Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
"Someone like You" is the second hit single on Adele's record 21. The song was released in 2011. This was her first number one song in the United Kingdom and her second in the USA. It received positive review by music critics.  The song is played only with Adele's voice and piano.

In 2012, the song was certified quintuple-Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America.  "Someone like You" is Adele's third-best selling single in the United States, after "Rolling in the Deep" and "Hello".  It reached number 24 on Billboard's Year-End Hot 100 of 2011 and number 43 on the year-end chart for 2012.

Music videos
The video is shot in black and white and features Adele walking around the streets of Paris.  At the end of the video, Adele's romantic interest is shown walking away from her window.

Credits and personnel
Credits are taken from 21 liner notes.
Vocals — Adele
Songwriting - Adele Adkins, Dan Wilson
Production - Adele Adkins, Dan Wilson

Source:

References
References

2010s ballads
2011 songs
Adele songs
Pop ballads
Soul songs
R&B songs
Torch songs
Kegon Falls (華厳滝 Kegon no Taki) is a waterfall in Japan in Nikkō National Park in Tochigi Prefecture on the island of Honshū. It is fed by Lake Chūzenji, which is the source of the Oshiri River which flows through this waterfall. The waterfall is  high. The Kegon Falls and Nikkō National Park are one of the most famous and popular places in Japan. Thousands of people visit each year. 
In 1927, the Kegon Falls was recognized as one of the "Eight Views" which best showed Japan and its culture in the Shōwa period.

The waterfall is also infamous for suicides, especially among Japanese youth (Werther Effect).

References

Other websites 

A trip to Kegon Falls with fall colours

Waterfalls
Bodies of water of Japan
Tochigi Prefecture
Razor shells, also called razor clams, are bivalves with the shape of an old-fashioned cut-throat razor. They use their shells to work into the sand and hide beneath the surface.

Ensis, of the family Pharidae, is found on sandy beaches in Northern Europe and Eastern Canada, such as Prince Edward Island. Ensis arcuatus prefers coarser sand than its relatives E. ensis and E. siliqua.

There is also another family of razor shells, the Solenidae. Some think Solen and Ensis are close relatives, and some think they are similar because of convergent evolution. The matter will probably be made clear by sequence analysis in the furure.

Description
The razor shell has been known to reach  in length. The dorsal margin is straight while the ventral margin is curved. It can easily be confused with the slightly shorter  and more curved E. ensis (in which both front and back are curved in parallel).
Razor shells have a fragile shell, with open ends. The shell is smooth on the outside and whitish in color, with vertical and horizontal reddish-brown or purplish-brown markings separated by a diagonal line. The periostracum is olive-green. The inner surface is white with a purple tinge and the foot is creamy white with brown lines .

Digging in 
The razor shell lives under the sand, using its powerful foot to dig to a safe depth. The digging has six stages, repeated. A digging cycle involves the muscular foot (which takes up a large part of the body) and the opening and closing of the valve and one end. 

The foot is inflated hydraulically, and pushed down into the sand to anchor the animal. Deflation of the foot then pulls the shell down. The razor shell also squirts water down into the sand, removing loose sand from its path. The foot exerts a pressure of 2 kg/cm2.
The presence of the shell under the sand is revealed by a keyhole-shaped hole in the sand, made by its siphons during suspension feeding for plankton.

Reproduction
In the razor shell sexual development is highly synchronous: eggs and sperms are shed at the same time. In winter and spring consecutive spawns take place, interrupted by periods when more eggs and sperm are produced.

References 

Bivalves
Cockles are a group of (mostly) small, edible, saltwater clams. They are marine bivalve molluscs in the family Cardiidae. 

They are very common on sandy sheltered beaches throughout the world. The distinctive rounded shells of cockles are symmetrical, and are heart-shaped when viewed from the end. In most genera there are numerous radial ribs (ridges on the shell). The genus Laevicardium, the egg cockles, have very smooth shells.

The mantle has three openings (inhalant, exhalant, and pedal) for siphoning water and for the foot to stick out. Cockles are capable of 'jumping' by bending and straightening the foot. Cockles burrow using the foot, and feed by filtering plankton from the surrounding water. Some species reach maturity quickly.
Confusingly, the common name "cockle" is also given (by seafood sellers) to a number of other small edible bivalves which have a somewhat similar shape, however these bivalves are in other families such as the Veneridae (Venus clams) and the Arcidae (ark clams). Cockles in the family Cardiidae are sometimes known as "true cockles" in order to distinguish them from these other species.

References 

Bivalves
Wildfire is a general term which includes forest fires, grassland fires, bushfires, brush fires and any other vegetation fire in countryside areas.

Wildfires occur in every continent except Antarctica. They can occur naturally and spontaneously, but many are caused by humans, accidentally or deliberately. Fossil records and human history show that wildfires do occur at intervals. The Great Oxygenation Event and the spread of land plants made Earth a planet of fire.

Wildfires can cause extensive damage to property and human life, but they also have some beneficial effects on wilderness areas. Some plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction, although large wildfires may also have negative ecological effects.
Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection, and suppression have varied over the years. One of the more controversial methods is controlled burn: People permit or light small fires to burn away some of the fuel for a potential wildfire. While some wildfires burn in remote forested regions, they can cause extensive destruction of homes and other property in the zone between developed areas and undeveloped wilderness.

Plant adaptation
Plant adaptation 

Plants in wildfire-prone ecosystems often have adaptations to their local conditions. Such adaptations include physical protection against heat, increased growth after a fire event, and flammable materials that encourage fire and eliminate competition. For example, plants of the genus Eucalyptus contain flammable oils that encourage fire and hard sclerophyll leaves that resist heat and drought. This makes them dominant over less fire-tolerant species. Dense bark, shedding lower branches, and high water content in external structures may also protect trees from rising temperatures. Fire-resistant seeds and reserve shoots that sprout after a fire encourage species preservation, as in 'pioneer' species that specialize in restarting ecological succession after a fire.

Smoke, charred wood, and heat can stimulate the germination of seeds. Smoke from burning plants promotes contains orange butenolide, which induces germination of seeds.
Grasslands in Western Sabah, Malaysian pine forests, and Indonesian Casuarina forests are believed to have resulted from previous periods of fire. The deadwood litter of Chamise (Californian greasewood shrub) is low in water content and flammable, and the shrub quickly sprouts after a fire. Sequoia relies on periodic fires to reduce competition, release seeds from their cones, and clear the soil and canopy for new growth. Some have adapted to, and rely on, low-intensity surface fires for survival and growth. The optimum fire frequency for Caribbean pine in Bahamian pineyards is every 3 to 10 years. Too frequent fires favour herbaceous plants, and infrequent fires favour other tree species.

Related pages 
Bushfire
Deforestation
Fire ecology
Controlled burn

References 

Ecology
Fire
Firearms
On firearms, bipods are often used on rifles and shotguns to allow the gun to rest and stop it from moving. They can also be seen on long-barrelled weapons. The bipod allows the gunner to rest the weapon on the ground, a short wall or other object. This allows for more accuracy. Different types of bipods are set up in different ways. Some bipods are a specific length that can not be changed, but some bipods' length can be changed. Mostly, when bipods are not being used, they are folded forwards, not back towards the gunner. Some types of bipod can fold into grips for the gunner to hold to keep the weapon steady.

When firing a weapon without a bipod, it is harder to aim and keep the weapon steady.
The good thing about having a bipod is that it makes weapons more accurate. At first, the bipod was only used on long-barreled rifles, such as snipers. However, light and heavy machine guns now use them, as well as small pistols.

Related pages 
Light machine gun
Sniper rifle
Tripod (photography)
References 

Photography
Firearms
was the 34th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  His reign started in 629 and ended in 641.  Historians consider details about the life of Emperor Jomei to be possibly legendary, but probable. The name Jomei-tennō was created for him posthumously by later generations.

The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.

Traditional history 
Jomei was a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu and a great-grandson of Emperor Kimmei.

Events in Jomei's reign 
Suiko did not make it clear who was to succeed her after her death.

 628:  In the 35th year of Empress Suiko's reign, she abdicated her nephew succeeded her.  He became known as Emperor Jomei.  The succession was confirmed in ceremonies.
 639: In the 10 year of Jomei, former Empress Suiko died.

Jomei's reign lasted 13 years.
After his death 
The actual place of Jomei's grave is known.  This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Jomei's mausoleum.  It is formally named Osaka no uchi no misasagi.

Poetry 
Some short poems are believed to have been written by Emperor Jomei.  For example,
Countless are the mountains in Yamato,
 But perfect is the heavenly hill of Kagu;
When I climb it and survey my realm,
Over the wide plain the smoke-wreaths rise and rise,
Over the wide lake the gulls are on the wing;
A beautiful land it is, the land of Yamato!
 -- Emperor Jomei

Related pages 
 Emperor of Japan
 List of emperors of Japan
 Japanese imperial family tree

References

Other websites 

593 births
641 deaths
Emperors of Japan
Lawson Fusao Inada (born 1938 in Fresno, California) is an American poet and was the fifth poet laureate of the U.S. state of Oregon.

Early life
Inada is a third-generation Japanese American (Sansei). As a child, Inada and his family were interned during World War II.

Inada became a jazz musician, and this affected his writing. Inada cites jazz and his time in the internment camps as his chief influences as a poet. He studied writing at the University of California, Berkeley, the University of Oregon, and the University of Iowa.

Career 
He joined the faculty of Southern Oregon University in 1966.

In 1994, Inada's Legends from Camp won an American Book Award; and he was awarded poetry fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts.

In 2006 Inada was named Oregon's poet laureate.

Quotations
With new hope.
We build new lives.
Why complain when it rains?
This is what it means to be free.
 -- Lawson Inada,  Japanese American Historical Plaza, Portland, Oregon
Select works
 Three Northwest Poets: Drake, Inada, Lawder, Madison: Quixote Press, 1970.
 Before the War; Poems as They Happened, New York: Morrow, 1971.
 Aiiieeeee! An Anthology of Asian-American Writers, Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1974 (Coeditor).
 The Buddha Bandits Down Highway 99, Mountain View: Buddhahead Press, 1978 (With Garrett Kaoru Hongo and Alan Chong Lau).
 The Big Aiiieeeee!: An Anthology of Chinese American and Japanese American Literature, New York: Penguin, 1990 (Coeditor).
 Legends From Camp, Minneapolis: Coffee House Press, 1993. Winner, American Book Award. Finalist, Los Angeles Times Book Award for Poetry.
 In This Great Land of Freedom: The Japanese Pioneers of Oregon, Los Angeles: Japanese American National Museum, 1993 (Contributor).
 Touching the Stones: Tracing One Hundred Years of Japanese American History, Portland: Oregon Nikkei Endowment, 1994 (Contributor).
 Just Intonations, Ashland, Oregon: Graven Images Gallery Press, 1996.
Drawing the Line, Minneapolis: Coffee House Press, 1997. Winner, Oregon Book Award for Poetry. A New York Public Library Book for the Teen Age.
 Only What We Could Carry: The Japanese American Internment Experience, Berkeley: Heyday Books, 2000 (Editor and author of introduction).
 Unfinished Message: Selected Works of Toshio Mori, Berkeley: Heyday Books, 2000 (Author of introduction).
 A Matter of Conscience: Essays on the World War II Heart Mountain Draft Resistance Movement. Powell, Wyoming: Western History Publications, 2002 (Contributor).
Notes

Further reading
 Leonard, George. (1999).  The Asian Pacific American Heritage: A Companion to Literature and Arts. London: Taylor & Francis. 
 Niiya, Brian. (1993).  Japanese American History: An A-to-Z Reference from 1868 to the Present. New York: Facts on File; Bonn: Verlag für die Deutsche Wirtschaft AG.    OCLC: 26853950

Other websites
 PBS (US):  Lawson Fusao Inada 

1938 births
Living people
American jazz musicians
American poets
Musicians from Fresno, California
Writers from Fresno, California
was a Japanese statesman and legal expert in Meiji period.

Hozumi was appointed to the House of Peers in 1890.

In 1915, he was ennobled with the title of danshaku (baron) under the kazoku system.

In 1916, Hozumi was named to the Emperor's Privy Council in 1916.

After death
The people of Uwajima city named a bridge in his honor. He was also honored by a Japanese commemorative postage stamp in 1998.

Selected works
 Hozumi, Nobushige. Ancestor-Worship and Japanese Law. University Press of the Pacific, 2003, 
 Hozumi, Nobushige. The new Japanese civil code,: As material for the study of comparative jurisprudence. Maruzen 1912. ASIN: B000870Z46

References

Further reading 

 Marshall Byron K. Professors and Politics: The Meiji Academic Elite. Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1 (Winter, 1977), pp. 71–97
 Oda, Hiroshi. Japanese Law. Oxford University Press, 2001. 

1856 births
1926 deaths
Japanese politicians
People from Ehime Prefecture
Sport Relief is a charity event from Comic Relief that happens every two years. It is held in association with BBC Sport. The event brings together the worlds of sport and entertainment to raise money to help vulnerable people in both the UK and the world's poorest countries. At the heart of the campaign is the Sport Relief Mile.

Related pages
Children in Need

Other websites
Sport Relief Website
Donate

All Out For India
Sport Relief Fairtrade Cotton Socks 
 Bench Press Challenge

BBC
Sports
Pope Gregory I (; c. 540 – 12 March 604), better known in English as Gregory the Great, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 64th Pope from 3 September 590 to his death in 604.

Gregory was born in Rome, but the date of his birth is not certain.  He was the son of a noble Roman family.

Gregory was elected pope in 590.

Gregory is one of the four original Doctors of the Church, the title given by the Catholic Church to saints for their significant contribution to theology or doctrine through their research study or writing. 

Pope Gregory is venerated as saint and his feast day is celebrated on September 3.

Related pages
 List of popes

References

Other websites

 
  Catholic Hierarchy, Popes in sequence
   "Saint Gregory", Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911
 . Writings of Gregory I.

540 births
604 deaths
Doctors of the Church
Italian popes
People from Rome
Early Christian theologians
The Casino Marina del Sol is the largest casino in Chile. It is in the city of Talcahuano. It opened in 2005 under a Chilean law allowing casinos. It contains a casino, hotel, gym, spa, disco, museum and car park.

Related pages
 Greater Concepción

Other websites 
 Casino Marina del Sol 

Buildings and structures in Chile
21st-century establishments in Chile
2005 establishments in South America
Casinos
Concepción Province, Chile‎
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) is a special type of MRI that makes it possible to watch different areas of a person's brain while they do different tasks.

A functional MRI shows the use of oxygen in different brain areas. The Deoxyhemoglobin in blood absorbs a radiowave signal and later emits it (sends it back out). Oxyhemoglobin does not. When an area of the brain is active, the blood flow to that area increases and more oxyhemoglobin is delivered to supply the active cells with oxygen. This means less of the signal is absorbed. An active area of the  brain absorbs and emits less energy than a less active area. This can be seen live as it is happening when different areas of the brain 'light up' on the images as they become less active.

References

Books
 Richard B. Buxton, Introduction to functional magnetic resonance imaging: Principles and techniques, Cambridge University Press, 2002,

Related pages
Medical test
Radiography
Other websites
Columbia University - About fMRI (General) 
Oxford Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain

Medical tests
Medical imaging
"My Prerogative" is a song first released in 1988 in the United States and then recorded again in 2004. The earlier version was by Bobby Brown. The 2004 version was by Britney Spears. Other people have covered the song since then. It has been sampled in other songs.

1988 songs
Britney Spears songs
A cultural icon can be a symbol, logo, picture, name, face, person, building, or other image. It is easily recognized and generally represents an object or idea with great cultural significance to a wide cultural group. It has a special status as representing, or important to, or loved by, a particular group of people, a place, or a period in history.

In the media, many well-known examples of popular culture have been called "iconic". Some writers say that the word is overused.
 See World Heritage Site #Cultural_criteria

Icons and persons
According to Times of India:
Icons and brands
Brands can show social values and changes, but many people have become tired of them. Many brands want to be cultural icons, but fail. Cultural icons are often timeless, imprinted in our consciousness. They can go through several stages, from "rumblings, undercurrents" via "catharsis, explosion" and "mass acceptance, ripple effect" to "glorification, representative value". While brands are rational and driven by features, cultural icons are emotional, free, driven by feeling, and creating emotional bonds. An example of "branding" might include the wearing of a consistent fashion look by such music stars as Michael Jackson or Elvis Presley, making them instantly recognizable. Royal or church clothing could also be understood as a form of emotional iconography.

Examples include: Andy Warhol, Budweiser, BMW, Chanel, Coca-Cola, Guinness, Harley-Davidson, LEGO, Martha Stewart, Nike, Norman Rockwell, Vuitton, Škoda Auto...
Definition
Cultural icons may be national, regional or about a city. And they can be symbols for a nation, or can show the values held by that state. For example, France uses Marianne as a symbol of the French Revolution. Bruce Lee is a symbol for the martial arts and philosophical culture of insight and knowledge in the entire world.  Charlie Chaplin symbolises comical action while Clint Eastwood is a symbol for strength and masculinity. Jackie Chan is a global icon of comical stunts and martial arts based action. Salvador Dalí is the worldwide icon for the bizarre and eccentric.
Media overuse
Some writers say that the terms "icon" and "iconic" have been overused.  A writer in Liverpool Daily Post calls "iconic" "a word that makes my flesh creep", a word "pressed into service to describe almost anything".  The Christian Examiner added "iconic" and "amazing" to its list of overused words. It found over 18,000 "iconic" references in news stories alone, with another 30,000 for "icon", including use of it for SpongeBob SquarePants.

Icons by selected countries

Argentina

Australia

Austria

Brazil

Belgium

Canada

China

Colombia

Cuba

Czech Republic

Denmark

Ecuador

Egypt

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

India

Iran

Ireland

Israel

Italy

Jamaica

Japan

Korea

Mexico

Nepal

Netherlands

North Macedonia

Norway

New Zealand

Pakistan

Portugal

Russia

Saudi Arabia

Serbia

South Africa

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

United Kingdom

United States
Further information: Americana

Vietnam

Related pages
 Icon
 Pop icon
 Popular culture

References
References

Other websites
 Our New Icons  by The Daily Telegraph
 Nothing and no one are Off Limits in an Age of Iconomania by The Age

Symbols
Cultural history
Popular culture
Sciadopitys,  the Japanese umbrella-pine, is a unique conifer. It is endemic to Japan, and the sole surviving member of the family Sciadopityaceae. It is a living fossil with no close relatives: its fossils date from 230 million years ago.

It is an evergreen tree that can grow 15-27m tall. It's brown main shoots have whorls of 7–12cm long flexible green "cladodes". These look like, and perform the function of, leaves but are actually composed of stem tissue. Occasionally, a cladode will fork and produce a bud in the 'v' of the fork, just like a normal stem.

The cones are 6–11 cm long, mature in about 18 months, and have flattish scales that open to release the seeds.

It is a very attractive tree and is popular in gardens, despite its slow growth rate and high cost. Koyamaki was chosen as the Japanese Imperial crest for Prince Hisahito of Akishino, currently third in line to the Chrysanthemum Throne.

The plant was first introduced to Europe by John Gould Veitch in September 1860.
Infrared microspectroscopy has identified conifers of the family Sciadopityaceae as the principal source of Baltic amber.

References 

Conifers
Living fossils
Fossil plants
A general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) is a machine gun which gets its ammunition from a belt. It can be used in many different roles: it can support infantry from a bipod or tripod or be put onto a helicopter or armoured vehicle. It can provide fire support for vehicles or infantry from a variety of mounts.

A general-purpose machine gun is generally a medium machine gun. It also fires rifle cartridges like the 7.62×51mm NATO or 7.92x57mm Mauser. It is usually used from a bipod, tripod or on a vehicle. This is because it is usually too powerful and heavy to be fired well on foot or while moving.

Examples 
Some examples of general-purpose machine guns are:
German Maschinengewehr 34.
German Maschinengewehr 42.
 American M60.

Gallery

Related pages
 Light machine gun
 Heavy machine gun
 Squad automatic weapon

References  

Medium machine guns
was a old province of Japan in the area of Kyoto Prefecture on the island of Honshū.

Kyoto is in the former Yamashiro Province.

History

In 794, the capital of Japan was in Yamashiro.  It remained in the province until the Imperial court moved to Tokyo in the 1870s.

During the Muromachi Period, the administrative seat of the Ashikaga Shogunate was in this province. 

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  Maps of Japan and Yamashiro Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Shrines and Temples
The Kamo Shrines were the chief Shinto shrines (ichinomiya) of Yamashiro.  These are the Kamigamo Shrine and the Shimogamo Shrine.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Kyoto Prefecture
Symphyla are soil-dwelling arthropods in the subphylum Myriapoda. 

They are relatives of centipedes. Symphylans look like centipedes, but are smaller and translucent. They move through the pores between soil particles. They are found from the surface down to a depth of about 50 cm. They eat decaying vegetation, and can do harm in agriculture by eating seeds, roots, and root hairs in cultivated soil.

They feed on decayed vegetation.

Myriapods
Pauropods are a type of myriapod. They form the only order in the class Pauropoda. About 500 species in four families are found worldwide, living in soil and leaf mold.

Description 
Pauropoda are tiny soil myriapods, 0.5-1.5mm in length, with 8-11 body segments. The body appears to have fewer segments when viewed from above, because the dorsal shields (tergites) are fused in pairs. The true segments can be seen from the ventral side, each segment bearing a single pair of walking legs. A characteristic feature of pauropods is their branched antennae. 

Myriapods
Defence against herbivory describes plant defences to avoid being eaten. There are many adaptations which improve the survival and reproduction of plants by reducing the effect of herbivores.

Many plants produce chemicals which change the behaviour, growth, or survival of herbivores. These chemical defences can act as repellents or toxins to herbivores, or reduce plant digestibility. Some plants, known as hyperaccumulators, specialise in storing heavy metals which are toxic to animals.

Some plants encourage the presence of natural enemies of herbivores, which in turn protect the plant. Some plants provide a home for ants which defend the plant strongly.

Other defensive strategies used by plants include escaping or avoiding herbivores in time or in place. They may grow where plants are not easily found or got at by herbivores. They may grow when herbivores are not around. Herbivores may get diverted towards non-essential parts, or a plant may be able to recover from the damage caused by herbivory.
Each type of defence can be either constitutive (always present in the plant), or induced (produced in reaction to damage or stress caused by herbivores). Plants can and do react to damage.

Historically, insects have been the most significant herbivores, especially the larvae of insects. The evolution of land plants is closely associated with the evolution of insects.  While most plant defences are directed against insects, other defences have evolved that are aimed at vertebrate herbivores, such as birds and mammals.

The study of plant defences against herbivory is important, not only from an evolutionary viewpoint, but also because these defences can be used in agriculture, including human and livestock food sources.
Specific chemical defences 
Plant chemicals have evolved to affect insects. Some of these biochemical pathways exist in vertebrates, including humans. Many pharmaceuticals are got from the chemicals plants use to protect themselves from herbivores. Examples are opium, aspirin, cocaine, and atropine.

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids  are produced by plants as a defence mechanism against insect herbivores. More than 660 PAs and PA N-oxides have been identified in over 6,000 plants. About half of them exhibit hepatotoxicity, that is, they attack liver function.

Evolution of defensive traits 

The earliest land plants evolved from aquatic plants around 450 million years ago (mya) in the Ordovician period. These early land plants had no vascular tissue and needed free water for their reproduction. Vascular plants appeared later and their diversification began in the Devonian era (about 400 mya). They had adaptations such as protective coating to reduce evaporation from their tissues.
Reproduction and dispersal of vascular plants in these dry conditions was got by the evolution of specialized seed structures. The diversification of flowering plants (angiosperms) during the Cretaceous period is associated with a sudden burst of speciation in insects. This diversification of insects represented a major selective force in plant evolution. It led to the selection of plants that had defensive adaptations. Early insect herbivores bit or chewed vegetation; but the evolution of vascular plants lead to the co-evolution of other forms of herbivory, such as sap-sucking, leaf mining, gall forming and nectar-feeding.

Records of herbivores

Our understanding of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources: 
fossilized plants which may preserve evidence of defence (such as spines), or herbivory-related damage; 
the observation of plant debris in fossilised coprolite (animal faeces); and 
the construction of herbivore mouthparts.
Long thought to be a Mesozoic phenomenon, evidence for herbivory is found almost as soon as fossils which could show it. Within under 20 million years of the first fossils of sporangia and stems towards the close of the Silurian, around 420 mya, there is evidence that they were being eaten. Animals fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the Rhynie chert also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique.  Many plants of this time are preserved with spine-like growths, which may have had a defensive role.

During the ensuing 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs – from roots to seeds.  There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between each organ evolving, and it being fed upon.  Hole feeding and skeletonization are recorded in the early Permian, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period.
Co-evolution 
Herbivores depend on plants for food, and have evolved mechanisms to get this food despite the evolution of many plant defences. Herbivore adaptations to plant defence have been likened to offensive traits. They are adaptations which allow increased feeding and use of a host plant. Relationships between herbivores and their host plants often results in reciprocal evolutionary change, called co-evolution.

When a herbivore eats, it eats plants that do not mount a sufficient defensive response. This creates the opportunity for plants which can mount a defence. So plants with defences become the more common. In cases where this relationship demonstrates specificity (the evolution of each trait is due to the other), and reciprocity (both traits evolve), the species are thought to have co-evolved.
The "escape and radiation" mechanism for co-evolution is the idea that adaptations in herbivores and their host plants have been the driving force behind speciation. The adaptations have played a role in the radiation of insect species during the age of angiosperms. Some herbivores have evolved ways to hijack plant defences to their own benefit, by sequestering (keeping) these chemicals and using them to protect themselves from predators.

Plants also need animals 
Most of the plants which defend their leaves so vigorously nevertheless do need animals. Up to 98% of flowering plants in tropical lowland rain forests rely on animals for pollination and seed dispersal.

References

Related pages 
Capsicum
Further reading 
Bakker, Robert T. 1986. The dinosaur heresies: new theories unlocking the mystery of the dinosaurs and their extinction. Morrow. Chapter 8: Dinosaurs at table. 
Strong D.R., Lawton J.W. and Southwood, Sir Richard 1984. Insects on plants: community patterns and mechanisms. Blackwell, Oxford. Chapter 6 Coevolution. 

Botany
Coevolution
Ecology
The Wheeling Tunnel is a pair of tunnels in Wheeling, Ohio County, West Virginia. The tunnels allow Interstate 70 and U.S. Route 250 to go through Wheeling Hill. Each tunnel has two lanes of each road.

The tunnel is run by the West Virginia Division of Highways.  Opened in 1966, the Wheeling Tunnel cost $6.9 million to build. It was rebuilt between 2007 and 2010 for $13.7 million.  In 2009, an average of 59,600 cars used the tunnel every day.

Overview
The Wheeling Tunnel is between exits 1A and 1B on Interstate 70 and U.S. Route 250.  These two highways use the same road through the city of Wheeling to go through Wheeling Hill. People who need to use exit 1A at the western end of the tunnels use the tunnels' right lanes as acceleration (speeding up) and deceleration (slowing down) lanes. Changing lanes is not allowed inside the tunnel.

Several accidents involving semi-trailer trucks caused local politicians to try to ban trucks from the tunnel. Their plan would have the trucks use the nearby I-470.
Making the tunnel
A total of 13,000 square feet (1,200 m2) of industrial tile was used to cover the inside of the tunnels.  The tunnels cost $6.9 million (which is the same as $ million in ) to  build.  The then-governor of West Virginia, William Wallace Barron, and the state roads commissioner started construction on the tunnel on August 22, 1963.  Barron said it was the largest single building project in the state's Interstate Highway program. The state gave the construction contract to C.J. Langenfelder & Son, Inc. in Baltimore, Maryland. During construction, several workers became sick after breathing a lot of carbon monoxide.  As a result, the company stopped construction in 1964 until fans were installed. The tunnel officially opened to traffic on December 7, 1966.

Rebuilding the tunnel
The West Virginia Division of Highways began planning to rebuild the tunnel in 2005.  Rebuilding began in January 2007. The plan allowed three months for the work. However, rebuilding of the eastbound tunnel took over eleven months. There were problems with the glue that attached the tiles to the tunnel wall.  Problems with drains in the tunnel also caused delays.  Workers found a coal mine in the tunnel.  This also delayed the project.

Local officials suggested closing the tunnels because of these problems.  They planned to just build a road over Wheeling Hill instead. Building the new road would have removed at least fifty families from their homes. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was against this plan because those people's houses would be destroyed. The state canncelled the plan for the new road. Rebuilding of the eastbound tunnel started again in July 2008.
During this rebuilding of the eastbound tunnel, the westbound tunnel was only closed overnight for rebuilding. New guard rails, fire sprinklers, and security cameras were added.  The whole tunnel was also cleaned very well.  Workers put a new road surface in the tunnel. A German tile maker replaced the tiles. The German company got the contract because no other company could finish the work on time. The company finished rebuilding the eastbound tunnel on October 31, 2008. The state closed the westbound tunnel in February 2010. It opened a month ahead of schedule in September 2010. The total cost of the project was over double the original plan.  It totaled $13.7 million because of the delays.

References

Other websites

 Wheeling Tunnel  at BridgeHunter.com

Tunnels
Postgenderism means 'beyond gender'.

The word is used to describe the idea, the social current or the evolution that fades or gets rid of gender and/or sex in humans and society.

It is also used to describe a set of social norms or a persons identity that goes beyond classical gender and sex-determinations and places them in the past, let them fade or dissapear.

Postgenderism argues that marking people into different sex of gender groups and gender roles is not needed and results in a limitation on the possibilities of people and what they can achieve in life.

It foresees that gender will disappear with humans that don't want this, as a result of always changing ways the human species organises their lives and as a result of new technology advances.

References

Gender
was a old province of Japan in the area of Osaka Prefecture on the island of Honshū.

History

Kawachi province was established in the 7th century. In the 8th century, Izumi was separated from the older province during the reign of Empress Genshō. 

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  Maps of Japan and Kawachi Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Shrines and Temples
Hiraoka jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Kawachi. 
 The shrine is located in Higashiōsaka.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Osaka Prefecture
Karl Friedrich Schinkel (13 March 1781 – 9 October 1841) was a Prussian architect, city planner, and painter.  He also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most importat architects of Germany and designed both neoclassical and neogothic buildings.
Schinkel was born in Neuruppin, Brandenburg. When he was six, his father died in Neuruppin's disastrous fire. He became a student of architect Friedrich Gilly (1772–1800) (the two became close friends) and his father, David Gilly, in Berlin. He made a trip to Italy in 1805. Then he started to earn his living as a painter.He worked for the stage and created in 1816 a star-spangled backdrop for the appearance of the "Königin der Nacht" in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera The Magic Flute. When he saw Caspar David Friedrich's painting Wanderer above the Sea of Fog at the 1810 Berlin art exhibition he decided that he would never reach such mastery of painting and turned to architecture. After Napoleon's defeat, Schinkel worked at the Prussian Building Commission. In this position, he was not only responsible for reshaping the city of Berlin into a representative capital for Prussia, but also had to work projects in the expanded Prussian territories from the Rhineland in the west to Königsberg in the east.
From 1808 to 1817 Schinkel renovated and reconstructed Schloss Rosenau, Coburg, in the Gothic Revival style.

Schinkel's style was more influenced by Greek than by than Imperial Roman architecture. His most famous buildings are found in and around Berlin. These include Neue Wache (1816–1818), the Schauspielhaus (1819–1821) at the Gendarmenmarkt, which replaced the earlier theater that was destroyed by fire in 1817, and the Altes Museum (old museum, see photo) on Museum Island (1823–1830).

Later, Schinkel moved away from classicism altogether and preferred the Gothic Revival style. 
Schinkel died in Berlin, Brandenburg.
Schinkel, however, is famous as well for his theoretical work and his architectural drafts. Some of his merits are best shown in his unexecuted plans for the transformation of the Athenian Acropolis into a royal palace for the new Kingdom of Greece and for the erection of the Orianda Palace in the Crimea. These and other designs may be studied in his Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe (1820–1837) and his Werke der höheren Baukunst (1840–1842; 1845–1846).  He also designed the famed Iron Cross medal of Prussia, and later Germany.

Literature 
Karl Friedrich Schinkel 1781 - 1841: the drama of architecture, ed. by John Zukowsky. With essays by Kurt W. Forster and Wolfgang Pehnt, .
 Jörg Trempler: Schinkels Motive. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2007, .
Christoph Werner: Schloss am Strom. Die Geschichte vom Leben und Sterben des Baumeisters Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Bertuch-Verlag, Weimar 2004, .

References
References

1781 births
1841 deaths
German architects
German painters
People from Brandenburg
People from Prussia
Urban planners
"Hey, Soul Sister" is a hit song under the musical group Train. The single was released in August 11, 2009 as the lead single on Train's fifth studio album Save Me, San Francisco. This song peaked at number 3 on Billboard Hot 100 and is Train's highest and its most commercially successful song, though the single was not eligible for any Grammy Award in the General Field.

2009 songs
Train songs
Hardwood is wood from deciduous trees and broad-leaf evergreen trees.  All hardwoods are angiosperms (flowering plants), the largest group of land plants.

Hardwood is contrasted to softwood, which comes from conifers, cone bearing seed plants. Hardwoods are not always harder than softwoods, balsa wood being an example of this. Hardwood trees are more varied than softwoods and there are about 100 times more species of hardwood than there are softwoods. Hardwoods usually have broad leaves. Hardwoods all have enclosed nuts or seeds, where softwoods are gymnosperms, naked seed plants.leis
Each species of hardwood has its own set of properties, however they have some properties in common. Hardwoods normally have broad leaves and come from deciduous or broad-leafed evergreen trees. Hardwoods grow slower than softwoods. Evergreen softwoods grow faster than deciduous hardwoods, and can grow to a larger size. Some hardwoods are excellent for carving. One of the hardest hardwoods is black ironwood which is recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the heaviest wood. Ironwoods are so dense that they sink in water rather than float as other woods do.

The properties of the wood are caused by its structure. Hardwoods have a denser structure, which is the reason they are usually harder and heavier. Hardwood has xylem vessels which are used to transport water. Their cell walls are strongly lignified: lignin is a hard material used to support plants above the surface. The quantity of lignin is probably the main factor in their hardness.
Softwoods have a vascular structure which looks similar to a bunch of drinking straws held together. They also have lignin, but of a slightly different type, and less of it than most hardwoods.

Species of hardwood
Common species of hardwood found in the USA, and Europe. Many species are also found in other areas of the world. This is not a complete list of all hardwood trees.

Uses of hardwood

The use of hardwood is much reduced in the modern world. The destruction of tropical and temperate forests has made it expensive and scarce. Many things once made of hardwood are now made of ceramics, plastic or softwood.

Hardwoods are often used to make items that get used a lot because of their density.  These items include furniture, flooring, and utensils.  They are also used in construction. Hardwoods are also less likely to decay or rot than softwoods. Furniture made by hardwood joinery is more expensive than that made from softwoods.
Flooring is often made of hardwood because it can stand up to years of people walking on it with their shoes. An example is the flooring made from tiger-wood seen in the gallery below. Hardwoods are also used to make wood veneers to glue over other, cheaper woods, making them less expensive than solid hardwood while still giving them the appearance of a particular species of wood. This has become a common way of using tropical hardwoods that have a limited supply of trees due to deforestation occurring in many tropical countries. In Europe, hardwoods account for 29% and softwoods 71% of wood consumption. Hardwood has very short fibers about 1mm in length and is so also used to make fine paper such as writing paper, tissue, and printing paper. Paper with longer fibers such as paper bags, cardboard and shipping containers is made of softwoods.

Gallery
A variety of objects made from different types of hardwood.

Related pages 
Lumber
Veneer
Woodworking

References
References

Jane F.W. 1970. The structure of wood. 2nd ed, edited by K. Wilson & D.J.B. White. London: Adam & Charles Black.

Other websites
Forestry Commission Scotland - Hardwoods
Paper Online 

Wood
HM Prison Pentridge was an Australian prison built in 1850 in Coburg, Victoria. The first prisoners arrived in 1851. The prison was closed on 1 May 1997.

Pentridge was often known by the nicknames "The Bluestone College", "Coburg College" or the "College of Knowledge". The grounds were originally landscaped by renowned landscape gardener Hugh Linaker. Since closing, much of the prison has been pulled down to make way for a housing development. Large buildings have been built and a 16 floor modern apartment block is being planned.

The northern section of the prison being developed by Valad Property Group and the other areas by Pentridge Village. The National Trust does not like the development plans approved by Heritage Victoria. These plans include taking down sections of the outside walls and building apartments between the historic prison buildings.

Divisions 
The prison was split into many divisions, named using letters of the alphabet.
A – Short and long–term prisoners of good behavior
 B  Long–term prisoners with behavior problems
 C – Vagabonds and short term prisoners, where Ned Kelly was imprisoned (Demolished in 1976)
 D – Remand prisoners waitng for trial
 E – A dormitory division housing short term prisoners
 F – Remand and short–term
 G – Mental health problems
 H – High security, discipline and protection
 J – Young Offenders Group– Later for long–term with record of good behavior
 Jika Jika – maximum security risk and for protection, later renamed K Division

Jika Jika high security unit 
Jika Jika, opened in 1980 at a cost of AU$7 million. It was a 'gaol within a gaol', designed to hold Victoria's toughest and longest serving prisoners. It was awarded the 'Excellence in Concrete Award' by the Concrete Institute of Australia. It was closed after the deaths of five prisoners in 1987.
Jika Jika had six separate units each at the end of radiating spines. It had electronic doors, closed–circuit television and remote locking. This meant it could use less staff but still have maximum security. The furnishings were sparse and prisoners exercised in escape proof yards.

In 1983 four prisoners escaped from ‘escape proof’ Jika Jika. When two prison officers were disciplined in relation to the Jika Jika escape a week–long strike occurred.

1987 Jika Jika prison fire 
Inmates Robert Wright, Jimmy Loughnan, Arthur Gallagher, David McGauley and Ricky Morris – from one side of the unit – and Craig 'Slim' Minogue and three other inmates on the other side sealed off their section doors with a tennis net. Mattresses and other bedding were then stacked against the doors and set on fire. They covered windows in the day room with paper so the prison officers could not see which prisoners caused the damage.
Prisoners Robert Wright, Jimmy Loughnan, Arthur Gallagher, David McGauley and Ricky Morris died in the fire. Convicted Russell Street bomber Craig Minogue and three other inmates survived as they were evacuated when the fire started.

Grave sites 

The graves of executed prisoners were unmarked in a corner of the prison. In 1929, 32 bodies were moved from the Melbourne Gaol during the building of the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. These graves were found in 2008. The skeleton of bushranger Ned Kelly was among those discovered.
Executions
There were 11 executions at Pentridge. The gallows beam and the trapdoor were moved from the Melbourne Gaol and put into "D" Division in 1924.
 Robert David Bennett 26 September 1932
 Arnold Karl Sodeman 1 June 1936
 Edward Cornelius 26 June 1936
 Thomas Johnson 3 January 1939
 George Green 17 April 1939
 Alfred Bye 22 December 1941
 Eddie Leonski (US soldier and serial killer) 9 November 1942
 Jean Lee 19 February 1951
 Norman Andrews 19 February 1951
 Robert David Clayton 19 February 1951
 Ronald Joseph Ryan 3 February 1967

When the gaol was closed, the beam and the trapdoor were taken back to the Melbourne Gaol to be part of its historical display.
Last execution
Ronald Ryan was the last man executed at Pentridge Prison and in Australia. Ryan was hanged in "D" Division at 8.00 on 3 February 1967. He had been convicted of murdering a prison officer during an escape from the same prison. Later that day, Ryan's body was buried in an unmarked grave within the "D" Division. There is still debate about his hanging.

Notorious prisoners