Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
On the other hand, there were people who saved Jews from the Holocaust because they thought it was the right thing to do. Some of them were later given "Righteous Among the Nations" awards by Yad Vashem.

Holocaust denial

Some people say the Holocaust did not happen at all, or was not as bad as historians say it was. This is called Holocaust denial. However, historians agree that the Holocaust did happen and have been described correctly. Many Holocaust deniers say that the Nazis did not kill so many people. Instead, they claim many of these people died because they were ill or didn't have enough to eat. But historical accounts, eyewitness evidence, and documentary evidence from the Nazis themselves clearly prove that the ideas of Holocaust deniers are lies. Jews were killed because Hitler ordered it. In Germany and other countries it is against the law to say that the Holocaust never happened.

Related pages
 Babi Yar
 Genocide
 Nazi Germany
 Righteous Among the Nations
 Judaism
 Sonderkommando

Notes
Notes

References

More reading

Other websites 
 The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority 
 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
 Jewish Virtual Library
 
 

 
Holocaust
Kyoto () is a city in Japan. This city was the capital of Japan from 794 until 1868.

Kyoto is a major city in the Kansai region of Japan. Its population is 1.5 million people. The city of Kyoto is the capital city of the prefecture of Kyoto. Kyoto is one of the cultural, educational, and technology centers of Japan. In it are many universities including Kyoto University, the second oldest national university of Japan.

History
After 794, the Japanese emperors lived in this city which was called Heian-kyō.

In 1868, the city was called Saikyō ("Western capital") in order to distinguish it from Edo (Tokyo) which was the "Eastern capital".

Geography
There are mountains around the city on the east, north, and west sides. Some people in Kyoto believe that these mountains make Kyoto's summer especially hot and humid, and Kyoto's winter very cold.
We can see many temples and shrines built in traditional Japanese architectural styles here. Some of those buildings are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. On the other hand, since Kyoto was one of biggest and richest Japanese cities in the middle of the 19th century; the citizens were eager to import European style, and there are many European style buildings in the center of Kyoto for company offices and schools.

Kyoto is one of oldest cities in Japan. Many tourists from all over the world come to Kyoto. Japanese people often come to Kyoto in the spring to see the cherry blossoms, and in the autumn to see the leaves change color.

Traditional Kyoto food often uses vegetables. McDonald's signboards in Kyoto are brown to preserve the traditional surroundings.

The oldest novel in the world, Shikibu Murasaki's The Tale of Genji is set in Kyoto during the Heian Period.

Kyoto is famous for three festivals: Gion festival, Aoi festival in the summer, and Jidai festival in the autumn.
Related pages 
 Kyoto Protocol
 Tokyo

References

Other websites

 
Former capitals of Japan
Anarchy (from Greek αναρχια meaning "without a leader") is a word that has more than one meaning. Some of its meanings are:
 When there is no leader, or when nobody has power over everyone (used just in the anarchist movement).
 When there is no political order, and there is confusion (used often from mass media)
 When people do not have any reason to work together, or do not have anything that makes them feel like a group.

In the first meaning listed, an anarchy might be a made-up or real society based on a group's beliefs about anarchism (see anarcho-communism).

In the second meaning listed, "anarchy" has to do with having no political order. The CIA World factbook  says that there is only one nation, Somalia, that is in a state of anarchy. In Somalia, the government is no longer in control, and some parts of the country are ruled by mobs and warlords who sometimes fight one another.
There are some countries (Afghanistan, Albania, Burundi, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Rwanda) where government is "emerging" or "transitional", and were in civil unrest in the near past. The DC  says that the Solomon Islands is moving towards civil unrest because "violence, corruption and crime have undermined stability and civil society".
When there is no political order, more than one government or political authority might sometimes compete for the same food, oil, land, or groups of people. The word "Anarchy" to used to describe this. However, because there is more than one competing authority, a better word might be polyarchy. The difference between "anarchy" and "polyarchy" is important to someone who thinks that true anarchy would work well. The word for someone who thinks this is "anarchist", and the word for this kind of thinking is "anarchism". Anarchism has been thought about for hundreds of years. The book called "The Politics of Individualism" attempts to teach its readers that anarchism is not always simply an opposition to the government, but a complicated political movement against the domination of few people.

Other uses of the word 
Anarchy which follows the death of a ruler and ceases when his successor rises to power, is called interregnum (literally: "in-between rules").
(Another use of the word “Anarchy” is when it is said as “The Anarchy”. This is the name that is sometimes given to the civil war and unsettled government in England when Stephen of England was King.) (See The Anarchy)

References

 
Economic systems
Society
DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the genetic code of organisms. This includes animals, plants, protists, archaea and bacteria. It is made up of two polynucleotide chains in a double helix.

DNA is in each cell in the organism and tells cells what proteins to make. Mostly, these proteins are enzymes. DNA is inherited by children from their parents. This is why children share traits with their parents, such as skin, hair and eye color. The DNA in a person is a combination of the DNA from each of their parents.
Part of an organism's DNA is "non-coding DNA" sequences. They do not code for protein sequences. Some noncoding DNA is transcribed into non-coding RNA molecules, such as transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, and regulatory RNAs. Other sequences are not transcribed at all, or give rise to RNA of unknown function. The amount of non-coding DNA varies greatly among species. For example, over 98% of the human genome is non-coding DNA, while only about 2% of a typical bacterial genome is non-coding DNA.

Viruses use either DNA or RNA to infect organisms. The genome replication of most DNA viruses takes place in the cell's nucleus, whereas RNA viruses usually replicate in the cytoplasm.
Inside eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into chromosomes. Before cell division, more chromosomes are made in the process of DNA replication. Eukaryotic organisms like animals, plants, fungi and protists store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus. But prokaryotes, like bacteria and archaea store their DNA only in the cytoplasm, in circular chromosomes. Inside eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones, help to compact and organize DNA.

Structure of DNA 
DNA has a double helix shape, which is like a ladder twisted into a spiral. Each step of the ladder is a pair of nucleotides.

Nucleotides 
A nucleotide is a molecule made up of:
deoxyribose, a kind of sugar with 5 carbon atoms,
a phosphate group made of phosphorus and oxygen, and
nitrogenous base

DNA is made of four types of nucleotide:
 Adenine (A)
 Thymine (T)
 Cytosine (C)
 Guanine (G)
The 'rungs' of the DNA ladder are each made of two bases, one base coming from each leg. The bases consistently connect in the middle i.e: 'A' will only pair with its complement 'T', and 'C' will only pair with its complement 'G' via the aid of hydrogen bonds( H-bonds ).
Adenine (A) and thymine (T) can pair up because they make two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine (C) and guanine (G) pair up to make three hydrogen bonds. Although the bases are always in fixed pairs, the pairs can come in any order (A-T or T-A; similarly, C-G or G-C). This way, DNA can write 'codes' out of the 'letters' that are the bases. These codes contain the message that tells the cell what to do.This phenomenon is known under the name of Complementary base pairing or Watson-Crick base pairing that determines the essential forming of the helical structure of DNA as due to the base pairing, the DNA strands are complementary to each other, running in opposite directions, that forms anti-parallel strands,The main reason why DNA strands are anti-parallel is due to the high level of stability achieved in an anti-parallel configuration.. Moreover,it is also important in replication as it allows semi-conservative replication.
Erwin Chargaff was an Austro-Hungarian-born American biochemist who is best known for his discovery of DNA “base ratios,” also known as “Chargaff’s rules,” in the late 1940s, while working at Columbia University in New York City.This Chargaff's rules state that DNA from any cell of all organisms should have a 1:1 ratio (base Pair Rule) of pyrimidine and purine bases and, more specifically, that the amount of guanine is equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine is equal to thymine.This thing were later to later pave the way for  James Watson and Francis Crick to the double helical structure of the DNA.

Chromatin 
On chromosomes, the DNA is bound up with proteins called histones to form chromatin. This association takes part in epigenetics and gene regulation. Genes are switched on and off during development and cell activity, and this regulation is the basis of most of the activity which takes place in cells.
Copying DNA 
When DNA is copied, this is called DNA replication. Briefly, the hydrogen bonds holding together paired bases are broken and the molecule is split in half: the legs of the ladder are separated. This gives two single strands. New strands are formed by matching the bases (A with T and G with C) to make the missing strands.

First, an enzyme called DNA helicase splits the DNA down the middle by breaking the hydrogen bonds. Then after the DNA molecule is in two separate pieces, another molecule called DNA polymerase makes a new strand that matches each of the strands of the split DNA molecule. Each copy of a DNA molecule is made of half of the original (starting) molecule and half of new bases.
Mutations 
When DNA is copied, mistakes are sometimes made – these are called mutations. There are four main types of mutations:
 Deletion, where one or more bases are left out.
 Substitution, where one or more bases are substituted for another base in the sequence.
 Insertion, where one or more extra base is put in.
 Duplication, where a sequence of bases pairs are repeated.

Mutations may also be classified by their effect on the structure and function of proteins, or their effect on fitness. Mutations may be bad for the organism, or neutral, or of benefit. Sometimes mutations are fatal for the organism – the protein made by the new DNA does not work at all, and this causes the embryo to die. On the other hand, evolution is moved forward by mutations, when the new version of the protein works better for the organism.
Protein synthesis 
A section of DNA that contains instructions to make a protein is called a gene. Each gene has the sequence for at least one polypeptide. Proteins form structures, and also form enzymes. The enzymes do most of the work in cells. Proteins are made out of smaller polypeptides, which are formed of amino acids. To make a protein to do a particular job, the correct amino acids need to be joined up in the correct order.
 
Proteins are made by tiny machines in the cell called ribosomes.  Ribosomes are in the main body of the cell, but DNA is only in the nucleus of the cell. The codon is part of the DNA, but DNA never leaves the nucleus. Because DNA cannot leave the nucleus, the cell nucleus makes a copy of the DNA sequence in RNA. This is smaller and can get through the holes – pores – in the membrane of the nucleus and out into the cell.
Genes encoded in DNA are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) by proteins such as RNA polymerase. Mature mRNA is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome. Ribosomes read codons, 'words' made of three base pairs that tell the ribosome which amino acid to add. The ribosome scans along an mRNA, reading the code while it makes protein. Another RNA called tRNA helps match the right amino acid to each codon.

History of DNA research 

DNA was first isolated (extracted from cells) by Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher in 1869, when he was working on bacteria from the pus in surgical bandages. The molecule was found in the nucleus of the cells and so he called it nuclein.

In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered that traits of the "smooth" form of Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form. This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information.
The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment identified DNA as the transforming principle in 1943.

DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952, when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey–Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 bacteriophage.

In the 1950s, Erwin Chargaff  found that the amount of thymine (T) present in a molecule of DNA was about equal to the amount of adenine (A) present. He found that the same applies to guanine (G) and cytosine (C). Chargaff's rules summarises this finding.

In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick suggested what is now accepted as the first correct double-helix model of DNA structure in the journal Nature. Their double-helix, molecular model of DNA was then based on a single X-ray diffraction image "Photo 51", taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952.
Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick model was published in a series of five articles in the same issue of Nature. Of these, Franklin and Gosling's paper was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and original analysis method that partly supported the Watson and Crick model; this issue also contained an article on DNA structure by Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues, whose analysis and in vivo B-DNA X-ray patterns also supported the presence in vivo of the double-helical DNA configurations as proposed by Crick and Watson for their double-helix molecular model of DNA in the previous two pages of Nature. In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery.

In 1957, Crick explained the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, in the central dogma of molecular biology.
How DNA was copied (the replication mechanism) came in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment. More work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons. These findings represent the birth of molecular biology.

How Watson and Crick got Franklin's results has been much debated. Crick, Watson and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962 for their work on DNA – Rosalind Franklin had died in 1958.

What happens when DNA gets damaged 
DNA gets damaged a lot of times in cells which is a problem has DNA provide instructions to making proteins. But, cells have ways to fix these problems most of the time. Cells make use of special enzymes. Different enzymes fix different types of damages to DNA. The problem comes in different types:
One common error is base mismatch or where the bases are not matched correctly. This is where maybe for example, adenine is not matched with thymine or Guanine is not matched with cytosine. When a cell copies its own DNA a special enzyme called polymerase matches the bases together. But once in a while, there is an error. Usually, the enzyme notices it and fixes it, but just make sure, another set of proteins check what the enzyme has done. If the proteins find a base that was not matched with the right base, they remove it and replace it with a nucleotide with the right base.
 DNA can also be broken chemically by certain compounds. This can be toxic compounds like those found in tobacco or compounds the cell meets every day like hydrogen peroxide. Some chemical damages by compounds happens so much that there is a special enzyme to fix those types of problems.
When a base gets damaged, it is usually fixed in a process called base excision repair. Here, an enzyme removes the base and another group of enzymes trim around the damage and replaces it with a new nucleotide.
 UV light damages DNA in such a way that it changes its shape. Fixing this type of damage takes a more complex process called nucleotide excision repair. Here, a team of proteins remove a long strand of 20 or more broken nucleotides and replaces them with fresh new ones.
High energy waves like x-rays and gamma rays can actually cut one or both strands of DNA. This type of damage is called a double strand break. One double strand break can cause the cell to die. Two common ways the cell fixes this problem is homologous recombination and non homologous end joining. In homologous recombination, enzymes use a similar part of another gene as a template to fix the break. In non-homologous end joining enzymes trim around the place where the DNA strand broke and put them together. This way is much less accurate but works when there is no similar genes available.
DNA and privacy concerns
Police in the United States used DNA and family tree public databases to solve cold cases. The American Civil Liberties Union  raised concerns over this practice.

Related pages 
 Bioinformatics
 Cell division
 Mitosis
 Meiosis
 DNA repair
 Chromosome
 Sequence analysis
 Epigenetics
 Junk DNA
 DNA origami

References

Other websites 
 Human Genome Project: information

 
Cell biology
Macromolecules
Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 in Trier, Prussia – 14 March 1883 in London, England) was a German political thinker who wrote about economics and politics. Marx thought that if a place that works together runs on wage-labor, then there would always be class struggle. He thought that this class struggle would result in workers taking power. Marx believed that no economic class—wage workers, land owners, etc. should have power over another. He believed that everyone should contribute what they can, and everyone should get what they need. His most famous book was the Communist Manifesto. He wrote it with Friedrich Engels in 1848. The book is about the ideas and aims of communism. His ideas are called Marxism.

Biography
Biography

Karl Marx was born on May 5, 1818, in Trier, Prussia (now Germany). He came from a middle-class family, and his father was a lawyer. Marx studied law, history, and philosophy at the University of Bonn and later at the University of Berlin. During his education, he became involved with radical thinkers and developed his interest in philosophy and economics. In 1844 Marx meet Friedrich Engels in Paris and became close friends by working together on the Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, sharing a passion for critiquing the socio-economic order. Their intellectual camaraderie helped shape Marxist theory. In his later years, Karl Marx faced financial struggles and health issues. He continued his political activities, writing, and research, contributing to the development of Marxist theory. Marx died in London on March 14, 1883, but his ideas had a lasting impact on political and economic thought. After he died, his friend Engels finished many of his works.

Works

Das Kapital
Works

Das Kapital

His most important work is Das Kapital, or The Capital. It is commonly known in English as simply 'Capital.' He spent many years working on the three parts of the book.  Das Kapital describes how "capitalism" works and the problems it creates, such as division of labour, alienation and exploitation. The book has led to many arguments between those who agree with the book and those who do not. Marx's ideas have been thought of as responsible for socialist revolutions (like the Russian Revolution).

Historical materialism

Marx's most popular theory was 'historical materialism', arguing that history is the result of material conditions, rather than ideas.  He believed that religion, morality, Social structures and other things are all rooted in economics.

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844
Marx also wrote the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, a critique of political economy in which he discusses topics such as labor wages, labor rent, and capital profit, and his ideas of how to change the economy, including proletarian socialist revolution and an eventual communist society.

Personal Life

Karl Marx lived in various European cities during his life. Some notable ones include Trier and Cologne in Germany, Brussels in Belgium, and London in the United Kingdom, where he spent a significant portion of his later life. Marx married Jenny von Westphalen, his childhood sweetheart, in 1843. Despite his revolutionary ideas, he struggled with poverty and relied on his friend Friedrich Engels for support. Marx had six children, and his family faced hardship due to their economic circumstances. His personal life reflected the complexities of the era he lived in.

Legacy
Legacy

Karl Marx's legacy is marked by his influential contributions to political theory and economics, particularly with his ideas on communism and class struggle. While his ideas have shaped various political movements, their interpretation and application have varied widely, sometimes leading to both positive and negative outcomes. However, there's ongoing debate about Karl Marx's legacy by historians. Some see him as a revolutionary thinker who highlighted class struggles, while others criticize his ideas for various reasons, including their implementation in certain historical contexts. Some historians argue that Karl Marx's ideas, as interpreted and implemented by various leaders, contributed to the development of totalitarian regimes, citing instances like the Soviet Union and Maoist China as examples. Many people continue to follow and develop Marx's ideas.

Related pages
Commodity fetishism
Factors of production
Political economy
Marxism
Friedrich Engels
Communism
Russian Revolution

References
References

Biographies 
 Friedrich Engels' Biography of Marx
 Franz Mehring's Karl Marx: The Story of His Life
 Vladimir Lenin's Karl Marx Biography
 Francis Wheen's Karl Marx: A Life 
 Karl Korsch's Karl Marx Biography
 Maximilien Rubel's Marx, life and works

Articles and entries 
 Dead Sociologists - Karl Marx 
 Ernest Mandel, Karl Marx (New Palgrave article)
 Marx on India and the Colonial Question  from anti-caste 
 Portraits of Karl Marx
 The Karl Marx Museum
 Marxmyths.org  - Various essays on misinterpretations of Marx
 Paul Dorn, The Paris Commune and Marx' Theory of Revolution
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 Why Marx is the Man of the Moment

Other websites

Bibliography and online texts
Marx and Engels Internet Archive 
 Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (1843)
 On the Jewish Question (1843)
 Notes on James Mill (1844)
 Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844)
 Theses on Feuerbach (1845)
 The German Ideology [with Engels] (1845-46)
 The Poverty of Philosophy (1846-47)
 Wage-Labour and Capital (1847)
 Manifesto of the Communist Party [with Engels] (1847-48)
 Free audiobook from LibriVox (Also available in German)
 The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852)
 Grundrisse (1857-58)
 A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859)
 Writings on the U.S. Civil War [with Engels; compiled] (1861)
 Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes (1862)
 Value, Price and Profit (1865)
 Capital vol. 1 (1867)
 The Civil War in France (1871)
 Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875)
 Notes on Wagner (1883)
 Capital, vol. 2 [posthumously, by Engels] (1893)
 Capital, vol. 3 [posthumously, by Engels] (1894)
 Letters [with Engels; compiled] (1833-95)
Ethnological Notebooks —  (1879-80)
 
 "The Reality Behind Commodity Fetishism" (in English) at Sic et Non (in German)
 Libertarian Communist Library Karl Marx Archive 
 Karl Marx Biography 
 Works by Karl Marx at Zeno.org
1818 births
1883 deaths
19th-century German philosophers
Former Christians
German atheists
German communists
German economists
German historians
German sociologists
Jewish atheists
Jewish German scientists
Jewish German writers
Jewish philosophers
Marxism
Writers from Rhineland-Palatinate
European Jews
Philosophical anthropology
Bread is a type of baked food. It is mainly made from dough, which is made mainly from flour and water. Usually, salt and yeast are added. Bread is often baked in an oven. It can be bought all over the world.

Bread can be toasted or used to make sandwiches.  Pizza is a food-based on bread. There are many different kinds of bread.
The two main types of bread are:
 Leavened bread is made by adding yeast or other leavening agents to the dough. The yeast produces gas that makes the dough lighter. Leavened bread can be made into larger loaves baked in an oven. This is the main type of bread eaten in Europe, America, and many parts of Asia.
 Unleavened flatbread is baked from a dough of water and flour, with no yeast. It is baked in flat rounds like tortilla or chapati. This type of bread cannot be made thick as it would be too dense to eat. Unleavened bread is eaten throughout Greece, Africa, parts of Asia, and as the Central America such as Pitta bread or tortilla. Baking can be done on a metal plate or hot stone, or in an oven.
The color and taste of the bread depending on the kind of flour used and the style of baking. Flour made from the whole grain gives darker bread. Flour made just from the polished wheat grain gives a very white bread. Rye and barley flour give darker types of bread. The type of flour also changes how long the bread can be kept before going bad. Some strains of wheat are resistant to fungus, but may not produce bread as tasty as a weaker strain.

Religious breads 
Christianity and Judaism have rules about the use of bread in their religions. Unleavened bread (matzo) is eaten by Jews during the Passover. The Catholic celebration of the Eucharist uses unleavened wafers.

Orthodox churches forbid the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist (Old Testament) and permit leavened bread only as a symbol of the New. This was one of the three points of contention that brought about the schism between Eastern and Western churches in 1054.

Types of bread
Types of bread 

Bagel
Baguette
Croissant
Injera
Khachapuri
Lavash
Markouk in Egypt and the Levant
Matzo in all Kosher communities
Naan
North American biscuit
Pita
Pizza dough
Pretzel
Rice bread
Roti
Rye bread (Includes Pumpernickel)
Scone
Sprouted bread
Tortilla
White Bread
Wholemeal bread

Bread is an important part of life in many countries because so many people eat it. In many cultures, bread is so important that it is part of religious rituals. 

Cake is made in a similar way to bread but sugar, fat, and milk are added to the dough and often more ingredients.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Shinto () is a form of Japanese animism. It has many kami, translated as gods or nature spirits. Some "kami" are just spirits of certain places, and some are the overall "kami" (like "Amaterasu", the Sun goddess). The word "Shinto" comes from the Japanese words "", shin—the word for spirit or god, and "", tō—the word for "the way" or "path". So, Shinto means "the way of the gods." 

State Shinto was the main religion of Japan before World War II. During the period 1868 to 1945 the Japanese government used Shinto for propaganda. All Japanese were forced to register with their local shrine. All Shinto priests worked for the government. War was seen as a sacred duty. The Emperor of Japan was seen as a god. Japanese Buddhism was also involved with the war effort (See Zen at War).

Shinto has many rituals and customs, and some are done every day. Festivals are frequent. Some people mix Shinto and Buddhist rituals and beliefs.
Although Jinja-Honcho manages almost all shrines, some, such as Yasukuni, are run separately.

 Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, is seen as the holiest of all Shinto kami. Her shrine is in Ise, Japan.

Related pages 
Shinto shrine

Other websites 
 Kokugakuin University Encylopedia of Shinto
A volcano is a mountain that has lava (hot, liquid rock) coming out from a magma chamber under the ground, or did have in the past. Volcanoes are formed by the movement of tectonic plates.

The Earth's crust has 17 major, rigid tectonic plates. These float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Volcanoes are often found where tectonic plates are  coming together.
   
Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, e.g., in the East African Rift. Volcanoes are usually not found where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

Volcanism away from plate boundaries is caused by mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are thought to arise from upwelling magma from the core–mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.  

Most volcanoes have a volcanic crater at the top. When a volcano is active, materials come out of it. The materials include lava, steam, gaseous sulfur compounds, ash and broken rock pieces.
When there is enough pressure, the volcano erupts. Some volcanic eruptions blow off the top of the volcano. Sometimes, the magma comes out quickly and sometimes it comes slowly. Some eruptions come out at a side instead of the top.

Volcanoes are found on planets other than Earth. An example is Olympus Mons on Mars.

Volcanologists are scientists who study volcanoes using methods from geology, chemistry, geography, mineralogy, physics and sociology.

The world's biggest volcano is named Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Mauna Loa is part of the five volcanoes on Hawaii's 'Big Island'. The most recent time this volcano erupted was in 1984. It erupted 33 times in the last 170 years. Like all the other Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created by the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate which moved over the Hawaii hotspot in the Earth's mantle. Mauna Loa is 4,196 meters tall. It is a shield volcano. The largest recent eruption from Mauna Loa left a lava trail  long.
Types of volcanoes 
The lava and pyroclastic material (clouds of ash, lava fragments and vapor) that comes out from volcanoes can make many different kinds of land shapes. There are two basic kinds of volcanoes.

Shield volcanoes 
These volcanoes are formed by fluid low-silica mafic lava.

Shield volcanoes are built out of layers of lava from continual eruptions (without explosions). Because the lava is so fluid, it spreads out, often over a wide area. Shield volcanoes do not grow to a great height, and the layers of lava spread out to give the volcano gently sloping sides. Shield volcanoes can produce huge areas of basalt, which is usually what lava is when cooled.

The base of the volcano increases in size over successive eruptions where solidified lava spreads out and accumulates. Some of the world's largest volcanoes are shield volcanoes.
Even though their sides are not very steep, shield volcanoes can be huge. Mauna Kea in Hawaii is the biggest mountain on Earth if it is measured from its base on the floor of the sea.

Stratovolcanoes 

A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a tall, conical volcano. It is built up of many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash.

Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes have a steep profile and periodic eruptions. The lava that flows from stratovolcanoes cools and hardens before spreading far. It is sticky, that is, it has high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic, with high-to-intermediate levels of silica, and less mafic magma. Big felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as .

Two famous stratovolcanoes are Japan's Mount Fuji, and Vesuvius. Both have big bases and steep sides that get steeper and steeper as it goes near the top. Vesuvius is famous for its destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 AD, killing thousands.
Caldera 

A caldera is a basin-like feature formed by collapse of land after a volcanic eruption. This happens after a huge stratovolcano blows its top off. The base of the crater then sinks, leaving a caldera where the top of the volcano was before. Krakatoa, best known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883, is much smaller now.

How volcanoes are formed 

There are two main processes.

Volcanoes are made when two tectonic plates come together. When these two plates meet, one of them (usually the oceanic plate) goes under the continental plate. This is the process of subduction. Afterwards, it melts and makes magma (inside the magma chamber), and the pressure builds up until the magma bursts through the Earth's crust.

The second way is when a tectonic plate moves over a hot spot in the Earth's crust. The hot spot works its way through the crust until it breaks through. The caldera of Yellowstone Park was formed in that way; so were the Hawaiian Islands.

Classification
Classification 

A traditional way to classify or identify volcanoes is by its pattern of eruptions. Those volcanoes which may erupt again at any time are called active. Those that are now quiet are called dormant (inactive). Those volcanoes which have not erupted in historical times are called extinct.

Active 

An active volcano is currently erupting, or it has erupted in the last 10,000 years. An example of an active volcano is Mount St. Helens in the United States (US).

Dormant (inactive) 
A dormant volcano is "sleeping," but it could awaken in the future. Mount Rainier in the United States is considered dormant.

Extinct (dead volcano) 

An extinct volcano has not erupted in the past 10,000 years. Edinburgh Castle in Scotland sits on top of an extinct volcano.
Largest volcano on Earth 
The Earth's largest volcano has been discovered. It is 2 km below the sea on an underwater plateau known as the Shatsky Rise. This is about 1,600 km east of Japan. The previous record-holder, Mauna Loa in Hawaii, is still the largest volcano on land.

The 310,000 km2 (119,000 sq mi) volcano, Tamu Massif, is comparable in size to Mars' vast Olympus Mons volcano, which is the largest known volcano in the Solar System. It was formed about 145 million years ago when massive lava flows erupted from the centre of the volcano to form a broad, shield-like feature. That suggests the volcano produced a flood basalt eruption.
The Tamu Massif extends some 30 km (18 miles) into the Earth's crust. The researchers doubted the submerged volcano's peak ever rose above sea level during its lifetime and say it is unlikely to erupt again.
"The bottom line is that we think that Tamu Massif was built in a short (geologically speaking) time of one to several million years and it has been extinct since", co-author William Sager of the University of Houston told the AFP news agency.
"There were lots of oceanic plateaus (that) erupted during the Cretaceous period (145-65 million years ago) but we don't see them since. Scientists would like to know why... The biggest oceanic plateau is Ontong Java Plateau, near the equator in the Pacific, east of the Solomon Islands. It is much bigger than Tamu  it's the size of France".

Related pages 
 List of volcanoes

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 The United States Geological Service (USGS) Volcano page 
 Glossary of Volcanic Terms from USGS
 Volcanic and Geologic Terms  from Volcano World  - University of North Dakota (UND)
 Television program (BBC) on the prediction of Popocatepetl's 2000 eruption
Basic English 850 words
Volcanoes
The Big Bang is a scientific theory about how the universe started, and then made the stars and galaxies we see today. The Big Bang is the name that scientists use for the most common theory of the universe, from the very early stages to the present day.
The most commonly considered alternatives are called the Steady State theory and Plasma cosmology, according to both of which the universe has no beginning or end.

According to the theory the universe began as a very hot, small, and dense superforce (the mix of the four fundamental forces), with no stars, atoms, form, or structure (called a "singularity"). Then about 13.8 billion years ago, space expanded very quickly (thus the name "Big Bang"). This started the formation of atoms, which eventually led to the formation of stars and galaxies. It was Georges  who first noted (in 1927) that an expanding universe could be traced back in time to an originating single point. The universe is still expanding today, and getting colder as well.
As a whole, the universe is growing and the temperature is falling as time passes. Cosmology is the study of how the universe began and its development. Some scientists who study cosmology have agreed that the Big Bang theory matches what they have observed so far.

Naming 
Astronomer Fred Hoyle mockingly called the theory the "Big Bang" on his radio show. Scientists who did not agree with him decided to use it.
Scientists base the Big Bang theory on many different observations. The most important is the redshift of very far away galaxies. Cosmological redshift is the Doppler effect occurring in light. When an object moves away from Earth, its color rays look more similar to the color red than they actually are, because the movement stretches the wavelength of light given off by the object. Scientists use the word "red hot" to describe this stretched light wave because red is the longest wavelength on the visible spectrum. The more redshift there is, the faster the object is moving away. By measuring the redshift, scientists proved that the universe is expanding, and they can work out how fast the object is moving away from the Earth. With very exact observation and measurements, scientists believe that the universe was a singularity approximately 13.8 billion years ago. Because most things become colder as they expand, scientists assume that the universe was very small and very hot when it started
. This does not take into account other possible (non-cosmological)  causes of redshift.
Other observations that support the Big Bang theory are the amounts of chemical elements in the universe. Amounts of very light elements, such as hydrogen, helium, and lithium seem to agree with the theory of the Big Bang. The same is true, however, for Static State theory and plasma cosmology. Scientists also detected what they call the cosmic microwave background radiation. These electromagnetic waves are everywhere in the universe. This radiation is now very weak and cold, but is thought to have been very strong and very hot a long time ago.

Time 
It can be said that time had no meaning before the Big Bang. If the Big Bang was the beginning of time, then there was no universe before the Big Bang, since there could not be any "before" if there was no time. Other ideas state that the Big Bang was not the beginning of time 13.8 billion years ago. Instead, some believe that there was a completely different universe before the Big Bang, and it may have been very different from the one we know today.
Nonetheless, in November 2019, Jim Peebles, awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics for his theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology, noted in his award presentation that he does not support the Big Bang Theory due to the lack of concrete supporting evidence, and stated, "It's very unfortunate that one thinks of the beginning whereas in fact, we have no good theory of such a thing as the beginning."

Graphical timeline of the universe 

Many things happened in the first picosecond of the universe's time:

References

More reading
Gmail is a free e-mail service that is run by Google. It can be accessed on the web, by POP3, or by IMAP. Some of the competitors to Gmail are Yahoo! Mail, Hotmail/Windows Live Mail, and Inbox.Com. The space given to any Gmail member is increased a small amount every second, and as of July 26, 2012, Google provides each account with about 10272 MB of space.

Google Apps 
Google Apps is a service from Google that was created in February 2006 as Gmail for your domain. It is to allow system administrators of a company or organisation to create email accounts for their own domain.

Trademark issues 
In the United Kingdom (UK), the trademark "Gmail" was owned by another company before Gmail by Google was started. Thus, the United Kingdom uses a domain of "googlemail.com" for their users, and the logo has the words of "Google Mail" instead of the normal "Gmail".

In September 2009 Google began to change the branding of UK accounts back to Gmail following the resolution of the trademark dispute.

References
References

Other websites
 Gmail Website

Mail
E-mail
An astronomer is a scientist who studies astronomy. Observational astronomers work in observatories with telescopes to collect information from things in outer space such as planets, stars, or galaxies. Theoretical astronomers study the collected information, and use it to help us understand how the universe behaves.

Related pages
 List of Astronomers

 
Science occupations
Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.

The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (analusis, "a breaking up", from ana- "up, throughout" and lysis "a loosening").

In this context, Analysis is the opposite of synthesis, which is to bring ideas together.

The following concepts are closely related to this basic idea:
 Mathematical analysis is the name given to any branch of mathematics that looks at what functions are, how they behave, and what things can be done with them.
 Analytical chemistry looks at the qualities of substances, and their composition.
Some definitions 
The process of breaking up a concept, proposition, or fact into its simple or ultimate constituents. Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. 2nd ed, 1999, ed. Robert Audi.
Resolution into simpler elements by analysing. 2. (Maths) Use of algebra and calculus in problem-solving. Concise Oxford Dictionary. 1976, ed. J.B. Sykes.
The isolation of what is more elementary from what is more complex by whatever method. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. 1925, ed. James Mark Baldwin, Vol. I
The original Greek sense [was] a ‘loosening up’ or ‘releasing’. Geometry assumes a proposition to be true and searches for another known truth from which the proposition may be deduced. Physical science resolves complex wholes into their elements. A Kant Dictionary, 1995, by Howard Caygill.
The process of breaking a concept down into more simple parts, so that its logical structure is displayed. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. 1996, Simon Blackburn
Philosophical analysis is a method of inquiry in which one seeks to assess complex systems of thought by ‘analysing’ them into simpler elements whose relationships are thereby brought into focus. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1998, entry under ‘Conceptual Analysis’ by Robert Hanna
References

Philosophy
Research methods
Foolishness is when someone acts without wisdom or sense. A foolish decision is one made without careful reasoning or judgement. An act of foolishness is called folly. A person who shows foolishness may be called a fool. It is different to stupidity, which is the lack of intelligence.

A fool's errand is a useless piece of work.

A fool's paradise a happy state for which there is no good reason.

The wise fool is a common literary character, a person who appears at first to be unintelligent but then reveals him or herself to possess a grest deal of wisdom. An example of this is Sancho Panza in Cervantes' Don Quixote. Sancho is an uneducated peasant who at first seems to have little sense or experience. However, as the tale unfolds, he reveals himself to possess a wealth of common sense, first expressed through endless proverbs, but then through his own skill. In this sense he provides a comic juxtaposition to Quixote himself, who is highly educated but insane; both of them supply what the other lacks.
References

Related pages 

 Silliness

Knowledge
Basic English 850 words
Aristotle (Stagira, Macedonia, 384 BC – Chalicis, Euboea, Greece, 7 March 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher. He was one of the most important philosophers in the history of Western civilization.  Aristotle wrote many books, and some of those books survive. Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great when Alexander was a child.

Life 
Aristotle's father was named Nicomachus. He was a soldier for King Amyntas of Macedonia.

At about the age of eighteen, Aristotle went to Athens to become a student of Plato at Plato's Academy. Aristotle stayed at the academy until he was 27. He left after Plato died in 347 BC. 

He then traveled with Xenocrates to Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos. They looked at the botany and zoology of the island.
In 343 B.C. Philip II of Macedon invited Aristotle to tutor his son Alexander the Great. Aristotle was put in charge of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time, he not only taught Alexander; he also taught two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.

Aristotle believed Greek culture was better than all of the other cultures. He encouraged Alexander to conquer Persia, which was an empire to the east. One time, he advised Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.p58

By 335 BC Aristotle returned to Athens. He started his own school there. It was called the Lyceum. Aristotle taught courses at the school for twelve years.
It was probably then (335 to 323 B.C.) that Aristotle wrote most of his works. Aristotle wrote many dialogues. Only parts of his dialogues survive. The works that have survived are probably lecture notes for his students. All of Aristotle's works are like an encyclopedia of everything the Greeks knew. Some people think Aristotle was probably the last person to know everything there was to know about in his own time.

Near the end of Alexander's life, he began to think people might be trying to kill him. He threatened Aristotle in letters he wrote to him. Aristotle often said that he disliked Alexander calling himself a god. The king executed Aristotle's grandnephew Callisthenes as a traitor. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 B.C. without ever going back to Greece. When Alexander died, Athenians started to dislike Macedonians again and Aristotle left the city. He died in Euboea of natural causes that same year, 322BC.
Philosophy 
The three greatest ancient Greek philosophers were Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. Socrates taught Plato, then Plato taught Aristotle. These three thinkers turned early Greek philosophy into the beginnings of Western philosophy as it is today.

Plato's main ideas were that knowledge from the senses was always confused and not pure. True knowledge can be got from the thinking soul that turns away from the world. Only the soul can have knowledge of "Forms", the real way things are. The world is only a copy of these "Forms" and is not perfect.

Aristotle thought differently. He thought that knowledge from the senses was more important. These thoughts became roots of the scientific method after hundreds of years. Most of the things Aristotle wrote that we still have today are notes from his speaking and teaching. Some of his important writings are Physics, Metaphysics, (Nicomachean) Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul), and Poetics.