Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
After the Baroque period composers did not often write toccatas.  The toccata became popular again in the late 19th century with the French organ composers such as Charles-Marie Widor whose Toccata from his Symphony No. 5 is very popular today, especially at weddings.  It has lots of quick notes in the right hand (and occasionally in the left) and a big tune in the pedals.  Another famous organ toccata is by Louis Vierne.  It is the last movement of his Symphony No. 1 (at this time French composers wrote organ works called "symphonies").

In the 20th century several composers wrote toccatas for piano including Prokofiev, Khachaturian, Ravel (part of Le Tombeau de Couperin) and Claude Debussy (part of Suite: Pour le Piano).

Related pages
Fugue
Prelude

Musical forms
Taylor Alison Swift (born December 13, 1989) is an American singer-songwriter. Taylor Swift is a very successful music artist. As one of the world's leading contemporary recording artists, she is known for narrative songs about her personal life, which have received widespread media coverage. Having sold more than 50 million albums - including 37 million in the US, Swift is one of the world's best-selling music artists and the highest-earning female musician of the 2010s. She has won 11 Grammy Awards, an Emmy Award, six Guinness world records and is the most-awarded act and woman at the American Music Awards (29 wins) and Billboard Music Awards (23 wins), respectively. In October 2023, she became a billionaire.

Early life
Taylor Alison Swift was born at Reading Hospital in West Reading, Pennsylvania. Her parents are Scott Swift and Andrea Swift. Swift was raised in Wyomissing, Pennsylvania on a Christmas tree farm. She moved to Hendersonville, Tennessee, near Nashville, when she was 14.

Career
Career

2006 - 2007: debut album
She released her first single, "Tim McGraw", in 2006 at the age of 16. That same year she released her first album, Taylor Swift. In 2008, she sold more albums than anyone else that year.

She won Country Music Television's (CMT) "Breakthrough Video of the Year" award in 2007 for "Tim McGraw". She was also nominated by the Academy of Country Music for "Top New Female Vocalist".

2008 - 2010: Fearless and Speak Now

Swift’s second studio album, Fearless, was released in 2008 and reached Platinum about a year later, on September 10, 2009, becoming her first ever album to sell 1 million copies. On October 25, 2010 she released her third album, Speak Now.
2012 - 2014: Red
The lead single from Swift's fourth album, Red, "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together", became her first number-one song on the US Billboard Hot 100. The single "I Knew You Were Trouble" reached number two on the chart while becoming her first chart-topper on Billboards Mainstream Top 40/Pop Songs chart. In 2012 Swift voiced the character Audrey in the movie The Lorax.

2014 - 2016: 1989
Swift performed "Shake It Off", the lead single from her fifth album, 1989, at the 2014 MTV VMAs. 1989 was released on October 27, 2014.  "Shake It Off", along with the singles "Blank Space", and "Bad Blood", all reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100. These singles, along with "Style" and "Wildest Dreams", have also topped the Mainstream Top 40/Pop Songs chart.
In 2016 she featured on the single, "I Don't Wanna Live Forever" with English singer Zayn Malik (former member of One Direction). It was released as a single for the soundtrack of the film Fifty Shades Darker (2017).  It reached number two on the Hot 100 in the US and Canada.

2017 - 2019: reputation
On June 8, 2017, Swift restored her music on streaming sites such as Spotify and Apple Music after previously removing it from being streamed.  On August 25, 2017, Swift released the single "Look What You Made Me Do", which topped the Billboard Hot 100 and broke YouTube's streaming record after garnering 43 million views within 24 hours. It also became her first UK chart-topper. Swift announced that her sixth studio album, Reputation, would be released on November 10, 2017. The album included singles such as "...Ready for It?" and "End Game" featuring American rapper Future and English singer Ed Sheeran.
2019 - 2020: Lover
On April 26, 2019, Swift released the single "ME!" featuring Brendon Urie as the lead single from her seventh studio album, Lover. On June 14, 2019, Swift released Lover’s second single "You Need to Calm Down". Both of these songs reached number two on the US Hot 100.

On August 16, Swift released "Lover" as the third single from Lover and released a duet version of the song with Canadian recording artist Shawn Mendes.

 2020 - 2021: folklore and evermore 
In August 2020, Swift revealed that she was releasing a surprise album called folklore, after it was announced her Loverfest stadium tour was canceled due to the coronavirus pandemic.  Its lead single, "cardigan", entered at number one on the US Hot 100, becoming her sixth US number-one. folklore became her seventh US number-one album.  She became the first artist to enter at number one on both the Hot 100 singles chart and Billboard 200 album chart in the same week.
On December 11, 2020, Swift released her ninth studio album, evermore. It is meant to be a "sister" album to folklore.

 2021 - present: Fearless (Taylor's Version), Red (Taylor's Version) and Midnights 
Due to Swift not being able to own her own masters, she has come out on her social medias stating, (in a hidden way), that her version of the album Fearless will be released April 9, 2021. She released the first song from the album, "Love Story" on February 12, 2021. On November 12, 2021 she released Red (Taylor's Version). Then her 10th and most recent studio album Midnights came out on October 21, 2022. Swift is currently embarking on the Eras Tour, her sixth headlining tour across the U.S, performing songs across her entire discography.
Personal life 
Swift has three cats. One is named "Meredith" after the doctor on Grey's Anatomy. The second is named "Olivia" after the detective, now captain, on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. The third one is "Benjamin" after the fictional Benjamin Button which she adopted during the filming of her music video "Me!". Easy A Herself/Self-Taylor Swift

Swift has a younger brother named Austin Swift, who is an actor.

Swift also has many friends including Selena Gomez, Blake Lively, Gigi Hadid, Lorde, Katy Perry, Julia Avania, Camila Cabello, Taylor Marie and the HAIM sisters.

In Nashville, Swift worked with experienced Music Row songwriters such as Troy Verges, Brett Beavers, Brett James, Mac McAnally, and the Warren Brothers, and formed a lasting working relationship with Liz Rose.

 Discography & Filmography 
 Studio albums 

 Singles 

 Concert tours
Concert tours 

 Fearless Tour (2009 - 2010)
 Speak Now World Tour (2011 - 2012)
 The Red Tour (2013 - 2014)
 The 1989 World Tour (2015)
 Reputation Stadium Tour (2018)
 The Eras Tour (2023 - 2024)

 Cancelled tours 

 Lover Fest (2020)

 Awards 
 Grammy Awards2010 (52nd Award Ceremony) Album of the Year, Fearless
Best Country Album, Fearless
 Best Female Country Vocal Performance, "White Horse"
 Best Country Song, "White Horse"
 2012 (54th Award Ceremony) Best Country Solo Performance, "Mean"
 Best Country Song, "Mean"
 2013 (55th Award Ceremony) Best Song Written for Visual Media, "Safe & Sound" (from The Hunger Games)
 2016 (58th Award Ceremony) Album of the Year, 1989
Best Pop Vocal Album, 1989
 Best Music Video, "Bad Blood"
 2021 (63rd Award Ceremony) Album of the Year, folklore

 CMT Music Awards
 2007, Breakthrough Video of the Year: Tim McGraw
 Academy of Country Music Awards
 2008, Best New Female Vocalist
Nominations 
 Country Music Association Award
 2007, Horizon Award
 American Music Awards
 2007, Favorite Female Artist, Country Music
 Academy of Country Music Awards
 2007, Top New Female Vocalist
 Grammy Awards2008 (50th Award Ceremony)Best New Artist
 2010 (52th Award Ceremony) Record of the Year, "You Belong with Me"
 Song of the Year, "You Belong with Me"
 Best Female Pop Vocal Performance,  "You Belong with Me"
Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals, "Breathe", featuring Colbie Caillat2012 (54th Award Ceremony)Best Country Album, Speak Now2013 (55th Award Ceremony)Record of the Year, "We Are Never Ever Getting back Together"
Best Country Duo/Group Performance, "Safe and Sound", featuring The Civil Wars2014 (56th Award Ceremony) Album of the Year, Red
Best Country Album, Red
Best Country Song, "Begin Again"
Best Country Duo/Group Performance, "Highway Don't Care" (with Tim McGraw, featuring Keith Urban)2015 (57th Award Ceremony) Record of the Year, "Shake It Off"
 Song of the Year, "Shake It Off"
Best Pop Solo Performance, "Shake It Off"2016 (58th Award Ceremony) Record of the Year, '"Blank Space"
 Song of the Year, "Blank Space"
 Best Pop Solo Performance, "Blank Space"
Best Pop Duo/Group Performance, "Bad Blood", featuring Kendrick Lamar
 2018 (60th Award Ceremony) Best Country Song, "Better Man"
 Best Song Written for Visual Media, "I Don't Wanna Live Forever" (from Fifty Shades Darker)
 2019 (61st Award Ceremony) Best Pop Vocal Album, Reputation
 2020 (62nd Award Ceremony)'''
 Song of the Year, "Lover"
Best Pop Vocal Album, Lover''
 Best Pop Solo Performance, "You Need to Calm Down"
References

Other websites

 Taylor Swift official website

1989 births
American country singers
American feminists
American pop singers
American singer-songwriters
Singers from Pennsylvania
American movie actors
American television actors
American actors
Living people
Synth-pop singers
Internal medicine is the branch and specialty of medicine concerning the diagnosis and nonsurgical treatment of diseases in adults, especially of internal organs.

Doctors of internal medicine, also called "internists", are required to have included in their medical schooling and postgraduate training at least three years dedicated to learning how to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases that affect adults.

Caring for the whole patient 

Internists are trained to solve puzzling diagnostic problems and handle severe chronic illnesses and situations where several different illnesses may strike at the same time.

Subspecialties of internal medicine
Internists can choose to focus their practice on general internal medicine, or may take additional training to "subspecialize" in one of 13 areas of internal medicine, generally organized by organ system. Cardiologists, for example, are doctors of internal medicine who subspecialize in diseases of the heart. The training an internist receives to subspecialize in a particular medical area is both broad and deep. Subspecialty training (often called a "fellowship") usually requires an additional one to three years beyond the standard three year general internal medicine residency. (Residencies come after a student has graduated from medical school.)

In the United States, there are two organizations responsible for certification of subspecialists within the field, the American Board of Internal Medicine, and the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine. 

The following are the subspecialties recognized by the American Board of Internal Medicine.
Cardiology, dealing with disorders of the heart and blood vessels 
Endocrinology, dealing with disorders of the endocrine system and its specific secretions called hormones
Gastroenterology, concerned with the field of digestive diseases
Hematology, concerned with blood, the blood-forming organs and its disorders
Infectious disease, concerned with disease caused by a biological agent such as by a virus, bacterium or parasite
Medical oncology, dealing with the study and treatment of cancer
Nephrology,dealing with the study of the function and diseases of the kidney
Pulmonology, dealing with diseases of the lungs and the respiratory tract
Rheumatology, devoted to the medical diagnosis and therapy of rheumatic diseases.

The ABIM also recognizes additional qualifications in the following areas
Adolescent medicine
Clinical cardiac electrophysiology
Critical care medicine
Geriatric medicine
Interventional cardiology
Sports medicine
Transplant hepatology
Internists may also specialize in allergy and immunology. The American Board of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology is a conjoint board between internal medicine and pediatrics. 

The American College of Osteopathic Internists recognizes the following subspecialties.

Allergy/Immunology
Cardiology
Critical care medicine
Endocrinology
Gastroenterology
Geriatric medicine
Hematology/Oncology
Infectious diseases
Nuclear medicine
Nephrology
Pulmonology
Rheumatology

References
References

Other websites 
cell research - the world's sickle cell research center,burla,orissa,India
American College of Physicians - the world's largest medical specialty society for doctors of internal medicine
Doctors for Adults.com  - The American College of Physicians' patient education Web site, with more info about internal medicine and internists
On-line Internal Medicine Journal Club (via JournalReview.org) 
The American Board of Internal Medicine - The largest certifying board for internists and related subspecialists in the USA
Canadian Society of Internal Medicine 
The American College of Osteopathic Internists
The American College of Osteopathic Internists
Internal Medicine positions  - Internal medicine positions available
 Internal Medicine- CME Internal Medicine Org
 Buy Xanax Online

Medical specialties
City status in the United Kingdom is granted by the British monarch to some communities. There are 69 cities in the United Kingdom (see list below) – 51 in England, six in Wales, seven in Scotland and five in Northern Ireland.

Becoming a city is not automatic.  Many people think that any town that has a cathedral is a city. This is because Henry VIII built cathedrals in six English towns and made them cities by letters patent.

A city council does not have any more powers than a borough or district council. Some city councils (like Ripon) are only parish councils, and have few little powers at all.

Official cities 
Officially there are 69 cities in the United Kingdom (UK). Sunderland was made a city to mark Elizabeth II's Ruby anniversary (40 years as Queen). Eight others have been created in competitions to celebrate the new millennium and Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee.

Lord Mayors
Lord Mayors

A city does not automatically have a Lord Mayor or Lord Provost in Scotland. There are 69 cities in the UK but only 30 Lord Mayors.
 A Mayor is called "The Worshipful the Mayor of A Town".
 A Lord Mayor is called "The Right Worshipful The Lord Mayor of A City".
 The Lord Mayors or Lords Provost of Belfast, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow, City of London, and York are called "The Right Honourable the Lord Mayor" (or Provost).

Of the 69 cities: (including 30 Lord Mayoralties or Lord Provostships) in the UK:
 51 are in England, 23 have a Lord Mayor
 6 are in Wales, 2 have a Lord Mayor
 7 are in Scotland, 4 have a Lord Provost
 5 are in Northern Ireland, 1 has a Lord Mayor.

The former City of Rochester
Rochester was a city from 1211 to 1998.

On April 1, 1974 the city council was abolished, and new letters patent were issued to the new Medway Borough Council to carry on the city name in the old city area.
In 1979, Medway was renamed Rochester-upon-Medway and new letters patent made the whole of the new area a city.

On April 1, 1998, Rochester-upon-Medway and Gillingham joined together to became the new unitary authority of Medway. Rochester upon Medway City Council did not appoint appoint Charter Trustees to maintain the existence of the city and the mayoralty so the city simply ceased to exist, because the council forgot.

List of officially-designated cities 

 City Status confirmed by Letters Patent issued under the Great Seal dated April 1, 1974.

 City Status confirmed by Letters Patent issued under the Great Seal dated June 25, 1974.

 City Status confirmed by Letters Patent issued under the Great Seal dated May 28, 1974.

 Bath Abbey and Westminster Abbey are no longer cathedrals.
Coventry has had three cathedrals: the first, St Mary's from 1043 to 1539; the second, St Michael's, from 1918 to 1940, when it was destroyed by German bombardment; and its replacement, also St Michael's, built alongside the old cathedral, consecrated in 1962.

 Note that the City of London covers only the "square mile", and is usually just referred to as "the City". The larger conurbation of Greater London has no city charter, and consists of the City of London, the City of Westminster and 31 other London boroughs. This can be compared to the City of Brussels, within Brussels.

 City status was confirmed by Letters Patent dated July 9, 1974. The city status extends to the entire district, although the district council calls itself "St Albans District Council" or "St Albans City and District".
Letters Patent under the Great Seal conferring City Status were issued to the unitary authority of York on April 1, 1996, confirming the right of the Lord Mayor to be styled "Right Honourable", in continuation to those granted to the previous City Council abolished March 31, 1996.

 Letters Patent under the Great Seal were issued on March 29, 1996 ordaining that the counties of Swansea and Cardiff should have the status of cities from April 1, 1996. The counties replaced the previous district councils which had enjoyed city status.

 According to the Municipal Year Book, 1972 the royal burghs of Perth and Elgin officially enjoyed city status. The royal burghs of Brechin, Dunfermline and Kirkwall had also been officially described as "cities". As all burghs were abolished in 1975, these areas are now often called "former cities". Although Brechin does not have city status, the community council formed for the area uses the title "City of Brechin and District".
The Provost of Inverness is the Area Convenor of the Inverness Area Committee of Highland Council.

 The Provost of Stirling is the civic head of the entire Stirling council area, although city status only extends to the town of Stirling.

 Armagh had previously enjoyed city status, with St Patrick's Cathedral the site of the metropolitan primate of all Ireland. The city status was lost in 1840 when the city corporation was abolished. However, the successor urban district council and district council frequently used the title of city without official sanction prior to 1994.

 City Status confirmed by Letters Patent issued under the Great Seal dated March 18, 1975.

 City status granted by Letters Patent dated June 7, 1977.

 City status granted to the "Town of Newport in the County Borough of Newport" and the "Town of Preston" by Letters Patent dated May 15, 2002.

 Letters Patent dated January 31, 2001 ordained that "the Towns of Brighton and Hove shall have the status of a City".
Letters Patent dated January 31, 2001 ordained that "the Town of Wolverhampton shall have the status of a City".

 Letters Patent dated November 4, 1980 ordained that the "Town of Lichfield shall have the status of a City". A town council had been constituted in 1980 leading to the dissolution of the Charter Trustees of the City of Lichfield.

 City status granted by Letters Patent  dated March 23, 1992.

 City status was conferred on Hereford Town Council October 11, 2000. The status had previously been confirmed to the district council formed in 1974. When that council was abolished in 1996 charter trustees were formed for the City of Hereford. On the formation of a town council for Hereford in April 2000 the charter trustees were dissolved, and the city status temporarily lapsed.
St. David's historically had city status because of the presence of St David's Cathedral. This status was lost in the 19th. century after local government reorganization. Letters Patent dated September 16, 1994 ordained that the "Town of St. David's shall have the status of a City".

 The title of City was used "by courtesy" after 1550 when Westminster ceased to be the see of a bishop. By Letters Patent dated October 27 1900 city status was conferred on the newly created Metropolitan Borough of Westminster from November 1. This status was continued on the creation of the City of Westminster as a london borough in 1965.

 A letter from the Home Secretary to the Mayor of Leicester confirming that the city status would be bestowed, noted that this was a "restoration to your ancient town of its former status of a city."

Letters Patent dated December 10, 1969.

Letters Patent dated April 21, 1926.

Letters Patent dated March 21, 1951.

Letters Patent dated May 14, 1937.

Letters Patent dated October 18, 1928.
Letters Patent dated June 5, 1925.

Letters Patent dated October 28, 1905, which also granted the title of Lord Mayor.

Letters Patent dated March 22, 1982.

Letters Patent dated July 13, 1988.

Letters Patent dated March 10, 1992.

Letters Patent dated June 6, 1953.

Letters Patent dated May 1, 2002.

Declaration that the Chief Magistrate and Officer of the City to bear the style and title of Lord Mayor due to the city's high position in the roll of ports of [the] kingdom June 26, 1914

Declaration that the Chief Magistrate to bear the honorary title of Lord Mayor July 11, 1906.

Declaration that the Chief Magistrate of the City to bear the style and title of Lord Mayor July 10, 1928 in consideration of its antiquity and importance

Letters Patent dated October 23, 1962.

Letters Patent dated May 10, 1935, in commemoration of his Majesty's silver jubilee

Letters Patent dated March 11, 1966.
Style of "Right Honourable" conferred on Lord Mayor by Letters Patent dated October 26, 1956. The city was designated the capital of Wales at that date.

The first Lord Mayor was appointed June 3, 1896.

Letters Patent dated September 16, 1907.

The Lord Mayoralty of Bristol was granted as part of the Birthday Honours in 1899

The Lord Mayoralty was granted in 1897

The Lord Mayoralty was granted in 1928

The Lord Mayoralty was granted in 1892

The Lord Mayoralty was granted in 1892

The Lord Mayoralty was granted in 1910 in view of the position occupied by that city as the chief city of East Anglia and of its close association with his Majesty

The Lord Mayoralty was granted in 1927

The Lord Mayoralty was granted July 12, 1897.

The Lord Mayoralty was granted July 10, 1928.
Warrant issued 28 January 1889 that Letters Patent be issued under the Seal appointed by the treaty of union to be used in place of the Great Seal of Scotland, ordaining and declaring that the Burgh of Dundee shall be a City, and shall be called and styled "The City of Dundee"

Burghs of Old Aberdeen and Woodside and the district of Torry incorporated as the City and Royal Burgh of Aberdeen by the Aberdeen Corporation Act 1891 (1891 c.cxxiv)

The present council areas are designated  "cities" by virtue of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, which also reserves the post of Lord Provost for the convener of the four councils. The previous local government districts and district councils created by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 enjoyed the same privileges.

Letters Patent dated January 14, 1889

References

Other websites 
 Government list of UK cities
 BBC News: Rochester loses city status

Local government in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom-related lists

United Kingdom
The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was a well equipped single-seat WWII fighter. It had 2 powerful engines allowing it to reach high altitudes and speeds. The tail design was unique compared to other aircraft of the time. The Americans used this aircraft in many of its dogfights and long-range enemy engagements. The P-38 created many aces, making it favourable over other aircraft.

References

United States Army aircraft
P-38
World War II American aircraft
The Messerschmitt Bf 109 was a fighter aircraft usually called the Me 109. It was a German World War II aircraft.

Made by Messerschmitt, it first flew in 1935, and was used by the Luftwaffe during the Spanish Civil War and throughout World War II.  It was one of the first modern fighters of the time. It had an all-metal construction, a closed cockpit, and retractable landing gear. It was powered by a liquid-cooled, inverted-V12 aero engine.

The Messerschmitt Bf-109, was a powerful single-propeller aircraft, used by the Germans as support aircraft. The Bf-109 was a worthy competitor as Germany’s greatest aircraft, though the Fw-190 proved more significant for some enemy engagements. The camouflaged aircraft fought in the heat of the 1940 Battle of Britain, going head to head with the English Spitfires.

There were many variations designed for special purposes. Overall, the Me 109 was the most produced fighter aircraft in history, with a total of 33,984 airframes produced from 1936 up to April 1945.
The design of the plane caused some problems on the ground, and with take-off and landing. At least 10% of all Bf 109s were lost in takeoff and landing accidents, 1,500 of which occurred between 1939 and 1941. A new fixed tailwheel helped correct the problem.

Bf 109 was used by Luftwaffe together with FW 190. The Messerschmitt had two machine guns and one cannon while FW 190 had two machine guns and four cannons. Bf 109 was much lighter than FW 190, by 1500 kg. Despite that Bf 109 was almost as fast as FW 190 (Fw 190 A-8 was only 16kph faster than Bf 109 G-6) and climbed at 17 m/s, 2 m/s faster than FW 190.

Related pages
P-51 Mustang
Fw 190
Hawker Hurricane
Supermarine Spitfire

References 

World War II German aircraft
The Me 262 was a German fighter aircraft flown during late World War II. It was the first jet to be used in war. It began test flights in 1942, but was not used in combat by the German air force, the Luftwaffe, until 1944. Very few were built because Germany's enemies were bombing factories. It saw little action because the war was nearly over. The jet engines of the new machine often caused problems, that's why a lot of machines had deathly accidents.

Nicknamed Schwalbe (Swallow), the Messerschmidt Me 262 surpassed the performance of every other World War II fighter. Faster than the North American P-51 Mustang by 190 kph (120 mph) per hour, the Schwalbe restored to the faltering German Luftwaffe. The Me-262 has two ʽJumo 004 B turbine enginesʼ with a top speed of 869.4 kph (540 mph). It's armament includes two ʽMK 103 30 mm cannonsʼ, two ʽ108 30 mm cannonsʼ, and a pair of ʽMG 151/20 20 mm cannonsʼ.

Related pages
 Jet aircraft

References

World War II German aircraft
Osmosis (/ɒzˈmoʊ.sɪs/) is the movement of solvent (liquid) molecules through a membrane, from one solution to another, which happens without an outside force. 

Solvent will move to the side that has a higher concentration of solutes, or dissolved particles — and thus a lower concentration of solvent. This happens because the membrane is selectively permeable:  the solvent can pass through, but the solute cannot. Solvent molecules move randomly, and so the concentrations on both sides become more equal.

Osmosis can be made to do work. Osmotic pressure is the external pressure that must be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute.
Osmosis is important in biological (living) systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to large  molecules such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides. They are  permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids and small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, vacuole or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer. 

Osmosis provides the main way water is gets in and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its environment.

Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic
Solutions may have more or less solute per unit of solvent. The one with less is called hypotonic. When the two solutions have equal concentration, they are isotonic. The one with more is hypertonic. When the hypotonic solution is outside the cell, and hypertonic solution inside, the cell becomes swollen and distorted.

Cell membranes 
The plasma membrane of a cell is semi-permeable, which means it allows the entry of certain molecules in or out. It lets small molecules pass through, but blocks larger molecules,. The membrane also has ports or gateways which get certain macromolecules through. This is active transport, which uses energy and is selective. It is the outermost covering of the animal cell, made of proteins and lipids. Example: exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Related pages 
 Reverse osmosis
 Osmoregulation

Cell biology
Thermodynamics
The MiG-17 Fresco is a fighter aircraft made by Mikoyan, a Russian company. It first flew in 1950, and was supposed to replace the MiG-15 in the Korean War, but it did not arrive fast enough. It was used by the North Vietnamese in the Vietnam War. It carried 3 guns on it, and later versions carried missiles. Today, it is used as a trainer in other air forces.

Related pages
F-8 Crusader
F-4 Phantom II
MiG-21

Soviet military aircraft
Vietnamese military aircraft
Polish military aircraft
Vietnam War aircraft
History 
In 1939 Russia was part of the Soviet Union and was communist. In the Soviet communist system there were two types of airplane companies, companies that designed aircraft known as design offices or OKB, and companies that made airplanes called zavods. Artom Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich had been designers in another design office helping a designer called Nikolai Polikarpov. One airplane design that Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich worked on at Polikarpov was called the I-200. When Nikolai Polikarpov lost the trust of the Soviet leader Stalin, Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich were given the I-200 design to finish. This airplane was given a new name and was called the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-1. As it was being made, ways to make the MiG-1 into a better airplane were found and airplanes with these changes became known as the MiG-3 and later the MiG-7. However even with changes the MiG fighter airplanes were not as good as the fighter airplanes designed by the design offices of Lavochkin or Yakovlev.
After World War II Mikoyan-Gurevich designed jet aircraft. In the Soviet system the airplane designs of the design offices would compete to see which was the best.  When the best design had been found the design would be built by the airplane manufacturing company.  Even though Mikoyan-Gurevich airplanes in World War II had not been as good as airplanes by Lavochkin or Yakovlev. Mikoyan-Gurevich jet aircraft won more of the competitions to be sent to the zavods and in the time of the Cold War Mikoyan-Gurevich, together with another design office called Sukhoi, became one of the two most important design offices of fighter planes in the Soviet Union.
In the Soviet system decisions were made to protect the government from its own soldiers. In many countries there is only one airforce, the Soviet Union had five airforces. Two of these airforces were the main users of Soviet fighter airplanes. One airforce was called PVO Strany, this airforce was used to defend the cities and land of the Soviet Union. One airforce was called Frontal Aviation, this airforce was used to defend the Soviet Union's ground soldiers against enemy fighter airplanes, and to attack enemy ground forces. Mikoyan-Gurevich became the main designer of aircraft for Frontal Aviation.

Aircraft made 

Mikoyan has designed the following airplanes:

 Mikoyan MiG-1
 Mikoyan MiG-3 (also called MiG-7)
 MiG DIS
 MiG-9 Fargo
 MiG-15 Fagot
 MiG-17 Fresco
 MiG-19 Farmer
 MiG-21 Fishbed
 MiG-23 Flogger
 MiG-25 Foxbat
 MiG-27 Flogger
 MiG-29 Fulcrum
 MiG-31 Foxhound

Companies of Russia
Aircraft companies
1939 establishments in Europe
Transport in Russia
Juno could mean:

 Juno (mythology), a major Roman goddess
 June, the month named after Juno
 3 Juno, one of the largest main belt asteroids

Music 
 Juno (band), an American indie rock band
 Juno (musical), a Broadway musical with score by Marc Blitzstein based on Sean O'Casey's play Juno and the Paycock
 Juno Reactor, a trance music project of Ben Watkins
 Juno Mak, a Cantopop artist
 Juno Award, a Canadian music award
 Roland Juno-60, Roland Juno-106 or Roland Juno-D (1983?-Present), synthesizers by Roland
 "Juno", a song by Funeral for a Friend, from their debut EP Between Order & Model. Later re-recorded for debut LP Casually Dressed and Deep in Conversation and released as a single under the name Juneau
 Juno Records, an online music store
Vehicles 
 Juno (spacecraft), a planned NASA mission to Jupiter
 HMS Juno, the name of seven vessels of Royal Navy
 Jupiter-C (rocket), also known as Juno or Juno I
 Jupiter (missile) also known as Juno II
 Juno (1864 – 1884), one of the eight South Devon Railway Dido class steam locomotives
 Juno, a Great Western Railway Banking Class 0-6-0ST steam locomotive.
 Juno, a Spanish ship sank in 1802. After its 1997 discovery in Assateague coast (Virginia) the Spanish government claimed ownership of the wreck.
Other uses 
 Juno (movie) a 2007 comedy-drama movie directed by Jason Reitman
 Juno (Dune), a Titan in the fictional Dune universe
 Juno Beach, one of five beaches used as landing zones in the Battle of Normandy in World War II
 3 Juno, the third asteroid to be discovered
 Juno clump, a probable asteroid family near 3 Juno
 Juno Online Services, an internet service provider in the United States
 Project Juno, a British commercial venture that sent Helen Sharman to space
 Juno, protagonist of the video game Jet Force Gemini
 MegaMan Juno, a villain in the video game Mega Man Legends
 Juno Skinner, a villain in the 1994 film True Lies
 Juno Lighting, a company that specializes in commercial and residential lighting
 Juno creator of Star Cross'd Destiny
 Juno the game by Mountain King Studios
 Juno, a powerful Denial of Service attack program, written in the C Programming Language
 Juno, a German cigarette brand produced by Reemtsma
 Juno Temple, an English actress
Neptune (Latin: Neptūnus) is the god of water and the sea in ancient Roman religion and mythology. His Greek equivalent is the god Poseidon. The Roman conception of Neptune was mainly influenced by the Etruscan god Nethuns. Neptune was associated with fresh water as well as the sea, while Oceanus was the god of the world-ocean. Like his Greek equivalent, Neptune was also worshipped by the Romans as the god of horses, and, under the name Neptune Equester, he was a patron god of horse-racing.

The planet Neptune is named after this Roman god.

References 

 Poseidon -- Greek version of Neptune

 

Roman gods and goddesses
Gods and goddesses of water
Fortuna (Latin and Spanish: "fortune") can mean:

 Fortuna, the Roman goddess of luck (from the Greek Tyche)

Geographical
 19 Fortuna, an asteroid
 Fortuna, California, a town on the north coast of California
 Fortuna, North Dakota, a town in the northwest of North Dakota, near the Canadian border.
 Fortuna (SEPTA station)
 Fortuna, Murcia, a town in the province of Murcia in Spain

People
 Fortuna (Brazilian singer), a female singer and composer from Brazil of Jewish origin
 Wojciech Fortuna, a former ski jumper and Olympic gold medallist

Sports
 Fortuna Düsseldorf
 Fortuna Köln
 Fortuna Sittard
Other
 Fortuna (philosophy), Philosophy of the Fellowship of Fortuna Movement
 Fortuna (PRNG), a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator design by Niels Ferguson and Bruce Schneier
 Fortuna, a fictional planet from the Star Fox series of video games
 Fortuna (cigarette), a cigarette brand owned by Altadis
 "O Fortuna", widely recognizable opening movement of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana
 Fortuna Saga, an original sprite-based webcomic set in the world of Final Fantasy VI.
 A name for bagatelle, a game developed from billiard
For the folk music band, see Sol Invictus (band).

Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun") or, more fully, Deus Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun god") was a religious title applied to at least three distinct deities during the later Roman Empire: El Gabal, Mithras, and Sol.

The earlier cult of Sol Indiges ("the native sun" or "the invoked sun") was agrarian. The title Deus Sol Invictus was formed similar to the imperial titulature pius felix invictus ("dutiful, fortunate, unconquered").
The Romans held a festival on December 25 called Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, "the birthday of the unconquered sun." The use of the title Sol Invictus allowed several solar deities to be worshipped together, including Elah-Gabal, a Syrian sun god; Sol, the patron god of Emperor Aurelian (AD 270-274); and Mithras, a soldiers' god of Persian origin. Emperor Elagabalus (218-222) introduced the festival, and it reached the height of its popularity under Aurelian, who promoted it as an empire-wide holiday that was a possible inspiration of Christmas.

Notes

Further reading
Halsberghe, L. 1972. The Cult of Sol Invictus (Leiden)
Other websites 
Encyclopedia Britannica Online: Sol
Probus and Sol, includes images of coins 
Roman-Emperors: Aurelian 
Gibbon's Decline and Fall: Triumph of Aurelian
Gibbon's references for Aurelian's Temple of Sol Invictus 
 Clement A. Miles, Christmas in Ritual and Tradition, Christian and Pagan (1912): December 25 and the Natalis Invicti
Catholic Encyclopedia (1908): Christmas
Ancient sources

Roman gods and goddesses
An optical printer is a device. It can be used to copy rolls of movies. It is made of one or more movie projectors, which are linked to a movie camera. It allows filmmakers to re-photograph one or more strips of movie. The optical printer is used for making special effects for motion pictures or for copying and restoring old movie material.

Common optical effects include fade outs and fade ins, dissolves, slow motion, fast motion, and matte work. More complicated work needs dozens of elements, all combined into a single scene. Ideally, the audience in a theater should not be able to notice any optical printers work, but this is not always the case. For economical reasons, especially in the 1950s, and later in TV series produced on movie, printer work was limited to only the actual parts of a scene needing the effect, so there is a clear change in the image quality when the transition occurs.
The first, simple optical printers were constructed in the early 1920s. Linwood G. Dunn expanded the concept in the 1930s. The development continued well into the 1980s, when the printers were controlled with minicomputers.

Sice the late 1980s, digital compositing began to replace optical effects. Since the mid nineties the conversion to digital effects has been almost total. Optical printing today is used most widely by artists working exclusively with movie. As a technique, it proves particularly useful for making copies of hand painted or physically manipulated movie.

Printers
Lares (pl.) were ancient Roman deities who protected the house and the family - household gods.  See also Genius, Larvae, Di Penates, Manes.

Lares are presumed sons of Mercury and Lara, and deeply venerated by ancient Romans through small statues, usually put in higher places of the house, far from the floor, or even on the roof.  
In the early Roman times, in every house there was at least one little statue. Later, a sort of confusion connected their figure with those of Manes, deities of Hades (and the most virtuous dead persons of the family). Finally the confusion included the Penates (other minor deities) as well.

Related pages
 Turan, the Etruscan love goddess

References 

Roman gods and goddesses
Charter trustees are the English district councillors for an area that used to be a city.

They are allowed by the Charter Trustees Act 1985, so that some of the privileges and dignities of former city can be carried on.

References
Charter Trustees Acts 1985 c45
In Roman mythology, Quirinus was an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, Quirinus was also a name of Janus, as Janus Quirinus.

History 

Quirinus was originally most likely a Sabine god. The Sabines had a settlement near the site of what was to become Rome, and erected an altar to Quirinus on the Collis Quirinalis, the Quirinal Hill, one of the Seven Hills of Rome.  When the Romans settled there, they absorbed the cult of Quirinus into their early belief system — previous to direct Greek influence — and he was said to be the deified Romulus.  

In later times, however, Quirinus became far less important, losing his place to (Juno and Minerva and Mars' place).

Notes 

Roman gods and goddesses
The name kreisfreie Stadt (plural: kreisfreie Städte) is used for German towns that have their own government. This town government is independent of the government of the next-higher level of authority, the Landkreis. Today, most of the cities that have this statute, are big cities, with 100.000 people living there, or more. The concept grew historically. That means that there are big cities, with more than 100.000 people that do not have the statute. There are also some cities who have only taken a part of the responsibilities of a Landkreis (or Kreis). The smallest city with the statute is Zweibrücken. About 35.000 people live there. The biggest of these cities is Munich, with about 1.3 million people. Hamburg and Berlin are bigger. They are city states, though. The city state of Bremen (state) is made of two kreisfreie Städte, the city of Bremen, and the city of Bremerhaven, about 60 km to the north. About half a million people live in Bremen (1.5 million in the agglomeration), about 117
.000 people live in Bremerhaven.
But not every big city with more than 100.000 inhabitants is a kreisfreie Stadt. Some of them, for example Recklinghausen or Göttingen (both more 120.000 inhabitants) are part of a Landkreis.

There are very few cities, who only took part of the paperwork from the Landkreis. Some of these are called Große selbständige Stadt (Translates to Big sovereign city). They only seem to exist in Lower Saxony. They are:
Celle, Cuxhaven, Goslar, Hameln, Hildesheim, Lingen, and Lüneburg. Things like hunting permits cannot be delegated to the cities. Other things, like what to do with the trash have sometimes been delegated.

Similar concepts to that of the kreisfreie Stadt are Unitary authorities in the United Kingdom, or that of independent city in the United States.

Political systems
Politics of Germany
Jet aircraft are aircraft with jet engines. Unlike propeller-powered aircraft, jet aircraft normally fly at altitudes as high as 100 to 1,5 meters, about 33 to .  At these altitudes, jet engines can achieve maximum efficiency over long distances.   The engines in propeller powered aircraft achieve their maximum efficiency at much lower altitudes.

Gallery

References

Aircraft
Downtown (called a city centre in British English) is a word used in North America which refers to the main part of a city. It is usually the central business district where most commercial and office areas are; many of them being in skyscrapers. Tourism also concentrates there.

Urban geography
IEEE 802.11 is a series of protocols for wireless networking. Often these are called Wireless LAN, WLAN, or Wi-Fi. Such a protocol allows computers that have the needed radio parts to communicate with each other, without a cable. There are many types of Wi-Fi standards, known as 802.11 a, b, g, n, and recently ac & ad. These specifications are different in terms of speed and how far away you can use them.

Later standards 
The first Wi-Fi standard was made in 1997.  It is called IEEE 802.11.  It allows communication with 1-2 MBit per second.  Today it is outdated, and rare.  Later standards add a letter to the name.  They are labelled IEEE  802.11a to IEEE 802.11g.  There are plans for ones labeled h, i, j, n, p and s.  They are all compatible with each other.

Newer standards have a Bit rate of 54 MBit/s.  About 40-50% of this is usable in real-life situations.  As of 2007, the standards most widely used are IEEE 802.11g, and IEEE 802.11b.
Frequency bands 
Data communication is done in the 2.4 GHz band and the 5 GHz band.  The 2.4 GHz band is a general use band.  Microwave ovens and Bluetooth are among the things that emit radio waves in this band. The 2.4 GHz band has the problem that there are only very few channels that can be used at the same time, without the signals interfering. There are three usable channels there. When more than three networks operate in the same place, signals still get to the user correctly, but interference slows them. 

The 5 GHz band can solve some of these problems, but it introduces others. That band has 19 usable channels. Overall the band is less used. However there are more regulations. Most devices need to be able to choose their channel to minimize interference. Some channels require that those participating can do Transmitter Power Control. This means they adapt the strength of the signal to what is actually needed. This helps reduce the amount of interference between different networks.
Computer protocols
Computer networking
In computing, Wireless LAN (WLAN) or Wireless local area network is a term to refer to a Local Area Network that does not need cables to connect the different devices. Instead, radio waves and  IEEE 802.11 are used to communicate.

Benefits of Wireless LANs 
 People can access the network from where they want; they are no longer limited by the length of the cable
 Some places and vehicles have a Wireless LAN hotspot. This lets people access the internet even outside their normal work environment, for example in a restaurant or train.
 Setting up a wireless LAN can be done with one box called wireless access point or wireless router. This box can handle many connections at the same time. Wired networks require cables to be laid. This can be difficult for certain places.
 Access points can serve a varying number of computers.
Disadvantages of Wireless LANs 
 Wireless LANs use radio waves to communicate. Special care needs to be taken to encrypt information.  
 The signal is noisier than on wires, and more bandwidth needs to be spent on error correction. 
 A typical IEEE 802.11 access point has A range of meters from where devices can connect. To extend the range more access points are needed. 
 There are many reliability problems, especially those connected to interference from other devices.
 Wireless LANs are much slower than wired ones; this may not matter for most users though, because the bottleneck in a home network is usually the speed of the ADSL line or other Internet connection.
Technologies used 
Today, most  technologies used for WLANs use Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. This means that several frequencies are used at the same time. Signals that are close to each other, but that belong to different channels do not disturb each other, as they use different coding schemes. Depending on the material used, it is possible to cover between 30 metres and 100 metres indoors; outdoors, the range is about 100-300m, if there are no obstacles.

Computer networking
Bluetooth is a protocol for wireless communication over short distances. It was developed in the 1990s, to reduce the number of cables.  Devices such as mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras and video game consoles can connect to each other, and exchange information. This is done using radio waves. It can be done securely. Bluetooth is usually only used for relatively short distances, like a few metres. Some signals can be up to 100 metres.

There are different standards. Data rates vary. Currently, they are at 1-3 MBit per second. Typical Bluetooth applications are to connect a headset to a mobile phone, or to connect a computer mouse, keyboard or printer.
Bluetooth devices use the ISM Band around 2.4 GHz. This can be used worldwide, without the need to pay license fees, but many other devices, like DECT telephones (wireless phones), smart tags with RFID, baby phones use it too. Bluetooth uses the same bands as some WLANs, but the modulation technique is different. Bluetooth uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum.

Comparing Bluetooth to Wireless LAN 

There are many situations today where either Bluetooth or Wireless LANs can be used. Examples include setting up networks, printing or transferring files and data from a PDA to a computer. Both are versions of unlicensed wireless technology. WLANs can span bigger distances and offer higher throughput. Bluetooth does not require expensive hardware. It also needs less power to operate.