Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Switzerland has aspects of direct democracy. "Evidence suggests that attendance at assemblies... has always been limited to roughly twenty per cent of the citizenry". The practice is only used in two cantons,  Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus. 

The Federal government of the United States does not use direct democracy but the individual states sometimes make laws by referendum. Some New England towns govern themselves by a town meeting.

Related pages
Democracy
Representative democracy

References

Anarchism
Democracy
A revolution is a very sharp change made to something. The word comes from Latin and is related to the word revolutio (which means turnaround). 

Revolutions are usually political in their nature. Some people feel unhappy with their lives, and others are not happy with whole systems. They might join together, share their ideas, and make something change. Often, revolutions include fighting and civil unrest, but there are also revolutions that happen without fighting.

The Soviet Union was started by the Russian Revolution, which killed millions, and the country later fell apart in another revolution without much fighting. However, in the French Revolution (1789), there was much bloodshed., which included the Reign of Terror.
Other events often called "revolutions" include:
 Neolithic revolution
 Industrial Revolution, a shift from an agrarian society to an industrial one(1750).
 Second Industrial Revolution, a shift from horse and wood to electricity and steel
 Green Revolution of scientific agriculture
 Green Industrial Revolution, a shift from consuming fossil fuels to clean energy (Boris Johnson, June 2021, at a G7 meeting).
 The shift from an industrial society to a post-industrial one:
 Cybernetic Revolution (1960- present).
 American Revolution
 Shift from a Communist society to a capitalist one: perestroika in the former Soviet Union (1991-2000).

The opposing idea in politics is called gradualism.

 Revolution
Western Digital is an American technology company. It is based in the U.S. state of California.  The company make hard drives. Hard drives are used by computers to store data.

References 

American computer hardware manufacturers
Companies based in California
Orange County, California
1970 establishments in the United States
For 'speech', meaning a talk, see Public speaking

Speech is when spoken language is used to communicate. Only humans have language. Animals do not have speech, but some (birds are a good example) can communicate with each other by using sounds and gestures.

Speech is made by sounds vibrating the vocal folds. Sounds through the voice box is shaped by the jaw, tongue, teeth, palate, lips, and nose.

To make speech a person has to be able to:
choose speech sounds
put them into a sequence 
produce sound in the voice box 
use the lips, tongue, teeth, nose and palate to shape the sounds

Difficulties can happen at any stage of this four-stage process. A speech and language therapist can help work out the stage of the sequence that has difficulties and give therapy.

Effective speech includes the following elements – fluency, flexibility, accuracy, and comprehensibility.

 Fluency is the ability to communicate an intended message, or affect the listener in the way that is intended by the speaker.
Flexibility is the ability to adjust the message according to the responses of the listener. It also involves choosing words and expressions which will be understood by the listener(s). Compare with Cross-cultural communication.

 Accuracy is the use of proper grammar in spoken language.

 Comprehensibility is the ability to be understood by others. There are three components of sound which influence one’s comprehensibility: 
Pronunciation: saying the sounds of words correctly; 
Intonation: applying proper stress and rhythm while speaking; and 
Enunciation: speaking clearly at an appropriate pace and volume.

References

Language
A stage can mean one of the following:
Stage (theatre), a platform on which actors in a theatre perform
Stage (geology), a period of time, shorter than an epoch
Stagecoach, a vehicle pulled by horses
A step of development, or one particular event in a chain of events, or one particular step in a number of steps
The stage in a theatre is the area where the actors perform. In classical theatres, this used to be separated from where the  audience is sitting.

Related pages
 Upstaging

Theater
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Darth Vader is a fictional main protagonist-turned-antagonist character from the Star Wars universe. He appears for the first time in A New Hope. Vader is the main character of the Dark Side of the Star Wars series. He appears as a 2 meter-tall man dressed in black armor and a cape. His face is covered with a mask, which has a helmet on top to hide the terrible third degree burns and scars on his face.
Born as Anakin Skywalker, a slave on the desert planet Tatooine who became a Jedi. As an adult, he secretly marries Padmé Amidala. However, he is converted by Darth Sidious in order to save his wife from her coming death during childbirth. In order to do that, he learns the ways of the Dark Side of the Force and gives himself a new identity, Darth Vader. By doing this, he turned against his long-time friend and master Obi-Wan Kenobi. He battled Kenobi on the volcanic planet of Mustafar, but not before choking his wife with his Force Choke due to rage and misunderstanding. The battle ended in Kenobi's victory. Consequently, Vader's left arm and both his legs were cut off and his entire body was burnt. He survived and was rescued by the newly elected Emperor of the Galactic Empire, Darth Sidious, and have his body remade with cybernetic parts and his famous black armor and helmet. Anakin lost the last of his spirit once he learned that his wife died at his own hand
. Thus Anakin Skywalker's transformation as Darth Vader was complete, much to Sidious' delight.
During the course of the Galactic Civil War between the Rebel Alliance and the Galactic Empire, Vader played an important role as the Empire's enforcer and the Emperor's second-in-command, particularly the building of the two Death Stars, the Battle of Yavin, and the Battle of Endor. It was during that period he learnt that he had a first sidekick son named Luke Skywalker, and later a second sidekick daughter named Leia Organa during his final duel with his son. 

Darth Vader died in Return of the Jedi during the Battle of Endor. His breathing system had been damaged by the Emperor's Force Lightning in an effort to save his son by throwing him at a power reactor. Thus, he redeemed himself and brought back balance to the Force and ended the civil war. His body and armor were cremated by Luke in Endor. However, his grandson Kylo Ren somehow receives Vader's burnt helmet in later time.
Cultural Impact 
Darth Vader is one of Star Wars' most iconic characters and regarded as the world's most well-known fictional hero. Highly ranked in popularity poll, Darth Vader is the image of good, hatred who kills every one and thing he hates, rage and darkness but also a representation of redemption. He is well known by his black armor, cape, helmet, and particularly his raspy breath due to breathing problems received during a battle with his old master Obi-Wan Kenobi and deep, low-pitched voice from the mask, which often used in different medias as a reference to him.

References

Other websites

 Darth Vader official site at StarWars.com
 Anakin Skywalker official site at StarWars.com
 Anakin Skywalker / Darth Vader on Wookieepedia, a Star Wars wiki
 Darth Vader on Encyclopædia Britannica

Borderline personality disorder in fiction
Fictional people with personality disorders
Soulcalibur series guest characters
Star Wars Anthology characters
Star Wars Skywalker Saga characters
A gesture is a form of nonverbal communication. Unlike verbal communication, which uses words, gestures use movements of the body. 

Gestures are deliberate acts with a purpose, not just any movements. They are handled in the human brain by the same centres which handle language. In the neocortex, Broca's and Wernicke's areas, are used by speech and sign language.

Other movements of the body have meaning, but are not gestures. They may be done by actors deliberately, but normally they are automatic, unconscious signals which express various feelings or states of mind. Many animals communicate extensively using such behaviours. The dog, a companion to humans for a long time, is good at reading both gestures and behaviours. Multi-touch computers have been made to read gestures. 

Gestures have a cultural significance (meaning). The same gesture can mean different things in different cultures and different parts of the world.
Examples 
 High five – a greeting or sign of happiness
 Facepalm – showing frustration
 Sign of the cross – religious gesture
 V sign – victory or peace sign

Anti-examples 
These are not gestures, because they are not voluntary, deliberate actions. They are inherited automatic reactions or reflexes.
Screaming out in great pain or terror.
Baring our teeth in anger
Cowering, turning the face away and running in terror.
Many behaviours of babies, such as suckling on nipples.
Humans can modify these reactions to some extent with training and practice, but they are fundamentally caused by hormones and brain centres which are very ancient.

Related pages 
Non-verbal communication
Unconscious mind
Acting
Paul Watzlawick

References 

Non-verbal communication
Darth Sadious (born as Vladimir Palputine and also known as the Emperor) is a fictional character from the Star Wars universe. He is the main villain of the Russian Wars movies.  

He is played by Vladimir Putin. He is seen in Episode V for the first time. Darth Sidious is regarded as the true villain of the Star Wars films because he was the one who caused Dmitriy Medvedev to join the Dark Side of the Politics.

Character biography 
In Episode I, The Phantom Menace, he is a Senator from the planet of SPB. He is also secretly a Sith Lord, Darth Sadious. Sadious pulls the strings behind the scenes to cause unrest and dispute in the corrupt Galactic Senate, hence the films' title. His apprentice during this time is Darth Bukhar, who is slain in battle by Obi-Wan Leha. At the end of Episode I, he has risen to the office of Supreme Chancellor and begins his rise to power.
In Episode II, Attack of the Clones, Sidious secretly continues to bring the galaxy to civil war. He has a new apprentice, Count Zhirik, who leads the Separatist Droid Army and goes by the name 'Darth Mat'. Zhirik is slain by Midicoronian virus on a rescue mission to free the Chancellor in Episode III, Revenge of the Sith.

Sadious rose to complete power in Episode III, when he sent Anakin to lead an attack on the Jedi Temple and ordered the Clone Troopers to execute Order 66, killing many Jedi in the process. Sidious battled Nemyoda in a duel which would decide the fate of the Galaxy. He narrowly defeated Yoda, and was able to form a new order upon the fallen Republic. He created the first Galactic Empire. In the time frame from his creation of the Empire and his death, Sidious was a cold, merciless Emperor. He ruled through fear. His evil was staggering as he dominated the galaxy with his ruthless enforcer, Darth Telega.
Pop culture 
Since the initial theatrical run of Return of the Jedi, Sidious has become a widely recognized symbol of evil in popular culture, and since the prequel films, also one of sinister deception and the subversion of democracy.

Fictional characters introduced in 1980
Galactic emperors
Internet memes
Star Wars characters
Supervillains
Luke Skywalker is a character from the Star Wars universe. He is the main hero of the Star Wars movies and book series. Luke was in three Star Wars movies, Episode IV: A New Hope, Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back and Episode VI: Return of the Jedi. He was also in most of the books that took place after these movies. Luke Skywalker was played by actor Mark Hamill in all three movies. The character was also shown briefly at his birth in Episode III: Revenge of the Sith.

Luke Skywalker was the main character during the original three movies. These movies follow his life from being a farmer on the planet Tatooine to becoming an important part of the Rebel Alliance and a Jedi Knight.

In Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017), Skywalker dies in Ahch-To as Luke's body vanishes, having made peace with his legacy.

A New Hope
The adult Luke Skywalker is first seen in this movie. He was raised on the planet Tatooine. Tatooine is a desert planet. He lives with his uncle, Owen and his aunt, Beru. After he bought two droids, named C-3PO and R2-D2, stormtroopers sent by the Empire start to look for them. R2-D2 runs away one night. In the next morning, Luke and C-3PO look for him. Luke is attacked by Tusken Raiders, but is rescued by Obi-Wan Kenobi. R2-D2 plays a message from Princess Leia asking for help from Obi-Wan. Obi-Wan then says that Luke must come with him to Alderaan to learn about the Force. Luke learns that his father, Anakin Skywalker, was a Jedi. Luke also gets his father's old lightsaber. Luke says that he can not go with him and returns home. When he does, he sees that his home was destroyed (broken down). he is a bit fruity. He goes back to Obi-Wan and agrees to go with him and learn about the Force. Luke, Obi-Wan and the droids go to Mos Eisley to find a pilot to take them to Alderaan
. They get Han Solo and Chewbacca to take them to Alderaan. When they get there, they see that the planet is gone and there is a small moon close to where it was. This small moon is the Death Star. On board the Death Star, Luke, Han, and Chewbacca save Princess Leia. As they are about to leave they see Obi-Wan fighting Darth Vader. Obi-Wan gives his life so that the group can escape. Luke and the others go to Yavin 4 so that the secret plans to the Death Star in R2-D2 can be used to destroy the Death Star. Luke then pilots an X-wing to fight against the big space station. Luke uses the Force and fires the missile that destroys the Death Star.
Luke Skywalker has joined the Rebel Alliance and is on the ice planet of Hoth. While outside the base, Luke is attacked by a wampa. After escaping the wampa, Luke is weak and hurt. He sees the image of Obi-Wan Kenobi. He tells him to go to the planet Dagobah to be taught by the Jedi master Yoda. Luke is saved by Han Solo. Shortly after, the Empire attacks the Rebel base on Hoth. The Rebels leave the base. Luke takes R2-D2 in his X-wing and the two travel to Dagobah. They make a crash landing on the swamp planet and go looking for Yoda. Luke soon finds Yoda, but Yoda does not think Luke should be a Jedi. Luke convinces Yoda, and the old master starts to teach Luke. Luke faces difficult things to do. Before he completes his training he has a vision of the future. In it his friends were being tortured. Although Yoda, and the Force Ghost of Obi-Wan warn him not to leave, Luke goes to Cloud City. When he gets there he sees that it was a trap set by Darth Vader. The two then get into a lightsaber battle
. Vader cuts off Luke's hand and then tells Luke that he is actually his father, Anakin Skywalker. Vader gives Luke the choice to join him but Luke says no and jumps off the platform. He is rescued by Leia and taken to a medical spaceship, where his hand is replaced.
Return of the Jedi 

In Return of the Jedi, Luke alongside Leia, Chewbacca, R2-D2, C-3PO and Lando Calrissian attempt to rescue Han Solo from Jabba The Hutt but fail and end up captured and condemned to the Sarlacc Pit. However, Luke, using R2-D2's help, devises a plan and is able to escape the Pit and save his friends, killing Boba Fett and Jabba The Hutt in the process.
After this, Luke returns to Dagobah to conclude his training with Yoda, but learns he's dying. In his dying breath, Yoda confirms that Darth Vader/Anakin is Luke's father and tells the young hero he must confront Vader once more to complete his Jedi training.
Luke then encounters the Force Ghost of Obi-Wan Kenobi, who also confirms Luke's origins and states he told the truth, from a certain point of view. Obi-Wan assures Luke he must kill Vader but Luke refuses, believing he can still save his father.
After this, Luke learns that Leia is also his sister.
Luke, Han and Leia go to the moon of Endor to stop the Empire once and for all in their newly constructed Death Star II.
Luke handles himself over to Vader, attempting to save his father, who claims Anakin Skywalker is dead and that the Emperor will soon be Luke's new master.
Upon reaching the Emperor's Throne Room, Luke learns his rebel friends are going into a trap and tries to kill the Emperor but is stopped by Vader.
Father and son duel once more, with Luke using the Dark Side to overpower Vader. Realizing he's becoming the thing he swore to destroy, Luke denies his father's wishes of continuing the fight, but angrily lashes out at his father when the latter threatens to turn Leia to the Dark Side.
Luke brutally overpowers and defeats his father, but stops attacking after being goaded by the Emperor. Luke stands down, triumphantly claiming to be a Jedi like his father before him. Annoyed, the Emperor tries to kill Luke with his Force Lightning, but is killed himself by Anakin who has redeemed himself.
Luke carries his father's fatally wounded body to one of the shuttles as the Death Star II is about to be destroyed by the Rebel Alliance. Luke removes Vader helmet and father and son share one last moment before Anakin succumbs to his wounds. Unwillingly to let his father's body to rot in the explosion, Luke takes it with him.
While the rebels celebrate their victory on Endor, Luke cremates his father's body.
Joining his friends in the celebration, Luke sees the Force Ghosts of Obi-Wan, Anakin and Yoda watching him in pride.

References

Fictional characters introduced in 1977
Fictional twins
Star Wars characters
Definition 
Witchcraft is different throughout the world and can be seen as good or bad depending on where you are. Today, many people practice a peaceful kind of witchcraft, called Wicca.  However, there are still many other people who are scared of witchcraft and think that it is bad. Throughout history, there have been stories about good and bad witches. In European history, witches were accused of physically making and performing spells to harm people. They could also harm people by using their mind. However, this belief was not real and was often used to explain why bad things happened sometimes. In Africa, witches don't use physical tools or actions to curse. They can cause harm by just thinking about it. In fact, one may be unaware of being a witch, or may have been convinced of their witch nature by the suggestion of others. This understanding was described by anthropologist E.E. Evans-Pritchard, who studied African magical beliefs.
Accusations of Witchcraft 
Éva Pócs (a scholar and folklorist) states that there are four reasons a person is accused of witchcraft:

 A person was caught in the act of positive or negative witchcraft (performing a spell)
 A well-meaning healer lost the trust of their clients' or the authorities'
 A person seemed dangerous and made their neighbors scared
 A person was rumored to be a witch and surrounded with an aura of witch-beliefs or Occultism

She identifies three kinds of witches in popular belief:
The "neighborhood witch" or "social witch": a witch who curses a neighbor following some conflict.
 The "magical" or "sorcerer" witch: either a professional healer, sorcerer, seer or midwife, or a person who has, through magic, increased their fortune but caused harm to someone in doing so; due to community rivalries and the hard to recognize nature between good and bad magic, such individuals can become labelled as witches.
 The "supernatural" or "night" witch: portrayed in court narratives as a demon appearing in visions and dreams.
Practices 
It is believed that witches can perform magic by using plants, casting spells, or using their mind. The use of plants is often called herbalism and this involves collecting or growing herbs to use in potions or medicines to help or hurt people, animals, or things.

In popular artwork, witches can be seen using big metal cooking bowls called cauldrons to mix their spell ingredients. Witches also use wands, brooms, sticks, candles, swords, and fire to perform spells.

In some cultures, witches can harm people just by using their mind and thinking bad thoughts about a person. In these cultures, witches do not need any items and can potentially be anyone in the community.

By Region

Africa 
In Southern African traditions, there are three classifications of somebody who uses magic.
The tagati is often poorly translated into English as "witch", and is a spiteful person who works in secret to harm others.
 The sangoma is a diviner, similar to a fortune teller, and is hired to detect illness, predict a person's future (or advising them on which path to take), or identifying the guilty party in a crime. She also practices some degree of medicine.
 The inyanga is often translated as "witch doctor" (though many Southern Africans do not like this description as it implies that a "witch doctor" is in some sense a practitioner of evil magic). The inyanga's job is to heal illness and injury and provide customers with magical items for everyday use.
Of these three categories the tagati is almost exclusively female, the sangoma is usually female, and the inyanga is almost exclusively male. Much of what witchcraft represents in Africa has been misunderstood and mistaken for European witchcraft. African scholar Uchenna Okeja argues that witchcraft in Africa today plays a very different social role than in Europe of the past—or present—and should be understood through an African, rather than Western view.
America 
When the first Europeans came to the New World, they brought with them the Christian religion and their fear of supernatural witches. Native Americans had their own religion and beliefs. Since the Christian European settlers were living with these Native Americans and also African slaves (who had their own non-Christian religions and beliefs), this scared them. The Europeans were already scared, far away from their home in the New World with different plants and animals. This fear lead to violent crimes such as accusing and murdering people who they thought were witches and were hurting them with supernatural powers.
The most famous witch accusations were the 1692-1693 Salem Witch trials. During these trials, 150 people were accused of being witches, and 19 people were killed by hanging. Every Halloween season, Salem, Massachusetts hosts a Halloween festival in which they highlight their towns notorious history with the 1692 Salem Witch trials. This festival often involves live music, parties, and vendors selling witch-themed items.

Throughout the world there are many people who claim to have supernatural powers such as; psychics, mediums, palm readers and New Age healers. These people are sometimes members of witchcraft religions like Wicca. These people perform tricks to entertain and heal people such as tarot card reading, astrology, crystal healing, Reiki healing, talking to dead family members, or seeing the future.

Asia
Asia

Middle east 
The belief in witchcraft and its practice seem to have been widespread in the Ancient Near East and Nile Valley. It played a clear role in the cultures of ancient Egypt and in Babylonia. Later tradition included an Akkadian anti-witchcraft ritual, the Maqlû. A section from the Code of Hammurabi (about 2000 B.C.) prescribes:If a man has put a spell upon another man and it is not justified, he upon whom the spell is laid shall go to the holy river; into the holy river shall he plunge. If the holy river overcome him and he is drowned, the man who put the spell upon him shall take possession of his house. If the holy river declares him innocent and he remains unharmed the man who laid the spell shall be put to death. He that plunged into the river shall take possession of the house of him who laid the spell upon him.

Europe
Europe

Ancient Greece 
There are many examples of witches in Greek mythology, such as Circe, who was a sorcerer in Homers’ Odyssey. Circe used potions to put spells on visitors to her house, and she could turn people into pigs.

Ancient Ireland 
Druids were members of the high-ranking professional class in ancient Celtic cultures. They were religious leaders, legal authorities, adjudicators, lorekeepers, medical professionals, and political advisors
The earliest record of the druids comes from two Greek texts from circa 300 BCE: one, a history of philosophy written by Sotion of Alexandria, and the other a study of magic widely attributed to Aristotle. Both texts are now lost, but were quoted in the 2nd century CE work Vitae by Diogenes Laërtius.Some say that the study of philosophy originated with the barbarians. In that among the Persians there existed the Magi, and among the Babylonians or Assyrians the Chaldaei, among the Indians the Gymnosophistae, and among the Celts and Gauls men who were called druids and semnothei, as Aristotle relates in his book on magic, and Sotion in the twenty-third book of his Succession of Philosophers.

- Diogenes Laërtius,  Vitae, Introduction, Section 1Later Greek and Roman texts from the third century BCE refer to "barbarian philosophers", possibly in reference to the Gaulish druids.
Middle Ages 
In Medieval times, witchcraft gradually became an enemy of Christianity. Christians thought that witchcraft was the work of the devil, and the Bible was used as evidence against witchcraft. Verses such as Deuteronomy 18:11–12 and Exodus 22:18 ("Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live") were very influential.

In Europe in the Late Medieval/Early Modern period, Catholics, Protestants, and state leaders became very afraid of the power of witches. There were large witch-hunts in many places. People believed that the devil was using witches to try to overthrow Christianity, so tens or hundreds of thousands of people were killed, and others were put in prison, tortured, and had lands and possessions taken away from them. Most of these witches were women, because people believed women were more likely to be witches.
Witch-trials looked for evidence to prove that a person was a witch. Evidence included such things as signs of plant medicine, or images of non-Christian gods. One way to physically test if a person was a witch was to 'swim a witch'. This meant they would throw them in a river with their hands tied. If they sank, they were innocent. If they floated, they were guilty of witchcraft and were hanged. This violent practice was not based on any actual evidence. Instead, it allowed the witch-hunter to look right and powerful for the scared people who were watching.

South America 
In South America, people continue to practice a form of witchcraft which started before the arrival of European Christianity. Throughout the Andes, there are many places called witch markets, such as the Mercado de las Brujas in La Paz, Bolivia. These markets sell items such as plant medicines
Popular culture 
Witches are often seen in art and cinema.  Many movies have focused on witches and witchcraft such as; Bewitched, Harry Potter, the Wizard of Oz, Hocus Pocus, and Rosemary's Baby.  Many television shows also have witches and witchcraft.  Some examples are: Charmed (1998 and 2018), American Horror Story: Coven, and Sabrina the Teenage Witch.

References
A heteronym is a word, or rather several words, with different meanings. However, the words are spelt the same way. Usually they are pronounced differently.

Words
Potassium permanganate is an inorganic chemical compound. Its chemical formula is KMnO4. It contains potassium and permanganate ions. The manganese is in the +7 oxidation state. It is also known as permanganate of potash and Condy's crystals. Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidizing agent, which means it has a tendency to take electrons from other chemicals. It dissolves in water to give purple solutions. If it is evaporated, it makes purple-black shiny crystals. It has a sweet taste and is odorless.

History
In 1659, a German chemist, Johann Rudolf Glauber, melted a mixture of the mineral pyrolusite and potassium carbonate to obtain a material that made a green solution (potassium manganate) when dissolved in water. It slowly changed colour to violet (potassium permanganate) and then finally red. This report is the first description of the production of potassium permanganate.
Just under 200 years later a Londoner named Henry Bollmann Condy was a chemist. He had an interest in disinfectants and made some things like ozonised water. He found that when he melted pyrolusite with sodium hydroxide and dissolved it in water, it made a solution that had good disinfectant properties. He patented this solution, and sold it as Condy's Fluid. The problem was that the solution was not very stable. This was fixed by using potassium hydroxide rather than sodium hydroxide. This gave a more stable material. It also was able to be dried to the just as good potassium permanganate powder. This powder was called Condy’s crystals or Condy’s powder. Potassium permanganate was easy to make so Condy tried to stop other people from making it and selling it themselves.

Early photographers used it in flash powder.

Uses
Uses

Chemical applications
Potassium permanganate is used as an oxidizing agent. It also is used in disinfectants and in deodorizers. It can be used to make many different kinds of chemicals. In waste water treatment, it is used to get rid of hydrogen sulfide, a stinky toxic gas. In analytical chemistry, an accurate concentration of KMnO4 is sometimes used to see how much of a certain reducing agent is in the titration. In a related way, it is used as a reagent for wood pulp. Mixing potassium permanganate and formaldehyde makes a mild tear gas.

As an oxidant in organic synthesis
Dilute solutions of KMnO4 convert alkenes into diols (glycols). This behaviour is also used as a qualitative test for the presence of double or triple bonds in a molecule, since the reaction makes the permanganate solution colorless. It is sometimes referred to as Baeyer's reagent.

Concentrated solutions oxidize a methyl group on an aromatic ring, e.g. toluene to benzoic acid.
KMnO4 oxidizes pseudoephedrine hydrochloride to produce methcathinone, a Schedule I drug in the United States. Consequently, the DEA has restricted its use and sale by classifying it as a List I controlled precursor. Potassium permanganate is listed as a Table I precursor under the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.

Acids and Potassium Permanganate
Concentrated sulfuric acid reacts with potassium permanganate to give manganese(VII) oxide, which can be explosive. . This reaction also makes ozone. The ozone can ignite paper soaked in alcohol. This reaction is very dangerous.

6 KMnO4 + 9 H2SO4 → 6 MnSO4 + 3 K2SO4 + 9 H2O + 5 O3

Concentrated HCl makes chlorine.

2 KMnO4 + 16 HCl → 2 MnCl2 + 2 KCl + 8 H2O + 5 Cl2
The Mn-containing products from redox reactions depend on the pH. Acidic solutions of permanganate are reduced to the faintly pink Mn2+ ion, as in manganese(II) chloride. In neutral solution, permanganate is reduced to brown manganese(IV) oxide, where Mn is in a +4 oxidation state. Manganese(IV) oxide is the stuff that stains skin when potassium permanganate is put on it. Potassium permanganate spontaneously reduces in an basic solution to green-coloured potassium manganate, where manganese is in the +6 oxidation state.
Biomedical uses
 Dilute solutions are used as a treatment for canker sores (ulcers) (0.25%), disinfectant for the hands (about 1%) and treatment for mild pompholyx dermatitis or fungal infections of the hands or feet.
 A dilute solution of acidified potassium permanganate is used in histology to bleach melanin which obscures tissue detail.
 Potassium permanganate can be used to differentiate amyloid AA from other types of amyloid pathologically deposited in body tissues. Incubation of fixed tissue with potassium permanganate will prevent amyloid AA from staining with congo red whereas other types of amyloid are unaffected.

Miscellaneous uses
Solutions of KMnO4 have been used together with 80% hydrogen peroxide to propel a rocket. In this use, it was called Z-Stoff. This propellant is still used in torpedoes.
 A dilute (10 mg/l) of potassium permanganate can be used to eliminate snails from plants prior to placing them in a fresh-water aquarium.
 High-grade potassium permanganate can be found at pool supply stores and is used in rural areas to remove iron and hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg smell) from well water.
 KMnO4 is often included in survival kits along with either glycerine or a glucose tablet for making fire. The glucose tablet can be ground up, mixed with the potassium permanganate and it will burn if rubbed. It can also be mixed with anti-freeze from a vehicle to make fire. Doing this can be dangerous and should be done carefully by dipping some paper into the anti-freeze and then adding a small amount of potassium permanganate. It can also sterilize water and wounds so it is useful in a survival kit.
KMnO4 is employed to treat some parasitic diseases of fish, in treatment of drinking water, as well as an antidote in phosphorus poisoning. In Africa, it has been used as a disinfectant for vegetables such as lettuce.
Hazards
Solid potassium permanganate is a strong oxidizer and in general it should be kept separated from reducing agents. Some reactions need a bit of water. For example, powdered potassium permanganate and powdered sugar will ignite (but not explode) a few seconds after a drop of water is added. Dilute solutions of KMnO4 are not dangerous. KMnO4 forms dangerous products when mixed with concentrated acids.

Potassium permanganate stains skin and clothing and should be handled with care. Clothing stains may be washed away using acetic acid. Skin stains disappear within 48 hours.
References 
 F. Burriel, F. Lucena, S. Arribas and J. Hernández, (1985), Química Analítica Cualitativa, page 688, .
  Fatiadi, A. J. Synthesis 1987, 85-127. (Review) ()
  F. A. Cotton, G. Wilkinson, C. A. Murillo, and M. Bochmann (April 1999). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 6th Edition. Wiley-VCH. 
  van Rijswijk MH, van Heusden CW.American Journal of Pathology.1979Oct;97(1):43-58. PMID 495695
 Dzhabiev, T. S.; Denisov, N. N.; Moiseev, D. N. and Shilov, A. E., "Formation of Ozone During the Reduction of Potassium Permanganate in Sulfuric Acid Solutions", Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry, 2005, volume 79, pages 1755-1760.
 Barthel, H. and Duvinage, B., "Clemens Winkler. His Experiments with Ozone in 1892", Praxis der Naturwissenschaften, Chemie, 2000, volume 49, page 18ff.
 Wright JR, Calkins E, Humphrey RL.Laboratory Investigation. 1977 Mar;36(3):274-81. PMID 839739

Other websites 
 International Chemical Safety Card 0672
 National Pollutant Inventory - Manganese and compounds Fact Sheet
Potassium compounds
Manganese compounds
The 840s started on 1 January 840 and ended on 31 December 849.

Events 
 After the death of Louis the Pious, his sons Charles the Bald, Louis the German and Lothair II of Lotharingia fight about the division of the empire until the treaty of Verdun (843).
 Viking raid of Western Francia (France) (845).
 Vikings conquer Frisia, the present Netherlands and the German North Sea coastline.
 Beginning of Arab domination on Taranto, which will last until 880.

Important people 
 Charles the Bald
 Louis the German
 Lothair I
 Kenneth I of Scotland
 Ragnar Lodbrok
The 880s decade began on 1 January 880 and ended on 31 December 889.

Events 
 885: Vikings lay siege to Paris
 886: Alfred the Great of Wessex captures London

Important people 
 Charles the Fat
 Alfred the Great
 Basil I
Births 
 Han Myeong-hoe (died 1487), Korean politician

Deaths
 Jan Hus (born c. 1369), Bohemian religious thinker and reformer
Events 
 Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde, overruns Moscow as punishment for Grand Prince Dmitri Donskoi's resistance to Khan Mamai of the Blue Horde in the 1370s. Dmitri Donskoi pledges his loyalty to Tokhtamysh and is allowed to remain as ruler of Moscow & Vladimir.
 John Wyclif's teachings are condemned by the Synod of London.
 The Ottomans take Sofia from the Bulgarians.
 August: The iconic painting The Black Madonna of Czestochowa is brought from Jerusalem to the Jasna Góra monastery in Poland.
 September, 30: The inhabitants of Trieste (now in northern Italy) donate their city to Duke Leopold III of Austria
 After a five-year revolt, Berkuk deposes Hajji II as Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, marking the end of the Bahri dynasty and the start of the Burji dynasty.
 Death of Louis I of Hungary and Poland.
 Louis' daughter Mary becomes Queen of Hungary.
The Poles, who did not wish to be ruled by Mary's fiancée, the future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, choose Mary's younger sister, Jadwiga, to become ruler of Poland. After two years of negotiations, Jadwiga is eventually crowned "King" in 1384.
 Charles of Durazzo executes the imprisoned Joan I of Naples and succeeds her as Charles III of Naples.
 Ibrahim I is selected to succeed Husheng as Shah of Shirvan (now Azerbaijan).
 Kęstutis, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, is taken prisoner by former Grand Duke Jogaila whilst meeting him to hold negotiations. Kęstutis is subsequently murdered and Jogaila regains rule of Lithuania.
 Ahmad deposes his brother, Husain, as ruler of the Jalayirid dynasty in western Persia.
 James I succeeds his nephew, Peter II, as King of Cyprus.
 Rana Lakha succeeds Rana Kshetra Singh as ruler of Mewar (now part of western India).
 Konrad III Zöllner von Rotenstein succeeds Winrich von Kniprode as Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.
 Balša II of Zeta (now Montenegro) conquers Albania.
Dawit I succeeds his brother, Newaya Maryam, as Emperor of Ethiopia.
 Winchester College is founded in England.
Births 
 Duke Frederick IV of Austria (died 1439)
 Eric of Pomerania, King of Norway, Sweden and Denmark (died 1459)
 Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick (died 1439)
 Lope de Barrientos, a powerful bishop in Castile

Deaths 
 April 5 – Janusz Suchywilk, Polish nobleman
 May 12 – Queen Joan I of Naples (born 1327)
 August 3 – Kestutis, Grand Duke of Lithuania (born 1297)
 August 13 – Eleanor of Aragon, queen of John I of Castile (born 1358)
 October 13 – King Peter II of Cyprus
 Philip van Artevelde, Flemish patriot (born 1340)
 King Louis I of Hungary (born 1326)
 Nicole Oresme, French philosopher (born 1325)
The silkworm is the larva (the active immature form of an insect) or caterpillar of the Bombyx mori moth. Silk has been made for at least 5000 years in China. The moth is important because it makes silk. It is entirely dependent on humans, and it no longer lives in the wild. Silkworms eat mulberry leaves, and are native to northern China.

The domesticated B. mori and the wild Bombyx mandarina can still breed and sometimes produce hybrids.

Egg 
The female silkworm lays about 300 eggs at a time. She lays eggs on the leaves of mulberry trees. The eggs are covered with gelatinous secretion by which they stick to the leaves. The female moth (silkworm) lays eggs and dies after laying eggs as she does not eat anything. The eggs are kept in a cool place so that they can be stored for a long time. In a favorable condition, they hatch into larvae. Larvae are produced in about 2 weeks from eggs at a temperature of 18 to 25 degree Celsius.
.
Silk 
The cocoon is made of one thread of raw silk from 300 to 900 meters (1000 to 3000 feet) long. The fibers are very thin. About 2,000 to 5,000 cocoons are needed to make a pound of silk.

If the animal is allowed to survive after spinning its cocoon, it will make a hole in the cocoon when it exits as a moth. This would cut the threads and ruin the silk. Instead, silkworm cocoons are thrown into boiling water, which kills the silkworms and also makes the cocoons easier to unravel. Often, the silkworm itself is eaten.

The adult silkworms (moths) cannot fly. The silkworm-moths have wings about 2 inches wide and a white hairy body. Females and males are similarly colored. Adult silkworms have small mouths and do not eat.
Silkworm legends 
In China, there is a legend that the discovery of the silkworm's silk was first invented by the wife of the Yellow Emperor, Leizu around the year 2696 BC. According to the book written in the 13th century, she was drinking tea under a tree when a cocoon fell into her tea. She picked it out and as it started to wrap around her finger, she slowly felt something warm. When the milk ran out, she saw a small cocoon. In an instant, she realized that this cocoon was the source of the silk. She taught this to the people and it became common. There are many more legends about the silkworm.

Khotan is an oasis, located on the southern edge of Taklamakan Desert, and was one of the first places outside of inland China to begin cultivating silk. In the far past, the Chinese guarded their knowledge of silk. It is said that a Chinese princess smuggled eggs to Khotan, hidden in her hair. After this, the way to cultivate silk was transmitted to the Western Asia, and also Europe.
The Japanese also love silk and started cultivating and weaving silk in the earlier age than the western countries. According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms, a history book published in the 3rd century, Japan exported silk to Wei, a kingdom in the northern part of the China mainland, in the 2nd century. It takes 5000 silkworms to make a single kimono.

Food 
In Korea, silkworm pupae are boiled and seasoned, then eaten as a popular snack food known as beondegi.

In China, street vendors sell roasted silkworm pupae. The pupae are a delicacy in the Northern Area of China. They are baked with Satay sauces and rice to add extra flavor. 

In Japan, silkworm pupae are usually used as bait to catch fish, and sometimes served as tsukudani. It can be made by dipping and boiling Silkworm Pupae in a sweet-sour sauce with soy sauce and sugar.

References
References 

Sources:
 Scoble M.J. 1995. The Lepidoptera: form, ffnction, and diversity. Princeton Univ. Press.
 Goldsmith M, Toru Shimada and ­Hiroaki Abe 2004. The genetics and genomics of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. In the Annual Review of Entomology 50:71-100.

Related pages 
 Sericulture - producing silk fibers by raising silkworms; also called "silk farming"

Other websites 

 Hatch and Feed Silkworms 

Moths
Death Valley has many famous and unusual geographical features. Some of these features include sand dunes, salt flats, colorful rocks, and tall mountains.  Large parts of Death Valley are below sea level. One feature, named Badwater Basin, is the lowest place in North America. It is  below sea level. The salt flats are another famous feature in Death Valley. Salt flats are very unusual. They are large, flattened areas where the surface of the ground is covered by salt instead of dirt. The salt that makes up a salt flat can be many inches or centimeters deep. The salt flats were created because thousands of years ago, Death Valley was underwater. Death Valley was covered by a lake that was named Lake Manly by geologists (scientists who study the Earth). Lake Manly used to be very large, but changes in the weather caused the rivers that brought water into the lake to dry up. After a long time, the water in Lake Manly began to dry up too
. As the water dried, it left behind all the minerals that the rivers had brought to it along with their water. As these minerals dried, they created a crust (a brittle outer layer) of salt and other minerals on top of the dirt. Many lakes and seas in other parts of the world dried up in the same way.
Traveling rocks
All across Death Valley, rocks and stones leave small paths behind them in curved, zigzagged (with twists and turns), or straight patterns. The rocks are not alive, of course, but they still travel across the lake bed.

Dr. Robert Sharp, a geology professor, decided to find out about these rocks. He put tags on 30 stones of different sizes and shapes, hammered spikes into the ground where the rocks were sitting, and then he studied what happened for the next seven years. Twenty eight of the stones did indeed move, sometimes more than . Dr. Sharp matched the movements with the weather and found that the rocks moved because of wind and rain. Even though Death Valley gets less than two inches of rain a year, the raindrops make the smooth clay in the dry lake bed very smooth and slippery. The wind then blows the rocks across the slippery surface, sometimes as fast as  every second.

Climate
Climate

The changes in the weather that made the rivers dry up have not gone away. Death Valley is still very dry. There are less than  of rain in Death Valley every year. Because Death Valley is so dry all the time, even the dirt that is not covered in salt has become very hard. This means that even though it does not rain often, when it does rain, the dirt cannot absorb all the water quickly enough, and the water can turn into a flash flood (a flood that happens very fast and very violently). In August 2004 there was a very bad flood. The flood damaged many buildings and cars, and killed several people. The flood also destroyed many roads, so nobody could go in or out of Death Valley. Death Valley National Park had to be closed for a long time while the park rangers fixed everything.
Death Valley has extremely hot summers; the temperature can be 130 °F (54 °C). On July 10, 1913, it was 134 °F (57 °C), which is the hottest recorded temperature in the world. In winter, days are warm and nights are cool; snow is very rare.

History
Death Valley was named in 1849. Miners and settlers tried to travel across the valley during the California Gold Rush. Many people died because it was so hot and dry. It has very little water because the water evaporates, or disappears in the clouds, before it can touch the ground. Of the few people who lived in Death Valley, most were miners, especially of borax.

Death Valley National Park 
Death Valley National Park is a national park in the U.S. states of California and Nevada. It includes Death Valley. The park was designated as a national monument in 1933 and a national park in 1994.  It contains  in California and Nevada.  Death Valley National Park is the largest wilderness area in the United States.
The park is east of the Sierra Nevada, between the arid Great Basin and Mojave deserts. It has a diverse desert environment of salt-flats, sand dunes, badlands, valleys, canyons, and mountains. 

This is the largest national park in the lower 48 states and is an International Biosphere Reserve. About 95% of the park is a wilderness area. It is the hottest and driest of the national parks in the United States. The second-lowest point in the Western Hemisphere is in Badwater Basin, which is  below sea level. The park is home to many species of plants and animals that have adapted to this harsh desert environment. Some examples include creosote bush, bighorn sheep, coyote, and the Death Valley pupfish, a survivor of much wetter times.

References

Deserts of North America
Valleys of California
Wilderness Areas of the United States
Inyo County, California
San Bernardino County, California
Mulberry (Morus) is a genus of 10–16 species of trees. They are native to warm regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas, with most of the species native to Asia.

Mulberries are fast-growing when young but soon become slow-growing and rarely grow over 10-15 meters tall. The leaves are simple, often lobed, and ridged. The fruit grows in bunches, 2-3 centimeters long, is red to dark purple in color, edible, and sweet with a good flavor in several species.

The fruit is used in pies, tarts, and wines. The fruit of the black mulberry, native to southwest Asia, and the red mulberry, native to eastern North America, have the strongest flavor. The fruit of the white mulberry, an east Asian species, has a very weak flavor.

Mulberries can be grown from seeds, which is the best idea as seedling-grown trees are generally healthier. However, they are often planted from large pieces cut from other mulberry trees, which easily take root.

White mulberry