Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Algae (singular: alga, plural: algae) are plant-like living things. They  make food from sunlight by photosynthesis. The study of algae is called phycology or algology.

The term covers different groups, and they are not all closely related. They are a polyphyletic group. The term lumps together different kinds of organisms. They are very ancient, and existed long before other types of plants. They date back to the Mesoproterozoic, over a thousand million years ago. They are not quite the first type of life, because they all seem to use plastids which originate in cyanobacteria.

They have in common that they are autotrophic: they use natural sources of energy and simple inorganic materials. As non-vascular plants they do not have the structure of land plants. The name "algae" is convenient but a loose term. Recently, it has become clear how different the types of algae are.
Etymology and study
The singular  is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English. Although some say that it is related to Latin , 'be cold'. But, no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is , 'binding, entwining'.

The Ancient Greek word for 'seaweed' was  (), which could either mean the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye that is got from it.

Biology and taxonomy 

Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms. Some have one cell and others have many cells. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds. They are like plants, and "simple" because they lack the many distinct organs found in land plants.
Though the prokaryotic cyanobacteria (formerly referred to as blue-green algae) were included as "algae" in older textbooks, it is not now. The term algae is now used for eukaryotic organisms. All true algae have a nucleus within a membrane and chloroplasts inside one or more membranes. Algae are not a monophyletic group, as they do not all descend from a common algal ancestor.

Algae do not have the same structures that land plants do, such as leaves, roots, and other organs.  Nearly all algae have parts that do photosynthesis the same way as cyanobacteria. They make oxygen, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green bacteria. Some unicellular species use only external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic parts.

Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.
Types of algae 
Below are some important kinds of algae.
Green algae: they are regarded as plants because they use the same type of chlorophyll as green plants do. An evolutionary relationship between green algae and green plants is assumed.
Red algae: use a red pigment to capture the energy of sunlight, and so thought to have evolved separately from green plants.
Brown algae: use chlorophyll a, but have several other biochemical differences. Also not considered a green plant.
Yellow-green algae: the Xanthophyceae.
Golden algae: the Chrysophyceae.

Life style

Ecology 
Algae are usually found in damp places or water, and are common on land and water. However, algae on land are usually inconspicuous and are far more common in moist, tropical regions than dry ones. Algae do not have vascular tissues and other adaptations to live on land, but they can endure dryness and other conditions in symbiosis with a fungus as lichen.
The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column are called phytoplankton. They provide the food base for most marine food chains. Kelp grows mostly in shallow marine waters. Some are used as human food or harvested for agar or fertilizer. Kelp can grow in large stands called kelp forests. These forests prevent some of the damage from waves. Many different species live in them, including sea urchins, sea otters, and abalone.

Some algae may harm other species. Some algae may reproduce a lot, and make an algal bloom.  These algae may make protective toxins which kill fish in the water.  Dinoflagellates make a compound that turns the flesh of fish into slime. Then the algae eats this nutritious liquid.
Symbiosis 
 
Algae have evolved a number of symbiotic partnerships with other organisms. The most famous is the plant-like lichen, which are each formed by a fungus with an alga. It is a highly successful life-form, and twenty thousand 'species' are known. In all cases the lichen are quite different in appearance and life-style from either constituent; it is possibly the most complete symbiosis known. Both constituents gain from their access to niches with low nutrient value, which is where lichen are found.
Less well known are the algal relationships with animals. Reef-building corals are basically social Cnidarian polyps. Corals are dependent on light, because the algae are important partners, and they require light. Corals have evolved structures, often tree-like, which offer the algae maximum access to light. The coral weakens the algal cell walls, and digests about 80% of the food synthesised by the algae. The corals' waste-products provide nutrients for the algae so, as with lichen, both partners gain from the association. The algae are golden-brown flagellate algae, often of the genus Symbiodinium. A curious feature of the partnership is that the coral may eject the algae in hard times, and regain them later. The ejection of the algal partner is called bleaching, because the coral loses its colour.p200
Other types of Cnideria, such as sea anemones and jellyfish, also contain algae. Jellyfish with algae behave so that their partners get the best light during the day, and descend to depths at night, where the water is rich in nitrates and brown with decay. Sea slugs and clams are also well known for harbouring algae. Both groups are molluscs. The sea slugs graze on coral, and are the same colour as the coral they graze. They are able to separate the algae from the polyp tissues they digest. The algal cells are moved to its tentacles, where they continue to live. The otherwise defenceless slug gains both camouflage and nutrition.p204 The giant clam keeps algae in its mantle, which is revealed when the clam is open. The coloured mantle has places where the skin is transparent, and acts like a lens to concentrate light on the algae beneath. When the algae get too numerous, the clam digests them.p203
Various other marine invertebrate groups have members which symbiose with algae. Flatworms (Platyhelminths) and Polychaete worms (Annelids) are two such groups.

References 

 
Non-vascular plants
Alga (; ) is a hamlet in the Korday District of Kazakhstan.  It is one of several communities in Kazakhstan with this name.  The A-2 highway from Bishkek to Almaty runs through the town.  A significant architectural feature is its mosque.

Hamlets
Settlements in Kazakhstan
Kelp forests are a type of marine ecosystem that is present around colonies of kelp; they contain rich biodiversity. Kelp can stretch 2-30 meters or more (up to 60 m in Macrocystis pyrifera) from their anchors on the sea floor to the surface. It provides a vertical infrastructure that is home to many fish and invertebrate species.  Kelp forests also often attract mammalian visitors, including whales, sea lions, sea otters, and SCUBA-diving humans.

Kelp forests draw their name from an analogy to forests on land.

In some places, sea urchins eat so many kelp plants that the kelp forest becomes an urchin barren.

Ecosystem architecture
Giant kelp uses gas-filled floats to keep the plant suspended, allowing the kelp blades near the ocean surface to capture light for photosynthesis.
The architecture of a kelp forest ecosystem is based on its physical structure, which influences the associated species that define its community structure. Structurally, the ecosystem includes three guilds of kelp and two guilds occupied by other algae:

 Canopy kelps include the largest species and often constitute floating canopies that extend to the ocean surface (e.g., Macrocystisand Alaria).
 Stipitate kelps generally grow a few meters above the sea floor and can grow in dense aggregations (e.g., Eisenia and Ecklonia).
 Prostrate kelps lie near and along the sea floor (e.g., Laminaria).
 The benthos is composed of other algal species (e.g., filamentous and foliose functional groups, articulated corallines) and sessile organisms along the ocean bottom.
 Encrusting coralline algae directly and often extensively cover ocean floor.
Multiple kelp species often co-exist within a forest; the term understory canopy refers to the stipitate and prostrate kelps. For example, a Macrocystis canopy may extend many meters above the seafloor towards the ocean surface, while an understory of the kelps Eisenia and Pterygophora reaches upward only a few meters. Beneath these kelps, a benthic assemblage of foliose red algae may occur. The dense vertical structure with overlying canopy forms a system of microenvironments similar to those observed in a terrestrial forest, with a sunny canopy region, a partially shaded middle, and darkened seafloor. Each guild has associated organisms, which vary in their levels of dependence on the habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies. For example, in California, Macrocystis pyrifera forests, the nudibranch, Melibe leonina, and skeleton shrimp, Caprella californica, are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch Brachyistius frenatus, rockfish Sebastes spp
., and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory; brittle stars and turban snails Tegula spp. are closely associated with the kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and benthic fishes live among the benthos; solitary corals, various gastropods, and echinoderms live over the encrusting coralline algae. In addition, pelagic fishes and marine mammals are loosely associated with kelp forests, usually interacting near the edges as they visit to feed on resident organisms.
References

Biomes
Symbiosis (pl. symbioses) means living together. It describes close and long-term relationships between different species. The term was
used by Anton de Bary in 1879, as "the living together of unlike organisms". 

A symbiont is an organism living in a relationship with another species in which one or both get benefits. When one species lives inside another species, or a microscopic symbiont lives inside the cells of a host, it is called an endosymbiont.

The relevance of symbiosis is its frequency and its evolutionary significance. There appear to be no higher plants or animals without symbionts. Those symbionts are of great importance to the larger organisms, who in most cases would be unable to live as they do without their symbionts. Mycorrhiza in higher plants, and gut flora in insects and vertebrates are examples. Humans are no exception.
Furthermore, most of these associations are between organisms not just from different species, but from different kingdoms. And lastly, the cells of all eukaryotes contain organelles which are descendants of symbiotic relationships which began at least a billion years ago. Mitochondria and plastids are examples. The conclusion must be that symbiosis has been highly significant in the evolution of life.

Definition 

The definition of symbiosis has been controversial. Some believe symbiosis should only refer to persistent mutualisms, while others believe it should apply to all kinds of long-term biological interactions.

After 130 years of debate, current biology and ecology textbooks now use the latter "de Bary" definition or an even broader definition (where symbiosis means all species interactions). The restrictive definition (where symbiosis means mutualism only) is no longer used.
The widest definition includes parasitism (in which one organism is helped and the other organism is hurt), mutualism (in which both organisms are helped), commensalism (in which one organism is helped and the other is not affected), and competition (in which both organisms are hurt).

Types of symbiosis 

The various forms of symbiosis include:

Type 1: Partners keep their bodies separate 
Symbiosis does not always benefit both partners. This is what may happen:

 parasitism, in which the association has disadvantages for one of the two. One may even destroy or kill the other. (+ –)
 mutualism, in which the association has advantages for both (+ +)
 commensalism, in which one member of the association benefits while the other is not affected (+ 0)
 competition, in which both members of the association are fighting over food or other needs. (– –)

Type 2: Partners live as one organism
This kind of symbiosis is called endosymbiosis. Examples are:
Rhizobia: nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live in root nodules on plants of the pea family.
Singly-celled forams which include a single-celled alga inside the cell. This is 'facultative', which means they may or may not do it. A more far-reaching version is idioplastic endosymbiosis. Here, the foram consumes the alga, but keeps its chloroplasts in working order.
Green algae inside marine polychaete worms.
Single-celled algae inside reef-building corals.
Bacteria inside the guts of those insects and vertebrates which digest plant cellulose. These are 'obligate' symbionts, which means the host must have them.
Lichen: fungus+alga or bacterium.
Mycorrhiza: fungal hyphae and roots of trees.
Examples of symbiosis 
 An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between clownfish that live among the tentacles of tropical sea anemones. The clownfish protects the anemone from other fish.  Clownfish waste excreted provides vital nutrients, and they can boost their hosts’ oxygen supplies at night too.  The stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the anemone fish from its predators. A special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.

Another example is the goby fish, which sometimes lives together with a shrimp. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby live. The shrimp is almost blind, and is vulnerable to predators when above ground. When a predator approaches, the goby touches the shrimp with its tail as a signal. When that happens both the shrimp and goby quickly retreat into the burrow.
A lichen is an intimate combination of a fungus with an alga. The alga lives inside the fungus, which must have the alga to survive. The alga, on the other hand, can survive on its own. The result of the union is a flat, coloured lichen which grows on rocks and other surfaces in the open air.

 Herbivores are host to gut bacteria which help them digest plant material. Plant cell walls are made of cellulose, and almost no animal has developed an enzyme to digest this material. Therefore, at least for herbivores which eat leaves, the bacteria are essential.

 Some species of ants 'farm' aphids, protecting them from predators, and moving them from one feeding site to another. The ants consume the sweet sticky fluid which aphids secrete after sucking plant sap.

References 

 
Cell biology
Evolutionary biology
Economy
Al Ain is the fourth largest metropolitan area by population in the Emirates, with a population of 348,000 (2003 census estimate). There are more Emirati nationals in Al Ain than other places in the country, but most who live there are people who left other countries, particularly from the Indian sub-continent. There are fewer Western people than in the larger centers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. This gives Al Ain a more 'Arabic' look and feel, compared to the larger cities of the Emirates.

History
People have lived in Al Ain for more than 4000 years, and the area is central to the cultural heritage of the country. There are many underground water springs in the area. This explains why people wanted to live there. Traces of its past remain, including camel racing and breeding. The ancient falaj system of irrigation is still in use in some areas. The system brings underground water to people by a network of tunnels that come out into open channels. The flow of water in the channels can be controlled.
Tourism
Al Ain is becoming a place that tourists visit, with attractions such as Jebel Hafeet, a 1340 metre high mountain that dominates the surrounding area. Many tourists like to visit the mineral springs at the base and drive to the top of this mountain for sunset. Al Ain regularly records the highest summer temperatures in the country, but the dry desert air makes it a welcome escape from the coastal humidity of the larger cities. Other attractions include the Al Ain Oasis in the city centre, and other oases around the area, cool places to escape the summer heat, a zoo, amusement park named "Fun City", many well kept parks, popular with families in the summer evenings, a heritage village, as well as malls and other modern sites. Important buildings include United Arab Emirates University, Higher Colleges of Technology, well-equipped medical facilities, including the teaching hospital at Tawam, military training areas and Al Ain International Airport.
Sports
The city is home to the successful association football (soccer) club, Al Ain FC.

Cities in the United Arab Emirates
Jutland (Danish: Jylland; German: Jütland) is a peninsula in northern Europe. It forms the mainland part of Denmark and a northern part of Germany. It separates the North Sea from the Baltic Sea. Its terrain is relatively flat, with low hills and peat bogs. It has an area of 29,775 km² (11,496 square miles), and a population of 2,491,852 (2004).

The northern two thirds of the peninsula are occupied by the westernmost portion of the Kingdom of Denmark. There is no separate name for the Danish portion of the peninsula, so it is simply called the same name. 

The northernmost part of Jutland became an island following a flood in 1825; the Limfjord now separates it from the mainland. This island is called Vendsyssel-Thy or Nørrejyske Ø ("North Jutlandic Island") and is still commonly reckoned as part of the peninsula; it is also partly coterminous with the county and future region called North Jutland.
The southern third is made up of the German Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein, with the duchies of Schleswig (also Sønderjylland/Southern Jutland) and Holstein. Both duchies have passed back and forth between the Danes and various German rulers. In the last border movement, Denmark regained North Schleswig (Nordslesvig in Danish) by plebiscite in 1920. Southern Schleswig remained German.

The River Elbe forms the southern border of Jutland with the city of Hamburg on its shore. The Danish Wadden Sea Islands and the North Frisian Islands stretch along the southwest coast of Jutland in the German Bight.

There are two bridges which link the central part ofJutland to the island of Funen to the east. They are the Little Belt Bridge and the New Little Belt Bridge. The roads which use these bridges are part of the European road network.
Cities
The largest cities on the Jutland Peninsula are:
 Århus, Denmark
 Kiel, Germany
 Lübeck, Germany
 Aalborg, Denmark
 Flensburg, Germany
 Esbjerg, Denmark
 Randers, Denmark
 Kolding, Denmark
 Vejle, Denmark
 Horsens, Denmark

References 

Peninsulas of Europe
Geography of Denmark
Geography of Schleswig-Holstein
Regions of Germany
A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws. Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. Others define it as the opposite. Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution.

There are two types of result
 Mandatory - meaning the government must do what the result says
 Advisory - meaning the result of the vote is only to help the government make the final choice.

It usually depends on the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum/plebiscite is used.  In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern. For example, during Switzerland's basic income campaign the country utilized a national referendum for the polling.
In the United Kingdom referendums have only been advisory, because the government says that the people elected to Parliament make the decisions. The referendum on the independence of Scotland was an exception. It was legally binding, but it was not a referendum of the UK electorate. It was restricted to present residents of Scotland.

An example of a proposed plebiscite was the 2011 decision by Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou to let the Greek people vote on whether the heavily indebted nation would accept a €130 billion bailout package from the European Union. The idea shocked eurozone nations, as a "no" vote could mean Greece defaulting on its national debt, and leaving the European Union and the eurozone. However, the vote was cancelled. 

Another example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005. The vote took place in some countries. France and The Netherlands had a referendum on the subject. In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made.
The separate simultaneous referendums held on 24 April 2004 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus on the comprehensive settlement plan of the UN Secretary-General provides yet another example of such a vote. The Plan was approved in the Turkish Cypriot referendum by 65%, while it was rejected in the Greek Cypriot referendum by 75%.

Problems with referendums 
Many political problems can be solved by asking the people their opinion because the supporters of the argument will be forced to accept the decision of the people. However:

 It is feared that the electorate do not have sufficient political knowledge to truly understand what they are voting for

 Philosophers Plato and Madison thought voters are too easily persuaded by their own internal feelings of a matter instead of focusing on the good of the nation. That is to say they vote selfishly.

References 

Voting
The city of Dubai is the largest and most populated city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the capital city of the emirate of Dubai, UAE. The city is sometimes called "Dubai City" to prevent it from being mixed up with the emirate.

Dubai is a city and emirate in the United Arab Emirates known for luxury shopping, ultramodern architecture and a lively nightlife scene. Burj Khalifa, an 830m-tall tower, dominates the skyscraper-filled skyline. At its foot lies Dubai Fountain, with jets and lights choreographed to music. On artificial islands just offshore is Atlantis, The Palm, a resort with water and marine-animal parks.

History 
There are records of the town of Dubai from 1799. The city was a dependent of Abu Dhabi until 1833. The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen (chiefly Indians), who settled in the town. Until the 1930s, the town was known for its pearls.

Famous places
Famous places 

 Burj Khalifa 
 Burj al-Arab
 Dubai International Airport, in the middle of the city
 Dubai Mall, one of the largest malls in the world
Global Village
Dubai park
TakaHisa Japanese Restaurant
IMG world of adventure
23 Marina
Wild Wadi water park
Dubai Desert Safari Experiences
Dubai Attractions

Climate 
Dubai has a hot desert climate. Summers are extremely hot, windy, and humid. The highest recorded temperature in the UAE is 52.1 °C (126 °F), recorded in July 2002. 

According to the UN, about 14 percent of the world population will face water scarcity by the year 2025. This shortage of water is expected to be worse in arid countries like the UAE. The UAE cloud seeding initiative is part of the government’s attempt to deal with the existing and future water needs of the country’s growing population.

Specific rules 
Dubai has strict rules like:
The drinking age is 21. Drinking in public or being drunk in public are not tolerated.
 Offensive language, spitting, aggressive behavior and smoking outside designated areas are not tolerated.
 Public displays of affection such as holding hands or kissing are not tolerated.
 Men should avoid staring at local women or attempting to make eye contact.
 During Ramadan while Muslims are fasting from sunrise to sunset, non-Muslims can only eat and drink in screened-off areas.

References

Other websites 
 www.dubai.ae – Dubai Government portal
 www.dm.gov.ae – Dubai Municipality website
 dubijobs.com  – Dubai Job portal
 Dubaievisaonline

 
Settlements established in the 18th century
An exclave is strip of land that belongs to an entity (like a country or a region) but that is not connected to it by land (islands are not counted). The strip of land is surrounded by other political entities. A good example is Kaliningrad Oblast (the region around the Russian city Kaliningrad). It belongs to the Russian Federation, but is separated from the rest of that country by territory belonging to Lithuania and Poland.

Although both meanings are close, an exclave might not be an enclave.  An enclave is completely surrounded by one other country.   For example, Kaliningrad is surrounded not by one state, but by two: Lithuania and Poland. It also borders the Baltic Sea. It is not an enclave.  On the other hand, the Spanish exclave of Llivia is an enclave in France.

Many exclaves today have some of idea of becoming independent, especially if the exclave is far away from the mainland.
A much more obscure use means, in medical discussion, a detached part of an organ, as of the pancreas, thyroid, or other gland.

The lists below are of various types of exclaves that are not enclaves.

True exclaves
 Angola: Cabinda
 Azerbaijan: Nakhichevan
 Belgium: Baarle-Hertog
 Brunei: Temburong
 Croatia: Dubrovnik
 East Timor: Oecussi-Ambeno
 Germany: Büsingen am Hochrhein
 Italy: Campione
 Netherlands: Baarle-Nassau (parts)
 Oman: Musandam
 Russia: Kaliningrad 
 Spain: Llivia
 Northern Cyprus: Kokkina (de facto).
 United States: Alaska

Subnational exclaves
Exclaves of administrative divisions below the national level.
Many of the cantons of Switzerland have exclaves:
Bern has two small exclaves, Münchenwiler and Clavaleyres; the first is entirely surrounded by Fribourg, the second by Fribourg and Vaud's exclave.
Lucerne has two pieces separated from the main territory by the Vierwaldstättersee; one borders Schwyz, the other Nidwalden.
The "half-canton" of Obwalden is in two large pieces, separated by a strip of Nidwalden.
Nidwalden's district of Hergiswil is separated by an arm of the Vierwaldstättersee.
Fribourg is a large exclave bounded by Vaud and Lake Neuchâtel; two enclaves, Surpierre and Vuissens, within Vaud; and another enclave, Wallenbuch, within Bern.
Solothurn has two exclaves, Dorneck and Thierstein, both bounded on the south by Basel-Country and on the north by France; as well as the enclave of Steinhof which is entirely surrounded by Bern.
Schaffhausen, the only canton lying mostly on the north bank of the Rhine, is cut into three parts by German territory that links Germany to the Rhine.  The middle part is the largest, and surrounds the German enclave of Büsingen.  The upper and middle parts border on Thurgau, the middle and lower parts on Zürich.
The divided canton of Appenzell is surrounded by Sankt-Gallen.  Since its partition on religious lines in 1597, Appenzell Innerrhoden has three small exclaves, one enclave in Appenzell Ausserrhoden and two bordering also on Sankt-Gallen.
Vaud has one exclave, Avenches, bordered by Lake Neuchâtel, Fribourg and the tiny Bernese exclave of Clavaleyres.  The coast of Lake Neuchâtel is thus in seven pieces belonging to four cantons: clockwise from the north they are Neuchâtel, Bern (main), Vaud (Avenches exclave), Fribourg (main), Vaud (main), Fribourg (exclave), Vaud (main).
Geneva has two small exclaves within Vaud, together making the commune of Céligny.  The larger has a shoreline on Lake Geneva.
The secession of the new canton of Jura in 1979 left Bern temporarily with an exclave bounded by Jura, Solothurn (main and both exclaves), Basel-Country and France.  The exclave, Laufental, joined Basel-Country in 1994.
United States:
Kentucky: The westernmost part of the state, a piece of land known as the Kentucky Bend, is surrounded on three sides by the Mississippi River, with Missouri on the opposite shore. Road access to the rest of Kentucky is only available by first going south into Tennessee.  This exclave exists because the Mississippi, which forms the boundary between Missouri (right bank) and Kentucky/Tennessee (left bank), crosses latitude 36°30', which is part of the border between Kentucky and Tennessee, three times.
Louisiana: St. Martin Parish has an exclave which is separated from the main part of the parish by Iberia Parish.
Massachusetts: Norfolk County is not in one piece.  The towns of Brookline and Cohasset are part of Norfolk County, but are surrounded on all sides by other counties: Brookline by Suffolk and Middlesex, Cohasset by Plymouth.
California: The City and County of San Francisco has an exclave on Alameda Island, across San Francisco Bay and adjoining Alameda County. The exclave came into being as land on the border between the two counties was reclaimed from the Bay to build the Naval Air Station Alameda, now decommissioned. This small piece of open space cannot be reached from San Francisco (except by boat) without passing through Oakland and Alameda.
Michigan: The "Lost Peninsula" in Monroe County, Michigan, can only be reached via Toledo, Ohio. It is surrounded by Maumee Bay in Lake Erie. (Map)
Sandoval County, New Mexico: During World War II, Los Alamos County was created out of parts of Sandoval and Santa Fe Counties, for the convenience of the Manhattan Project.  That portion of Sandoval County which is within the San Ildefonso Indian Reservation, about 3 km², became an exclave bounded by Los Alamos County on the southwest, Santa Fe County on the east and Rio Arriba County on the north.
"Practical" exclaves
Some territories are not geographically detached from their motherland. Nevertheless, they are more easily reached by entering a foreign country. Very often, this is because of their location in a hilly area. It may also be because the only road enters that foreign place before coming back to the mother country.  These territories may be called "practical exclaves," "pene-exclaves" or "quasi-exclaves" and can be found along many borders, particularly those that are not heavily defended. They will only be attached to the motherland via an extremely small or thin slice of land.
Canada: St. Regis, Quebec: Part of the Akwesasne Mohawk Nation on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River, it is attached by land to the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation in New York State; road access to the rest of Canada is only available through New York State.
United States:
 Alaska: The Alaska Panhandle, though connected geographically, is inaccessible by road from the rest of the state.  One must drive through Canada to reach the area from elsewhere in the state
Minnesota: The Northwest Angle is attached by land to the Canadian province of Manitoba; road access to the rest of the United States is only available through Manitoba
Washington: Point Roberts is at the southern end of a peninsula; land access to the rest of the United States is only available through the Canadian province of British Columbia
"Practical" subnational exclaves
United States:
Virginia :The Eastern Shore, comprising Accomack County and Northampton County, is located at the southern tip of the Delmarva Peninsula.  It is connected to the rest of Virginia via the 23 mile (37 km) long Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel.
Iowa: Carter Lake, a part of Pottawattamie County, Iowa, is surrounded by Omaha, Nebraska on three sides and the Missouri River on the fourth; road access to Iowa is only available through Nebraska.  
Michigan: The Upper Peninsula is attached by land to Wisconsin.  It can be reached from the Lower Peninsula of Michigan by the 5 mile (8 km) long Mackinac Bridge.

United Kingdom:
England: Pentreheyling can only be reached by road through Wales.
Historical exclaves
East Prussia, a German exclave during the Weimar Republic: it was separated from Germany after World War I, when Poland regained access to the Baltic sea.  East Prussia (essentially the old Duchy of Prussia) is now divided into Kaliningrad Oblast in Russia (see above) and the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship in Poland.
later became part of Poland and Russia (see Kaliningrad above).
East Bengal (1947-1955) / East Pakistan (1955-1971), now Bangladesh, was an exclave separated from West Pakistan by 1600 kilometres of India's territory. East Pakistan accounted for 70% of the exports of the country and was more populous than West Pakistan, and so in a sense it was actually the physically larger and politically more influential West that was the enclave and East Pakistan that was the Mainland.
Walvis Bay was a South African exclave in Namibia, before being incorporated with Namibia upon its independence.

Related pages
Enclave
Panhandle
List of countries that border only one other country
Other websites 
 Enclaves of the world 
 Jan S. Krogh's Geosite
 Article 'Tangled Territories' on European exclaves by Nicky Gardner of hidden europe magazine
 exclave.info
In general use, an enclave can be any special area of a bigger area of land, such as a part of a city that has different taxes than the rest of the city.

In political geography, an enclave is a piece of land which has a different country totally around it. If another country has sovereignty over it, it is also called an exclave of that other country.  It is usually landlocked, meaning it is completely encased by the surrounding country

Exclaves can also exist within a country. This is when some administrative regions have holes (of other such regions) in them.

The word enclave is a relatively new word in the language of diplomacy: Diplomats are used to speaking French. The word comes from late Latin inclavatus, which can be translated as shut in, locked up (with a key, from Latin clavis, key). The word got in the English language in the year 1868. exclave (with a similar meaning) followed 3 decades later.
Enclaves may be created for a variety of historical, political or geographical reasons. Some areas have been left as enclaves simply because a river changed its course.

Since living in an enclave can be very inconvenient and many agreements have to be found by both countries over mail addresses, power supply or passage rights, enclaves tend to be eliminated and many cases that existed before have now been removed. Sometimes it is the case, that enclaves are traded for one another.

In English Church history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars (see also Royal Peculiar).

Enclaved countries 

Some enclaves are countries that are not part of any other country, and therefore not exclaves. Three such countries exist:
 The republic of San Marino, enclaved within Italy
 Vatican City, within the city of Rome, in Italy
 The Kingdom of Lesotho, inside South Africa
A panhandle is a word used in geography. What people mean when they talk about panhandles is a narrow strip of land, that is surrounded on all sides except one, by one or more countries or regions. The strip of land is connected to the country or region it belongs to on one side only. This looks like the handle of a frying pan.

Panhandles include:
Florida Panhandle
Oklahoma Panhandle
Alaska Panhandle is the state's southeast

Landforms
A new town, planned community, or planned city is a kind of city that is designed by architects and engineers before it is built. Most cities and towns just develop over the years, without a clear plan, and urban planning is used only for later expansion. 

Planned communities are designed with separate districts of the city for parks, stores, homes, and offices. Many planned communities have a transportation system for commuters.

There are many examples of capital cities being planned throughout history like Baghdad, Iraq; Washington D.C., United States; New Delhi, India; Canberra, Australia; Brasília, Brazil; and Naypyidaw, Myanmar.

Pictures

Related pages 

 City
 Urban planning

Other websites 

 The International New Town Institute, a research organization
Settlements
Urban planning
A park is an open place in a city or town for nature.  There are often trees, benches, statues, and ponds in a park.  Some parks built in big cities are very large.  These can have fountains or picnic areas.

A park is an open area,often found with trees,benches,statues,etc.
There is also lots of nature around, such as flowers, animals, trees, and much more.
It is mostly used for recreational activities such as walking, exercising, cycling, playing,etc.
A play park can even have swings,slides and some adventurous activities.

Sometimes, countries or regions set up national parks. These are usually large areas of land. Those areas are made to protect the habitats of animals. Very often, a special permit is necessary to enter. Building things in the park is usually forbidden, or needs a special permit.

An example of a national park is Yellowstone National Park.

A park can also be an amusement park or water park in which the rides and shows are the main attractions.

Related pages
 Botanical garden
 Garden
A pond is a body of water smaller than a lake.  Ponds support  wide range of wildlife: ducks, turtles, swans, small fish, and frogs can live in a pond. Usually, in most ponds sunlight can reach to bottom. In some cases ponds do not last all year round. This type of pond is called a vernal pond, or ephemeral, seasonal, or temporary wetlands. These types of ponds do not have any fish. Some ponds are now getting polluted because of humans.

 
	
 	
Biomes
A swan (Cygnini) is a kind of water bird, from the genera Cygnus and Coscoroba. They are in the subfamily Anserinae, in the family Anatidae, which also includes geese and ducks.

Many swans live in colder places, such as northern Europe, Asia and North America. They live on water. They swim on top of the water and eat plants off the bottom of ponds, lakes, or oceans. They also eat insects and other small animals. A baby swan is called a cygnet.

Swans are tough, strong birds who will stand no nonsense from dogs or cats. They may open their wings as a warning, but from then on a person is advised to keep clear. Swans are highly protective of their nests. They will attack anything they see as a threat to their chicks, including humans.
Description 
The swans are some of the largest flying birds. They are large in size and have large feet and long necks. The males are usually bigger and heavier than females. The mute swan, trumpeter swan, and whooper swan are the largest swans. They can be over 1.5m (60 inches) long. They can weigh over 15kg (33 pounds). Their wingspans (this means the length of both wings) can be almost 3m (10 ft). 

Most swans are white. They are found in the Northern Hemisphere. This means they are found in Europe, Asia and North America. However, the black swan is black with a red beak. It lives in Australia.  The black necked swan has white flight feathers, and black outer feathers. It lives in South America. They also have a small area of skin between the eyes and beak that has no feathers. This area can be different colors, such as yellow (for example, on a Bewick's swan) or orange (for example, on a mute swan).
Wild swans migrate.  They spend the cold part of the year eating and getting fat in one place and move to a warmer place to lay eggs and raise chicks, called cygnets.

The coscoroba swan is different to the other swans. Some scientists think it is more like a duck or a goose. It is the smaller than the other swans. This swan lives in South America.

Climate change

Bewick's swans used to spend a lot of time in Ireland and Britain and the Netherlands, but scientists say they have been moving east into Germany.  They spend less time in their winter feeding grounds than they did in 1970.  Scientists say they are following the changes in temperature in Europe.  The scientists found that individual swans do not change where they like to go during their own lifetimes.  Instead, different generations of swans go to different places from their parents and grandparents.
Taxonomy 
 Genus Cygnus
 Black swan (Cygnus atratus)
 New Zealand swan (Cygnus atratus sumnerensis) †
 Trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator)
 Bewick's swan (Cygnus bewickii)
 Whistling swan (Cygnus columbianus)
 Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus)
 Black-necked swan (Cygnus melancoryphus)
 Mute swan (Cygnus olor)
 Genus Coscoroba

References
A pupa (plural: pupae or pupas) is part of becoming an adult for some insects, like some butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and bees. The pupal stage comes after being a larva; the next stage is adulthood.

The pupa stage of a butterfly, called a chrysalis (plural "chrysalids"), is a well-known example of a pupa because they are often found in the open.

Insects
Developmental biology
Zoology
Paul might mean:

People

The name Paul [ pawl ] is a Latin name derived from the Roman family name Paulus, which is derived from the Latin word "paulus" meaning "small" or "humble". It is also associated with the Latin word "paullus" meaning "little".

The name Paul is a popular name in many countries around the world, including the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and many more. This name was ranked #257 on the US Popular Names in 2021.
The name Paul is often associated with the Biblical figure Saint Paul, who was an important figure in the early Christian Church. He was a missionary, theologian, and author of several books of the New Testament.
Paul the Apostle
Paul of Russia, a Russian Tsar
Prince Paul of Yugoslavia ("Pavle"), a prince of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the 1930s
Paul Hunter, English snooker player
Paul Vallas, American politician and school administrator
Paul McCartney, British rock musician, former member of The Beatles and Wings

Other
Paul (movie), a 2011 movie
Paul, Idaho, a city in the U.S. state of Idaho
Paul the Octopus, an octopus who seemed able to say who would win football matches

References
Goose (plural geese, family Anatidae) are birds.  There are three species groups of geese: the genus Anser, the genus Branta, and the genus Chen.

This family also includes the swans, which are mostly larger than geese, and the ducks, which are smaller and have short necks.

Geese are famously gregarious: they like to stick together. They can be moved in large herds because of this feature of their behaviour. Both as chicks and as adults, geese show collective animal behaviour. Geese migrate in groups in the spring and fall, flying together in a V-shape.

A male goose is called a "gander" and a baby goose is called a "gosling". A group of geese is called a "gaggle".

Related pages 
Bar-headed goose
Canada goose
Magellan goose
Barnacle goose
Pink-footed goose
Swan goose
Chinese goose

References

 
Poultry
Ovaries (Singular: Ovary) are organs found in female organisms. Ovaries are part of the reproductive system needed to reproduce sexually. 

Most vertebrates have ovaries. Usually animals have two ovaries. Birds usually have only one working ovary; snakes have one ovary in front of the other. The ovaries are similar to testicles in men.

Anatomy 
Ovaries are shaped like eggs and are around 3 cm by 1.5 cm by 1.5 cm. The ovary is found in the side walls of the pelvis. 

Each ovary is attached to the Fallopian tube. Usually each ovary takes turns releasing eggs every month.

Uses 
Ovaries have two purposes:
 Produce female sex hormones resulting in puberty
 Produce ova (also called "egg cells"), which are the female reproductive cells.

Menstruation
Menstruation 

During menstruation, an ovum is released from the ovary and enters one of the Fallopian tubes. There, the ovum can be fertilised. Ovaries have a certain number of eggs in them, so when eggs stop being released, this is the start of the menopause. During this time, female hormones stop being produced.

Related pages
 Cervix
 Fallopian tube
 Menopause
 Ovum
 Vagina

Other websites 
 Merck Online Medical Library: Female Reproductive System

Anatomy of the female reproductive system
An axe (or ax) is an ancient tool. It is used to shape, split and cut wood.

The hand axe was probably the first tool in the Stone Age. It did not have a handle.

In the past, axes were used as weapons by soldiers. Today, axes are usually related to woodcutters and firemen.

Axes are simple machines. They are in the category of wedges. They are usually made of some sort of metal, mainly steel or iron. They can have a metal or wooden handle. 

Cutting tools
Blades
Woodworking tools
A rhinoceros (rhino for short) is any animal in the family Rhinocerotidae. They are in the order Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates. There are five living species. Two of these species are native to Africa.  Three of these species are also native to Southern parts of Asia.

Taxonomy 

 Family Rhinocerotidae
 Black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis
 White rhinoceros, or square-lipped rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum
 Javan rhinoceros, Rhinoceros sondaicus
 Indian rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis
 Sumatran rhinoceros, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis

Habitat 
All five rhinoceros species are native to Africa or Asia. The two species in Africa are the White rhinoceros and the Black rhinoceros. The three species in Asia (including islands of Indonesia) are the Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Indian rhinoceros.

Life 

The rhinoceros is a herbivore. Its favourite food is plants, branches and bushes (if it is a browser species), or grass (if it is a grazer species).
Rhinoceroses have a large horn on the nose. Their horns are not like those of other horned mammals: the rhinoceros' horn is made of keratin packed together very tightly.  

The rhinoceroses can weigh up to  and be up to  tall.

Rhinoceros and humans 
Only the white rhinoceros is not in critical danger of becoming extinct.  They are protected, but hunted mainly by poachers, for their horns.  The horns are used in Asian medicine, similar to elephants and tigers, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman.  Loss of habitat is also a danger to rhinos.  Governments have made logging their habitat and poaching illegal.

Related pages 
Elasmotherium, a large extinct rhinoceros.

Other websites 

 Rhinoceros information from the International Rhino Foundation
Alcoholic proof is a measure of how much ethanol there is in an alcoholic drink. It is commonly used the world over, on the basis that 100 degrees proof is the equivalent of    50 % alcohol by volume (ABV or Alc/Vol). In the United States, it is double the percentage of ABV.  A hydrometer can be used to measure the precise proof of a spirit. This test has gone through many formal changes.  

A "proven" solution was defined as 100 degrees proof (100°). People have found out that this takes 57.15% ethanol. This value is still used as the British definition. A simpler ratio to remember is seven to four: 70° proof is 40% alcohol by volume.
The "proof" system was introduced in the 18th century. The British claim that this term has a nautical background. Every evening, sailors would line up for their daily quota of grog/rum. This had to first be proved to be as strong as promised and not watered down. The spirit was tested with gunpowder: a mixture of water and alcohol proved itself when it could be poured on a small amount of gunpowder and the wet powder could still be lit. If the powder did not ignite, the mixture had too much water in it and the  grog was considered below proof.  

It might have happened  earlier, as the Americans claim that this definition came about in the 17th century when European traders began making a large quantity of distilled spirits and wine available to American Indians. The very same process led to the nickname firewater, this time given by Native Americans. There is no record of the finite strength of the distilled spirits in the context of its sale to or consumption by Native Americans.

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