Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Aurochs also had several features not often seen in modern cattle, such as lyre-shaped horns set at a forward angle, a pale stripe down the spine, and different color according to the gender. Males were black with a pale stripe down the spine, while females and calves were reddish (these colours are still found in a few domesticated cattle breeds, such as Jersey cattle). Aurochs were also known to have very aggressive behaviour, and killing one was seen as an act of courage in ancient cultures.

Subspecies 
At one time there were three aurochs subspecies, namely Bos primigenius namadicus (Falconer, 1859) that occurred in India, the Bos primigenius mauretanicus (Thomas, 1881) from North Africa and the Bos primigenius primigenius (Bojanus, 1827) from Europe and the Middle East. Only the European subspecies survived until recent times.

Notes
Notes

References 
 American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition (AHD4). Houghton Mifflin, 2000. Headwords aurochs, urus, wisent.
 Bunzel-Drüke, M. 2001. Ecological substitutes for wild horse (Equus ferus Boddaert, 1785 = E. przewalslii Poljakov, 1881) and Aurochs (Bos primigenius Bojanus, 1827). Natur- und Kulturlandschaft, Höxter/Jena, 4, 10 p. AFKP. Online pdf (298 kB) 
 Garfield, Richard van. 1995. Magic the gathering: gatherer search: Aurochs. http://gatherer.wizards.com/?first=1&last=100&term=aurochs&Field_Name=on&Field_Rules=on&Field_Type=on&setfilter=Allsets&colorfilter=All
 International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81-84.
Mammals of Africa
Mammals of Asia
Mammals of Europe
Cattle
Extinct species
History of Belarus
History of Lithuania
History of Poland
History of Romania
History of Ukraine
IUCN Red List extinct species
Megafauna
National symbols of Moldova
Privas is a commune of France, capital (Prefecture) of the Ardèche department of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in southeastern France. It is the smallest administrative centre of any department in France.

Today Privas is known for several confectionery made with chestnuts produced in the region, as the marron glacé.

History
When the department of Ardèche was created on 4 March 1790, the capital was Privas alternating with Annonay, Aubenas, Le Bourg(-Saint-Andéol) and Tournon. In September of that year, Privas became the only capital of the department.

Geography 
The commune of Privas is in the central eastern part of the Ardèche department, in the valley of the Ouvèze river, a tributary of the Rhône river. The commune of Privas is in the centre of a region known as the "Bassin Privadois".

The commune has an area of , and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .
The distances from Privas to other cities are:
 Paris, the national capital - ;
 Lyon, the regional capital - ;
 Marseille - ;
 Strasbourg - ;
 Reims - ;
 Bordeaux - ;
 Toulouse - ;
 Montpellier - ;
 Nice - .

Privas is surrounded by the communes:

Climate 
The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Largentière is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype "Cfb".

Population
The inhabitants of Privas are known, in French, as Privadois (women: Privadoises).

With a population of 8,313, Privas has a population density of  inhabitants/km2. It is the prefecture with fewest people living in it.

Evolution of the population in Privas

Administration 
Privas is the prefecture of the Ardèche department since 1800. It is also the capital of the arrondissement of Privas and the administrative centre () of the canton Privas, formed by 15 communes, including Privas, with 20,402 inhabitants (2014).
It is part of the intercommunality Privas Centre Ardèche, officially named as Communauté d'agglomération Privas Centre Ardèche.

Sister cities 
Privas is twinned with:
  Tortona, Italy
  Weilburg, Germany
  Wetherby, United Kingdom
  Zevenaar, Netherlands

Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissement of Privas
 Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Other websites

 City council website  
 Site de la Communauté d'agglomération Privas Centre Ardèche 

Communes in Ardèche
Departmental capitals in France
Guilherand-Granges is a town and commune of the Ardèche département, in the southern part of France.

Related pages

Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Tournon-sur-Rhône is a commune in the Ardèche department of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in southeastern France. It is a subprefecture of the department. The city is at about  to the north of Valence, the capital of the Drôme department.

History
Tournon-sur-Rhône, with the name of Tournon, was one of the seven districts of the Ardèche department when it was created on 4 March 1790. When the arrondissements were created in 1800, Tournon was one of the three arrondissements of the department.

On 18 March 1988, the name of the city was changed from Tournon to Tournon-sur-Rhône.

Geography 
The commune of Tournon-sur-Rhône is on the northeastern part of the Ardèche department, on the border with the Drôme department. The city is on the right side of the Rhône river.

The commune has an area of , and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .
The distances from Tournon-sur-Rhône to other cities are:
 Paris, the national capital - ;
 Lyon, the regional capital - ;
 Marseille - ;
 Strasbourg - ;
 Reims - ;
 Bordeaux - ;
 Toulouse - ;
 Montpellier - ;
 Nice - .

Tournon-sur-Rhône is surrounded by the communes:
 Ardèche department: Lemps, Saint-Jean-de-Muzols, Mauves, Plats, Saint-Barthélemy-le-Plain.
 Drôme department: Crozes-Hermitage, Larnage, Tain-l'Hermitage, Pont-de-l'Isère.

Climate 
The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Montluçon is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype "Cfb".

Population
The inhabitants of Tournon-sur-Rhône are known, in French, as Tournonais (women: Tournonaises).

With a population of 10,558, Tournon-sur-Rhône is the fourth largest city of the department and has a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

Evolution of the population in Tournon-sur-Rhône
Administration 
Tournon-sur-Rhône is a subprefecture of the Ardèche department since 1800. It is also the capital of the arrondissement of Tournon-sur-Rhône and the administrative centre () of the canton Tournon-sur-Rhône formed by 13 communes, including Tournon-sur-Rhône, with 20,885 inhabitants (2014).

It is part of the intercommunality Arche Agglo, officially named as Communauté d'agglomération Hermitage-Tournonais-Herbasse-Pays de Saint Félicien.

Sister cities 
Tournon-sur-Rhône is twinned with:
  Fellbach, Germany
  Erba, Lombardy, Italy

Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissement of Tournon-sur-Rhône
 Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Other websites

 City council website 

Communes in Ardèche
Subprefectures in France
The Battle of Marion (December 17–December 18, 1864) was a military engagement in the American Civil War that occurred when Major General George Stoneman, commander of the Union Army in Kentucky and Tennessee, raided Southwestern Virginia. General Stoneman's plan was to destroy anything that might benefit the Southern war effort and was approved by his commanding officers on December 6, 1864.

The Confederates managed to hold the key positions on the battlefield against numerous Union charges. Eventually, the Confederates ran short of ammunition and were forced to withdraw. The total casualties for this battle were 274, relatively low for a battle during the Civil War.

After the battle, the Union expedition set out to destroy the salt mines, lead works, and anything else in the area that could be of benefit to the Confederates.
Location
The town of Marion is in southwest Virginia on the Middle Fork of the Holston River in Smyth County, Virginia. It was about half way between the salt works at Saltville and the lead mines near Wytheville. Since it is near the Mason–Dixon line, many of the town's families were divided and fought on opposing sides. Until the winter of 1864, the town of Marion had been protected from fighting by the mountains and geographic location.

Background

Union army

Proposition
Major General George Stoneman, commander of the Union Army in Kentucky and Tennessee, proposed another expedition into southwest Virginia to destroy all facilities and supplies of benefit to the Confederate war effort. This gained the approval of Major General John Schofield on December 6, 1864.
Preparations
Stoneman would use troops under General Alvan Gillem and those commanded by General Stephen Burbridge—including the 5th and the 6th U.S. Colored Cavalry  who had participated in the failed previous attempt to destroy the salt works at the first Battle of Saltville. Stoneman ordered Burbridge to bring his army of 4,200 men through the Cumberland Gap to join Stoneman and General Gillem at Knoxville, Tennessee where Gillem was refitting his own command into a picked force of 1,500 men. Stoneman did not reveal the objectives of the expedition to his subordinates until three days after it had departed Knoxville on December 10. On December 12, Stoneman's force flanked and forced back Confederate General Basil Duke's cavalry at Rogersville, Tennessee. The Federals defeated and scattered the Confederates the next day at Kingsport, Tennessee. There General Gillem captured 84 prisoners, including Col. Richard C. Morgan and the brigade's supply train.
On the 14th, the Union army began to push Duke's cavalry back toward Abingdon, Virginia. The next day, Stoneman and his cavalry went into camp at Glade Spring, Virginia, which was about  west of Marion. On December 16, Stoneman's cavalry rode toward Marion, destroying infrastructure and public buildings along their path.

Confederate army
The opposing force of General Stoneman was the army of Major General John C. Breckinridge, who was the commander of the Department of Southwest Virginia. Breckinridge's command consisted of approximately 1,000 regular troops with another 500 militia reserves. Most of the army had been transferred to the Army of Northern Virginia to help in the defense of Richmond.
Preparations
Breckinridge's army consisted of Colonel Henry Giltner's brigade, (which was formed from the soldiers of the 4th Kentucky Cavalry and the 10th Kentucky Cavalry); the 10th Kentucky Mounted Rifles (later renamed to the 13th Kentucky Cavalry), and the 64th Virginia Mounted Infantry. Breckinridge's army also included General Basil Duke's cavalry, General George Cosby's cavalry and Colonel Vincent Witcher and his 34th Battalion of Virginia Cavalry.

On the night of December 16, General Breckinridge and his troops moved out of Saltville, Virginia in an effort to stop Stoneman. Taking the regular troops with him, Breckinridge left Colonel Robert Preston in charge of the 500 militia men to defend the salt works. General Breckinridge sent Witcher and his men of the 34th on ahead of his main force and ordered them to harass the Union army.
At about 3 a.m. (Local Time), Breckinridge and his small army began to travel across Walkers Mountain. In the last few days before the march, 4" of rain fell, making travel difficult across the muddy roads. At 4:00 a.m. (Local Time), they reached the main road near Seven Mile Ford, Virginia where Breckinridge waited for daylight before continuing.

Battle

Advance 
Around noon of December 17, 1864, Breckinridge's men mounted their horses rode toward Marion. Meanwhile, General Stoneman sent some of his Tennessee regiments to Wytheville, Virginia to destroy anything that looked valuable. Stoneman also sent two regiments of cavalry to destroy the lead mines and smelting facilities that were about ten miles (16 km) from Wytheville.
First day 
General Breckinridge's front regiment was the 10th Kentucky Mounted Rifles, under the command of Colonel Benjamin Caudill. Caudill's men dismounted and fired into the Union cavalry, causing several casualties. As the rest of Breckinridge's troops began to arrive on the scene, General Stoneman's men secured the high hill overlooking the river. Breckinridge observed that these hills were the best defensive positions in the area; following which he ordered the men of the 10th Kentucky Mounted Rifles to charge up the hill and drive out the Union army. The rest of Giltner's Brigade also joined in the charge, routing the Union soldiers. The result of the charge ended in Confederate favor, and the Confederates gained control of the hill.
The Union officers then reorganized their men and with a yell of their own, charged again. Like the previous charge, this charge also was repelled. One more charge occurred that day. Courageously, the men formed and prepared to face the withering fire that they knew would come from the breast works in their front. For the final time that day, the Union army charged into Confederate fire with the same results as the previous charges. The Rebels had held on to their position during the first day of battle.

Breckinridge ordered his men to move forward and build new breastworks. These new defensive positions placed the two armies less than one hundred fifty yards apart. During the night, one Union officer was ordered to take positions at the covered bridge near the river. He and 75 men took up positions in and around the covered bridge. This was the only advance of that night by the Union army.
Second day 
The Union army that was positioned at the covered bridge fired the first few volleys at the rebels to harass their front positions. General Burbridge attacked just as the fog lifted. To entertain themselves, soldiers from both armies began to hurl insults across the fields between them. About midmorning Burbridge decided that the light rain probably would not stop falling any time soon and had his officers prepare to commence the battle.
On the far right, General Duke was being pressed hard by the heavy columns of attacking soldiers. Seeing this, Colonel Giltner sent his regiment to reinforce Duke. Before the 2nd arrived, Duke and his men counterattacked the Union line and routed it. Duke and Witcher then combined forces and charged the Union's extreme left flank. This Union colored regiment was also completely routed.

Burbridge and his men then went into a disorderly retreat. The confederate rail breastworks had held, but the holding of the line had resulted in the use of a huge amount of ammunition. Each Rebel defender had shot at least seventy-five rounds, and some having fired as many as a hundred shots. The Union army then ordered another charge with a large cavalry regiment that reinforced the Union infantry. The unexpected fighting capabilities of the small Confederate army had temporarily created a reprieve for the salt works.
Aftermath
Breckinridge ordered his field officers to make an inspection of the troops and to report back with the condition of his army. The number of men wounded and killed had depleted his army to the point that he could judged that he could no longer hold back the Union army at the front lines. Ammunition in the camp was also running low; each man had no more than ten cartridges apiece. With their supplies destroyed by Stoneman's army at the towns of Wytheville and Abingdon, there was little hope of being resupplied or reinforced in time.

Breckinridge then ordered his men to retreat from the battlefield. Though the men faced miserable conditions, they were confident they could hold the field the next day. Angrily they obeyed orders and silently began to move out with Colonel Ben Caudill and his Mounted Rifles leading the way.
Outcome 
The battle at Marion was a Union victory. The vastly outnumbered Rebels had inflicted moderate casualties and slowed the advance on Saltville, but were unable to stop it. Finding their own path to Saltville's defenses blocked, Breckinridge and his men retreated further south, while the Union raiders advanced. Saltville would fall to a night attack on December 20 - December 21 and the salt works would be destroyed by the Union army.

The damage to the leadmines near Wytheville would keep them out of production for three months, and then only partial production would be possible. Salt production would not be resumed for over a month. All railroad locomotives, cars, depots and bridges in the vicinity had been destroyed by the raid. General Stoneman claimed to have captured 34 officers and 845 enlisted men during the raid.

References
References

Other websites 
 About the Battle 
 About the Battle 
 History of Marion County 
 History of one of the Regiments 
 Step by step of the battle 
 About the Battle
 About the Battle

Marion
December events
1864 in Virginia
FC Angusht Nazran are a Russian football club from Nazran. In 2006 the club played in the Russian First Division, the second level of Russian professional football.

The club was founded in 1993 as Ingushetia Nazran and entered the Russian Third League in 1994. In 1995 the club was renamed Angusht and finished second in their zone, securing promotion to the Second League. Angusht finished second in 1998 and third in 2000, and in 1995 they managed to win their Second Division zone to get another promotion. The club spent the 2006 season in the First Division, finishing last between 22 teams. After the season Angusht went bankrupt, were renamed FC Nazran and joined the Amateur Football League.

Other websites
 Official website 

Angusht
1993 establishments in Europe
1990s establishments in Russia
The Union Army was the name of the army that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. It was also known as the Federal Army, the U.S. Army, the Northern Army, or the National Army.

Structure 
It consisted of the small United States Army (the regular army), increased by many regiments supplied by the Northern states militias. Most soldiers were volunteers but some were drafted.

History 
The Union Army fought and defeated the Confederate States Army during the war, from 1861 to 1865. Of the 2.5 million men who served in the Union Army during the war, about 9.5% were African American, about 360,000 died from being hurt in battle, disease, and 280,000 were wounded.

References 

Military of the United States
 
1860s in the United States
Makeup 
Much of the design of the Confederate States Army was based on the structure and customs of the U.S. Army. Both armies were mainly infantry, cavalry and artillery units. While the structure of the two armies was very similar, the number of men in each unit could be different. Many Confederate officers were graduates of West Point just like Union officers. Regiments were usually numbered and named for the state where they were first organized and where most of the soldiers came from. Brigades were usually named after their commanders (past or present). For example, the Stonewall Brigade was named for its commanding general, Stonewall Jackson.
Structure 
 A regiment was the basic unit in battle. At the start of the war, a regiment was 1,000 men and was led by a colonel. Regiments were usually recruited from the same area so most soldiers and officers knew each other.  Disease, desertion, and combat reduced the numbers considerably. Usually, instead of adding new recruits to a decimated regiment, a new regiment would be raised in its place.
 A brigade was from two to five regiments. Led by a brigadier general a brigade was usually from one branch of the army (infantry, cavalry or artillery).
 A division was two or more brigades. In the Confederate army, divisions could be as many as five or six brigades (Union army divisions were usually smaller). Divisions were commanded by a major general.
 A corps was two or more divisions. A corps usually included infantry, cavalry and artillery. That way a corps was independent and could conduct operations on its own.
An army was two or more corps.  A Corps or an army was usually led by the most senior major general or a general picked by Jefferson Davis.
Armies 

The Confederate States Army included the following armies:

 The Army of Northern Virginia was one of the main forces of the Confederate Army in the east.
 The Confederate Army of the Shenandoah, after the First Battle of Bull Run it became part of the Confederate Army of the Potomac.
 The Army of the Peninsula was established May 26, 1861.  On April 12, 1862, it was merged into the Army of Northern Virginia.
 The Confederate Army of the Northwest was an army early in the war. It was disbanded February 9, 1862.
 The Army of Central Kentucky. Was created in 1861. In March 1862 it was merged into the Army of Mississippi, which then became the Army of Tennessee
 The Army of New Mexico was a smaller army that operated in the New Mexico Territory in 1861 and 1862. 
 The Army of the West was largely made up of the Missouri State Guard.
Confederate officers 
Before the Civil War, many Confederate officers were in the United States Army.  When war started, 313 army officers resigned and became officers in the Confederate army. Robert E. Lee was one of those who found it difficult to leave.  Abraham Lincoln had offered to make him commander-in-chief of the Union Army. But he could not fight against his native Virginia. He became commander of the Virginia militia and when Virginia Seceded, a General of the Confederacy.
Confederate soldiers 
Confederate officers often did not maintain discipline among their men. Many of their soldiers were illiterate and some did not know which was their left foot and which was their right. At the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863, even Lee complained about the lack of discipline in his army. Visiting foreign officials were shocked at lack of discipline and were amazed they could fight.

Almost all Confederate soldiers where white
The average Confederate soldier was in his early 20s. He was usually gaunt, unkempt and beards were common. It often did not fit, especially if taken off a dead soldier. Most wore a white shirt under their wool jacket. Replacement uniforms were hard to get. They would often stain homespun (clothing made at home) with a dye made from walnuts. This gave their uniforms a yellowish-brown appearance they called "butternut". Many did not have shoes or shoes that fit. Those who did nailed horseshoes to the bottom to keep them from wearing through the sole. At first he carried a musket or flintlock rifle. Later in the war many carried the better Enfield rifles taken from dead Union soldiers. Any boots, uniforms or supplies Union soldiers left behind or were captured were used by the Confederate soldiers. In camp, most of the tents were marked "U.S." Most of the Southern Artillery was also captured Union cannons.

Notes

References 

Confederate States of America
Armies
Stand Watie (December 12, 1806 – September 9, 1871) was a leader of the Cherokee Nation and a brigadier general of the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. He commanded the Native American cavalry made up mostly of Cherokee, Creek and Seminole people. He was also known as Degataga, meaning to "stand firm" and Isaac S. Watie.

Stand Watie was born in Georgia. He helped his brother run a newspaper. Watie helped lead the Cherokees from Georgia to Oklahoma in 1835.

When the American Civil War started in 1861, Watie started a cavalry regiment. He led the regiment in several battles with the Union Army. In 1862, he was elected as a chief of the Cherokees. Watie surrendered to the Union army in 1865.

Watie died in 1871.

Other websites 
Stand Watie Biography

1806 births
1871 deaths
Native American people
People from Oklahoma
Cherokee Nation
George Stoneman, Jr. (August 22, 1822 – September 5, 1894) was a career U.S. Army officer, a Union cavalry general in the American Civil War, and the Governor of California between 1883 and 1887.

Governors of California
American Civil War generals

1822 births
1894 deaths
Military people from New York (state)
Cornas is a French commune that can be found in the département of Ardèche in the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. The name is Celtic for "burnt land."  It has a population of 2,082 people.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Coux can be any of the following communes of France:

Coux, Ardèche, in the Ardèche département 
Coux, Charente-Maritime, in the Charente-Maritime département
Coux-et-Bigaroque, in the Dordogne département
Military history is the history of what happened in the history of humanity that are considered to be conflicts. This could mean anything as small as a fight between two tribes or a conflict as large as a world war. Military historians record military history.

Related pages 
Military science

Other websites 
Why Study War?, by Victor Davis Hanson, City Journal, Summer 2007 
Military History Encyclopedia
Military History Wiki

History
Coux is a commune of the Ardèche département in the south-east of France.  The commune has a population of 1,466 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Cruas is a village and commune that can be found by the Rhône River in the Ardèche département of France.  The commune has a population of 2,405 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Other websites
http://www.cruas.com

Communes in Ardèche
Davézieux is a village and commune in the Ardèche département in the center of southern France.  The commune has a population of 2,629 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Désaignes   is a village and commune in the Ardèche département in the southern part of France.  The commune has a population of 1,105 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Félines can be the names of any of the following communes of France:

 Félines, Ardèche, a commune in the department of Ardèche
 Félines, Haute-Loire, a commune in the department of Hérault
 Félines-Minervois, a commune in the department of Hérault
 Félines-sur-Rimandoule, a commune in the department of Drôme
 Félines-Termenès, a commune in the department of Aude
Félines is a commune of the Ardèche département in the south-east of France.  The commune has a population of 1,106 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Jaujac is a town and commune in the Ardèche département, in the southern part of France.  The commune had a population of 1,048 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Joyeuse is the name of Charlemagne's sword.

Joyeuse can also be any of the following:

Joyeuse River, a river in France
Joyeuse, Ardèche, a town in the French department of Ardèche
Joyeuse ()is a commune in the French department of Ardèche in the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. It is the seat of the canton of Joyeuse.  Joyeuse has a population of 1,487 people as of the year 1999.

Geography
Joyeuse can be found in the  region of Bas-Vivarais that has a lot of history.  It can be found in the valley of the Beaume, which is a tributary of the Ardèche River.

People connected to Joyeuse
 Marcus Julius Bassus, Roman consul, whose tomb is near Joyeuse
 Charlemagne, starter of Joyeuse
 Duke Anne de Joyeuse
 Cardinal François de Joyeuse
 Duchess Henriette Catherine de Joyeuse
 La Grande Mademoiselle, Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans de Montpensier
 François Boissel

Twin town
Joyeuse is twinned with Jupille and Vilassar de Dalt.

Gallery

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Other websites

 Mairie of Joyeuse

Joyeuse
Labégude is a town and commune in the Ardèche département, in the southern part of France. The commune had a population of 1,337 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Lachapelle-sous-Aubenas   is a village and commune in the Ardèche département of the center of southern France.  The commune has a population of 1,264 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
The Chauvet Cave  or Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave is near Vallon-Pont-d'Arc, in the Ardèche département, in southern France. It became famous in 1994 when Paleolithic artwork was found on the walls. There were remains of many animals, some which are now extinct. Also some footprints of animals and humans were found. The cave is one of the most significant prehistoric art sites, like Lascaux, Altamira, and Cosquer.
Features 
The gorges of the Ardèche region have many caves. Many have geological or archaeological importance. The Chauvet Cave is unusually large. Its artwork is well preserved and of good quality. It was occupied by humans at two different times: the Aurignacian and the Gravettian. Most of the artwork dates to the earlier Aurignacian era (30,000 to 32,000 years ago).
 
The only traces left of the later occupation during the Gravettian include a child's footprints, the charred remains of ancient hearths and carbon smoke stains from torches that lit the caves. It seems nobody had been in it after the child, until it was discovered in 1994. The footprints are some of the oldest human footprints in existence: they are between 20,000 and 30,000 years old.
The floor of the cave is of a soft material, almost like clay. There are paw prints of cave bears. There are also large rounded depressions in the floor. These are believed to be the nests where the bears slept. There are many fossilized bones, including the skulls of cave bears and the horned skull of an ibex.
There are hundreds of animal paintings there. At least 13 different species, including those which have rarely or never been found in other ice age paintings are represented. In addition to commonly hunted animals: horses, cattle, reindeer, etc.. The walls of the Chauvet Cave are covered with predatory animals: lions, panthers, bears, owls, rhinos and hyenas.  Typical of most cave art, there are no paintings of complete human figures, although there is one possible, partial "Venus" figure that may represent the legs and genitals of a woman.  A peculiar figure appears to have the lower body of a woman with the upper body of a bison.  There are a few panels of red ochre hand prints and hand stencils made by spitting pigment over hands pressed against the cave surface.  Abstract markings—lines and dots—are throughout the cave.  There are also two unidentifiable images that have a vaguely butterfly shape to them
. This combination of subjects has led experts in pre-historic art and cultures to believe that there was likely a ritualistic, shamanistic, or magical aspect to these paintings.
The artists who produced these unique paintings used techniques not often observed in other cave art.  Many of the paintings appear to have been made only after the walls were scraped clear of debris and concretions.  This left a smoother and noticeably lighter area upon which the artists worked.  Similarly, a three dimensional quality is achieved by incising or etching about the outlines of certain figures.  This visually emphasizes some of the animals and allows torch light to cast shadows about the edges.

Dating 

The cave contains the oldest known cave paintings, based on radiocarbon dating of "black from drawings, from torch marks and from the floors." Clottes concludes that the "dates fall into two groups, one around 27,000-26,000 BP and the other around 32,000-30,000 BP." As of 1999, the dates of 31 samples from the cave had been reported, with the earliest being 32,900±490 BP.

However, some archaeologists have questioned these dates.
History 
The cave was named after Jean-Marie Chauvet, who discovered it on 18 December 1994, together with Christian Hillaire and Eliette Brunel-Deschamps. The researchers found that the cave had been untouched for 20,000-30,000 years.

Related pages
 Painting
 Cave painting

Notes

References 
 
English translation by Paul G. Bahn from the French edition La Grotte Chauvet

 

 
Translation of La Grotte Chauvet, l'art des origins, Éditions du Seuil, 2001
Other websites 
 http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/chauvet/en/  French Ministry of Culture information site; includes an interactive map with photos.
 http://www.france.diplomatie.fr/label_france/ENGLISH/SCIENCES/CHAUVET/cha.html
 http://www.time.com/time/europe/wonder/chauvet.html   A brief article by Jean Clottes of the French Ministry of Culture, responsible for overseeing the authentication of the contents and art of the cave
 http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/chav/hd_chav.htm    Metropolitan Museum of Art showing the Chauvet Cave on its Timeline of Art History page
 http://www.neara.org/MiscReports/04-18-03.htm     Doubt cast on Chauvet cave dating
 Chauvet Cave The cave paintings and rock art of Chauvet, with contributions by Dr Jean Clottes.
 http://www.paleoesthetique.com/articles_us/the_grotte_chauvet.php  A new stylistic approach on Chauvet

Ardèche
Archaeological sites in France
A Druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the pre-Christian, ancient Celtic societies. These societies existed through much of Western Europe, until the Roman government took over and, later, Christianity arrived. Druids were part of the cultures of the tribal peoples who were called "Keltoi" (Κέλτοι) or "Keltai" (Κέλται) and "Galatai" (Γαλάται) by the Greeks and "Celtae" and "Galli" by the Romans. In the communities they served, druids combined the duties of priest, arbitrator, healer, scholar, and magistrate. Both men and women served as druids, although there is no early proof for female druids, or druidesses.
History 
From what little we know of late druidic practices, it appears deeply traditional and conservative, in the sense that druids were conserving the old culture and lore for their communities.  It is impossible now to judge whether this continuity had deep historical roots and originated in the social transformations of the late La Tène culture, or whether there had been a discontinuity and then a religious innovation.

Greek and Roman writers on the Celts commonly made at least passing reference to druids, though before Julius Caesar's report merely as "barbarian philosophers"; They were not concerned with ethnology or comparative religion and consequently our historical knowledge of druids is very limited. Druidic lore consisted of a large number of verses learned by heart, and Caesar remarked that twenty years were required to complete the course of study.
Druidic culture are believed to be practicers of rituals and such magic, Druids were believed to be a neutral people they were known as Druid(ae) similar to priests and scholars believed to have studied rituals of Human sacrifice and Familiars (Known currently as a form of a pet from a practicer; Witch, Druidae, Warlock). The Druidic culture was believed to have some form of religious complication.
Druids are known to have practiced such as reincarnation as animals of worship (Bird, Lion, Tiger, Cat, Monkey), but such cannot be proved as what we know so far.
They were said to have lived in Roman times in Great Britain and Ireland it is said that they have some form of connection to Stonehenge and other monuments.

References 

Religious leaders
Celtic peoples
Lalevade-d'Ardèche   is a village and commune in the Ardèche département in the center of southern France. The commune has a population of about 1,000 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Lamastre   is a village and commune in the Ardèche département in the center of southern France. The commune has a population of about 2,400 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
Lavilledieu is a commune in the Ardèche département in the southern part of France.  The commune has a population of about 1,400 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Other websites
Lavilledieu website

Communes in Ardèche
Druid could mean:
 Druid, a priest of the religion of the ancient Celts
 Neo-druidism, a modern Neo-pagan religious practice where Archdruid is a high priest.
 Druid (character class), a character that represents a magical priest of nature in role-playing games 
Druids, a character class in Dungeons & Dragons.
Druids, a character class in the MMORPG, World of Warcraft.
 a rank within the Gorsedd of Bards.
 Merlin, the wizard of Arthurian legend
 Druid (band), a British Progressive rock band from the late 1970's.
 Druids, a (2001) film about a Celtic druid resisting the Roman armies.
 Druid database designer
 Druid Theatre Company A Theatre company in Galway, Ireland.
 an open-source version of an automated computer Wizard
 Druids Celtic Cider, a cider available in the UK and Ireland
 Druid, a computer game for the Commodore 64.
 Druids are an order of historians, philosophers, magic-users, teachers and researchers in the Shannara series of fantasy novels by Terry Brooks.
Saint-Péray is a town and commune in the Ardèche département, in the southern part France. The commune has a population of about 6,500 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Communes in Ardèche
La Voulte-sur-Rhône  is a village and commune in the Ardèche département in the center of southern France. The commune has a population of about 5,100 people as of the year 1999.

Related pages
Communes of the Ardèche department

References 

Communes in Ardèche
Viviers can be any one of the following communes in France:

 Viviers, Ardèche, in the Ardèche département, capital of the Vivarais and episcopal see
 Viviers, Moselle, in the Moselle département
 Viviers, Yonne, in the Yonne département
 Viviers-du-Lac, in the Savoie département
 Viviers-le-Gras, in the Vosges département
 Viviers-lès-Lavaur, in the Tarn département
 Viviers-lès-Montagnes, in the Tarn département
 Viviers-lès-Offroicourt, in the Vosges département
 Viviers-sur-Artaut, in the Aube département
 Viviers-sur-Chiers, in the Meurthe-et-Moselle département
Viviers is a commune in the French département of Ardèche.  The commune has a population of about 3,400 people as of the year 1999.

History 
Viviers became the capital of the Gaulish Helvii tribe following the falling of nearby Alba-la-Romaine.

Related pages
 Communes of the Ardèche department

References

Other websites 
Viviers on the site of the Institut Géographique National  
Viviers on the site of the INSEE  
Viviers on the site of the Quid   
Communes closest to Viviers  
Localisation de Viviers on a map of France  
 Map of Viviers on Mapquest  

Viviers
Druidism or Druidry (referred to as Neodruidry or Neodruidism by some followers) is a Celtic form of modern spirituality that generally promotes harmony with nature, often through the form of nature worship. It is considered to be a Neopagan faith.

Originally inspired by 17th, 18th and 19th century romantic movements, early neo-druidism was based upon largely historically incorrect depictions of the Iron Age Celtic druids, and has no direct relation to the ancient Celts or their culture.

Beliefs and Practises
Neo-druidic beliefs vary wildly, and there is no set dogma or belief system by which all adherents follow. Main beliefs include the Earth and nature are sacred, and is worthy of worship itself. For this reason many druids are pantheistic, animistic, or polytheistic.

Related pages 
Celts
Druid
Stonehenge

References

More reading 
 
 

New religious movements
Shutter is a 2008 American mystery horror thriller movie released on March 21, 2008. It is about a newly married couple finding disturbing, ghostly images in photographs they develop after a tragic accident. Fearing the manifestations may be connected, they investigate and learn that some mysteries are better left unsolved.

References

Other websites 
 
 
 
 
 

2008 horror movies
2000s mystery movies
2008 thriller movies
2000s horror thriller movies
American mystery movies
American horror thriller movies
2000s English-language movies
2000s ghost movies
Tits may mean:

Passerine songbirds of the family Paridae
Great tit
Blue tit
Black-capped chickadee
Female breasts
Rajput is a community of India which claim descent from many rulers or kings.  Rajput are upper cast community.

Origin
According to V.A. Smith, Rajput is a mixed race. Rajputs have descended from the foreign invaders like Sakas, Kushans and Hunas. V.A. Smith states that Rajputs were born of various races and castes.

According to Harbans Singh Bhatia, It would appear that Brahmans, Bhars, Ahirs, Jats, Gujars, and Huns have all contributed to the Rajput clans.
Rajputs in Hindu Dharmashastras
Ananya Vajpeyi discusses the Rajputs in the context of Hindu Sanskrit Dharmashastra texts and shows the dissonance between the meaning of Rajput in the practical political arena  versus the literal meaning of rajaputa in Hindu religious texts and how both meanings could coexist. 
 
Vishvambhara Shastra states that :"An Ugra (Śūdra mother, Kshatriya father) makes a living by the arts of war.  
Skilled with the sword and bow, he is expert in combat. He stands apart among men as the mighty Rajput".
 
Similar view is held by the Jatinirnayaprakaranama of Sudrakamalakara, an early 1600s Dharmaśāstra text written by Kamalakarabhatta 
(uncle of the notable Brahmin scholar Gaga Bhatt) for a rajaputa. Vajpeyi clarifies that although ugra literally means scary or fierce, in this context the medieval writers only used this term in the context of his qualities as a warrior.
Seshasakrishna's Sudracarasiromani, a text that predates Sudrakamalakara also supports this definition for a rajaputa.
 
Vajpeyi notes that Kamalakarabhatta makes a professional and religious distinction: a rajaputa may fight, however, he has to follow the duties similar to sudras or sudrasamana. She says Ugra  or rajaputa is listed as one of the six types of a sankarajati(mixed caste) given in the text, whose father's varna is higher than that of the mother, and are thus an anulomajas or "one born in accordance with the natural flow". There are five other types of anulomajas  unions given by Kamalakarabhatta. Thus, as  per the medieval Brahminical Dharmashastras, Rajputs are a mixed jati. In the practical political context, 
the word meaning edges towards  Kshatriya although in Hindu religious texts rajaputa is closer to Shudra.
Some emigrant Brahmins may have been involved in Rajputising tribes to the Rajput status. Despite this, Vajpayi states that, periodically, Brahmins have characterized Rajput as self-seekers, and stated that they are not real Kshatriyas. Other than establishing marital ties with already established Rajput families,
constructing false genealogies and adopting titles such as "rana", Rajputising also involved starting the pretensions of rituals of twice-borns ( wearing sacred thread etc.). However, one  ritual that was not given much significance was the Abhisheka. When a clan leader was made king by the Mughal emperor, the Tika mark on the head of leader by the Muslim emperor confirmed his Royal status and the Hindu ritual of Abhisheka was only of secondary importance. Aurangzeb eventually stopped the custom of Tika and the custom was replaced by bowing or taslim to the Mughal emperor, who would return the salute. According to Vajpayi, this possibly implies that it was still up to the Mughal emperor to ultimately give or deny the Rajput status to the clan leader.
 
The description of Rajputs in the Hindu Dharmashastras, self image that the Rajputs presented, and the Mughal view of the Rajputs was disparate. This incongruity, according to Vajpayi makes the Rajput identity Polyphonous.
References

Other websites 
Rajputcommunity.in a site with hundreds of different post of Rajputs and their clans
Origin of Rajputs
 Rajput Vansh and Clans
 Rajputs  Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition; 2005 
 Rajput  Encyclopedia Britannica; 1911
 Rajputs in Rajoa, Dadyal 
 Ek Tha Raja
 Kota Chauhan Clan

Rajputs
A Metcard is a type of ticket used to use public transport in Melbourne, Australia. It allows the holder to use Trains, Trams and Buses, in two zones (Zone 1 and Zone 2). Zone 1 covers areas close to the CBD, and Zone 2 covers the rest of the city. There used to be a  Zone 3 , but that has been merged with Zone 2. The ticket is about the size of a credit card, and contains a magnitic strip that tells a computer what type of ticket it is.

History
Metcard replaced a identical yet simpler system of scratchies used on the Melbourne public transport network. Scratchies were easy to cheat and the system was eventually abandoned in 2002, but not before tickets for many years of use were printed.
Moves towards automated ticketing were first made by the then state Liberal Government in 1992. Tenders were called for the design, supply, installation and on-going maintenance of such a system, with the 'OneLink Transit Consortium' announced as the preferred people to do it in September 1993. The contract was signed in May 1994, with the major technology supplier being the ERG Group.

Testing of prototypes commenced in December 1993, and the roll-out of the system was carried out from August 1996 to April 1998, and acceptance occurred in November 1997. Public field trials were carried out on buses from August 20 1996, and on rail services from September 18 1996. The system commenced full revenue service from May 1998 at a cost of $330 million. Contractual issues between OneLink and the Victorian Government were not settled until May 2002 with the payment of up to $65 million in a staged settlement.
Controversy surrounded Metcard at its introduction, due to it costing to much, the abolition of tram conductors and the unreliability of ticket purchasing and validation machines. The machines were attacked by vandals frequently (often by pouring liquids into the coin slot), and have seen several revisions to their design since.

Consistent with the privatisation ethos of the government of the day, Metcard's operation was entirely outsourced, with the transport operators (at that time government-owned) having nothing to do with the system. Metcard even had its own website and branding which became stronger than the anonymous and constantly renaming government then privatised operators.
An study released by the State Government in 2001 showed over 1 in 4 (27.2%) of the machines at train stations did not work, and 11.9% of mobile equipment in buses and trams was non-operational. The State Government renegotiated with ticketing network contract operator OneLink Transit Systems to improve the service to commuters. Following these improvements, a 2002 audit showed an increase in availability of machines to 92.1% at train stations, and 98.3% on buses and trams. Usability was also improved, with tram machines able to sell daily tickets. Furthermore, vandalism across the network dropped by 62% between 2001 and 2002.
V/Line tickets were aligned with the Metcard system in April 2006, with each V/Line ticket to stations in the Metcard area having the relevant zones printed on them. In March 2007 the Nightrider bus service was also brought under the Metcard system. Zone 3 was removed from the Metcard system (and merged into zone 2) on March 4 2007, due to a State Election promise made by Opposition Leader Ted Ballieu and matched by then Premier Steve Bracks.

The original Metcard contract with OneLink was to last nine years, expiring in March 2007. In 2005 the contract was changed to permit the system to be extended and changed as work on the replacement myki project keeps going, with the contract being able to be cancelled on six months notice.

Types of Metcards

Most Metcards can be purchased in Zone 1; Zone 2 and Zone 1 + Zone 2 types, with them being valid within their respective zones. All Metcards, except for the City Saver Metcard, are valid for muplitle trips on Trains, Trams and Buses.
2 Hour (valid for 2 hours only)
Daily (valid for one days travel)
Weekly
Monthly
Yearly
City Saver (valid for a single trip within the city center)
Sunday Saver (valid on Sunday only)
Seniors Daily (consession for over sixty-fives)
10 X Early Bird (free ticket for trips ending before 7:00am)

References

Public transport in Melbourne