Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Culture
Warne is in the Brasstown Township of Clay County. It is surrounded by many places of cultural significance. One is the John C. Campbell Folk School, which offers weekly and weekend classes in traditional and contemporary crafts such as basketry.

Local Festivals and Celebrations
'Possum Drop, is an annual New Year's celebration held at a local gas station called Clay's Corner, which celebrates every New Year's by dropping a live opossum in a plexiglass pyramid from the roof of the store. They also hold the annual Miss Possum Queen, have many snacks and beverages, and Bluegrass Music.

The Bi-annual Celebration of Flight Airshow, at the Andrews-Murphy Airport, is a huge presentation of aircraft, both vintage and hi-tech. There are many vendors that sell food, drink, and other festivities.
Interesting Places Near Warne
Warne is a very rural town, surrounded by wildlife, countryside, and national forests. It is  north of the Nantahala National Forest, 1.8 miles (2.9 km) north of the Chattahoochee National Forest, 5.5 miles (8.8 km) west of Chatuge Lake, 11.8 miles (19 km) northeast of Nottely Lake, and about 15 miles (24.1 km) west of the Appalachian Trail, a 2,178 mile (3,505 km) long hiking trail that runs from Georgia to New York.

Rollins Planetarium is on the Young Harris College Campus in Young Harris, Georgia,  and offers 30 shows a year. If the sky is clear, the Young Harris College Observatory is open immediately following planetarium shows. The observatory features a Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope and is about 1.5 miles from campus at Twiggs Overlook on the exit road leading from Brasstown Valley Resort.

There are several WhiteWater Rafting guides and tours in northeast Cherokee County, Including Carolina Outfitters, Rafting America, and White Water.
Religion
Historically, religion has been a very important part of Appalachian life. Christianity, like much of the rest of the Southern United States, is very predominant in Warne and the surrounding communities. Baptist Christian faiths are well represented here. Some local Churches are Mount Pisgah Baptist Church, Shady Grove Church and Copperhill Church.

Radio, Television and Newspapers
Warne and the surrounding area is served by a few local television stations, many local radio stations that serve several genres of music including sports, news and talk radio in addition to three local papers.

The notable television stations in Warne include W50AB (Channel 50) based in Hiawassee, Georgia, W42AT (Channel 42) based in Hayesville, North Carolina and W31AN (Channel 31) Based in Murphy, North Carolina
Warne is also served by 11 local radio stations. WCVP-AM (600), WCNG-FM (102.7), and WKRK-AM (1320) are based in Murphy, North Carolina. WACF-FM (95.1) and WYHG-AM (770) are based in Young Harris, GA. WCVP-FM (95.9) in Robbinsville, WGHC-AM (1400) in Clayton, Georgia and WFSC-AM (1050), WPFJ-AM (1480), WFQS-FM (91.3), and WNCC-FM (96.7) based in Franklin, North Carolina.

The most important newspaper in Clay County is the Clay County Progress which, in addition to Clay County, covers Cherokee County, North Carolina and Towns County, Georgia. Two other notable newspapers are the Cherokee Scout and the Towns County Herald.

References

Other websites
 Warne Community Center 
 Clay County Chamber of Commerce 
 The Clay County Progress, Warne's local newspaper
 West NC Travel Guide at Western NC Attractions
 History of Clay County 
 Aerial View of Warne

Unincorporated communities in North Carolina
Wind engineering studies effects of wind on the buildings and its possible damage or problems to their inhabitants. From the point of structural engineering, it is interested in strong winds, which may cause discomfort, as well as extreme winds, such as in a tornado, hurricane or heavy storm, which may cause widespread destruction. 

Wind engineering needs information from meteorology, fluid dynamics, mechanics,  and a number of special engineering disciplines including aerodynamics, and structural dynamics. The tools may also include atmospheric models, atmospheric boundary layer, wind tunnels and computational fluid dynamics models.

Related pages
 Earthquake engineering
 Vibration control

Notes

Other websites
 International Association for Wind Engineering
 American Association of Wind Engineering
 UK Wind Engineering Society 
 Wind Energy Technology Centre 

Engineering disciplines
Winds
Career 
Vincent began his career in the early 1970s, playing guitar in local bands including Hunter and Treasure. In early 1980, Vinnie Vincent moved to Los Angeles, California, where he began composing songs for ABC TV series Happy Days. Vinnie Vincent shot to fame in 1982 replacing the guitarist Ace Frehley in the hard rock band Kiss. Was large the contribution to the band co-wrote the songs I Love It Loud, Killer, I Still Love You, of Album Creatures of the Night. For legal reasons Frehley appeared on the album cover and I Love It Loud video. In 1983, he recorded with Kiss the Album Lick It Up, where he co-wrote the themes Lick It Up, Exciter, Not for the Innocent, Young and Wasted, Gimme More, All Hell's Breakin' Loose, A Million to One, And on the 8th Day. After several tours with the group left the band in 1984, and was replaced by guitarist Mark St. John. In 1992 he returned to work with the band to co-write the lyrics of the album Revenge.
Vinnie Vincent Invasion 
In 1984 Vincent, formed the Glam metal band Vinnie Vincent Invasion, with Vinnie Vincent in guitar, Robert Fleischman vocal, Dana Strum in Bass, and Bobby Rock in Drums.
They recorded three albums Vinnie Vincent Invasion (1986), All Systems Go (1988), and the 1990 unreleased album Pyro Messiah aka Guitars From Hell. The band disbanded in 1989.

Recent years 
In the decade of 1990, Vincent was dedicated to his solo career and recorded the album Euphoria, 1996, with vocalist Robert Fleischman. Also released the album in the collection Speedball Jamm (2001), which were recordings of Vinnie Vincent Invasion, recorded during rehearsals for the band in 1986.

References 
 The rough guide to rock, by Peter Buckley
 Vinnie Vincent Invasion Members: Vinnie Vincent, Robert Fleischman, Mark Slaughter, Bobby Rock, Dana Strum, Jeff Blando

Other websites
 Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals' opinion regarding 'Cusano V. Klein' 2001. 
 Vinnie Vincent Fan Forums
1952 births
American guitarists
American heavy metal musicians
American rock guitarists
Kiss (band)
Living people
Musicians from Connecticut
People from Bridgeport, Connecticut
The Manhattan Chess Club is the second-oldest chess club in the United States (after the Mechanics' Institute Chess Club in San Francisco). The club was founded in 1877 and permanently closed in 2002.

1877 establishments in the United States
2002 disestablishments in the United States
Chess
Manhattan
Dokken is an American Heavy metal band that was formed in 1978. The group accumulated numerous charting singles and has sold more than 10 million albums worldwide.The band was nominated for a Grammy.

Dokken was composed of founder Don Dokken on vocals, George Lynch on lead guitars, Juan Croucier on bass, and "Wild" Mick Brown on drums. In 1983 Croucier left Dokken in order to join Ratt and was replaced by Jeff Pilson. Currently, Dokken and Brown remain from the original line-up. After several personnel changes on guitar, Dokken's attorney Jon Levin stepped in to fill the role in 2004. In 2001, Barry Sparks replaced Jeff Pilson on the bass guitar. In 2009, Sean McNabb replaced Barry Sparks on bass guitar.

Other websites
Official Dokken site

1970s American music groups
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American heavy metal bands
American hard rock bands
Musical groups from Los Angeles
"Just Can't Get Enough" is a song by American hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas. William Adams, Allan Pineda, Jaime Gomez and Stacy Ferguson of the Black Eyed Peas wrote the song. Joshua Alvarez, Stephen Shadowen, Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins, LaShawn Daniels, Julie Frost also helped in writing it. The song was written for the group's sixth studio album, The Beginning (2010). It was announced on January 21, 2011 as the album's second single. The song has been successful on music charts. It reached the top-five in many countries, such as Australia, France, United Kingdom and the United States, among others. The video for this song was made a week before the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami had began.

Charts and certifications

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

References

2011 songs
Black Eyed Peas songs
David Yelldell (born October 1, 1981, in Stuttgart) is a German-American goalkeeper who is currently playing for Bayer 04 Leverkusen. Yeldell has dual citizenship. His mother is German; his father is African-American.

At March 29, 2011, he had his first match for the United States national team. He is allowed to join the team because his father is American.

1981 births
Living people
African-American sportspeople
American association football goalkeepers
German association football goalkeepers
Sportspeople from Stuttgart
Simone Rethel (born 1949 in Germany) is a German actress, painter and photographer.  She is the widow of actor and singer Johannes Heesters. Rethel came from a large, artistic family. Her grandfather was a painter.

Rethel married Heesters, 46 years her senior, in 1991. In December 2010, the 107-year-old Heesters said that he had quit smoking for his then 61-year-old wife: "She should have me as long as possible."

Movies
 1965 Die fromme Helene
 1969 Junger Herr auf altem Hof
 1971 Der erste Frühlingstag
 1971 Der Kommissar: Der Moormörder (TV)
 1972 Der Kommissar: Tod eines Schulmädchens (TV)
 1973 Der Lord von Barmbeck
 1973 Der Kommissar: Der Tod der Karin W. (TV)
 1974 Die schöne Helena 
 1977 Es muß nicht immer Kaviar sein (Fernsehserie)
 1978 Das Geld liegt auf der Bank
 1978 Der Pfingstausflug 
 1983 Der Trauschein
 1985 Schöne Ferien (with Sigmar Solbach and Claudia Rieschel)
 1992 Chéri, mein Mann kommt! (TV-Komödie)

References

Other websites
Other websites

1949 births
Living people
German movie actors
German television actors
German artists
The Messel Pit () is a disused quarry near the village of Messel, Hesse. The site about 35 km southeast of Frankfurt am Main, Germany. It is a site where fine fossils are preserved: a lagerstätte. The site is very important: it includes fossils of early mammals, including early primates. Because of its fossils, the site has significant geological and scientific importance. 

Bituminous shale was mined there. After almost becoming a landfill, strong local resistance eventually stopped those plans. The Messel pit was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995. It was placed on the list solely due to fossils.
Amateur collectors developed a "transfer technique" to preserve the fine details of small fossils, the method still used to  preserve the fossils today. Many of the known specimens from the site have come from amateur collectors, and in 1996, an amnesty on previously collected fossils was put in effect, in the hope of getting privately owned collections back into public ownership and available to science.
Ecology 
The current surface of the Messel pit is roughly 60 m below the local land and is about 0.7 km² in area. The oil-shale bed originally extended to a depth of 190 m. 
47 million years ago in the Eocene when the Messel deposits formed, the area was 10° further south than it is now. The period was just after the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, and the climate and ecology of the site were very different from today. A large series of lakes, surrounded by lush sub-tropical forests supported an incredible diversity of life. The Messel lake bed was probably a center point for drainage from nearby rivers and creeks. 
The pit deposits were formed during the Eocene epoch of the Palaeogene period about 47 million years ago. This is based on dating of basalt fragments under the fossilbearing strata.

Oil shale, formed by the slow anoxic deposition of mud and dead vegetation on the lake bed, is the primary rock at the site.
Its sediments extend 130 m downward and lie atop an older sandstone foundation. The fossils within the shale show a remarkable clarity and preservation due to the unique depositional characteristics of the lake.

The upper layers of the lake had a great deal of life, but the bottom was anoxic. Because the water was not much disturbed, little oxygen got to the lower levels. This prevented many epifaunal (bottom-living) and infaunal (burrowing) species from living there. That is why dead bodies were so little damaged. Overturn of the lake layers (caused by seasonal variations) lowered oxygen content near the surface and led to a periodic "die-off" of aquatic species. Combined with a relatively low rate of deposition (0.1 mm/yr), this was a prime environment for the preservation of fauna and flora.

Volcanic gas releases 
The area around the Messel Pit was geologically and tectonically active during the Eocene. Volcanic gas releases could account for the large deposition of non-aquatic species.
Fossils
The Messel Pit provides the best preserved evidence of early Eocene flora and fauna so far discovered. Most other sites are lucky to contain partial skeletons, but Messel boasts extensive preservation of structural integrity, even going so far as to preserve the fur, feathers, and "skin shadows" of some species. Unusual preservation has sparked some closely-reasoned interpretations. The symptomatic "dumb-bell"-shaped bite marks on either side of the leaf vein on a fossilised leaf have been identified as the death-grip of a carpenter ant terminally parasitized by a fungus that, apparently then as today, took over its behaviour to release its spores at a good location; it is the earliest clear example of fungal behavioural manipulation.

The diversity of species is astonishing. Here is a brief summary of some of the fossils found at the site:
Early primate fossil with anthropoid (i.e. non-lemuroid) characteristics: discovery made public May 2009 of Darwinius masillae
 Nine mating pairs of fossil turtles have been found. The turtles, Allaeochelys crassesculpta, were in coitus (in the act of having sex). They are male-female pairs, with the male's tail tucked under the female, which is how they have sex. Their death must have been rapid. It is supposed that the turtles had started mating in the aerated surface waters of the ancient lake. As they sank into deeper water, they were overcome by the release of toxic volcanic gas. They were then buried in the lakebed sediment. Turtles belonging to this clade are still living. They have lost their reptilian scales, and their skin absorbs oxygen from the water. Normally, this is an advantage: it helps them stay submerged for long periods. However, under anoxic conditions it is a disadvantage, because carbon dioxide and dissolved poisons are absorbed as well.
Over 10,000 fossilized fish of numerous species
 Thousands of aquatic and terrestrial insects, some with distinct colour still preserved
 Many small mammals including pygmy horses, large mice, primates, ground dwellers (hedgehogs, marsupials, pangolins), aardvark relatives, and bats.
 Many birds, particularly predatory species.
 Crocodiles, frogs, turtles, salamanders, and other reptiles or amphibians
 Remains of over 30 plant species, including palm leaves, fruits, pollen, wood, walnuts, and grapevines
The assemblage of fossils includes a South American anteater, two types of South American flightless birds, and an ancestor of the scaly ant-eater (Manis) of the old-world tropics.

Related pages

 Lagerstätte

References

Other websites
 Messel Fossils 
 Missing Link Found at Messel Pit?
 Daily Mail article on fossils found at Messel pit; many colour photos

World Heritage Sites in Germany
Landmarks in Germany
Eocene
Lagerstätten
Jedi Mind Tricks is a hip hop group from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Jedi Mind Tricks formed when Vinnie Paz and Stoupe the Enemy of Mankind were in high school and Jus Allah later joined in 1999. They debuted when they released their first EP, called Amber Probe.

Members 
Current
 Vinnie Paz (1993–present)
 Stoupe (1993 - present)
 DJ Kwestion (1997–present)

Former
 Jus Allah (1998–2002, 2005–2015)

Discography

Albums 
 The Psycho-Social, Chemical, Biological & Electro-Magnetic Manipulation of Human Consciousness (1997)
 Violent by Design (2000)
 Visions of Gandhi (2003)
 Legacy of Blood (2004)
 Servants in Heaven, Kings in Hell (2006)
 A History of Violence (2008)
 Violence Begets Violence (2011)

Other websites 
Official website

1993 establishments in the United States
Hip hop bands
Musical groups from Philadelphia
1990s establishments in Pennsylvania
The Psycho-Social, Chemical, Biological & Electro-Magnetic Manipulation of Human Consciousness is the first studio album by American underground hip hop group, Jedi Mind Tricks. It was released on November 4, 1997 through Superegular Records. It was re-released in 2003 through Babygrande Records. The producer of the album was Stoupe the Enemy of Mankind. The album is sometimes called The Psycho-Social CD for short.

Songs

References

Other websites

1997 albums
Debut albums
Jedi Mind Tricks albums
Hip hop albums
Violent by Design is the second studio album by American hip hop group, Jedi Mind Tricks. It was released on October 3, 2000. The producers of the album were Stoupe and Mr. Len. The album was re-released on May 25, 2004 by Jedi Mind Tricks current label, Babygrande Records.

Songs

2000 albums
Jedi Mind Tricks albums
Visions of Gandhi is the third studio album by American hip hop group, Jedi Mind Tricks. It was released on August 26, 2003. The producer of the album was Stoupe. Jus Allah quit the group after the release of Violent by Design.

Songs

2003 albums
Jedi Mind Tricks albums
The Mainstream Top 40 is an airplay chart from Billboard magazine. It is also known as Pop Songs on billboard.com. People often mistook it for the now discontinued Pop 100 Airplay chart. The chart is solely based on radio airplay, ranking the week's hottest pop songs based on monitored radio detections from a panel of 200 Top 40/CHR radio stations in the United States as measured by Nielsen BDS Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems. Arbitron sometimes refers to the format as contemporary hit radio.

The chart was launched the week of October 10, 1992, along with the Rhythmic Songs Chart as a way to distinguish stations that played a broad based mix of current hits from those who focused on offering a direction centering on R&B/Hip and Dance material.

Pop music
Billboard charts
Legacy of Blood is the fourth studio album by American hip hop group, Jedi Mind Tricks. It was released on August 24, 2004. The producer of the album was Stoupe. The intro for the song features a promo that was cut by professional wrestler, Kane.

Songs

2004 albums
Jedi Mind Tricks albums
Servants in Heaven, Kings in Hell is the fifth studio album by American hip hop group Jedi Mind Tricks. It was released on September 19, 2006. The producer of the album was Stoupe. The album was the group's most commercially successful release and was their first album that made it into the Billboard 200. The album also won "Verse Of The Year" at the HipHopDX 2006 awards for Uncommon Valor: A Vietnam Story.

Songs

2006 albums
Jedi Mind Tricks albums
The lowest courts in the Isle of Man are the Summary Courts, Coroner of Inquests, Licensing Court, Land Court, etc. These courts are presided over by magistrates.  There are two stipendiary magistrates, the High Bailiff and the Deputy High Bailiff, along with lay Justices of the Peace.

The court on the next level is the High Court of Justice of the Isle of Man.  It has two parts, the Civil Division and an appeal division called the Staff of Government Division.

The judges of the High Court are the Deemsters and the Judicial Officers. The Deemsters are appointed by The Queen on the advice of the Secretary of State for Justice of the United Kingdom.  The Judicial Officers are appointed by the Lieutenant Governor. The High Bailiff and the Deputy High Bailiff are ex officio Judicial Officers, and other Judicial Officers (full-time or part-time) may be appointed. Often they are appointed because they have special knowledge of a complex legal case
Civil matters are usually heard at first instance by a single Deemster sitting in the High Court. Criminal proceedings are heard at first instance before either the High Bailiff or the Deputy High Bailiff or a bench of lay magistrates, in less serious cases. More serious criminal cases are heard before a Deemster sitting in the Court of General Gaol Delivery; in a defended case the Deemster sits with a jury of seven (twelve in cases of treason or murder).

Civil and criminal appeals are dealt with by the Staff of Government Division. Appeals are usually heard by a Deemster (the one not involved with the case previously in the High Court or Court of General Gaol Delivery) and the Judge of Appeal.
Final appeal is to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom. This dates back to an ancient right of the Manx to appeal to the Crown of England against the decisions of the Lord of Mann.  The right still exists, even though the Lord of Mann is now the Crown of England.  The right was confirmed by the Privy Council in their decision of Christian v. Corren in 1716, several years before revestment.

In the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands, the Queen's Bench Division of the English High Court can hear appeals about habeas corpus. This was to allow the king to find out why any of his subjects was being impisoned.  It dates from before the revestment, applied to all the king's dominions even for all other cases the Kings's Bench was restricted to England.

References

Related pages
Manx law
Isle of Man Constabulary
Tynwald

Judiciary of the Isle of Man
Misery is a song by American band Maroon 5. It was released on June 22, 2010 by A&M/Octone Records via the iTunes Store. The song was released in advance of the band's mid-2010 tour, and is the first single from their third studio album, Hands All Over, which was released on September 21, 2010.
Genre pop rock

2010 songs
Maroon 5 songs
"Lady of Mann" redirects here. For the wives of the Lords of Mann, see List of Manx consorts; or for the ship, see MS Lady of Mann.

Lord of Mann (), is used on the Isle of Man as part of Charles III's title.  The Lord of Mann was the island's feudal Lord Proprietor, the Monarch of England was head of state.

Relationship with the Crown
The title is not used on its own. Since 1399, the Kings and Lords of Mann were feudal subjects of the reigning King of England, and then of Great Britain and the United Kingdom, who was the ultimate sovereign of the island. This right of 'Lord Proprietor' was revested into the Crown when the Isle of Man was bought by the Isle of Man Purchase Act 1765 and stopped to exist separately. However, for reasons of culture and tradition, the title Lord of Mann continues to be used. For these reasons, the correct formal usage, as used on the Isle of Man for the Loyal Toast, is The Queen, Lord of Mann.
The title is now Lord of Mann regardless of gender. However, during her reign Queen Victoria was styled as Lady of Mann.

The formal Latin style is .

List of Lords
Prior to 1504, the ruler of the Isle of Man was generally styled King of Mann.

16th century
Thomas III Stanley, 1504-1521
Edward Stanley, 1521-1572
Henry Stanley, 1572-1593
Ferdinando Stanley, 1593-1594

Succession dispute (1594-1607)
In 1598, a succession dispute between the daughters of Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby and Stanley's brother, William Stanley was heard. It was decided by the Privy Council that the right to the Isle of Man belonged solely to Queen Elizabeth I, and the letters-patent of 1405 which have conferred the Isle of Man to the Stanley family were declared null and void. This was because Percy had not been subject to legal attainder, despite his treason, and the 1405 and 1406 letters-patent had therefore not taken effect.
The Queen, in consideration of the "many eminent services performed to herself and to her royal predecessors by the honourable and noble House of Stanley," withdrew her right and referred the contending claimants to the decision of the Privy Council as to the best claim of inheritance.

The Law Lords on the Privy Council decided "the grant being by letters patent under the Great Seal of England, such right would descend according to the Common Law of England to the heirs general, and not to the heirs male", and the island was therefore awarded to Ferdinando's daughters; whereupon William agreed to purchase their several shares and interests.
The original letters-patent having been declared void, the Parliament of England in 1609 under James I passed a Private Act of Parliament entitled "An Act for assuring and establishing the Isle of Man in the name and blood of William, Earl of Derby" [(1609) 7 Jac.1 c.4] which established the title in law as Lord of Mann. The lordship was conferred by letters-patent dated 7 July 1609 upon William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby. Subsequent succession was under the terms of this grant.

Interim Lords (1607-1609)
Following the resolution of the succession dispute, it was ruled that the daughters of Ferdinando Stanley were the rightful heirs. As the oldest of them would not reach the age of majority until 1609, two temporary Lords of Mann were appointed by James I, using letters patent, so that the daughters could benefit from the Island's revenues.
Henry Howard, 1607-1608
Robert Cecil, 1608-1609
Following the coming of age of the heirs to the Lordship of the Isle of Man, the rights over the island were sold to their uncle, William Stanley. He took up the title of Lord of Mann following the passing of an Act of Parliament.

17th century
William I Stanley, 1609-1612
Elizabeth Stanley, 1612-1627
James I Stanley, 1627-1651 (known as 'the Great Stanley')
Thomas Fairfax, 1651-1660 (appointed by Oliver Cromwell during the English Interregnum)
Charles Stanley, 1660-1672 (restored by Charles II)
William II Stanley, 1672-1702
James II Stanley, 1702-1736
James III Murray, 1736-1764
Charlotte and John III Murray,  1764-1765

Revestment
In 1765, Charlotte Murray, 8th Baroness Strange, sold the suzerainty of the island to the British government for £70,000. By the passage of the Isle of Man Purchase Act 1765 the title of Lord of Mann was revested into the British Crown. It has therefore since been used on the Isle of Man to refer to the reigning Monarch of the United Kingdom.
All remaining rights and property of the Dukes of Atholl on the island were sold to the British government in 1828.

Related pages
 Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man

References

Lists of people
Government of the Isle of Man
The  was a series of several events during the Russian Civil War. They happened between February and March 1920. It ended with the killing of many Japanese people in Russia and most of the Russians living in the town Nikolayevsk-on-Amur. Nikolayevsk-on-Amur is in the far eastern section of Russia.

In September 1918, about 350 troops of the 14th division the Imperial Japanese Army held the town.  They're were part of the Siberian Intervention.  Early in February 1920, the town also had about 450 Japanese civilians.   The Russian "White Army" also had about 300 members in Nikolayevsk.  Roughly 15,000 civilians also lived in Nikolayevsk. In January 1920, the town had been surrounded by an army of four thousand controlled by Yakov Triapitsyn, an anarchist who was allied with the Red Army.
On February 24, the commander of the Japanese Army's people in Nikolayevsk realized that there were too many enemy troops, so he allowed Triapitsyn's troops to enter the town under a flag of truce. However, Triapitsyn began rounding up all of his forces and deploying White Army supporters, the only force cooperating, the small Japanese garrison. He then demanded that the Japanese garrison disarm–remove all their weapons they are holding, sure that the small Japanese force would not agree with his request.

The Japanese then had an unexpected attack on 12 March. However, the attack was unsuccessful, and most people in the Japanese Army died. The few who survived did not stop the attack until they were ordered by the Japanese high command. Triapitsyn decided to attack the remaining Japanese troops, which helped capture the Japanese garrison and deaths of all but 122 Japanese non-army members. In all, about 700 people died.
Triapitsyn decided to terrorize and kill any civilians he felt were a danger to his forces. The other way to execute those who he only injured was to stab them with a bayonet and throw them into a hole in the Amur River. Using this method, Triapitsyn and his army killed thousands of people in Nikolayevsk-on-Amur. In late May, as other Japanese people were coming to help, Triapitsyn killed everyone living in Nikolayevsk-on-Amur–Japanese or Russian–and burned the town to the ground.

The Japanese government protested to the Bolshevik government in Moscow, demanding compensation for the execution of all the residents in Nikolayevsk-on-Amur. The government of Russia responded by murdering Triapitsyn; however, the Japanese government felt that this didn't make up for what had happened. Japan used this as an excuse to have it residents live in Sakhalin island, where they remained till 1925.

References

Massacres
1920
1920 deaths
Military of Japan
Russian Revolution
William Peter Van Ness (February 13, 1778–September 6, 1826) was a United States federal judge.

Early Life and education
Van Ness was born in Ghent, New York. He is the son of Judge Peter Van Ness (1734– 1804), a lawyer and farmer. The home and land were later purchased by Martin Van Buren, who renamed the estate Lindenwald.  Peter Van Ness is buried on the Lindenwald estate.

William Van Ness's brothers included U.S. Representative and Washington, D.C. mayor John Peter Van Ness and Vermont governor Cornelius Peter Van Ness.

William Van Ness attended Washington Seminary and graduated from Columbia College in 1797.

After graduating from college William Van Ness read law in the office of Edward Livingston, attaining acceptance to the bar in 1800.

Early Career
William Van Ness practiced law in New York City, Albany, and Hudson from 1800 to 1812.
Van Ness, a friend of Aaron Burr, was an active participant in the 1800 presidential campaign as a vocal supporter of the Democratic-Republican candidates, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr.

In 1801 Van Ness served as a Delegate to the New York Constitutional Convention, which was called to amend the state constitution of 1777.

Martin Van Buren completed his legal studies in Van Ness's office in 1802 and became an attorney in Columbia County, New York.

In July, 1804 William Van Ness served as Aaron Burr's second in Burr's duel with Alexander Hamilton, and was present when Burr killed Hamilton.

Judicial career
On May 25, 1812, Van Ness was nominated by President James Madison to a new seat on the United States District Court for the District of New York.  He was confirmed by the United States Senate on May 26, 1812, and received his commission on May 27, 1812. On April 9, 1814, he was reassigned by operation of law to the newly subdivided United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.
Career as an author
Van Ness was the author of several political and judicial works, including: Examination of Charges against Aaron Burr (1803); The Laws of New York, with Notes, (with John Woodworth), (2 vols. 1813); Reports of Two Cases in the Prize Court for New York District (1814); and Concise Narrative of Gen. Jackson's First Invasion of Florida (1826).

Death and burial
Van Ness served on the bench until his death in New York City.  He was buried in Brooklyn's Greenwood Cemetery.

Other websites

References

American judges
1778 births
1826 deaths
People from New York (state)
Martin Van Buren
A sundae is an ice cream dessert. It is usually made of a scoop of ice cream topped with sauce or syrup. Sometimes, it has other toppings including chopped nuts, sprinkles, whipped cream, or maraschino cherries. The first historically documented sundae was created on Sunday, April 3, 1892. Sundaes are found and available to buy in many places, including fast foods, restaurants, and other luxury places. Sundaes are usually sweeter than ice cream and the scoops of ice cream and flavors can be customized.

Other websites
 Wisconsin Historical Society ice cream marker 
 Historical documents supporting Ithaca as the birthplace of the sundae 

sundae
American food
Soyuz (, ) is a series of spacecraft designed for the Soviet space programme. It was first used in the 1960s. The Soyuz spacecraft is launched on a Soyuz rocket, the most frequently used and most reliable launch vehicle in the world to date.[1][2] All Soyuz spacecraft are launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.

History 
The first Soyuz flight had no people aboard. It launched on November 28, 1966. The first Soyuz mission with a crew, Soyuz 1, launched on 23 April 1967 but crashed upon return, killing cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Soyuz 3 (October 26, 1968) was the first successful manned mission. Now, the Soyuz is widely considered the world's safest, most cost-effective human spaceflight vehicle. Soyuz spacecraft were used to carry cosmonauts to and from Salyut and later Mir space stations, and are now used for transport to and from the International Space Station (ISS). At least one Soyuz spacecraft is docked at the ISS at all times for use as an escape craft in the event of an emergency.
Parts 
The Soyuz spacecraft has three parts:
 A round orbital module, which provides space for the crew;
 A small reentry module, which gets the crew back to Earth;
 A service module with solar panels, which contains instruments and engines.

Orbital module 
The orbital module is also called the Habitation section. It has all the equipment not needed for reentry, such as experiments, cameras and cargo. It also contains a docking collar for docking to space stations. It does not come back to earth.

Reentry module 
The reentry module is used for launch and the journey back to earth. Half of it is covered in heat protection tiles. It comes back to earth.

Service module 
The service module has solar panels. It contains systems for temperature control, electric power supply, long-range radio communications and radio telemetry. It does not come back to earth.

Related pages 
 R-7

References

Russia
Aerospace engineering
Satellites
The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when the NASA's  exploded after 73 seconds of flight. All seven crew members were killed. It was the 25th flight of a Space Shuttle. The cause of the explosion was a part called an O-ring that broke in the right solid rocket booster. During the flight, hot gases escaped from the O-ring and made it break apart. Shuttles stopped flying for two and a half years.

Background 
The mission of the flight that ended in disaster was named STS-51-L. It was the tenth mission for Challenger. STS-51-L was scheduled to deploy the second in a series of Tracking and Data Relay Satellites. It was also going to carry out the first flight of the "Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy" (SPARTAN-203) / Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable in order to observe Halley's Comet.
O-ring issues 
The O-ring was a part of the Shuttle's solid rocket booster that, when working correctly, stopped hot gas escaping through joins in the booster's steel skin called field joints. Each booster had three field joints, and each joint had two rubber O-rings, a main and a backup, that circled the booster. When the boosters were tested in 1977, however, the force caused by the pressure inside the booster made the steel parts bend away from each other at the field joints, breaking the O-ring seals and allowing the hot gases to escape. This was called "joint rotation", and if the "blow-by" of the hot gases against the O-rings was bad enough it could have destroyed the ring and caused the booster to explode. However, it was also found that the rubber O-rings would shift under the forces of lift-off and form a seal anyway, which was called "extrusion", so the problem was not seen as serious by NASA.
Launch 
It was unusually cold on the morning of the Space shuttle's launch. The engineers argued that the Challenger should not take off because the temperature was  and the O-rings could not seal right if the temperature was under . The NASA commanders did not agree and said that the backup O-ring would work. They were later proved wrong. The temperature was so low that icicles were hanging from some parts of the launch pad. However, the NASA commanders convinced the engineers' managers to overrule them and approve the launch.
Challenger lifted off at 11:38 EST exactly. In the first four seconds of flight, grey smoke was seen on the launch pad cameras coming out of the aft (bottom) field joint in the right booster. This was the O-rings being partially destroyed - they had been frozen solid and could not seal, so the blow-by of hot gases burned them away completely before the "extrusion" could happen. However, aluminium oxide, formed by the burning rocket fuel, plugged the gap and formed a weak seal. Challenger was safe for now, and quickly cleared the launch tower.

Vehicle breakup
Vehicle breakup 

Challenger flew normally for almost a minute. At the 59 second mark, though, the aluminium seal broke. This allowed the burning rocket fuel to escape through the broken part of the O-ring. A visible plume of fire came out of the right SRB, burning both the external fuel tank and the piece of metal keeping the two connected. This plume burned through the bottom of the fuel tank, where the liquid hydrogen fuel was stored. At 68 seconds after liftoff, the engines increased power to produce the highest thrust possible (known as throttling up). The flight controllers informed the shuttle crew that their flight status was "go" at the throttle-up stage. The flight commander, Dick Scobee, responded with "Roger, go at throttle up."
However, at 72 seconds after liftoff, the fire that had burned through the fuel tank also burned through the connecting metal, leaving the right booster hanging only by the forward (top) attaching point. Challenger suddenly went off its intended path, which may have been felt by the crew.  Half a second later, Smith said the last words picked up by the recorder designed to record all interactions in the crew area of the shuttle during flight: "Uh oh...".  Smith may have been responding to the shuttle's computer telling him that the engines were moving quickly to compensate for the now loose booster in a useless attempt to get the shuttle back on the planned path. The right booster, free to swing about its remaining connection, turned outwards and hit the top of the fuel tank just as the hydrogen tank broke. The burning liquid fuel pushed the hydrogen tank into the now-broken upper oxygen tank, destroying both
. The two liquid fuel parts combined and exploded in one go, swallowing Challenger in a huge explosion. The boosters, being made of thick steel, survived this, and though the explosion itself didn't destroy Challenger directly, it pushed the Shuttle into the wrong angle for its flight path through the air, which caused enormous amounts of drag that ripped Challenger apart.
Little is known of what happened in the minutes after the breakup. The crew cabin was still intact as it started falling, since it was built to be strong. The official report into the disaster says that the crew survived the first breakup and that at least three people were still alive. They were able to move switches which required a cover to be pulled off before they could be moved, probably when they tried to regain control of the craft, as well as activate their air packs. The crew cabin did not have any kind of parachute, and it smashed into the ocean after falling for 2 minutes and 45 seconds at roughly . Any crew that might have survived the first break up died instantly with more than 200 times the force of normal gravity. This is like going from 0 to over  and then slowing back down to 0 all within a second.
Investigation 
Many people wanted to know why the Challenger exploded. President Ronald Reagan asked for a report about the disaster. It was called the Rogers Commission Report and it was written by a group of astronauts, scientists and engineers. They worked out what had happened and why the Challenger exploded. The report said that the people in charge at NASA did not listen to the engineers who said the O-rings were not safe; and that sometimes the people in charge thought that parts of the shuttle were well made when they were not. They also wrote that NASA sometimes did unsafe things because people would get angry if the shuttle launches were delayed. 

There were no shuttle flights while the report was written. After the report was written, NASA had to be more careful in many different ways.

Related pages 
 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

References
References 

1986 in the United States
1980s in Florida
Aviation accidents and incidents in the 1980s
Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States
Explosions in 1986
Explosions in the United States
January events
Presidency of Ronald Reagan
Challenger disaster
The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (RSA) is a British multi-disciplinary institution, based in London. It is often called the Royal Society of Arts instead of by its long formal name.  The front of the building uses the short name too — see photograph. It was founded in 1754 and was granted a Royal Charter in 1847. Notable members have included Benjamin Franklin, Karl Marx, Adam Smith, William Hogarth, John Diefenbaker, Stephen Hawking and Charles Dickens.

The RSA was set up to "embolden enterprise, enlarge science, refine art, improve our manufactures and extend our commerce", but also to reduce poverty and secure full employment.
History
The RSA was founded in 1754 by William Shipley as the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, modelled on the Dublin Society for improving Husbandry, Manufactures and other Useful Arts. In 1774, it moved into a new building near the Strand in central London which had been purpose-designed by the Adam Brothers (James Adam and Robert Adam) as part of their Adelphi scheme. The address was 8 John Street (now 8 John Adam Street). The RSA is still in there, but it also occupies nearby buildings (2-6 John Adam Street, plus 18 Adam Street). The original building includes the Great Room, which features a magnificent sequence of paintings by Irish artist James Barry: The progress of human knowledge and culture. The first occupant of 18 Adam Street was the Adelphi Tavern, which is mentioned in Dickens's The Pickwick Papers. The former private dining room of the Tavern contains a magnificent Adam ceiling with painted roundels by the school of Kauffman and Zucchi.
In its early years, the Society offered prizes — which it called "premiums" — for people who could successfully achieve one of a number of published challenges. Captain William Bligh suffered the Mutiny on the Bounty while attempting to win a premium for shipping breadfruit from the East to the West Indies. He tried again and this time succeeded, and the Society awarded him the prize. The Society offered premiums for a very wide range of challenges including inventing new forms of machinery and agricultural improvements (which included seeking ways to improve the cultivation of opium poppies).

The RSA hosted Britain's first exhibition of contemporary art which was a big success. As a result, the Royal Academy of Arts was formed in 1768 by Sir Thomas Gainsborough and Sir Joshua Reynolds — two early members of the RSA — as a spin-off organisation.

It was granted a Royal Charter in 1847. In 1908, King Edward VII granted it the right to use the term "Royal" in its name.
The National Training School for Music in London was founded by the Society in 1876. This was later succeeded by the Royal College of Music.

The RSA is probably best known for creating the RSA Examinations Board, now part of the separate OCR (Oxford, Cambridge and RSA Examinations) Board, following the Society's launch of the modern world's first public examinations in 1882.
It devised a scheme for remembering the links between famous people and buildings by placing plaques on the walls — these continue today as "Blue Plaques" which are administered by a range of government bodies. The first of these plaques was, in fact, of red terracotta placed on the outside of a former home of Lord Byron (since demolished). The Society erected 36 plaques until, in 1901, responsibility for them was transferred to the London County Council (which changed the colour of the plaques to the current blue) and later the Greater London Council and most recently English Heritage. Similar schemes are now operated in all the constituent countries of the United Kingdom.

The Society was instrumental in the preservation of West Wycombe, purchasing the entire village and handing it over the National Trust.
An example of the Society's success is offered by the Oxford English Dictionary, which records the first use of the word "sustainability" in an environmental sense in the RSA's Journal in 1980.

Fellows

The Society states that, 'Fellows attach the letters FRSA after their name'. Membership of the fellowship is considered an honour.

This was not, however, always the case. According to Sutherland Lyall in 2003, 'the Royal Society of Arts used to ask you not to use [the suffix FRSA] because anybody who pays the modest fee becomes a Fellow'. Being elected a Fellow currently depends on having achieved (or demonstrating the potential to achieve) a contribution to society in a cultural or arts-related sphere.
The RSA today
The organisation is Incorporated by Royal Charter, is registered as a charity in England, and has more than 27,000 Fellows living in around 70 countries who support the aims of the society, and who have achieved — or who have the potential to achieve — eminence in their profession or calling. Its Patron is currently HM Queen Elizabeth II, its President is HRH The Princess Royal (who replaced her father, HRH Prince Philip in 2011), its Chairman is Luke Johnson (businessman) and its Chief Executive is Matthew Taylor.

Each year a number of medals are awarded, including the Albert Medal, the Benjamin Franklin Medal, and the Bicentenary Medal. Medal winners include Nelson Mandela, Sir Frank Whittle and Professor Stephen Hawking.
In Great Britain and Ireland, the RSA has offered some regional activities to encourage Fellows to interact with each other locally and to address local topics of interest. The UK Regions are: East of England, East Midlands, London, North East, North West, Scotland, South East, South West, Wales,  West, West Midlands and Yorkshire; Northern Ireland, part of the UK, is treated, for historical reasons, as a single all-Ireland region — 'Ireland' — that includes the Republic of Ireland. The RSA also has a presence in Belgium (to increase its influence in Brussels) and, further afield, in Australia, India, Southern Africa and the USA.
Events
The Society runs a free public events programme which seeks to introduce new and challenging thinking. These are made freely available on its website after the event as mp3 audio files and videos. Recent lecturers include Michael Sandel, Nassim Nicholas Taleb, Sir Ken Robinson, Don Tapscott, Alain de Botton, Al Gore, Anthony Grayling, Zarine Kharas (founder of Justgiving), Amir Aczel, and Chris Anderson.

The choice of speaker for the recent annual Presidential lecture has been a matter of interest in the press. Danish professor Björn Lomborg, was chosen; his latest book, Cool It, suggests that the imminent demise of polar bears is a myth. As president of the RSA, Prince Philip's first choice of speaker was Ian Plimer, professor of mineral geology at Adelaide University, but this was rejected as too controversial, as Plimer argues that the theory of Anthropogenic Global Warming is unproven.