Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
In 2018, Billboard released a market statistic that proved the value and worth of the electronic dance music market. In this statistical statement, the company shows a 12-percent growth within one year where many changes took place with this musical revolution. One of the biggest helpers in this EDM market growth was YouTube.

Other genres of music
all sorts of genres of music even whale songs, ambient music, sounds of nature and sound effects have been distorted by some electronic sound, also to record sounds from space astronauts use electronic equipment to compress noise into a singularity.

References

 New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians 1980; ISBN 1-56159-174-2
Reggae is a music genre that began in Jamaica in the late 1960s. Most music from Jamaica comes from the reggae style.

The music has regular chops on the back beat (off-beat).  These are called “skank”, and are played by a rhythm guitarist.  The bass drum hits on the second and fourth beat of each measure (each bar). These are called the “drop”. Reggae bands also use a bass, a keyboard or organ, and horns.

Reggae music is often used by Rastafarian groups. They are usually songs about religion, love and social problems. Bob Marley (1945-1981) was a famous reggae artist.

Famous instruments in reggae music are drums, guitar, saxophone, trumpet and trombone.

Reggae was started in 1960 but became famous in the 1970s.

Reggae songs often have lots of backing singers.

Rapper Snoop Dogg released an album of reggae music in 2013.

Som[

 
Pop music
Bebop or bop is a kind of jazz that became popular near the beginning of the Second World War, in the mid-1940s. Bebop is often fast.  The musicians improvise using a small group of chords which are repeated again and again. Charlie Parker (1920-1955), who was  famous for his saxophone playing, was a bebop artist. The famous trumpet player Dizzy Gillespie (1917-1993) was also a renowned artist of this genre.

The term "bebop" originates from a group of syllables used in scat singing, where random strings of sound were used in place of words.

African-American history
Jazz music
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI), are techniques that doctors use to give a visual representation of soft tissue (flesh) inside the body. Magnetic resonance uses nuclear magnetic resonance to generate these images.

To take an MRI image, the patient lies on a movable bed. The bed enters a strong magnetic field and then radio waves are applied for a short time in a different direction. This sudden shift causes certain atoms in the patient's body to make special signals. The MRI scanner detects those special signals.
The MRI scanner then sends the signal information to a computer, and the computer creates an image of the inner body by using the signal information.

Pros and cons 
The MRI is used to diagnose disorders of the body that cannot be seen by X-rays. The MRI is painless and has the advantage of avoiding the dangerous X-ray radiation.
It is an expensive medical procedure, due to the high cost of the equipment. Some metallic objects may distort the image, like hip, shoulder and knee replacements but the exam can still be done. Cochlear (ear) implants, some (older) aneurysm clips in the brain, and most pacemakers are not MRI compatible.  Obese and severely claustrophobic patients often need sedation and/or imaging with an "open" magnet, which is much less confining. Contrast agents may or may not be indicated for some patients, and those with compromised kidney function may not be able to receive the contrast, due to a serious but rare skin reaction.

Which parts of the body MRI scans study 
MRI scans can be used to study the brain, spinal cord, bones, joints, breasts, the heart and blood vessels. It can also be used to look at other internal organs. MRI scans can be used to find blood clots as well.

An MRI scan can be used as an extremely accurate method of disease detection throughout the body.
Neurosurgeons use an MRI scan not only in defining brain anatomy but in evaluating the integrity of the spinal cord after an injury. An MRI scan can evaluate the structure of the heart and aorta, where it can detect aneurysms or tears. Furthermore, MRI is nowadays used intraoperatively.  

It provides valuable information on glands and organs within the abdomen, and accurate information about the structure of the joints, soft tissues, and bones of the body. Often, surgery can be deferred or more accurately directed after knowing the results of an MRI scan.

Related pages

Nuclear magnetic resonance

References

Further reading

 TRTF/EMRF: The history of MRI (Peter A. Rinck, ed).  url = http://www.magnetic-resonance.org/ch/20-01.html 
 Guadalupe Portal; Aliosvi Rodriguez Whole body magnetic resonance imaging in early diagnosis in Trinidad BMJ (2010) ISSN 1756-1833  url = http://www.bmj.com/rapid-response/2011/12/19/re-whole-body-magnetic-resonance-imaging
Other websites 
  A Guided Tour of MRI: An introduction for laypeople  National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
 Video: What to Expect During Your MRI Exam from the Institute for Magnetic Resonance Safety, Education, and Research (IMRSER)
 3D Animation Movie about MRI Exam 
 Magnetic resonance imaging -Citizendium

Medical procedures
Medical imaging
When there is a war or some other armed conflict in a country, many people will try to flee (run away) from that country. They will go to other countries, around the country where there is no war. Because they fled, they are called refugees.

If there are just a few refugees coming into a country it is generally no problem to get housing for them somewhere. However, if there are many (or if the government of a country expects many) refugees, it may build what is called a refugee camp. This is usually done by putting many tents, and a few toilets and showers on an unused plot (stretch) of land. This is usually land where no one wants to live.

Usually the governments hope that conflicts get resolved soon, and that those camps are only temporary.

This has not been the case for the refugee camps in the Gaza Strip, for example. Those camps have existed since the mid-1970s.
Related pages
 Tent city
 Burj el-Barajneh refugee camp in the Lebanon
 Transitional shelter
 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
 United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East

Other websites

 Camp Management Toolkit  published by Norwegian Refugee Council
 Shelter Library  Resource for organisations responding to the transitional settlement and shelter needs of displaced populations
 U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants' Campaign to End Refugee Warehousing  in refugee camps around the world, people are confined to their settlement and denied their basic rights.

Forced migration
War
Rubber is a type of material called a polymer. It can be produced from natural sources (e.g. natural rubber) or can be synthesised on an industrial scale. Many things are made from rubber, like gloves, tires, plugs, and masks. A few things can be made only from rubber. Sometimes the word means only natural rubber (latex rubber). Natural rubber is made from the white sap of some trees such as the Hevea brasiliensis (Euphorbiaceae). Other elastomers, called synthetic rubbers, are made by chemical processes.

Properties 
Rubber can stretch and shrink. Rubber can also contain gases. It is an insulator, which means that it does not conduct electricity.

Producers 

Hevea brasiliensis is the tree that most rubber comes from. Other plants that have the special sap (called latex) are figs (Ficus elastica), Castilla (Panama rubber tree), euphorbias, lettuce, the common dandelion, Taraxacum kok-saghyz (Russian dandelion), Scorzonera tau-saghyz, and Guayule.
In the 1800s, most sap to make rubber came from South America. In 1876, Henry Wickham got seeds from rubber trees in Brazil, and took them to Kew Gardens, England, and sent them to Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Indonesia, Singapore and British Malaya. Later, Malaya (now Malaysia) made the most rubber. People tried to grow rubber in India, in year 1873 at the Botanical Gardens, Kolkata. The first Hevea farms in India were made at Thattekadu in Kerala in 1902. The Congo Free State in Africa also grew a lot trees for rubber at the start of the 20th century, and most of the people who worked on those farms were forced labor. Liberia and Nigeria also started growing trees to make rubber.
Industrial development 
Charles Marie de La Condamine presented samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736. In 1751, François Fresneau read a paper to the Académie (eventually published in 1755), which described many of the properties of rubber. This has been referred to as the first scientific paper on rubber.

In 1770, British chemist Joseph Priestley noticed that rubber was very good for removing pencil marks on paper. Natural rubber melts in heat and freeze in the cold.

In 1844, Charles Goodyear found a way to improve natural rubber, in a chemical process known as vulcanization, which made it useful in many more products including, decades later, tires.

Synthetic material 
In the 20th century, synthetic (artificial) rubbers such as Neoprene began to be used. They were much used when World War II cut off supplies of natural rubber. They have continued to grow because natural rubber is becoming scarce and also because for some uses they are better than natural rubber.
Uses of rubber 
Rubber moulded products are widely used industrially (and in some household applications) in the form of rubber goods and appliances. Rubber is used in garden hoses and pipes for small scale gardening applications. Most of the tyres and tubes used in automobiles are made up of rubber. Therefore, rubber plays a very important role in the automobile industry and the transportation industry. Rubber products are also employed in matting and flooring applications.

References 

Natural materials
Polymers
A argument is a way to persuade someone of something. Reasons are given to accept the conclusion. The general structure of an argument in a natural language is that premises (propositions or statements) support the claim or conclusion.

Reason
An argument is a reason to support an opinion. 

There can be a "strong argument" or a "convincing argument" (for example, a good reason for why something should be done). Arguing is the process of conducting an argument.

The opposite is a "weak argument" or an "unconvincing argument". Arguments can be valid or invalid or a combination of both.  Some arguments may appear reasonable, but they turn out to be misleading or wrong.

Related pages 
Implication and inference
Cosmological argument
Dialectic
Deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Fallacy
Reasoning

References

Other websites

 

Basic English 850 words
Mathematics
Human communication
Philosophy
The 2003 invasion of Iraq (March 20, 2003 - May 1, 2003) was the war fought by the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Poland and some other countries against Iraq, to end the rule of Saddam Hussein. The main reason that the war started was said to be because the British and American Governments believed that Iraq had dangerous weapons of mass destruction (such as chemical or nuclear weapons) that could be used against other countries. This turned out after the invasion to not be true.

Another reason for the start of the war was that many people thought that Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, one of the leaders of al-Qaeda, was hiding in Iraq after the September 11, 2001 attacks. Though Saddam Hussein was not involved in the planning of the September 11 attacks, many people accused him of giving al-Qaeda a safe place to hide from the United States. The war was extremely controversial. Many British and American people blamed British Prime Minister Tony Blair and the American President, George W. Bush.
Paratroopers landed in the far north of Iraq and a few soldiers attacked from the sea, but most invaded from Kuwait in the south. 4,734 NATO soldiers were killed in Iraq war including 4,600 U.S. servicemen, 179 UK servicemen and 139 Other NATO soldiers with a total of 4900 casualties. 31,882 U.S. servicemen and over 3,600 UK servicemen were wounded in Iraq. More than 180,000 Iraqi civilians who were not soldiers were also killed.

Aftermath
The United Nations Secretary-General said that, "[F]rom our point of view and from the Charter point of view [the war] was illegal."

References
References

Other websites 
 Encyclopedia Britannica's Article on 2003 War
 War Report. More than 5,000 articles, documents and analyses of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars, updated four times a week—Project on Defense Alternatives.
 CIA’s final report 
 Occupation of Iraq Timeline at the History Commons
 Morgues so full, bodies turned away 
 The War In Context News aggregator
 ProCon's examination of Iraq Invasion 
 by Professor Dr. Sedat Laciner, "Ten Impasses of the Resistance in Iraq" 
 Amnesty International Report on Iraq 

2003 in Asia
Iraq War
Arab–Israeli conflict
George W. Bush
War crimes

fi:Liittouman hyökkäys Irakiin vuonna 2003
Soldiers wear steel helmets to protect their heads from explosions and flying bits of metal.  Construction workers wear plastic helmets to protect their heads from falling objects.  Welders wear special helmets with a dark window that lets less light through.  This protects their eyes from the bright light of welding.  People who ride bicycles or horses wear plastic helmets with foam, to protect their heads in case they have an accident.  Motorcycle riders wear similar but stronger helmets.  People who rock climb wear helmets in case they fall.  Cavers wear helmets to protect their heads from bumping into rocks in a cave.  Helmets are also worn for protection by participants of numerous sports including horse racing, baseball, ice hockey, and cricket.

Images
A coonskin cap is a hat made from the fur of a raccoon. Usually, the tail of the racoon is attached to the back of the hat. The coonskin cap is a symbol of the early United States frontier. Coonskin caps were first worn by the Native Americans who lived around Tennessee and Kentucky. The American settlers who moved to this area liked the caps and wore them themselves.  Some famous American pioneers who wore coonskin caps are Davy Crockett and Daniel Boone.

Other websites 

http://www.coonskincap.com/

Hats
The Crazy Horse Memorial is the world's largest mountain sculpture in progress. It is in the Black Hills of South Dakota, USA. The statue depicts Crazy Horse, a famous Lakota warrior. Korczak Ziolkowski started the project in 1948 at the request of Chief Henry Standing Bear and other Native American elders. The statue is meant to be a memorial to the spirit of Crazy Horse as well as the Native American people.

Ziolkowski believed in individual initiative and private enterprise, and as such, never accepted government funding. He continued to work on the memorial until his death in 1982.

Today

Ziolkowski's wife and family have continued to work the Crazy Horse Memorial. Completion of the project is currently unknown because of several factors including weather, the availability of financing and the challenges of the mountain engineering.

The face of Crazy Horse was completed and dedicated in 1998. Work on the memorial continues today and current plans include blocking out the face of the horse itself.
Other websites 
 The official website

Monuments and memorials in the United States
South Dakota
Events 
 1727 to 1800 – Lt. Col. Francisco de Melo Palheta smuggles coffee seeds to Brazil in a bouquet starting a coffee empire.
 June 11 – George, Prince of Wales becomes King George II of Great Britain.
 November 18–Earthquake in Tazriz, Persia – about 77,000 dead
 Last execution for witchcraft in Scotland
 First Amish move to America
 The Royal Bank of Scotland is founded by royal charter in Edinburgh.
 Catholic Charities is founded in New Orleans, United States, by the French Ursuline Sisters.

Deaths 
  – Isaac Newton, English scientist (b. 1643)
1720 was a leap year.

Events 
 The Town on Queen Anne's Creek, North Carolina is renamed Edenton in honor of North Carolina Governor Charles Eden.  It is later incorporated in 1722.
 The Tuscarora fled North Carolina as a result of European colonisation
 Edmond Halley appointed Astronomer Royal
 The Academia Real da Historia is founded in Lisbon, Portugal
 Jonathan Swift begins Gulliver's Travels
 Emperor Kangxi announced that all western businessmen could only trade in Guangzhou.
Events 
 January 25 – Amaro Pargo receives the title of Hidalgo (nobleman).
 February 8 – Catherine I became empress of Russia.
 February 20 – The first reported case of white men scalping Native Americans takes place in New Hampshire colony.
 March 2 – In London, night watchman finds a severed head by the Thames; it is later recognized to be that of the husband of Catherine Hayes. She and one accomplice are later executed.
 May 21 – The Order of Alexander Nevsky was instituted in Russia by an empress Catherine I.
 May 24 – Jonathan Wild, fraudulent "Thief Taker General", is hanged in Tyburn, England for actually aiding criminals.
Births 
 February 4 – Dru Drury, English entomologist (d. 1804)
 February 5 – James Otis, American lawyer and patriot (d. 1783)
 February 15 – Abraham Clark, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. 1794)
 February 25 – Karl Wilhelm Ramler, German poet (d. 1798)
 March 11 – Henry Benedict Stuart, pretender to the British throne (d. 1807)
 March 17 – Lachlan McIntosh, Scottish-born American military and political leader (d. 1806)
 March 20 – Abd-al-Hamid I, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1789)
 March 24
Samuel Ashe, Governor of North Carolina (d. 1813)
Thomas Cushing, American Continental Congressman (d. 1788)
 March 28 – Andrew Kippis, English non-conformist clergyman and biographer (d. 1795)
 April 2 – Giacomo Casanova, Italian adventurer and writer (d. 1798)
 April 6 – Pasquale Paoli, Corsican patriot and military leader (d. 1807)
 April 23 – Saint Gerard Majella, Catholic saint (d. 1755)
 April 25 – Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel, British admiral (d. 1786)
May 12 – Louis Philip I, Duke of Orléans, French soldier and writer (d. 1785)
 May 25 – Samuel Ward, American politician (d. 1776)
 July 1 – Comte de Rochambeau, French soldier (d. 1807)
 July 24 – John Newton, English cleric and hymnist (d. 1807)
 August 21 – Jean-Baptiste Greuze, French painter (d. 1805)
 August 29 – Charles Townshend, English politician (d. 1767)
 September 5 – Jean-Étienne Montucla, French mathematician (d. 1799)
 September 12 – Guillaume Le Gentil, French astronomer (d. 1792)
 September 16 – Nicolas Desmarest, French geologist (d. 1815)
 September 24 – Arthur Guinness, Irish brewer (d. 1803)
 September 25 – Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, French automobile pioneer (d. 1804)
 September 29 – Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive, British general and statesman (d. 1774)
 October 12 – Etienne Louis Geoffroy, French pharmacist and entomologist (d. 1810)
 October 21 – Franz Moritz Graf von Lacy, Austrian field marshal (d. 1801)
 December 11 – George Mason, American founding father (d. 1792)
Deaths 
January 6 – Chikamatsu Monzaemon, Japanese dramatist (b. 1653)
February 8 – Tsar Peter I of Russia (b. 1672)
March 2 – José Benito de Churriguera, Spanish architect and sculptor (b. 1665)
April 8 – John Wise, English clergyman (b. 1652)
May 24 – Jonathan Wild, English criminal (b. 1683)
June 29 – Arai Hakuseki, Japanese poet, politician, and writer (b. 1657)
October 10 – Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil, Governor-General of New France
October 11 – Hans Herr, Swiss-born Mennonite bishop (b. 1639)
October 24 – Alessandro Scarlatti, Italian composer (b. 1660)
October 31 – Ali Othman, Vampire(b. 1660)
December 7 – Florent Carton Dancourt, French dramatist and actor (b. 1661)
date unknown
José Mora, Spanish sculptor (b. 1638)
Nguyễn Phúc Chu, Vietnamese ruler (b. 1675)
Dwarka (with other spelling as Dvarka) was a city of Ancient India. The city was one of seven holy cities of the Hindus. It is also one of the four most important places of pilgrimage for the Hindus. Hindus call such four places as Dhams. Dwarka is located in the western part of India in Gujarat state. During the birth day of Krishna, and the Hindu festivals of Holi and Divali, thousands of Hindus visit the place. 

In Ancient India, the place was the capital of the kingdom ruled by Krishna and his clan of the yadavas. Soon after the death of Krishna, the city went below the sea.

Other websites
 http://www.dwarkadhish.org/

Hinduism
The 'Ramayana' is an ancient Hindu epic about Rama and Sita. It is one of the two most important ancient epics of [India], the first one being the ancient Mahabharata.. The epic was originally written by sage (rishi) Valmiki of Ancient India. The book has about 24,000 verses and is divided into seven parts.

The story of the Ramayana is about Prince Rama who has been exiled from his kingdom of ([Ayodhya]) with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshman. He goes on to kill [king] Ravana of Lanka in a long battle to get back his wife Sita.

Seven different versions of the book are available. It has been translated into all the major languages of the world.

The different parts of the Ramayana are also called books. These seven parts or books are noted below:
The first book is Balakand, meaning the book of childhood.
 The second book is Ayodhyakanda, meaning the book of Ayodhya.
 The third book is Aranyakanda, meaning the book of the forests.
 The fourth book is Kishkindhakanda, meaning the book of Kishkindha.
 The fifth book is Sundarakanda, meaning the book beautiful.
 The sixth book is Yuddhakanda, meaning the book of the war.
 The seventh book is Uttarakanda, meaning the book of after events.

There are different views about the time the Ramayana was written. Some people believe that it was written 2,500 years ago. Others think that it was written around 1,800 years ago. All agree that the book is very old and was written before the Mahabharata.

The Ramayana is still very popular today. Every autumn the Ramlila (Rama play) is performed at the festival of Dassehra. A huge model of Ravana is set alight. This symbolizes the triumph of light over darkness. It is also believed that he turned in to Krishna and also many more things are believed.
A Tamil version of the book was written between the 9th and 10th centuries. The writer of this book was Kamban. This version is known as Iramavataram, which means the coming of Rama. In the 16th century, Tulasidas wrote a Hindi version of Ramayana. This was named Ramacharitmanasa. Over many centuries, the story of Rama reached places in other countries like Indonesia and Malaysia. The Ramayana has been translated into most of the major languages of the world.

The Ramayana was used in Ancient India for the teaching of young children. It was mainly used for acting out their Dharma so that their children knew that they were to worship the main Hindu beliefs that were: Brahman, Multiple Gods, Dharma, Samsara, and Karma.

There is a series of the Ramayana played on television in major parts of India and goes into the detail of the Ramayana, if you don't like reading books.
The short and basic story of the Ramayana is, a prince named Rama tries to rescue his wife from the clutch of Ravana with an army of bears and several"vanaras" who are kind of like apes.

Hindu texts
2nd millennium BC works
The Mahābhārata (; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India. The other is the Rāmāyaṇa. It tells of issues between two groups of cousins in the Kurukshetra War. It also tells the fates of the Kaurava and the Pāṇḍava princes and their successors.

The Mahābhārata includes philosophical and devotional material. It has a discussion of the four "goals of life" or puruṣārtha (12.161). The stories in the Mahābhārata include the Bhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, the story of Shakuntala, the story of Pururava and Urvashi, the story of Savitri and Satyavan, the story of Kacha and Devyani and the story of Rishyasringa. It also has a shortened version of the Rāmāyaṇa.

The Mahābhārata is normally said to be written by Vyāsa. Most of it was probably put together between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. The oldest parts o it are not much older than around 400 BCE. The text probably became in its final form by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century CE).
The Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem known. It has been said to be "the longest poem ever written". Its longest version has over 100,000 śloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines. It also has and long sections of prose. The Mahābhārata has about 1.8 million words in total. It is about ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, It is about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa. The importance of the Mahābhārata to world civilization has been compared to that of the Bible, the Quran, the works of Homer, Greek drama, or the works of William Shakespeare. It is sometimes called the fifth Veda.
These sections deal with a number of topics such as a number of aspects of Hinduism, Hindu mythology, ethics, and the Hindu way of life. There is also a nineteenth section named Harivamsha. The Bhagavadgita, a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, is a part of the Mahabharata.
Sage Vyasa taught this epic to his son Suka and his students Vaisampayana and others. King Janamejaya, the son of Parikshit and grandson of the heroes of the epic, performed a great sacrifice (yajna). The epic was retold by Vaisampayana to Janamejaya at the advice of Vyasa. Later on, the other sage Suta retold the Mahabharata similar to Vaisampayana to Janamejaya, to Saunaka and others, during a sacrifice performed by Saunaka in Naimisaranya, which is near Sitapur in Uttar Pradesh.

Parvas

Noted below are few words about the eighteen sections of the Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, these sections are called parvan. A parvan means a book. The names of all parvas or books of the Mahabharata are noted below.

The Pandavas
The Pandavas 

Kunti wants to fulfil her maternal expectations, but she has no man. She recollects the moment when her first son Karna was conceived from an arcane mantra which had given her once. Surya, the Sun God, appeared to her then. Thus, Kunti remembers her secret mantra and gives birth to the three sons – Yudhistra, Bhima and Arjuna. Yudhisthira’s father was god Yama, Bhima’s father was god Vayu, and Arjuna's father was Indra.

Madri, the second wife of Pandu, gave birth to two other sons - the twins, whose fathers were Ashwins (divine twins). Madri's sons are Nakula and Sahadeva.

These all are called the five Pandavas.

Donation for it's compilation
In the year 1932, The Bhandarkar oriental research institute located in Pune, needed money for the compilation and publication of the Holy Mahabharata and a guest house. A formal request was made to the seventh Nizam of Hyderabad State, Mir Osman Ali Khan who in no time released a farman to donate Rs.1000 per year for a period of 11 years.
Whereas, Rs. 50,000 was offered for the guest which is known as "Nizam guest house".

Related page 
 Manipur of Odisha

More information 
 Mahabharata - The Complete Translation of Vyasa Mahabharata and Stories from Mahabharata
 Some nice info on Hinduism including the Mahabharata

References

 
4th-century books
The Hajj ("pilgrimage") is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, the most holy city of the Muslims, and a Fard or mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey, and can support their family during their absence. It is one of the five pillars of Islam, alongside Shahadah, Salat, Zakat, and Sawm. The Hajj is the largest annual gathering of people in the world. The state of being physically and financially capable of performing the Hajj is called istita'ah, and a Muslim who fulfills this condition is called a mustati. The Hajj is a demonstration of the solidarity of the Muslim people, and their submission to God (Allah). The word Hajj means "to intend a journey", which connotes both the outward act of a journey and the inward act of intentions.
Pilgrims can also go to Mecca to perform the rituals at other times of the year. This is sometimes called the "lesser pilgrimage", or Umrah. However, even if they choose to perform the Umrah, they are still obligated to perform the Hajj at some other point in their lifetime if they have the means to do so, because Umrah is not a substitute for Hajj.

As an industry
Saudi Arabia's economy greatly benefits from Hajj tourism and has invested in hotel businesses as well as infrastructure to accommodate and profit from Hajj and Ummrah tourism.

References

Islamic culture
Mecca
Religion in Saudi Arabia
Worship
The English Civil War happened in the middle 17th century. The term civil war is a war where the sides involved in the fighting are from the same country.

At the centre, there was a struggle between King Charles I and the Parliament of England over how England should be ruled. The King wanted to rule without Parliament telling him what to do. At first Parliament wanted to reduce the King's power, but later it decided that the country did not need a king. King Charles's supporters were known as the Royalists, and were nicknamed "Cavaliers". Parliament's supporters were known as the Parliamentarians, and were nicknamed "Roundheads".
The Parliamentarians won the war. Charles I was captured, put on trial and in 1649 he was executed. His son Charles II then tried to take over the country, but lost and escaped abroad. As a result, the three kingdoms spent 11 years without a king. For most of this time, they were run by Oliver Cromwell, a former Parliamentarian general. After Cromwell's death, the monarchy was restored under Charles II. However, kings were never as powerful as they had been before the war.

Causes

The reasons for the fighting were mostly to do with power, money and religion.
Power and money
In the 17th century, the king had a lot of power over England with one exception: he could only raise taxes if the English Parliament agreed to it. This was because Parliament represented the gentry (middle class), and no king could raise taxes without the help of the gentry. Scotland and Ireland also had parliaments, but with not nearly as much power. When King James VI of Scotland inherited the throne (becoming James I of England), he disliked having to work with parliament. He was more used to ruling in Scotland, where the king was far more powerful. James I also spent more money than previous kings and queens.

Both James I and his son Charles I believed in the "divine right of kings", meaning that they believed that God gave kings the right to do anything they wanted over their lands. But there was a difference between the two: James I accepted that he could not get what he wanted all the time, whereas Charles I always wanted to get his own way.
Religion
In the previous century, the Protestant Reformation and England's break with the Catholic Church had encouraged new ideas and struggles. In England, there was movement called the Puritans, because they wanted a "pure" religion. They believed that the Church of England was too much like the Roman Catholic Church it had broken away from. In particular, they did not want the church to have bishops. There was a similar movement in Scotland. The Church of Scotland also had bishops, but it had many differences with the Church of England.

On the other hand, Charles I and Archbishop William Laud tried to change the Church of England. They brought back incense, bells and decorations to churches. These were things that were found in Catholic churches. This worried the people who hated Catholicism, especially the Puritans. Charles I also married a French princess, Henrietta Maria, who was a Catholic.
Build-up
In 1637, Charles I tried to introduce a new prayer book in Scotland that was very similar to the English Book of Common Prayer, without asking Scotland's Parliament or church. Many Scots hated the prayer book, seeing it as an attempt to change the religion of their country. Riots broke out in Edinburgh, and unrest spread throughout Scotland. A rebellion movement began in Scotland, which became known as the Covenanters.
To raise that money, the King had no choice but to call another Parliament. This became known as the "Long Parliament". Over two-thirds of the elected members of the Long Parliament were opposed to the king. While the opponents had no proper leader, John Pym was their most important member. The Long Parliament passed laws to stop the king from shutting it down and removed many of the king's allies. They even had his friend Earl of Strafford executed.

In 1641, a rebellion broke out in Ireland. The rebellion was caused by Irish Catholics who were fearful of the Protestants in the Long Parliament and the Scottish Covenanters. The King now needed money to fight this rebellion, which strengthened Parliament. Parliament would also take control of the army in 1642.
In January 1642, Charles I marched into Parliament with guards, to arrest five members of Parliament (including Pym and Hampden) who disagreed with him. The five men found out he was coming and escaped. No king had ever entered the main chamber of Parliament before, and many members were shocked he would do this. It was disaster for Charles. He failed to catch his enemies, and many members of Parliament who had not been enemies of the king became afraid of him. They decided that the only way to protect themselves was a raise an army against the King.

The wars

First English Civil War (1642-46)

In mid-1642, both sides started travelling around the country to gather supporters and weapons. On 22 August, King Charles raised the royal flag in Nottingham. By doing this, he was announcing that he was at war with Parliament.
The King found more support in the countryside, poorer parts of the country and northern and western England. Parliament found more support in most cities, ports, richer parts of the country and southern and eastern England. People who were secretly Catholic mostly supported the King. The Royal Navy and most Puritans supported Parliament. Some areas supported Parliament because of local problems, such as the land drainage works in The Fens.

The Royalist armies were led by Prince Rupert, the King's nephew. The Parliamentarian armies were at first led by the Earl of Essex. The Royalists decided they would try to fight the Parliamentarians quickly, and so went to meet them in Warwickshire. The first major battle was the Battle of Edgehill in October 1642. The battle ended in a draw. The King tried to return to London but was blocked by the Parliamentarian army. He moved with his armies to Oxford, where he had more loyal followers.
The first year of the war went fairly well for the Royalists. They strengthened their control over the north and west. Their progress was slower in the Midlands, though they did capture Lichfield. After mid-1643, the Parliamentarians started to do better. They won battles in Lincolnshire, in the east and at Newbury to the west of London.

King Charles made a deal with the Irish rebels to stop the fighting in Ireland, freeing up soldiers that could fight for him. Parliament made a deal with the Scottish Covenantors, who would help them. Parliament were also helped by a talented army leader called Oliver Cromwell. He led a cavalry (horse riders) unit called the "Ironsides". The Ironsides were better organised than most cavalry units, which made them far better at fighting.
Helped by the Scots and the Ironsides, Parliament won a major victory the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644. They took control of northern England. The Royalists were weakened but not yet defeated. They won the Battle of Lostwithiel in Cornwall, defeating Essex's soldiers. They also managed to fight to a draw at a second Battle of Newbury in October.

In 1645, Parliament organised its soldiers into the New Model Army. The Earl of Essex was replaced by Sir Thomas Fairfax. Oliver Cromwell became Fairfax's deputy. The New Model Army was better organised than any army that had come before it. They defeated the King's largest army at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645. Most of the Royalist soldiers at Naseby were taken prisoner. King Charles escaped Naseby but left behind his baggage, which had letters inside them. The Parliamentarians opened them and found out that the King was trying to get help from the Irish Catholics and from Catholic countries. The King lost support because of this.
Second English Civil War (1648)
Although the Parliamentarians had won, they were divided on how to run the country. One big argument was over religion. Most members of Parliament wanted a Presbyterian national church. The New Model Army favoured allowing local churches to run themselves without there being a national church. The defeated Royalists supported the existing Church of England, though some were secretly Catholic. Parliament and the Army both tried to win support of the King and the Scottish Presbyterians. King Charles was in prison and was passed between the groups. He refused to make a deal with any of them, because he believed that only he had the right to rule over England. He pretended he was interested in making a deal while he planned to take back control of the country. The divisions became worse when Parliament tried to disband the New Model Army.
A second war broke out when some Scottish Presbyterians (called the Engagers) and some English Presbyterians allied with the King. They agreed to support him in return for making the English and Scottish churches into Presbyterian churches. The Scots invaded England, while Royalist rebellions broke out in various parts of England. Some of the rebellions were defeated very easily. The rebellions in Wales, Kent, Essex and Cumberland were stronger but were put down by the New Model Army. The Royalists and Scots were defeated at the Battle of Preston in August 1648.

Execution of King Charles I

The New Model Army was in control. In an event called "Pride's Purge", army Colonel Thomas Pride removed all members of Parliament who had not supported the Army. Only 75 members were left. The Army put them in charge of the country, and this Parliament was called the Rump Parliament.
The Rump Parliament decided they would not work with King Charles any more. They put him on trial. On 27 January 1649, the trial found him guilty of treason and called him a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". He was beheaded three days later.

Many historians say that the execution of King Charles was an important moment in English history, and even in the history of the Western World. No European monarch had ever been put on trial by their own people before. Other countries in Europe said the execution was wrong, but they did not do much else. Not all Parliamentarians supported the execution. Fairfax thought it was wrong. He resigned as leader of the New Model Army, and was replaced by Oliver Cromwell.

The next king would have been Charles' son Prince Charles, the future King Charles II. Parliament announced instead that England would become a republic, called the Commonwealth of England. However, Prince Charles could still become King of Scotland.
Third English Civil War (1649-51)
The third English Civil War was actually more of a fight between Scottish and English armies, and much of it was fought in Scotland.

In 1649, the Marquess of Montrose started a rebellion in Scotland in support of King Charles II. Rather than support Montrose, Charles decided to ally with the Scottish Covenantors. They feared the Commonwealth of England would stop Scotland from having a Presbyterian church. Montrose was defeated by Scottish armies in April 1650. In June, Charles landed in Scotland and signed an agreement with the Scottish Covenantors.

Cromwell travelled to Scotland and arrived the following month. Over the next year, he took control of the main parts of Scotland. When Charles fled to England, Cromwell followed him, leaving George Monck to finish winning the war in Scotland. When this was done, Scotland became part of the Commonwealth of England.
Charles' army marched across England to the western regions where the Royalists had the most support. However, they could not find as many supporters as they wanted. Cromwell found them and defeated them at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. Charles fled to The Netherlands. He would not return until 1660.

Irish rebellion

The Irish rebellion that started in 1641 would continue until 1652. It was mainly fought by Irish Catholics against armies of the English Parliamentarians, Scottish Covenantors and Protestant settlers in Ireland. At first the rebels fought English Royalist armies as well, but this mostly stopped after September 1843. Seven months after the rebellion began, the rebels created their own government in Kilkenny. This was known as the Irish Catholic Confederation.
In 1649, Oliver Cromwell went to Ireland and put down their rebellion. Cromwell was remembered in Ireland as a brutal invader, particularly because of the large numbers of people killed at the Siege of Drogheda. Some fighting continued in Ireland until 1653.

Afterwards

The next nine years
The wars left England, Scotland and Ireland all as part of the Commonwealth of England, one of the few countries in Europe without a monarch. After the wars ended, Cromwell disbanded the Rump Parliament and took over the country. He chose to be "Lord Protector" rather than King, because he did not think the country needed another king.  His government was called "the Protectorate" or "the Commonwealth".  The period from 1649 to 1660 is also called the English Interregnum (meaning gap between kings).
Oliver Cromwell ruled the country until he died in 1658. Cromwell's son, Richard, took over as Lord Protector. However, the Army did not think he was a good ruler. After seven months, the Army removed Richard, and in May 1659 it re-installed the Rump Parliament. However, the Army did not get on with the Rump Parliament either and disbanded it a second time. There were fears that England would not have a proper government.

George Monck, a key leader in the Army, arranged for a new Parliament to be elected. On 8 May 1660, the new Parliament decided to restore the monarchy with Charles II as the king. He returned to England later that month. This event is known as the English Restoration. Scotland and Ireland went back to being separate countries and the pre-war churches returned.
Long term
Although the monarchy returned, the Civil War had long-lasting effects. The war made it clear that an English monarch could not rule without the support of Parliament. The law was not changed to limit the monarch's power (this was done after the 1688 Glorious Revolution). Historians consider the Civil War to be a stage in England and Scotland's long journeys from rule by one king to becoming a democracy.

In Ireland, the defeat of the rebellion strengthened the power of the Protestants. This was one of the reasons why Ireland would be ruled by Protestants from the late 17th century until the 20th century, even though most Irish people were Catholic.
Tactics
The English Civil War was fought with "pike and shot" tactics. These were used in most wars from the late 15th century to the late 17th century. Armies were divided into three main groups:
 Musketeers: They fired a type of gun called a musket. Muskets were not as powerful or easy to use as modern guns.
 Pikemen: They carried a very long spear, called a pike. Their main job was to stop the enemy's cavalry.
 Cavalry: They were horse riders who would charge at the enemy's musketeers. A very skilled cavalry could charge at the enemy's pikemen.
At first, the Royalists had a better cavalry. Their riders were faster and more skilled. Prince Rupert had fought in the Eighty Years War in The Netherlands and used the lessons learned there to improve his cavalry. However, sometimes the Royalist cavalry failed to work as a team. At the Battle of Edgehill, many of them decided to chase fleeing soldiers or steal from the Parliamentarian baggage wagons. The Royalists might have won this battle if their cavalry had stayed together.

Cromwell's "Ironside" cavalry were slower but worked better as a team. They helped the Parliamentarians win some key battles. The Parliamentarians sometimes had a problem that pikemen would run away when cavalry charged at them. Cromwell and Fairfax trained them to stay in place.

Notes

References

Other websites 
 English Civil War -Citizendium
Wars involving England
Civil wars involving Europe
Rebellions in Europe
17th-century rebellions
17th century in England
17th century in Scotland
History of Ireland
1640s in Europe
1650s in Europe
Urdu, also known as Lashkari, or the Lashkari language (لشکری ‍زبان) is the national language of Pakistan and a recognized regional dialect in India. Urdu is an Indo-Aryan language, which means that it came from Proto-Indo-Aryan, a language that was spoken northeast of the Caspian Sea in the third millennium.

Most people in Pakistan speak it as a 'lingua franca'. There are parts of India that speak it, such as Delhi, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, for example. Despite a few differences, the words in Hindi are very similar to Urdu. The way it is written, is different from how Hindi is written. People who speak Hindi and Urdu may be able to talk, but they may not be able to understand or express the meaning of one of these two scripts.

History
In the 11th century AD, the Ghaznavid Empire ruled over Punjab, the region characterized by five rivers.

In the past, the Punjab was a land east of the Indus River.
The primary language spoken by Ghaznavids, who were of Turkic ethnicity, was Persian. The Ghaznavids met the people who spoke an Indo-Aryan dialect after acquiring Punjab or Hind, which had Lahore as its capital. The contemporary Punjabi language derives from this language indigenous to the region.

A distinctive dialect, dubbed 'Lashkari Zaban,' was created when Persian and Punjabi, originally spoken by the Punjabi people, were merged.

The Ghaznavids and inhabitants of the area adopted this new language. In the 12th century AD, the Ghaznavids moved to the east of India and brought this language to Delhi. The language was influenced by the Khariboli dialect that was spoken in the area.

From Delhi it spread to the northern regions, where it became a standard way of interacting. Khariboli's influence on the language spread to cities like Lucknow and Hyderabad. Over the course of time, the language has been referred to in numerous ways.
Native poets from these cities and the surrounding areas helped improve it by adding many Persian and Chagatai words to it. They added Arabic words to Urdu that already existed in Persian.

During the Delhi Sultanate, the Urdu language continued to change.

The 'Mughal Empire' was a distinct Muslim empire of Turkic origin, with primary language Chagatai and secondary language Persian. But they did not have any signs that they were from Iran or the Persian region. 

At that time, the royal camps' dialect was known as Zaban-i-Ordu.

It is said that the late eighteenth-century AD poet Ghulam Mashafi bestowed upon it the designation “Urdu”, which was shortened from “Zaban-i-Urdu.”

Urdu is a language of the Mughals, and is classified within the Eastern Turkic subfamily. It originated from Chagatai. Chagatai was related to the Turks because they were all part of the same Turkic family, unlike Uzbek and Uyghur languages.

In its own indigenous translation, Urdu was a Lashkari Zaban and Lashkari for short.
The language commonly referred to as Urdu was used as a court language in numerous South Asian cities, including Delhi and Amritsar.

During the time of the British Empire, it gained the designation of "Hindustani" due to is usage in India or Hindustan, a region situated near the Indus River. The court proceedings were continuing in Urdu.

It was adopted as a first language by many people in North India.

By the end of British rule and the independence of Pakistan, it was selected as the national language for the people of the country because they spoke different languages and dialects.

In India, it became the national language but went by the name Hindi and was written in the Devanagari script. It also used a lesser amount of Arabic, Persian, and Chagatai words and instead, Sanskrit words were adopted in their place.

Today, it is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan in terms of total speakers and a registered language in 22 Indian states.

Relations to Persian