Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
It is usually very hard to farm in subarctic climates, because the soil is infertile (it doesn't have the nutrients that many plants need to grow) and because of the many swamps and lakes that ice sheets make, and only very tough crops can survive the short growing seasons.  On the plus side, the days last longer in the summer as you get closer to the poles.  So the plants that can grow get a lot of sunlight.  Potatoes, strawberries, blueberries and hay for animals grow well.  Special varieties of other plants may grow as well.

There is very little precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail); no more than 15 to 20 inches over an entire year.  Rain and snow may stay above ground until the ground melts.  This means that when the precipitation does soak into the ground, it can be very wet and muddy.
Close to the Earth's poles and the water around the poles, the warmest month has an average temperature of less than 10 °C (50 °F), and the subarctic climate turns into a tundra climate, which is even worse for trees.

Here are some places with subarctic climates:

Fairbanks, Alaska
Whitehorse, Yukon
Yellowknife, Northwest Territories
Thompson, Manitoba
Moosonee, Ontario
Goose Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador
Rovaniemi, Finland
Kiruna, Sweden
Arkhangelsk, Russia
Irkutsk, Russia
Chita, Russia

Some places in the climate group Dfd (a very, very cold subarctic climate) are:

Oymyakon, Russia
Verkhoyansk, Russia

References

Köppen climate classifications
The ONS coding system is a system used in the United Kingdom for dealing with census and other statistical data. It is used by the Office for National Statistics as a way to label each area of England and Wales. It is also used for parts of Northern Ireland.  The system uses a code for the larger census areas, counties and districts. It then breaks those areas down into smaller areas within the larger areas. Each of the smaller areas get a code that is based on the larger area. Areas are divided in this way until they get to the smallest size used for census data. An area must have at least 40 households, but they try to not divide an area into a size smaller than 100 households.

Example

Other websites 
ONS Beginners' Guide to UK Geography
Codes as in 1994

Geography of the United Kingdom
Geocodes
Sir Michael Kemp Tippett OM CH CBE (2 January 1905 – 8 January 1998) was an English composer. He is one of the greatest and most original composers of the 20th century. His work was published for the first time when he was 30 years old, and only become famous when he was about 40. The rhythms in his music and the tonality are very original. He is remembered for many kinds of music: opera, oratorio, orchestral music, chamber music and piano music. His oratorio A Child of our Time is especially well-known and often performed by choirs.

His life 
Tippett was born in Eastcote, Middlesex and spent his childhood in a small village in Suffolk. His father had retired and had bought a hotel in Cannes, France. Michael and his brother learned to speak French when they were very young. He was sent to school in Edinburgh when he was 13 but did not like it there so he went to the local Stamford Grammar School in Lincolnshire.
In Oxted there was a small choir. Tippett had sung with them while he was a student. Now he became their conductor and he learned a lot about music by getting the choir to sing English madrigals and other music including operatic music. He took some more lessons in composition from R.O.Morris at the RCM. He went to music camps where he learned more ideas about politics than about music. He agreed with a lot of the ideas of Trotsky. He became a pacifist and in 1940 he registered as a conscientious objector. In 1943 he spent three months in prison because he refused to help with the war effort.

Meanwhile, Tippett had become director of music at Morley College. He made the choir there into one of the best choirs in England. He played a lot of music by Henry Purcell whose music was not as well known then as it is now. He also worked with young musicians who later became famous: the tenor Peter Pears, the countertenor Alfred Deller and the Amadeus String Quartet.
In 1951 he became a broadcaster with the BBC. Some of the talks he gave on the radio were published in his book Moving into Aquarius. He continued a brilliant career as composer, conductor and broadcaster. He was director of the Bath Festival which he helped to improve a lot. He became internationally famous, especially in America. His Symphony no 4 and his oratorio Mask of Time were written for performances in America. His last opera New Year was written jointly for the Houston Grand Opera, Glyndebourne and the BBC. He was made a CBE in 1959, knighted in 1966, made a Companion of Honour in 1979 and received an Order of Merit in 1983. He received many honours from universities.

Tippett died from pneumonia in London in 1998 after travelling to Stockholm for a festival which included all his works except his stage works. Although he was able to return home he died shortly afterwards.
His music 
It is unusual for a great musician to begin studying music properly at the age of 18. However, he was old enough to realize that he had a lot to learn. He studied counterpoint and was influenced by the way Classical composers had shaped their music. Beethoven especially was an inspiration for him. One of his best-known works is the Concerto for Double String Orchestra (1938-1939). It shows his love of folk music as well as interest in English music of the Renaissance. This music is exciting because of its beats, which keep changing, and its dance-like character.
A Child of Our Time was an oratorio which used negro spirituals. He combined these with his own style of music. It is about something that really happened in 1938. A 17-year-old Jewish Polish boy killed a Nazi diplomat because the Nazis had taken away his parents. The Nazis were angry and killed lots of Jews in return. It was something which helped to lead to the World War II. Tippett’s music is about the cruelty that humans show towards one another.

Tippett’s operas include A Midsummer Marriage (started 1946, first performed 1955), King Priam (1958-61), The Knot Garden (1966-69) and The Ice Break (1973-76) and New Year (1989). He wrote several choral works. His orchestral works include 4 symphonies, a Fantasia concertante on a Theme of Corelli for strings (1953), a Piano Concerto (1953-55) and a Concerto for violin, viola and cello (1979). His chamber music includes piano sonatas and string quartets.
His writings 
Tippett published many of his writings. Moving into Aquarius consists of talks given on the BBC. In his autobiography Those Twentieth Century Blues he discusses many of his problems, including his homosexuality, which in his earlier years he could not talk about because it was illegal at that time.

References

Other websites 
 The Michael Tippett Musical Foundation 

1905 births
1998 deaths
British autobiographers
Companions of Honour
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Deaths from pneumonia
20th-century English composers
English LGBT people
Gay men
Infectious disease deaths in England
Knights Bachelor
LGBT composers
Musicians from Middlesex
Musicians from Suffolk
Order of Merit
A claw is a sharp object. It is found at the end of a toe or finger in many mammals, birds, and some reptiles. The word "claw" is also used in reference to an invertebrate. For example, the chelae of crabs and lobsters are often called claws or pincers. 

A claw is made of hard protein called keratin. They are used by some meat eating mammals such as cats to catch and hold prey, but they may also be used for other things such as digging, climbing trees, and so on, in those and other species.

Similar appendages that are flat and do not come to a sharp point are called nails instead.

Arthropods 
The correct name for an arthropod's 'claw' is chela (plural chelae). Legs that have a chela are called chelipeds. Chelae are also called pincers.
Tetrapods
In tetrapods, claws are made of keratin and have two layers.  The unguis is the outside hard layer, which has keratin fibers arranged perpendicular to the direction of growth and in layers at an angle. The subunguis is the soft, flaky layer, and the grain is parallel to the direction of growth. The claw grows outward from the nail matrix at the base of the unguis and the subunguis grows thicker while traveling across the nail bed. The unguis grows outward faster than the subunguis to make a curve and the thinner sides of the claw wear away faster than their thicker middle, making a more or less sharp point. Tetrapods use their claws in many ways, such as grasping or killing prey, digging, climbing, and hanging.
Birds 
A talon is the claw of a bird of prey, which it uses to hunt. The talons are very important. If they did not have them, those birds might not be able to catch their food. In any event, birds often need to carry their prey back to the nest. Nests are safe places where prey can be shared with chicks or with their partner. In its nest a bird can tear prey apart and feed pieces to its ever-hungry chicks.

Mammals 
A nail is similar to a claw but it is flatter and has a curved edge instead of a point. A nail that is big enough to hold weight is called a 'hoof'.
Every so often, the growth of claws stops and restarts, just like the growth of hair. In hair, this causes the hair to fall out and it is replaced by a new one. In claws, this results in an old layer, and it breaks off. This takes several months for human thumbnails. Cats are often seen working old layers off on wood or on boards made for the purpose. Ungulates' hooves trim themselves when they walk on the ground. Domesticated equids (horses, donkeys and mules) usually need regular trimming by a farrier. In the wild, horses regularly travel much further than do domestic horses. 

Many predatory mammals have claws that can hide inside the animal's paw, especially animals such as the cat.
Primates
A primate's nail only has the unguis; the subunguis has disappeared. Similar to the tail, the claw in apes is not needed. However, in some primates, the subunguis has redeveloped to make a claw-like structure. These certain animals do not have actual claws; instead the unguis appears normal along with a thick growth of subunguis.  Some lemurs have a toilet-claw which they use for scratching and grooming.

Other websites 

The Horse's Hoof Anatomy 
Rat's Claws, also explains much about mammalian claws in general.

Animal anatomy
Max and Moritz (German: Max und Moritz) are two naughty little boys in a story by Wilhelm Busch.  The stories were written in 1865 and are still extremely popular in Germany.

Wilhelm Busch was an artist as well as a writer.  He wrote a lot of stories in rhyme and made drawings to go with them.  Max and Moritz are stories like these.  The two boys get up to lots of naughty pranks.  There are seven stories (seven pranks).  In the final prank they are caught and come to a sad end.  In the 19th century writers had to show that bad behaviour would be punished in the end.  The seven stories are stories with a moral.

The seven stories 

In the first story the boys tie pieces of bread onto pieces of string and put it down where an old woman, Widow Bolte, keeps her hens.  The hens each try to swallow a piece of bread, which sticks in their throats and they end up hanging in the tree and die.
In the second story Widow Bolte, who is still crying, decides she might as well roast the hens.  The boys take fishing rods, climb onto the roof and pull the frying chickens up with their rods.  Widow Bolte finds the chickens gone, thinks her little dog has eaten them, and gives the poor dog a beating.

In the third story they take a saw and make a hole in the tiny wooden bridge outside the tailor’s house.  They shout at the tailor, calling him names.  He is furious and comes running out, the bridge breaks and he falls into the stream.  Two flying geese save him.  He has a terrible tummy ache but his wife puts a hot iron on his tummy and he feels better.

In the fourth story the boys put gunpowder in the pipe of the schoolmaster while he is in church.  When he lights his pipe there is an explosion.
In the fifth story the boys collect beetles and put them under the mattress in their uncle’s bed.  In the middle of the night, when the uncle is asleep, the beetles creep up on him.  He wakes up and fights with them until he has killed them all.

In the sixth story the boys try to steal some pretzels (German rolls) from the bakery, but they fall into the tub of dough.  The baker comes in and finds them.  He bakes them in the oven, but when they are taken out they eat their way through the dough and escape.

In the seventh story the boys cut a hole in the farmer’s sacks.  When the miller picks one of these sacks up he realizes the grain is spilling.  He sees the boys, puts them in the sack and takes them to the mill, where the miller grinds them into corn and feeds them to his ducks.

Comics characters
Fictional German people
Abstinence is a voluntary restraint from following a desire or appetite for certain bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to abstention from sexual intercourse, alcohol or food. Abstinence can be due to personal preferences, religious practices of practical considerations.

In medicine abstinence also refers to discontinuation of an addictive drug. This may lead to intense craving for the drug or withdrawal syndromes. Abstinence from smoking is also recommended for those intending to undergo surgery.

Abstinence may be a temporary or short-term goal meant for short durations of time. This includes refraining from compulsive eating or from compulsive drinking. The time and the measure is voluntary and is thus meant to enhance life. This is different from psychological mechanism of repression where the abstinence is not willingly adopted.
In India, Buddhists, Jains, and some Hindus abstain from eating meat on the grounds both of health and of reverence for all sentient forms of life. Total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism.

Abstinence In Religion 
Fasting, abstinence from food or drink or both for health, ritualistic, religious, or ethical purposes. The abstention may be complete or partial, lengthy, of short duration, or intermittent.

For Jewish people the principal day of fast is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement.

Those who follows Islam the period of fasting lasts during the whole month of Ramadan. Each day of the month of Ramadan, people of the faith, fast without anything to eat or drink from dawn to dusk.
Hindus fast on several festivals sometimes going without food or water and sometimes living only on fruits and dairy products. Followers of Hinduism also observe certain days when they may abstain completely from eating meat, eggs or fish. This is called vegetarianism. Some faiths like Buddhism and Jainism may advocate complete vegetarianism.

Catholics and Orthodox Christians abstain from food and drink for an hour prior to taking Holy Communion, and abstain from meat on Ash Wednesday and during Lent.

Mormons abstain from certain foods and drinks by combining spiritual discipline. Mormons also fast one day a month and the money saved by skipping meals is donated to the needy.

Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet. Hindus abstain from beef in their diet.

Related pages
Types of abstinence
 Fasting :- Fasting is voluntarily not eating food for varying lengths of time. Fasting is used as a medical therapy for many conditions. It is also a spiritual practice in many religions.
 Sexual abstinence :- Sexual abstinence means not having sexual intercourse with a partner.
 Fapstinence :- NoFap, aka fapstinence, refers to abstaining from masturbation to achieve improved physical and mental health.
 Smoking cessation :- Smoking cessation, usually called quitting smoking or stopping smoking, is the process of discontinuing tobacco smoking.
 Sobriety :- Sobriety is the state of being sober, which can mean either not intoxicated or being solemn. If he takes a drink, an alcoholic ends a stretch of sobriety.
 Straight edge :- Straightedge is a lifestyle some people follow, in which they abstain from drink, drugs (including alcohol) and casual sex. It is sometimes abbreviated to sXe.
Teetotalism :- Teetotalism is the practice or promotion of complete personal abstinence from alcoholic beverages. A person who practices teetotalism is called a teetotaler or is simply said to be teetotal.
 Veganism :- Veganism is currently defined as a way of living that attempts to exclude all forms of animal exploitation and cruelty, be it from food, clothing, or any other purpose.
 Vegetarianism :- Vegetarianism, the theory or practice of living solely upon vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, and nuts, with or without the addition of milk products and eggs.
Organizations
 Alcoholics Anonymous
 GreySheeters Anonymous
 Pagans In Recovery
 LifeRing Secular Recovery

Related pages
 Asceticism
 Chastity
 Chastity ring

References 

Lifestyles
Sexual abstinence is the practice of not having sex. It is a choice that some people make. As well as sex itself, they may also choose to abstain from other sexual activities. Sexual abstinence has been debated since ancient history, both in terms of same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. Some people take anaphrodisiacs to help them stay abstinent. Someone who decides to avoid sex is called a celibate or volcel.

Culture
Abstaining from sex before marriage can be called chastity. In some countries, it is illegal to have sex before marriage. Many religious and ethical systems forbid sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse. These  include most denominational variations of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Other legal systems and societal norms  can promote abstinence. People who are abstinent even though they do not want to be are sometimes called incels or TFL (true forced loneliness). One form of sexual abstinence is fapstinence, avoiding masturbation.
Reasons
People may choose to practice abstinence for other reasons. A common reason is because of the person's religious or philosophical beliefs. When done for religious reasons, it is called celibacy. Other people may choose abstinence in order to prevent pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases. When someone is abstinent from sex but they don't want to be, its sometimes called incel, short for involuntary celibacy.

Related pages
Chastity
Fornication
Asexuality

References

Other websites 
 Chastity in Catholic Encyclopedia — a Christian view on chastity

Human sexuality
Religious ethics
The Council of Jerusalem or apostolic council is a common name for a meeting of early Christian leaders reported in the Acts of the Apostles chapter .  The meeting must have happened about  the year 50, at the latest some time before the death of James the Just in 62.

The issues 
A common interpretation is that the council came together because there was disagreement within the Early Christian community between those who believed the church must observe the rules of traditional Judaism, and Paul of Tarsus, who believed there was no such necessity. The "rules of traditional Judaism," the Halakha of Rabbinic Judaism, were not finished at this time.

The central issue was circumcision, as the author of Acts relates the initial confrontation in Antioch, where Paul had been preaching:
"And certain men which came down from Judaea taught the brethren, [and said], Except ye be circumcised after the manner of Moses, ye cannot be saved." (Acts 15:1) KJV

Footnotes
Footnotes

Other websites 
 Acts 15 
 JersualemCouncil.org
 NA26 Greek Acts 15 
 Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers
 Catholic Encyclopedia: Apostolic Canons
 Didache
 Apostolic Constitutions
 Didascalia Apostolorum
 Jewish Antiquities 20 
 New Perspective on Paul
 Early Christian Writings
 Jewish Encyclopedia: Hillel v. Shammai
 Jewish Encyclopedia: Didascalia
 Gentiles and Circumcision

Further reading 
 Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities: The Battle for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew 2003
 Eisenman, Robert, 1997. James the Brother of Jesus : The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls.  A cultural historian's dissenting view based on contemporary texts.
 Westerholm, Stephen. Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The "Lutheran" Paul and His Critics 2003 

Jerusalem
Jerusalem
New Testament
1st century
Ironing means getting the creases out of clothes after they have been washed and dried.  Ironing is done with a tool called an "iron".  It is called an iron because in past centuries it was made of iron, a type of metal.  The iron is heated before it is used.  This used to be done by putting the iron on a fire. Nowadays electricity is used to warm the iron.  The user can put water inside, which becomes steam. 

Ironing clothes is usually easiest when the clothes are still very slightly damp, but it depends on the material of the clothes.  There is normally a label on the clothes which shows whether it can be ironed, and at what temperature. Ironing is usually done with a padded ironing board. The clothes to be ironed are put on the ironing board and the iron is pushed carefully along the cloth to get all the wrinkles out. 

Home
Central European Time is a time zone. It is one hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (what used to be called Greenwich Mean Time). Most countries in the central part of Europe and some countries in Africa follow it. 

In Europe, the countries of Ireland, Great Britain, Iceland and Portugal use Western European Time. All the other countries, up to Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and North Macedonia use Central European Time. 

Algeria and Tunisia in Africa use CET but do not observe daylight saving time. 

Time zones
Central European Summer Time (sometimes called Central European Daylight Time) is the name for a time zone. It is a daylight saving time. Some of the countries that have Central European Time shift their clocks forward one hour, during the summer months and shift it one hour backwards during winter months.

A research station called Troll in Antarctica uses this time zone in the winter, but uses Greenwich Mean Time in the summer.

The part of Europe using this time zone has had many changes from Central European Summer Time. It is because the Sun is not matching with the time in their areas. They have also stopped using the timezone multiple times.

References 
Time zones
James the Just, also called James Adelphotheos, James, 1st Bishop of Jerusalem, or James, the Brother of the Lord and often identified with James the less (James, son of Alphaeus), who died in AD 62, was an important figure in Early Christianity.

According to tradition, he was the first formal leader or bishop of Jerusalem, the author of the James in the New Testament, and the first of the Seventy of Luke 10:1-20. Paul of Tarsus in Galatians 2:9 (KJV) characterized James as such: "... James, Cephas, and John, who seemed to be pillars..." He is described in the New Testament as a "brother of Jesus" and in the Liturgy of St James as "the brother of God" (Adelphotheos)

Name
James was called "the Just" because of his ascetic practices, which involved taking Nazarite vows. The name also helps distinguish him from other important figures in early Christianity, such as James, son of Zebedee.
He is sometimes called "James Adelphotheos", (literally "James the Brother of God" - Greek : Iάκωβος ο Αδελφόθεος ), based on New Testament descriptions.
James' name was important in the genealogy of Jesus because he always appears first when someone lists Jesus' brothers and sisters, this means that James was the eldest brother of Jesus.

Life
The canonical writings of the New Testament, as well as other written sources from the early church, provide some insights into Saint James' life and his role in the early church. The Synoptics mention his name, but nothing else about him, whereas the Gospel of John and early chapters of the Acts of the Apostles do not even mention James.
Acts of the Apostles, in later chapters, provides evidence that James was an important figure in the Christian community of Jerusalem. When Peter, having miraculously escaped from prison, must flee Jerusalem, he asks that James be informed (12:17). When the Christians of Antioch are concerned over whether Gentile Christians need be circumcised to be saved, and they send Paul and Barnabas to confer with the Jerusalem church there, James played a prominent role in the formulation of the council's decision (15:13ff). Indeed, after Peter and Paul have made their case, it is James who finally delivers what he calls his "judgement"—the original sense is close to "my ruling"—and afterwards, all accept it. James, in other words, is shown in charge of the Jerusalem group, which conflicts with later claims of Peter's primacy there
. And when Paul arrives in Jerusalem to deliver the money he raised for the faithful there, it is to James that he speaks, and who insists that Paul ritually cleanse himself at Herod's Temple to prove his faith and deny rumors of teaching rebellion against the Torah (21:18ff) (a charge of antinomianism).
Paul further describes James as being one of the persons the risen Christ showed himself to (1 Corinthians 15:3-8); then later in 1 Corinthians, mentions James in a way that suggests James had been married (9:5); and in Galatians, Paul lists James with Cephas (better known as Peter) and John, as the three "pillars" of the Church, and who will minister to the "circumcised" (in general Jews and Jewish Proselytes) in Jerusalem, while Paul and his fellows will minister to the "uncircumcised" (in general Gentiles). (2:9, 2:12). These terms (circumcised/uncircumcised) are generally interpreted to mean Jews and Greeks, who were predominant, however it is an oversimplification as 1st century Iudaea Province also had some Jews who no longer circumcised, and some Greeks (called Proselytes or Judaizers) and others such as Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Arabs who did.

Notes
Notes

Other websites 
James the Just, Cleopas'companion 
 "The martyrdom of James, the brother of the Lord" Quotes from lost writings of Hegesippus in Eusebius.
 Flavius Josephus Antiquities of the Jews Book 20, Chapter 9 
 Jerome, De Viris Illustribus ch.2, the second chapter, directly following Simon Peter.
 Fragments of Papias
 Catholic Answers: The Brethren of the Lord 
 Catholic Encyclopedia: St. James the Less, whom this article identifies with James the Just
 Catholic Encyclopedia: The Brethren of the Lord
 Jewish Encylopedia: James
 Schaff's History of the Christian Churchon James, section 27
 Robert M. Price's extended review of Eisenman, 1997
James  in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Bibliography
 Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1997. 
 Robert Eisenman, James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: VikingPenguin, 1997. 
 John Painter, Just James. Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1997 
 Hershel Shanks and Ben Witherington, The Brother of Jesus. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2003. 
 Francis Watson, Paul, Judaism and the Gentiles. Cultural background.
 Biblical Archaeology Review  Articles in various issues in 2004 and 2005 concerning the ossuary.

1st-century births
60s deaths
Patriarchs
Early Christian saints
Twelve Apostles
In Christianity, the disciples were the students of Jesus during his ministry, which sometimes means only the Twelve Apostles, but the gospels speaks of different numbers of disciples.  In the Book of Acts, the Apostles themselves have disciples. The word disciple is used today as a way of self-identification for those who seek to learn from Christianity.

The term disciple comes from the Ancient Greek language word
,
coming to English by way of the Latin discipulus.  Disciple should not be confused with apostle, meaning
 While a disciple is one who learns from a teacher, a student, an apostle is sent to deliver those teachings to others.

Disciples of Jesus of Nazareth
The four
Both the gospels of Mark () and Matthew () include passages where Jesus initially calls four fishermen from among those at the Sea of Galilee.  These are Simon (later called "Rock" or Peter) and his brother Andrew, and the brothers James and John (later called the "Sons of Thunder" or Boanerges). A very similar report in the Gospel of Luke  does not speak of Andrew.  also includes an initial calling of disciples, but these are: an unnamed disciple, Andrew, Simon, Philip and Nathanael.

Since the Gospel of Luke does not include Andrew, and through various passages in the four gospels where Simon Peter, James and John are called to meet with Jesus separately from the twelve, they are commonly termed "the three." The usage of "the four" over "the three" is still a point which some Christians debate, but never as an essential doctrinal point.

The twelve
The twelve

Most of the attention in the gospels is given to a specific group of disciples called by Jesus on the top of a mountain and commissioned by him as the Twelve Apostles.  These men are:

 Simon, called Peter
 Andrew, the brother of Simon Peter
 James (called the son of Zebedee by Mark and Matthew)
 John (Mark and Matthew identify him as the brother of James, son of Zebedee)
 Philip
 Bartholomew, named Nathanael in John
 Matthew (whom the Matthew evangelist identifies as a publican), named Levi in Luke and Mark
 Thomas
 James, the son of Alphaeus
 Simon, called a zealot in Mark, Matthew, and Luke
 Judas Iscariot
 Jude Thaddaeus, called Thaddaeus by Mark, Lebbaeus Thaddaeus by Matthew, and Judas, brother of James by Luke
 Paul became an apostle after Jesus' death and resurrection.

The Gospel of John refers to one disciple as the one whom Jesus loved.  Since the apostle John, unlike the other twelve, is never named in that gospel, the "beloved disciple" is assumed to be him.
Great crowd and the seventy

The number of or persons among Jesus' disciples is not always given in the gospel accounts.  A much larger group of people is identified as disciples in the opening of the passage of the Sermon on the Plain that begins in Luke .

Additionally, seventy (or seventy-two, depending on the source used) people are sent out in pairs to prepare the way for Jesus (Luke 10).  They are sometimes referred to as "the Seventy" or "the Seventy Disciples".  They are to eat any food offered, heal the sick and spread the word; that God's reign is coming, that whoever hears them hears Jesus, whoever rejects them rejects Jesus and whoever rejects Jesus rejects the One who sent him. In addition they are granted great powers over the enemy and their names are written in heaven.
Road to Emmaus
Cleopas is one of the two disciples to whom the risen Lord appeared at Emmaus (Luke 24:18). Cleopas, with an unnamed disciple of Jesus' are walking from Jerusalem to Emmaus on the day of Jesus' resurrection. Cleopas and his friend were discussing the events of the past few days when a stranger asked them what they spoke of.  The stranger asked to join Cleopas and his friend for the evening meal.  There the stranger revealed himself, after blessing and breaking the bread, as the resurrected Jesus and then disappeared. Cleopas and his friend hastened to Jerusalem to carry the news to the other disciples, where Jesus subsequently appeared to them as well. The incident is without parallel in Matthew, Mark, or John.

Women
Women

In Luke (10:38–42), Mary, sister of Lazarus is contrasted with her sister Martha, who was "cumbered about many things" while Jesus was their guest, while Mary had chosen "the better part," that of listening to the master's discourse.  John names her as the "one who had anointed the Lord with perfumed oil and dried his feet with her hair" (11:2).  In Luke, an unidentified "sinner" in the house of a Pharisee anoints Jesus' feet.  Any pre-existing relationship between Jesus and Lazarus himself, prior to the miracle, is unspecified by John.  In Catholic folklore, Mary, the sister of Lazarus, is seen as the same as Mary Madgalene.
Luke refers to a number of people accompanying Jesus and the twelve.  From among them he names three women: "Mary, called Magdalene, ... and Joanna the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, and Susanna, and many others, who provided for them out of their resources" (Luke 8:2-3).  Mary Magdalene and Joanna are among the women who went to prepare Jesus' body in Luke's account of the resurrection, and who later told the apostles and other disciples about the empty tomb and words of the "two men in dazzling clothes".  Mary Magdalene is the most well-known of the disciples outside of the Twelve.  More is written in the gospels about her than the other female followers.  There is also a large body of lore and literature covering her.
Other gospel writers differ as to which women witness the crucifixion and witness to the resurrection.  Mark includes Mary, the mother of James and Salome (not to be confused with Salomé the daughter of Herodias) at the crucifixion and Salome at the tomb.  John includes Mary the wife of Clopas at the crucifixion.

Related pages
 Baptism
 Great Commission, which includes the clause "and make disciples of all nations"
 Pillars of the Church

Other websites 
 Youth With A Mission: Discipleship Training School 
 Masters Commission: A Discipleship Program 
 Catholic Encyclopedia: Disciple
 What were the names of the apostles?

New Testament people
Ahmed Jibril (1938 – died July 7, 2021) was the founder and co-leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC). He founded it in 1968. His son Jihad Ahmed Jibril was to take over, but was killed by a car bomb in Beirut in 2002.

References

1938 births
2021 deaths
Muslim terrorists
Palestinian Muslims
Palestinian nationalists
Palestinian terrorists
Mohammed Jihad Ahmed Jibril (March 3, 1961 in Damascus - May 20, 2002 in Beirut) was the son of Ahmed Jibril, founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC). He was killed by a car bomb. He was assassinated on May 20, 2002. 

Jihad Ahmed Jibril was the leader of the military wing of the PFLP-GC and was the heir apparent of the organization before he was killed in a car bombing in Beirut in 2002. The assassination was blamed on Israel, although Jibril had many other enemies, including the Lebanese Christian militia and other Palestinian nationalist organizations.  

Ahmed Jibril was co-leader of the militant Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command. Israeli radio reports said that the son, Jihad Ahmed Jibril, was involved in smuggling arms and explosives to Palestinian militants in the West Bank and Gaza Strip but there was no evidence to directly link him with terrorist attacks.
Ahmed Jibril accused the Israeli intelligence agency, Mossad, of responsibility for the killing, but a spokesman for Defense Minister Benjamin Ben-Eliezer said Israel was not involved.

In mid-June 2006, Lebanon authorities arrested a group of alleged spies who reportedly confessed to working for Israel and carrying out the attacks.

1961 births
2002 deaths
Assassinated Palestinian people
Palestinian Muslims
Palestinian nationalists
Palestinian terrorists
People from Damascus
The Topkapı Palace is a palace in Istanbul (Constantinople), Turkey. Topkapı Saray in Turkish means the "Cannongate Palace". It was built in 1465. The palace was the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire. It was turned into a museum at the request of Turkey's first President, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924. It was built on the acropolis, the site of the first settlement in Istanbul. The palace has a very good view of the Golden Horn, the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. The palace is surrounded by 5km of walls. It has an area of 700,000 sq. m at the tip of the historical peninsula.

First Court
The First Court (or Alay Meydanı) spans over the entire Seraglio Point and is surrounded by high walls. This court was also known as the Court of the Janissaries or the Parade Court.
The main gate is called Bab-ı Hümayun, simply the Imperial Gate. Apart from the Topkapı Palace, the First Court also contains the old imperial mint (constructed in 1727), the church of Hagia Eirene, the Archeology Museum (constructed during the 19th century) and various fountains, pavilions (for example, the Çinili Pavilion, or Tiled Pavilion) and gardens (including the Gülhane Park, the old imperial rose garden).

The Çinili Pavilion (1472) has many superb examples of Iznik tiles. It now houses the Museum of Islamic Art.

The Fountain of the Executioner is where the executioner washed his hands and sword after a beheading. The Fountain of Ahmed III is an example of Rococo work.

The huge Gate of Greeting (Bab-üs Selam) leads into the palace and the Second Court (Divan Meydanı).
Second Court
The second court is a park surrounded by the palace hospital, bakery, Janissary quarters, stables, the imperial Harem and Divan to the north and the kitchens to the south. The kitchens today contain one of the world's largest collections of Chinese blue-and-white and celadon porcelain, valued by the sultans because it was supposed to change color if the food or drink it contained was poisoned.

The Divan Salonu, or Imperial Council Chamber, was where the sultan's counselors and functionaries met to discuss the empire's affairs. The Sultan could overhear from a concealed grille.

Third Court
Beyond the Gate of Felicity (Bab-üs Saadet) is the Third Court which is the heart of the palace, a lush garden surrounded by the Hall of the Privy Chamber (Has Oda) occupied by the palace officials, the treasury (which contains some of the finest treasures of the Ottoman age, including the Sacred Trusts), the Harem and some pavilions, with the library of Ahmed III in the center.
The Treasury holds some of the most famous and spectacular jewels in the world, including the famous Topkapı Dagger. In 1747, the Sultan had this dagger made for Nadir Shah of Persia, but the Shah was assassinated before the emissary had left the Ottoman Empire's boundaries and so the Sultan retained it. There are three large emeralds in the hilt and the sheath is worked with diamonds and enamel. This dagger was the subject of the famous film Topkapi.

The Harem was home to the Sultan's mother, the Valide sultan; the concubines and wives of the Sultan; and the rest of his family, including children; and their servants. There are approximately 300 rooms (though only about twenty are open to the public), and the Harem housed as many as 500 people, which sometimes amounted up to 300 women, their children, and the eunuchs.

Many of the rooms and features in the Harem were designed by Sinan, a famous architect of the Ottoman Empire.
The Pavilion of the Holy Mantle holds the cloak of Mohammed, his sword, his teeth, his beard, and other relics which are known as the Sacred Trusts. Even the Sultan and his family were permitted entrance only once a year, on the 15th day of Ramadan, during the time when the Palace was a residence. Now any visitor can see these items and many Muslims come on pilgrimage for this purpose.

Related pages
Ottoman architecture
Dolmabahçe Palace
Topkapi manuscript
Islamic architecture
Gülhane Park

Other websites 

  Official website in English
 Bilkent University web site Floor plan of Topkapı Palace 
 Topkapi Palace Audioguide visit map Audioguide Seslirehber Topkapi Palace
 Topkapi Palace photos

Palaces
Buildings and structures in Turkey
The Acts of the Apostles (Greek Praxeis Apostolon) is a book of the Bible, which now is the fifth in the New Testament. It is often simply called Acts.

Acts tells the story of the Early Christian church, with particular interest for the ministry of the Twelve Apostles and of Paul of Tarsus. The early chapters in Jerusalem, report Jesus's Resurrection, his Ascension, the Day of Pentecost, and the start of the Twelve Apostles' ministry. The later chapters report Paul's conversion, his ministry, and finally his arrest and imprisonment and trip to Rome.
 
Most people think that the author of Acts also wrote the Gospel of Luke, as Acts 1:1 refers to 'the former treatise have I made, Theophilus, of all that Jesus began both to do and teach'. The traditional view is that both the two books were written c. 60 by a companion of Paul named Luke. Many theologians still think so. But some think the books were written by an unknown author at a later date, sometime between 80 and 150.

References
References

Other websites 
 Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versionsy at GospelCom.net
 Dating Acts 
 Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions at Biola University
 Online Bible at gospelhall.org
 Book of Acts at Bible Gateway
 Acts from the Biblical Resource Database 
 The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Investigation of Acts 27 and 28 
 Catholic Encyclopedia: Acts of the Apostles
 Encyclopedia Britannica: Acts of the Apostles
 Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament - The Acts of the Apostles
 Tertullian.org: The Western Text of the Acts of the Apostles (1923) J. M. WILSON, D.D.

New Testament books
A Firebreak is a way to fight wildfires. In a firebreak, there is no vegetation, or other material that can burn. This makes it hard for a fire to jump across the break. Therefore, the spread of a possible fire is delayed.

Firefighting
A slum is a part of a city or a town where many poor people live. It is a place where people may not have basic needs, such as running water, electricity, toilets, telephones, etc. Some of these people may also have social disadvantages, such as unemployment, no access to education, no access to health care, no municipal services, etc. There are slums in most of the big cities of developing countries and least developed countries (which are also labelled as the "Third World"). They may not be called slum, however; see shanty town.
Victorian London
Charles Dickens was a great author of Victorian London. His account of the St Giles rookery was:
"Wretched houses with broken windows patched with rags and paper; every room let out to a different family, and in many instances to two or even three – fruit and ‘sweetstuff’ manufacturers in the cellars, barbers and red-herring vendors in the front parlours, cobblers in the back; a bird-fancier in the first floor, three families on the second, starvation in the attics, Irishmen in the passage, a ‘musician’ in the front kitchen, a charwoman and five hungry children in the back one – filth everywhere – a gutter before the houses, and a drain behind – clothes drying, and slops emptying from the windows; (…) men and women, in every variety of scanty and dirty apparel, lounging, scolding, drinking, smoking, squabbling, fighting, and swearing".

Dickens, Sketches by Boz, 1839.

Sources 
Mike Davis, Planet of Slums, 2006
Elizabeth Blum/ Peter Neitzke Favela Metropolis 2004

Other websites
Other websites 

 http://skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=131517
South Africa slum dwellers' movement
Slums of Victorian London 
Slums of New Delhi, India
Every third person will be a slum dweller within 30 years, UN agency warns; John Vidal; The Guardian; October 4, 2003.
Mute Magazine Vol 2#3, Naked Cities - Struggle in the Global Slums 

Shanty towns
Montauban () is a commune in the Tarn-et-Garonne department in the Midi-Pyrénées region in southern France. It is the préfecture (capital) of the department.

The town, built mainly with reddish bricks, is on the right bank of the Tarn river at its confluence with the Tescou. It was one of the first bastides in history.

History

Together with Mont-de-Marsan, Montauban is one of the oldest towns with walls (a bastide) in southern France. It was founded in 1144 by Alphonse Jourdain, Count of Toulouse. Most of the inhabitants came from Montauriol, a village which had grown up around the neighbouring monastery of St Théodard.

In the 13th century the town suffered much during the Albigensian Crusade and from the Inquisition, but by 1317 it had recovered sufficiently to be chosen by the Pope John XXII as the head of a diocese of which the basilica of St Théodard became the cathedral.
In 1360, under the Treaty of Brétigny, the town was given to the English; they were expelled by the inhabitants in 1414. In 1560 the bishops became Protestants; ten years later it became one of the four Huguenot strongholds under the Peace of Saint-Germain, and formed a small independent republic.

In 1790, Montauban was in the Lot department as the capital of a district; with the creation of the arrondissements in 1800, Montauban became a sous-préfecture in the Lot department. When Napoleon created the Tarn-et-Garonne department in 1809, Montauban became the préfecture (capital) of the new department.

Geography
Montauban is at about  to the north of Toulouse, on the confluence of the Tescou and the Tarn rivers, and at  from Agen (préfecture of the Lot-et-Garonne),  from Albi (préfecture of the Tarn) and at about  from Cahors (préfecture of the Lot).

It has an area of  and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .
Montauban is surrounded by the communes Villemade, Piquecos, Lamothe-Capdeville, Albias, Saint-Étienne-de-Tulmont, Léojac, Saint-Nauphary,Corbarieu,Bressols, Lacourt-Saint-Pierre, Montbeton and Albefeuille-Lagarde.

Climate
The climate of Montauban, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

The average amount of precipitation for the year in Montauban is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with  of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

The average temperature for the year in Montauban is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

Population
The inhabitants of Montauban are known, in French, as Montalbanais (women: Montalbanaises).

With a population of 58,826, Montauban has a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

Evolution of the population in Montauban
Administration 
Montauban is the prefecture of the Tarn-et-Garonne department since 1809. It is also the capital of the arrondissement of Montauban and the administrative centre () of three cantons, all formed with part of the commune:
 Montauban-1 : 19,143 inhabitants  (2014)
 Montauban-2 : 19,143 inhabitants (2014)
 Montauban-3 : 20,540 inhabitants (2014)

It is part of the intercommunality Le Grand Montauban ().

Sister cities 
Montauban is twinned with:
  Pawhuska, United States
  Yokneam, Israel
  Khemisset, Morocco
  Kozarac, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Places of interest
Some interesting places in Montauban are:
 The Place Nationale ("National Square") is a square of the 17th century.
 The Notre-Dame de l'Assomption cathedral is unique by its stone construction in a place dominated by red bricks. Its construction was ordered by Louis XIV.
 The Musée Ingres is the old town hall and  the residence of the bishops of Montauban built in 1664. The building houses some paintings of the famous painter Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres and some works of the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle; both artists were born in Montauban.
 The church of Saint Jacques is the only intact medieval church in Montauban.
 The Pont Vieux ("Old Bridge"), a bridge from the 14th century on the Tarn river.

Gallery

People from Montauban
 Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867) painter.
 Antoine Bourdelle (1861-1929), sculptor.

Related pages
 Arrondissement of Montauban
 Communes of the Tarn-et-Garonne department

References

Other websites
Other websites

 Ville de Montauban - official website 
 Montauban Tourist Office 
 Ville de Montauban - Villes d'Art et d'Histoire 
 Communauté d'agglomération du Grand Montauban
Layyah is a city in the Punjab province of Pakistan and is the capital of Layyah District. Layyah gets its name from the wild short shrub commonly known as Layyan. Layyah is located between the rivers Indus and Chenab in central Pakistan.

Other websites 
Map of Layyah

Cities in Punjab (Pakistan)
Leo III (or the Greek form Leon III) refers to:
 Leo III the Isaurian (c. 680), Byzantine emperor (717 - June 18, 741).
 Pope Leo III, 795-816
 King Leo III of Armenia 
 Leo III or Leo A a type IBm V irregular galaxy in the constellation Leo