Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
In 1805 Beethoven wrote his only opera. The next spring it had two performances but was then not performed again for another eight years. Beethoven had made several changes to the opera which became known as Fidelio. The overture that he had written for the 1806 performance is now known as Leonore 3 and is usually performed separately at concerts. The opera is a “rescue” opera, a typical French kind of opera describing a man who is imprisoned and rescued by his lover who disguises herself as a man and manages to get into the prison.
Beethoven continued to write compositions: a Violin Concerto, symphonies, piano concertos, string quartets and chamber music. Two of his greatest symphonies were produced in 1806: Symphony No. 5 and Symphony No. 6 "Pastorale". The first one was known for its dark and deep tone, especially in its first movement. The second was famous for its depiction of the countryside. He also wrote Piano Concerto No. 4 and Piano Concerto No. 5 "Emperor". He earned money by pleasing the aristocrats, dedicating works to them in return for fees, and by selling his music to publishers. Occasionally he earned money from concerts. It was not a regular income. He would have liked the job of Kapellmeister to the emperor. He was not able to get this, but in 1809 three rich aristocrats: the Archduke Rodolph, Prince Lobkowitz and Prince Kinsky gave him an income for the rest of his life on condition that he stayed in Vienna. This meant that Beethoven did not have to worry so much about money
. He was asked to write music for Egmont, a play by Goethe. The overture is very often performed as a concert piece. Beethoven very much wanted to meet Goethe. The two great men met in Teplitz. Goethe later described Beethoven as a rather wild-mannered man who made life difficult for himself by his cross attitude to the world. Beethoven admired several women, including one to whom he wrote a passionate letter. She is known as the “Immortal Beloved”, but no one knows who she was. Beethoven seems to have become deeply depressed because he never found true happiness in love.
In a letter dated June 29, 1801, Beethoven told a friend in Bonn about a terrible secret he had for some time. He knew that he was becoming deaf. For some time, he had spells of fever and stomach pains. A young man does not expect to become deaf, but now he was starting to admit it to himself. He was finding it hard to hear what people were saying. Just at the moment when he was starting to become known as one of the greatest of all composers, it was a terrible blow to realize that he was losing his hearing. In 1802, he stayed for a time in Heiligenstadt which is now a suburb of Vienna but at that time it was outside the city. There he wrote a famous letter which is known as the Heiligenstadt Testament. It is dated October 6 and told about his rising frustration at his deafness. He asks people to forgive him if he cannot hear what they are saying. He said that he had often thought of suicide, but that he had so much music in his head which had to be written down that he decided to continue his life
. This very emotional letter was found amongst his papers after his death. He never sent it to anyone.
Later life 

By 1814, Beethoven had reached the height of his fame. The Viennese people thought of him as the greatest living composer, and he was often invited by royal people to their palaces. It was the year in which he played his famous Piano Trio Op. 97 The Archduke. That was the last time he played the piano in public. His deafness was making it impossible to continue.

Beethoven had many problems when his brother Caspar Carl died, leaving a 9-year-old son. The boy’s mother may have been incapable of looking after him, but Beethoven had to prove this in a court of law. For several years he looked after his nephew, but it was a difficult relationship and it involved a lot of legal letters and quarrels with people. In 1826, Karl tried to shoot himself. He survived, but people persuaded Beethoven to stop being his guardian. Karl went into the army.
The last years were unhappy years for Beethoven. During this time he composed very little. Then, in 1817, he recovered and wrote his last two symphonies, a mass called Missa Solemnis, his last five piano sonatas, and a group of string quartets which were so modern and difficult that very few people at the time understood the music. Nowadays, people think they are the greatest works ever written for string quartet.
His Ninth Symphony is called the Choral Symphony because there is a choir and soloists in the last movement. At the time people did not understand this either, because a symphony is normally a work for orchestra, not a work with singers. Beethoven chose the words of a poem by the German poet Friedrich Schiller: An die Freude (Ode to Joy). It is all about living together in peace and harmony, so that it sends an important message to people. This is why it has been chosen in recent years as the National Anthem for the European Union. The Ninth Symphony was performed at a concert on May 7, 1824. After the scherzo movement the audience applauded enthusiastically, but Beethoven could not hear the applause and one of the singers had to turn him round so that he could see that people were clapping.
Beethoven died on March 26, 1827. About 20,000 people came onto the streets for his funeral. The famous poet Franz Grillparzer wrote the funeral speech. One of the torchbearers was Franz Schubert. Schubert died the next year. In 1888 Beethoven’s and Schubert’s remains were moved to another cemetery in Vienna and were placed side by side.

Regarding the instruments, that the composer was using throughout his life, there was a variety of pianos (fortepianos). After moving to Vienna, Beethoven purchased a piano from Streicher. As recalled by his student, Carl Czerny, he also had a Walter piano. Beethoven's last instrument was a fortepiano from a Viennese piano builder Conrad Graf. After the composer's death, it was sold to Wimmer family and now is displayed at the Beethovenhaus in Bonn.
Legacy 
Beethoven’s music is usually divided into three periods: Early, Middle and Late. Most composers who live a long time develop as they get older and change their way of composing. Of course, these changes in style are not sudden, but they are quite a good way of understanding the different periods of his composing life.

His first period includes the works he wrote in his youth in Bonn, and his early days in Vienna up to about 1803. His middle period starts with the Eroica Symphony and includes most of his orchestral works. His last period includes the Ninth Symphony and the late string quartets.
Beethoven is probably the most famous of all composers, and the most written about. He had a wild personality and this was something that the Romantics in the 19th century always expected from great artists. The Romantics thought that the artist was somehow a person with exaggerated qualities who was not like normal people. Beethoven had a very strong personality. He lived in the time of the French Revolution and had strong views on independence and ways of living free from tyranny. This made him a hero in many people’s eyes.

His music was so famous that many composers in the 19th century found it quite hard to compose because they thought they would be compared to him. For example, Johannes Brahms, took a long time to write his First Symphony. He thought that everyone was expecting him to be the next Beethoven. It was only towards the end of the 19th century that Gustav Mahler wrote several symphonies which include singing, although he does this very differently to Beethoven.

References

Further reading
Further reading 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  ISBN 1-904341-03-9 (h). ISBN 1-904341-00-4 (p).
 
 
 
 
 
  ISBN 0-393-04020-8 (hc). ISBN 0-393-31712-9 (pb).
 
 
  ISBN 0-521-58074-9 (hc). ISBN 0-521-58934-7 (pb).

Other websites 
 English homepage of big Beethoven website
 Beethoven’s Personality and Music: The Introverted Romantic 
 nhdbeethoven 

1770 births
1827 deaths
Child prodigies
Classical era composers
18th-century German composers
 
Musicians from Bonn
Romantic composers
German Roman Catholics
19th-century German composers
Roald Amundsen was a Norwegian explorer who focused on the poles. He led the first expedition to reach the South Pole and the first that could prove it made it to the North Pole. Amundsen was also the first man known to travel the Northwest Passage.

Life
When Amundsen was young, he decided he would use his life to explore the wilderness. He was inspired by the lives of Fridtjof Nansen and John Franklin. While his mother was alive he did not go to sea, to keep a promise to her. After her death, he quit university to begin exploring the world at 21 years old.

In 1897, he went on the Belgian Antarctic Expedition as first mate. This was the first expedition to stay over winter at Antarctica, since their ship got stuck in the ice preventing them from leaving.

In 1903, Amundsen led the first expedition to make it through the Northwest Passage.
In October 1911, he began his expedition to Antarctica with four other men in attempt to be the first man to reach the South Pole. Robert Falcon Scott, an explorer from Britain, arrived in Antarctica with his own team only days after Amundsen. Both explorers raced to the South Pole, but Amundsen and his men used skis and dog sleds for transportation. This was more efficient. On 14 December 1911, Amundsen successfully became the first man to reach the South Pole.

In 1926, Amundsen and his men made it to the North Pole. Three other expeditions claimed to make it before then, but their claims have not been verified. Two of them have been considered fraud. This may make Amundsen and his men the first to reach the North Pole.

He disappeared in June 1928 while taking part in a rescue mission.

Gallery

Related pages

 List of people who disappeared mysteriously: 1910–1990

References
References

Other websites
 
 
 
 The Fram Museum (Frammuseet) (Named after one of Amundsen's ships)
 DIO vol.10 2000 Amundsen's record of polar firsts
 
 
 

1872 births
1928 deaths
Norwegian people
Norwegian explorers
People with foods named after them
Missing people
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was an Italian  trader, explorer, and navigator. He was born in Genoa, Italy, in the year 1451. "Christopher Columbus" is the English version of Columbus's name.  His real name in Italian was Cristoforo Colombo.
He was the son of a weaver named Domenico Colombo and a seamstress named Susanna Fontanarossa.

In 1492 Columbus landed on an island of the Bahamas, the first European to do so. His initial goal was to find a quicker route to Asia from Europe. He is known as the person who discovered the New World because his voyage started the era of European colonialism in the Americas. This was an important moment in European history. While Leif Erikson was the first European to land on the soils of America it was not well documented and did not lead to the later contact between Europe and the New World. The effects was the bringing over of livestock, disease, crops and slaves.
When the Spanish learned that Columbus had found a New World, many other people, called conquistadors, went there too.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

Columbus died on 20 May 1506, in Valladolid, Spain.

Discovery of America 
Columbus was not the first European person to have discovered America. At the time of his voyage, Europeans did not know that the Americas existed. However, Leif Erikson, around 1000 AD had landed in present-day Canada. This discovery had no impact on European history and was not well documented. Columbus discovered America in the sense that he was the first person to create repeated exploration and contact with the New World. Another point is that Native Americans had been living there for thousands of years before he arrived. However, Native Americans did not record or contribute to the European record of history for obvious reasons. Columbus, therefore, discovered America in context of European history.
Voyage in 1492 
Many people in Western Europe wanted to find a shorter way to get to Asia. Columbus thought he could get to Asia by sailing west. He did not know about the Western Hemisphere, so he did not realize it would block him from getting to Asia.

However, Columbus did not have enough money to pay for this voyage on his own. After defeating the Emirate of Granada, the rulers of Spain, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Castile, agreed to pay for the voyage. He promised to bring back gold and spices for them.

In August 1492, Columbus and his sailors left Spain in three ships: the Santa María (the Holy Mary), the Pinta (the Painted), and the Santa Clara (nicknamed the Niña: the Little Girl).

The three ships were very small.  Historians think that the largest ship, the Santa María, was only about  long, and about 16 to 19 feet (4.8 to 5.8 metres) wide.

Columbus's other ships were even smaller.  Historians think they were about  long.
Voyage
On October 12, 1492, after sailing for about four months, Columbus landed on a small island in the Bahamas. The natives called it Guanahani; Columbus renamed it San Salvador ("Holy Savior").  He met Arawek and Taíno Native Americans who lived on the island.  They were friendly and peaceful towards Columbus and his crew.  Not knowing where he was, and thinking that he had reached Asia, the "Indies," he called them "Indians."  He claimed their land as Spain's.

Columbus then sailed to what is now Cuba, then to Hispaniola.  On Hispaniola, Columbus built a fort.  This was one of the first European military bases in the Western Hemisphere.  He called it Navidad (Spanish for "Christmas").  He left thirty-nine crew members there, and ordered them to find and store the gold.

Treatment of the native people

On the day he landed in the Bahamas, Columbus wrote about the Arawaks and Taíno:
Columbus noticed that some of the Arawaks had gold earrings.  He took some of them as prisoners and ordered them to lead him to the gold.  However, they could not.

According to Encyclopædia Britannica:

Second voyage
On September 24, 1493, Columbus left Spain with enough ships, supplies, and men to invade and make Spanish colonies in the New World.  He had 17 ships and 1,200 men.  These men included soldiers and farmers.  There were also priests, whose job was to convert the natives to Christianity.

On this voyage, Columbus explored some of the islands of the Lesser Antilles.  He also sailed around most of Hispaniola and explored the sides of Jamaica and Cuba he had not seen on his first voyage.

Then he went back to the Navidad fort.  He found the fort burned down.  Eleven of the 37 soldiers Columbus left at the fort were buried there.  The rest had disappeared.  Historians think this happened because of disease and fights with the Arawak people.

Treatment of the native people
While Columbus was away from Navidad exploring Jamaica and Cuba, his soldiers stopped working on building a new fort and farms.  They made the Arawaks give them food.  They also stole things from the Arawaks and raped Arawak women.  This made the Arawaks decide to fight back against the Spaniards.  However, Spain had many weapons that the Arawaks had never seen, including steel swords, pikes, crossbows, dogs, and horses.  This made it much easier for Spain to win fights against the Arawaks.

Columbus also took revenge against the Arawaks for killing his soldiers at Navidad.  He made every native older than 14 give him a certain amount of gold every three months.  If a person did not do this, Columbus's men would cut off their hands, and they would bleed to death. Columbus also led his soldiers to many different villages in Hispaniola to take them over and make them pay him gold also.  If they could not pay the gold, people would be made into slaves or killed.
There was not much gold on the parts of the island Columbus took over.  To avoid getting their hands cut off, many Arawaks tried to run away from Columbus and his men.  However, Columbus's soldiers used dogs to hunt them down and kill them.  Bartolomé de las Casas said that the Spanish killed two out of every three native people in the area (though he may have been exaggerating).

Start of the transatlantic slave trade

In February 1495, Columbus started the transatlantic slave trade.  He and his soldiers captured about 1,500 Taíno.  Only 500 could fit on Columbus's ships, so Columbus told his men they could take any of the rest as slaves.  They took 600 and let 400 go.  Of the 500 natives that Columbus shipped to Spain as slaves, about 200 died on the trip.  Half of the rest were very sick when they arrived.  This was the first time people had ever been shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold as slaves.
Michele da Cuneo, a friend of Columbus's, helped capture natives as slaves.  In a letter, da Cuneo later wrote that Columbus gave him a captured native woman to rape:

Third voyage

Columbus went on another voyage in 1498.  King John II of Portugal had said there was a continent to the south-west of the Cape Verde islands.  On his third voyage, Columbus wanted to find this continent.  Before the voyage, Queen Isabella reminded Columbus that he should treat all of the native people well and make them into Christians.

On this voyage, Columbus sent three ships straight to the West Indies (the Caribbean).  He led another three ships: first to two Portuguese islands, then to the Canary Islands, then Cape Verde.  From Cape Verde, they sailed to the northern coast of South America and landed in Trinidad.  He also explored part of South America and the islands now called Tobago and Grenada.
On August 19, 1498, Columbus returned to Hispaniola.  He found that many of the Spanish settlers there were unhappy.  They thought there would be more gold in the New World.  Some of them had rebelled while he was gone.  Columbus had five of the rebellion's leaders hanged.  He also tried to make the rest of the settlers happy by giving them land in Hispaniola.  However, the settlers kept sending complaints to Spain.  In 1499, Queen Isabella sent a man named Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola.  She gave him the power to do whatever he thought he should do.  When he arrived in 1500, the first thing he did was to have Columbus arrested and sent back to Spain in chains.

Treatment of native people
When he was trying to make Spanish settlers happy, Columbus started the Encomienda system in Hispaniola.  Under this system, Columbus would give a piece of land in Hispaniola to an individual Spanish settler.  Sometimes, he would give away a whole native village.  Any natives that lived in that area had to work for that Spanish settler.  Natives had lived on this land for centuries. Columbus was giving their land away, and then forcing them to work on that land.

Later life 
On August 23, 1500 Columbus was arrested in Hispañola, now called Santo Domingo, for cruelty to natives and Spaniards. He was sent to Spain in chains in October 1500. He was released on December 25, 1500, and taken to court. Columbus had important friends, and the King restored his freedom. He was not made governor again, but eventually he was allowed to lead another voyage.

Columbus died of heart failure and arthritis in Valladolid, Spain, at the possible age of 54.
Personal life 
Columbus's relatives said that Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy.  Today, no historian can say for sure where Columbus was born, but, his relatives said he was born in Genoa, Italy.  Most experts think the best evidence says he was born in Genoa.  However, other historians think Columbus was born somewhere else, like Spain or Portugal.  Some think he was originally a Jew who converted to Christianity.

In 1477, Columbus married Felipa Moniz Perestrelo.  She was from a semi-noble family with connections to sailing. She died around 1479 or 1480 while giving birth to their son, Diego.

In 1485, while in Córdoba, Spain, Columbus met Beatriz Enríquez de Trasierra.  They lived together for a while. They had one child named Fernando.
Columbus's goals 
Columbus had a few different goals for his journeys to the New World.  First, he believed he could find a shorter and easier route to Asia, which made things Europe did not. He believed he could find a shorter route to China.  Other people had called this belief absurd.  Columbus wanted to prove these people wrong.

Second, Columbus wanted to find gold.  Gold was the main kind of money used in Columbus's times.  In his letter to Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Columbus wrote: “Gold is most excellent; gold is treasure, and [the person] who [has] it does all he wishes to in this world."  This means that someone with gold can do anything he wants to do. Many historians believe that Columbus wanted to become a powerful person  and in order to become powerful, he needed to find gold.

After Columbus
When the Spanish learned about the New World, many conquistadors, or conquerors, went there.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
The Spanish conquistadors first settled on the islands of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Cuba, and Puerto Rico.  They grabbed as much gold as they could.  The Spanish also brought priests and forced the Native Americans to convert to Christianity.

Legacy 
In the United States, Columbus Day is a holiday that celebrates Columbus's arrival in the New World on October 12, 1492.

The World's Columbian Exposition, which happened in 1893 in Chicago, Illinois, was held to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus visiting the Americas.

References 

1451 births
1506 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Disease-related deaths in Spain
Italian explorers
People from Genoa
The GNU General Public License (GPL) is a computer software copyleft license. This license lets the user of the software use a program in many of the same ways as if it were public domain. They can use it, change it, and copy it. They can also sell or give away copies of the program with or without any changes they made to it. The license lets them do this as long as they agree to follow the terms of the license. The GPL was created by Richard Stallman. The current version is version 3, created in 2007, although some software still uses version 2, created in 1991.

There are two main terms to the license. Both apply to giving the program away or selling it. 
A copy of the source code or written instructions about how to get a copy must be included with the software. If the software is able to be downloaded from the internet, the source code must also be available for downloading.
The license of the software can not be changed or removed. It must always use the GPL.
If the user does not agree to follow the GPL, they can still use the software under copyright laws. They can use it and make copies or changes to it for themselves, but they cannot give it away or sell it. They also can not change the license.

Related pages
 List of software licenses

Other websites 
 GNU General Public License v1.0
 GNU General Public License v2.0
 GNU General Public License v3.0
 GNU website

Software licences
In geometry, a triangle is the flat shape formed by joining three points (not in a straight line) with straight line segments. A triangle is a three sided polygon.

In music, a triangle is a musical instrument that is made from a metal tube. It is in the shape of a triangle. It is open at one corner, and when it is hit with a metal stick, it makes a sound.
A square is a shape with four equal sides and four corners that are all right angles (90 degrees). The diagonals of a square also cross at right angles. The angle between any diagonal and a side of a square is 45 degrees. A square has rotational symmetry of four. It has four lines of regular symmetry. A square with vertices A, B, C and D can be written as .

A square is a type of rectangle with all sides of equal length. However, while a square is a type of rectangle and rhombus, the opposite does not need to be true.

A square is also the 2-dimensional analogue of a cube.

Formulas 
If the length of side a is known, then we have that:

If the length of diagonal d is known, then we have that:

Related pages 

 Square (algebra)
 Square number
 Square root

References

Polygons
Basic English 850 words
Computer hardware or hardware means the physical parts that make up a computer.

Some examples are:
 Central processing unit (CPU)
 Random-access memory (RAM)
 Power supply unit (PSU)
 Motherboard
 Graphics processing unit (GPU)
 Network card
 Peripheral equipment
 Modem
 USB flash drive
 Hard drive
 Computer monitor
 Keyboard
 Computer mouse

Hardware needs software to tell it what to do. Without software, the hardware cannot be used.
Meat is animal flesh which is food. Most often is used to describe skeletal muscle and fat that is found with it. Types of meat include beef and veal from cattle, pork, ham and bacon from pigs, mutton from sheep, venison from deer, fish, insects, and poultry from chickens, ducks and turkeys. The word meat is also used for sausages and for non-muscle organs which are used for food, for example liver, brain, and kidneys.

In the meat processing industry,  the word "meat" can be used to mean only the flesh of mammalian species such as pigs, cattle, etc. but does not include fish, insects and poultry. 

Red meat refers to meat that is obtained from mammals, particularly beef, pork, lamb, and veal. It is characterized by its reddish color, primarily due to the presence of myoglobin, a protein responsible for oxygen storage in muscle tissues. 

Animals such as members of the cat family that mainly eat animals are called carnivores.
Health 
Meat is an important part of the diet of many people because it has protein. Protein helps the growth and healing of a body and gives energy. Meat is a "high-protein" food, but costs more than other foods like bread and vegetables. Meat is also a source of B vitamins. People who cannot afford meat, or who do not like to eat it need to find other ways to get enough protein in their diet. Beans and certain nuts are also high in protein, but plant protein might not be as easy to absorb as animal protein. People that choose not to eat meat are called vegetarians, and those who do not eat any animal products are known as vegans.

Red meat is darker-coloured meat (usually form mammals), different from white meat such as chicken or fish. There is a greater risk of diseases and parasites when eating raw meat, but there are some special dishes which are made from raw meat. Examples are steak tartare, sushi, oysters. The meat used in these dishes are usually of high quality.
Types of Meat 
According to the Nation Health Service (NHS), meat is defined as "meat from cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, including veal, lamb, and pork".

Beef refers to the flesh of mature cattle, specifically distinguished from veal. It is a type of red meat known for its firm texture, marbling, and rich flavor. High-quality beef has lean, velvety, well-marbled flesh of bright red color.

Pork is the meat derived from hogs, typically slaughtered between six months and one year old. It is classified as red meat and is widely consumed worldwide. Pork comes in various cuts and is known for its versatility.

Lamb meat is the tender and mild-flavored meat from young sheep, typically under 12 months old. It is also classified as red meat and is rich in essential amino acids, high-quality protein, B vitamins, zinc, and iron. Lamb is lean compared to other red meats and contains unique antioxidants like CLA.
Goat meat, also known as mutton, is the flesh of goats and is considered red meat. It is consumed in various cuisines around the world. Goat meat is lean, tender, and has a distinct flavor.

Chicken meat is made up of different edible portions such as the breast, thighs, drumsticks, and wings. It is a widely enjoyed and flexible type of poultry meat that is abundant in protein and low in fat. With a variety of cuts to choose from, chicken can be utilized in numerous recipes and prepared using various cooking techniques.

Duck meat is obtained from various types of ducks, such as Peking, Serati, and Balinese ducks. Ducks are waterfowl known for their tender and tasty meat, thanks to their higher fat content. Duck meat is considered a white meat, similar to chicken, and can be used as an alternative in cooking. It offers a distinct flavor and is appreciated by many.
In religion 
Due to religious dietary law, halal (حلال), meaning permissible in Arabic, is used as a visual marker for Muslims in shops and on products. Likewise kosher fmeansfood sourced and prepared according to Jewish tradition.

References

Meat
Anders Celsius (27 November 1701 – 25 April 1744) was a Swedish astronomer. Celsius was born in Uppsala in Sweden. Much of his work was in what was later called Geodesy. 

He is more famous for developing the Celsius temperature scale when he worked on meteorology (a science about weather conditions).  It later became an the international standard.  One of his good friends Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the Fahrenheit scale for the thermometer. 

1701 births
1744 deaths
Astronomers
Meteorologists
Swedish scientists
People from Uppsala
Tuvalu is a small island country in the Pacific Ocean. In the past, it was the Ellice Islands. It was part of Gilbert and Ellice Islands with Kiribati. It is a monarchy.

Tuvalu is getting smaller. If the sea level keeps rising at the same rate, this country will be covered by water in about 50 years.

The most important languages spoken in Tuvalu are Tuvaluan and English.

The United States and Tuvalu signed a treaty of friendship in 1979, when the US  gave up their claim to Tuvalu for the islands of Funafuti, Nukefetau, Nukulaelae, and Nurakita.

History

Prehistory
Before the Europeans showed up, a lot of people rode canoes between the nearer islands. These include Samoa and Tonga. Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu had people on them. This explains the origin of the name Tuvalu, which means "eight standing together" in Tuvaluan. Possible evidence of man-made fires in the Caves of Nanumanga says that humans may have been there for thousands of years.
An important creation myth in Tuvalu is the story of te Pusi mo te Ali (the Eel and the Flounder), who are said to have created the islands of Tuvalu. Te Ali (the flounder) is believed to have made the flat atolls of Tuvalu and te Pusi (the eel) is the model for the coconut palms that are important to Tuvaluans. The stories of the ancestors of the Tuvaluans change from island to island. On Niutao, Funafuti and Vaitupu, the founding ancestor is said to be from Samoa. On Nanumea, the founding ancestor is said to be from Tonga.

Early contacts with other cultures

Tuvalu was first seen by Europeans on 16 January 1568, during the voyage of Álvaro de Mendaña from Spain. He sailed past Nui and named it Isla de Jesús (Spanish for "Island of Jesus") because the day before was the feast of the Holy Name. Mendaña talked to the islanders but could not land. During Mendaña's second voyage across the Pacific, he passed Niulakita on 29 August 1595, which he named La Solitaria.

Colonial administration
The Ellice Islands were administered as a British protectorate from 1892 to 1916, as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), by a Resident Commissioner based in the Gilbert Islands. The administration of the BWTP ended in 1916, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony was established, which existed until October 1975.

During World War II, the Ellice Islands were aligned with the Allies. The Japanese invaded and occupied Makin, Tarawa, and other islands in what is now Kiribati. The United States Marine Corps landed on Funafuti on 2 October 1942. Funafuti was later used as a base to prepare naval attacks on the Gilbert Islands that were occupied by Japanese forces.
Modern history
In 1974, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands were given a ministerial government. In that year a general election was held, and a referendum was held to decide whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should have separate governments. After the referendum, separation happened in two stages. The Tuvaluan Order 1975, which took effect on 1 October 1975, recognised Tuvalu as a separate British dependency with its own government. The second stage happened on 1 January 1976, when separate governments were created out of the civil service of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.

Toaripi Lauti became the first Prime Minister on 1 October 1978, when Tuvalu became independent. That date is also celebrated as the country's Independence Day and is a public holiday. On 5 September 2000, Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations.
On 15 November 2022, Tuvalu announced that it will become the first country in the world to build a replica of itself in the metaverse. The country wants to preserve its cultural heritage by doing this.

Geography

Tuvalu has four reef islands and five true atolls. The atolls have only 26 km of land. Tuvalu is the fourth smallest country in the world. The land is very low lying and the coral atolls are narrow. Funafuti is the largest atoll of the islands and atolls. It has many islets around a central lagoon. This is about 25.1 kilometres (15.6 mi) (N–S) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 mi) (W-E), centered on 179°7’E and 8°30’S.

The islands and atolls are: 
 Funafuti (the capital city island)
 Nanumea
 Nanumanga
 Niutao
 Nui
 Niulakita
 Nukufetau
 Nukulaelae
 Vaitupu
The highest height is  above sea level, which gives Tuvalu the second-lowest highest elevation of any country (after the Maldives). Because of this, the islands that make up Tuvalu are threatened by any sea level rise. If this happens, the people will have to go to New Zealand, Niue or the Fijian island of Kioa. Tuvalu is also affected by what is known as a king tide, which can raise the sea level higher than a normal high tide.

Politics

Tuvalu is a Commonwealth realm, meaning that King Charles III of the United Kingdom is also the King of Tuvalu. The Governor-General of Tuvalu is the King's personal representative. 

The legislature of Tuvalu is the Parliament of Tuvalu. There are no political parties in Tuvalu. The Prime Minister of Tuvalu is the head of government and is a member of parliament who is elected to the position by the other members.

References 

 
Current monarchies
Commonwealth realms
Least developed countries
1978 establishments in Oceania
Archipelagos
Java () is one of the Sunda islands of Indonesia.

Geography 
The area is 132,000 square km. It is the world's 13th largest island. Around 140 million people live there, which is half the people in Indonesia and more than on any other island in the world. Most of them speak the Javanese language and many also speak other languages. 

The Java Sea is to the north, the Indian Ocean south. The capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta, is in Java.

Climate 
Most of Java has a tropical monsoon climate (Am in the Koeppen climate classification). The northern coast of the island is low-lying. The soil is fertile, because the island was made by volcanoes. It is an important area for growing crops in Indonesia.

Religion
The majority religion in Java island is Islam. Majority of the Javanese are Muslim and they follow the branch of Sunni Islam.

Gallery

Related pages 
 List of Javanese people

Sources
James Watt (19 January 1736  25 August 1819) was a Scottish mathematician and engineer. He did not invent the first steam engine, but he did modify it to work better. There were other patented steam engines (such as the Savery and Newcomen steam engines) in use by the time Watt started his work on them. His major contribution is in developing the modern form of the steam engine. The Watt steam engine is credited for driving the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. James Watt was a brilliant engineer and he also transformed the Newcomen engine.

The modern unit of power, the watt, is named after him. It replaced the horsepower invented by Watt.
Biography 
James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the town's chief baillie. His mother, Agnes Muirhead, came from a distinguished family and was well educated. Both were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters. Watt's grandfather, Thomas Watt, taught mathematics and was a baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Watt did not go to school every day. At first, he was mostly schooled at home by his mother but later he attended Greenock grammar school. He exhibited great skill with his hands and a natural ability for mathematics, although Latin and Greek failed to interest him. He also absorbed the legends and lore of the Scottish people.

The centrifugal governor
One of Watt's many improvements was the invention of a "centrifugal governor" to regulate automatically the speed of the engine. This is most obvious on steam engines where it regulates the admission of steam into the cylinder(s). It is also found on internal combustion engines and variously fueled turbines, and in some modern striking clocks.

A centrifugal governor is a homeostatic device which controls the speed of an engine by regulating the amount of "intermediate substance" (steam) which drives the machine. This keeps a near constant speed whatever the load or fuel supply conditions. It uses the principle of proportional control: this means the stopping of (in this case) steam varies according to the speed of the machine.
On Watt's fly-ball device, as the machine speeds up, the balls fly round faster. As they fly round faster, they move out from the central post. As they move out from the central post, they close the steam supply more firmly. As they do so, the machine slows down and the balls spin more slowly, and allow more steam into the cylinders. In addition, the system has a safety release valve to allow excess steam to escape without driving the wheels. 500 Boulton & Watt engines were built by the firm between 1775 and 1800.

Later, this kind of feedback loop became an important tool of cybernetics.

Partnership 
Watt went into partnership with a fellow member of the Midlands Lunar Society, Matthew Boulton. The firm of Boulton & Watt designed and built steam engines, and was very important in the Industrial Revolution.
The Soho Foundry 
At first the partnership made the drawing and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect it on the customer's property. They produced almost none of the parts themselves. Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper’s Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory.

Gradually the partners began to actually make more and more of the parts, and by 1795 they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal. There they built a new foundry for making the engines. The Soho Foundry opened in 1796 at a time when Watt’s sons, Gregory and James Jr. were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise. In 1800, the year of Watt’s retirement, the firm made a total of forty-one engines.
Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired. The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr. Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered.

Other websites 
History of Steam Engines

References 

1736 births
1819 deaths
British mechanical engineers
British inventors
Members of the Lunar Society
Scottish mathematicians
People from Greenock
Events

By topic

War and politics 
 February 16 – King Afonso III of Portugal and King Alfonso X of Castile sign the Badajoz Convention, figuring out the border between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of Leon, and ensuring Portuguese sovereignty over Algarve.
 May 27 – Treaty of Viterbo: Emperor Baldwin II of Constantinople gifts the Principality of Achaea to King Charles I of Sicily in the hope that Charles can help him restore the Latin Empire.
 The Second Barons' War in England ends, as the rebels and King Henry III of England agree to peace terms as laid out in the Dictum of Kenilworth.
 Treaty of Montgomery: King Henry III of England acknowledges Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's title of Prince of Wales.
 The city of Ostrava is founded.
Culture 
 Roger Bacon completes his work Opus Majus and sends it to Pope Clement IV, who had requested it be written; the work contains wide-ranging discussion of mathematics, optics, alchemy, astronomy, astrology, and other topics, and includes what some believe to be the first description of a magnifying glass. Bacon also completes Opus Minus, a summary of Opus Majus, later in the same year. The only source for his date of birth is his statement in the Opus Tertium, written in 1267, that "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet". The 1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely to have been around 1220.
 The leadership of Vienna forces Jews to wear Pileum cornutum,a cone-shaped head dress, in addition to the yellow badges Jews are already forced to wear.
By place

Asia and Africa 
 The "Grand Capital" is constructed in Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) by Kublai Khan, having moved the capital of the Mongol Empire there three years prior.
 Malik ul Salih establishes Samudra Pasai, the first Muslim state in Indonesia.
 Spain attempts an invasion of Morocco, but the Marinids successfully defended against the invasion and drive out Spanish forces.

Births 
 February 3 – Richard FitzAlan, 8th Earl of Arundel (d. 1302)
 August 10 – King James II of Aragon (d. 1327)
 December 17 – Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (d. 1324)
 Giotto di Bondone, Italian artist (d. 1337)
 Roger de Flor

Deaths 
 March 3 or March 4 – Lars, Archbishop of Uppsala
 John FitzAlan, 6th Earl of Arundel (b. 1223)
 Hugh II of Cyprus (b. 1253)
St Ambrose college  1564), known as Michelangelo, was an Italian Renaissance painter, sculptor, architect, poet, and engineer. Along with Leonardo da Vinci, he is often called a "Renaissance Man" which means that he had great talent in many areas. 

Michelangelo lived an extremely busy life, creating a great number of artworks. Some of Michelangelo's works are among the most famous that have ever been made. They include two very famous marble statues, the Pieta in Saint Peter's Basilica and David which once stood in a plazza in Florence but is now in the Accademia Gallery.  His most famous paintings are huge frescos, the Sistine Chapel Ceiling and the Last Judgement. His most famous work of architecture is the east end and dome of Saint Peter's Basilica.
A lot is known about Michelangelo's life because he left many letters, poems and journals. Because he was so famous, he became the very first artist to have his biography (story of his life) published while he was still living. His biographer, Giorgio Vasari, said that he was the greatest artist of the Renaissance. He was sometimes called Il Divino ("the divine one").
Other artists said that he had terribilità, (his works were so grand and full of strong emotion that they were scary). Many other artists who saw his work tried to have the same emotional quality. From this idea of terribilità came a style of art called Mannerism.

Biography
Biography

Childhood 
Michelangelo was born on 6 March 1475 in Caprese near Arezzo, Tuscany. His father was Lodovico di Leonardo di Buonarroti di Simoni, and his mother was Francesca di Neri del Miniato di Siena. The Buonarrottis were a banking family from Florence. They claimed they were descended from the noble Countess Matilda of Canossa. Michelangelo's father had lost most of the bank’s money, so he worked for the local government in the town of Chiusi. When Michelangelo was a baby, the family moved back to Florence. As he was sickly, Michelangelo was sent to live on a small farm with a stonecutter and his wife and family. The stonecutter worked at a marble quarry owned by Michelangelo's father. Many years later Michelangelo said that the two things that had helped him to be a good artist were being born in the gentle countryside of Arezzo and being raised in a house where, along with his nurse's milk, he was given the training to use a chisel and hammer. His mother died when he was only six.
Michelangelo’s father then brought him back to Florence and sent him to study with a tutor, Francesco da Urbino. Michelangelo was not interested in his school lessons. He explored the great churches of the city and drew copies of the frescos that he saw there. When he was thirteen, he was apprenticed to the painter Domenico Ghirlandaio. Ghirlandaio had a large busy studio. He had rich patrons who worked for the Medici.  He painted frescos in their family chapels. Michelangelo was able to learn the art of fresco painting very well, from Ghirlandaio.  In a large workshop such as Ghirlandaio’s, artists would have been working in all sorts of different media, including sculpture, metalwork and painting altarpieces. Michelangelo would have learned about all these things. When Michelangelo was only fourteen, his father persuaded Ghirlandaio to pay his apprentice as an artist, which was highly unusual at the time.
Working for the Medici 
The richest, most powerful family in Florence were the Medici. They had an academy where some of the most famous philosophers, poets, and artists met to share their ideas. The Medici family were important patrons of the arts.  In 1489, Lorenzo de' Medici, the head of the family, asked Ghirlandaio to send his two best pupils to the academy. Michelangelo was one of the students chosen and he attended the academy from 1490 to 1492. He heard the teaching and discussion of Marsilio Ficino, Pico della Mirandola and Angelo Poliziano. The philosophy that they taught was called Humanism. It was based on the philosophy of the ancient Greek Plato. Michelangelo’s ideas and his art were influenced by these teachings.
Michelangelo and another young sculptor called Pietro Torrigiano studied sculpture under Bertoldo di Giovanni.  Michelangelo had an argument with Torrigiano, who punched him on the nose so that it was badly broken and spoilt his appearance for the rest of his life. Michelangelo sculpted some reliefs (flat panels with raised figures on them). One was ‘’the Battle of the Centaurs’’ which was made for Lorenzo de Medici.
In 1492, Michelangelo’s patron, Lorenzo de' Medici died. This brought about a big change in Michelangelo’s life.  He went back to live at his father’s house. Michelangelo asked the prior at the Church of Santo Spirito to allow him to study the anatomy of the bodies of people who had died at the church’s hospital. In 1493, as a “thank-you” gift to the prior, Michelangelo carved a large wooden Crucifix which still hangs in the church. In January 1494, there were very heavy snowfalls.  Lorenzo de’ Medici’s son, Piero de Medici commissioned Michelangelo to make a snow statue. So Michelangelo began to work for the Medici again.
In 1494, a new leader rose up in Florence. He was a Dominican friar called Savonarola. His strong preaching caused people to burn their books, throw away their jewellery and chase the rich families out of the city. The Medici had to go. For Michelangelo, it was a good time to travel. He stayed for a while in Venice, then moved to Bologna. In Bologna he soon got work sculpting three figures for the big marble Shrine of Saint Dominic. When things calmed down in Florence, Michelangelo returned and worked for another member of the Medici family,  Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici.
Michelangelo made a marble statue of Cupid asleep. Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco told Michelangelo that it looked just like a real  Ancient Roman statue and said that if he made it dirty and knocked a few chips off, someone would pay a lot of money for it. Lorenzo sold it to a Cardinal who discovered that it was a fraud.  He thought that Michelangelo’s work was so good that he told the pope about it. The pope then invited Michelangelo to go to Rome and work for him.

Rome 

Michelangelo arrived in Rome 25 June 1496 at the age of 21.  He lived near the Church of Santa Maria di Loreto on the Gianicolo hill.