Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Another object, , was seen nearby 5 hours later, but this time just inside the F Ring. Because of the different location of the second object, it was given a fresh designation, although their interpretation as a single object on a F-ring crossing orbit is also possible. Such an object might also be orbiting at a bit different inclination to the F ring, thereby not actually passing through the ring material even though it was being seen both radially inward and outward of it.

If a solid object after all,  would be 3−5 km in diameter based on brightness, and might be a shepherd satellite for the farther edge of Saturn's F ring.

References

Other websites
 Cassini-Huygens press release about discoveries around the F ring in 2004 
 Cassini-Huygens Multimedia: The Clump/Moon Mystery September 5, 2005 (images of the clumps and/or moons seen around the F ring by Cassini cameras)

Saturn's moons
is the designation of an object that astronomers do not know for sure if it exists seen orbiting Saturn within the closer part of the F ring on 21 June, 2004. It was seen while J. N. Spitale was trying to confirm the orbit of another object,  that was seen 5 hours earlier just on the farther edge of the F ring. The announcement was made on September 9, 2004.

Even though astronomers tried to find it again, it has not been reliably seen since. Notably, an imaging sequence covering an entire orbital period at 4 km resolution taken on 15 November, 2004 failed to find the object. This suggests that it was a clump of material that had disappeared by that time.

An interpretation where S3 and S4 are or were a single object on a F-ring crossing orbit is also possible. Such an object might also be orbiting at a bit different inclination to the F ring, thereby not actually passing through the ring material even though it was being seen both radially inward and outward of it.
If a solid object after all,  would be 3−5 km in diameter based on brightness.

References

Saturn's moons
is the designation of a dusty object seen orbiting Saturn very close to the F ring. It is not clear whether it is only a clump of dust, or if there is a solid small moon at its core.
It was first seen by scientists in pictures taken by the Cassini-Huygens probe on October 28, 2004, and announced on 8 November that year. It appears to be the best tracked object in this area with at least five possible sightings in the period till late 2005. In comparison, two objects in the F ring's area ( and ) that were first seen months earlier have not been found again with any confidence. Nevertheless, it continues to be unclear whether there is a solid core to  or whether it is just a dust clump that will disappear in years or months. Notably, an imaging sequence covering an entire orbital period at 4 km resolution taken on 15 November, 2004 (soon after 's discovery) failed to find the object, while it has been seen again later. The lighting conditions in 's part of the orbit were different during these two sightings, however, with the discovery being made when the area was strongly backlit by the sun
. A suggested resolution of the absence in November is that 's visibility is primarily due to a diffuse cloud of fine dust that is much brighter in forward scattered light (the conditions of the discovery image), and that the solid core (if any) is small.
has been seen both inside and outside the main F ring, and its orbit must cross the ring. Careful calculations show that the object periodically plows through the ring material, coming within 1.5 km of the densest core e.g. on 9 April, 2005. It has been suggested that a spiral structure in the thinnest material around the F ring may have been a result of this.

The dusty halo seen in pictures is big, being around 2000 km in lengthwise extent. The solid object, if any, would be no bigger than 3−5 km in diameter based on brightness.

References

Saturn's moons
Joel Hastings Metcalf (January 4, 1866–February 23, 1925) was an American astronomer.

Metcalf graduated from Harvard Divinity School in 1892. He served as a Unitarian minister in Burlington, Vermont and then later in Taunton, Massachusetts, Winchester, Massachusetts and Portland, Maine.

He found or co-found many comets, such as 23P/Brorsen-Metcalf and 97P/Metcalf-Brewington; he also found many asteroids.

Other websites
 Joel H. Metcalf "home page" 

1866 births
1925 deaths
American astronomers
Scientists from Massachusetts
Scientists from Vermont
Gräfendorf is a community in Main-Spessart in the Regierungsbezirk of Lower Franconia (Unterfranken) in Bavaria, Germany and a member of the Verwaltungsgemeinschaft (Administrative Community) of Gemünden am Main.

Geography

Location
Gräfendorf is in the Würzburg Region near Gemünden am Main.

Constituent communities
The community has the following Gemarkungen (traditional rural cadastral areas) and Ortsteile: Gräfendorf, Michelau an der Saale, Schonderfeld, Weickersgrüben, Wolfsmünster.

References

Main-Spessart
Imaginary numbers are numbers that are made from combining a real number with the imaginary unit, called i, where i is defined as . They are defined separately from the negative real numbers in that they are a square root of a negative real number (instead of a positive real number). This is not possible with real numbers, as there is no real number that will multiply by itself to get a negative number (e.g.,  and ). The set of imaginary numbers are sometimes denoted by the letter .

One way of thinking about imaginary numbers is to say that they are to negative numbers what negative numbers are to positive numbers. If we say "go east by -1 mile", it is the same as if we had said "go west by 1 mile". If we say "go east by i miles", it means the same thing as if we had said "go north by 1 mile". Similarly, if we say "go east by -i mile", it means the same as if we had said "go south by 1 mile".
Adding is easy too. If we say "go east by 1 + i miles" it means the same as if we had said "go east by one mile and north by one mile".

Multiplying two imaginary numbers is a lot like multiplying a positive number with a negative number. If we say "go east by 2 × -3 miles", it means "rotate all of the way around (so that you are now facing west) and go 2×3 = 6 miles". Imaginary numbers work the same, except that you can rotate part way. If we say go "east by 2×3i miles", it means the same as if we had said "rotate until you are facing north, and then go 2×3 = 6 miles"

Subtractions such as 5 - 9 used to be impossible until negative numbers were invented, just as taking the square root of a negative number used to be impossible until imaginary numbers were invented. The square root of 9 is 3, but the square root of −9 is not −3. This is because −3 x −3 = +9, not −9. For a long time, it seemed as though there was no answer to the square root of −9.
This is why mathematicians invented the imaginary number, i, and said that it is the main square root of −1. The square root of −1 is not a real number, so this definition creates a new type of number, just like fractions create numbers like 2/3 that are not counting numbers like 4 or 10, and negative numbers create numbers that are less than 0. Sometimes, mathematicians seem rather comfortable using a number that is so unusual, but the name imaginary should not fool you because i is as valid a number as 3 or 145,379.
Many branches of science and engineering have found uses for this number. For example. electrical engineers need i to understand how an electric circuit will work when they are designing it (electrical engineers use j instead of i to avoid confusion with the symbol for the current). As another example. certain branches of physics such as quantum physics and high energy physics use i as often as they use any other regular number. Many of the equations in the world simply cannot be solved without i.

Imaginary numbers can be mixed with numbers we are more familiar with. For example, a real number such as 2 can be added to an imaginary number such as 3i to create 2+3i. These kinds of mixed numbers are known as complex numbers.

Related pages
 Complex plane
 Gerolamo Cardano

References 

Complex analysis
Numbers
Eric Stark Maskin (born December 12, 1950) is an American economist. In 2007, he won the Nobel Prize in Economics with Leonid Hurwicz and Roger Myerson. He is the Albert O. Hirschman Professor of Social Science at the Institute for Advanced Study, and a visiting Professor at Princeton University.

Life story
Maskin was born in New York City, New York on December 12, 1950, to a non-religious Jewish family, and grew up in Alpine, New Jersey. He graduated from Tenafly High School in Tenafly, New Jersey in 1968, and then studied at Harvard University where he received his A.B. and Ph.D. After he got his Ph.D., Maskin went to the University of Cambridge in 1976 where he was a research fellow at Cambridge College.  He taught at Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1977-1984 and from 1985-2000 at Harvard, where he was the Louis Berkman Professor of Economics. In 2000, he moved to the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.
He has studied a wide range of subjects in economic theory, such as game theory, the economics of incentives, and contract theory. He is particularly well known for his work on mechanism design/implementation theory and dynamic games.  His current research projects include comparing different rules for elections, the causes of inequality and studying coalition formation. He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Econometric Society, and the European Economic Association, and a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy. He was president of the Econometric Society in 2003.
Software patents 
Maskin suggested that software patents make new inventions difficult. Software, semiconductor, and computer industries have made many inventions in the past when patent laws have been weak, he argued. "In the 1980s when patent protection was extended to software," wrote Maskin. "Arguments predicted that productivity should have increased among patenting firms."  Maskins ideas that this would not happen were correct. "These increases did not occur."

References

Other websites 
Webpage from Institute for Advanced Study, School of Social Science 
Profile in The Daily Princetonian 
Nash Equilibrium and Welfare Optimality 

1950 births
Living people
American economists
American Nobel Prize winners
Harvard University alumni
Harvard University faculty
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from New York City
Educators from New York City
Roger Bruce Myerson (born 29 March 1951) is an American economist and co-winner, with Leonid Hurwicz and Eric Maskin, of the 2007 Nobel Prize in Economics "for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory." He has made contributions as an economist, as an applied mathematician, and as a political scientist.

Biography
Roger Myerson was born on March 29, 1951 to a Jewish family. He attended Harvard University, where he received his A.B., S.M. (1973), and Ph.D. (1976), all in applied mathematics. From 1976 to 2001, he was a professor of economics at Northwestern University's Kellogg School of Management. Currently, he is the Glen A. Lloyd Distinguished Service Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago.
Contributions 
Among his scientific contributions to game theory and mechanism design, the following are noteworthy:
 "Graphs and Cooperation in Games," Mathematics of Operations Research 2 (1977), 225-229.
 "Two-Person Bargaining Problems and Comparable Utility," Econometrica 45 (1977), 1631-1637.
 "Refinements of the Nash Equilibrium Concept," International Journal of Game Theory 7 (1978), 73-80.
 "Incentive Compatibility and the Bargaining Problem," Econometrica 47 (1979), 61-73.
 "Optimal Auction Design," Mathematics of Operations Research 6 (1981), 58-73.
 "Mechanism Design by an Informed Principal," Econometrica 51 (1983), 1767-1797.
 "Two-Person Bargaining Problems with Incomplete Information," Econometrica 52 (1984), 461-487.
 "Bayesian Equilibrium and Incentive Compatibility," in Social Goals and Social Organization, edited by L. Hurwicz, D. Schmeidler, and Hugo Sonnenschein, Cambridge University Press (1985), 229-259.
He wrote a general textbook on game theory in 1991, and has also written on the history of game theory, including his review of the origins and significance of noncooperative game theory.

Myerson has worked on economic analysis of political institutions and written several major survey papers:
 "Analysis of Democratic Institutions: Structure, Conduct, and Performance," Journal of Economic Perspectives 9:1 (1995), 77-89.
 "Economic Analysis of Political Institutions: An Introduction,"  Advances in Economic Theory and Econometrics: Theory and Applications, volume 1, edited by D. Kreps and K. Wallis (Cambridge University Press, 1997), pages 46–65.
 "Theoretical Comparisons of Electoral Systems," European Economic Review 43 (1999), 671-697.

His recent work on democratization has raised critical questions about American policy in occupied Iraq.
Books by Professor Myerson
Myerson has published the following books:
 Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict, Harvard University Press, 1991.
 Probability Models for Economic Decisions, Duxbury Press, 2005.

References

Other websites 
Webpage at the University of Chicago
ABC News Chicago video interview
The scientific background to the 2007 Nobel prize: Mechanism Design Theory

1951 births
Living people
American economists
American Nobel Prize winners
American political scientists
Harvard University alumni
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Boston
Educators from Boston
Mario Renato Capecchi (born 6 October 1937) is an Italian-born American molecular geneticist. He won the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies. 

Capecchi is  Distinguished Professor of Human Genetics and Biology at the University of Utah School of Medicine, which he joined in 1973.
Life
Mario Capecchi was born in the Italian city of Verona in 1937. His father, Luciano Capecchi, was an Italian airman who was reported as missing in action in the Western Desert Campaign. His mother, Lucy Ramberg, was the American-born daughter of Impressionist painter Lucy Dodd Ramberg and German  archaeologist Walter Ramberg. During World War II, his mother was sent to the Dachau concentration camp, as punishment for handing out pamphlets and belonging to an anti-Fascist group. Before her arrest she had sold her belongings and gave the money to a poor family near Bolzano, to give her son a place to live. After a year, the money was spent and the family was unable to care for him. At four-and-a-half years old he was left to live on the streets of northern Italy for the next four years, living in various orphanages and roving through towns with groups of other homeless children.
He almost died of hunger. His mother had been freed from Dachau and began a year-long search for him. She finally found him in a hospital bed in Reggio Emilia, ill with a fever and living one bowl of chicory coffee and bread crust each day. She took him to Rome, where he had his first bath in six years.

In 1946 his uncle, Edward Ramberg, an American physicist at RCA, sent his mother money to return to the United States. Mario and his mother moved to Pennsylvania to live at a cooperative community which had been started by his uncle.   

In 1960 Capecchi came to MIT as a graduate student to study physics and mathematics, but he soon became interested in molecular biology. He moved to Harvard to join the laboratory of James D. Watson, co-discoverer of the shape of DNA. Capecchi received his PhD in biophysics in 1967 from Harvard University.
In 1973 he joined the faculty at the University of Utah. Since 1988 Capecchi has also been an investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences. He has taught for Duke University's Program in Genetics and Genomics.

After the Nobel committee announced that Capecchi had won the Nobel prize, an Austrian woman named Marlene Bonelli claimed that Capecchi was her long-lost half-brother, which he acknowledged was true.

Knockout mice 
Mario Capecchi is known for his work in gene targeting of the mouse embryonic stem cells. This helped him and others study how genes work. The work includes cloning and genetic changing.  The work on gene targeting and knockout mice won the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, jointly with Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies.

Dr. Capecchi has also pursued a systematic analysis of the mouse Hox gene family. This gene family is controls embryonic development in all multicellular animals (metazoa).
Selected honours 
1996 – Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences
1996 – German Molecular Bioanalytics Prize
1997 – Franklin Medal for Advancing Our Knowledge of the Physical Sciences
1998 – Baxter Award for Distinguished Research in the Biomedical Sciences
2000 – Italian Premio Phoenix-Anni Verdi for Genetics Research Award
2001 – Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research, co-winner with Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies.
2001 – Spanish Jiménez-Diáz Prize
2001 – Pioneers of Progress Award
2001 – National Medal of Science
2002 – John Scott Medal Award
2002 – Massry Prize
2003 – Pezcoller Foundation-AACR International Award for Cancer Research
2002/3 – Wolf Prize in Medicine
2005 – March of Dimes Prize in Developmental Biology.
2007 – Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, co-winner with Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies.

References
References

Other websites
 Howard Hughes Medical Institute biography 
 Eccles Institute of Human Genetics biography 
 University of Utah biography 
 Interviews with Mario Capecchi from Dolan DNA Learning Center's DNA Interactive
 Capecchi animation from Dolan DNA Learning Center's DNA from the Beginning

1937 births
Living people
Academics from Utah
American geneticists
American Nobel Prize winners
Harvard University alumni
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Verona
Wolf Prize winners
Italian Nobel Prize winners
A wizard, magician, sorceror or sorceress is a fictional or mythical person who uses magic. This ability to use magic may be due to innate ability, training, or both. Wizards are often depicted as having a special connection to supernatural beings, such as gods or fairies, or as such supernatural beings themselves.

Merlin from the Arthurian legends is one of the most well-known wizard characters.

Wizards have been portrayed as both evil and good. Dumbledore (from the Harry Potter series) and Gandalf (from Tolkien's Middle Earth) are fictional examples of "good" wizards. Voldemort and Saruman are corresponding examples of "evil" wizards.

Appearance 
Wizards are often depicted as old men with long, flowing beards, and wearing a large-brimmed hat, a thick cloak and holding a staff. This may be due to descriptions of Odin the Wanderer, a god from Norse mythology who often disguised himself thus, in order to pass through the lands of men unnoticed.
Wizards, when they are named thus, are almost always portrayed as male, but some fictional or mythical female characters seem to play the same role, sometimes as a foil character to a male wizard or other character. Notable examples include Morgan le Fay from Arthurian legends, and Circe from Greek mythology.

Nowadays, the term "wizard" is also used for someone whose accomplishments are due to unusual skill or creativity. Thomas Edison, the noted American inventor, was nicknamed "the Wizard of Menlo Park."

Related pages
Witch
Witchcraft

Magic (paranormal)
Kaunas, also known by several other names, is the second biggest city in Lithuania and used to be a temporary capital. Kaunas is found at the point where the two biggest Lithuanian rivers, the Nemunas and the Neris, meet. It is also near the Kaunas Lagoon, the largest body of water in Lithuania.

History 
In 1361, Kaunas was first mentioned in annals of the Teutonic Knights. The knights were preparing to attack Kaunas Castle.

In 1408, Vytautas the Great gave the city Magdeburg Rights.

References

Cities in Lithuania
Warp drive (also called warp technology) is a hypothetical technology created in science fiction. As far as we know, it does nor exist. Its invention allowed writing books and making television and film media. 

If it takes centuries or thousands of years to get anywhere in space, then the limitations of human life becomes an obstacle.  That's even assuming we could travel without humans being riddled with holes by radiation of various kinds. We are so protected on planet Earth that we forget what it's like in deep space, which is flooded with radiation.

So warp drive is invented, and so is its cousin wormholes in space. There are no wormholes, or if they exist, we don't know it.

Warp drive and wormholes are the inventions of smart guys who make media. It is a way of moving objects faster than the speed of light. There are many examples of how this idea is used. A well-known one is found in the Star Trek universe, where faster-than-light travel is needed to tell the story.
Current technology does not allow anything or anyone to go at, or faster than, the speed of light. Unless the current theories are proven wrong, this will always be true. However, warp technology as a fictional idea has been an interesting way of shaping the story line to let spaceships move at speeds greater than 186,000 miles per second (speed of light through a vacuum: the known limit of speed in the universe).

Warp technology, as the name implies, 'warps space' in effect bringing a destination closer by bending space rather than the traditional 'thruster' means of propelling a spacecraft at high speeds.
Warp technology allows ships to move at warp speed. In the Star Trek universe, for example, the measurement of the speed that the spaceship is moving is called the warp factor. However, thrusters and impulse power propel spaceships at sub-light speed. Warp factor 1 is equal to the speed of light. The speed ranges up to warp factor 9.99. In some circumstances Star Trek spaceships can go faster than warp 10, although rarely.

Most of that is pure science fiction, and no evidence has been produced of any "warp drive".

In the field of quantum mechanics physicists have produced tiny wormholes, but they don't warp space time in the same way the "warp drive" concept does, rather they connect two separate points of spacetime through quantum entanglement.

References

Science fiction
Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters (September 19, 1813–July 18, 1890) was a German-American astronomer, and one of the first to find asteroids. 

He was born in Schleswig-Holstein, then part of Denmark but later part of Germany, and later studied under Carl Friedrich Gauss. He spoke many languages and spent time in Italy and Ottoman Turkey before going to the United States in 1854.

Working at Hamilton College in Clinton, New York (near Utica), he was a good finder of asteroids, finding 48 of them, beginning with 72 Feronia in 1861 and ending with 287 Nephthys in 1889.

He was involved in litigation in 1889 with his old assistant Charles A. Borst, and the "Great Star-Catalog Case" Peters v. Borst went before the Supreme Court of New York. The judge sided with Peters, but many astronomers and newspapers sided with Borst. Peters died not long after the trial end. After his death, the judgement was ultimately reversed on appeal and a new trial was ordered, but it never took place.
Besides asteroids, he co-found the Periodic comet 80P/Peters-Hartley, and also found different nebulae and galaxies.

Other websites
 Biography

American astronomers
German astronomers
1813 births
1890 deaths
Soest (pronounced ) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is the capital of the Soest district.

Geography 
Soest is along the Hellweg road, about 50 kilometres east of Dortmund and about  west of Paderborn.

Neighbouring places 
 Bad Sassendorf
 Ense
 Lippetal
 Möhnesee
 Werl 
 Welver

History 
Due to the fertile soil the area around Soest was used long before 836 when the village is first mentioned in the Dagobertsche Schenkung, although the origin of this document is historically unknown. But there is no doubt that Soest has been lived in for a long time; excavations in the last two decades have uncovered signs of people living in Soest more than 4000 years ago. In the 11th and 12th century Soest grew a lot, making it one of the biggest cities in Westphalia with some 10,000 citizens. It was also an important member of the Hanseatic League until 1609.
A self-confident Soest from 1444 to 1449 freed itself from the Bishop of Cologne, who controlled Westphalia (the so-called Soester Fehde). Being no longer capital of Westphalia, the city aligned itself with the Duke of Cleves. This was a Pyrrhic victory, however; the city had shown itself strong enough to defy the powerful Archbishop of Cologne, but lost much of its trade: the "freed" town was two-thirds surrounded by territories with other rulers. When the last Duke of Cleves died in 1609 that dukedom was taken by Brandenburg and after a short siege Soest was added into it. During and after the Thirty Years' War, Soest lossed a lot of people and influence; at the lowest point in 1756 it had only 3,600 citizens.

With the start of the Soest district in 1817 its influence slowly rose. However, the industrialization of the Ruhr area did not reach Soest, which continued to be a small city.
From about 1953 to 1971 there was a big garrison of Canadian soldiers and their families stationed at Soest (with the Canadian camps just east of the city in Bad Sassendorf) as well as Werl and Hemer-Iserlohn and Deilinghofen to the south west.  There were also many Belgian Kasernes in Soest itself.

From 1971-1993 the old Canadian properties, such as the Married Quarters along Hiddingser Weg, south of the B-1, were used by British military and families.  Upon the closing out of Belgian and British army facilities many of these military facilities either became used for civilian purposes or were not used again/destroyed. The old Married Quarters area was changed to civilian housing.  The old CANEX (formerly MLS) (the Canadian Army's food and clothing store for dependent families) was changed to a NAAFI under the British and was finally demolished in 2006.
St Patroclus's Cathedral 
In 960, Bruno I, Archbishop of Cologne moved St Patroclus's relics from Troyes and buried them in 964 at St Patroclus's Cathedral in Soest, where he is still today honoured.

The Cathedral is a beautiful example of early medieval "Romanesque" architecture fashioned from the local greenish sandstone. Its big squared bell tower or steeple can be seen for many kilometers, rising up out of the city centre of the old city and a landmark of the Soester Boerde.

Coat of arms 
The coat of arms shows a key, which is the symbol for Saint Peter, the patron of Cologne. The coat was not changed even after Soest no longer fell within the jurisdiction of Cologne.

Twin towns 
        Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales
       Guérard, Seine-et-Marne, France
      Herzberg, Brandenburg, Germany
  Kampen, Overijssel, Netherlands
      Sárospatak, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Hungary
  Soest, Utrecht, Netherlands
       Strzelce Opolskie, Opole Voivodeship, Poland
       Visby, Gotland, Sweden

References
References

Other websites 

 Official site 
 Articles about "Aldegrever and the Protestant Reformation in Soest" / virtual exhibition "Iconoclastic Controversy and sensual pleasure - Heinrich Aldegrever"  with introductory texts and about 170 commented copperplate engravings 

Towns in North Rhine-Westphalia
Soest (district)
Europe's antiquity dates from the Minoan civilization, the Myceneans and later on Homer's Iliad in Ancient Greece of around 700 BC. The Roman Republic was established in 509 BC, which was usurped by Octavian's new Roman Empire at its first century BC peak. The Christian religion was adopted in the fourth century, and in the sixth was organized, within the Empire, by Emperor Justinian I (527–565) with five most important cities: Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. The fall of the Western Roman Empire was followed by a decline of Western Europe. The Byzantine Empire survived in the East. A new schism within the church's authority in 1054 was added to the earlier division that had persisted since 451. It was followed by Crusades from west to rescue the Holy Land from Muslim invasion. Feudal society began to break down, as the Black Death spread.
The Industrial Revolution, beginning in Great Britain, allowed masses of people, not just the rich, to escape for the first time from lives of being always poor and barely able to afford either food or shelter. The early British Empire split as its colonies in America revolted to establish their own representative government. Political change in continental Europe was spurred by the French Revolution, as people cried out for liberté, egalité, fraternité (liberty, equality, brotherhood). The French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, conquered and reformed the social structure of the continent through war up to 1815, when he met his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo and was sent away into exile. As more and more small property holders were granted the vote, especially in France and the UK, socialist and trade union activity developed and revolution gripped Europe in 1848. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Austria-Hungary in 1848. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861
. The Balkan nations began to regain their independence from the Ottoman Empire. After the Franco-Prussian War, Italy and Germany were formed, each from groups of smaller countries which spoke the same languages, in 1870 and 1871.
The Great Depression began in 1929, brought about in part by the economic problems caused by the attempt to force Germany to pay for the war and in part by trade restrictions. Millions of people around the world lost their jobs. Governments changed in many countries, some by elections and some by revolutions. The governments soon fell into two main groups, those who believed in freedom and human rights and those who followed fascism. These two deeply different views led to a Second World War, which most people who write history feel began in Europe when Germany invaded Poland in 1939, but soon spread to most of the countries in the world. It took in wars which were already happening in other places, most notably the war between Japan and China
. After this war Socialism spread to Central and Eastern Europe, including the relatively new Eastern European countries of Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and in Asia North Vietnam and North Korea, and, slightly later, to Cuba in the Carribean Sea very near to North America.
The conflict between the advocates of a capitalist and a socialist economy and political system led to the Cold War, a forty-year argument between the United States and the Soviet Union, two of the countries which had worked together to win the Second World War and the two which had come out of it with the most powerful military forces.  They led respectively a Western Bloc and an Eastern Bloc, dividing Europe.  Each side wanted to promote their type of government.  People across the world feared a nuclear war because of the tension, and Europe, divided by the Iron Curtain, was assumed to be a probable battleground.
Communism became less attractive when it became clear that it could promote economic growth less effectively than the capitalistic Western states and that it was not suited for a reform that allowed freedom of speech for everyone.  Therefore, the Soviet Union forced Hungary to give up its reform in 1956, it favoured the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 and it stopped reform in Czechoslovakia in 1968.  When in 1988/89 the Soviet leader Gorbachev made clear that he would not force the countries of the East block to stick to Communism the Berlin Wall was torn down in 1989 and the Soviet Union collapsed (1991). Then the United States was the only superpower left.
Europe signed a new treaty of union, which included 27 European countries in 2007.

Related pages

 History
 Europe
 European Union

Notes
Notes

References 
 Europe: A History, by Norman Davies, published by Pimlico, 
 Illustrated History of Europe", by Frederic Delouche, published by Henry Holt & Co 
 European History, by various authors, online book on Wikibooks

Other websites 
 Maps of Europe at Wikimedia
 An Atlas of European History at Wikimedia
The World Games are an international multi-sport event. The sports played at The World Games are sports which are not played in the Olympic Games. They are governed by the International World Games Association.

The first World Games were held in 1981 in Santa Clara, California. Since then, they are held every four years, the year after the Summer Olympics.

Official sports and disciplines 

42 sports are part of The World Games. There are many disciplines for some sports. Not all of the sports are played at every World Games event.

References
The Peace of Westphalia refers to the pair of peace treaties, the Treaty of Osnabrück and the Treaty of Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of 1648, which ended both the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War. The treaties involved Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, the other German princes, Spain, France, Sweden and representatives of the Dutch Republic. The Treaty of the Pyrenees, signed in 1659, ending the war between France and Spain, is also often considered part of the overall agreement.

Locations
The peace negotiations were held in the cities of Münster and Osnabrück, which lie about 50 km apart from each other, in the present German states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony. Sweden had favoured Osnabrück because of its Protestant background, France chose Münster because of its Catholic background. In any case, two locations were required because the Protestant and Catholic leaders refused to meet each other. The Catholics used Münster, and the Protestants used Osnabrück.
Results 
Spain accepted the independence of the Dutch Republic.

The power that Ferdinand III had taken for himself against the Holy Roman Empire's constitution was stripped. That meant that the rulers of the German states could again determine the religion of their lands.

All parties would now recognize the Peace of Augsburg of 1555 by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, whether Catholicism, Lutheranism or now Calvinism.
Christians living in principalities in which their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. 

There were also territorial adjustments.

Related pages

Eighty Years' War
Thirty Years' War

Other websites
Treaty Text  
Treaty Text (Yale University)
Texts of the Westphalian Treaties
High Resolution Map of Germany after the Treaty of Westphalia
Peace Treaty of Osnabrück (Full Text) 
Peace Treaty of Münster (Full Text)
1648
Diplomacy
Eighty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
1640s in Europe
Holy Roman Empire
Münster
Osnabrück
Protestant Reformation
May events
October events
Treaties of France
Treaties of Spain

hu:Harmincéves háború#A vesztfáliai béke
Flanimals is a children's and adults' book written by comedian Ricky Gervais. The book was illustrated by Rob Steen. It has 35 different characters described as species of animal which form an imaginary world.

Other websites 
 Official site
 Pictures from the book in the BBC website
 Flanimals on Ricky Gervais's site
 Flanimals on Rob Steen's site 
 Faber and Faber  - UK publisher of all the 'Flanimals' books
 Flanimals on MySpace

2004 books
English children's books
A trolleybus (also known as trolley bus, trolley coach, trackless trolley, trackless tram or simply trolley) is a bus which runs on electricity. It gets its power for the electric motors that drive the wheels from a pair of power lines above the street.

On the roof of the bus are two "trolley poles" from which electric current flows between the wires and the bus. One wire is for the positive current and the other is for the negative (return) current.

Because trolleybuses do not usually have engines which burn diesel or other fossil fuels, they are much cleaner and quieter than "normal" buses. They also do not use tracks, so they are more flexible than trams. However, most of these buses can only go where the wires go. Some are made as a hybrid vehicle, or with a battery so they can go a short distance on ordinary roads.
Trolleybuses cost more money to make than other types of buses, so there are not many companies that build this type of bus. Some of these companies are:
VanHool
MAN
Hess
Solaris
 Škoda Electric
Neoplan
Volvo

Buses
Van Hool is a Belgian company, which builds buses. It was founded in 1947 by Bernard Van Hool.

The headquarters are in Koningshooikt (Antwerp).

They have got 15 different buses for the city. 9 of them have got a normal engine, 4 have got an engine that works with gas, and 2 buses have got an electric engine, they are called Trolleybus.
List of all types of Low-Floor-Bus (Citybus):
A 308
A 320
A 300
A 360
A 330
AG 300
AG 500
AGG 300

A 300 CNG (gas engine)
A 320 CNG (gas engine)
A 330 CNG (gas engine)
AG 300 CNG (gas engine)

A 300 T (Trolleybus)

AG 300 T (Trolleybus)

Also they have got 13 different kinds of coachbuses.
List of all types of coachbuses:
913 CL
915 CL
915 TL
T 911 Alicron
T 915 Alicron
T 915 Acron
T 917 Acron
T 917 Astron
T 916 Altano
T 917 Altano
T 918 Altano
TD 924 Astromega
TD 927 Astromega

References

Other websites 
 Website of VanHool

Transport companies of Europe
Bus transport in Europe
Companies of Belgium
Antwerp (province)
The Battle of Antietam was an important battle in the American Civil War. It is also called the Battle of Sharpsburg by South historians. The battle was fought on September 17, 1862, near Sharpsburg, Maryland. It was also considered the bloodiest battle in the Civil war. It was the first major battle in the Civil War that took place in the border states. Both sides hoped a big victory for their side would make a short war. 

About 22,720 soldiers were killed, wounded or were missing at Antietam. There has never been another single-day battle in the history of the United States with so many American casualties. However, there have been other battles that lasted for more than one day where more Americans fell. For example, the later Battle of Gettysburg lasted three days and had an estimated 51,000 American casualties.
Background 
During the summer of 1862, the hopes of the North that the rebellion could be easily crushed were quickly fading. In July, Major General George B. McClellan's Peninsula Campaign to capture the Southern capital at Richmond, Virginia failed. Near the end of August, the Second Battle of Bull Run was another Confederate victory. The Union armies retreated back to Washington, D.C. only a few miles away. In Tennessee and other western states, Confederate offensives were succeeding. This was causing poor morale in the Union army.
After defeating the Union Army of Virginia at Bull Run, Lee led his Confederate Army of Northern Virginia into Maryland beginning his Maryland Campaign. He had several reasons for attacking the North. First, it was harvest time in the Shenandoah Valley and Lee needed to turn the Union's attention away from his main sources of food for his army. Secondly, he needed European support for the Confederacy. A major win in the North could get the support they needed and also cause the border state of Maryland to secede. It would demoralize the North and possibly get them to negotiate. Lee thought the Union army needed time to rebuild and resupply and moving quickly he could  catch them unprepared.

Prelude
Prelude 

In a bold move Lee divided his Army of Northern Virginia into five smaller armies or columns. Three he sent with General "Stonewall" Jackson to attack and hold Harpers Ferry. This way Jackson could control the Shenandoah Valley. He sent his largest corps commanded by Lieutenant General James Longstreet to move towards Sharpsburg, Maryland. Lee wrote Special Order 191 on September 9, which outlined each move by all his columns. In a strange twist of fate, a copy of the order was wrapped around a bundle of cigars and dropped in a field on Best Farm. Union soldiers of the 27th Indiana Regiment found the bundle with the order. It was sent to General McClellan.
McClellan had remained in command of the Army of the Potomac even though he had failed to support Major General John Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run. When Lee entered Maryland, in a rare exception to his usual slowness, McClellan moved more quickly to cut him off. Having knowledge of Lee's plans gave McClellan an opportunity to destroy Lee's army while it was still weakened by Jackson's being sent to Harper's Ferry. McClellan learned of Lee's plan on September 13. He boasted "Here is a paper with which if I cannot whip Bobbie Lee, I will be willing to go home." He also sent a telegram to President Lincoln where he wrote, "I have all the plans of the rebels, and will catch them in their own trap if my men are equal to the emergency." But McClellan waited another 18 hours before acting. This delay allowed Lee more time to collect all the elements of his army. As Lee had moved into Maryland, he left detachments to guard two of the passes through South Mountain, Crampton's Gap and Turner's Gap
. These were the two most important routes through the 50-mile long South Mountain. Had McClellan moved a little faster, he would have caught Lee's army scattered on the other side of the mountain. At Frederick, Maryland the Union army caught up with Lee and the fighting began on South Mountain. It was a natural formation that separated the Shenandoah and Cumberland Valleys from eastern Maryland. Several battles were fought that day over possession of South Mountain. The Confederates were driven back with a large number of casualties. McClellan could have destroyed Lee's army but he again waited, giving Lee the time to regroup.
The battle 
Three days later the two armies, led by Lee and McClellan, met again on September 17, 1862, between Antietam Creek and the town of Sharpsburg, Maryland. The Battle of Antietam, also called the Battle of Sharpsburg, was not only the bloodiest day of the American Civil War, it was the single bloodiest day in American history. The Confederate troops took up defensive positions behind Antietam Creek. At this point, McClellan decided to attack.

At dawn on September 17, Union soldiers led by Major General Joseph Hooker attacked Lee's troops from their left. As the two armies fought each other, the fighting spread across a local cornfield and around the Dunker Church. The Union troops kept attacking the Confederates at the Sunken Road. They were able to break through the center of the Confederate lines.
Aftermath 
The next day both armies collected their wounded and buried their dead soldiers. Then Lee withdrew his army back to Virginia. McClellan did not go after Lee which frustrated President Lincoln. Militarily the battle was a draw. But because Lee's forces retreated from Maryland, Lincoln claimed victory. He used the occasion to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.

Notes

References

Other websites 
 Battle of Antietam  Staff ride guide, Center of Military History, United States Army.
 Animated History of The Battle of Antietam 
 Lincoln and Lee at Antietam 
 Antietam National Battlefield Park
 Antietam on the Web
 USS Antietam 
 History of Antietam National Cemetery :including a descriptive list of all the loyal soldiers buried therein {published 1869}
 Brotherswar.com The Battle of Antietam 
 Battle of Antietam: Two Great American Armies Engage in Combat article by Ted Alexander

Antietam
1862 in the United States
Maryland Campaign
19th century in Maryland
September 1862 events
Haripur can be any of the following:

 Haripur, Pakistan - main town in Haripur district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
 Haripur District  - district in Hazara Division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
 Haripur, Bardhaman- town in Asansol subdivision of Bardhaman District of West Bengal, India
is a 2001 anime movie directed by Hayao Miyazaki. It was first released in Japan. The movie was a success, and went on to win an Academy Award for animation.

Based on 153 reviews at Rotten Tomatoes, it is the second-best animated movie, having a 97% rating on the site.  The movie occupies the rank of #60 on the IMDb Top 250 Movies list as of December 2008.  The Anime Critic gave it a 4 and 1/2 out of five stars.

Plot 
Chihiro Ogino and her parents are trapped in a spirit world, when they arrive. Chihiro meets a young apprentice named Haku, who tells him that she  must return to the human world. Chihiro meets Yubaba, the owner of the bathhouse and Haku's master. Yubaba allows Chihiro to stay by having her sign a contract, causing her name to change into Sen. After days of working and solving past memories, Chihiro returns to the normal world, after her parents reverted into humans.

Soundtrack listing

Original soundtrack listing
Image album track listing 
  by Umi (3:54)
  by Joe Hisaishi (4:25)
  by Shizuru Otaka (3:55)
  by Tsunehiko Kamijō (3:56)
  by Joe Hisaishi (3:20)
  by Monsieur Kamayatsu (3:41)
  by Rieko Suzuki and Hiroshi Kondo (3:49)
  by Joe Hisaishi (3:22)
   by Rikki (3:33)
  by Joe Hisaishi (3:20)

References 

Notes

Other websites 
 
 
 
 Spirited Away at Metacritic
 Spirited Away at Rotten Tomatoes
 Spirited Away at SparkNotes 
 Spirited Away at the Japanese Movie Database 

2001 movies
Japanese movies
Anime
Studio Ghibli
Movies directed by Hayao Miyazaki
Movies that won the Best Animated Feature Academy Award
Rachel Hannah Weisz (born 7 March 1970) is an Academy Award-winning English actress. She is also a former fashion model. She became famous after her roles in the Hollywood movies The Mummy and The Mummy Returns, and has since continued appearing in major movie roles.

Weisz is of Jewish descent.

Filmography

Film

Television

Theatre

References

Other websites 

 
 

1970 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from London
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
English movie actors
English television actors
English voice actors
Jewish British actors
Jewish models
Models from London
Old French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium and Switzerland from around 1000 to 1300. It was then known as the langue d'oïl. This was different from the langue d'oc (Occitan language, also then called Provençal), whose territory bordered that of Old French to the south.

The Old Frankish language added many words to Old French after the conquest by the tribe of the Franks, of the portions of Roman Gaul that are now France and Belgium, during the Migration Period.

References

French language
Deborah Sampson was a woman who dressed as a man, so that she could join the American soldiers in the Revolutionary War. The Revolutionary War was a war between Great Britain and the thirteen original colonies. Deborah Sampson came from a poor family. She worked as an indentured servant from the age of eight to the age of eighteen. She worked for no pay for a family, but that family let her study with and spend time with their sons.

Sampson wanted to serve in the war against the British, but the American Army would only take men. She dressed as a man, and she got into the Continental Army. She went by the name of Robert Shurtleff. 
She later got married. She worked as a teacher. She also spoke in public about her experiences in the war.
During her time in war she went to extremes to keep her identity a secret. She once got slashed in the head by an enemy, yet bandaged it up herself. She also got shot in the leg twice. But, in order to not let people find out who she was, she pulled the bullets out of her own leg. In war, she collapsed from fever. She went to the hospital because of it and this is where her peers and boss found out about her being a woman.

Even if she lied to get into the army, her bravery was recognized and she was honored by her General and Congress as well.

In books 
 Alma Bond and Lucy Freeman, America's First Woman Warrior: The Courage of Deborah Sampson
 Susan Casey, “Women Heroes of the Revolution"
 Samuel Willard Crompton, “Deborah Sampson"
 Ann McGovern and Katherine Thompson, The Secret Soldier: The Story Of Deborah Sampson

References

1760 births
1827 deaths
American revolutionaries
People from Massachusetts