Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
1025: Somnath: Mahmud sacks the temple and is reported to have personally hammered the temple's gilded Lingam to pieces, and the stone fragments are carted back to Ghazni, where they are incorporated into the steps of the city's new Jama Masjid (Friday Mosque) in 1026. He places a new king on the throne in Gujarat as a tributary. His return detours across the Thar Desert to capture the city of Ajmer and other important forts on his return.
 1025: Marches against the Jats of the Jood mountains who harry his army on its return from the sack of Somnath.
 1027: Rey, Isfahan, Hamadan from the Buyids Dynasty.
 1027: Devastates the fleet of Jats in Indus river to avenge the "heavy losses" suffered by his army in an onslaught by Jats in 1026 CE.
 1028, 1029: Merv, Nishapur are lost to the Seljuk dynasty.
Related pages 
 Ghaznavid Empire

References 

 "Mahmud of Ghazni." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2013. Web.  4 Dec. 2013.
 "Mahmud of Ghazni." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998.Biography in Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.

971 births
1030 deaths
Turkic peoples
Monarchs of Afghanistan
Emperors and empresses
Ghaznavid Empire
The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Turkic 'persianate' Sunni Muslim state, which existed from 975 to 1187. It was centred in Ghazni, a city in the present Afghanistan, and ruled much of Persia, Transoxania, and the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. The Ghaznavids are known for laying the foundation of Islamic rule in northern India when they conquered Peshawar and the entire Punjab region including Haryana up to Delhi in the year 1001. Their last outpost of conquest in north India was in Meerut city in Uttar Pradesh. The Ghaznavids relied strongly on Persian language and Persian culture and are therefore classified heavily as a "Persianate" empire.

Ghaznavid Empire
History of Pakistan
Royal dynasties
963 establishments
12th-century disestablishments in Asia
960s establishments in Asia
1186 disestablishments
Dynasties in India
Former countries in Central Asia
Former monarchies of Asia
History of Islam
History of Persia
Sultan Mahmud Shah (died 1528) ruled Malacca from 1488 to 1528. He was the son of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah.

References

History of Malaysia
1528 deaths
Year of birth missing
Malacca
Mahmud Shah Durrani (1769 - 1829) was the ruler of the Durrani Empire between 1801 and 1803, again between 1809 and 1818. He was the son of Timur Shah Durrani and half-brother of his predecessor, Zaman Shah. On July 25, 1801, Zaman Shah was deposed, and Mahmud Shah ascended to rulership. He then had a chequered career; he was deposed in 1803, restored in 1809, and finally deposed again in 1818. He died in 1829. Between his two stints, the country was ruled by Shoja Shah, another of his half-brothers.

1769 births
1829 deaths
Monarchs of Afghanistan
The Durrani dynasty diminished in the early 19th century when Afghanistan was fighting defensive wars with Persia on one side and British India on the other side. The Barakzai dynasty took over control of the kingdom but lost many of Afghanistan's territories by the end of the 19th century. It became to what is now Afghanistan after the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 when the state became officially recognized by all the major countries in the world. At first its capital was in Kandahar as that is where the empire started however the capital then shifted to Kabul after its conquest. The empire had two capitals, the main capital Kabul and the winter capital, Peshawar.

Related pages
Hotaki dynasty
Delhi Sultanate

References

History of Afghanistan
History of Pakistan
History of Iran
1747 establishments
1919 disestablishments
18th-century establishments in Iran
Former empires
Former countries in South Asia
Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at basic actions of the mind. These are aspects of the higher brain, such as thought, feeling, problem solving, memory, and language. Cognitive psychologists often look at mental changes that happen after a stimulus (things that can be felt by the five senses) and before a behavioral response (what a person does after sensing something).

The general idea of cognitive psychology was surveyed in several 19th century works:
Carpenter, William Benjamin 1874. Principles of mental physiology. London: Henry S. King. Reprinted: 
James, William 1890. Principles of psychology. 2 vols, Harvard University Press. Reprinted by Dover Publications in 1950, vol 1: , vol 2: .

Cognitive psychology had its beginnings in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who came up with a theory of "stages" or "phases" that describe children's cognitive development.
Major research areas 
Perception
Learning
Memory
Psycholinguistics (the psychology of language)
 Grammar and linguistics
 Phonetics, phonology, and acoustics
 Pragmatics
Thinking

References

Related pages 
Cognitive bias
Social psychology

Cognition
Branches of psychology
Mahmud Celal Bayar (16 May 1883 – 22 August 1986) was a Turkish politician, statesman and the third President of Turkey. At the time of his death, he was the longest lived former head of state, living over 103 years (he was surpassed in 2008 by Chau Sen Cocsal Chhum).

Centenarians
Presidents of Turkey
1883 births
1986 deaths
Perceptual psychology is a subfield of cognitive psychology that is concerned specifically with the pre-conscious innate aspects of the human cognitive system or  perception.  A pioneer of this field was J. J. Gibson.

Cognition
Mahmoud Abbas () (born 15 November 1935), also known by the Kunya Abu Mazen (), was elected President of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) on 9 January 2005. He took office on 15 January 2005.

Abbas is a leading politician in Fatah. He served as the first Prime Minister of the Palestinian Authority from March to October 2003. He resigned because of a lack of support from Israel and the United States as well as "internal incitement" against his government. Before becoming Prime Minister, Abbas led the Negotiations Affairs Department of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). He has served as Chairman of the PLO Executive Committee since 11 November 2004, after Yasser Arafat's death. Abbas is said to the an example of moderation in Palestine by Israel and the west.

Early years and education 
Abbas was born in Safed. As a child, he and his family fled to Syria during the capture of the city by Jewish forces in May 1948.
Abu Mazen said that saving the Jews for humanitarian purposes was not of interest to the Zionists, and therefore "they did not make the slightest effort to persuade the West to accept Jewish refugees who had fled Nazi hell." He claims that the Zionists thwarted various intentions to support and promote salvation and hid information about the terrible participation of Euro-Jews "so that they would not need to take the necessary, predictable measures." He writes that "the Zionist movement was deliberately provoked against the Jews who lived on Nazi land in order to provoke dislike of the authorities and their group elimination".

Criticism
There are frequent accusations that Palestinian Authority (PA) officials, including Abbas, have been involved in stealing public money.
During his testimony to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Middle East and South Asia, Elliott Abrams mentioned that "Corruption harms Palestinian finances and makes people lose trust in the entire political system. It has also made potential donors doubtful. I can share from my experience, as an American official seeking financial support for the Palestinian Authority from Gulf Arab countries, that I often heard, 'Why should we give them money when their officials will just take it?'"

In June 2021, many Palestinians protested against corruption and violence within the Abbas administration in central Ramallah, including at the president's headquarters. This came after anti-corruption activist Nizar Banat died while in government custody and a video of PA security forces beating and abducting him went viral online.
In 2023, a poll conducted by the Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research (PSR) in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip shows that at least 80% palestinians want Abbas to resign.

References

1935 births
Living people
Palestinian Muslims
Palestinian nationalists
Presidents of the Palestinian National Authority
Prime Ministers of the Palestinian National Authority
West Bank
Presidents of the State of Palestine
Abid Al-Hamid Mahmud al-Tikriti ( 21 September 1957 - June 7, 2012) was an Iraqi lieutenant general under Saddam Hussein's deposed regime, and he was Saddam's bodyguard. He was executed on June 7, 2012.

1957 births
2012 deaths
Executed people
Iraqi generals
Social psychology is the study in psychology of how people and groups interact. Researchers in this field are often either psychologists or sociologists. All social psychologists use both the individual and the group as their unit of analysis.

Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods, and terminology. They also favor separate academic journals and professional groups. The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II. Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines.

Related pages
Cognitive psychology
Erich Fromm
Sociology

References 

Branches of psychology
Mahmoud Fahmi an-Nukrashi Pasha (1888 - 1948) (Arabic: محمود فهمي النقراشي باشا) was an Egyptian political figure. He was the Prime Minister of Egypt from 1945 to 1946 and again from 1946 to 1948. He was assassinated by the Muslim Brotherhood while he was Prime Minister.

1888 births
1948 deaths
Prime Ministers of Egypt
Neuropsychology is the scientific study that studies the function and structure of the brain related to more common psychological processes and overt behaviors. The term has been applied to lesion studies in humans and animals. It has also been applied to efforts to record electrical activity from individual cells (or groups of cells) in higher primates (including some studies of human patients).

References

Branches of psychology
Neurology
Abnormal psychology is often used to understand or to treat people with mental disorders to make life better for them. This is because abnormal behaviour is often defined as when someone is not able to change how they behave to fit different settings. This is often also used to define some mental disorders. When someone cannot change their behaviour to fit the people and situations around them when they need to, it can cause suffering, and the person may be uncomfortable when around people. Their behaviour can be unreasonable and hard to understand. Their behaviour can even be dangerous.

Not everyone with a mental disorder is unable to adjust to their surroundings. People who can change to fit their the environment around them more easily than most people can also have behaviour that is considered abnormal and might also have an easier life with the help of a psychologist.

History
History

Supernatural traditions
A supernatural belief is a belief in a force that is beyond scientific understanding. There are a lot of cultures that believe in supernatural events. These cultures include religious cultures, as well as the Ancient Chinese, Ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, and Ancient Greeks. These cultures have writings that say abnormal behaviour in the form of supernatural events created demons or Gods that would take over a person and act through those people. This was called possession. In the Roman Catholic Church, exorcisms were done to make these demons leave the body of the individuals they possessed. Exorcism involved prayer, noises and potions.p. 11 People who had abnormal behaviour were often told they were possessed.

In some cultures, trepanation was often used. This was when a hole was made in someone's head to release the "bad spirit".
Asylums
"Lunatic asylums" were buildings that kept patients that had abnormal behaviour. They became popular in Europe with the Madhouse Act of 1774, although they did exist before the Act. Asylums were meant to look after people who could not take care of themselves. But they were known for being cruel and abusive to their patients. The buildings were often dirty and not looked after very well.

During the late 1700s, William Tuke made a religious retreat for patients. This was a turn away from the horrors of mental asylums.p. 14 Also, in the late 1700s, Philippe Pinel started to encourage better treatment of the mentally insane.

Today the 18th-century lunatic asylum does not exist. Most of the asylums were closed in the late 1900s because of the invention of antipsychotic medicines. Today, there are psychiatric hospitals for people with mental illness. This includes Broadmoor Hospital, which houses some of Britain's the most dangerous criminals with mental illnesses.
Asylums in America
In the 1800s, Dorothea Dix fought against the bad treatment of patients in mental asylums. She started a "mental hygiene" group to encourage politicians to change the treatment of mental patients in the United States. When people became aware of the wrongdoing in mental asylums, money was raised to improve the treatment of patients and the asylums. Dix is thought to have helped to create 32 mental hospitals. By 1940 there were more than 400,000 patients living in mental asylums.

Most treatments were still cruel to patients and were not effective. The asylums were quickly becoming overcrowded. Mary Jane Ward wrote a book in 1946 called "The Snake Pit" that raised awareness of the inhumane treatment of mental patients.

The National Institute of Mental Health was created the same year. The organisation provided training and support for mental patients and workers that cared for them. The Hill-Burton Act was passed to give money to the mental health hospitals.
Later, the Community Health Services Act of 1963 was passed. This law which created outpatient buildings for patients to live at home rather than in hospitals. Rehabilitation and community care centers were also built under this act.p. 14

Deinstitutionalisation 
During the late 1900s, mental asylums were less accepted. The cruel treatment of patients and the overcrowding and ways of living were seen as not needed. Less money was being given to asylums. So many closed all around the world. The closing down of mental hospitals became known as deinstitutionalization. The movement from asylum to community was meant to help patients' development and recovery. The lack of good support programs meant that patients felt abandoned and found it hard to fit into normal life. This led to many becoming homeless.p. 16
Explaining abnormal behaviour
In the past there were three ways to explain abnormal behaviour. These were supernatural, biological, and psychological explanations. Western medicine no longer uses supernatural explanations. Instead we use biological and psychological explanations. Biological explanations use genetics and neuroscience to explain abnormal behaviours. The biological explanation is based on how the brain works and how genes change the way it works. Psychological explanations use how the mind works to explain abnormal behaviours.

Supernatural explanations
Early cultures believed that abnormal behaviour was from demons, spirits and astrology. Trepanation was when a hole was drilled in a person's head. This was done to let the spirits or demons out of the person's head.

Exorcism was practiced mainly by the Catholic Church. Exorcism was believed to ward the spirits out of the person that they possessed.
Biological explanations
The Biological approach to explaining abnormal behaviour assumes that the behaviour can be explained by physical factors. Hippocrates was a man who lived during the 5th century and is thought by many to be the father of modern medicine. He did not accept that evil spirits or astronomy were the causes of psychological disorders. Hippocrates believed that there were natural causes for the disorders and appropriate treatments could be found. He focused on the "four humors" of the brain. He believed that the four humours must be balanced for healthy mental states and when one humour was stronger, various disorders would appear. To balance the humors, Hippocrates would tell patients to change their lifestyles.p. 11 There are now new ideas when talking about the biological explanations of psychological disorders. But, Hippocrates' focus on mental processes and clinical practice was a revolutionary concept.
Another Greek physician called Galen also took a scientific approach to the causes of psychological disorders. He divided them into physical and mental categories. Among Galen's causes were head injuries, alcohol abuse, and life experiences. During the 18th century, Galen's concepts influenced the medical industry. Galen's focus was on the biological causes for mental disorders.p. 13

Psychological explanations
Psychological explanations for abnormal behavior sometimes take a behavioral approach in which the positive behaviors are reinforced and negative ones are not. This approach is more focused on changing the actual behavior of a person than the true cause of it.
Sigmund Freud was one of the most popular psychological theorists of the 20th century. The method he used to study and treat patients was known as psychoanalysis. Methods of hypnosis by were used by Freud, but also by Franz Mesmer and physicians in the Nancy School. However, Freud attempted to have his patients confess their deepest, truest emotions, which was referred to as a catharsis. He would have his patients speak freely about themselves, in free association. Also he would conduct dream analysis where patients would record and discuss their dreams. Freud's work led to other great psychoanalytic theorists such as Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Harry Stack Sullivan. Wilhelm Wundt and William James were credited for opening up the first experimental psychology laboratories. This led to many studies and psychological methods, such as classical conditioning led by Ivan Pavlov and John B. Skinner, while Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner were the leaders of the study of operant conditioning.p. 18
Classification

DSM
The North American reference book used by psychiatrists and psychologists to diagnose and treat psychological disorders is known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). It is produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The most recent version was released in May of 2013 and is known as the DSM-5. The DSM is relied upon by clinicians, health insurance companies, medicine companies, and the legal system as a reference for understanding and identifying mental disorders. The DSM divides mental disorders into groups and provides descriptive signs and symptoms that define each disorder. In addition, it lists statistics for each disorder ranging from its frequency in the general population to the most effective form of treatment.

Before diagnosing an individual with a specific mental disorder, a professional must first determine whether that individual does in fact suffer from a mental disorder. The DSM defines a mental disorder as a condition that:
Is primarily psychological and alters behavior, personality, or motivation,
When in its full-blown state, causes stress, impairment in social functioning, or behavior that one would like to stop voluntarily because it poses a threat to physical health, and
Is distinct from other conditions, and is considered treatable.

When using the DSM, a complete psychiatric diagnosis is split up into five dimensions, called "axes", that relate to different characteristics of disability or disorder:
Axis I contains all categories of mental disorder except mental retardation and personality disorders. A disorder within this axis is similar to an illness or disease in general medicine, and includes depression, anxiety disorder, autism spectrum disorder, bipolar disorder, and anorexia.
Axis II contains mental retardation and personality disorders such as paranoid personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. This axis contains a large number of disorders, all of which relate to how a person thinks and acts with the world.  
Axis III contains general medical conditions, minor medical conditions and any physical disorders of the individual. When the first three axes are used, relationships can be seen and it becomes easier for professionals to find the cause for mental disorder and treat a person effectively.
Axis IV contains any environmental or social factors that could play a role in diagnosing an individual. Poor social relationships, the death of a loved one, or being fired from work are all stressful factors that may aid in the development of mental disorder.
Axis V is used by professionals for individuals under the age of 18. Children are graded on how well they currently handling their situation. The Global Assessment of Functioning used a scale of 0-100, but has been replaced in the DSM-5 by a survey and check box that is less subjective.
The separate axes of the DSM are often linked together in the development of mental disorders.

ICD-10
The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) was created by the World Health Organization (WHO) and is the universal diagnostic system for mental disorders. The ICD is approved by health officials from 193 WHO member countries, and is available for free on the internet. Its purpose is to help countries reduce the problems associated with mental disorders. The coding system used in the DSM is designed to be compatible with the system used in the ICD; however, some codes may not match because the two publications get revised at different times. The ICD-10 was made public in 1994; its most recent update occurred in 2010. Chapter 5 of the ICD-10 covers over 300 mental and behavioral disorders which are divided into the following categories:
F00-F09 Organic mental disorders
F10-F19 Mental and behavioral disorders caused by drug use
F20-F29 Schizophrenia and delusional disorders
F30-39 Mood disorders
F40-49 Neurotic, stress-related disorders
F50-59 Behavioral disorders linked with bodily disturbances and physical factors
F60-F69 Disorders of adult personality and behavior
F70-F79 Mental retardation
F80-F89 Disorders of psychological development
F90-F98 Behavioral and emotional disorders that develop during childhood
F99 Unspecified mental disorders

The Online ICD-10 can be found in its entirety here

Treatment
Treatment

Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is a form of therapy based on psychoanalytic theory. This theory states that human behavior is controlled by unconscious forces such as instinct and that there is no such thing as free will. Many ideas found in the Psychoanalytic theory can be traced back to the famous psychologist Sigmund Freud. Freud believed mental disorders are a result of repressed memories and emotions from childhood; psychoanalysis is designed to search for these hidden memories and emotions and bring them to the patient's attention. Techniques such as hypnosis are used to tap into the unconscious mind with the hopes that the source of the disturbance is found. Freud also believed dreams had hidden meanings, and often asked patients to record their dreams for analysis. Because of the lack of scientific evidence supporting most Freudian ideas, psychoanalysis is rarely used by clinical psychologists and has been replaced by more effective forms of therapy.
Behavioral therapy
Behavior therapy is based on the theory of behaviorism, which states that all human behavior is a result of a stimulus and reinforcement. Famous behaviorists include James Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Joseph Wolpe. The goal of this therapy is to increase one's positive or socially reinforcing behavior. Behavior therapy can be broken down into three areas:
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) uses a form of operant conditioning where positive reinforcement is used to modify behavior.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) focuses on conditioning the negative thoughts and feelings behind patients' behavior in order to alter that behavior.
 Social learning theory is used in the treatment and understanding of anxiety disorders. It goes beyond the traditional classical conditioning assumption that fear and anxiety must be learned directly; social learning theory suggests that a child could acquire a fear of snakes, for example, by observing a family member show fear in response to snakes.
Humanistic therapy 
Humanistic therapy is a method taken from Carl Rogers, which aims to focus on a client as a human rather than the problem that they have. A therapist can adjust the environment and mood of a session in a way that mimics normal conversation. This often helps the patient realize the issues they have, and share them with the therapist more successfully than in a traditional counseling session. Humanistic therapy creates an effective means of getting to the source of a problem and treating it properly.

Roger's own term was "client-centered therapy", which has the idea that the therapist is helping the client to become a genuine psychological adult.

References

Human behavior
Psychology
John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878–September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist. He established the psychological school of behaviorism, after doing research on animal behavior. This school was extremely influential in the middle of the 20th century, when B.F. Skinner developed it further.

Watson was forced to resign his chair at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, because his affair with a graduate student became a public scandal. After this, Watson worked for many years for J. Walter Thompson, a leading American advertising agency. He is credited with popularizing the "coffee break" during an ad campaign for Maxwell House coffee.

Behaviorism 
Watson founded behaviorism in the spring of 1913 with his paper Psychology as the behaviorist views it.  In this article, Watson outlined the major features of his new philosophy of psychology, called "behaviorism".  The first paragraph of the article concisely described his position:
In 1913, Watson viewed Ivan Pavlov's conditioned reflex as primarily a physiological mechanism controlling glandular secretions.  He had already rejected Edward Thorndike's "Law of Effect" (a precursor to B.F. Skinner's principle of reinforcement) because of what Watson believed were 'unnecessary subjective elements'. The article is also notable for its strong defense of the objective scientific status of applied psychology, which at the time was considered to be much inferior to the established experimental psychology.

With his behaviorism, Watson put the emphasis on external behavior of people and their reactions on given situations, rather than the internal, mental state of those people. In his opinion, the analysis of behaviors and reactions was the only objective method to get insight in the human actions. This outlook was thought to be extreme or radical behaviorism.
Views on child-rearing 
Watson wrote the book Psychological care of infant and child in 1928, with help from his mistress, turned wife, Rosalie Rayner. Rosalie later entitled a self-penned article I am a mother of behaviorist sons.  In the book, Watson explained that behaviorists were starting to believe psychological care and analysis was required for infants and children.

His slogan was not more babies but better brought up babies. Watson argued for the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, claiming that the world would benefit from extinguishing pregnancies for twenty years while enough data was gathered to ensure an efficient child-rearing process.  Watsons’ description of a happy child was rather detached. It included ideas such as that the child can occupy himself through his problem-solving abilities, should only cry when in physical pain, and that the child stray from asking questions. Behavior analysis of child development as a field may have begun with the writings of Watson.
Biographies of Watson and analysis of his work 
Watson's views and life have been the subject of a number of works.
 Buckley, Kerry W. 1989. Mechanical Man: John Broadus Watson and the beginnings of behaviorism. Guilford Press.
 Buckley, Kerry W. 1994. Misbehaviorism: The case of John B. Watson's dismissal from Johns Hopkins University. In J.T. Todd & E.K. Morris (eds)  Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and classical behaviorism. Greenwood Press.
 Burnham, John C.  1994.  John B. Watson: interviewee, professional figure, symbol.  In J.T. Todd & E.K. Morris (eds)  Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and classical behaviorism. Greenwood Press.
 Coon, Deborah J. 1994 'Not a creature of reason': the alleged impact of Watsonian behaviorism on advertising in the 1920s. In J.T. Todd & E.K. Morris (eds) Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and classical behaviorism. Greenwood Press.
 Harris, Ben. 1979. Whatever happened to little Albert? American Psychologist, 34, #2, pp. 151–160. (on-line )
Hartley, Mariette & Commire, Anne. 1990. Breaking the silence. New York : Putnam's. (Mariette Hartley is John B. Watson's granddaughter. Hartley claims in her autobiography that Watson's theories on childrearing blighted her childhood.)
 Mills, John A. 1998. Control: a history of behavioral psychology. New York: New York University Press.
 Samelson, F. 1981. Struggle for scientific authority: the reception of Watson's behaviorism, 1913-1920. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 17, 399-425.
 Todd, James T. 1994. What psychology has to say about John B. Watson: classical behaviorism in psychology textbooks, 1920-1989. In J.T. Todd & E.K. Morris, Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and classical behaviorism. Greenwood Press.
 Todd, James T. & Morris, Edward K. 1986. The early research of John B. Watson: before the behavioral revolution. The Behavior Analyst 9, 71-88.
 Todd, James T., & Morris, Edward K.  Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and Classical Behaviorism.  Greenwood Press, 1994.
Watson, John B. "John Broadus Watson [Autobiography]." In C. Murchison (ed) A history of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 3, pp. 271–81). Clark University Press, 1936.
Books by Watson 
1914. Watson, John B. Behavior: an introduction to comparative psychology. Henry Holt, New York.
1919. Watson, John B. Psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist. Lippincott, Philadelphia. 2nd ed 1924.
1928. Watson, John B. Psychological care of infant and child. Norton, New York.
1930. Watson, John B. Behaviorism (revised edition). University of Chicago Press.

References 

1878 births
1958 deaths
American psychologists
Scientists from South Carolina
People from Greenville, South Carolina
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Indian English or South Asian English is several dialects or varieties of English. It is spoken mainly in India, and by first-generation members of the Indian diaspora.

The dialect evolved during and after the British colonial rule of India. English is the co-official language of India, with about 90 million speakers, but with fewer than quarter of a million calling it a first language.

In 19th century India, Britain first faced the need to teach English to a body of people who were important to Britain.
There were a number of schools which taught and used English in India. They were mostly run by missionaries. Many taught European and Eurasian children and orphans. The products of these schools provided the first generation of teachers.

References 

Dialects of English
Languages of India
Languages of Bangladesh
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov  (14 September 1849 – 27 February 1936) was a Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research about the digestive system. Pavlov is widely known for first describing classical conditioning.

Early life and education 
The son of a priest, and a theology student, Pavlov turned to science after being influenced by progressive ideas.  He took natural sciences at the University of St Petersburg, and got a doctorate in 1878.
Works 
In the 1890s, Pavlov was investigating the gastric function of dogs by externalizing a salivary gland so he could collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it. Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing The work of the digestive glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.

Legacy

The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex" he developed with his assistant Ivan Tolochinov in 1901.
As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of "conditioning" as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the developing specialism of comparative psychology, and the general approach to psychology called behaviourism.

The British philosopher Bertrand Russell was an enthusiastic advocate of the importance of Pavlov's work for philosophy of mind.

Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture. The phrase "Pavlov's dog" is often used to describe someone who merely reacts to a situation rather than using critical thinking. Pavlovian conditioning was a major theme in Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, Brave New World, and also to a large degree in Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow.
It is popularly believed that Pavlov always signalled the food by ringing a bell. However, his writings also record the use of many stimuli, including electric shocks, whistles, metronomes, tuning forks, and a range of visual stimuli. Catania did not believe Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his famous experiments. Littman tentatively attributed the popular imagery to Pavlov’s contemporaries Vladimir Bekhterev and John B. Watson, until Thomas found several references that clearly said Pavlov did, indeed, use a bell.

It is less widely known that Pavlov's experiments on the conditional reflex included children, some of whom apparently underwent surgical procedures, similar to the dogs, for the collection of saliva.

References 

1849 births
1936 deaths
Physiologists
Russian psychologists
Russian Nobel Prize winners
Russian physicians
Soviet scientists
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Hamilton College is a private, independent, liberal arts college in Clinton, New York. In 2007, U.S. News & World Report ranked Hamilton the 17th best liberal arts college in the United States.
The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking. The school was founded in 1793, chartered as Hamilton College in 1812, and has been coeducational since 1978, when it merged with Kirkland College.

The Sacerdote Great Names Series at Hamilton 
Starting in 1996 the Sacerdote Great Names Series has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations. While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included concerts by B. B. King and Aretha Franklin.

To date the speakers that have been part of this series are:
Jon Stewart, November 14, 2008 (announced)
 Aretha Franklin, April 5, 2008
 Al Gore, April 26, 2007
 Tom Brokaw, April 27, 2006
 Bill Clinton, November 9, 2004
 Bill Cosby, October 15, 2003
 Rudolph Giuliani, September 24, 2002
 Madeleine Albright, March 6, 2002
 Jimmy Carter, April 30, 2001
 Desmond Tutu, April 11, 2000
 Lady Margaret Thatcher, December 9, 1999
 B.B. King, October 20, 1998
 F.W. de Klerk, April 8, 1998
 Elie Wiesel, April 3, 1997
 James Carville, and Mary Matalin October 15, 1996
 Colin Powell, April 1, 1996

Facts and Figures about the College Community

Other websites 
 Official website
 Hamilton College Wiki
 America's Best Colleges 2008, Hamilton College At A Glance 
 Graduates for a Greener Hamilton 
 Hamilton College Alumni for Governance Reform

References 

1793 establishments in the United States
18th-century establishments in New York (state)
Colleges and universities in New York (state)
Jon Stewart (born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz; November 28, 1962), is an American comedian, actor, writer, and producer. He is best known as the host of Comedy Central's The Daily Show and for his political satire. Stewart started as a stand-up comedian, but later branched out to television, hosting Short Attention Span Theater for Comedy Central. He went on to host his own show on MTV, called The Jon Stewart Show and then hosted another show on MTV called You Wrote It, You Watch It.” Stewart is Jewish.

In 2014, Stewart directed his first movie, a drama about Iran called “Rosewater.”

Filmography

References

Other websites 

1962 births
Living people
Actors from New York City
Comedians from New York City
American movie actors
American television actors
American television presenters
American television writers
Comedy Central personalities
Emmy Award winners
Grammy Award winners
Television talk show hosts
American Jews
Writers from New York City
The Quagga (Equus quagga quagga), also Cape Quagga,  is a recently extinct zebra.

It was one of the six subspecies of plains zebra. It was a yellowish-brown zebra with stripes only on its head, neck and forebody, and looks similar to an Okapi. The Quagga was native to dry grassy plains in the south of the African continent. It was found as far north as the Orange River. It is believed to have separated from other plains zebras between 120,000 and 290,000 years ago. The name Quagga comes from the noise that they made. (kwa-ka-ka) (qua-ga-ga).

The Quagga was hunted for food, for their skin and also because farmers did not want it to eat the grass they needed for their sheep and goats. The last wild Quaggas died during a drought in 1878. The last captive Quagga died in the Amsterdam Zoo on 12 August 1883. Her body is now in a museum. There are 23 Quagga specimens in museums, seven skeletons, and some skulls and other bones.
A foundation in Africa is trying to bring Quaggas back to life by taking zebras that have very light stripes and breeding them. They began in 1987 and the first Quagga foal was born in 2005.

References

Extinct species
IUCN Red List extinct species
Mammals of Africa
Zebras
Przewalski's horse (Equus przewalskii or E. ferus przewalskii),  the Mongolian wild horse, is a close relative of the domestic horse.  The two are the only equids that can cross-breed and produce fertile offspring. Przewalski's horse is a rare and endangered subspecies of the wild horse, Equus ferus. It is native to the steppes of central Asia, especially Mongolia.

At one time extinct in the wild, it has been reintroduced to its native habitat in Mongolia from stock in zoos. It is now in several nature reserves and national parks. As of 2002, the world population of these horses was about 1,000.

Relationships between horses 
Most "wild" horses today, such as the American mustang or the Australian brumby, are feral horses descended from domesticated animals which escaped and adapted to life in the wild. In contrast, Przewalski's horse has never been successfully domesticated, and remains a truly wild animal today.
Przewalski's horse is one of three known subspecies of Equus ferus, the others being the domesticated horse, Equus ferus caballus and the extinct tarpan, Equus ferus ferus. Przewalski's horse is the only remaining truly wild "horse" in the world. There are still a number of other wild equines, including three species of zebra and various subspecies of the African wild ass, onager (including the Mongolian wild ass) and kiang.

Relation to domestic horse 
Although Przewalski's horse can hybridize with domestic horses to produce fertile offspring, it has an extra pair of chromosomes.
"Mitochondrial DNA research has shown that Przewalski's horse is not the ancestor of modern domestic horses. [There are] a number of consistent differences in their appearance. Przewalski's horses, unlike domestic horses, shed their tail and mane hair once per year. Thus it is clear that Przewalski's and domestic horses are very closely related and have in the past interbred, but the fixed chromosomal number difference between them indicates that they are distinct populations".

In zoos 
According to ISIS, about 480 Przewalski's were reported in captivity.

References 

Horses
Mammals of Asia
The nation state is a form of state that rules mainly one nation.  The state is a political entity (the government, etc.); the nation is a cultural and/or ethnic entity.  The term "nation state" means that both are on the same territory, which distinguishes the nation state from the other types of states that have existed.
Examples 
Clear examples of nation states include:
 Iceland: although the inhabitants of Iceland are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland.  There are no cross-border minorities since the nearest land is too far away.
 Japan: Traditionally seen as a good example of a nation-state, Japan includes minorities of ethnically distinct Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans; Chinese; and, on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. See also Japanese Demographics .
Portugal: although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory for almost 900 years.  A long time ago, Portugal was formed from groups of people that were previously separate.  They all passed through and settled in the area that later became Portugal.  They included native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans), Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, the later invading Berbers and Arabs, and Jews.
Before nation-states 

In Europe, in the 18th century, the classic non-national states were empires of many ethnicities, (Austria-Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the French Empire and the British Empire).

Characteristics 
 Nation states have a different attitude to their territory from dynastic monarchies. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter got married.
 They have a different type of border that is mostly defined by where the cultural/ethnic (nation) group settles, but many nation states have also had borders based on geography like rivers and mountain ranges.
 The most noticeable characteristic is how much nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity in economic, social and cultural life.

References
References

Further reading 
 Hobsbawm, Eric J. (1992). Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. .
 White, Philip L. (2006). "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 257–284.

Related pages
 City-state
 Ethnic group
 Nation
 Nationalism
 Secession
 Sovereignty
 State

Other websites 
 From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated  (Identity and the Nation state)

Political geography
Nationalism
Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician. He was a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period of intense anti-communist suspicion inspired by the tensions of the Cold War.

He made Americans aware that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government and elsewhere. The term "McCarthyism," coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, was soon applied to similar anti-communist pursuits.

During World War II he was a captain in the United States Marine Corps.

McCarthy died of hepatitis at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center.

Other websites

 Retrieved on 2008-07-11

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1908 births
1957 deaths
American military personnel of World War II
American Roman Catholics
Anti-communists
Deaths from hepatitis
Infectious disease deaths in Maryland 
United States senators from Wisconsin
Republican Party (United States) politicians
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
Military people from Wisconsin
United States Marine Corps personnel
A poet laureate is a poet officially appointed by the government of a country. He or she is responsible for writing poems for special occasions in that country, for example a coronation or military victory.

The first official Poet Laureate was Ben Jonson in 1619. There are also Poets Laureate in the United States, Canada, and New Zealand.

The Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom is Carol Ann Duffy.  She was appointed Poet Laureate on 1 May 2009 to take the place of Andrew Motion.  She is the first British woman Poet Laureate.

Other websites
List of poets laureate in the UK
The list of emperors of Japan presents the traditional order of succession. Records of the reigns of the emperors of Japan were compiled according to the traditional Japanese calendar, and these traditional dates have been converted into the Western calendar format.

Emperors of Japan

Related pages 
 Japanese imperial family tree
 Line of succession to the Japanese throne

References 

Lists of monarchs
Lists of Japanese people
Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson (born October 25, 1984), known professionally as Katy Perry, is an American singer, songwriter and television judge. She has released five studio albums and two EPs. 

In 2001, she released a Christian album named after herself, Katy Hudson. In November 2007, Perry released the music video for her first single, "Ur So Gay". She has a mezzo-soprano vocal range.  She has earned nine number-one singles on the Billboard Hot 100, five of which are from one album (she became the first female artist to achieve this record). Perry has also been nominated for 11 Grammy Awards.

Biography
Biography

1984–2000: Early life
Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson was born on October 25, 1984 at Goleta Valley Cottage Hospital in Santa Barbara, California, to Maurice Hudson and Mary Hudson (née Perry), both pastors. She has an older sister, Angela, and a younger brother, David, who is also a musician. Perry has said that her upbringing was "sheltered" and that an example of this was that her family did not eat Lucky Charms cereal because her parents thought that luck was something that came from the devil. She also called deviled eggs "angeled eggs" growing up.

2001: Katy Hudson
Then known as Katy Hudson, she released a Christian album named after herself. It had the single "Search Me". She was discovered by Glen Ballard, who is known for his work with musician Alanis Morissette. This album did not perform well, and she was dropped from her record label, Red Hill, when the label was shut down. She struggled for six years before eventually signing with her current label, Capitol Records.
2007–2009: One of the Boys
After changing her last name to Perry (her mother's maiden name) so that she allegedly would not be confused with actress Kate Hudson, Katy released an EP album called Ur So Gay. This song has been criticized and labeled homophobic. On June 17, 2008, Perry released her first pop album called One of the Boys with singles including "I Kissed a Girl" (her first number-one hit), "Hot N Cold", and "One of the Boys".

She co-wrote the single "I Do Not Hook Up" for singer Kelly Clarkson (the first winner of American Idol), along with the song "Rock God" for singer-actress Selena Gomez.
2009–2012: Teenage Dream
Katy perry record the album at the end of September of 2009 Perry's third album, Teenage Dream, was released in August 2010 and included the singles "California Gurls", "Teenage Dream", and "Firework". She is the only female artist to get 5 number-one singles from one album on the US Billboard Hot 100. Along with the album's first three singles reaching the top, "E.T." featuring Kanye West and "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" also hit number one. The only other artist to get 5 number-one songs from one album is Michael Jackson, with Bad. She was inspired by her then-engagement to British comedian and actor Russell Brand.