Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Mutilation is when the way a body looks is permanently changed. This change may be due to an accident, or it may be the result of torture.

Losing a part of the body (like a hand), or permanent scars (different looking skin after a bad injury heals) on the body, might be a result of mutilation.

Related pages 
Female genital mutilation

Torture
Violence
Heiner Zieschang (born 12 November 1936 in Kiel; died 5 April 2004) was a German mathematician.  He was a professor at Ruhr-University Bochum from 1968 till 2002. In 1996 he was made an honorary doctor of the University of Toulouse and in 1997 he was an honorary professor of Moscow State University.

Literature
Heiner Zieschang: Flächen und ebene diskontinuierliche Gruppen. Berlin 1970, 
Heiner Zieschang: On decompositions of discontinuous groups of the plane. Math. Zeit. 151 (1976), 165-188
 Heiner Zieschang: Surfaces and planar discontinuous groups, Berlin 1980 
 Heiner Zieschang: Finite groups of mapping classes of surfaces. Berlin 1981, 
 Gerhard Burde ; Heiner Zieschang: Knots, Berlin [u.a.] 1985 
Ralph Stöcker, Heiner Zieschang: Algebraische Topologie. Teubner, Stuttgart 1988, 
Heiner Zieschang: Lineare Algebra und Geometrie. Stuttgart 1997,

Other websites 
 Heiner Zieschang at the Mathematics Genealogy Project

1936 births
2004 deaths
German academics
German mathematicians
People from Kiel
Jan Mayen is an island in the Arctic Ocean. It is part of Norway. The island's area is 373 km². A large part of the island is an active volcano, the Beerenberg, which is 2,277m high. Jan Mayen is 600 km north of Iceland, 500 km east of Greenland and 1000 km west of the Norwegian mainland.

There is a radio station and a meteorological station on the island. The staff at these stations are the only people living on the island.

History
There are many claims and stories about discovery of the island. Some claims and possible discoveries are as early as the beginning of the 6th century. However, the first discovery that is certain was in 1614. The Dutchman Jan Jacobs May van Schellinkhout visited the island then and it is named for him. His first mate made maps of some of the coast.
It is incorrectly assumed that Henry Hudson discovered the island in 1607 and called it Hudson's Tutches or Touches, but there is no evidence for this. Thereafter it was allegedly seen several times by navigators who claimed its discovery and renamed it. Thus, in 1611 or the following year whalers from Hull named it Trinity Island; in 1612 Jean Vrolicq, a French whaler, claimed in 1629 that he had discovered the island and called it Île de Richelieu; and in 1614 English captain John Clarke named it Isabella. 

The island has very few residents. The Long Range Navigation (Loran-C) base has a staff of 14 and a weather services station has a staff of four. The staff members of both stations live in Olonkinbyen. The island has no native people living on it, but is given the ISO 3166-1 country code SJ, the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) .no (.sj is allocated but not used ) and data code JN.  Its amateur radio call sign prefix is JX.

Related pages
 Svalbard

References

Other websites
Other websites

Satellite Radar image of Jan Mayen 
[warning from Norway's last outpost] https://www.vg.no/nyheter/innenriks/i/l3k8yA/jan-mayen-utposten-som-varmes-opp. 2023-10-09. VG.no
Photographs and information on Jan Mayen 
Jan Mayen crew 
LORAN-C mast Jan Mayen

Arctic islands
Islands of Norway
Uninhabited regions
A gate is a place between two parts of a wall, or a fence which could be opened and closed to let people go through it.

In the Middle Ages, a city gate also allowed people to go into a (walled) city.

Nowadays, people also talk about gates at airports. When going on an aircraft, people need to get together in a certain area of the airport first. They then pass through some kind of doorway to get onto the plane. That is what is called gate.

Walls
A city gate is a gate that is found in many medieval cities. It was the place where people could enter or leave a walled city. Very often, city gates were closed during the night.

Fortification
Walls
Bern (French: Berne, Italian: Berna, Romansh: Berna, Bernese German: Bärn) is the capital city of Switzerland. It is also the capital of the canton of Bern.

As of early 2006, 127.000 people lived in the city.

History 
Bern was started in 1191 by Berchthold V. von Zähringen. A legend says that he said he would name the city after the next animal he caught. So when he caught a bear (German: "Bär") the city was named Bern. Zähringen built the city in the half-circle the river Aare makes.
Traffic 
Public streetcars and buses are run by an organization called BernMobil. There are 3 streetcar lines and about 15 bus lines. Most of the lines are in the city but some travel away from the city. There is also the Marzilibahn, a funicular (inclined- or cliff-railway) which goes from the banks of the Aare up to the Federal Building (German: "Bundeshaus"). The Marzilibahn is 105 meters long. It is the shortest funicular in Europe. Another funicular, called the Gurtenbahn, goes from the section of Bern called Wabern, which is on the river Aare, up to the top of Gurten, a large hill 585 meters high that is just south of Bern. A small airport, Belpmoos, is located a short distance south of Bern in Belp.

Folk Festivals

Zibelemärit (onion market) 
Each year, on the 4th Monday in November, there is the Onion Market in Bern, where onions are sold. Many people visit the market in the early morning and throw confetti. They also hit other people with hammers made out of plastic
Aareleuchten (glowing Aare) 
Since 1996,  every August 1 (a national holiday in Switzerland) they hold the Aareleuchten. The Aareleuchten is paid for by SwissAid. During the festival, people put small ships with a light in them into the river Aare. All of these small lights make the Aare "glow."

Gallery

References

Other websites

Bern Public Transportation Website (BernMobil)

 
Gurtenfestival
Buskers Bern

 
Imperial free cities
1191 establishments
1190s establishments in Europe
Establishments in Switzerland
A demo is a small portion or sample of a product. Usually the product is music, video game, or computer program. Demos are usually given to people who might be interested the product to try it before buying and advertise the product.

Software
A preview is a small piece of something used to show what the whole is like before it is generally available. Typically, previews exist for movies and possibly video games. They usually are a small portion of video showing what the game or movie is like to advertise it.

In software, a preview can be a feature that allows a user to see what a document looks like before the user prints it out, or posts it on a website.

Computing
Movie industry
Television
An atomic mass (symbol: ma) is the mass of a single atom of a chemical element. It includes the masses of the 3 subatomic particles that make up an atom: protons, neutrons and electrons.

Atomic mass can be expressed in grams. However, because each atom has a very small mass, this is not easy to do. Instead, atomic mass is expressed in unified atomic mass units (unit symbol: u). 1 atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a single carbon-12 atom. 1 u has a value of 1.660 539 066 60(50) × 10−27 kg.
The number of protons an atom has determines what element it is. However, most elements in nature consist of atoms with different numbers of neutrons. An atom of an element with a certain number of neutrons is called an isotope. For example, the element chlorine has two common isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. Both isotopes of chlorine have 17 protons, but chlorine-37 has 20 neutrons, 2 more neutrons than chlorine-35, which has 18. Each isotope has its own atomic mass, called its isotopic mass. In the case of chlorine, chlorine-35 has a mass of around 35 u, and chlorine-37 around 37 u.

As mentioned above, note that the atomic mass of an atom is not the same as its mass number. The mass number (symbol: A) of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Mass numbers are always whole numbers with no units. Also, relative isotopic mass is not the same as isotopic mass, and relative atomic mass (also called atomic weight) is not the same as atomic mass.
Relative isotopic mass
A relative isotopic mass is the mass of an isotope relative to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. In other words, a relative isotopic mass tells you the number of times an isotope of an element is heavier than one-twelfth of an atom of carbon-12. The word relative in relative isotopic mass refers to this scaling relative to carbon-12. Relative isotopic mass is similar to isotopic mass and has exactly the same numerical value as isotopic mass, whenever isotopic mass is expressed in atomic mass units. However, unlike isotopic mass, relative isotopic mass values have no units.
Like relative isotopic mass, a relative atomic mass (symbol: Ar) is a ratio with no units. A relative atomic mass is the ratio of the average mass per atom of an element from a given sample to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom. To find the relative atomic mass of a sample of an element, someone would work out the abundance-weighted mean of the relative isotopic masses. For example, to continue the chlorine example from above, if there is 75% of chlorine-35 and 25% of chlorine-37 in a sample of chlorine,

Related pages 
Relative atomic mass
Mass number
Atomic mass unit

References

Other websites 
 Atomic mass -Citizendium 

Chemistry
Nuclear physics
There are different definitions of price. Perhaps the simplest definition is to say "price is the value of a product (good) or service". A price is expressed in other goods, services, or in money.

Here is an example about price: Peter raises sheep for their wool. Sally raises chickens for their eggs. Winter is coming, so Sally wants to make a warm wool coat.
She first measures how much wool she needs for a coat. She thinks she needs the wool from 2 sheep for the coat. She then goes to Peter and asks him what he wants for the wool she needs. Peter then tells her the price he is asking for his wool. Sally might trade some of her chicken eggs for the wool.

Sometimes trading eggs for wool is difficult. So people invented something they called money. This is cash or currency used for trading.
If Peter does not need eggs, he will not trade his wool for eggs. The price for his wool in eggs is zero, but Peter does need something else. So Sally goes to a market and sells some of her eggs for money. Then she goes to Peter and gives him money for the wool. How much money Peter wants for his wool is the price.

Basic English 850 words
Commerce
Doping or dope can mean:

 Adding a dopant to something
 Doping (semiconductor), adding impurities into a semiconductor to change its electrical properties
 Doping in sport, the use of drugs to improve athletic performance
 Blood doping, increasing the number of red blood cells in the bloodstream
 Aircraft dope, a type of lacquer formerly used in airplane skins
The 1640s was a decade that started on 1 January 1640 and ended on 31 December 1649.

Events 
 The Qing dynasty begins in China.
 Europeans reach New Zealand and Tasmania.
 The English Civil War.

Births 
 William Penn, English Quaker

Deaths 
 Galileo Galilei, Italian writer and scientist
World leaders 
 King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway (1588–1648).
 King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670).
 King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland (1625–1649).
 King Louis XIII of France (1610–1643).
 Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of France (1624–1642).
 Cardinal Mazarin, chief minister of France (1642–1661).
 Anne of Austria, Queen Dowager and Regent of France (1643–1651).
 King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
 Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1637–1657).
 Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (1625–1647).
 William II, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (1647–1650).
 Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644).
 Pope Innocent X (1644–1655).
 King John IV of Portugal (1640–1656).
 King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665).
 Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654).
Events 
The Great Fire of London in England.
The Ottoman Empire attacks Europe, but is beat back at the Battle of Saint Gotthard.

Births 
Cotton Mather, American pastor
Queen Anne of Great Britain
Jonathan Swift, Irish writer

Deaths 
Blaise Pascal, French thinker
Shah Jahan, Emperor of India
Frans Hals, Dutch painter

World leaders 
King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670).
King Charles II of England (1660–1685).
King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705).
 King John II of Poland (1649–1668).
King Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1669–1673).
King Afonso VI of Portugal (1656–1667).
King Peter II of Portugal (1667–1706).
Tsar Aleksey I of Russia (1645–1676).
King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665).
King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700).
King Charles X of Sweden (1654–1660).
King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697).
Emperor Yohannes I of Ethiopia (1667–1682).
The Gaza Strip is a self-governing stretch of land along the Mediterranean. The main city in the Gaza Strip is called Gaza. The strip is currently governed by Hamas, a group declared as terrorists by many western nations for its launching of rockets into Israel.

The territory is 41 kilometers (25 mi) long, and from 6 to 12 kilometers (3.7 to 7.5 mi) wide, with a total area of 365 square kilometers (141 sq mi). About 1.8 million Palestinians live on a surface of roughly 360 km², making Gaza the 3rd most densely populated area on Earth.

Geography
Khan Yunis is  northeast of Rafah, and several towns around Deir el-Balah are along the coast between Rafah and Gaza City. Beit Lahia is to the north of Gaza City. Beit Hanoun is to the northeast of Gaza City. Al Deira beach is a popular for surfers.
History
Gaza was formed in 1967 when Israel moved Jewish communities and troops into Gaza. Israel controlled the Strip's borders, coastline and airspace until 2005, when it withdrew. An election was held in January 2006, which Hamas won. Since then, Israel has conducted several wars with Hamas due to alleged terrorist acts, causing much of the infrastructure of Gaza to be non functional. It has been placed under an Israeli and U.S.-led international economic and political boycott since 2006.

The 2023 Israel–Hamas war is going on (as of 2023's fourth quarter).

References
Unemployment or joblessness is when a person who is of normal working age (usually about 15-18 to about 60-65) does not have a paid job. They therefore do not get paid a salary. It is one of social issues and human rights violations. In some parts of the world, there are social networks to care for the unemployed.

Overview 
The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people divided by the total population of that age group of a country. The unemployment rate is influenced by many things, including the government of a country to the average age of a country's population. Unemployment is a bad thing for society.

A certain amount of unemployment is natural. 'Full employment' does not mean no-one is out of work. Governments now aim to increase the number of jobs (which can be done) rather than cut out all unemployment (which cannot be done).
Most affected groups 
People with Autism and other mental disabilities are mistreated in the workplace, leading to only around 15% of autistic people being employed at all.

Invisible unemployment
Discouraged workers are the number of people who do not have work but who are not counted in government reports. For example, people who have stopped looking for a job.  The underemployed  are people who work less than they want to do, or people who are overqualified for their job.

References 

Employment
Social issues
A salary is a type of payment a person gets for work done for a job. A salary is usually paid for a fixed period of time, such as a month or a week. Generally, it does not matter how many hours are worked, the salary remains the same. If someone is not a salaried employee, they are generally an "hourly" employee and are paid a certain amount for each hour's which is known as "wages."

Related pages 
Minimum wage
Worker

Employment
Income
Instant noodles are a product used in cooking - a type of pre-cooked noodle. These noodles are cooked at the factory and packaged as dried noodles, often with a special powder that adds flavor to the noodles. The dish is prepared very quickly (usually 5 minutes or less), simply by putting the noodles together in hot water and then adding the powder. A kind of noodle soup is then ready to eat.

Instant noodles are very popular in Asia, and among many students and poorer people, because they are very cheap to produce and to buy. In the United States, a package of instant noodles sometimes costs only ten cents.

There are many companies who manufacture Instant Noodles, some of them being:

 Maggi (Nestle)
 Top Ramen
 Chings
 Tasty Treat
 Nongshim

Noodles
Asian foods
Louis Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971) nicknamed Satchmo or Pops was an American jazz trumpeter and singer from New Orleans, Louisiana. He sang the blues and played the trumpet and the cornet. He was famous in many countries. He was also known for his good singing voice and he also encouraged the style of scat to the jazz world. Armstrong won many awards during his career.

He died of a heart attack on July 6, 1971 in Corona, Queens, New York City.

References

Other websites 

 

1901 births
1971 deaths
African-American singers
American jazz musicians
Deaths from myocardial infarction
American jazz singers
Musicians from New Orleans
Singers from New Orleans
American trumpeters
The 1430s was a decade that began on 1 January 1430 and ended on 31 December 1439.

Events and trends 
The Treaty of Arras ends the alliance of Burgundy and England.  This changes the Hundred Years' War to help France.
Element can mean:
 Chemical element, a substance that can not be divided into smaller chemical parts
 The elements or weather
 The four basic or natural elements in mysticism, alchemy, mythology and fantasy fiction - Fire, Water, Air and Earth
 A thing that a set holds
 A book by Euclid called the Elements. In it, Euclid talks about geometry. 

VOA Special English words
CBS Broadcasting Inc. (CBS) (full name: Columbia Broadcasting System) is an American television network. Along with ABC, NBC and FOX, it is one of the country's four major television networks.

Stations
KCBS Los Angeles, California

WCBS New York, New York

WBBM Chicago, Illinois

Other websites
Official site

Columbia Broadcasting System
Viacom
1927 establishments in the United States
The prime minister of Canada () is the head of government and chief executive of Canada. The prime minister is the senior most minister of the cabinet of Canada and directs the executive branch of the federal government, known as the Council of Ministers. The minister is usually always the leader of the majority party in the Canadian Parliament. In 2015, Justin Trudeau became the 23rd prime minister of Canada.

List of prime ministers

Living former prime ministers
As of , there are six living former prime ministers of Canada, the oldest being Jean Chrétien (born 1934). The most recent former prime minister to die was John Turner, on September 18, 2020. The living former prime ministers, in order of service, are:

References

Other websites
 History of Prime Ministers 

 
Government of Canada
Canadian first ministers
Magnetism is a force that attracts (pulls closer) or repels (pushes away) objects that have a magnetic material like iron inside them (magnetic objects). In simpler words, it is a property of substances which pull closer or repel other objects. It is a subject in physics.

Magnets 
Magnetism can be made by a permanent magnet, or by electricity in a wire.  This is called an electromagnet.  When magnets are put near magnetic objects, the magnet and the object are pulled toward each other.  This is called magnetic attraction.  Magnets can also repel (push away) other magnets.  Most objects that are attracted to magnets have iron in them. This is ferromagnetism. Some metals, such as aluminium, are much more weakly attracted. This is paramagnetism. A few metals are weakly repelled. This is diamagnetism.
Magnetic fields 
Magnets have an unseen area around them called a "magnetic field". Magnetic objects inside this unseen field are attracted to the magnet. Magnetic things outside the magnetic field are not attracted to the magnet. This is why a magnet must be close to an object to attract it.

The poles of two magnets repel or attract each other. Different poles attract each other. For example, if the south pole of one magnet is put near the south pole of another magnet, the magnets will repel each other. This will also happen with two north poles that are put near each other. If a north pole is put near a south pole, the magnets will attract each other until they stick to each other and can be hard to pull apart.

Magnetic domains 
Magnetism is caused by electrons (the negative particles in atoms that are also electric charges) spinning. The more a group of electrons spin in the same direction, the stronger the magnetic force. In a magnet, many electrons are spinning in the same direction.
We can magnetize a small piece of iron by 'rubbing' it with a magnet. The electrons in the iron get 'spun' by the passing magnet just like a basketball player spinning a basketball.

Uses of magnets
Magnets have many uses. One of them was found long ago when explorers found that a magnet could be used as a compass to show the direction of north & south.

Electromagnets and electromagnetism
Electromagnets are another kind of magnet. They only work when electricity is running through them. An electric current makes a magnetic field. If you wrap the wire into a coil, the electrons spin around the coil and make a stronger magnetic domain.
Often, these magnets work by using a coil of wire that makes a magnetic field when there is a current in it. In addition to this coil of wire, a large piece of metal, usually iron, is placed inside the coil to increase the magnetic field made. Though most large electromagnets employ many solenoids to lift heavy objects, smaller solenoids are used in everyday electronics. For example, they are used to change voltage in a transformer. 

Electromagnets are used to make many things work like computers, televisions, radios and doorbells.

Electromagnetic waves 
Electromagnetic radiation including radio waves and light waves are used for communication including broadcasting and optical fiber, and for many other purposes.

Earth's magnetic poles

North magnetic pole 
The North Magnetic Pole is the point on the surface of Earth's northern hemisphere where the planet's magnetic field points vertically downwards. There is only one place where this occurs, near to (but distinct from) the Geographic North Pole.
Its southern hemisphere counterpart is the South Magnetic Pole. Since the Earth's magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, a line drawn from one to the other does not pass through the geometric centre of the Earth.

The North Magnetic Pole moves over time due to magnetic changes in the Earth's core. In 2001, it was near Ellesmere Island in northern Canada at .  As of 2015, the pole is thought to have moved east beyond the Canadian Arctic territorial claim to .

Reversals of Earth's magnetic field
Earth does change its magnetic poles every million years (plus or minus 200,000 years). Before a change of magnetic field, the Earth's magnetic field becomes weaker and moves around, like a spinning top would before it falls. The Earth has already had hundreds of changes (flip flops). Scientists know this as a result of studies of magnetism on the sea floor, near the mid-Atlantic ridge. The lava slowly moves out of this crevasse (gap in the sea floor) and then it cools with its iron oxide molecules all pointing in the new direction of the Earth's magnetic field. We can look at the history of this magnetic field today to look back at the many flips in the past.
Reversals occur at intervals from less than 0.1 million years to as much as 50 million years. The most recent geomagnetic reversal, called the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal, occurred about 780,000 years ago. Another global reversal of the Earth's field, called the Laschamp event, occurred during the last ice age (41,000 years ago). However, because of its brief duration it is called an "excursion".

References

Other websites 
 Info on electromagnets at wondermagnet.com 
 Magnetism, Citizendium
The Althing () is the national parliament of Iceland. It is the oldest legislature in the world that has been abolished and subsequently re-established. It was founded in 930 at Thingvellir (the "assembly fields"), which is almost  east of Iceland's capital, Reykjavík. When the Althing was formed, that was the beginning of Iceland as a country.

Iceland is divided into six electoral constituencies. Each constituency elects nine members. Another nine seats are divided between parties based on how many people in the whole country voted for them.

History
History

The Althing formed around the year 930, about 60 years after humans arrived on the island of Iceland. It started as a meeting of the country's most powerful leaders. They met to make laws and rule on matters of justice. All free men could attend the assemblies, which were usually the main social event of the year. However, slaves and women were not permitted to attend it, which means that the parliament was not completely egalitarian. Forming the centre of the meeting place was the lögberg (law rock), a rock where the speaker of the assembly sat. It was his responsibility to say the laws and decisions out loud to the people.

The most important group within the Althing was the lögrétta. It was made up of the country's 36 district leaders, nine other members, and the speaker. This group made the laws and ruled on legal disputes.
Royal period
After the union with Norway in 1264, the speaker was replaced by two administrators called lögmenn, who were appointed by the Norwegian king. The lögrétta shared legislative power with the king. Laws adopted by the Althing had to be approved by the king, and if the king made a law, it had to be approved by the Althing.

In the 14th century, the monarchies of Norway and Denmark were united and Iceland was ruled from Copenhagen. This became an absolute monarchy and the Althing gave up the right to make laws for Iceland. It served only as a court of law until June 1800, when the king dissolved it completely. It was replaced by a High Court of three judges who met in Reykjavik.
Constitutional period
In July 1843, the king said the Althing could be recreated. Elections were held the year after, and the new parliament met for the first time on 1 July 1845. A constitution was created in 1874. It granted the Althing joint legislative power with the crown in matters relating only to Iceland. It increased the number of members of the Althing to 36: 30 of them were elected and the other six appointed by the king.

Iceland was given home rule in October 1903. In December 1918, Iceland was brought into a personal union with the King of Denmark. It was set so that after 25 years, the country could choose to leave the union. The Althing was given unlimited legislative power. The king no longer had any law-making powers in the country. The number of members of the Althing was increased to 42 in 1920, and to 52 in 1942.

Women were given the right to vote in 1915. The first female member of parliament was elected in 1922.
Modern period
When Denmark was occupied by Germany on 9 April 1940, its union with Iceland was no longer in effect. On the next day, the Althing gave the Icelandic cabinet executive power. It made the prime minister head of state. A year later the Althing appointed a regent to represent the king. This office continued until 1944, when the personal union with the Danish king expired. The modern-day Republic of Iceland was established at a session of the Althing held at Thingvellir on 17 June 1944.

References

Other websites

Reykjavík
Iceland
Iceland
10th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Iceland
Blues can mean more than one thing:

The blues is a type of music.

The blues is another name for sadness, or depression (mood).

The Blues refers to many sports teams who play while wearing a blue kit.
Amapá is one of the states of Brazil.  It is in the far north, bordering French Guiana in the north. To the east is the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south and west is the Brazilian state Pará.

The state is mostly covered by rainforest. The state is known for producing iron and other metals.

Amapá has only been a Brazilian state since 1988.

References

 
1988 establishments in Brazil
A fictional character is a person or animal in a narrative work of fiction  (such as a novel, play, television series, or movie)   The character can be completely made up or based on a real-life person. In that case, the difference between a "fictional" and "real" character can be made. Coming from the ancient Greek word χαρακτήρ, the English word dates from the Restoration, although it became widely used after its appearance in Tom Jones  in 1749. From this, the sense of "a part played by an actor" developed. Character, mainly when played by an actor in the theatre or cinema, involves "the illusion of being a human person." In literature, characters guide readers through their stories, helping them to understand plots and ponder themes. Since the end of the 18th century, the phrase "in character" has been used to describe an effective impersonation by an actor. Since the 19th century, the art of creating characters, as practiced by actors or writers, has been called characterisation.
The word character can also mean "personality". We can say that someone has a "strong character" meaning a strong, confident personality. It is sometimes used as a noun in this sense: "He is a real character" (meaning someone you cannot easily forget).

A character role in a play means one of the people in the play who have a particular character (personality). They contrast with the main characters of the play. For example, a pair of lovers may be the main characters of the story. The character roles who help the story might be: a wicked stepmother, a kind nurse, an old wise man, a fool, a domestic worker who is very old, a "Mary Sue" who is virtually without flaws, and so forth. These may be archetypes.

References
The blues is a form of music that started in the United States during the start of the 20th century. It was started by former African slaves from spirituals, praise songs, and chants. The first blues songs were called Delta blues. These songs came from the area near the mouth of the Mississippi River. Many African Americans were taken to the north esp. in the northwest of the United States, to find work. They took the blues with them and developed it into new styles. The most important is the Chicago Blues, which is played with electric amplified instruments. But other cities and states have their own form of Blues developed from the Delta Blues (f. e. Texas Blues, West Coast Blues and others).

Chord pattern
Chord pattern 

Blues  is based on a simple pattern. “Blues is easy to play, but hard to feel”-Jimi Hendrix. A common form for the blues is a repeating 12 bar form (each bar has 4 beats). This is put together as 3 phrases or sections, each being 4 bars long. The basic blues only needs 3 chords, one based on the first note of the scale - the tonic chord, one based on the fourth note of the scale - the subdominant chord, and one based on the fifth note of the scale - the dominant chord. The first section or phrase of 4 bars only uses the tonic chord. A common  variation is to use the subdominant chord in the second bar. The second phrase has 2 bars (8 beats) of subdominant chord then 2 bars of tonic chord. The third phrase has 1 bar (4 beats) of dominant chord, 1 bar of subdominant chord and finishes with 2 bars of tonic chord.

In a scale based on the note C (C is the 1st or tonic, F is the 4th or subdominant, and G is the 5th or dominant), the chord pattern of a 12 bar blues would be like this:
C C C C |C C C C or F F F F |C C C C |C C C C |
F F F F |F F F F |C C C C |C C C C |
G G G G |F F F F |C C C C |C C C C |

Melodic pattern 

The melody of the simplest blues scales are based on the minor pentatonic scale for example C Eflat G A Bflat C, with extra notes (called "blue notes") added like this C Eflat G flat G A Bflat C. Blue notes do not normally fit a scale, but they give the music a special feeling.

Lyric pattern 

The lyrics (words) are usually about life, more specifically, the bad things in life. They are simple blues songs that are also based around the form of 3 phrases. The first phrase is set over the first 4 bars of music. The second phrase words are a repetition of the first phrase, this always happens and emphasises the message. The third phrase completes the "story" and rhymes (ends with the same sound) as the first line. This verse from  Robert Johnson's "Crossroad Blues" shows how these phrases work in a song:
I went to the crossroads, fell down on my knees
I went to the crossroads, fell down on my knees
Asked the Lord above, have mercy now, save poor Bob if you please

Blues influenced music 
The blues have made a difference in newer American and Western popular music, such as jazz, bluegrass, rhythm and blues, rock and roll, hip-hop, and country music, as well as common pop songs.
Notable blues musicians 
 Blind Blake (c. 1893-c. 1933)
 Bobby 'Blue' Bland
 Big Bill Broonzy (1893/1898-1958)
 Eric Clapton
 Albert Collins 
 Robert Cray (born 1953)
 Willie Dickson 
 Lowell Fulson 
 Buddy Guy (born 1936)
 Earl Hooker
 John Lee Hooker (1917 - 2003)
 Howlin Wolf
 Etta James(1938 - 2012)
 Robert Johnson (1909/1912-1938)
 Albert King 
 B. B. King (born 1925)
 Fredie King 
 Leadbelly (1885-1949)
 Little Walter 
 Louisiana Red  (1932)
 Taj Mahal (musician) (born 1942)
 Magic Sam 
 Memphis Slim (1915-1988)
 Ma Rainey (1886-1939)
 Bessie Smith (1894-1937)
 Mamie Smith (1883-1946)
 Tanpa Red 
 Big Joe Turner (1911-1985)
 Stevie Ray Vaughan (1954-1990)
 T-Bone Walker (1910-1975)
 Muddy Waters (1915-1983)
 Johnnie 'Guitar' Watson
 Junior Wells
 Barry White

References

Other websites 

 Blues Foundation
 Blues Classroom from the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)

 
African-American history
Macroeconomics studies large-scale economic decisions. For example, a whole country's economy (or, its economic output) is summarised by the GDP (gross domestic product). Many governments use macroeconomic ideas to decide how much tax to collect and what interest rates should be.

It also considers the amount of unemployment, the rate that prices go up (inflation), and the exchange rates of its currency. The exchange rate affects the amount of imports and exports. Exchange rates and taxation are "levers of the economy".

Less dramatic, but also very important, are decisions about government spending inside the country. Such policy decisions are politically controversial due to differing political ideas on government spending. Another factor in macroeconomics is the make-up of the population. A growing population is economically different from a stable population (one which is not growing).

Sources 
Blanchard, Olivier 2011. Macroeconomics updated. 5th ed, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Related pages 
Microeconomics
Constitutional economics
Political economy
Game theory is the study of how and why people make decisions. (Specifically, it is "the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers".) It helps people understand parts of science and politics. An alternative term suggested "as a more descriptive name for the discipline" is interactive decision theory.

In the Cold War period, the strategic decisions of the United States and the Soviet Union were sometimes viewed as an exercise in game theory. In that case the "players" being studied were the United States and the Soviet Union.

Game theory is not just about games, but how and why businesses make decisions, and just about any decision based on valuing likely outcomes.  In game theory, all of these situations are "games" since the people involved make  choices based on how they value the possible outcomes of the choices.  This is true even of cases where the decisions of a single person only affect that one person.
Game theory is found in the financial choices people make, and is found in the study of economics.

Prisoner's Dilemma 

One example is the prisoner's dilemma. It gives an example where co-operation  may not be the "best choice" in game theory.

Suppose two people are arrested for a crime, and the police are uncertain which person committed the crime, and which person abetted the crime.  Each is given a choice:  If each remains silent, they are both soon released.  If one betrays the other, the betrayer goes free, and the other is imprisoned for a long time.  If each betrays the other, they both are held for a shorter time.
If you are a prisoner in this situation and you only care about yourself, the way to get the smallest sentence is to betray the other prisoner. No matter what, you get a shorter sentence when you betray than when you do not. Imagine a situation where you are one of the prisoners, if the other prisoner stays silent and does not betray, then betraying means you do not go to jail at all instead of going to jail for 6 months. If the other prisoner betrays, then betraying lets you go to jail for 2 years instead of 10 years. In short, "betrayal" is the best strategy, and is called the "dominant strategy."

Variations
Variations

The prisoner's dilemma does not have same result if some of the details are different. If the prisoners (or countries) can talk with each other and plan for the future, they might both decide to cooperate (not betray) because they hope that will make the other country help them in the future. In game theory, this is called a "repeated game." If the players are altruistic (if they care about each other), they might be okay with going to jail so they can help the other person.

Philosophy
Philosophy 

Game theory has also been used in philosophy. Responding to two papers by W.V.O. Quine from 1960 and 1967,  used game theory to develop a philosophical account of convention {norm}. With this, he provided the first analysis of common knowledge and used it to analyze play in coordination games. In addition, he first suggested that it is possible to understand meaning in terms of signaling games. This suggestion has been pursued by several philosophers since Lewis.  Edna Ullmann-Margalit (1977) and Bicchieri (2006) developed theories of social norms. They define them as Nash equilibria which arise from transforming a mixed-motive game into a coordination game.
Game theory has also challenged philosophers to think in terms of interactive Epistemology: what it means for a collective to have common beliefs or knowledge, and what are the consequences of this knowledge for the social outcomes resulting from agents' interactions. Philosophers who have worked in this area include Bicchieri (1989, 1993), Skyrms (1990), and Stalnaker (1999).

Using the ethics part of philosophy pursues Thomas Hobbes' project of deriving morality from self-interest. Since games like the Prisoner's dilemma present an apparent conflict between morality and self-interest, explaining why cooperation is required by self-interest is an important part of this project. This general strategy is a component of the general Social contract view in Political philosophy (for examples, see  and ).
Other authors have attempted to use evolutionary game theory to explain the emergence of human attitudes about morality and corresponding animal behaviors. These authors look at several games including the prisoner's dilemma, Stag hunt, and the Nash bargaining game as providing an explanation for the emergence of attitudes about morality (see, e.g.,  and ).

References 

Economic theories
Game theory
Decision theory
The Taj Mahal is an Islamic religious building, mosque and tomb in India. It was built in the 17th century by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Its chief architect was Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.

The building is in the city of Agra, Uttar Pradesh. It is widely thought as one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. It is one of India's biggest tourist attractions.

The Taj Mahal is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, together with the Agra Fort, 2.5 kilometers away. It was listed as one of the 7 Wonders of the World in 2007. It is on the south bank of the Yamuna river in Agra.

The building was originally white. Because of pollution, it is turning yellow. Sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere reacts with water molecules and becomes sulphuric acid, which slowly destroys the outer layer of the building.
The Taj Mahal is one of the most notable examples of Islamic architecture ever built. When it was built, most of India was ruled over by the Mughal Empire except the South. Shah Jahan was a Mughal emperor who came into power around 1628. According to historians, Shah Jahan loved building and architecture, which gave him the nickname “The Builder Of Marvels”. The Taj Mahal was built for Shah Jahan’s third wife, Mumtaz Mahal- meaning the “Jewel of the palace”. She became ill giving birth to their 14th child. As she was about to die, she asked Shah Jahan to make her the most beautiful tomb that was ever built. She died on 17 June 1631. In 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill. He died in captivity in 1666. His tomb was placed besides Mumtaz Mahal's.

Construction 
The Taj Mahal is an example of Muslim Architecture – a mixture of building design influenced from Middle Eastern, Indian, Turkish, and Ottoman architecture.
The Taj Mahal was built with materials from all over the world. Over 20,000 people were used to move building materials. It is generally thought that Ustad Ahmad Lahauri was in charge of the construction. The building was finished in 1648. The construction of Taj Mahal is about 6000 feet.

Tours 
The Taj Mahal had 2 million visitors in 2001. In 2014-2017 there were more than 7-8 million visitors.

Damage 
Many people think the Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful buildings ever built. However, it is slowly being damaged by acid rain in the nearby Yamuna Basin. A nearby oil refinery has been blamed for some of the damage. In 1996, the Indian Supreme Court said that local industry was harming the Taj Mahal. The court set up an area of 10,400 square metres around the Taj Mahal called the Taj Trapezium Zone. Industries within this zone must use natural gas instead of coal.

Because of pollution, the Taj Mahal is getting yellower slowly.

References
References 

Buildings and structures in Uttar Pradesh
Monuments and memorials in India
World Heritage Sites in India
Mughal architecture
Aryan is the name that an ancient people speaking Indo-Iranian languages gave to themselves. Descendants of the Aryans include speakers of Sanskrit and Avestan which are related to the Indo-European languages. Ancient Persians and Vedic peoples used the name Aryan to mean nobles. The name "Iran" itself means the Land of the Aryans.

The Avestan name Airiianəm vaēǰō "Aryan expanse", is a reference in the Zoroastrian Avesta (Vendidad, Fargard 1) to the Aryans’ mother country and one of Ahura Mazda's "sixteen perfect lands". Other Avestan names are airyō.šayana, the “Aryan people”, and airyā daiŋˊhāvā “the Aryan lands”. These names were known to old Greek writers as Ariana. Also the Sanskrit name Aryavarta "abode of the Aryans", was a region in north of today's India. The Middle Persian name of the Sassanian Empire, an empire that ruled Persia from the 3rd century to the 7th century, was Eran-shar meaning the Aryan Empire.  Today, the name Iran is simply the Persian word for Aryan.
Sanskrit is the oldest written language of the Indo-European family of languages.  The Vedas are composed in this language. Some portions of the Rigveda are thought to be the oldest writing in any Indo-European language.

Aryan equated with Indo-European

In the late 18th century, Europeans began using the term  Aryan to refer to the original prehistoric Proto-Indo-Europeans and their descendents up to the present day (i.e., the Indo-European peoples—those Caucasians who are speakers of the Indo-European languages). This was the most common definition of Aryan in the 19th century and early 20th century.

Nazism 

In the late 19th century, some Europeans began to use the name Aryan for only the Nordic peoples of Europe (one branch of the Indo-European peoples), as a "pure," "noble" and "superior" race they claimed were descended from the original Aryans.
The theory that the Aryans first came from Europe became especially accepted in Germany. It was widely believed that the "Vedic Aryans" were the same people as the Goths, Vandals and other ancient Germanic peoples who brought the Western Roman Empire to an end. This idea was often mixed with anti-Semitic ideas. The Master Race theory became a main idea for Nazis. After the Nazis took power in Germany in 1933, these ideas led to horrible persecutions of the Jews which culminated in the Holocaust.

Modern view
Modern view

The idea of racism that the Nazi theory means has been totally put aside by modern scientists, some of whom also disagree with the idea that the original Aryans ever lived in Europe. Most other scientists do maintain that the original Proto-Indo-Europeans did live about 5,000 years ago in the area in Europe east of Ukraine and north of the Caucasus Mountains and that the original Aryans (the Indo-Iranians or eastern branch of the Indo-European peoples) did migrate east to Iran and India from there, and the original ancestors of the modern European peoples (the western or European branch of the Indo-European peoples) did migrate west from there. This is called the Kurgan hypothesis.

Related pages
Indo-European languages
Indo-Iranian people
Race (sociology)
Apartheid
Nazis
Discrimination
Celts

References

Further reading
Aryans, Harvesters and Nomads (Thursday July 6 2.00 –5.00) Convenor: Prof. Asko Parpola: Department of Asian & African Studies University of Helsinki
Other websites 
 Who Were the Aryans? 
 History of the Ancient Aryans

People
Venetian might mean:

 Anything related to Venice
 Anything related to the Republic of Venice, as state that existed from the late 7th century until the late 18th century
 Venetian language
Gypsy may mean:
 Roma people), ⲣⲱⲙⲁ (meaning in coptic language: men or human being) is a group of people of Indian origin, their ancestors were the untouchable Chingari tribe of the Chandala group from North-West India, who once came to Egypt and moved later to Europe, often living in caravans. The Chandala are said are the descendants of Shudra-Brahmin mix. 
More generally, anyone who moves around often. For some Romani Groups, calling a person a Gypsy might be considered offensive, for other Romani Groups not. 

 Sinti, also a Romani people, mostly living in central Europe.
 Romanlar also named Xoraxane Roma, Turkish speaking Muslim Gypsys in the Balkans and Turkey.
 Gitanos (Spanish gypsies) who speak Caló
 "Travellers" found mainly in Great Britain, Ireland and the United States; and
 Lyuli Luli  in Central Asia.
 Luoli (Chinese name for Gypsy); lived in China in the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
In music:
 The Gypsy Kings, a musical group of the 1980s that plays a pop-oriented version of traditional flamenco music (Not to be confused with Ricky Jevon, King of the Gypsies)
 Gypsy and the Haylocks, a reggae folk band who were deemed to be the first band to mix both genres in the 1970s. Traditionally from the Cambridgeshire area, they were fronted by Oliver Haylock and his half sister Emmly. (Emmly is the cousin of Bubbler Ranx, famous for singing on Peter Andre's Mysterious Girl)
 Gypsy, a song by Fleetwood Mac
 Gypsy, a song by The Moody Blues
 Gypsy: A Musical Fable, a musical inspired by the life of Gypsy Rose Lee

In fiction:
 Gypsy, a robot character from the TV series Mystery Science Theater 3000
 Gypsy, a fictional character from DC Comics
 Gypsy Moth, a fictional mutant character from Marvel Comics