social Sciences, and Education. The Faculty of Law is still located at the old campus on Karl Johans gate, near the National Theatre, the Royal Palace, and the Parliament. Most of the other faculties are at a modern campus area called Blindern. The Faculty of Medicine is split between several university hospitals in the Oslo area.

In 2019, the university had 30,505 students and employed 6,595 people.

References
References

Oslo
Education in Norway
Oslo
1811 establishments
1810s establishments in Europe
19th-century establishments in Norway
The Central Region of Singapore is also known as the south of Singapore. It is a place where most commercial buildings are in.  The Istana is also found in this area.

History 
When Sir Stamford Raffles first arrived in Singapore in 1819, he signed a treaty with Tengku Abdul Rahman (the local Sultan) and Tengku Hussein (the Temmengong which became Sultan since he was the elder brother). The Sultan and Temmengong were paid money for allowing the British to set up a port in Singapore.

The British were given the southern part of Singapore to develop. Therefore, it was also recognised as the Central Region of Singapore, or also called Central Business District.

Size 
The Central Region of Singapore starts from the harbour all the way to Bishan as the north, Queenstown as the west and Marine Parade as the east. In total, it takes up 13,150 hectares of land area.

The Southern Islands are also part of the Central Region of Singapore.
11 planning areas 
Bishan
Bukit Merah
Bukit Timah
Geylang
Kallang
Marine Parade
Novena
Queenstown
Southern Islands
Tanglin
Toa Payoh

References

Other websites 
 Central Region, Singapore 

Geography of Singapore
Places in Singapore
Tuas is a region in the far west of the island of Singapore. It is reachable by the Mass rapid transit (MRT) of Singapore.

Tuas is mainly an industrial estate like Jurong and the Tuas checkpoint (called the Tuas Second Link) is found there.

Geography of Singapore
Elland Road is a football stadium in Leeds, Beeston, West Yorkshire, England. It has been home to Premier League club Leeds United since the club's inception in 1919. The stadium is the 14th largest football stadium in England.

Sports history
The venue has served as a neutral venue for the FA Cup semi-finals and England international fixtures. It has been selected as one of eight venues for the UEFA Euro 96 European Cups. It was used by Rugby Union club Hunslet in the mid-1980s. It hosted two matches of the 2015 Rugby World Cup.

Capacity
It has four stands - Don Revie (North), Jack Charlton (East), Norman Hunter (South) and John Charles (West) - with a capacity of 37,792. 

The FA Cup fifth-round replay against Sunderland on 15 March 1967 set a record attendance of 57,892. This was before the stadium became an all-seater venue under the Taylor Report. This is the modern record for a Premier League game against Newcastle United on 22 December 2001 was 40,287.
There are plans to increase its capacity to 50,000 by demolishing the West Stand and rebuilding the area.

Concerts
The stadium has hosted concerts by Queen, U2, Happy Mondays and the Kaiser Chiefs.

Football stadiums in England
Buildings and structures in Leeds
Orchard Road is a street in Singapore that has many shopping centres. It is in the south of Singapore.

History 

Orchard Road got its name from the nutmeg, pepper and fruit orchards that used to grow on both sides of the street. It only started to develop in the twentieth century.

Flash floods occurred at the road junction with Scotts Road on 16 June 2010 after 100mm of rain fell from 8 am to 11 am that morning, it is the worst flood at the junction since 1984. Shopping malls along Orchard Road like Lucky Plaza and Liat Towers were affected by the flood. The flood had caused some shopping mall and underground car parks to be under the water. Rescuers had to pull out about 70 passengers from cars and buses, as flooding closed down Orchard Road, which is lined with high-end shopping malls and tourist attractions. No one was hurt.

Landmarks 
Orchard Road has the Istana at the southern end of the road, which is the official house for the President of Singapore.
Shopping centres 
The first shop was Tangs which was founded in 1932 and got its shop at Orchard Road in the 1950s. Orchard Road also has many  well-known restaurants, coffee chains, cafés, nightclubs and hotels.

List of shopping centres 

 DFS Galleria – This shopping mall is in Scotts Road. It mainly sells luxury item such as Bottega Veneta, Louis Vuitton, Prada, Gucci, Hermès, Loewe and Bvlgari.
 ION Orchard – ION Orchard opened on July 21 2009 and houses six double-storey flagship stores of close to  each, including Prada, Giorgio Armani, Louis Vuitton, Dior, Dolce & Gabbana, Cartier and Patek Philippe. Its signature glass façade doubles up as a giant media screen as well.
Ngee Ann City – The mall opened in 1993 and is the largest shopping mall in the Orchard Road shopping belt. It houses branded boutiques such as Vacheron Constantin, Louis Vuitton, Hermès, Burberry, Loewe and Chanel as well as Japanese department store, Takashimaya. The mall also has Southeast Asia's second largest bookstore, Books Kinokuniya.
 Wisma Atria – Opened in 1986, it underwent renovation recently with its trademark blue facade replaced with a glass facade. There is a 900 seat food court on the 4th floor which is run by the BreadTalk Group. The mall is directly connected to Orchard station.
 Plaza Singapura – next to the Istana, the mall opened in 1974 with a now defunct Yaohan department store. It was revamped twice, in 1998 and 2003 with the former having a totally revamped now and the latter with a new tenant mix. It houses a Golden Village cineplex, Carrefour and other shops.
Lucky Plaza – A shopping mall that somehow became the main focal point for domestic Filipino workers to meet their friends during their off days. The place is known to be very crowded on Sundays with many shops selling products from the Philippines.
 Far East Plaza – Far East Plaza opened in 1982 with a Metro which has since closed down. Popular with students with its cheap fashion items, the plaza is also known for its cheap food outlets. The mall has since undergone renovation.
Mandarin Gallery – inside Meritus Mandarin Singapore housing international high-end brands like Y-3, Bape and Hugo Boss.
 Orchard Central – Singapore's first and tallest vertical mall, which replaced Specialists Shopping Centre and opened on 2 July 2009.
 Orchard Point – local department store, OG, it used to have art galleries, but was closed when OG decided to take over.
 The Paragon – The Paragon is a high-end shopping mall selling branded items such as brand like Gucci which open flapship store here and Miu Miu, Prada, Coach and Burberry with a Metro department store and a Marks & Spencer store as well. The place also has a Toys 'R' Us and a number of restaurants. It underwent expansion around 2002, taking over the land once occupied by The Promenade.
 Tang Plaza – Tang Plaza has a homegrown department store, Tangs.
 The Centrepoint – The mall opened in 1983 and has Robinsons and Marks and Spencer as its anchor tenants. It underwent renovation and built a new extension in 2007.
The Heeren Shops – Heeren sells items mainly for youngsters. The site was formerly a colonial building.
 Forum The Shopping Mall – Forum sells mainly branded children's clothes and accessories with a Toys "R" Us on the third floor. It also has a number of branded boutiques such as Emporio Armani and Dolce and Gabbana.
 Shaw House and Centre – Shaw House has the Isetan department store and on the fifth and sixth floors is where the Lido 8 Cineplex is, which has one of the largest cinema halls in the country. It houses Fendi, Loewe and Celine as well.
 Hilton Singapore – inside the hotel itself, the Hilton Shopping Gallery houses branded boutiques such as Louis Vuitton, Cartier, Bulgari, Lanvin, Donna Karan, Balenciaga and Dolce & Gabbana. It also include Club21, a Singapore high-end based company that sell luxurious items like Mulberry, Comme des Garçons and Dries van Noten.
Palais Renaissance – Palais Renaissance was completed in 1993 and mainly houses upmarket branded boutiques such brand like Donna Karen and Valentino.
 Liat Towers – International names such as Audemars Piguet, Massimo Dutti, Hermès and Zara are housed in the building. The building once housed Planet Hollywood and Singapore's first McDonald's. Also, it housed the Isetan department store at one time.
 Scotts Shopping Centre – Scotts Shopping Centre housed Singapore's first food court and above was the Ascott Singapore. It was torn down in June 2007 to make way for a new building.
 313@Somerset – Houses Singapore's largest Forever 21 and Zara retail store and a HMV which moved from The Heeren.
 Wheelock Place – Houses the Borders bookstore, one of the largest bookstores in the country and it also has a large Marks and Spencer outlet. Formerly known as Lane Crawford Place which housed Lane Crawford but closed during the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis.
Transport

Public transport

Mass Rapid Transit 

There are three major MRT stations around Orchard Road. They are Orchard, Somerset and Dhoby Ghaut stations. These three stations are important placces for commuters, locals, students and tourists who travel to the Orchard Road shopping and business district. However, due to the construction of ION Orchard, the entrance of the Orchard entrance has been moved underground below the upcoming mall.

Buses 
There are many bus services provided by SBS Transit  and SMRT   that go to Orchard Road. The major bus stops along Orchard Road are at:
 Delfi Orchard
 Dhoby Ghaut MRT Station
 Le Meridien Shopping Centre
 Lucky Plaza
 MacDonald House
 Opposite Meritus Mandarin Singapore
 Orchard Emerald
 Orchard Plaza
 Royal Thai Embassy, Singapore
 Tang Plaza
 YMCA

Taxi
Taxi 

Visitors can also travel to Orchard Road via taxi. There are taxi stands at Forum The Shopping Mall, all hotels, Lucky Plaza, Wisma Atria, Ngee Ann City, The Paragon, The Heeren Shops, Centrepoint Shopping Centre, next to Specialists' Shopping Centre and Plaza Singapura.

Cars 
Visitors accessing Orchard Road by road usually enter from the west via Napier Road, before exiting Orchard Road at Bras Basah Road.  Coming from the north, vehicles can enter via Bukit Timah Road and Scotts Road which leads into Orchard Road.  From the south, vehicles can enter through Orchard Boulevard and Paterson Road.

Other websites

Orchard Road at YourSingapore (by Singapore Tourist Board)

Roads in Singapore
NewsBank, Inc. is a worldwide information provider worldwide. It is a database of published documents. These documents include such items as newspapers, magazines, business journals, obituaries, and government documents. The documents are available online by the Internet. The service is available through many public libraries, colleges and universities, and government and military libraries.

NewsBank has content from more than 2,000 newspaper titles. NewsBank's Readex division offers digital editions of American historical collections to colleges and universities. Collections of historical and modern documents, publications and records to are available to Genealogists to research family histories.

References 

Mass media
Bonnie Francesca Wright (born 17 February 1991) is an English actress. She is most known for playing Ginny Weasley in Harry Potter movies.

In 2012, Wright will start shooting her first leading role.  It is a British nineteenth century period movie In Want of a Wife.  She will star opposite Emily Watson.

Wright graduated from London's University of the Arts: London College of Communication. She is the owner of her own production company called Bon Bon Lumiere.

Filmography

Awards and nominations

Related pages
List of Harry Potter films cast members

References

English movie actors
English television actors
English voice actors
People from London
1991 births
Living people
William Laws Calley (William Laws Calley, Jr.) (born June 8, 1943) is a convicted American war criminal.  

He was held responsible and found guilty of some of the killings of the My Lai massacre during the Vietnam War. Of the 26 officers and soldiers that were charged for their part in the My Lai Massacre or the  cover-up, only Calley was convicted. He was sentenced to a life in prison, but that was changed to 20 years in prison, and later to 10 years in prison. He was put on house arrest instead. Calley only spent three years on house arrest, and was then released.

After punishment from the military court system
In 2009, Lieutenant Calley was speaking (at a Kiwanis Club in Georgia, USA) and said that (he feels remorse, and that) "There is not a day that goes by that I do not feel remorse for what happened that day in Mỹ Lai. I feel remorse for the Vietnamese who were killed, for their families, for the American soldiers involved and their families. I am very sorry."

References
References

Living people
1943 births
People of the Vietnam War
American spree killers
People from Miami
A weak acid is an acid chemical which does not dissociate (split into ions) completely in water solution. This means it does not give all its hydrogen ions into the water. Weak acids typically have a pH between 3 and 6. 

Acetic acid (CH3COOH) and oxalic acid (H2C2O4) are examples of weak acids. If an acid is represented by HA, then there is a balance between molecules which are split (ionised), and molecules which are not:

The relative strength of an acid can be expressed using Ka, the acid ionization constant. In general, the larger a Ka, the stronger the acid, while a smaller Ka indicates a relatively weaker acid. Weak acids will have a Ka value of less than 1, while strong acids will have a Ka value greater than 1.
Acids
Background 
During the time that America was being colonized by European countries, firearms were very important to colonists. When Europeans came to America, they brought with them the idea of land ownership by an individual. They received this right from their king through land grants. This was completely foreign to Native Americans who considered a particular territory belonged to the tribe. Colonists defended their claims against Native Americans and other Europeans whose kings may have granted them the same lands. They also needed firearms for hunting. In many towns and villages, men were required to own firearms for the defense of the community. Most colonists coming to America in the 17th century had no experience as soldiers. The British kept few soldiers in the colonies, and colonists soon found they needed to establish militias.
After the American Revolutionary War, the framers of the Constitution, like most Americans of the time, distrusted standing (permanent) armies and trusted militias. After the Revolutionary War, Americans trusted state militias to defend the country. The Articles of Confederation, the new nation's first constitution, called for each state to maintain a well-armed militia. Congress could call up the militias to defend the country against any foreign power.  However, Congress could only form a standing army if nine of the thirteen states approved. This was one of the weaknesses that led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and a new constitution.  

In the 18th century, the word "army" meant mercenaries. Americans distrusted standing armies and were afraid they could be used to take over the country. People still remembered Oliver Cromwell and his military dictatorship in England.
State constitutions 
Virginia was one of the first colonies to adopt a state constitution. They included the words: "a well regulated Militia, composed of the body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence of a free State." Other states followed with similar wording in their own constitutions. Pennsylvania declared: "the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of themselves and the state; and as standing armies in the time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; And that the military should be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power." 

In 1781 the Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation. This recognized that the thirteen original states had the power to govern themselves. They acted collectively to have a congress, but did not provide any money to run it. There was no president and no court system. This confederation of states proved to be a very poor form of central government.
Philadelphia Convention of 1787 
The Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania from May 25 to September 17, 1787. The purpose of the Convention was to revise the Articles of Confederation. But it became clear that many of its members, including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, wanted to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. They eventually agreed on agreed on Madison's Virginia Plan and began to make changes. The result was the Constitution of the United States and the present form of government.

Bill of Rights 
The constitution debate at Philadelphia caused two groups to form: the Federalists and the Anti-federalists. The federalists wanted a strong central government. The anti-federalists wanted the state governments to have more power. The vote on the new Constitution was passed on a promise by federalists to support a Bill of Rights to be added to the Constitution.
Originally, Congress suggested 12 amendments to the states. However, the states only ratified ten. The Bill of Rights, as the first 10 amendments came to be called, originally applied to the national government rather than to states. Many states already had their own Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was ratified and went into effect in 1791.

Different interpretations 
The Second Amendment was a result of several proposals being combined and simplified into just 27 words.  This simplification has caused many debates over gun ownership and individual rights. Historians, judges and others have repeatedly looked for the intended meaning by the 18th century writers of this amendment.  Different interpretations of the Second Amendment still cause public debates about firearm regulations and gun control.
Capitalization and punctuation 
In 2007, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit heard a case called Heller v. District of Columbia.  At the time, it was illegal for regular Americans to have a gun in Washington, D.C. To decide whether this was against the Second Amendment, the court looked very closely at capitalization and punctuation in the Amendment to try to figure out exactly what the framers meant.

Judge Laurence H. Silberman wrote the Court's decision. It made the ban on guns by the District of Columbia invalid. The decision was based on the second comma (after the word "state") as proof that the Second Amendment allows individuals the right to carry a gun. This is in addition to state's rights to maintain militias.

The Second Amendment ratified by the States and approved by the Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, said:
"A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed".
The version passed by Congress and signed by President George Washington (but never ratified by the States) said:
"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."
On June 25, 2008, the Supreme Court agreed with the Court of Appeals' decision.  (In the Supreme Court, the case was called District of Columbia v. Heller.)
Landmark decisions 
 In 1939, the U.S. Supreme Court made a landmark decision in United States v. Miller (307 U.S. 174 (1939)). The Court determined that Congress could keep people from having certain weapons (in this case, a sawed-off shotgun) because the shotgun would not help maintain a well regulated militia. The Court said the Second Amendment's purpose was to ensure the effectiveness of the military.
The case District of Columbia v. Heller (554 U.S. 570 (2008)), was another landmark case. It was the first time in almost 70 years that the Supreme Court applied the Second Amendment to a review of gun control laws. The Supreme Court of the United States held in a 5-4 decision that the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution applied to the Federal district and protects an individual's right to possess a firearm for lawful purposes. This struck down the D.C. handgun ban because it violated citizens' Second Amendment rights. The decision also called United States v. Miller an exception to the general rule that Americans may possess firearms. The Court said:
 People who obey the law cannot possibly use sawed-off shotguns for any legal purpose
 Laws about similar weapons that cannot be used for any legal purposes would not violate the Second Amendment
 Laws that would keep criminals and the mentally ill from having guns would not violate the Second Amendment.
In McDonald v. Chicago (561 U.S. 742 (2010)), the Supreme Court said in a 5-4 decision that the city of Chicago could not make it illegal for citizens to own handguns. The Court ruled that the right of an individual to "keep and bear arms" protected by the Second Amendment is incorporated by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The court held that it applies to the states.
Notes

References

Other websites 

 High Court’s Gun Ruling Cites Intent of 14th Amendment
 Benjamin Netanyahu just made the single best argument EVER for the Second Amendment 
 Should guns be banned in America? 

United States Bill of Rights
02
The North African food is at couscous
A Cuscus is a marsupial from Papua New Guinea. It has a pouch on its front where its baby begins to grow and develop in. The cuscus has thick white fur and a long tail, with a slightly pink tip. It uses its tail to help it climb through the trees.

References 

Marsupials
Papua New Guinea
Mammals of Oceania
Couscous is a traditional North African dish of small steamed granules of rolled semolina that is often served with vegetables and a stew spooned on top.
Couscous is not cooked, but rather steamed (over hot water), and is usually served as a main dish. Spices are indispensable, the most commonly used ones are Ras El Hanout, ginger, pepper and turmeric. These spices are added to the broth with chicken or red meat and vegetables. The stew should be plentiful because the couscous grain is dry, therefore absorbant.

Couscous can also be served cold. In this case, may be the base of a salad accompanied with seafood, or it may be used to make Tabouleh. Couscous can also be used for sweets, by adding milk, raisins, or almonds.
Origins 
Couscous originated in North Africa also known as the Maghreb. It is now popular in Armenia and the Middle East. Due to the immigration of North Africans to multiple countries around the world, the dish has nowadays gotten increasingly known in other areas like southern France, Sicilia and Brazil.

Different types of Couscous 

In Brazil, couscous is a typical dish from the Northeast of the country, which is part of the three meals of the day. Being commonly prepared with starch, wheat flour, corn, rice or cassava. In Southeast, it is consumed with butter, eggs or meat. In North, it is more common for couscous to be eaten for breakfast, made with coconut milk and accompanied by tapioca. In general, all types of side dishes are accepted in the country. Other examples of foods eaten with couscous are fish, shrimp, and chicken.
Couscous is sold in most supermarkets across Europe and the United States and has been pre-steamed and dried; the package instructions usually mention adding 1.5 measures of boiling water or stock and butter to each measure of couscous and to cover tightly for five minutes. The Couscous then swells and within a few minutes it is ready to fluff with a fork and serve. Pre-steamed Couscous takes less time to prepare than regular Couscous.

Other websites

BBC food glossary: Couscous 
 Greg Noakes and Laidia Chouat Noakes 1998. Couscous - the measure of the Maghrib. Saudi Aramco World article on Couscous
 Couscous: long-term Maghreb staple still going strong.  Magharebia.com: News and Views of the Maghreb article on Couscous.

Middle Eastern foods
Algeria
Libyan food
Mauritania
Moroccan culture
National symbols of Tunisia
The 2010 Copiapó mining accident was a mining accident that happened on August 5, 2010, when the copper-gold mine of San José, near Copiapó, Chile, collapsed. It left 33 miners trapped around 700 meters under the ground.

The Mine of San José (Mina San José) is about  north of Copiapó, in the Region of Atacama. The miners were trapped at about  deep and about  from the entrance of the mine. The mine has had accidents in the past, including one death. A report from the Chilean Government from July 2010, said that the owners of the mine did not "reinforce the roof." The lack of reinforcement "led to an earlier collapse of the roof". There has been controversy over why the mine was not closed down earlier.

Some people, including lawyers representing the mining company, think that the owners of the mine will declare bankruptcy after the miners are rescued.

On October 13, 2010, Florencio Ávalos reached the surface. He was the first miner to be rescued.
Related pages
 2006 Copiapó mining accident
 2010 Cauquenes earthquake
 2010 Pichilemu earthquake

References

2010 disasters
2010 in Chile
Mining disasters
Atacama Region
Qualitative analysis is a field of analytical chemistry.  It uses chemical reactions to find out what an unknown chemical substance is.  Qualitative chemistry is used in many jobs.  It is very useful for testing for drugs and poisons.

Many reactions are used in qualitative chemistry.  For example, fire can be used to learn what metals are in the compound.  The scientist would know what metal was in an unknown compound by the color of the flame. 

Qualitative chemistry is in contrast with Quantitative chemistry.  "Qualitative" refers to what is present, while "quantitative" refers to how much is present.

Analytical chemistry
Fracture might mean:
 Material fracture, when a material breaks
 Fracture (geology), when the Earth's mantle has faults
 Fracture (mineralogy), when minerals break
 Bone fracture, when a bone breaks
Cherkasy (, transliterated: Čerkasy) is a city in central Ukraine. It is the capital of the Cherkasy Oblast (province), as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Cherkasky Raion (district) within the oblast.

The city is cultural, educational and industrial center of Cherkasy Oblast and Central Economical Region of Ukraine. Cherkasy is famous since 13th century and played a great role in history of Ukraine. Cherkasy was the center of Cossacks, citizens took part in Khmelnychchyna and Koliyivschyna (cossacks and peasants rebellions).

The city is on the right bank of Dnieper River (specifically at the Kremenchuk Reservoir), about  south of the nation's capital, Kyiv. The city is divided into 2 parts (raions) - Sosnivskiy (with Orshanets village) and Pridniprovskiy. The current population of Cherkasy is 285,526 (as of 2010).

Cities in Cherkasy Oblast
1286 establishments
Establishments in Ukraine
13th-century establishments in Europe
The Dnieper River is one of the major rivers in Europe. It flows from Russia, through Belarus and Ukraine, to the Black Sea. It is fourth largest by length in Europe.  Its total length is .  is in Russia,  is in Belarus, and  is in Ukraine. Its basin covers .  is in Ukraine. In antiquity, it was known to the Greeks as the Borysthenes.

The river is part of the Quagga mussel's native range.

Related pages
Warfare in southern Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War

References

Rivers of Belarus
Rivers of Russia
Rivers of Ukraine
The Synod of Hippo was the synod of 393 that was held in Hippo Regius in northern Africa during the early Christian Church. Other synods were held in 394, 397, 401 and 426.

Some were attended by St. Augustine. The synod of 393 is best known for two things. First, for the first time a council of bishops listed and agreed a canon of Sacred Scripture that is the same as the modern Orthodox and Roman Catholic canon. The canon was later agreed at the Council of Carthage.

References
 New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia - African Synods
 Schaff - The Code of Canons of the African Church A.D. 419

Hippo
390s
State Electoral District means an electorate in the Lower House or Legislative Assembly of Australian states and territories. Most state electoral districts (except Australian Capital Territory and Tasmania, which have multi-member electorates using a proportional voting method) send a single member to a state or territory's parliament using the preferential method of voting. The size of a state electoral district depends on the Electoral Acts in the state and vary in size between them. At present, there are 407 state electoral districts in Australia.

State electoral districts do not apply to the Upper House, or Legislative Council, in the states which have one (New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia). In New South Wales and South Australia, MLCs represent the entire state, in Tasmania they represent single-member districts, and in Victoria and Western Australia they represent a region formed by grouping electoral districts together.

By State/Territory
By State/Territory

Australian Capital Territory 
There are three electorates for the Legislative Assembly, two with five members each, and one with seven members, making up seventeen members in total.

New South Wales 

 

There are currently 93 electoral districts in New South Wales.

Northern Territory 

There are 25 single-member electoral divisions in the Northern Territory, and 13 former divisions.

Queensland 

There are 89 electoral districts in Queensland, for the Legislative Assembly of Queensland.

South Australia 
There are 47 single-member electoral districts in South Australia, for the South Australian House of Assembly.

Tasmania 

There are 5 electoral divisions in Tasmania.

Victoria 

There are 88 electoral districts in Victoria, for the Victorian Legislative Assembly.

Western Australia
Western Australia 

There are 59 single-member electoral districts in Western Australia for the Western Australian Legislative Assembly. 42 are in the Perth metropolitan area and 17 are in the rest of the state.
Australian electorates
The First Amendment may mean any of the following:

First Amendment to the United States Constitution
Constitution Alteration (Senate Elections) Act, 1906, 
First Amendment of the Constitution of India
First Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland
First Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan
First Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa
An elephant gun is a large caliber gun, which could be (but does not have to be) a rifle. Elephant guns were first made to be used by big-game hunters who were hunting elephants and other large animals.

Early use
Early use 

As people from Europe began exploring Africa in the early 1800s, guns were made to handle the very large animals that people saw. This was for people to protect themselves, to shoot animals for food, and later, and most commonly, sport. The first guns were the simple shotgun designs already used for birds. They were loaded with solid balls of lead that could shoot large animals. Because they did not kill large animals very easily (some writers said that it could take up to 35 shots to kill one elephant), elephant guns were soon made into larger caliber black powder smoothbores. The caliber was still measured in bore or gauge - or the guns were named by how much the projectiles (what was shot out of the guns) weighed in ounces. The projectiles were lead round balls or short slugs shaped like cones. Sometimes, antimony was put in them to make them harder.
These very large and heavy firearms were the first to be known as the elephant guns of the black powder era (1850–1890). They were not only used to kill elephants. They were also used to kill dangerous animals such as the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus and the cape buffalo. Because black powder and lead cannot go faster than about  - the only way to make the projectiles go deeper into the animals' skins was to make a larger gun. Although they were very powerful, the short slugs (a type of projectile), which did not go very fast, still had problems going fully into their targets. This was especially hard for the toughest shot of all - going through the bone when an elephant's head was shot around the brain area.

Nitro Express rifles
Nitro Express elephant guns were first made around 1895. They used smokeless powder, which was new at the time. With smaller metal-cased bullets with sizes from .400 to .620 and speeds around , they had a much better trajectory and penetration over the black powder guns. In a few years the big bore guns disappeared from the gamefields.  Early 20th century rifles came out in single shot, bolt action, and double rifle ways and were used until ivory hunting died off in the mid 20th century. Then the guns switched roles to tools for game wardens and as backup firearms for professional hunters guiding international hunters.
The American gun market made several famous dangerous gun cartridges around this time, such as the .458 Winchester Magnum, .378 Weatherby Magnum and .460 Weatherby Magnum. Many of these were 'wildcatted' (to modify an existing case and rifle to fire a different caliber bullet). The rest of the old Nitro express calibers faded to obscurity until people starting safari hunting in the 1970s and 1980s. Then elephant guns like the .416 Weatherby Magnum and the .416 Remington Magnum were made again. The .700 Nitro Express (made in the 1980's and 1990's) and the new brass manufacturers made even more powerful elephant guns such as the .585 Nyati by Ross Seyfried, .577 Tyrannosaur by Colonel Art Alphin and .585 Gehringer by Karl Gehringer to be made by wildcatters. The .600 Overkill made by Rob Garnick shows the biggest power that could come from a standard hunting action. Other wildcats based on the heavy machine gun
.50 BMG and similar anti-materiel rounds have been devised which are much more powerful, though they are not generally useful hunting arms because they are heavier than .
Features
All elephant guns have one idea in common: to have enough stopping power to prevent harm to the hunter in the case of charging game. The necessities for the gun are not only very high power (any big gun could do that), but that it can be carried for long periods, shot from any position, and be well balanced enough to track on rapidly moving animals. It is really no more than a very big hunting rifle with the same use as any hunting rifle.
Use in war 
During World War I, both the British and Germans used elephant guns taken from their African colonies when they tried to break the stalemate in the trenches.  The British used elephant guns against the German tactic of having their snipers advance towards Allied lines under the cover of a large, 6-10 millimeter (0.24-0.4 inch) thick steel plate.  Ordinary infantry rifles didn't do anything to the plate, but elephant guns were able to punch through it.  Likewise, the Germans used a mass-produced anti-tank rifle, the Mauser 1918 TuF Gewehr, to knock out lightly armored British tanks.

During the North African Campaign in 1941, the Italians in East Africa fought against the British.  The Commander - The Duke of Aosta - gave his personal collection of elephant guns to his Italian soldiers to shoot armored cars because they didn't have enough anti-tank guns.
The Finnish 20 mm antitank gun Lahti L-39 had the nickname Norsupyssy (Elephant Gun) during the Winter War because of its stopping power. It is not a true elephant gun, though, since it was not made for elephant hunting but as a military weapon.

Related pages
Shotgun

References

Elephants
Firearms
Charter 08 is a manifesto (a public declaration of your beliefs) initially signed by over 350 Chinese intellectuals and human rights activists to promote political reform and democratization in the People's Republic of China. It was published on 10 December 2008, the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, using a similar name and style from the anti-Soviet Charter 77 issued by dissidents in Czechoslovakia. Since its release, more than 8,100 people inside and outside of China have signed the charter.

One of the authors of Charter '08, Liu Xiaobo, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010. He died of liver cancer in July 2017 while under medical leave during his prison sentence.

References

Human rights
Politics of the People's Republic of China
Sedan () is a commune in the Ardennes department and Grand Est region of north-eastern France. It is also the chief-lieu (administrative centre) of the arrondissement of the same name.

Geography
The old centre is on land within a curve of the Meuse River. It is about 10 km (6 miles) from Belgium, and about 200 km (120 miles) from Paris.

History
Sedan was built in 1424.  In the sixteenth century Sedan was a safe place for Protestants escaping from the Wars of Religion.

Until 1651, the Principality of Sedan belonged to the La Tour d'Auvergne family.  It was independent.  The most famous member of the family, Marshal Turenne, was born at Sedan on 11 September 1611.  With help from the Holy Roman Empire, Sedan defeated France at the Battle of La Marfée. Immediately after that it was surrounded, and its prince, Frederic, surrendered to France.  Only a year after that, it became part of France in return for sparing Frederic's life after he was in a plot against France.
During the Franco-Prussian War, on 2 September 1870 the French emperor Napoleon III was taken prisoner with 100,000 of his soldiers at the Battle of Sedan.

Because of this major victory, which also made the "Second Reich" of Germany possible, 2 September was declared "Sedan Day" (Sedantag) and a national German holiday in 1871. It remained a holiday until 1919.

In World War II the German army invaded neutral Belgium and crossed the Meuse River in Sedan.  This allowed them to get past the French fortification system, called the Maginot Line.

Sedan Castle

Sedan Castle may be the biggest of its kind in Europe with a total area of 30,000 square metres on seven levels. Building started in 1424 and the castle's defences were improved over the years. It is the only part left of the huge fortifications that there were in Sedan and around Sedan.

Economy
Sedan was a centre of cloth production, which was started under Cardinal Mazarin. It supported the town until the late nineteenth century.