Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
There are other more unusual types of cylinders. These are the imaginary elliptic cylinders:

the hyperbolic cylinder:

and the parabolic cylinder:

Other websites

 Surface area of a cylinder at MATHguide
 Volume of a cylinder at MATHguide
 Spinning Cylinder at Math Is Fun
 Volume of a cylinder Interactive animation at Math Open Reference
 Cut a Cylinder Interactive demonstrations of the intersection of a plane and a cylinder
 Cylinder Calculator 3D Specify only two cylinder values and all others are immediately calculated, plus interactive 3D visualization in fullscreen.

Three-dimensional shapes
A vacuum is a place where there is no matter, not even air. Sound cannot move in a vacuum. No place has a perfect vacuum, because a small number of particles remain, even in outer space. 

A space where only some of the air is removed is also called a vacuum. The space then has lower pressure, even though most of the air remains.

Common uses 
A vacuum cleaner works by pumping away some of the air. The air and dirt in a room rush into the vacuum left behind, where the dirt is caught by a filter.
An automobile engine that burns fuel uses a vacuum to pull in air, which contains oxygen that allows the fuel to burn.
An incandescent lightbulb has a vacuum inside so the hot filament doesn't burn up.

Industrial uses
Industrial uses 

Vacuum is needed for some kinds of machines used for industrial production.  Vacuum pumps are used to pump air out of a vacuum chamber.  It is not possible to create 100% vacuum, but some vacuum pumps are able to create 99.9999% vacuum.  This is called "hard vacuum".  Most industrial purposes do not need hard vacuum.  

Industrial vacuums are mainly used in:
 Food industry
 Electronics industry
 Packaging
 Manipulation
 Coating and degasing

Scientific experiments 
Vacuum chambers are also used in many scientific experiments in laboratories. Some experiments in physics and chemistry need hard vacuum to keep any air or other gases from interfering with delicate surfaces or chemicals that can react.

Related pages
Nothing
Vacuum cleaner

References 
 Industrial vacuum information

Matter
Catherine Howard (c. 1521 –  13 February 1542) was Queen consort of England from 1540 until 1541, as the fifth wife of Henry VIII of England.

Childhood 
Catherine Howard (also spelled "Katheryn") was born in about 1521, but the exact date is unknown.  She was the tenth child of Lord Edmund Howard and Joyce Culpepper. Her father was the second son of the Duke of Norfolk. She was a cousin to Anne Boleyn, who was the second wife of Henry VIII.

Catherine's family was poor so they sent her to live with her step-grandmother, Agnes Tilney. Agnes Tilney, the Duchess of Norfolk, had a large household, but it was not very strict. Catherine could read and write, but she was the least-educated of Henry VIII's wives.

Arrival at court
Arrival at court 

Catherine became a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne of Cleves in 1539 or 1540, when she was about 18 years old. Anne of Cleves was the fourth wife of Henry VIII.  The king did not like Anne, and said she was not as pretty as he had hoped for and also called her a Flanders mare (horse). He soon fell in love with Catherine.

In July 1540, after Henry had annulled his marriage with Anne of Cleves, Henry and Catherine got married at Oatlands Palace, which is in Surrey.

Marriage 
Henry VIII loved his young bride and gave her lots of rich presents, such as jewels and expensive clothes. He called her his 'rose without a thorn' and the 'very jewel of womanhood'. Her motto was "Non autre volonté que la sienne" (French) or "No other wish but his". However, Catherine was not happy in her marriage. Her husband was very fat (he was about  at the time), much older than she was, and had an ulcer on his legs. She started becoming acquainted with a man named Thomas Culpepper.

Downfall
Downfall 

Rumors that Catherine was unfaithful began to be repeated at court. Then Francis Dereham told
people about the affair which he had had with Catherine, and officials started to ask questions about what she was doing in private. Many of Catherine's ladies-in-waiting, who had also lived with her in Lambeth, were brought forward to bring evidence against Catherine.  Soon, her past was uncovered, and more scandal was brought to her name; enough to have her charged with treason.  Catherine then, in 1541, was arrested and charged with high treason. Henry was heartbroken and very upset. He drew his sword and threatened to kill Katherine himself. At last, he made up his mind that Catherine was to be executed, just like her cousin, Anne Boleyn.

Death
Death 

In February 1542, Catherine was told that she was to die. She was being kept a prisoner at Syon Abbey. She was so fearful she grew filled with hysteria, crying as if she was a madwoman. She asked to see the executioner's block so she might know how to put her head on it. She practiced laying her head on the block all night long before her execution.

There is a popular story that before Catherine died, she said, "I die a Queen, but I would rather have died the wife of Culpepper." This story is not true. Instead, she cried out "God have mercy on my soul. Good people, I beg of you, pray for me."

The executioner chopped her head off with one blow. She was buried in St. Peter Ad Vincula, the parish church of the Tower of London.

References 

1521 births
1542 deaths
Executed English people
People executed by decapitation
House of Tudor
Kings and Queens consort of England
Anne of Cleves (22 September 1515 – 16 July 1557) was the fourth wife of Henry VIII of England from January 1540 to July 1540.

Biography 
She was the daughter of John III, Duke of Cleves and Maria of Julich Berg. She was born in Düsseldorf on 22 September 1515.
She was betrothed to Francis, the Duke of Lorraine, but she ended up marrying Henry VIII in January 1540. When the couple met for the first time, they did not like each other.

Henry VIII got married six times.  Except for Anne of Cleves, Henry knew all of his wives for a long time before marrying them.  Henry decided to marry Anne so England and the Protestant League would be allies.  It was a political marriage.  Henry also knew that having more than one son would be good, in case his and Jane Seymour's son, Edward, died.  So he also married Anne so he could have more children.
Hans Holbein painted a beautiful picture of Anne of Cleves and showed it to Henry.  One of the reasons Henry decided to marry Anne (instead of her sister Amelia) was because she looked so beautiful in her portrait.  When Anne's ship landed in England, Henry decided to sneak out to meet her early.  He brought a few of his friends and servants with him.  Henry dressed in the exact same clothes as the servants, and they all came into the room where Anne was waiting with her women.  Henry was acting out a story from the tradition of courtly love in which a man goes to see a woman while he is disguised as a servant, and she recognizes him because of the magic of true love.  Almost everyone in the courts of England and France knew this story.  But Anne grew up in a strict German court.  She did not know that the man dressed as a servant was King Henry, playing a game.  She spoke to him like a real servant.  Henry was very embarrassed.
Henry started complaining that Anne was not pretty.  He said that he could not have sexual intercourse with her because she had "bad breath" and smelled. Anne's previous engagement to the Duke of Lorraine was used as an excuse for a divorce, and Anne agreed to it. In July 1540 Henry divorced Anne and married Catherine Howard, who was younger and prettier.

After the divorce 
After the divorce, Henry made Anne his "sister" and gave her money and land for the rest of her life. As part of her divorce agreement, Henry gave Anne Hever Castle to live in.  Anne invited Henry's daughters Mary and Elizabeth to visit her at Hever Castle.  King Henry visited her too.  In 1541, there were rumors that King Henry had gotten his ex-wife Anne pregnant, but historians do not think this is true.

After Henry died, Anne did not have enough money.  His son, Edward VI, did not give her the same generous sums.
Anne of Cleves died on July 16, 1557 when she was 41 years old. She was the last of Henry's six wives to die, as she outlived his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, by nearly nine years. Anne was buried in Westminster Abbey.

References

1515 births
1557 deaths
House of Tudor
People buried in Westminster Abbey
Kings and Queens consort of England
Mary Tudor (28 March 1496 – 25 June 1533) was the youngest daughter of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. She was princess of England, and was Queen of France for three months. After being Queen of France, she married someone else, and became Duchess of Suffolk until her death.

Biography 
Mary Tudor was born on 18 March 1496 in Richmond Palace. Her older brothers were Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Prince Henry, and her older sister was Princess Margaret. Henry and Mary were close as children. Later in life, when Henry became King Henry VIII of England, he even named his ship, the Mary Rose, after her. His first daughter, Mary (later known as Queen Mary I of England), was probably also named after her.
Mary's father was anxious for all his children to make good marriages, and many of the other kings and queens of Europe wanted Mary as a wife for one of their sons. She was first betrothed to Charles of Castile, later the Holy Roman Emperor. This betrothal was broken later, and she did not get married until after her brother Henry became king. When Mary was 18 she married King Louis XII of France, who was 52 years old. She was married in Abbeville, France, on 9 October 1514. Mary did not want to marry King Louis, but agreed when her brother said that she could marry anyone she wanted after Louis died. Louis died on 1 January 1515, and Mary soon married Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. 
Mary did not have any children while married to Louis, but she did when she was married to Charles. Her children's names were Henry, Frances and Eleanor. Frances went on to be the mother of Lady Jane Grey, who was the Queen of England for only nine days.
After suffering failing health for some years, Mary Tudor died on 25 June, 1533 at the age of thirty eight at Westhorpe Hall, Westhorpe, Suffolk, possibly of cancer. Her husband then married Catherine Willoughby.

References 

Tudor, Mary
1495 births
1533 deaths
Louis XII of France (June 27, 1462 – January 1, 1515) was the son of Charles, Duke of Orleans and Mary of Cleves. He was born on June 27, 1462 in the Chateau de Blois, France.

Louis's first wife was Jeanne of France, who was the daughter of Louis XI of France. At the time, Louis was not expected to become King of France. The King, Charles VIII, was a young man and could still have had children, but Charles had an accident and died suddenly. Charles was Jeanne's brother. Louis was Charles's cousin and next in line to the throne. When he became king, he had to end his marriage to Jeanne, partly because she was disabled and could not have children.
Louis's second wife was Anne of Brittany, who was the daughter of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Anne had been married to King Charles VIII until his death, but all of their children had died. As a result of her marriage to Charles, the dukedom of Brittany had become part of the kingdom of France. Louis wanted to keep Brittany, but in order to do so he had to marry Anne. After her marriage to Louis, Anne had two daughters, who were called Claude and Renee. 

In France, women were not allowed to rule the country, so Louis still wanted a son to become king after him. After Anne died, Louis married for a third time. His last wife was Mary Tudor, the sister of Henry VIII of England. She was many years younger than he was. Louis only lived for three months after their marriage. Because Louis had no sons, the throne went to Francis, the husband of his daughter Claude.

1462 births
1515 deaths

Kings and Queens of France
House of Valois
Louis XIII (27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 to 1643. He was the son of Henry IV and Marie de' Medici.  He lived during the time of the Thirty Years War and had to deal with many rebellions.  He was proud of his country, and tried to encourage French artists to stay in France instead of going off to Italy.  He did this by giving them work in the Louvre.

Although he was married, many people thought that he would never produce an heir.  Then, after 23 years of marriage, his wife Anne gave birth to a baby boy.  He was to become King Louis XIV of France.

He died of Crohn's disease in 1643 and was later buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis, France. His oldest son would succeed him on the throne.

Children

 King Louis XIV of France (5 September 1638–1 September 1715) married Marie Thérèse of Austria.
 Philippe of France, Duke of Orléans (21 September 1640 – 9 June 1701) married Henrietta of England then Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate.

References
References 

1610 births
1643 deaths
Kings and Queens of France
Princes of Andorra
Claude of France (October 14, 1499 – July 20, 1524) was the daughter of Louis XII of France and Anne of Brittany. Claude had no brothers, but was not allowed to be the Queen of France in her own right after her father died because of the Salic Law. Instead she became the Queen consort of France by marrying the next King of France, Francis I of France. 

Henry II of France was Claude's son.

After she got married Claude spent the rest of her life having babies. She died when she was only 24.

1499 births
1524 deaths

Kings and Queens consort of France
Dukes and Duchesses of Brittany
Lady Eleanor Brandon (1519-27 September 1547) was the daughter of Mary Tudor, Queen of France and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Her maternal grandparents were King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. She was the sister of Lady Frances Brandon therefore she was the aunt of Lady Jane Grey.

Biography
Eleanor was married to Henry Clifford in 1537. She then became the Countess of Cumberland.
Henry and Eleanor had three children:
Lady Margaret Clifford (1540-1596)
Henry Clifford. Died as an infant.
Charles Clifford. Died as an infant.

1519 births
1547 deaths
English nobility
Life 
Frances Brandon was a cruel, abusive mother to her children and a bold wife to her husband, Henry Grey. She had spent her childhood with her mother and was very close to Catherine of Aragon, so she was against Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn. In 1533, she married Henry Grey and soon she had two children who died young before having Lady Jane Grey in 1537, Katherine in 1540, and Mary in 1545.
In 1554, just weeks after her daughter Lady Jane Grey's and her husband Henry Grey's execution, Frances married again. This time it was to Adrian Stokes. Many people were shocked about this marriage, because Adrian was far below Frances's status. Historians believe that Frances was pregnant at the time of their marriage because she gave birth to a child about six months later. This child did not survive and Frances had two others. None of these last three children lived past a year.
Death 
Frances became increasingly large similar to her great-uncle Henry VIII. Because of this, she died in 1559 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

References 
 Frances Brandon A detailed reference to Frances's relationship with her daughter

1517 births
1559 deaths
Dukes and duchesses
People buried in Westminster Abbey
English nobility
House of Tudor
Henry II of France (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois. Henry was crowned King in Rheims, France, on July 25, 1547.

Birth 
Henry was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, on March 31, 1519. His parents were Francis I of France and Claude of France.

Marriage 
Henry was married to Catherine of Medici on October 28, 1533 when he was only 14 years old. Their children were:
 Francis II of France
 Elizabeth of Valois
 Charles IX of France
 Henry III of France
 Margaret of Valois

Henry did not love Catherine of Medici. He spent most of his time with his mistress, who was called Diane de Poitiers.

Death 
Henry died on July 10, 1559 after a jousting accident. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica. The next King was Francis II of France.

1519 births
1559 deaths

Kings and Queens of France
House of Valois
16th-century French people
People from Yvelines
Francis I of France (September 12, 1494 – March 31, 1547) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois.

Birth 
Francis was born in Cognac, France on September 12, 1494. His parents were Charles, Duke of Angoulême and Louise of Savoy.

Marriage 
Francis I married Claude of France on May 18, 1514. They had seven children, two died before turning eight, two died at the ages of eighteen to twenty-three. Those who lived to adulthood were:
 Henry, King of France
 Madeline, Queen of Scotland
 Margaret, Duchess of Berry

Art 
Francis was very interested in art and liked the artist Leonardo da Vinci.

Death 
Francis died on March 31, 1547. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.

1494 births
1547 deaths
Kings and Queens of France
House of Valois
Madeleine of France (10 August 1520 – 2 July 1537) was the daughter of Francis I of France and Claude of France. She was married to James V of Scotland on 1 January 1537 in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France.

Madeleine got sick with tuberculosis when she went to live in Scotland and died when she was only 16 years old. She is buried in Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh, Scotland.

Deaths from tuberculosis
Infectious disease deaths in Scotland
Kings and Queens consort of Scotland
1520 births
1537 deaths
Holyrood Abbey is a ruined Augustine Abbey. It is in Edinburgh, Scotland. It was built by David I of Scotland in 1128.

Buildings and structures in Edinburgh
Abbeys
Churches in the United Kingdom
12th-century buildings and structures‎
The Muppets are puppet characters created by Jim Henson. The characters include Kermit the Frog and the Muppet cast of Sesame Street. Jim Henson started work with the Muppets in the 1950s and continued until his death in 1990. The Muppets are known for an absurd burlesque and humorous style of variety-sketch comedy.

The Muppets are now owned by The Walt Disney Company. The term "muppet" is trademarked and owned by The Walt Disney Company. Muppets used in Sesame Street are still called muppets at times, and have special permission to use that name from The Walt Disney Company.
Jim Henson said the name "muppet" came from combining the words "puppet" and "marionette," but he also said that he just liked the way the word sounded. There is no defined difference between a muppet and a puppet other than the link to Jim Henson. Many of Jim Henson's muppets have large eyes, round noses, and large mouths that go from one end of the face to the other (almost ear to ear). Muppets are often made out of foam with felt on top. Puppeteers usually control the muppet with one hand in the head and the other hand controls the muppets arms. Sometimes the arms have a stick that is used to move the hand and arm - this is called the "arm rod." Puppeteers hold the arm rod at one end and the other end touches the muppet hand. Some muppets have hands that are gloves. Puppeteers put their hands in the gloves of these muppets so the muppet can move its fingers. For this reason, most muppets appear to favor their left hands.

Muppeteers and their characters
Main Muppeteers
 Jim Henson - Kermit the Frog, Rowlf the Dog, Ernie, The Swedish Chef, Dr. Teeth, Link Hogthrob, Guy Smiley, Bobo the Bear, Mahna Mahna, Waldorf, Two-Headed Monster (Left Head), Various
 Frank Oz - Bert, Cookie Monster, Grover, Sam the Eagle, Fozzie Bear, Animal, Various
 Jerry Nelson - Floyd Pepper, Robin the Frog, Gobo Fraggle, Emmet Otter, Count von Count, Marjory the Trash Heap, Lew Zealand, Pops, Uncle Deadly, Dr. Julius Strangepork, Herry Monster, Various
 Richard Hunt - Scooter, Statler, Don Music, Gunge, Two-Headed Monster (Right Head), Gladys the Cow, Sweetums, Blue Frackle, Sonny Friendly, Bobby Benson, Wayne, Various
 Dave Goelz - The Great Gonzo, Dr. Bunsen Honeydew, Zoot, Beauregard, Boober Fraggle, Traveling Matt, Rugby Tiger, Digit, Stinky the Skunk, Brewtster, Philo, Gorgon Heap, Mr. Snuffleupagus, Various
Eric Jacobson - Various
 Steve Whitmire - Rizzo the Rat, Bean Bunny, Wembley Fraggle, Lips, Various
 Fran Brill - Prairie Dawn, Zoe, Betty Lou, Little Bird, Various
Alice Dinnean - Miss Piggy, Sherry Netherland, Phoebe, Various
 Julianne Buescher - Yolanda Rat, Janice, Sherry Netherland, Denise, Various
 Ryan Dillon - Various
 Stephanie D'Abruzzo - Curly Bear, Various
 Bill Barretta - Various
David Rudman - Baby Bear, Mr. Johnson, Various
Joey Mazzarino - Various
Kevin Clash - Hoots the Owl, Various
 Matt Vogel - 80's Robot, Constantine, Crazy Harry, Various
 Martin P. Robinson - Telly Monster, Various
 Leslie Carrara-Rudolph - Abby Cadabby, Various
 Pam Arciero - Grundgetta, Various
 Carmen Osbahr - Rosita
 Jennifer Barnhart - Various
 Peter Linz - Walter, Various
 Noel MacNeal - Various
 Tyler Bunch - Various
 John Tartaglia - Phoebe, Various
 John Kennedy - Various
 Caroll Spinney as Big Bird, Oscar the Grouch, Bruno the Trashman, Various
Media

Cast and characters in adaptations

Discography 
 Opening themes
"The Muppet Show Theme" (1976-2022)
"Rock On" (2023)
 Closing themes
"The Muppet Show Theme" (instrumental) (1976-2022) (except 2011)
"The Rainbow Connection" (1979, 1986, 2001 and 2015 only)
"Mahna Mahna" (2011 only)
"Bright" (2015 only)
"Angel Flying Too Close to the Ground" (2016 only)
"The Muppets Mayhem End Credits" (2023)

Other websites
Kaiser Wilhelm II of Prussia and Germany (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert von Hohenzollern, 27 January 1859 – 4 June 1941) was the last German Emperor and the last King of Prussia. Ruling from 1888 to 1918, he went to live in the Netherlands and abdicated (resigned) as King and Emperor. This was the end of the Hohenzollern dynasty. He died in the Netherlands at Huis Doorn, and he is buried there because he ordered not to be buried in Nazi Germany. He died on June 4, 1941. 

He was involved in the Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901 fighting against the Qing Dynasty Empire.  In July 1914 he promised to support emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria against Serbia.  This led to World War 1.  He fled to the Netherlands in 1918 after Germany surrendered in World War 1 after losing many battles.  Germany lost its Colonies and became the Weimar Republic .
Early life
Wilhelm was born on 27 January 1859 and was the oldest child in his family. His father was Prince Frederick of Prussia. His mother was Princess Victoria, the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. He was born with a disabled left arm.

He married in 1881 Augusta Victoria. He and his wife had seven children. He studied at the Kassel Gymnasium and then at the University of Bonn.

Reign
He became leader of Germany in 1888, when his father died. He disagreed with his father's longtime chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, and dismissed him in 1890.
 
Wilhelm believed in strengthening Germany’s armed forces, especially the navy. He led Germany during World War I.

Titles and styles
 27 January 1859 – 9 March 1888: His Imperial Royal Highness Prince Wilhelm of Prussia
 9 March 1888 – 15 June 1888: His Imperial Highness and Royal Highness The German Crown Prince, Crown Prince of Prussia
 15 June 1888 – 18 November 1918: His Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Emperor, King of Prussia
Other websites

1859 births
1941 deaths
Crown Princes and Princesses of Prussia
German emperors
German people of World War I
House of Hohenzollern
Kings and Queens of Prussia
Knights of Justice of the Order of St John
Catherine de' Medici (Italian: Caterina de Medici, ; French: Catherine de Médicis, ; 13 April 1519 – 5 January 1589), was the wife of Henry II of France.

Catherine was the daughter of Lorenzo II de' Medici. She was born in Florence, Italy.  She was born Caterina Maria Romula  de' Medici.

Catherine was married to Henry II of France when she was 14 years old.  Their children were:
Francis II of France
Elizabeth of Valois
Charles IX of France
Henry III of France
Margaret of Valois

Catherine is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.

Kings and Queens consort of France
People from Florence
1519 births
1589 deaths
House of Medici
16th-century French people
Francis II of France (January 19, 1544 – December 5, 1560) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois.

Birth 
Francis was born in Fontainebleau, France, on January 19, 1544. His parents were Henry II of France and Catherine of Medici.

Marriage 
Francis was married to Mary, Queen of Scots, on April 24, 1558. They had no children.

Death 
Francis died in Orleans, France, on December 5, 1560 because of an ear infection. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica, next to King Charles IX of France.

Other websites

1544 births
1560 deaths
House of Valois
France, Francis 02 of
Kings and Queens of France
People from Fontainebleau
Adela of Normandy (c. 1067 – c. 8 March 1137) was the daughter of William I of England and Matilda of Flanders. She was married to Stephen, Count of Blois between 1080 and 1084 and became the mother of:
 William, Count of Chartres
 Stephen of England
 Odo of Blois, who died young
 Theobald II of Champagne
 Henry of Blois, who became the Bishop of Winchester

She lived long enough to see her son, Stephen, become King of England, but died soon afterwards.

1067 births
1137 deaths
House of Normandy
Stephen of England (c. 1096–25 October 1154) was King of England from 1135 until 1154. He became the King after the death of his uncle Henry I. Stephan was the King until his own death in Dover, Kent. Stephen was crowned at Westminster Abbey on the 26 December 1135. Stephen is buried at the Clunaic Monastery in Faversham, Kent.

King Stephen was born in Blois, France, in either 1092 or 1096. He was the son of Stephen, Count of Blois and Adela of Normandy. His mother, Adela, was the daughter of William I of England and Matilda of Flanders. Stephen married Matilda of Boulogne in about 1125. They had five children. He fought a civil war with Henry I's only daughter, Matilda, from 1139 to 1153. This ended with the Treaty of Wallingford in 1153 after the death of Stephen's son and heir, Eustace IV. The treaty said that Stephen would be King for the rest of his lifetime. After his death, the throne passed to Henry, son of Matilda, and not Stephen's other son William. King Stephen died on 25 October 1154.
Captured
King Stephen was captured after the Battle of Lincoln in April 1141, he was released later and returned to the throne.

References

1096 births
1154 deaths
People from Blois
12th century in England
Eleanor of Aquitaine (c. 1122 – March 31, 1204) was the daughter of William X of Aquitaine. She had a younger sister called Petronilla of Aquitaine.  She brought the province of Aquitaine to England when she married Henry II of England. It stayed under English control for 300 years.

Life
Eleanor inherited land in France at the age of 15. She married Louis VII of France on July 22, 1137, and had two daughters:
 Marie of France
 Alix of France

The marriage was later annulled, as there were no male children.

Eleanor then married Henry II of England on May 18, 1152, and had eight children, including:
 William, who died at the age of 3.
 Henry the Young King
 Richard I of England
 John I of England
 Matilda of England
 Joan/Joanna of England
 Eleanor of England

Eleanor was  greatly known for her work in the Second Crusade, for she inspired many people to join.
Eleanor supported a revolt by her children against their father's rule in 1173. This revolt was unsuccessful, and King Henry II was so furious that he locked her away in a prison. In 1189, after King Henry II died and her son, Richard, came to be the king, Eleanor was freed. Shortly after, Richard died so she supported her son John to take the English throne against the claim of her grandson Arthur of Brittany. In 1202 during the campaign at Mairebeau, she continued to thwart Arthur. Emerging triumphant, Eleanor retired to a monastery. She died there on April 1, 1204.

References

Other websites

1122 births
1204 deaths
House of Plantagenet
Kings and Queens consort of England
Dukes and Duchesses of Aquitaine
John also called John Lackland (24 December 1166 — 19 October 1216) was the King of England from 1199 until his death in 1216. He was also the Lord of Ireland from 1177 to 1216 and the Duke of Aquitaine from 1204 to 1216. He was the youngest son and child of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. 

As the youngest son, John was never expected to inherit the throne. However, when John's older brother King Richard I died childless in 1199, John took the throne. 

John's reign was marked by disputes between the king and his barons and bishops. Because of this the nobles forced him to agree to the Magna Carta, which limited his power. The Magna Carta was a significant legal document in English history, as well as one of the first English “bills of rights”. It introduced the idea that monarchs had limited powers and had to follow certain laws. It gave the nobles more say in the government. It affected English government and inspired those of other countries.
Some think John was not a good ruler. His father's empire, the Angevin Empire collapsed under his reign. It should be remembered that no-one had held both England and France since the Romans. When John lost his lands in France to King Philip II of France, some argued this was John's fault. It could be just a return to a more natural arrangement. The two countries have the Channel between them. Before he was king, John attempted to seize the throne for himself while his brother Richard was in captivity.

Family history 
As a young man, John already had a reputation for treachery. He conspired sometimes with and sometimes against his elder brothers, Henry, Richard and Geoffrey. In 1184, John and Richard both claimed that they were the rightful heir to Aquitaine, one of many unfriendly encounters between the two.

Richard's absence
Richard's absence 

King Richard I was absent on the Third Crusade from 1190 to 1194. John attempted to overthrow William de Longchamp, the Bishop of Ely who was the Regent of England while Richard was away. This was one of the events which led later writers to cast John as the villain in the legend of Robin Hood.

John was more popular than Longchamp in London. In October 1191 the leading citizens of the city opened the gates to John while Longchamp was confined in the tower. John promised the city the right to govern itself as a commune in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive.
As he returned from the Crusade, Richard was captured by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, and handed over to Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, who held him for ransom. Meanwhile, John had joined forces with King Philip II of France. They sent a letter to Henry asking him to keep Richard away from England for as long as possible, offering payment to keep Richard imprisoned. Henry declined their offer, and got his ransom from Eleanor of Aquitaine (who had to pawn the Crown Jewels). Richard was set free. John then begged forgiveness from Richard, who granted it and named him heir presumptive.

Reign

Dispute with Arthur 
Following Richard's death on 6 April 1199 at the age of 42, John, who was 33 years old at that time ascended to the throne. He was crowned on 27 May of the same year at Westminster Abbey. Because John was very popular when he ascended to the throne, the people of England believed that John's reign like his father and older brother, would be very successful.
While John was immediately declared ruler of England and Normandy, the people Anjou, Maine, and Brittany refused to declare John as their ruler and instead, declared Arthur of Brittany, who was the son of one of John's older brother, Geoffrey, their ruler. Arthur fought his uncle for the throne, with the support of Philip II of France. The conflict between Arthur and John had serious consequences for both. Finally, Philip recognised John over Arthur. The price paid was John's agreement to be Philip's vassal in Normandy and Angevin.

Nevertheless, conflicts continued until in 1202 Philip declared all John's French lands and territories, except Gascony in the southwest, and immediately occupied them. Philip gave Arthur all the land he had taken from John, except for Normandy, and betrothed him to his daughter Marie.
As part of the war, Arthur attempted to kidnap his own grandmother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, at Mirebeau, but was defeated and captured by John's forces. Arthur was imprisoned first at Falaise and then at Rouen. After this, Arthur's fate remains unknown, but it is believed that he was murdered by John. Assuming that he was murdered, Brittany, and later Normandy, rebelled against John. John also imprisoned his niece, Eleanor. Through deeds such as these, John acquired a reputation for ruthlessness.

Dealings with Bordeaux 
In 1203, John exempted the citizens and merchants of Bordeaux from the Grande Coutume, which was the principal tax on their exports. In exchange, the regions of Bordeaux, Bayonne and Dax pledged support against the French Crown. The unblocked ports gave Gascon merchants open access to the English wine market for the first time. The following year, John granted the same exemptions to La Rochelle and Poitou.

Lost lands and disputes
Normandy seized by the French 
In June 1204, the fall of Rouen allowed Phillip to annex Normandy and also take parts of Anjou and Poitou.

John needed money for his army, but the loss of the French territories, especially Normandy, greatly reduced the state income. A huge tax would be needed to reclaim these territories. He imposed the first income tax, raising the (then) huge sum of £70,000.

Dispute with the Pope
Excommunication and papal supremacy 
In November 1209 John was excommunicated, and in February 1213, Innocent threatened stronger measures unless John submitted. The papal terms for submission were accepted in the presence of the papal legate Pandulph in May 1213 (according to Matthew Paris, at the Knights Templar Church at Dover); in addition, John offered to surrender the Kingdom of England to God and the Saints Peter and Paul for a feudal service of 1,000 marks annually, 700 for England and 300 for Ireland. With this submission, written in a document, John gained the support of his papal overlord in his new dispute with the English barons.

After settling his dispute with the papacy, John turned his attentions back to France. The European wars ended in defeat at the Battle of Bouvines in July 1214, which forced the king to accept an unfavourable peace with France.

Rebellion
Rebellion

Magna Carta 
The heavy scutage  levy for the failed campaign was the last straw, and when John attempted to raise more in September 1214, many barons refused to pay. The barons no longer believed that John was capable of regaining his lost lands.

In May 1215, Robert Fitz Walter led forty barons to renounce homage to the king at Northampton. The so-called 'Army of God' marched on London, taking the capital as well as taking Lincoln and Exeter.

John met their leaders and with their French and Scots allies at Runnymede, near London, on 15 June 1215. There, they sealed the Great Charter, called in Latin Magna Carta. It established a council of 25 barons to see John kept to the clauses like protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, parliamentary assent for taxation, and scutage limitations.
Because he was forced to seal the charter, John sought approval to break it, from his overlord the Pope. Denouncing it as "not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust", the Pope agreed, which provoked the First Barons' War. The barons invited a French invasion by Prince Louis VIII of France, who accepted the offer of the crown of England as a reward for his support.

War with barons 
John travelled around the country to oppose the rebel forces, and directed a two-month siege of the rebel-held Rochester Castle. While a small force arrived in rebel-held London in November, the Scots under their king, Alexander II, invaded northern England. By the end of December, John was leading a murderous expedition in the north, culminating with the sacking of Berwick-upon-Tweed.

The French retook Rochester and much of the south, although the royalists held on to Windsor and Dover.
Death 
Retreating from the French invasion, John took a safe route around the marshy area of The Wash to avoid the rebel held area of East Anglia. His slow baggage train (including the Crown Jewels), took a direct route across it and was lost to the incoming tide. This dealt John a terrible blow, which affected his health and state of mind. Succumbing to dysentery and moving from place to place, he died at Newark Castle at the age of 50. He was buried at Worcester Cathedral in Worcester, Worcestershire and was succeeded by his nine-year-old son, Henry III. Before dying, when John was on his deathbed, he had wished that his son would end the First Barons' War and that he would be able create peace with the barons and to also regain the English lands in France John had lost to King Philip II of France. John had also wished that Henry could create peace and to ease sanctions with Scotland and France and that Henry could also stabilize the kingdom and to also improve the economy.
Because Henry was too young to rule the kingdom, William Marshal was appointed Regent of the kingdom and that to make decisions on Henry’s behalf until he came of age. The barons switched their allegiance to the new king, forcing Louis to give up his claim and sign the Treaty of Lambeth with Henry III in 1217.

Legacy 

King John's reign began with military defeats since he lost Normandy to Philip II of France in his first five years on the throne. His reign ended with England torn by civil war and himself on the verge of being forced out of power. In 1213, he made England a papal fief to resolve a conflict with the Catholic Church, and his rebellious barons forced him to seal Magna Carta in 1215, the act for which he is best remembered.

John is responsible for the creation of another English cultural icon, the historic, medieval London Bridge. To finance the construction of a large bridge across the Thames, John allowed houses, shops, and a church to be built on top of the bridge.
Winston Churchill summarised the legacy of John's reign: "When the long tally is added, it will be seen that the British nation and the English-speaking world owe far more to the vices of John than to the labours of virtuous sovereigns". The medieval historian C. Warren Hollister called John an "enigmatic figure":
"...talented in some respects, good at administrative detail, but suspicious, unscrupulous, and mistrusted. He was compared in a recent scholarly article, perhaps unfairly, with Richard Nixon. His crisis-prone career was sabotaged repeatedly by the halfheartedness with which his vassals supported him—and the energy with which some of them opposed him".

Marriage and children 
In 1189, John was married to Isabel of Gloucester. They had no children. John had their marriage annulled, and she was never acknowledged as queen. John remarried, on 24 August 1200, Isabella of Angoulême, who was twenty years his junior. John had kidnapped her from her fiancé, Hugh X of Lusignan.
Isabella bore five children:
 Henry III (1207–1272), King of England.
 Richard (1209–1272), 1st Earl of Cornwall.
 Joan (1210–1238), Queen Consort of Alexander II of Scotland.
 Isabella (1214–1241), Consort of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
 Eleanor (1215–1275), who married William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and later married Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester.
John had many illegitimate children. Matthew Paris accuses him of seducing the more attractive daughters and sisters of his barons and relatives. John had these illegitimate children:
 Joan, the wife of Llywelyn the Great.
 Richard Fitz Roy, (by his cousin, Adela)
 Oliver FitzRoy, (by a mistress named Hawise) who accompanied the papal legate Pelayo to Damietta in 1218, and never returned.
 Geoffrey FitzRoy, who went on expedition to Poitou in 1205 and died there.
 John FitzRoy, a clerk in 1201.
 Henry FitzRoy, who died in 1245.
 Osbert Gifford, who was given lands in Oxfordshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Sussex, and is last seen alive in 1216.
 Eudes FitzRoy, who accompanied his half-brother Richard, Earl of Cornwall, on Crusade and died in the Holy Land in 1241.
 Bartholomew FitzRoy, a member of the order of Friars Preachers.
 Maud FitzRoy, Abbess of Barking, who died in 1252.
 Isabel FitzRoy, wife of Richard Fitz Ives.
 Philip FitzRoy, found living in 1263.
The surname Fitzroy is Norman-French for 'son of the king'.

In legend
John is also famous for his part in the Robin Hood stories in which he plays one of Robin's enemies. Popular culture suggests that many people did not like him, but it is actually unknown what ordinary people thought in the 13th century.

William Shakespeare wrote a play about John. It was mostly about Arthur of Brittany and did not mention Robin Hood or Magna Carta.

References 

1166 births
1216 deaths
House of Plantagenet
13th century in England
13 (also written as thirteen or ten-three) is a number. It comes after twelve and before fourteen. It is an odd number.

Many people think thirteen is an unlucky number, especially when Friday is the thirteenth day of the month. This is a superstition. There is no proof that thirteen is an unlucky number.

Floors in tall buildings often skip floor thirteen, or reserve it for a mechanical floor. The idea of thirteen as an unlucky number is from pagan Norse mythology. It was believed to be unlucky to have thirteen people sitting at a table at a meal, and death is number thirteen in the tarot deck.

In Roman numerals, 13 is written as XIII.

Related pages 
 Triskaidekaphobia

Integers
Prime numbers
Superstitions
The weekend is a time when fewer people go to work or school. Traditional Christians believe that Sunday is a day of rest or Sabbath, and Jews believe the day of rest is the seventh day, Saturday, and start the week with Sunday. Friday is also considered the beginning of the weekend, and it is a day of rest for Muslims.

Days
Alexandria (Arabic: الإسكندرية) is the second largest city in Egypt. It was founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια (Alexandria). It is on the Mediterranean Sea, only 225 km (140 miles) northwest of Cairo.

Alexandria has 3.8 million people. It is the main port of Egypt. It has two airports and three big stadia: Alexandria stadium, Harras el hadoud stadium and Borg el-Arab stadium in the Borg el-Arab industrial city.

The fourth Wikimania was hosted in this city in 2008.

History 
Alexandria, named after Alexander the Great, was founded around 331 BC. For nearly 300 years, it was the capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Some famous ancient Greek scientists, such as Euclid of Alexandria and Eratosthenes, lived there or studied there. It was home to the largest library in the ancient Western world, the Library of Alexandria.
It was a wealthy city in its heyday, and remained the main way Egyptian grain went by sea to Ancient Rome. Rome depended greatly on Egyptian grain. Much of Alexandria sank below the sea in the 4th century. Some of her history is in the Mediterranean.

After the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 AD, they did not want to have their capital at Alexandria, because it was too vulnerable to naval raids. They made a new capital, much farther upriver, on the east side of the Nile, and called it Fustat. Alexandria became less important.

References

Other websites 

Official website
Greek Community of Alexandria

Capital of Egypt
 
331 BC establishments
Events 
 January 1 – A ball signifying New Year's Day drops in New York City's Times Square for the first time.
 January 8 – A train collision occurs in the Park Avenue Tunnel in New York City killing 17, injuring 38 and leading to increased demand for electric trains.
 January 11 – Grand Canyon National Monument is created.
 January 12 – A long-distance radio message is sent from the Eiffel Tower for the first time.
 January 15 – Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, the first Greek-letter organization by and for Black college women is established.
 January 21 – New York City passes a law, the Sullivan Ordinance,  making it illegal for aliens  to smoke in public only to be vetoed by the mayor.
 January 24 – Robert Baden-Powell begins the Boy Scout movement.
 February 1 – King Carlos I of Portugal and Crown Prince Luis are shot in Lisbon.
 February 11 – Australia regain The Ashes with a 308 run cricket victory over England.
 February 18 – Japanese immigration to USA forbidden.
Philippe's, a restaurant opens in Los Angeles.
 St. Albans City F.C. founded.
 Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Russian biologist, and Paul Ehrlich, Germany, won the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Births

January 

 January 9 – Simone de Beauvoir, French writer and intellectual (d. 1986)
 January 16 – Ethel Merman, American singer and actress (d. 1984)
 January 22 – Lev Landau, Soviet physicist (d. 1968)

February 

 February 6 – Amintore Fanfani, Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1999)
 February 22 – Rómulo Betancourt, 47th & 54th President of Venezuela (d. 1981)
 February 23 – William McMahon, Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1988)

March 

 May 5 – Rex Harrison, British actor (d. 1990)
 March 7 – Anna Magnani, Italian actress (d. 1973)
 March 20 – Michael Redgrave, English stage actor (d. 1985)
 March 25 – David Lean, British movie director (d. 1991)

April 

 April 2 – Manoel de Oliveira, Portuguese movie director and screenwriter (d. 2015)
 April 5 – Bette Davis, American actress (d. 1989)
 April 5 – Herbert von Karajan, Austrian conductor (d. 1989)
 April 28 – Oskar Schindler, German businessman (d. 1974)

May
May 

 May 20 – James Stewart, American actor (d. 1997)
 May 23 – John Bardeen, American physicist (d. 1991)
 May 30 – Hannes Alfvén, Swedish physicist (d. 1995)
 May 31 – Don Ameche, American actor, (d. 1993)

June 

 June 26 – Salvador Allende, President of Chile (d. 1973)

July 

 July 8 – Nelson Rockefeller, 41st Vice President of the United States (d. 1979)
 July 12 – Milton Berle, American actor, entertainer and comedian (d. 2002)

August 

 August 27 – Lyndon B. Johnson, 36th President of the United States (d. 1973)
 August 30 – Fred MacMurray, American actor and singer (d. 1991)

September 
 September 4 – Edward Dmytryk, Canadian-American movie director (d. 1999)

October 

 October 06 – Carole Lombard, American actress (d. 1942)
 October 15 – John Kenneth Galbraith, Canadian economist (d. 2006)
 October 16 – Enver Hoxha, Prime Minister of Albania (d. 1985)

November

December
The Celtic League is a group of people from the six modern Celtic nations of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall and the Isle of Man. They want their countries to be free. These six countries each have a native Celtic language and the Celtic League supports the learning of these languages. The six Celtic languages are Irish, Gaelic (Scottish), Welsh, Breton, Cornish, and Manx.

Related pages 
Pan-Celticism

References 
 Ellis, Peter Berresford The Celtic Dawn
 Tanner, Marcus Last of the Celts

Other websites 

 Celtic League Website 
 Celtic League, American branch  
 Celtic League, International Site  
 Celtic League, Scottish Branch  

Celtic languages
Celtic peoples
Oprah Winfrey (born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American media proprietor, talk show host, actress, producer, and philanthropist. Winfrey is best known for her multi-award-winning talk show, The Oprah Winfrey Show which was the highest-rated program of its kind in history and was nationally syndicated from 1986 to 2011. She has also acted in several movies including The Color Purple, The Butler and A Wrinkle in Time.

Early life
Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954 in Kosciusko, Mississippi. Winfrey was named "Orpah" after a character in the Book of Ruth. People made the mistake of calling her "Oprah". She decided to keep this name. Her parents are Vernita Lee, a maid, and Vernon Winfrey, a barber. At the age of 13, she ran away from home. At the age of 14, she had a son, but he was born prematurely and passed soon after. She went to Tennessee State University in 1971. She started to work in radio and television in Nashville. She hosted television programs in Baltimore and Chicago.