Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
When the first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901, the Norwegian Nobel Committee opted to give it to Henry Dunant and Frédéric Passy, a leading campaigner against war. The International Committee of the Red Cross officially congratulated Dunant and was a tribute to his key role in the formation of the Red Cross. Dunant died nine years later in the small Swiss health resort of Heiden. Only two months earlier his former friend and committee member Gustave Moynier had also died.

By the start of the First World War in 1914, there were 45 national relief societies throughout the world. The movement had grown beyond Europe and North America to Central and South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Mexico, Peru, El Salvador, Uruguay, Venezuela), Asia (the Republic of China, Japan, Korea, Siam), and Africa (Republic of South Africa). The Geneva Convention had been changed to include fighting at sea as well as on land.

World War One
World War One 

In World War I Red Cross nurses came from around the world, including the United States and Japan, came to help the medical services of the armed forces of the countries involved in the war in Europe.

On 15 October 1914, immediately after the start of the war, the ICRC set up its International Prisoners-of-War (POW) Agency. By the end of the war, the Agency had sent about 20 million letters and messages, 1.9 million parcels, and about 18 million Swiss francs to POWs of all affected countries. The Agency also arranged for about 200,000 prisoners to be released and returned to their home country. The Agency collected about 7 million records from 1914 to 1923 about prisoners or missing people. The card index helped to identify about 2 million POWs and to contact their families. The complete index of 7 million cards is on loan from the ICRC to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva. But only ICRC can search the index.
The ICRC got the only Nobel Peace Prize of the war years, in 1917, for its outstanding wartime work.

In 1923, the Committee changed its membership rules. Until then, only citizens of the city of Geneva could serve in the Committee. This was changed to include all citizens of Switzerland by birth. This is still the rule today, and is designed to show that the ICRC is neutral, and that committee members and workers have never been citizens of a country that might be involved in a war. Only in 1993 were non-Swiss-born people allowed to work for the committee.

World War Two 

In 1934 the ICRC tried to get extra protection for civilians during war. Unfortunately most governments were not interested in adopting the extra rules before the start of World War II.
The Geneva Conventions, as amended in 1929, governed what the ICRC did. revision . The activities of the Committee were similar to those during World War I: 
 visiting and monitoring POW camps,
 organizing relief assistance for civilian populations, and
 administering the exchange of messages regarding prisoners and missing persons.

By the end of the war, 179 delegates had conducted 12,750 visits to POW camps in 41 countries. The Central Information Agency on Prisoners-of-War (Zentralauskunftsstelle für Kriegsgefangene) had a staff of 3,000, the card index tracking prisoners contained 45 million cards (more than 6 times as many as world war 1), and 120 million messages were exchanged by the Agency.

The German Red Cross was controlled by the Nazis, and would not uphold the Geneva conventions which may have helped stop the deportation of Jews from Germany and the mass murders conducted in the concentration camps run by the German government.
Two other main countries in the war, the Soviet Union and Japan, were not party to the 1929 Geneva Conventions and were not legally required to follow the rules of the conventions. Thus, other countries were not bound to follow the Conventions regarding their prisoners in return.

The ICRC had to stop complaining about the treatment of detainees in concentration camps in case the ICRC was stopped from working for POWs.

After November 1943, the ICRC could send parcels to concentration camp detainees with known names and locations. Because the notices of receipt for these parcels were often signed by other inmates, the ICRC managed to register the identities of about 105,000 detainees in the concentration camps and delivered about 1.1 million parcels, mostly to the camps Dachau, Buchenwald, Ravensbrück, and Sachsenhausen.
On 12 March 1945, ICRC president Jacob Burckhardt was told by SS General Ernst Kaltenbrunner that the ICRC's delegates could visit the concentration camps, but the delegates would have to stay in the camps until the end of the war. Ten delegates, among them Louis Haefliger (Camp Mauthausen), Paul Dunant (Camp Theresienstadt) and Victor Maurer (Camp Dachau), visited the camps.

Louis Haefliger told American troops about the forceful eviction or blasting of Mauthausen-Gusen and saved the lives of about 60,000 inmates. His actions were condemned by the ICRC because they were deemed as acting unduly on his own authority and risking the ICRC's neutrality. Only in 1990, his reputation was finally rehabilitated by ICRC president Cornelio Sommaruga.
Another example of great humanitarian spirit was Friedrich Born (1903-1963), an ICRC delegate in Budapest who saved the lives of about 11,000 to 15,000 Jewish people in Hungary. Marcel Junod (1904-1961), a doctor from Geneva, was another famous delegate during the Second World War. He was one of the first foreigners to visit Hiroshima after the atomic bomb was dropped, and wrote his thoughts in his book Warrior without Weapons.

In 1944, the ICRC got its third Nobel Peace Prize.

After the Second World War
On 12 August 1949, the existing two Geneva Conventions were changed, and the Hague Convention about casualties at sea was brought into the Geneva Convention "family". It was renamed the Second Geneva Covention, and so the second convention of 1929 is now called the third convention. The Fourth Geneva Convention, about the "Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War," was established. On 8 June 1977 extra article "protocols" were added to make the conventions apply to internal conflicts such as civil wars.

In 1963, the ICRC shared its third Nobel Peace Prize with the League of Red Cross Societies.

Since 1993, non-Swiss citizens have been allowed to serve as Committee delegates abroad, a task which was previously restricted to Swiss citizens. Now about one third of staff are not Swiss citizens.
On 16 October 1990, the UN General Assembly gave the ICRC observer status for its assembly sessions and sub-committee meetings, the first observer status given to a private organization. The resolution was jointly proposed by 138 member states and introduced by the Italian ambassador, Vieri Traxler, in memory of the organization's origins in the Battle of Solferino.

An agreement with the Swiss government signed on 19 March 1993, affirmed the already long-standing policy of full independence of the Committee from any interference by Switzerland. The agreement protects the full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive, grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees, guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland.
The ICRC continued its activities throughout the 1990s. It broke its usual silence when it denounced the Rwandan Genocide in 1994, and again in 1995 about the crimes that happened in and around Srebrenica when it said, "We must acknowledge that despite our efforts to help thousands of civilians forcibly expelled from the town and despite the dedication of our colleagues on the spot, the ICRC's impact on the unfolding of the tragedy was extremely limited."  It went public once again in 2007 to decry "major human rights abuses" by Burma's military government including forced labor, starvation, and murder of men, women, and children.
Fatalities 
At the end of the Cold War, the ICRC's work actually became more dangerous. In the 1990s, more delegates lost their lives than at any point in its history, especially when working in local and internal armed conflicts. These incidents often demonstrated a lack of respect for the rules of the Geneva Conventions and their protection symbols. Among the slain delegates were:
Frédéric Maurice. He died on 19 May 1992 at the age of 39, one day after a Red Cross transport he was escorting was attacked in the former Yugoslavian city of Sarajevo.
 Fernanda Calado (Spain), Ingeborg Foss (Norway), Nancy Malloy (Canada), Gunnhild Myklebust (Norway), Sheryl Thayer (New Zealand), and Hans Elkerbout (Netherlands). They were murdered at point-blank range while sleeping in the early hours of 17 December 1996 in the ICRC field hospital in the Chechen city of Nowije Atagi near Grozny. Their murderers have never been caught and there was no apparent motive for the killings.
 Rita Fox (Switzerland), Véronique Saro (Democratic Republic of Congo, formerly Zaire), Julio Delgado (Colombia), Unen Ufoirworth (DR Congo), Aduwe Boboli (DR Congo), and Jean Molokabonge (DR Congo). On 26 April 2001, they were en route with two cars on a relief mission in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of Congo when they came under fatal fire from unknown attackers.
Ricardo Munguia (El Salvador). He was working as a water engineer in Afghanistan and travelling with local colleagues when their car was stopped by unknown armed men. He was killed execution-style at point-blank range while his colleagues were allowed to escape. He died at the age of 39.
 Vatche Arslanian (Canada). Since 2001, he worked as a logistics coordinator for the ICRC mission in Iraq. He died when he was travelling through Baghdad together with members of the Iraqi Red Crescent. Their car accidentally came into the cross fire of fighting in the city.
 Nadisha Yasassri Ranmuthu (Sri Lanka). He was killed by unknown attackers on 22 July 2003 when his car was fired upon near the city of Hilla in the south of Baghdad.
Symbols 
The original motto of the International Committee of the Red Cross was Inter Arma Caritas ("Amidst War, Charity"). It has preserved this motto while other Red Cross organizations have adopted others. Because Geneva is in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, the ICRC is also known under its French name Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (CICR). However, the ICRC has six official languages, including Arabic. The official symbol of the ICRC is the Red Cross on white background (the inverse of the Swiss flag)with the words "COMITE INTERNATIONAL GENEVE" circling the cross.

The ICRC drew up seven fundamental principles in 1965 that were adopted by the entire Red Cross Movement. They are 
 Humanity,
 Impartiality,
 Neutrality,
 Independence,
 Volunteerism,
 Unity, and
 Universality.
Funding and financial matters 
The 2005 budget of the ICRC was about 970 million Swiss francs. All payments to the ICRC are voluntary and are received as donations based on two types of appeals issued by the Committee: an annual Headquarters Appeal to cover its internal costs and Emergency Appeals for its individual missions.

Most of the ICRC's funding comes from Switzerland and the United States, with the other European states and the E.U. close behind. Together with Australia, Canada, Japan, and New Zealand, they contribute about 80-85% of the ICRC's budget. About 3% comes from private gifts, and the rest comes from national Red Cross societies.
Responsibilities within the Movement 
The ICRC is responsible for legally recognizing a relief society as an official national Red Cross or Red Crescent society and thus accepting it into the Movement. The exact rules are in the statutes of the Movement. After recognition by the ICRC, a national society is admitted as a member to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. The ICRC and the Federation cooperate with the individual national societies in their international missions, especially with human, material, and financial resources and organizing on-site logistics. According to the 1997 Seville Agreement, the ICRC is the lead Red Cross agency in conflicts while other organizations within the Movement take the lead in non-war situations. National societies will be given the lead especially when a conflict is happening within their own country.
Organization 
The ICRC headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland. It has other offices, called Delegations, in about 80 countries. Each delegation is under the responsibility of a Head of delegation who is the official representative of the ICRC in the country. Of its 2,000 professional employees, roughly 800 work in its Geneva headquarters and 1,200 expatriates work in the field. About half of the field workers serve as delegates managing ICRC operations in the different countries while the other half are specialists like doctors, agronomists, engineers or interpreters. The international staff are assisted by some 13,000 national employees, so about 15,000 people work for the ICRC.

Directorate 
The Directorate is the executive body of the Committee.It carries out the policies set by the assembly.
Assembly 
The Assembly (also called the Committee) convenes on a regular basis and is responsible for defining aims, guidelines, and strategies and for supervising the financial matters of the Committee. The Assembly has a membership of a maximum of 25 Swiss citizens. Members must speak the house language of French, but many also speak English and German as well. These Assembly members are co-opted for a period of four years, and there is no limit to the number of terms an individual member can serve. A three-quarters majority vote from all members is required for re-election after the third term, which acts as a motivation for members to remain active and productive.
In the early years, every Committee member was Genevan, Protestant, white, and male. The first woman, Renée-Marguerite Cramer, was co-opted in 1918. Since then, several women have attained the Vice Presidency, and the female proportion after the Cold War has been about 15%. The first non-Genevans were admitted in 1923, and one Jew has served in the Assembly.

While the rest of the Red Cross Movement many be multi-national, the Committee believes that its mono-national nature is an asset because the nationality in question is Swiss. Thanks to permanent Swiss neutrality, conflicting parties can be sure that no one from "the enemy" will be setting policy in Geneva. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 showed that even National Red Cross Societies can be biased and not maintain neutral humanitarianism.
Assembly Council 
Furthermore, the Assembly elects a five-member Assembly Council that constitutes an especially active core of the Assembly. The Council meets at least ten times per year and has the authority to decide on behalf of the full Assembly in some matters. The Council is also responsible for organizing the Assembly meetings and for helping communication between the Assembly and the Directorate. The Assembly Council normally includes the president, two vice presidents and two elected members. While one of the vice presidents is elected for a four-year term, the other is appointed permanently with his tenure ending by retirement from the vice presidency or from the Committee. Currently Jacques Forster and Olivier Vodoz are vice presidents. In April 2007, Christine Beerli was appointed to succeed Jacques Forster from the beginning of 2008.
The Assembly also selects, for a term of four years, one individual to act as President of the ICRC. The president is both a member of the Assembly and leader of the ICRC, and he has always been included on the Council since its formation. The President automatically becomes a member of the assembly and the ICRC once he is appointed, but he does not necessarily come from within the ICRC organization. There is a strong faction within the Assembly that wants to reach outside the organization to select a president from the Swiss government or professional circles like the banking or medical fields. In fact, the last three presidents were previously officials in the Swiss government. The president's influence and role is not well-defined, and changes depending upon the times and each president's personal style. Since 2000, the president of the ICRC has been Jakob Kellenberger. Kellenberger does not make many public appearances or statements but is good at personal negotiation promoting the ICRC privately
. In February 2007, he was appointed by the Assembly to another four-year term which will run until the end of 2011.
The presidents of the ICRC have been:

 1863 - 1864: Henri Dufour
 1864 - 1910: Gustave Moynier
 1910 - 1928: Gustave Ador
 1928 - 1944: Max Huber
 1944 - 1948: Carl Jacob Burckhardt
 1948 - 1955: Paul Ruegger
 1955 - 1964: Leopold Boissier

 1964 - 1969: Samuel Gonard
 1969 - 1973: Marcel Naville
 1973 - 1976: Eric Martin
 1976 - 1987: Alexandre Hay
 1987 - 1999: Cornelio Sommaruga
 2000 - 2011: Jakob Kellenberger (unless term extended again)

The ICRC tends to work quietly and not attract publicity, unlike some other aid agencies.  This way it was been able to get access to, for example, Nelson Mandela, when he was still a prisoner of the apartheid government of South Africa.

References

Bibliography
Books 
 David P. Forsythe: Humanitarian Politics: The International Committee of the Red Cross. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1978, 
 Henry Dunant: A Memory of Solferino. ICRC, Geneva 1986, 
 Hans Haug: Humanity for all: the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva in association with Paul Haupt Publishers, Bern 1993, 
 Georges Willemin, Roger Heacock: International Organization and the Evolution of World Society. Volume 2: The International Committee of the Red Cross. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Boston 1984, 
 Pierre Boissier: History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume I: From Solferino to Tsushima. Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1985, 
 André Durand: History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume II: From Sarajevo to Hiroshima. Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1984, 
 International Committee of the Red Cross: Handbook of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. 13th edition, ICRC, Geneva 1994,
John F. Hutchinson: Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross. Westview Press, Boulder 1997, 
 Caroline Moorehead: Dunant's dream: War, Switzerland and the history of the Red Cross. HarperCollins, London 1998,  (Hardcover edition); HarperCollins, London 1999,  (Paperback edition)
 François Bugnion: The International Committee of the Red Cross and the protection of war victims. ICRC & Macmillan (ref. 0503), Geneva 2003, 
 Angela Bennett: The Geneva Convention: The Hidden Origins of the Red Cross. Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire 2005, 
 David P. Forsythe: The Humanitarians. The International Committee of the Red Cross. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005,
Articles 
 François Bugnion: The emblem of the Red Cross: a brief history. ICRC (ref. 0316), Geneva 1977
 Jean-Philippe Lavoyer, Louis Maresca: The Role of the ICRC in the Development of International Humanitarian Law. In: International Negotiation. 4(3)/1999. Brill Academic Publishers, p. 503-527, ISSN 1382-340X
 Neville Wylie: The Sound of Silence: The History of the International Committee of the Red Cross as Past and Present. In: Diplomacy and Statecraft. 13(4)/2002. Routledge/ Taylor & Francis, p. 186-204, ISSN 0959-2296
 David P. Forsythe: "The International Committee of the Red Cross and International Humanitarian Law." In: Humanitäres Völkerrecht - Informationsschriften. The Journal of International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict. 2/2003, German Red Cross and Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict, p. 64-77, ISSN 0937-5414
 François Bugnion: Towards a comprehensive Solution to the Question of the Emblem. Revised third edition. ICRC (ref. 0778), Geneva 2005
Other websites 
 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
 Legacy  Dr. Cornelio Sommaruga, President of the ICRC from 1987-1999, donated four hours of high-definition audiovisual life story interviews to Legacy. The ICRC audiovisual library houses copies of these interviews.

Red Cross
1863 establishments
Meridian is the county seat and the most populous city of Lauderdale County in the U.S. state of Mississippi. it is the eighth most populous city in the state (after Jackson, Gulfport, Southaven, Biloxi, Hattiesburg, Olive Branch and Tupelo) and the principal city of the Meridian, Mississippi Micropolitan Statistical Area. it serves as a hub for the Eastern Mississippi region. The population was 39,968 at the 2000 census. The current population is larger than in the 2000 census. A recent annexation, in addition to seeing many displaced coastal residents after Hurricane Katrina (many of them have made Meridian their permanent residence), has put the population over 40,000.

Other websites 

 City of Meridian website
 The Meridian Star Newspaper
 History of Meridian's Jewish community
 MeridianOnline.info 

County seats in Mississippi
Cities in Mississippi
Settlements in Lauderdale County, Mississippi
1854 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Mississippi
The Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (a.k.a. HPC) is one of nine Service Centers that are part of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), which is part of the National Weather Service, which in turn is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the U.S. government.

The HPC serves as a center of excellence in Quantitative Precipitation Forecasting, Medium Range Forecasting (three to seven days) and the interpretation of numerical weather prediction models.

The HPC issues storm summaries on storm systems bringing significant rainfall and snowfall to portions of the United States. Advisories are also issued for tropical cyclones which have moved inland and are no longer the responsibility of the National Hurricane Center. The HPC also acts as the backup office to the National Hurricane Center in the event of a complete communications failure.
The HPC was created in October 1995, when the former National Meteorological Center was reorganised into the NCEP. It is based at the World Weather Building in Camp Springs, Maryland, along with a few of the other National Centers such as the Climate Prediction Center (CPC), the Ocean Prediction Center (OPC), and the Environmental Modeling Center (EMC).

Other websites
 Official website 

Meteorology
Côte-Nord (French for "Northern Coast", area 247,627.06 km², or 95,609.34 sq mi) is the second largest administrative region by land area in Quebec, Canada. It covers much of the northern shore of the Saint Lawrence River's estuary and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence past Tadoussac. At the 2006 census it had a resident population of 95,911 inhabitants.

Other websites
 Regional Portal 
 Côte-Nord
 Côte-Nord Tourism

Regions of Quebec
Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean is a region in Quebec, Canada.

Regions of Quebec
Plaquemines Parish (Cajun French: Paroisse Plaquemine) is the parish with the biggest combined land and water area in the U.S. state of Louisiana. The parish seat is Pointe à la Hache. As of 2020, the parish's population was 23,515.

The name is pronounced  (transcription in IPA).

References

1807 establishments in the Territory of Orleans
Naiad or Neptune III is the closest moon to Neptune named after the Naiads of Greek legend. It was found sometime before mid-September, 1989 from the images taken by the Voyager 2 probe. The last moon to be discovered during the flyby, it was designated S/1989 N 6. Naiad is not a sphere and probably has not been changed by any internal geological processes after its formation. It orbits about 23,500 km above Neptune's cloud tops. 

Since the Voyager 2 flyby, the Neptune system has been studied a lot from ground-based observatories and the Hubble Space Telescope as well. In 2002-03, Keck telescope looked at the system using adaptive optics and detected easily the biggest four closer satellites. Thalassa was found with some image processing, but Naiad was not located.

Other websites 
 Naiad Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration

Neptune's moons
Tamsui (Chinese: 淡水鎮, Taiwanese: Tām-súi/Tām-chúi, Tongyong Pinyin: Danshuei, Hanyu Pinyin: Danshui) is a sea-side town in Taipei County, Taiwan. The town has a population of 130,105 people. It is named after a river whose name means "Freshwater". The town is also popular as a site for viewing the sun setting into the Taiwan Strait. There are three universities in this small town.

Settlements in Taiwan
Lovisa Aarberg (from 1803 -1866) was a Swedish surgeon and doctor. 

She and Kisamor were the first female doctors in Sweden. She was a doctor and a surgeon long before it was permitted for women. In Sweden, her name is spelled as Lovisa Årberg, and she was often called Jungfru Årberg, which means "Maiden Årberg" in English.

Personal life 
Lovisa Årberg was born in Uppsala. Her mother often nursed sick people, and when Lovisa was a child, she followed her mother to the hospitals. She learned a lot about sickness and medicine and how to cure and nurse sick people, and often helped people she knew when they were sick.
Career 
When she was an adult, she moved to Stockholm and became a maid. People had heard that she was good at helping sick people, and often came and asked her for help. Soon, even rich people started to ask her for help. The paid her money when she cured them, so she could stop being a maid and could start to work as a doctor instead. Lovisa then opened her own clinic and started to work as a doctor and a surgeon. 

She opened her clinic and started to work as a doctor in the 1820s. In the 1820s, it was forbidden for a woman to work as a doctor. The male doctors did not like that a woman worked as a doctor, and the government was worried that she might hurt her patients as she had never learned medicine at a university. But when they examined her, they found out that she was a very good doctor, and that she had all the knowledge that the male doctors had.
So instead, they gave her a medal and special permission to work as a surgeon and a doctor. She continued to work as a doctor for forty years, until the 1860s. She gave treatment to poor people, even when they did not have the money to pay her. She was a popular doctor, and many people asked her for help. She worked very hard until she became unhealthy, so she often had to take time to rest.

References 
 http://runeberg.org/sqvinnor/0449.html

1803 births
1866 deaths
Swedish scientists
People from Uppsala
Kisamor, (1788-1842), was a famous female doctor in Sweden. Her real name was Maria Jansson, but she was always called Kisamor. Kisamor means "The Mother in Kisa" in English, and Kisa was the place were she worked. She was a doctor before it was allowed for a woman to be a doctor, and she is the most famous woman doctor in Sweden in the 19th century.

She was born in Örebro. Her father was a doctor in natural medicine, and she wanted to become one too. But her father wouldn't let her. Instead, her forced her to marry a farmer. The marriage became unhappy, and she divorced her husband.

She often visited sick people and worked as a doctor in natural medicine. One day, she was given a house in Östergötland as a gift by some rich women after she had made them well after sickness. She visited the sick in their cottages, and sometimes they came to her in the inn called Kisa, and therefore, she was called "The Mother in Kisa".
She became famous, and people came to her from all over the country to ask her for help. In 1825, she was given special permission to work as a doctor, even though it was forbidden for a woman to work as a doctor.

Related pages
 Lovisa Aarberg

Sources 
 Österberg, Carin et al., Svenska kvinnor: föregångare, nyskapare. Lund: Signum 1990. ()
 http://art-bin.com/art/akisamo.html

Other websites 
 http://art-bin.com/art/akisamen.html

1788 births
1842 deaths
Swedish scientists
Amalia Euphrosyne Lindegren (22 May 1814 – 27 December 1891) was a famous Swedish painter.

Life
She became an orphan when her mother died in 1817. Then, she was adopted by the widow of Benjamin Sandel. Benjamin Sandel is thought to have been her real father.

Amalia liked to draw and wanted to become an artist. When the artist Qvarnström saw her drawings, he got her a permission to study art at the Swedish Academy of Arts in 1849. They thought she was very promising and had great talent. In 1850, she became the first woman who got a scholarship by the Academy to study art in Paris.

In 1856, she was elected to become a member in to the Swedish Academy of Arts. She showed people her paintings in the exhibitions in Paris in 1867, Philadelphia in 1876, and in Chicago in 1893.

Related pages
 Lea Ahlborn
Düsseldorf school of painting

Sources 
 Österberg, Carin et al., Svenska kvinnor: föregångare, nyskapare. Lund: Signum 1990. ()

1814 births
1891 deaths
Swedish painters
Thalassa or Neptune IV, is the second closest moon to Neptune. It was named after a daughter of Aether and Hemera from Greek mythology.
"Thalassa" is also the Greek word for "sea".

Thalassa was discovered sometime before mid-September, 1989 from the images taken by the Voyager 2 probe. It was given the designation S/1989 N 5. The discovery was said (IAUC 4867) on September 29, 1989, but the text only talks of "25 frames taken over 11 days", giving a discovery date of sometime before September 18. The name was given on 16 September 1991.

Thalassa is not a sphere and shows no sign of any geological changes. Unusually for a non-spherical moon, it appears to be oddly shaped not able to be explained.

Other websites 
 Thalassa Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration

Neptune's moons
Bayerischer Rundfunk is the main German radio and television broadcasting company for Bavaria. It is a member of the ARD public broadcasting group.

It includes the following broadcasting services:

the radio stations
 Bayern 1
 Bayern 2
 Bayern 3
 BR-Klassik
 BR Schlager
 BR24
 BR24live
 BR Puls (only available via the Internet and DAB / Astra 19,2 East )
and the TV channels
 Bayerisches Fernsehen
 ARD-αlpha

German broadcasting companies
Munich
Circadian rhythm sleep disorders happen when the circadian rhythm is not working correctly. They make people sleep and wake at times that are not normal, but these people usually have 8 hours of good sleep. These disorders affect other systems in the body, too, and not just sleep. Circadian rhythms also control appetite, body temperature rhythm and hormone cycles.

Extrinsic category 
"Extrinsic" means something which comes from outside rather than from within a system or an organism. There are two circadian rhythm sleep disorders of the extrinsic type:

 Jet Lag
Jet Lag often affects people who have travelled several hours east or west, through several time zones. It may take many days for the body to adjust. The name "jet lag" comes from travelling by jet aircraft.

 Shift work syndrome
Many people have health problems when they work a shift during the times when their circadian rhythms say that they should be asleep.  Most people who work later than midnight find it difficult to stay awake.
Intrinsic category 
"Intrinsic" means something which happens or comes from within a system or an organism. There are four circadian rhythm sleep disorders of the intrinsic type. Unless they are caused by a head injury, they are usually genetic, that is, people are born with them. They are generally chronic; they do not go away, but they may sometimes be treated.

 Advanced sleep-phase syndrome
Advanced sleep-phase syndrome (ASPS) is very rare. People with this syndrome are sleepy very early in the evening and they sleep from about 19:00-20:00 in the evening to about 03:00-04:00 in the early morning. Often several people in the same family have ASPS.
Delayed sleep-phase syndrome
Delayed sleep-phase syndrome (DSPS) is more common than ASPS and it affects about 0.15% of adults. It usually starts in early childhood or at puberty. Some cases that start at puberty go away when the person is about 20 or 21 years old. DSPS is much more common in teenagers than in adults. DSPS in people older than about 20 usually will have it all their lives, that is, it is chronic.

People with DSPS cannot go to sleep before 03:00-06:00 in the morning, or even later. They cannot wake up in time for school or a job which starts in the morning. They can go to sleep at the same time every night and get up at the same time each day. This means that they are entrained (adjusted, synchronized) to the daily light/dark cycle. Even when they try to sleep at "normal" times, they feel most awake late at night.
Non-24-hour sleep-wake syndrome
Non-24-hour sleep-wake syndrome (Non-24) is quite rare. People with Non-24 have very unusual sleep timing. Their sleep and wake times are not regulated by daylight; they are not entrained (adjusted, synchronized) to the daily light/dark cycle. This is called freerunning sleep.

The worst circadian rhythm sleep disorder in people who can see is Non-24; their "daily" rhythm lasts 25 hours or more so they sleep and wake up one or more hours later each day. Appetite, body temperature rhythm and hormone cycles all keep moving around the clock, coming back to the same time after a few weeks.

About half of totally blind people, who can see no light at all, have Non-24. Their daily rhythm is not exactly 24 hours and it does not adjust to the light/dark cycle in nature because they can not see light. This can often be treated.
Irregular sleep-wake disorder
Irregular sleep-wake disorder is rare, and it is often possible to find out what causes it, for example, a head injury, a mental handicap, dementia or some other sicknesses. People with this disorder sleep and wake several times a day, but not at the same times every day. They sleep about 8 hours a day but never 8 hours together.

Treatment 
Treatment for these disorders often does not work well. In addition, it can be difficult to find a doctor who knows much about circadian rhythms, as the field of study is quite new.

 Bright light
Treatment with bright light is also called phototherapy or light therapy. People with ASPS need a lot of light in the evening and they should avoid bright light in the morning. People with DSPS need bright light as soon as they wake up and should try to avoid bright light before bedtime.
Melatonin
Melatonin is a hormone produced in the pineal gland in the brain. It is normally only produced in the evening and at night. People with ASPS can take melatonin by mouth in the morning. People with DSPS can take melatonin in the afternoon or evening, and this treatment works also for some people with Non-24.

One can buy melatonin in the shops in the USA and Canada. In most other countries one must get it from a doctor or it might not be legal at all.

Sleep disorders
Disability
Disorder may mean

Disorder (medicine): a functional abnormality in a person's body. Tends to be used as a "value-neutral" term.
Mental disorder: a psychological pattern with distress or disability which occurs in a person and is not a part of normal development or culture.
Civil disorder: disturbances caused in public places.
Lawlessness: general lack of law enforcement.
Randomness as opposed to order
The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is the elephant species living in Asia. They are more easily tamed than larger African elephants. People have used them as working animals for hundreds of years. It is mostly found in parts of India and nearby countries.

Description 
Asian elephants are different from African elephants. They are smaller, have smaller ears, a more rounded back, and a fourth toenail on each of their back feet. They have thick, dry skin with a small amount of stiff hair, and are grey to brown in colour. Female Asian elephants have small tusks and occasionally none at all. Sometimes pink spots appear on the ears as a result of loss of pigment.

Asian elephants eat grass, hay, twigs, bark and fruits. It can live up to 60 to 80 years. It can weigh up to 5000kg and be up to 300cm tall. It takes up to 660 days or 22 months until the babies are born.
Distribution 
Asian elephants live across many parts of India and Sri Lanka. They also live as far east as Sumatra, Indonesia. These three areas have subspecies that are slightly different.

Habitat 
Asian elephants are spread over areas with very different amounts of rain. They can survive in dry places where less than 40cm of rain falls per year and in wet areas where over 8 meters of rain falls in a year.

References 

Elephants
Mammals of Asia
National symbols of Thailand
Karolina Sofia Bock, (1792-1872), was a Swedish dancer, actor and singer. She also became principal for the famous theatre-school, Dramatens elevskola.

Birth
Karolina Bock was born as Karolina Richter. She was a student at the theatrical school Dramatens elevskola in Stockholm between 1806 and 1809, were she was instructed by the principal Sofia Lovisa Gråå. Many of the girls graduating from the school between 1804 and 1812, when Gråå was principal, became famous in Sweden, and were called "the girls of Gråå".
Works
Karolina worked at the theatres Djurgårdsteatern and Nya Komiska Teatern before she was hired at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in 1814. She worked there for fifty years, and became one of the most popular actors there. But she never became a star because of the parts she played; she always played old women in comedys, never heroines and main parts. She was very well used and never lacked parts to play, but she was not given main parts. It was said, that she had a rare quality; she knew her limitations.

Her most popular parts were in the plays Min tante Aurore, Bildhuggaren, Brodertvisten, Syrsan, Preciosa, Jane Eyre and Mäster Smith.
Mariage
Karolina Bock was married two times. In 1813, she married J.G. Svanberg, who played violin in the royal chapel, and in 1826 she married K.F. Bock, who played the flute in the royal chapel. She had a daughter, Bertha Tammelin, who became an actor, singer, composer, musician and a teacher at Dramatens elevskola.

Karolina Bock was rewarded with the medal Litteris et Artibus in 1857.

Sources 
 Nordisk familjebok
 Österberg, Carin et al., Svenska kvinnor: föregångare, nyskapare. Lund: Signum 1990. ()
 http://runeberg.org/sqvinnor/0054.html

1792 births
1872 deaths
Swedish actors
Swedish singers
Swedish dancers
Lea Fredrika Ahlborn (née Lundgren) (18 February 1826 – 13 November 1897) was a famous Swedish artist. She was a member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Arts, and the first woman to be appointed royal printmaker. The position of royal printmaker also made her the first female official in Sweden.

Life
She was daughter to Ludvig Lundgren, who was a printmaker, and she early decided, that she wanted to become a printmaker too. In 1849, she, as well as Amalia Lindegren and Agnes Börjesson, became one of the four women who were given permission to study art at the Swedish Royal Academy of Arts.    

In 1851, she made a study-trip to Paris with her teacher Carl Gustaf Qvarnström and her brother Pehr Henrik.
In 1855, she was appointed royal printmaker, and was also elected as a member in the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts. She kept herself updated in everything regarding her work, and was given assignments from the Swedish Academy, the science academy and the royal academy Pro Patria. She made the medal-portraits to the celebration of the anniversary of the king and queen, and she was hired by the US government to make the medal of George Washington at the centenary (hundred years anniversary) of the end of the American War for Independence in 1883. In 1892, she was given the medal Illis Quorum by the king.

Family
Her sister, Carolina Weidenhayn, (1822-1902), became the first professional female xylographer, who after she studied in Paris 1858-1867, became an instructor at the great technical school Tekniska Skolan in 1859-1881.

Sources 
 Österberg, Carin et al., Svenska kvinnor: föregångare, nyskapare. Lund: Signum 1990. ()

1826 births
1897 deaths
Swedish artists
Printmakers
Hedda (Hedvig Katarina) Hjortsberg, (1777-1867), was a Swedish ballerina. She was the sister of Swedish actor Lars Hjortsberg. She became a student of the French ballet-master Louis Gallodier in 1786, at the age of nine. Between 1791 and 1806 she was a premier-dancer at the Royal Swedish Opera in Stockholm. She danced the parts of Lucile in the pantomime ballet Det dubbla giftermålet by Jean Marcadet in the 1790-1719 season, Leonore in Enleveringen by Louis Deland, and Diana in Diana och Kärleken by Deland in 1800-1801. She also performed the part of Venus in Venus och Adonis by Deland in 1801-1802, and Frosine in Dansvurmen by Gardel in 1803-1804. When the Opera was opened again in 1809 after it had been closed since 1806, she performed with her five year old daughter in Dansvurmen.  Hjortsberg married the businessman Erik Samuel Koersner in 1804, and Abraham Hülphers in 1811, and after that, she danced only as a guest-artist.
Sources 
 http://runeberg.org/sbh/a0501.html
 Georg Nordensvan, "Svensk teater och svenska skådespelare från Gustav III till våra dagar; Första bandet, 1842-1772"
 Kungliga teaterns repertoar 1773-1973".

Swedish entertainers
Ballet dancers
Ballerinas
1777 births
1867 deaths
Despina or Neptune V is the third closest moon to Neptune. It is named after Despina, a nymph who was a daughter of Poseidon. 

Despina was found in late July 1989 from the images taken by the Voyager 2 probe. It was given the designation S/1989 N 3.

Despina is not a sphere and shows no sign of any geological changes.

Other websites 
 Despina Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration

References 

Neptune's moons
A chef is a person who cooks food as their job. They usually work in restaurants or hotels.

Full explanation 
The chef is responsible for everything about the food in a restaurant. He is responsible for buying the food, hiring and supervising the kitchen workers, creating the menus for the customers, and deciding the recipes (the details of how the cooking is done). Some chefs are trained and some are not trained.

The sous-chef (sometimes called an assistant chef) is the chef's main helper. A chef de partie is a 'line chef', in charge of a station in the kitchen. The commis chef works under a chef de partie. It is usually a training position. 

The lines or stations in a big kitchen are:
Sauté chef
Fish chef
roast chef
grill and/or fry chef
vegetable chef
roundsman (fills in where needed)
pantry chef
butcher
pastry chef

Related pages
 Celebrity chef

Other websites
 free chefs resource guide built by chefs for chefs
 Official certification levels of the American Culinary Federation
St. Bernard Parish (; ) is a parish in the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2020 census, the population was 43,764. The parish seat and largest community is Chalmette. The parish was formed in 1807.

Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the parish has a total area of , of which  is land and  (83%) is water. It is the second largest parish in Louisiana by total area and has the largest percentage of area in water of any parish.

Bodies of water
Lake Borgne  (north)
Mississippi River  (southwest)
Gulf of Mexico  (east)

State park
 St. Bernard State Park

References
References

Other websites
Official website of the St. Bernard's Parish Government
Official website of the St. Bernard Parish Tourist Commission
St. Bernard Chamber of Commerce
The Isleños of St. Bernard Parish
H.O.P.E. Project of Violet, Louisiana 
Post-Katrina cleanup and volunteer efforts 
Hurricane Katrina Journal by Samantha Perez of St. Bernard Parish
St Bernard Health Statistics, History, and Vital Information 
Chalmation.net  St. Bernard Internet Portal

 
1807 establishments in the Territory of Orleans
Slidell is the largest city in St. Tammany Parish in Louisiana. It is on the northeast shore of Lake Pontchartrain.
As of the 2000 census, the city had a population of 25,695.

References

Other websites 

 City of Slidell 
 "Slidell Sentry News"
 St. Petersburg Times Travel article
 Photographs of Hurricane Katrina's destruction in Slidell
 Information About the City of Slidell 

Cities in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana
St. Tammany Parish (French: Paroisse de Saint-Tammany) is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana, in the New Orleans metropolitan area. The population was 264,570 in 2020, making it the fourth-most populous parish in Louisiana. The parish seat is Covington. The parish was founded in 1810.

Other websites 
 St. Tammany Parish government's website
 St. Tammany school board's website

1810 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Louisiana
Chewing gum is a type of candy flavored with natural sugar or artificial sweeteners and also flavors such as mint. Gum is made to be chewed, and not swallowed. People chew gum for personal enjoyment and also to help clean teeth. Before it is chewed, the gum comes either soft and chewy or hard and then softens in your mouth. People are usually satisfied with gum once all the flavor is extracted, or their mouth becomes sore. Once people are done with gum, they throw it away.

History 
Chewing gum has already been invented many years ago from spruce sap and beeswax. The first real gum has been sold two years before flavored ones became popular. 30 years after, in 1880 chewing gums tasted for a longer time. After this many famous brands started inventing ways to improve or adding flavor to the chewing gum to make it like it is today.

Types

Stick Gum 
 In a stick form
 In different flavors but mostly in refreshing, tropical ones
Bubble gum 
 Is the best gum to make bubbles with
 In many fruit flavors
 Mostly common in cubes

Jawbreaker Gum 
 In small hard shape (mostly sphere) with a soft center

Functional Gum 
 They have medical function
 It has vitamins or different minerals in it

Nicotine Gum 
 It tries to help people stop smoking
 It gives old smokers something to do instead of smoking
 It contains a small amount of nicotine
 is not an alternative to smoking

Effects

Health 
The effects of chewing gum on the health are different. Sugar free chewing gum is sometimes recommended by dentists, because it can clean the teeth. Chewing gum which contains sugar can, depending on the kind of sugar, harm the teeth. Gum can help to avoid snacks.

Environment 
The new version of chewing gum has environmental effects, because it cannot rot easily. Also, it is hard to clean up if it sticks somewhere.
Other 
According to studies, chewing gum can have a good effect on concentration. There are many other effects on people coming from different new invented chewing gums, like dry mouth gum, or energy gum.

References 

Candy
Herat (, Herāt) is a city in Afghanistan. As of 2012, about 436,300 people live there. It is the third-largest city in Afghanistan. It is the capital of Herat Province. It is in the west of the country, close to the border of Iran. The spoken language in the city is called Herati Persian or just Herati.

History
Herat dates back to very old times. Avesta, the old book of Zoroastrianism mentions Herat as "Haroyu" and lists it as the sixth land of the sixteen perfect lands created by Ahura Mazda, the Zoroastrian god. In Achaemenid times (ca. 550-330 BC), the surrounding district was known as "Haraiva" (in Old Persian). Ancient Greeks called it "Aria" and "Artacoana" was the capital of Aria. Alexander the Great took Artacoana in 330 BC and destroyed it. He later built another city near Artacoana and named it "Alexandria in Ariana", today's city of Herat. After him Parthians and Sassanians took over. Sassanians called the city “Harēv”.
In March 1979, an anti-Communist uprising in Herat, left 25,000 civilian deaths. Between 1978 and 1992, communist forces in Herat city fought resistance forces holding the countryside. In 1995 the area came under the control of Pashtuns of the Taliban movement. After the United States' invasion of Afghanistan, on November 12, 2001, it was liberated from the Taliban by the Northern Alliance.

References 

Cities in Afghanistan
Herat Province