Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
References 
 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.

Compositions by Gaetano Donizetti
1830s operas
Copper(II) carbonate, also known as cupric carbonate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCO3. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains carbonate ions.

Properties
Copper(II) carbonate is a blue-green solid. It is made when copper is in air for a long time and turns green. The other part of that coating is copper(II) hydroxide. It dissolves in acids to make carbon dioxide and a copper salt. It breaks down when heated to make carbon dioxide and copper(II) oxide.

Preparation
It can be made by leaving copper(II) hydroxide in air, which makes copper(II) carbonate. It can also be made by reacting copper sulfate and sodium carbonate. This makes sodium sulfate in solution.

Uses
Copper(II) carbonate can be used to kill algae. It is also used as a pigment.

Safety
It can irritate the skin. It is toxic since it dissolves in stomach acid to make copper ions in solution, which can be absorbed.

Related pages
Copper(I) chloride
Copper(II) chloride

Copper compounds
Carbonates
Copper(II) hydroxide, also known as cupric hydroxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Cu(OH)2. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains hydroxide ions.

Properties
Copper(II) hydroxide is light blue. It is rubbery when wet. When it is mixed with copper(II) carbonate, it is greenish. It reacts with carbon dioxide to make copper(II) carbonate when in air. It turns into copper(II) oxide when wet. When it is dry, though, it only turns into copper(II) oxide when it is heated. It reacts with ammonia to make a very dark blue solution.

Preparation
Copper(II) hydroxide can be made by reacting copper sulfate with sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can be used, but it is more expensive. It can also be made by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate with a copper anode.

Uses
Copper(II) hydroxide is used to kill mold in paints. It can be used to color ceramics. It can be used as a catalyst.
Safety
It is not toxic in small amounts, but it can dissolve in stomach acid to make soluble copper, which can poison much more easily.

Related pages
Copper(I) chloride
Copper(I) oxide

Copper compounds
Copper(II) oxide, also known as cupric oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuO. It has copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also has oxide ions.

Properties 
Copper(II) oxide is a black solid. It dissolves in acids to make copper(II) salts. It can react with carbon monoxide or hydrogen to make copper metal. It dissolves in very concentrated alkalis. It dissolves in ammonia to make a dark blue solution, similar to copper(II) hydroxide.

Preparation 
It can be made by heating copper(II) hydroxide. It can also be made by heating copper in air. It can also be made by heating copper(II) carbonate or copper(II) nitrate.

Uses 
Copper(II) oxide is used to color ceramics. It is also used to make thermite. It can react with many toxic chemicals to oxidize them, so they are not toxic any more. It can be added to vitamins to get copper into the body. It can also be added to clothing to kill germs.
Safety 
Copper(II) oxide is toxic when eaten. It can be eaten in very small amounts, such as in vitamins. This adds copper to the body, which is needed.

Related pages 
Copper(I) chloride
Copper(I) oxide

Copper compounds
Oxides
Copper oxide can refer to either of these compounds:

Copper(I) oxide, Cu2O, reddish
Copper(II) oxide, CuO, black
Copper(II) sulfate, also known as cupric sulfate, copper sulfate, blue vitriol, or bluestone, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuSO4. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains sulfate ions. It is a blue solid that can kill fungi. It is also used to purify copper metal. It is common in chemistry sets and chemistry demonstrations, and practical lessons at high school.

Properties

Physical properties
Copper(II) sulfate is a blue solid when hydrated (attached to water molecules). It is whitish when anhydrous (not attached to water molecules). When hydrated, it normally has five water molecules attached to it. It can be dehydrated by heating it. When water is added to it, it gets hydrated again. When it is in air, it absorbs water vapor and becomes hydrated, too.

Chemical properties
It is a weak oxidizing agent. It reacts with most metals to make copper and a metal sulfate. For example, it reacts with iron to make copper and iron(II) sulfate. 

Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
It reacts with sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide to make copper(II) hydroxide. 

CuSO4 + 2 NaOH → Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4

It reacts with sodium carbonate to make copper(II) carbonate.

CuSO4 + Na2CO3 → CuCO3 + Na2SO4

It reacts with ammonia to make a dark blue solution. This solution can dissolve fibers in cotton. 

CuSO4 + 4 NH3 → Cu(NH3)4SO4

When it is heated to a high temperature, it turns into copper(II) oxide and sulfur trioxide.

CuSO4 → CuO + SO3

It makes a blue-green color when it is heated in a flame, like all copper compounds.

Occurrence
Copper(II) sulfate is found in the ground as chalcanthite. Chalcanthite is easily dissolved. It is only found in dry areas. When it is in air, it loses its bright blue color. Some minerals are tested by taste. Chalcanthite has a sweet metal taste. It should only be tasted carefully, as it is poisonous. Its Mohs hardness is 2.5. It is the pentahydrate of copper sulfate. It is blue or green. Many people collecting minerals want it.

Preparation
Preparation

Copper sulfate is not normally made in a small laboratory, because it is much easier just to buy it. There are some ways to make copper sulfate, however.

Copper(II) sulfate can be made by electrolysis of a solution of sulfuric acid with copper electrodes. Hydrogen is made, as well as copper sulfate solution. 

Cu + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2

It can also be made by reacting copper(II) oxide or copper(II) hydroxide or copper(II) carbonate with sulfuric acid or by adding copper to heated concentrated sulphuric acid:    

CuO + H2SO4 → H2O + CuSO4
Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4 → 2 H2O + CuSO4
CuCO3 + H2SO4 → H2O + CuSO4 + CO2
Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2

It can also be made by reacting copper with a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid.
Uses
Copper(II) sulfate, as the most common copper compound, has many uses. It can be used to kill algae and fungi. Some fungi can get resistant to copper sulfate, though. Then the copper sulfate does not kill them any more. It can be mixed with lime to make a similar fungi killer. It can be used to treat aquarium fish for infections. It is also used to detect sugars. It turns into red copper(I) oxide when reduced by a sugar. It can be used in organic chemistry as a catalyst and oxidizing agent. It is used to see whether blood is anemic.

It is commonly found in chemistry sets. It is used to demonstrate a displacement reaction, where a metal reacts with copper sulfate to make copper and the metal sulfate. It is also used to demonstrated hydrated and anhydrous chemicals. It was used as an emetic in the past. It is seen as too toxic now.
It can be used to purify copper. A thin pure piece of copper and a thick impure piece of copper are placed in copper sulfate solution. The thin plate is connected to the negative wire and the thick plate to the positive wire. An electrical current is passed through them. The copper in the thick plate dissolves and plates on the thin plate. All of the impurities fall to the bottom, while the pure copper is made at the negative electrode.

Someone covered the walls of their apartment with copper sulfate crystals for decoration.

Safety
Copper sulfate is somewhat toxic to humans. It is very toxic to fish, though. In humans, it irritates skin and eyes. It can cause nausea when eaten. It automatically makes one throw up when it is ingested. If too much is eaten, however, it can get into the stomach and cause many problems.

Related pages
Copper compounds

References

Sulfur compounds
Copper compounds
Cooper Tire & Rubber Company () is a United States based company. They design, manufacture, marketing and sales replacement automobile and truck tires. With their subsidiaries they produce medium truck, motorcycle and racing tires. Their headquarters is in Findlay, Ohio. Cooper Tire has 60 facilities located around the world.

Cooper also owns the UK Avon Tyres brand, which also produces tires for motorcycles, road cars, and for motor racing.

History 

The beginning for Cooper Tire was the M and M Company. M and M was formed by two brothers-in-law in Akron, Ohio in 1914. M and M made tire repair materials. M and M was bought by the Giant Tire and Rubber Company and moved to Findlay, Ohio. The site is still occupied by Cooper Tire and is next to The Cooper Corporation facilities. The Cooper name came from Ira J. Cooper in 1919. He formed a company to manufacture new tires. The Cooper Corporation, the M and M Company, and The Falls Rubber company merged in 1930 to form the Master Tire and Rubber Company.
During World War II the Master Tire and Rubber built military equipment, such as  pontoons, waterproof bags, life jackets, and, tires. The company received the Army-Navy 'E' Award for excellence. The name was changed to Cooper Tire and Rubber Company in 1946.

Cooper Tire began a 51% owned joined venture with Shandong Chengshan Tire Co in 2006. They will produce truck and passenger car tires for Chinese and export markets. Cooper Tires is the second largest United States based tire company, after Goodyear.

Tire brands

Cooper Tires 
Cooper Tires produces Cooper branded tires for passenger cars, light trucks, sport utility vehicles and commercial trucks.

Avon Rubber PLC 
In 1997, the tyre business of Avon Rubber PLC of Melksham, Wiltshire, in the United Kingdom was sold to Cooper Tire. The Cooper Tire site remains a major employer in central Melksham.

Other brands 
In addition to Avon, Cooper Tire manufactures tires under the brand names Dean, Mastercraft and Starfire.

Motorsports and sponsorships
Cooper Tire became the official tire of the A1 Grand Prix for the series' initial 2005-06 season. Cooper was under contract to produce tires for the series championship until 2007-08. Cooper Tire became the official tire of the Champ Car Atlantic Championship in 2007. Cooper Tire became the official tire of USF2000 National Championship and the IMSA Prototype Lites series (formerly IMSA Lites) in 2010.

Drifting involvement 
Cooper is heavily involved in the sport of drifting by supplying tires to several drifters in both the Need for Speed Formula D Drift series and Canadian Drift series.

Management and company personnel
Cooper employs 13,311 employees. Roy V. Armes is Chairman, President, and CEO.

References

Other websites 
Cooper Tire & Rubber Company official website
Talalai v. Cooper Tire List of Brand Names 
Avon Tyres official website 
Avon Tyres Motorsport official website 

Companies based in Ohio
Automobiles
1926 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Ohio
Copper chloride can refer to either of these chemical compounds:

Copper(I) chloride, normally white, but green when impure, does not dissolve in water
Copper(II) chloride, bright green, dissolves in water
Copper(I) chloride, also known as cuprous chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCl. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions.

Properties
Copper(I) chloride is white when pure. It does not dissolve in water. It is green when in air because of conversion to copper(II) chloride. It can react with Lewis bases, a group of chemicals. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid easily. It dissolves in solutions that have ammonia in them. It absorbs carbon monoxide. It easily disproportionates into copper and copper(II) chloride. It reacts with ammonia and acetylene to make copper(I) acetylide, a reddish explosive.

Preparation
It can be made by reduction of copper(II) chloride. It was made at first by reacting copper with mercury(II) chloride. It can be made by heating copper(II) chloride very hot. Some chlorine is released, and copper(I) chloride is left behind.
Uses
Copper(I) chloride is used to make a fungicide, which is used to kill fungi. It is also used to make many organic compounds.

Related pages
Copper(I) oxide
Copper sulfate

Chlorine compounds
Alexander Peter "Fats" Delvecchio (born December 4, 1931 in Fort William, Ontario) is a Canadian retired ice hockey player and member of the Hockey Hall of Fame.

Career statistics
Achievements
 Holds NHL records for seasons played and games played in a career spent with only one team; second all-time in games played in a Red Wings uniform (Gordie Howe).
 Won three Stanley Cups with Detroit, in 1952, 1954 and 1955.
 Delvecchio did not learn to skate until he was twelve years old, a remarkably late age for an NHL player.
 Named a Second Team All-Star in 1953 (at centre) and 1959 (at left wing).
 Played in the All-Star Game 13 times (in 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965 and 1967), a total surpassed by only five players.
 Served as team captain for twelve years, a mark surpassed only in Wings' history by Steve Yzerman.
 Remains 8th all-time in NHL history in games played and 27th in points scored.
 Second in Red Wings history in games played; third in points, goals and assists
 In 1998, he was ranked number 82 on The Hockey News' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players.
 On November 10, 1991 his jersey, number 10, was retired by the Detroit Red Wings.
References
 
 

1931 births
Canadian ice hockey centres
Detroit Red Wings players
Hockey Hall of Fame inductees
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Lady Byng Memorial Trophy winners
Living people
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
Stanley Cup champions
Ontario Hockey League players
Copper(II) chloride, also known as cupric chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCl2. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains two chloride ions.

Properties
Copper(II) chloride is light brown when anhydrous. It is green when hydrated. It is a weak oxidizing agent. It reacts with aluminium foil to make hydrogen, copper(I) oxide, and aluminium chloride. This is used in school demonstrations. It releases chlorine and turns into copper(I) chloride when heated very hot. It reacts with sodium hydroxide to make copper(II) hydroxide. Copper(II) chloride reacts with metals to make metal chlorides and copper. It puts out blue flames if it is heated in a flame. It reacts with sulfur dioxide to make copper(I) chloride. It dissolves in water to make a blue solution. When more chloride is added, it turns green, then yellow.

Preparation
Preparation

It is made by reacting copper with chlorine. It can also be made by reacting copper(II) hydroxide, copper(II) oxide, or copper(II) carbonate with hydrochloric acid and from pure copper and from 1:1 solution of hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid where copper first get oxidized to CuO from H2O2 and then reacts with HCl to form CuCl2, reaction goes like this:

Cu + H2O2 → CuO + H2O

CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O

Uses
Copper(II) chloride is used to make fungicides. It is also used to make organic compounds. It is also used to make acetaldehyde from ethane.

Safety
It is toxic, with toxicity similar to copper sulfate It is therefore harmful.

Related pages
Copper(I) chloride
Copper(I) acetylide

References

Copper compounds
Chlorine compounds
Copper(I) oxide, also known as cuprous oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Cu2O. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions.

Properties
Copper(I) oxide is a red solid. It can also be yellow, but not commonly. It does not dissolve in water. It turns into copper(II) oxide when in air. It dissolves in ammonia to make a colorless complex. This is oxidized to a blue complex of copper(II). It dissolves in concentrated hydrochloric acid. It also dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid to make copper(II) sulfate and nitric acid to make copper(II) nitrate.

Occurrence
Copper(I) oxide is found in the ground. It is a copper ore.

Preparation
Copper(I) oxide is made by heating copper in air. Some copper(II) oxide is also made. It can also be made by reducing copper(II) oxide or other copper(II) compounds. It is the result of a test for sugars. Green copper(II) chloride is reduced to red copper(I) oxide when a sugar is present.
Uses
Copper(I) oxide is used as a semiconductor. It is also used as a pigment and fungicide. It can be used to stop things from growing on ships.

Related pages
 Copper(II) chloride
 Copper(I) chloride

Copper compounds
Oxides
Copper(I) acetylide, also known as cuprous acetylide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Cu2C2. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains acetylide ions.

Properties
Copper(I) acetylide is a reddish solid. It is an explosive. It is a strange explosive because it does not release gas. When it detonates, it only releases copper and carbon. It can be formed inside copper pipes where acetylene flows through. It explodes because the acetylide is a reducing agent and the copper(I) is an oxidizing agent.

Preparation
It is made by reacting copper(I) chloride dissolved in ammonia with acetylene. Hydrochloric acid and copper(I) acetylide is made. This reaction is used to test for acetylene.

Uses
It is used in organic chemistry. It is a very sensitive explosive, too sensitive to be used.

Related pages
Copper(I) oxide
Copper(II) oxide

Copper compounds
Illinois State University is a public university in Normal, Illinois. Founded in 1857, it is Illinois' oldest public university. It was originally a teachers' college or "Normal School", and was known as Illinois State Normal University.

References

Colleges and universities in Illinois
Missouri Valley Conference
Missouri Valley Football Conference
1857 establishments in the United States
1850s establishments in Illinois
Acetylide, also known as ethynide, dicarbide, and percarbide, is an ion. Its chemical formula is C22-. It is made by deprotonation of acetylene. Some acetylides (chemical compounds contain acetylide ions) are explosive. Many acetylides are used in organic chemistry. Some are known as carbides. Copper(I) acetylide is an example.

Carbon compounds
Ions
() is a multinational rubber conglomerate. It was founded in 1931 by  in the city of Kurume, Fukuoka, Fukuoka, Japan. The name Bridgestone comes from a translation ishibashi, meaning "stone bridge" in Japanese.

History

Origins
The very first Bridgestone tire was produced on April 9, 1930, by the Japanese "Tabi" Socks Tyre Division. On March 1, 1931, the founder, Shojiro Ishibashi, made the Tabi Socks tire Division independent and established the Bridgestone Tire Co., Ltd. in the city of Kurume, Fukuoka Prefecture. "Bridgestone" was named after the name of the founder, Shojiro Ishibashi (Ishi = Stone, Bashi = Bridge).

The Bridgestone tire Co., Ltd. decided to build tires based solely on Japanese technology. The company had many problems in the early days. Improvements were made in quality and the building processes. The business expanded rapidly on both the domestic and overseas markets.
Challenges during and after World War II 
Wartime regulations sent nearly all of the company's output to the military. After the war, the company was devastated. The Tokyo Headquarters building was destroyed by aerial bombing. All of their overseas assets were lost. The factories in Kurume and Yokohama were not damaged. Production was restarted after the war ended.

After World War II, Bridgestone started manufacturing motorcycles. But its main income was from supplying tires to its rival motorcycle makers such as Honda, Suzuki and Yamaha. Bridgestone later decided to stop building motorcycles.
Technological innovation 
In 1951, Bridgestone was the first company in Japan to begin selling rayon cord tires. The sale of nylon tires was started in 1959. 1967 saw the sale of first ever radial tire. Bridgestone's first overseas plant since the end of the war was opened in Singapore in 1965. Bridgestone America was started in the United States in 1967 to represent Bridgestone. The Super Filler Radial went on the market in 1978. In 1979 the company introduced the high-performance POTENZA radial tire.

The company name changed to Bridgestone Corporation in 1984.

Firestone purchase 
In 1988, Bridgestone purchased the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company. Bridgestone invested a lot of money into Firestone. They worked on rebuilding the Firestone company. By 1992, they were making a profit with Bridgestone Firestone Europe. By 1993, they were making a profit with Bridgestone Firestone USA.
The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company and Bridgestone Tire Company Ltd USA were merged in 1990 and became Bridgestone Firestone North American Holdings Ltd. To increase the brand awareness, they re-entered the Firestone brand into IndyCar racing in 1995. In 1997, Bridgestone Corporation Japan entered the Bridgestone brand into Formula One racing.

Bridgestone and Formula One racing 
Bridgestone has supplied tires in Formula One since . They supplied tires on a one race only basis for the  and  Japanese Grands Prix. These tires were for Japanese teams such as Heros Racing and Kojima.

Bridgestone decided to supply tires for Formula One in 1995. They wanted to improve company's name value in the European market. Their main competitor was Michelin.
Their first title was acquired in  by Mika Häkkinen and McLaren-Mercedes. Bridgestone users took five Drivers' championship titles and five Constructors' championship titles during the years that had more than one tire available. For (–), they competed with Goodyear. For (–), they competed with Michelin.

Michelin chose to end its Formula One tire program after the  season. All teams have used Bridgestone tires from the  season to the  season. On November 2, 2009 Bridgestone announced that they will end their contract to supply tires to Formula One teams after 2010. The company said it was "addressing the impact of the continuing evolution of the business environment"

Diversified products 
Bridgestone makes many other products than tires. The list includes: automotive components, industrial products, polyurethane foam products, construction materials, parts and materials for electronic equipment, bicycles and sporting goods.
Bandag 
On December 5, 2006, Bridgestone America and Bandag Inc. announced a merger. Bandag was a leading company in the tire re-treading business. Tire re-treading is the process of putting a new tread on a used tire. This will extend the life of the tire and save money. This process is mostly done on large truck tires. The name of new company has become Bridgestone Bandag, LLC.

Bicycles 
The Bridgestone Cycle Co Ltd started in 1949. It offers bicycles under its own brand and under the Anchor brand.

Bridgestone Aircraft tire 
Bridgestone Aircraft tire (USA) builds aircraft tires and provides re-tread services.

Golf Products 
Precept Golf is a division of Bridgestone. They sell the Bridgestone Golfing Products. Bridgestone has been producing golf-related products since 1935. The Golf division of Bridgestone currently produces both clubs, balls and accessories.

Related pages
 Bridgestone Museum of Art

References

Other websites
Other websites

Main 
 Bridgestone Corporation Japanese homepage 
 Bridgestone Corporation English homepage

MotorSport 
 Bridgestone Motorsport English homepage  

Manufacturing companies of Japan
Tire manufacturers
1931 establishments in Asia
1930s establishments in Japan
Organizations based in Fukuoka Prefecture
Indian or Indians can refer to:
Anything related to the country of India
Indian people
Cleveland Indians, a baseball team
Kinston Indians, a baseball team
Native American (formerly called "Indian")
An Abstraction keeps only the most important information about something in order to make it easier to reuse.

Abstraction concerns the ways by which higher, less real concepts are derived from the usage and classification of literal ("real" or "concrete") data or other information.

Abstractions may be formed by reducing the information content of a concept or a phenomenon as viewed, often to keep only the information which is needed for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball will keep only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, leaving out the traits of that particular ball. Compare with word: generalizing. The opposite of the adjective "abstract" is commonly the word "concrete".

Origins
The first symbols of abstract thinking in humans can be traced to fossil objects dating between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago in Africa.
Thought process
In philosophical terminology, abstraction is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects.

Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, where formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient.

For example, many different things can be the color red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in picture 1, to the right). The property of redness and the relation sitting-on are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram graph 1 identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their six labels), whereas the picture 1 shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.
Graph 1 details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example, the arrow between the agent and CAT:Elsie depicts an example of an is-a relationship, as does the arrow between the location and the MAT. The arrows between the gerund SITTING and the nouns agent and location express the diagram's basic relationship; "agent is SITTING on location"; Elsie is an instance of CAT.
Although the description sitting-on (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in Gödel, Escher, Bach (1979):
(1) a publication
(2) a newspaper
(3) The San Francisco Chronicle
(4) the May 18 edition of the Chronicle
(5) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle
(6) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle as it was when I first picked it up (as contrasted with my copy as it was a few days later: in my fireplace, burning)
An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.

Referents
Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example, "happiness" (when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise, "architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.
Instantiation
Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be multiply instantiated, in the sense of picture 1, picture 2, etc., shown above.

It is not sufficient, however, to define abstract ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define abstraction as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are abstractions, they are not abstract in the sense of the objects in graph 1 above.
We might look at other graphs, in a progression from cat to mammal to animal, and see that animal is more abstract than mammal; but on the other hand mammal is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to marsupial or monotreme.

Physicality
A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered concrete (not abstract) if it is a particular individual that occupies a particular place and time.

Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like God, the number three, and goodness are real, abstract, or both.
An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use predicates as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. good). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the graph 1 above, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.
Abstraction used in philosophy
Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept-formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for discussion of abstraction is thought space.
Ontological status
The way in which physical objects, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being. For example, the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in picture 1 exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in graph 1 exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.

Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to tropes (instances of properties) as abstract particulars. E.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an abstract particular. Akin to qualia and sumbebekos.
In linguistics 
If an abstract concept, such as "society" or "technology" is treated as if it were a concrete object, that is a fallacy (an error). In linguistics, it may happen that abstract concepts are used as if they were nouns that signify concrete objects:
1805: Horatio Nelson (Battle of Trafalgar) – "<u/l>England</u/l> expects that every man will do his duty"

This is called metonymy. It can blur the distinction between abstract and concrete things.

Compression
An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object).
For example, picture 1 above illustrates the concrete relationship "Cat sits on Mat".
Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to semantic abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed to "action".
For example, graph 1 above expresses the abstraction "agent sits on location".
This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail.

The neurology of abstraction
A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts cause greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus, compared to concrete concepts when concrete concepts cause greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus.

Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres, of the brain, differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage.
Abstraction in art
Typically, abstraction is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freed from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs.
In music, the term abstraction can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized the exploration of internal numeric relationships.
Abstraction in psychology
Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, opposing complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these opposing functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism. Abstraction is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types.
There is an abstract thinking, just as there is abstract feeling, sensation and intuition. Abstract thinking singles out the rational, logical qualities ... Abstract feeling does the same with ... its feeling-values. ... I put abstract feelings on the same level as abstract thoughts. ... Abstract sensation would be aesthetic as opposed to sensuous sensation and abstract intuition would be symbolic as opposed to fantastic intuition. (Jung, [1921] (1971):par. 678).
Abstraction in computer science
Computer scientists use abstraction to understand and solve problems, such as organizing data to be stored in a database.

Abstraction in mathematics
Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept, removing any dependence on real-world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.

The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are:
 it reveals deep connections between different areas of mathematics
 known results in one area can suggest conjectures in a related area
 techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in a related area

The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated.
Related pages
 Abstract algebra
 Abstract art
 Formal language
 Ontology
 Platonic realism

Notes

Other websites

 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gottlob Frege 
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Abstract Objects
 Discussion at The Well concerning Abstraction hierarchy

Thought
Problem solving
Creativity
Eye makeup is a type of cosmetics which aims to make the eyes look noticeable and attractive. It is mostly used by females, and by stage performers of all types. Eye makeup is an important part of the fashion and cosmetic industries.

The idea can be taken much further. The colour of the eye can be altered by using contact lenses. Glitter and other appliqués can be stuck on near the eye. Fake eyelashes or eyelash extensions are possible.

Mascara 
Mascara is a cosmetic used to darken, colour, thicken, lengthen, or define eyelashes. Historically, it was (and still is) usually black, but now it also comes in many colours and tints. Mascara comes in three forms: liquid, cake, and cream. It is available in tubes with wand applicators. Ingredients in mascara include water, wax thickeners, film-formers, and preservatives.

Eye shadow
Eye shadow

Eye shadow is a cosmetic that is applied on the eyelids and under the eyebrows. The average distance between eyelashes and eyebrows is twice as big in women as in men. Pale eye shadow visually enlarges this area and has a feminising effect.

Eye shadow can be applied in a variety of ways depending upon the desired look. Typically application is done using sponges, fingers, and/or brushes. The most important aspect of applying eye shadow, and makeup in general, is blending well.

To remove eye shadow, a commercial eye makeup remover may be used, though a face wash will usually remove all traces of colour. Generally it is easy to remove, and simple water and soap can be used. Eye shadow, eyeliner, and mascara may also be removed using baby oil or olive oil. There are also makeup wipes that may be used.
Eye liner 
Eye liner is a cosmetic used to define the eyes. It is applied around the contours of the eye, along and above the edges of the eyelids where the eyelashes grow. Often applied just on the outer half of the eye.

Creating a baseline  is the first step in applying liner. It provides a level surface that makes it easier to apply the liner and gives you more control
Types 
Depending on its texture, eyeliner can be softly smudged or clearly defined. There are six main types available on the market:
 Liquid eyeliner is an opaque liquid that usually comes in a small bottle and is applied with a tiny brush or felt applicator. It creates a sharp, precise line.
 Powder-based eye pencil is eyeliner in a wood pencil. It is generally available in dark matte shades.
 Wax-based eye pencils are softer pencils and contain waxes that ease application. They come in a wide variety of intense colours as well as paler shades such as white or beige. Wax-based eyeliners can also come in a cone or a compact with brush applicator.
 Gel eye liner, which can easily be applied with an eyeliner brush.
 Kohl eyeliner pencil is known for its creamy consistency. It is often used to create a smokey eye effect. Because of its texture, it may not be the best choice for an eyeliner that you want to stay put.
Eyeshadow or cake liner applied to the eyelid with an angle brush can serve as a more natural-looking alternative to heavy eyeliner. Cake liners look like pressed shadows that turn into a creamy liquid when you dip a wet brush into them.
Kohl 
Kohl is an ancient black eye pigment which survives to the present day in the Mediterranean, the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. It was a dark-colored powder made of crushed galena (lead sulfide) and/or antimony, burnt almonds, lead, cupric oxide, ochre, ash, malachite, or any combination of them. It may be used as an eye liner, mascara or eyeshadow.

The upper and lower eyelids were painted in a line that extended to the sides of the face for an almond effect. In addition to reducing sun glare, it was believed that kohl eyeliner could restore good eyesight and reduce eye infection. Kohl was kept in a small, flat-bottomed pot with a wide, tiny rim and a flat, disk-shaped lid.

According to images of the time, the use of makeup was not limited to women. Highly polished silver and copper mirrors aided the application of makeup.

References 

Cosmetics
Body art
The Indy Racing League (IRL) is an American-based open-wheel auto racing sanctioning body. The League sanctions three racing series. The premier IZOD IndyCar Series (ICS), the two developmental series; Firestone Indy Lights and the U.S. F2000 National Championship. ICS is sometimes considered the same as the Indy Racing League. The Indy Racing League's centerpiece race is the Indianapolis 500.

The IRL is owned by Hulman and Co., which also owns the Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex and the Clabber Girl brand.

On September 10, 2010, the IRL announced that effective January 1, 2011, the Indy Racing League will simply be known as IndyCar.

Sanctioned series

IZOD IndyCar Series 

The IndyCar Series is the series name for the premier series sanctioned by the IRL. The name started being used in 2003. Izod was announced as the IndyCar Series title sponsor in 2010. The deal is expected to run for at least five years.
At first IndyCar only raced on oval tracks. In 2005, the series started adding road and street course events.

Support series 
Firestone Indy Lights is the development series for the Izod Indycar series. It started in 2002, as the IRL Infiniti Pro Series. USF2000 is a series the IRL started sanctioning in 2010. It started in 1991 and ended in 2006. It then restarted in 2010.

History

Indy car name 
Indy car is sometimes used as a name for any open-wheel auto racing in the United States. The Indy car name derived as a result of the link to the Indianapolis 500 Mile Race (often called to as the Indy 500).
Beginning in 1980, the term Indy car was used for the race cars in CART races. CART had become the main governing body for open-wheel racing in the United States. The Indianapolis 500 was not controlled by CART. It remained sanctioned by USAC. CART recognized the Indy 500 on its schedule, and awarded points for finishers in the race from 1980 to 1995 despite not sanctioning it. The two entities operated separately, but used the same equipment.

In 1992, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway tradmarked the IndyCar. They licensed CART to use the name. CART renamed its championship the IndyCar World Series. The name "CART" was no longer used. The series did not want fans to think they were go-karts.
Split with CART 
The IRL was founded in 1994 by Tony George and began racing in 1996. George designed the IRL as a lower-cost open-wheel alternative to CART. CART was dominated by a few rich multi-car teams, much like Formula One. The split between IRL and CART was very unfriendly. Both series greatly suffered because of it.

Joining with Champ Car 
In February 2008, Indy Racing League founder and CEO Tony George and owners of the Champ Car World Series completed an agreement to join the sport for 2008. The Champ Car World Series was suspended except for the Long Beach Grand Prix. Many of the former Champ Car teams moved to the IndyCar Series using equipment provided by the League.
Driver safety
Driver safety has also been a major concern. A number of drivers injured, mostly in the early years of the series. Several of those injuries were serious or fatal. Unlike road racing, the higher speed and lack of runoff areas on oval tracks, allowed for less margin for error. Car design was a leading cause of early injuries.The series made improvements to chassis design to address those safety concerns.

The IRL was also the first race series to adopt the new SAFER barrier soft wall safety system. First at the Indianapolis 500 and now installed at almost all major oval racing circuits.

Fatalities 
 Scott Brayton – (May 17, 1996), 1996 Indianapolis 500 practice session.
 Tony Renna – (October 22, 2003), Firestone private testing session.
 Paul Dana – (March 26, 2006), 2006 Toyota Indy 300 practice session.

Gallery

References

Other websites 
 Official website
 Official website of the Indianapolis 500

IndyCar Series
Open-wheel car describes cars with the wheels outside the car's main body and, in most cases, one seat. Other names include formula car, single-seater car in British English, or Indy car in the United States. Open-wheel cars are different from street cars, sports cars, stock cars, and touring cars. These car have their wheels below or inside the body or fenders. Open-wheel cars are usually built just for racing. Often, they have a higher amount of technological sophistication than in other forms of motor racing.

Design 
A typical open-wheeler has a small cockpit. It is only large enough for the driver's body. The head is exposed to the air. In modern cars the engine is often located directly behind the driver, and drives the rear wheels. Depending on the rules of the class, many types of open-wheelers have spoilers or wings. They are very low and have an almost flat bottom. These help add aerodynamic downforce. This pushes the car on to the road and makes it handle better.
Some races, such as the Monaco Grand Prix are held on temporary street circuits. Most open-wheel races are on dedicated road courses, such as the Nürburgring in Germany. In the United States some top-level open wheel events are held on ovals, both short track and superspeedways. The most famous the annual Indianapolis 500 (Indy 500)

Driving
Driving an open-wheel car is very different from driving a car with fenders. Open-wheel vehicles, are light weight, have good aerodynamics, and powerful engines. Wheel-to-wheel contact is dangerous. If the forward edge of one tire contacts the rear of another tire, the vehicle my be flipped into the air and upside down. 

Auto racing
A speech and language therapist is a health care professional who specialises in communication and swallowing difficulties.  The main part of their work involves assessing people and planning therapy.  They work with people of all ages across different settings such as nurseries, schools, day centres, care homes, clinics and hospitals.

Communication difficulties
These can include difficulties with fluency (stuttering), making sounds and words, making sentences,
understanding what others say, and using language socially.  These difficulties fall into two main areas:
Language
There are two types of language difficulties:
Receptive
People with receptive language difficulties have problems understanding spoken and written language.  Because of this they usually also have expressive language difficulties although this is not always the case.
 Expressive
People with expressive language difficulties are able to understand but cannot say the words and sentences they want to.  This may be because of word finding difficulties or problems making sentences.

In children language difficulties are divided up into 
delay:  language follows the normal developmental pattern but at a slower rate e.g. a four year old may have the language skills of someone 12 months younger.
disorder:  language is not following typical development.

Where language difficulties occur with no other difficulties the child may be diagnosed with Specific Language Impairment.