Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Biology, chemistry and medicine
 Phytelephas seemannii, known in Cuna as ''
 S-Adenosyl methionine, a common co-substrate involved in methyl group transfers
 SAM, a candidate phylum of bacteria
 SAMtools (for Sequence Alignment Map), a data storage format for DNA sequencing 
 Self-assembled monolayer of amphiphilic molecules 
 Shoot apical meristem, a plant tissue
 Significance analysis of microarrays, in DNA microanalysis
 Spore photoproduct lyase, an enzyme
 Sorting and assembly machinery, a protein complex in the outer mitochondrial membrane
 Segmental arterial mediolysis, a medical condition affecting the arteries

Physics and astronomy
 Southern Annular Mode of southern hemisphere atmospheric variability
 Swinging Atwood's machine
 SAm, an unbarred Magellanic spiral galaxy
Software and computing
 SAM (file format) or Sequence Alignment Map, a data format used in bioinformatics.
 SAM (chatbot)
 Sam (text editor)
 Microsoft Sam, a voice for the screen reader in Windows 2000 and XP
 SAM Broadcaster, an Internet radio broadcasting application
 SAM Coupé, an 8-bit British home computer
 SAM Lock Tool, better known as Syskey
 Sequential access memory
 Simple Anonymous Messaging, a protocol specification used in the I2P network layer
 Simulation for Automatic Machinery, two minicomputers
 Software asset management
 Software Automatic Mouth, speech synthesis program
 SAM (Synchronous Address Multiplexer), a chip in some 8-bit computers
 Syriac Abbreviation Mark, a Unicode control character

Security 
 SAM card (Security Authentication Module card), holding cryptographic keys
 Secure access module
 Security Account Manager in Microsoft Windows
Other
 Scanning acoustic microscope
 Sample Analysis at Mars, on the Curiosity rover
 Scanning Auger microscope in Auger electron spectroscopy
 Small article monitor, screening for radioactive contamination
 Sparse antimagic square, in mathematics
 Stop action magnet in a pipe organ
 Surface-to-air missile, an anti-aircraft missile

Sports
 Sam (mascot), 1984 Summer Olympics
 Strongside linebacker, gridiron football nickname

Other uses
 Sandy Area Metro, Oregon, US
 Special administrative measures, in US law
 Uncle Sam, a personification of the US government
 Synodically Authorized Minister, often used in parentheses after an officiator's name

Related pages
 Sam and the Womp, a British band
 Sam FM (disambiguation)
 Samantha, Samhita, Samskruthi, female given names often shortened to "Sam"
 Sammy (disambiguation), an informal variation on the name "Sam"
 Samsø, earlier Samsey, literally "Sam's island"
 Samuel (name)
 Son of Sam
Yangdong Folk Village is a village in South Korea's North Gyeongsang Province.  It is inside the city of Gyeongju, which used to be the capital of Korea.  It has buildings and other things that were built in the Joseon Dynasty or that have been rebuilt in the same style.  It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Yangdong was built in the 1400s by two important clans, Yeogang Lee and Wolseong Son.  Many of the people who live in Yangdong now are from these families.  Many members of these families who do not live in Yangdong come back a few times a year for special occasions.
Yangdong Folk Village is a World Heritage Site as part of a pair with Hahoe Folk Village.  Both places were built during the Joseon Dynasty and many of the buildings are still intact.  Some of the buildings have been rebuilt with modern materials, though.  Like Hahoe, Yangdong's layout shows influences from the Confucian way of thinking and the importance of the clan system in Korea at the time.  There are timber houses with tiled roofs for high-ranking people and mud houses with thatched roofs that were originally for low-ranking people. The village is on the sides of hills.  The buildings were built in specific places so their rooftops would match and complement the hillsides around them.  The buildings belonging to nobler or richer people are higher up on the hills.  One home once had 99 rooms.

There are two Confucian schools, Oksanseowon and Donggangseowon, near Yangdong Folk Village.
There are about 149 houses in Yangdong Folk Village and people still live in them.  Yangdong Folk Village has modern, paved roads, some modern bridges, and a railway.

Before it was declared a World Heritage Site around 2010, few people visited Yangdong.  After it was declared a World Heritage Site, many more came.  People worried about whether the extra visitors would damage the site. Tourists, including schoolchildren on field trips, often visit Yangdong.

Famous people from Yangdong include the Joseon era philosopher Lee Eon-jeok (1491-1553), nicknamed "Hoejae." Hojae is called one of the "Five Great Sages of the East."

References

Villages in Asia
Buildings and structures in South Korea
World Heritage Sites in South Korea
Louga is a region in the northwest of Senegal. The regional capital is Louga.

As of the 2013 census, 835,325 people lived there. It has an area of .

Départements 

There are three départements:
 Kébémer Département
 Linguère Département
 Louga Département

Regions of Senegal
The term soncoya can mean any of two :Annona species:

Ilama (fruit)
Cabeza de negro

Annona
Diourbel is a region in the central west of Senegal. The regional capital is Diourbel.

As of the 2013 census, 1,420,082 people lived there. It has an area of .

Départements 

There are three départements:
 Bambey Département
 Diourbel Département
 Mbacké Département

Regions of Senegal
Dakar is a region in the west of Senegal. The regional capital is Dakar, which is also the national capital.

As of the 2013 census, 2,956,023 people lived there. It has an area of .

Départements 

There are four départements:
 Dakar Département
 Guédiawaye Département
 Pikine Département
 Rufisque Département

Regions of Senegal
Fatick is a region in the southwest of Senegal. The regional capital is Fatick.

As of the 2013 census, 684,652 people lived there. It has an area of .

Départements 

There are three départements:
 Fatick Département
 Foundiougne Département
 Gossas Département

Regions of Senegal
Longdale is a town in Oklahoma in the United States.

Towns in Oklahoma
Roosevelt is a town in Oklahoma in the United States.

References

Towns in Oklahoma
The cabeza de negro, sincuya, or soncoya (Annona purpurea) is a species of plant in the genus Annona. The name "cabeza de negro" is also applied to the similar species Annona diversifolia. It is often used for fruit and medicine. It is deciduous, and has hairy leaves and large, scented flowers. It can grow up to 6 to 10 metres (20 to 33 feet). It can take 3 years for it to have fruit.

References 

Annona
Vera is a town in Oklahoma in the United States.

Towns in Oklahoma
Meno is a town in Oklahoma in the United States.

Towns in Oklahoma
Marland is a town in Oklahoma in the United States.

Towns in Oklahoma
American Guerrilla in the Philippines (released as I Shall Return in the UK) is a 1950 American war movie directed by Fritz Lang and is based on the 1945 book of the same name by Ira Wolfert. It stars Tyrone Power, Micheline Presle and was distributed by 20th Century Fox.

Other websites 
 

1950 movies
1950s war movies
American war movies
World War II movies
Movies directed by Fritz Lang
Movies based on books
20th Century Fox movies
Liberty is a town in the U.S state of Oklahoma 

Towns in Oklahoma.
Romilly-sur-Seine is a commune of the Aube département in the north-central part of France.

Communes in Aube
Cantagalo is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Minas Gerais.

Municipalities in Minas Gerais
Viva Zalata () is a 1976 Egyptian western comedy movie directed by Hassan Hafez and starring Fouad El Mohandes, Shwikar, Samir Ghanem, Tawfiq El Deken, and Hussien Fahmy.

Other websites
 
 Viva Zalata on elCinema.com

1976 comedy movies
1970s Western (genre) movies
Egyptian movies
The complex of Koguryo tombs or Goguryeo tombs is a group of tombs, or places where human bodies are buried, in North Korea. The tombs were built during the Kingdom of Koguryo, which ruled parts of China and Korea from 37 BCE. to the 7th century CE.  These tombs were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004.
The tombs are made of stonework and earthwork and some of them have large, detailed paintings inside them.  Historians have found about 10,000 tombs from the Koguryo kingdom in China and Korea.  Only about 100 of them have paintings on the inside.  80 of these painted tombs are in what we today call the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, or North Korea.  63 tombs are part of the World Heritage Site, and 16 of these tombs have paintings.  They were chosen because their paintings are so detailed and show daily life, because the way they were built shows good engineering, because modern people can use the tombs to tell what the people of the Kingdom of Koguryo thought about burying people, and because the burials in the Kingdom of Koguryo affected many later countries, including the modern Koreas and Japan.
The 63 tombs of the World Heritage Site are not all in the same place.  They are spread out across the city of Pyongyang and nearby provinces.  Historians think these tombs were made for kings and other royals and nobles.

Sometimes experts from North Korea and South Korea work together on the Koguryo tombs, but this depends on how well the two countries are getting along.

Thieves and other looters broke into some of the tombs, and only a few were completely untouched when scientists first saw them.

In 2018, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea began to allow more visitors from outside the country to see the tombs.  This was part of a plan to improve the economy.

In May 2020, the National Museum of Korea in Seoul, South Korea, produced a digital exhibit called Immersive Digital Galleries.  This exhibit included digital versions of some of the paintings from the Anak No. 3 tomb.

References
References

Archaeological sites in Asia
World Heritage Sites in Asia
World Heritage Sites in North Korea
Buildings and structures in Korea
Alto Alegre is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Roraima.

Municipalities in Roraima
Amajari is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Roraima.

Municipalities in Roraima
Bonfim is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Roraima, Brazil.

Municipalities in Roraima
Cantá is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Roraima.

Municipalities in Roraima
Caracaraí is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Roraima.

Municipalities in Roraima
Iguaba Grande is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Rio de Janeiro.

Municipalities in Rio de Janeiro (state)
Rio Claro is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Rio de Janeiro.

Municipalities in Rio de Janeiro (state)
Romana (Rumàna) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Province of Sassari in Sardinia, Italy. As of 2016, 543 people lived there. Its area is 21.6 km². It is 267 meters above sea level.

References

Other websites 
 

Communes of the Province of Sassari
Assemini (Assèmini) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Cagliari in Sardinia, Italy. As of 2016, 26,818 people lived there. Its area is 118.17 km². It is 6 meters above sea level.

References

Other websites 
 

Communes of the Metropolitan City of Cagliari
Capoterra (Cabudèrra) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Cagliari in Sardinia, Italy. As of 2016, 23,592 people lived there. Its area is 68.49 km². It is 54 meters above sea level.

References

Other websites 
 

Communes of the Metropolitan City of Cagliari
Decimomannu (Deximumànnu) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Cagliari in Sardinia, Italy. As of 2016, 8,133 people lived there. Its area is 27.72 km². It is 10 meters above sea level.

References

Other websites 
 

Communes of the Metropolitan City of Cagliari
Elmas (Su Màsu) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Cagliari in Sardinia, Italy. As of 2016, 9,475 people lived there. Its area is 13.63 km². It is 7 meters above sea level.

References

Other websites 
 

Communes of the Metropolitan City of Cagliari
LeFlore is a town in Oklahoma in the United States.

Towns in Oklahoma
Wainwright is a town in Oklahoma in the United States.

Towns in Oklahoma
The cladoxylopsids are a group of plants known only as fossils that may be ancestors of ferns and horsetails.

They had a central trunk, from the top of which several lateral branches were attached. Fossils of these plants start in the middle Devonian to early Carboniferous periods, mostly just as stems.

Cladoxylopsida contains two orders. The order Hyeniales is now included in Pseudosporochnales.<ref>Thomas N. Taylor, Edith L. Taylor, Michael Krings 2009. Paleobotany: the biology and evolution of fossil plants. 2nd ed.  p. 387-401, 1028. Academic Press. </ref>

Intact fossils of the Middle Devonian cladoxylopsid Wattieza show it was a tree, the earliest known in the fossil record as of 2007.  In 2019, experts discovered more fossils of Cladoxylopsida and Archaeopteris'' in a quarry in Cairo, New York.

References 

Carboniferous
Plant taxonomy
Trees
Extinct plants
Fossil plants
Fulton is a city in the U.S. state of Mississippi. It is the county seat of Itawamba County.

Cities in Mississippi
Marks is a city in the U.S. state of Mississippi. It is the county seat of Quitman County.

Cities in Mississippi
County seats in Mississippi
Martha is a town in Oklahoma in the United States.  According to 2010 census, there were 162 people living there.

References 

Towns in Oklahoma
Rocksprings is a town in the U.S. state of Texas.

Towns in Texas
County seats in Texas
Pocasset is a town in Oklahoma in the United States. According to 2010 US census, there are 156 people living there.

References 
Towns in Oklahoma
Everman is a city in the U.S. state of Texas. According to the 2010 US census, there are 6,108 people living there.

References

Other websites 
 

Cities in Texas
Settlements in Tarrant County, Texas
The Mudlark is a 1950 American British movie directed by Jean Negulesco and was based on the 1949 novel of the same name by Theodore Bonnet. It stars Alec Guinness, Irene Dunne, Andrew Ray, Beatrice Campbell, Finlay Currie, Anthony Steel and was distributed by 20th Century Fox. It was nominated an Academy Award in 1951.

Other websites
 
 
 
 

1950 movies
British movies
American movies
Movies based on books
20th Century Fox movies
Movies directed by Jean Negulesco
Wanrong (Chinese: 婉容, 13 November 1906 – June 20, 1946), formally known as the  Xuantong Empress, was from the Gobulo (郭布羅) clan. She was married to Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1932, she became the empress of Manchukuo in northeastern China. In January 1946, Wanrong along with her sister-in-law was captured by the Chinese Communist guerrillas. She died in prison in June 1946. Her remains were never found.

1906 births
1946 deaths
Emperors and Empresses of China
20th century in China
Murtaja Baseer (17 August 1932 – 15 August 2020) was a Bangladeshi painter. He was also a poet, short story writer, novelist, researcher, numismatist, and filmmaker. 

He was awarded Ekushey Padak in 1980 by the Government of Bangladesh.

Baseer worked at University of Chittagong as an assistant professor and served until 1998.

Baseer has written several novels including Ultramarine (1954), Kanch-er Pakhir Gaan (1969), Mitar Shangey Char Shandha and Amitakkhar. He was a regular contributor to literary journals like Dilruba, Samakal, and Saogat. His first published poem was Parbe Na. 

Baseer was active in leftist politics during the 1950s and was sent to prison during the Pakistan government.

In 1987, he received a fellowship from British Council to carry out research on folk and traditional art of Bangladesh.

Baseer died from COVID-19 in Dhaka on 15 August 2020, aged 87.

References

1932 births
2020 deaths
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh
Writers from Dhaka
Peter Frederick Way (7 August 1951 – 14 August 2020) was an English bass player. He is best known as the bassist of the rock band UFO. He played in the band from 1969 to 1982, briefly in 1988–1989 and once again from 1991 to 2008. 

Way was also known as a founding member of Waysted and Fastway. He also notably played with Michael Schenker Group and Ozzy Osbourne.

Way died on 14 August 2020 at the age of 69. He died due to an injury caused by accident two months earlier. He was 69 years old.

References

1951 births
2020 deaths
English rock guitarists
English songwriters
Musicians from Middlesex
Writers from Middlesex
Your Name Is Justine () is a 2005 Luxembourgian Polish thriller movie directed by Franco de Peña. It starred Anna Cieslak, Arno Frisch, Rafal Mackowiak, Dominique Pinon, Mathieu Carrière, David Scheller.

References

Other websites

2005 thriller movies
Luxembourgian movies
Polish movies
John Talbut (20 October 1940 – 14 August 2020) was an English football defender. He played for the England under-23 team whilst at the club. 

In December 1966 Jimmy Hagan paid £30,000 to take Talbut to West Bromwich Albion. Talbut was a winner with the Baggies in the 1968 FA Cup Final but also featured on the losing side in the 1970 Football League Cup Final. 

Talbut died on 14 August 2020 from dementia-related problems, aged 79.

References

1940 births
2020 deaths
English footballers
People from Oxford
Sportspeople from Oxfordshire‎
Nesim Tahirović (23 October 1941 — 14 August 2020) was a Bosnian painter.

During a forty five-year career as an independent artist he had around sixty solo exhibitions and more than hundred group exhibitions. His paintings were exhibited in museums, galleries and sold to private collectors all over the world. 

He was a member of The Association of Applied Artists and Designers of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ULUPUBiH) and Association of Visual Artists of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ULUBiH).

Tahirović died on 14 August 2020 in Tuzla, aged 78.

References

1941 births
2020 deaths
Bosnia and Herzegovina people
Painters from Europe
Sculptors
Shwikar Ibrahim () (04 May 1935 – 14 August 2020) was an Egyptian actress. She started her career in Alexandria in some tragedic roles. She was born in Alexandria. Her best known role was as Negma in the 1976 western movie Viva Zalata.

Shwikar died on 14 August 2020 in Cairo, aged 81.

References

2020 deaths
Egyptian movie actors
Egyptian television actors
Stage actors

1935 births
Herbert Vaughn Orvis (October 17, 1946 – August 14, 2020) was an American football defensive tackle. He played for the Detroit Lions and the Baltimore Colts in a ten-year career that lasted from 1972 to 1981 in the National Football League.

Orvis played college football at the University of Colorado. He was born in Petoskey, Michigan.

Orvis was drafted 16th overall in the first round of the 1972 NFL Draft by the Lions, playing for five years with that team.  From 1978-81, he played for the Colts.

Orvis was chosen to be honored into the College Football Hall of Fame on January 8, 2015. 

Orvis died on August 14, 2020 in Goodyear, Arizona at the age of 73.

References

1946 births
2020 deaths
Sportspeople from Michigan
American football defensive tackles
Baltimore Colts players
Detroit Lions players
Linda Manz (August 20, 1961 – August 14, 2020) was an American actress. She was active from 1978 to 1997. She was best known for her roles in Days of Heaven (1978), Out of the Blue (1980), and Gummo (1997). Manz was born in New York City.

Manz died on August 14, 2020 from pneumonia caused by lung cancer in New York City at the age of 58.

References

Other websites

1961 births
2020 deaths
Deaths from pneumonia
Deaths from lung cancer
Cancer deaths in New York City
American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from New York City
Ernst Jean-Joseph (11 June 1948 – 14 August 2020) was a Haitian football midfielder. He played for Haiti in the 1974 FIFA World Cup. He played for Violette A.C. and briefly for Chicago Sting.

References

1948 births
2020 deaths
Football managers
Haitian sportspeople
Caribbean footballers
Thomas  Forsyth (23 January 1949 – 14 August 2020) was a Scottish football player and coach. Forsyth played as a defender for Motherwell, Rangers and Scotland.

After his playing retirement, Forsyth was appointed manager of Dunfermline Athletic in 1982.

Forsyth was appointed McLean's assistant at Motherwell then Hearts, when McLean moved to these clubs in 1984 and 1994.

Forsyth died on 14 August 2020, aged 71.

References

1949 births
2020 deaths
Footballers from Glasgow
Scottish football managers
Francesc Badia Batalla (10 January 1923 – 14 August 2020) was an Andorran politician and historian. He was the Episcopal Veguer of Andorra from 1972 until 1993. He also was a judge of the Tribunal of the Courts of Andorra over the same time. He was born in Montblanc, Tarragona, Spain.

Badia Batalla died on 14 August 2020, aged 97.

References

1923 births
2020 deaths
Andorran lawyers
Judges
Historians
Andorran politicians
Dimasangcay Pundato (December 21, 1947 – August 13, 2020) a Muslim Filipino revolutionary leader and politician. He was born in Dansalan, Lanao. 

For nine years, he was a member of the Office on Muslim Affairs (OMA) under the Office of the President during the administrations of the President Cory Aquino and President Fidel V. Ramos. He was Vice Chairman of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and Chairman of the MNLF Reformist Group.

Pundato died at his home in Marawi on August 13, 2020, at the age of 72.

References

1947 births
2020 deaths
Filipino politicians
Christopher J. Eccleshall (26 May 1948 – 13 August 2020) was an English luthier, guitar designer and guitar dealer. He worked with Martin, Gibson and Guild guitars. He was also known for making Selmer-Maccaferri jazz guitars.

Eccleshall originally trained as a violin maker with W. E. Hill and Sons of Bond Street in London. He was also an engineer in the Fleet Air Arm.

Eccleshall died on 13 August 2020 in Dartington, Devon at the age of 72.

References

1948 births
2020 deaths
Businesspeople from London
Luthiers
Mitchell Kent Hoopes (July 8, 1953 – August 11, 2020) was an American football punter in the National Football League for the Dallas Cowboys, San Diego Chargers, Houston Oilers, Detroit Lions and Philadelphia Eagles. 

He also was a member of the Boston Breakers in the United States Football League. He played college football at the University of Arizona. He was born in Bisbee, Arizona.

Hoopes died on August 11, 2020, aged 67.

References

1953 births
2020 deaths
American football punters
Dallas Cowboys players
Tennessee Titans players
San Diego Chargers players
Detroit Lions players
Philadelphia Eagles players
Sportspeople from Arizona
(December 28, 1941 – August 10, 2020) was a Japanese actor. His career lasted from 1964 until his death. He was born in Awaji, Hyōgo. His best known roles were in Tokyo Drifter, Outlaw: Gangster VIP and  Katsu Kaishū. His brother, Tsunehiko Watase, who was also an actor.

Watari died of pneumonia on August 10, 2020 in Tokyo, aged 78.

References

1941 births
2020 deaths
Japanese movie actors
Japanese television actors
Japanese stage actors
Japanese voice actors
Deaths from pneumonia
Konrad "Koni" Steffen (2 January 1952 – 8 August 2020) was a Swiss glaciologist. He was known for his research into the impact of global warming on the Arctic. He was born in Zurich. Steffen was an associate professor of geography at the University of Colorado Boulder from 1991 to 1997.

He was the director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at  Boulder from 2005 to 2012. 

He took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research on July 1, 2012.

Steffen died, aged 68, on 8 August 2020 in an accident while on a field trip in Greenland. He fell into a crevasse near the Swiss Camp research station and drowned.

References

1952 births
2020 deaths
Accidental deaths by drowning
Accidental deaths from falls
Swiss academics
Scientists from Zürich
European geographers
A crevasse is a deep crack, or fracture, found in an ice sheet or glacier. It is like a crevice that forms in rock. Crevasses form as a result of the movement caused by the shear stress between two semi-rigid pieces of ice.

Crevasses often have vertical or near-vertical walls, which can then melt and create seracs, arches, and other ice formations.

References

Geology
The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced by Japanese Emperor Hirohito on August 15 and formally signed on September 2, 1945. This ended World War II. 

By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was not able to carry major operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was near. 

Together with the British Empire and China, the United States called for the unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945.

A key factor in Japan's surrender were the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

References

World War II
1945 in Japan
The Baltimore Plot was a plan by pro-slavery owners in late February 1861 to assassinate President-elect of the United States Abraham Lincoln. The plan was to kill Lincoln while he was on his way to his inauguration. 

Allan Pinkerton, founder of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, played a key role by being in charge of Lincoln's security throughout the journey. Though scholars debate whether or not the threat was real, clearly Lincoln and his advisors believed that there was a threat and took actions to make sure he traveled safely through Baltimore, Maryland. This was where Lincoln's plotted assassination would have happened.

Lincoln arrived secretly in Washington, D.C. on February 23, 1861.   A planned train route through Bellaire, Ohio, to Wheeling, Virginia (West Virginia had yet to break off from Virginia) and eastward, was redirected up through the Pittsburgh through Pennsylvania, into  Maryland and eventually to Washington.
For the remainder of his presidency, Lincoln's many critics would call him a coward because he was in disguise while travelling secretly to Washington.

References

1861
Abraham Lincoln
Baltimore
Allan J. Pinkerton (August 25, 1819 – July 1, 1884) was a Scottish–American detective and spy. He was best known for creating the Pinkerton National Detective Agency. He was known for protecting then-President-elect of the United States Abraham Lincoln during the Baltimore Plot (a plan to kill Lincoln in Baltimore, Maryland in 1862).

References

1819 births
1884 deaths
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Businesspeople from Chicago
Spies
Burials at Graceland Cemetery
American autobiographers
American abolitionists
Kate Warne (1833 – January 28, 1868) was an American law enforcement officer. She was known as the first female detective, in 1856, in the Pinkerton Detective Agency and the United States. 

She played a key role in helping then President-elect of the United States Abraham Lincoln travel to Washington, D.C. safely during the alleged Baltimore Plot (the plot to kill Lincoln in Baltimore, Maryland) in 1862. She was born in Erin, New York.

Warne died of pneumonia in Chicago on January 28, 1868.

References

1833 births
1868 deaths
People from New York (state)
Law enforcement in the United States
Erin is a town in Chemung County, New York, United States. The population in Town of Erin was 1,962 at the 2010 census. The town was named by early settlers from Ireland.

References

Towns in New York (state)
Pinkerton, founded as the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, is a private security guard and detective agency created in the United States by Scottish-American spy Allan Pinkerton in 1850. It is a part of Securitas AB. 

Pinkerton became famous when he claimed to have stopped a plot to assassinate president-elect Abraham Lincoln, who later hired Pinkerton agents for his personal security during the Civil War. Pinkerton's agents performed services ranging from security guarding to private military contracting work. 

The Pinkerton National Detective Agency hired women and minorities from its founding. Pinkerton was the largest private law enforcement organization in the world at the height of its power.

References

1850 establishments in the United States
Chicago
Ray tracing is a computer algorithm for drawing very realistic 3D images.

With ray tracing, objects in the scene are described with geometrical shapes like spheres or planes. The computer then sends rays (straight lines) forward from where the camera is. The objects that get hit by these rays are the objects that the camera can see. The computer then draws these objects. This is similar to how our eyes see but in the real world the rays (light) go the opposite way – from the world to our eyes. If we made rays go from the world to the camera, most of the rays would not hit the camera, and we would have to wait a long time until we see an image appear. That is why instead, we make rays go from the camera to the world, meaning we know all the rays we create will go to the camera.
History 
Ray Tracing was first mentioned by Albrecht Dürer in the XVI century. In 1982, Scott Roth called this technique "ray emission" in the computer graphics context, but in that time, it was a less accurate version of the Ray Tracing that didn't include reflection and refraction of light.

Computer graphics
Lenawee County is a county in the U.S. state of Michigan. The county seat is Adrian. As of the 2020 census, 99,423 people lived here.

References

1820s establishments in Michigan Territory
1826 establishments in the United States
Michigan counties
Luce County is a county in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2020 census, 5,339 people live here. The county seat is Newberry.

References 

1880s establishments in Michigan
1887 establishments in the United States
Michigan counties
A crinkle crankle wall is a brick wall built in alternate convex and concave curves. It is sometimes described as a serpentine wall or a wavy wall. It is found most often in England, though the idea has been used elsewhere. The walls do look elegant, but the main object is practical. The format resists the usual pushes from the surrounding earth, and so needs fewer repairs than straight walls do.

Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) incorporated serpentine walls into the architecture of the University of Virginia, which he founded. On both sides of its rotunda and down the length of the lawn are ten pavilions. Each has its own walled garden separated by crinkle crankle walls.
Many crinkle crankle walls are found in East Anglia, England. There the marshes of The Fens were drained by Dutch engineers, starting in the mid-1600s. They apparently introduced the idea.  The county of Suffolk has at least 50 examples, twice as many as in the rest of the country. The term "crinkle crankle" is said to derive from a Suffolk dialect. The crinkle crankle wall running from the former manor house to All Saints' Church in the estate village of Easton is believed to be the longest existing example.

The idea, which is never seen in cities, is not that uncommon in south-eastern England. The ancient village of Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire has a crinckle-crankle wall near its church. It has needed far less maintenance than the straight walls in the vicinity.
In Lymington, Hampshire, there are at least two examples of crinkle crankle walls. The older of the two is thought to have been constructed at the time of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) by exiled Hanoverian soldiers living in a nearby house.

References 

Walls
Mackinac County is a county in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2020 census, 10,834 people live here. The county seat is St. Ignace.

References

1840s establishments in Michigan
1849 establishments in the United States
Michigan counties
Manistee County is a county in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2020 census, 25,032 people live here. The county seat is Manistee.

References

1855 establishments in Michigan
Michigan counties
Mason County is a county in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2020 census, 29,052 people live here. The county seat is Ludington.

References

1855 establishments in Michigan
Michigan counties
Crofting is a form of land tenure. It also involves small-scale food production, particularly in the Scottish Highlands. Within the 19th century, townships, and individual crofts were established on the better land. Then a large area of poorer-quality hill ground was shared by all the crofters of the township for feeding their livestock.

Practice 
Crofting is a traditional social system in Scotland defined by small-scale food production. It is a group of common working communities, or "townships". Individual crofts are typically established on  of in-bye for better quality forage, arable and vegetable production. Each township manages poorer-quality hill ground as common grazing for cattle and sheep.

Despite its challenges, crofting is important to the Highlands. In 2014-15 there were 19,422 crofts, with 15,388 crofters. S
Requirements 
Tenants and owner-occupier crofters are required to comply with a range of duties specified in sections 5AA to 5C and 19C of the Crofters (Scotland) Act 1993. There is a requirement to be ordinarily resident within 32 km of the croft. If the croft is the sole dwelling and the crofter's family are resident while the croft is away this would probably be accepted as ordinarily resident. Other situations involving other places of residence would need to be assessed individually. In addition to the duty of residence tenants and owner occupier crofters are required to ensure the croft is cultivated, maintained and not neglected or misused.

References

Other websites 

 The Scottish Crofting Federation

Notes

 Crofters, Indigenous People of the Highlands and Islands  at Scottish Crofting Foundation

Highland
History of Scotland
Mecosta County is a county in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2020 census, 39,714 people live here. The county seat is Big Rapids.

References

1859 establishments in Michigan
Michigan counties
Feldkirchen (Central Bavarian: Fejdkira) is a municipality in the Munich Rural District in Upper Bavaria, Germany.

References

Other websites 
 

Munich (district)
Butrint (; from ) was an ancient Greek and later Roman city and bishopric in Epirus. The city is considered as one of the most important archaeological sites in Albania. With its vast cultural, historical and natural value with a considerable history, Butrint became part of UNESCO World Heritage site in 1992. It became a National Park in 2000.

Buthrotum was a city of the Epirote tribe of the Chaonians. It started declining in Late Antiquity. It later became abandoned during the Middle Ages after a major earthquake flooded most of the city. 

It is now an archeological site in Vlorë County, Albania. It is about 14 kilometres south of Sarandë and close to the Greek border. It is located on a hill overlooking the Vivari Channel, and is part of the Butrint National Park.

Directions 
The site of Butrint is accessible from Sarandë. Its road was first built in 1959 for a visit by the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. The road was improved during the summer of 2010.
The construction was somewhat of an environmental disaster. It one point, it threatened Butrint's World Heritage Site status. The ancient city is becoming a popular tourist destination. It attracts day-trippers from the nearby Greek holiday island of Corfu. Hydrofoils (30 minutes) and ferries (90 minutes) run daily between the New Port in Corfu Town and Saranda. 

Many visitors from Corfu use chartered coach services to visit Butrint from Sarandë. A regular public bus service runs between Sarandë port and Butrint. Others arrive from the Qafe Bote border crossing with Greece near Konispol and cross the Vivari Channel by the cable ferry at Butrint.

Gallery

Notable people 

 Saint Therinus, 3rd-century saint
 Donatus of Euroea, 4th-century saint

References

Other websites 

 GCatholic with incumbent bio links

General information 

 Butrint National Park
 The Butrint Foundation

History articles
History articles 

 Rome and Albanian history from Albania.com
 Albania's Long-lost Roman City, BBC
 In Pictures: Sights of Butrint, BBC
 176 photos from the archeological site of Butrint
 Coins from Butrint: Numismatic research on archaeological excavation - The British Museum

Notes
Notes 

 Ceka N., Butrint: A guide to the city and its monuments (Migjeni Books) Tirana 2005)
 Crowson A., "Butrint from the Air", in Current World Archaeology 14 (2006).
 Hansen, Inge Lyse and Richard Hodges, eds., Roman Butrint: An Assessment. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2007.
 
 Richard Hodges and Matthew Logue, "The Mid-Byzantine Re-Birth of Butrint", Minerva 18, #3 (May/June 2007): 41–43.
 A. M. Liberati, L. Miraj, I. Pojani, F. Sear, J. Wilkes and B. Polci, ed. by O. J. Gilkes. The Theatre at Butrint. Luigi Maria Ugolini's Excavations at Butrint 1928-1932, (Albania Antica IV) (Supplementary volume no. 35.  Published by the British School at Athens, 2003).
 Jarrett A. Lobell, Ages of Albania (Archeology magazine March/April 2006)
 Ugolini L. M., Butrinto il Mito D'Enea, gli Scavi. Rome: Istituto Grefico Tiberino, 1937 (reprint Tirana: Istituto Italiano di Cultura, 1999)

Buildings and structures in Albania
World Heritage Sites in Albania
Settlements in Europe
Ancient Greek cities
Vlorë County
The Pont Saint-Bénézet (; Provençal: Pònt de Sant Beneset) is a famous medieval bridge in the town of Avignon, in the south of France. It is also known as the Pont d'Avignon ().

A wooden bridge was built between 1177 and 1185. It went across the Rhône river between Villeneuve-lès-Avignon and Avignon. This early bridge was destroyed forty years later in 1226. This was during the Albigensian Crusade when Louis VIII of France attacked Avignon. In 1234 building started again for a new bridge with 22 stone arches. The stone bridge was about  long and only  wide. This width included the parapets at the sides. The bridge was abandoned in the mid-17th century. The arches collapsed (broke and fell into the water) each time the Rhône flooded. This made it very expensive to maintain (fix) the bridge.
Four arches and the gatehouse at the Avignon end of the bridge still exist. The Chapel of Saint Nicholas sits on the second pier of the bridge. It was built in the second half of 12th century. It has changed a lot since then. The western terminus, the Tour Philippe-le-Bel also still exists.

The bridge was the inspiration for the French song Sur le pont d'Avignon. The bridge is an important landmark in the city. In 1995, the arches of the bridge, together with the Palais des Papes and Cathédrale Notre-Dame des Doms were classified as a World Heritage Site.
The bridge went across the Rhône between Avignon and Villeneuve-lès-Avignon. The first bridge was built between 1177 and 1185. It was destroyed during the siege of Avignon by Louis VIII of France in 1226. They started rebuilding the bridge again by 1234. Many historians think that the first bridge was made of wood or maybe a wooden structure supported on stone piers. When the bridge was built a second time, it was all made of stone. The stone bridge had 22 arches and 21 piers. Its length was . It did not run directly between the two gatehouses. It had a curved path. This was probably because of the position of the islands on the river at the time. Over the centuries the Rhône has moved across its floodplain. The position of the islands in the 13th century is not well documented. A 17th-century map shows that the southern end of the Île de la Barthelasse was upstream of the bridge. The bridge crossed small islands that were upstream of the Île de Piot. The space between the piers was between
. The bridge was only  in width with the parapets at the sides. The arches sometimes broke when the river flooded. They were sometimes replaced with temporary wooden structures, and after they were rebuilt in stone.
The bridge fell into a bad state during the 17th century. By 1644 the bridge was missing four arches. A flood in 1669 broke even more of the structure. After this, the other arches have collapsed one after the other, or they have been demolished. As of 2020, only four of the arches are left. The only other visible part of the bridge is some masonry from pier 11. This is attached to a private building on the Île de la Barthelasse. Remains of other piers are buried under a thick layer of sediment on the island or at the bottom of the Rhône. Piers 9 and 10 are both now on the Île de la Barthelasse. They were confirmed by cores drilled at the positions historians thought. They found masonry from the piers at a depth of  below ground level. Just below the masonry, at a depth of around  there were wooden fragments (small pieces). These were made of silver fir (Abies alba). Carbon-14 dating of this material gave dates of 1238–1301 AD for pier 9 and 1213–1280 AD for pier 10 (the range is for 2σ).
Saint Bénézet legend
Saint Bénézet inspired the building of the bridge. He was a shepherd boy from the hamlet of Villard in the Ardèche. According to tradition, he heard the voice of Jesus Christ while he was looking after his sheep. Jesus asked him to build a bridge across the river. Although he was ridiculed at first, he "proved" his divine inspiration by miraculously lifting a very large block of stone. He won support for his project and formed a Bridge Brotherhood to help with building the bridge. After his death, he was interred on the bridge itself. This was in a small chapel standing on one of the bridge's surviving piers on the Avignon side.
Saint Nicholas Chapel
The Saint Nicholas Chapel sits on a platform on the upstream side of the second pier (between the second and third arches). The bridge chapel has been restored and built again a few times. It now has two floors. Each floor has a nave and an apse. The upper floor is at the same level as the platform of the bridge. It makes the width of the walkway smaller. In this place, the walkway is only . There is a set of steps to get to the lower floor from the bridge.

The outside of the chapel shows marks of the rebuilding work. For example, there are blocked windows on the south-eastern wall. The nave is covered with stone roof tiles. These tiles rest on a series of corbels. The polygonal apse has a flat roof. It sits above the cutwater of the pier.
The lower chapel's apse is decorated with five arches. It is from the second half of the 12th century. At a later date, maybe as early as the 13th century, there was a floor supported by a ribbed quadripartite vault inserted into the structure. The simple rectangular upper chapel was consecrated in 1411. A side door was created in the lower chapel. This is because the stonework of the raised bridge blocked the original entrance. In 1513 a pentagonal apse with gothic columns was added to the upper chapel.

In 1670, after the bridge was abandoned, the relics of Saint Bénézet were transferred to the Hôpital du Pont (also called the Hôpital St Bénézet). This is within the city walls next to the gatehouse.
Gatehouses
The bridge had great strategic importance. When it was built, it was the only fixed river crossing between Lyon and the Mediterranean Sea. It was also the only river crossing between the Comtat Venaissin (an enclave controlled by the Pope) and France controlled by the kings of France. As such, it was closely guarded on both sides of the river. The right bank was controlled by the French crown. The fortress of the Tour Philippe-le-Bel was close enough to see the bridge. This was built at the beginning of the 14th century. On the Avignon side, a large gatehouse was built in the 14th century. It was changed a lot in the 15th century. The walkway passed over the city wall and down a ramp (now destroyed). This led into the city.
Between 1265 and 1309 another stone bridge was built across the Rhône, . This was upstream from Avignon, at what is now Pont-Saint-Esprit. At the time, it was called Saint-Saturnin-du-Port. The Pont-Saint-Esprit bridge originally had 20 arches. It was  long. Although it is now changed, the medieval bridge still exists as of 2020.

The Chapel of Saint Nicholas and the four remaining arches were listed as a Monument historique in 1840.
Roman bridge hypothesis
There has been a debate on whether there was a bridge before the Saint Bénézet bridge was built in the 12th century. Henri Revoil first said there may have been an older bridge. He said this at the French Archaeological Conference held in Avignon in 1882. His main argument was that the stonework at the base of the four surviving piers became visible. At very low water, stone blocks were visible. They were larger than those above. They had features that looked foreign to the existing bridge. The style of the masonry indicated to Revoil that there had been an earlier bridge dating from either the late Roman or Carolingian periods. In 1892 Louis Rochetin published an article. It said that the stone blocks at the base of the first pier and those on either side of the second pier supporting the chapel were the remains of springers that would have supported earlier Roman arches.
Perrot et al. published an article in 1971 about a Roman bridge too. The article talked about a survey in 1969 on the vestiges of the piers in the Villeneuve branch of the river the Compagnie Nationale du Rhône (CNR) destroyed them. The article also had long quotes from an unpublished report by Mr Mathian, an engineer working for the CNR. This was about a survey carried out in 1965 on the four intact piers on the Avignon side of the river. This survey found a layer of wood, at least 20 cm in thickness. This was under the foundations of each of the four intact piers.
The archaeologist Dominique Carru, accepted the radiocarbon date for the sample of wood. However, he argued in 1999 that it is very unlikely that an earlier bridge existed. It is not mentioned in the surviving texts from the high medieval period . Also, a bridge would have led to the development of a town on the right bank of the Rhône opposite Avignon, similar to those at other locations in the Rhône valley, such as Trinquetaille opposite Arles and Saint-Romain-en-Gal near Vienne. There is no evidence for an important early settlement near the terminus of the bridge. The main east-west route in the Roman period passed through Tarascon-Beaucaire,  to the south. It avoided the river at Avignon which was wide and variable in position.

The song "Sur le Pont d'Avignon"
The bridge has became famous with the song "Sur le Pont d'Avignon" ("On the Bridge of Avignon"). An earlier song with the same title was popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. Ottaviano Petrucci published the melody in his Harmonice Musices Odhecaton of 1503-4. The 16th-century composer Pierre Certon used the melody in a mass with the title: "Sus le Pont d'Avignon". The modern version of the song dates from the mid-19th century. Adolphe Adam included it in the opéra comique Le Sourd ou l'Auberge pleine. This was first played in Paris in 1853. The opera was an adaptation of the 1790 comedy by Desforges.

Related pages
List of medieval bridges in France

Pictorial record

Notes

References

Sources

 No further volumes were published. The link provides the text of chapters 1, 7, 10-12.

Further reading

Other websites

 

 Romanes.com : Map and pictures of the bridge
 

Bridges in France
World Heritage Sites in France
Avignon
13th-century buildings and structures
The Belfries of Belgium and France are a group of 56 historical buildings. They are part of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Europe. It shows a design change from feudal and religious influence in historic Flanders and its neighboring regions of the Duchy of Burgundy.

UNESCO included 32 towers of Belfries of Flanders and Wallonia in 1999. In 2005, the bell tower of Gembloux in the Walloon Region of Belgium and 23 others from the Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Picardy regions were added to the renamed list. Brussels Town Hall and its bell tower were not included since was already part of the Grand Place World Heritage Site.

Additional six church towers were also added since they served as watchtowers or alarm bell towers. These include Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp, St. Rumbolds Cathedral in Mechelen, St. Peter's Church, Leuven, St. Germanus Church in Tienen, the Basilica of Our Lady in Tongeren and St. Leonard's Church in Zoutleeuw.