Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Pro-Korea 
 dodkdonews.net: News updates on the disputed islets 
 The Territorial Dispute Over Dokdo, compiled by Mark S. Lovmo Pro-Korea view by an English speaker
 The historical facts of the Dokdo - Takeshima Island dispute between Japan and Korea Pro-Korea view by an English speaker
 Tokdo Dispute History by Kalani O'Sullivan Third party analysis of dispute in an academic journal
 Tokdo or Takeshima? The International Law of Territorial Acquisition in the Japan-Korea Island Dispute, Sean Fern, Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs, Volume 5 Number 1 (Winter 2005), pp.78-89  Pro-Korea view by an English speaker
 "North Korea Denounces Japanese Territorial Claims on Dokdo"  Yonhap via Yahoo news
 Dokdo is Korean territory : a web page by the Cyber Dokdo History Hall, English 
 Korea Times Dokdo Hosts First Civilians in a Decade. Retrieved 22 February, 2006.

Islands of South Korea
A pentagram is a five-pointed star, with all lines the same length and all angles the same. A 'pentangle', 'star pentagon', or 'pentalpha' means the same thing. It is a type of pentagon.

The word pentacle originally meant 'any symbol that protects against evil spirits'. There are many of such symbols, only a few of which include a pentagram. During the modern age of Wicca, the word 'pentacle' acquired a second definition, due to sounding similar to the word 'pentagram', and the fact that wiccan pentacles use a pentagram. That second definition of 'pentacle' is 'a circumscribed pentagram', which means 'a pentagram drawn inside a circle so that the points of the pentagram touch the circle'.

The pentagram means different things to different people. These meanings have changed over time.
Religious meanings
In ancient times, the pentagram was used as a Christian symbol. It stood for the five wounds that Jesus Christ received during his crucifixion (the nails in each hand and foot, and the spear wound in his side).

In the past, the pentagram was commonly seen as a symbol for good and for protection against evil.

One of the earliest recorded uses for the pentagram was by the Pythagoreans as a sign of initiation for its mathematical relation to the golden ratio and common presence in naturally occurring shapes. 

In Taoism, a pentagram shows how the five classical oriental elements (earth, water, wood, fire, and metal) are related.

Today, the pentacle, commonly mistaken as a pentagram, is the most commonly used symbol of Wicca. Some post-Gardnerian wiccans, imitating Taoism, associate the five points of the pentagram with the four classical Greek elements (fire, water, earth, and air) and spirit.
Some Satanists, especially members of the Church of Satan, use an upside-down pentacle as a symbol for their religion. The Church of Satan's official symbol is an upside-down pentacle with a goat head inside, called the Sigil of Baphomet. (A 'sigil' is a symbol of a supernatural being). It was originally the influential 1800s French occultist Eliphas Levi who associated the pentagram with the goat-headed baphomet, by drawing a pentagram on the baphomet's forehead. Anton LaVey, who created the Church of Satan in 1966, took the idea from Levi.

The pentagram in literature
In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, a 14th century romance story, the pentagram is mentioned as a symbol for Gawain's good character and truth.
More recently, the meaning of the pentagram was discussed in The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown. According to the book, the pentagram actually belonged to the ancient religion of Pagan Sun Worship, and was tied to the female planet Venus: every 8 years Venus traces a perfect pentagram across the sky. The book says that the pentagram was a symbol for the sacred female, but was later taken by Christianity and said to mean the devil in order to destroy beliefs that females were sacred.

Other uses
A pentacle is on the flag of Morocco, as well as  Ethiopia's.

References

Symbols
Religious symbols
Benzene, also known as  benzol, is an organic chemical compound with the formula C6H6. It is a colorless and flammable liquid with a sweet smell. Benzene molecules are a ring of six carbon atoms that are each bonded to one hydrogen atom. It is an aromatic compound, meaning the ring has alternating double bonds. 

Benzene is carcinogenic, which means it can cause cancer. It has many real-world uses. It is used as an additive in gasoline, plastics, synthetic rubber, dyes and it is an industrial solvent, which means it can dissolve many other chemical molecules. Benzene is also a natural part of crude oil and is therefore present in gasoline. Many medicines contain parts made from benzene.

Structure
Benzene has special properties called aromaticity. All six carbon atoms in the ring are on the same flat plane. To account for all the bonds on a six carbon ring, there must be alternating double carbon bonds (Conjugated system):
If benzene had three double bonds, three sides of its ring would be shorter than the other three sides. X-ray diffraction shows that all of six carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are of the same length of 140 picometres (pm). The C–C bond lengths are greater than a double bond (135 pm) but shorter than a single bond (147 pm). This intermediate distance is consistent with electron delocalization: the electrons for C–C bonding are distributed equally between each of the six carbon atoms. The molecule is planar. One representation is that the structure exists as a superposition of so-called resonance structures, rather than either form individually. (In other words, the molecule's double bonds switch quickly between pairs of carbon atoms.) The delocalization of electrons is one explanation for the thermodynamic stability of benzene and related aromatic compounds. It is likely that this stability contributes to the peculiar molecular and chemical properties known as aromaticity
. To indicate the delocalized nature of the bonding, benzene is often depicted with a circle inside a hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms.
As is common in organic chemistry, the carbon atoms in the diagram above have been left unlabeled. Realizing each carbon has 2p electrons, each carbon donates an electron into the delocalized ring above and below the benzene ring. It is the overlap of p-orbitals both above and below the ring that produces the pi clouds.

In 1986, some chemists disputed the delocalized view of benzene in an article published in the journal Nature. They showed that the electrons in benzene are almost certainly localized to particular carbon atoms. They showed the aromatic properties of benzene come from spin coupling rather than electron delocalization. Other scientists wrote articles to support this view in Nature in 1987. But, chemists are slow to switch from the delocalized electrons view.
Derivatives of benzene occur sufficiently often as a component of organic molecules that there is a Unicode symbol in the Miscellaneous Technical block with the code U+232C (⌬) to represent it with three double bonds, and U+23E3 (⏣) for a delocalized version.

References

Hydrocarbons
The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) is a meat eating mammal. It is a marsupial, which means it has a small pouch to carry its babies. It is the largest meat eating marsupial in the world. It is nocturnal, which means it sleeps during the day and is awake during the night. Tasmanian devils now live only in Tasmania, an island state of Australia.

The devil is the same size as a small dog with a wide head and a short tail. Male devils can weigh 12 kg and be 30 cm tall. It has black fur and makes a loud and very scary screeching noise. It will hunt other animals and also feed on dead animals. The devil has strong teeth and jaws and will eat all its prey, even bones and fur.

The Tasmanian devil became extinct on the Australian mainland about 3,000 years ago - before European settlement in 1788. They were hunted in Tasmania. In the 1930s the Van Dieman's Land Company offered 25 cents for each male and 35 cents for each female killed. In 1941 they became officially protected.

Disease
Disease 

In 1996 the devils began to get very sick and then die with large tumours on their faces. Devil facial tumour disease has greatly reduced the number of devils and now threatens their survival. In some areas 85% of devils have been found with the disease. In the places where the tumours were seen first, devil numbers have dropped by 95%. The tumour is spread by biting. Because the devils are all closely related (not enough genetic diversity), the tumour cells are not seen as new; so the devil's immune system does not fight it. In May 2008 the Tasmanian devil was listed as endangered. Programs are being tried by the Tasmanian government to reduce the impact of the disease. About 60 devils without the disease have been captured and are to be kept as a tumour free group for rebreeding. Scientists have been looking at ways to give the devils immunity but so far this has not worked.
New research is showing the devils are having babies earlier, they use to breed at two years, but now are breeding at one year old. Devils used to have babies every year for three years, but they are now dying before they can produce a second litter (family).

Genetics

The devils have a low genetic diversity which is consistent with a 'founder effect'. What this means is: a small number colonised Tasmania from Australia at some stage. So their genetic variety was much less than the parent population. Disease like the present may have happened before, and reduced the population to a small number. These events are called 'population bottlenecks'. A small population which carries less variation is always vulnerable to extinction, because none of the animals may be resistant to the infection.

Its genome was sequenced in 2010 by the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. There is some hope for their survival because, since 2005, three females have been found that are partially resistant to the disease.

Images
Images

References

Other websites

 The Aussie Devil Ark Conservation Project

Dasyuromorphia
Marsupials of Australia
Joseph Haydn (also known as Franz Joseph Haydn) was an Austrian composer. He was born on March 31 or April 1, 1732, and died on May 31, 1809. He was one of the most famous composers in the Classical music period. He is often called the "Father of the Symphony." He also taught Ludwig van Beethoven and a friend of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Mozart considered him a mentor)

Life 
Haydn's father made wheels for a living. He had the skills of a blacksmith, stonemason, and carpenter. He used that skill in his spare time to make musical instruments for his family to play. The Haydn family would give informal weekend concerts. One of Joseph's relatives thought that Joseph had a great singing voice and should go with him to a boarding school where he would start studying to become a priest.
Haydn did not like it very much at the boarding school, but his voice developed to a point where he was selected to be a part of the Boy's Choir of the Vienna Cathedral. He stayed there until his voice changed. Haydn made a living teaching lessons and playing in the streets for handouts until he met Nicola Porpora, who hired Haydn as an accompanist and general servant. 

Eventually Haydn got a job working for Nicholas Esterhazy. He worked for the Esterhazys for over 30 years. He wrote symphonies, string quartets, operas, piano sonatas, and other pieces.
After he was released from his duties with the Esterhazys, Haydn travelled to London. Even at the age of 60 he was still active and wrote some of his most famous symphonies there. While in London, he heard Handel's Messiah, and was inspired to write two oratorios of his own, The Seasons and The Creation. While working on these oratorios in Vienna, Haydn gave lessons to Ludwig van Beethoven. Beethoven had first wanted to study with Mozart, but by the time Beethoven was ready to study in Vienna, Mozart had died.

The house in Vienna where Haydn wrote his oratorios has been turned into a museum called 'Haydnhaus'. There visitors can see the piano by Anton Walter that composer was using for writing music. Haydn was so well-respected in Vienna that he was known as "Papa Haydn" and his influence on music was profound and great.

1732 births
1809 deaths
Austrian composers
Classical era composers
In music, a scale is a set of notes in order of their pitch (that is, their frequency). If the scale starts with the note which has the lowest pitch and goes up to the note with the highest pitch, the scale is called ascending. If the scale starts with the note which has the highest pitch and goes down to the note with the lowest pitch, the scale is called descending. Scales are often the same both ascending and descending, but this is not always true. Very often, a scale is defined over an interval (such as an octave). The most common scales use intervals of five, six or seven different notes.

Major and minor scales

Major scales 
On a piano, there are white keys and black keys. If we start on the note C and play each white key going up until we come to the next C, we have played the C Major scale. It has eight notes because there are eight notes from each C to the next one: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C.
The note played by each black key has two names: it can be named by the note after it, or the note before it. For example, the black key after C can be called C♯ (C-sharp). Sharp means higher in pitch. That same note can also be called D♭ (D-flat) because it is the note before D. Flat means lower in pitch.
There are half steps (or semitones) between two keys next to each other on the piano. The key to the right plays a note half a step higher (sharp) and the key to the left plays a note half a step lower (flat). So between the third and the fourth note, and between the seventh and eighth note, there is only half a step. Starting the scale at the next white key (D), two black keys will need to be touched to get the same scale, the first one for the third note, the second for the seventh note: D, E, F♯, G, A, B, C♯, D. The pattern for an ascending major scale is up a whole step, up another whole step and then a half step, then a whole step, a whole step and another whole step, then half a step to complete the octave. This is often shown as: WWHWWWH or TTSTTTS (where T stands for tone and S stands for semitone).
Scales use either just sharps or just flats when choosing between the two names for the same note, when this is possible. In a scale of seven different notes, each letter is used only once. This means that some scales have one or two notes named with a sharp or a flat even though they are played by white keys. In the C♯ Major scale, for example, all the notes have names with a sharp: C♯, D♯, E♯, F♯, G♯, A♯, B♯, C♯. In this scale, E♯ is the name for the note played by the key that plays F and the B♯ is the name for the note played by the key that plays C. The same notes are used in the D♭ Major scale, but they all have different names: D♭, E♭, F, G♭, A♭, B♭, C, D♭.
Sometimes the major scale is sung to the words "do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do" (solfège). In the musical The Sound of Music, Maria teaches the children to sing by teaching them a song called "Doe, a deer, a female deer". Each line starts on the next note of the scale and uses a different English word for each note ("doe", "ray", "me", "far", "sew", "la" and "tea").
Minor scales 
There are also minor scales. These work the same way as major scales, but use different patterns of intervals:
 natural minor uses half a step between the second and the third note, and between the fifth and the sixth note. Starting at A, and using only white keys gives A minor (natural minor): A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A.
 harmonic minor is the same as natural minor, except that there is only half a step between the seventh and eighth note. Taking the example from before, but using the black key between G and A instead of the G (raising it by half a step) gives A, B, C, D, E, F, G♯, A.
 melodic minor: The step from F to G♯ is three half steps and difficult to sing. For this reason, F♯ is used instead of F, but only going up the scale. Except for some forms of Jazz music, the natural minor is used going down the scale: A, B, C, D, E, F♯, G♯, A, G, F, E, D, C, B, A.
Different periods use different scales 
Traditional western music generally uses seven notes, and repeats the first note (an octave higher or lower) to complete the octave.

During the Middle Ages, and the Renaisssance, the diatonic scale (the white keys of the piano) was used most often. Black keys (called accidentals) were less common. The classical period (1600 to 1900) generally used major and minor scales, as outlined above. Natural minor was used less. From about 1900, there are other scales, for example the chromatic scale (12 half tones).

References

Music theory
For the use in evolutionary biology, see Orthology (biology)
Orthology is the study of the right use of words in language. The word comes from Greek ortho- ("correct") and -logy ("science of"). This science is a place where psychology, philosophy, linguistics, and many otherwife fields of learning come together. The most noted use of Orthology is for the selection of words 
for the language of Basic English by the Orthological Institute.

The book, The Meaning of Meaning, by C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards, is an important book dealing with orthology. The term Orthology comes from the book The Grammar of Science by Karl Pearson.

References 

Vocabulary
1712 was a leap year.

Events 
 January 26 – Tuscarora War: More than half of the Native Americans in Colonel John Barnwell's Carolina militia desert during the crossing of the Cape Fear River.
 January 29 – Tuscarora War: Colonel John Barnwell's Carolina militia attack the sprawling Tuscarora farming community of Torhunta by focusing on Fort Narhantes. Many Tuscarora captives are enslaved.
Toei Company, Ltd. (東映株式会社 Tōei Kabushiki-gaisha (pronounced toe ay) is a Japanese film, television production, and  distribution corporation. Based in Tokyo, Toei owns and operates thirty-four movie theaters across Japan, studios at Tokyo and Kyoto; and is a shareholder in several television companies. It is notable for anime franchises such as Dragon Ball Z, YoRo RoYo, One Piece and Sailor Moon, live action dramas known as tokusatsu, and jidaigeki historical dramas.
History 
Tokyo-Yokohama Films (東横映画 Tō-Yoko Eiga, incorporated in 1938, had previously erected its facilities immediately east of the Tōkyū Tōyoko Line, they managed the Tōkyū Shibuya Yokohama studio system prior to V-J Day. From 1945 through the Toei merger, Tokyo-Yokohama Films leased from the Daiei Motion Picture Company a second studio in Kyoto. Through the merger, they gained the combined talents and experience of different actors. On October 1, 1950, the Tokyo Film Distribution Company was incorporated; in 1951 the company purchased Ōizumi Films.

In 1956, Toei established an animation division, Toei Animation at the former Tokyo-Ōizumi animation studio, purchasing the assets of Japan Animated Films (originally founded in 1948)

Toei was a pioneer in the use of transformation in live-action martial-arts dramas, a technique developed for the Kamen Rider, Metal Heroes and Super Sentai series; The genre currently continues with Kamen Rider and Super Sentai.
On April 6, 2020, Toei create their official YouTube Channel and uploading some of the oldest tokusatsu series (from the 50s to 90s).

Other websites 
 toei.co.jp - Company webpage

Animation studios in Asia
Naoko Takeuchi (武内直子 Takeuchi Naoko), born March 15, 1967, is a manga artist from Japan. She lives in Tokyo. She wrote the manga Sailor Moon, which was so popular it was made into an anime, musicals, video games and more. Her husband, Yoshihiro Togashi, is the creator of YuYu Hakusho and Hunter × Hunter.

1967 births
Living people
Japanese animators
"Kimigayo" (Kanji: 君が代, Katakana: きみがよ, , meaning "His Imperial Majesty's Reign") is the national anthem of Japan. The anthem is based on a poem written by an unknown poet from Japan about one thousand years ago. The music was composed more recently, about two hundred years ago; however, it had to be rewritten shortly afterwards, because the original tune was unpopular.

Although popular for a long period and sung in situations where people from other countries would usually sing their country's national anthem, "Kimigayo" was only considered as Japan's official national anthem in 1999. The law that stated this also defined the Flag of Japan in a similar way.

The national anthem of Japan is one of the shortest national anthems in the world, containing only thirty-two syllables. Because it is so short, the anthem is normally played very slowly.

Lyrics

References

Other websites 

 Listen to Kimi ga yo (.ra format)

Asian anthems
National symbols of Japan
1860s songs
April Fools' Day (also known as April Fool's Day) is celebrated in many countries on April 1 every year. On this day, practical jokes (or April Fools) are played on friends and family. The jokes are done to embarrass them. In some countries, April Fools only last until noon, and if someone plays a joke after, they are an April Fool.

Origins
People have set aside a special day for playing jokes for centuries. The ancient Romans had a holiday called Hilaria.

In the Middle Ages, New Year's Day was celebrated on March 25 in most European towns. In some areas of France, New Year's was a week-long holiday ending on April 1. Some people think that April Fools' started because those who celebrated on January 1 made fun of those who celebrated on other dates.

Long standing customs
United Kingdom
This custom makes no sense at all until one remembers how much colder the climate was before the 19th/20th century. Great rivers like the Thames were frozen over in the winter, and young people used to skate on them in wintertime. 

In the U.K., a person playing a joke would yell "April Fool!" at the recipient. According to tradition, the joking was supposed to stop at midday.

Nordic countries
In the Nordic countries, many news outlets would publish or broadcast a fake news story on April 1.

France
In France, an April fools joke is called a "Poisson d'Avril'. One tradition there is to try and stick a paper fish on one's friends back, and shout "Poisson d'Avril!' when it is discovered.
Media outlets
Sometimes a large media corporation would broadcast or publish a fake news story on April 1. For example, in 1957 the BBC broadcast a story about spaghetti trees. According to the story, people in Switzerland grew spaghetti on trees. Later, many people called the BBC asking how they could get a spaghetti tree.

Notes

Other websites

Observances
Baroque music is a set of styles of European classical music which were in use between about 1600 and 1750 during the Baroque period.

The word "Baroque" is used in other art forms besides music: we talk about Baroque architecture, painting, sculpture, dance and literature. The Baroque period comes between the Renaissance and the period of Classicism.

History
Musicians think of the Baroque period as starting around 1600. The famous Renaissance composers Palestrina and Lassus had died a few years earlier. Claudio Monteverdi wrote some music in Renaissance style, and other music in Baroque style. Opera was being invented. It was a time of musical change.

The change from writing music in the Baroque style to the Classical style was much more gradual. 1750 is the year that Bach died, so it is an easy date to choose for the end of the Baroque period.
The Baroque was a time when people liked large spaces and a lot of ornamentation. This can be seen in the architecture of famous buildings such as St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, or St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. They were built at this time. In Venice there were churches with galleries on either side of the church. Composers liked to write music for two groups of musicians placed in opposite galleries. Giovanni Gabrieli wrote a lot of music like this.

Styles and instruments
The idea of two contrasting groups was used a lot in Baroque music. Composers wrote concertos. These were pieces for orchestra and a solo instrument. Sometimes a concerto contrasted a group of soloists with the rest of the orchestra. These are called by the Italian name "Concerti Grossi. Bach's Brandenburg Concertos are good examples.

Organs, and some harpsichords, had at least two manuals (keyboards). The player could change from one manual to the other, contrasting two different sounds.
Because composers were now writing opera it was important for the audience to hear the words clearly. In the Renaissance the groups of a choir were often singing several different words using different melodies all at once. This was called “polyphony”. Polyphony was widely used in instrumental music, but was not used in opera, which needed to tell a story without being confusing.

When a soloist in an opera sings a song (an aria) the aria is in a particular mood. They called this “affection”. There were several “affections” or moods: there were arias about revenge, jealousy, anger, love, despair, peaceful happiness etc. Each movement in a concerto also had one particular mood. Music from later periods is different. For example: Haydn in the Classical Period would often change its mood during a piece.
Suite
The Baroque suite is a collection of dance movements written in the style of Baroque music. There is an accepted standard order in which the dances are performed. The five primary dances are the Overture, Allemande, Courante, Sarabande and Gigue. Many times a composer would add a Prelude before all the dances. Sometimes a composer would add another piece in between the Sarabande and the Gigue.

There are many exceptions to the standard order, but the order of Prelude, Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Other, and Gigue is most common. This can be easily remembered by the acronym PACSOG.

Composers
Here are a few of the most important composers of the Baroque period:

Italy
Giovanni Gabrieli (about 1553/6-1612)
Jacopo Peri (1561-1633)
Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643)
Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)
Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713)
Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757)

Germany
Heinrich Schütz (1585-1672)
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

England
Henry Purcell (1659-1695)
George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) (German born)
France
François Couperin (1668-1733)
Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764)

Bibliography 

 Music in the Baroque Era, Manfred Bukofzer; J.M.Dent 1948

Periods in music history
A canyon (or gorge) is a big crack in the ground, or a  very deep valley. Most canyons are made by rivers. A few are made by earthquakes. They can be big, like the Grand Canyon, or small.

Canyons can be formed by erosion by running water which will take rocks and soil away.

References
Pattern language is used to mean a system of patterns that have a certain meaning other than just the pattern.

Method 
The pattern can be a pattern which has a hidden meaning shown through any sense like sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.

Sight
The most obvious form of sight-based pattern language comes in the form of writing. Nearly every language has a unique written form, which grammatically follows the spoken form.

Writing
Computer science
In the United States, National Maritime Day is held every May 22 to honor people who have served in the United States Merchant Marine service.

The first National Maritime Day was May 22, 1933, based on a joint resolution passed by the United States Congress on May 20, 1933. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first President to issue a proclamation about the day.

The biggest National Maritime Day celebration was in 1946, the first National Maritime Day after the Allied Powers won World War II. That year, governors of many U.S. states also officially named the day National Maritime Day or Maritime Day for their state. The first National Maritime Day after the end of the Korean War, in 1954, was also more widely celebrated than most.

In the 2006 annual proclamation by president George W. Bush, he made special mention of the Merchant Marine service's hurricane aid work following Hurricane Katrina and the other hurricanes of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season.
References
Joint Resolution of Congress text 
List of 1946 state and city proclamations 
Text of Bush proclamation

Holidays of the United States
Nuclear fusion is the process of making a single heavy nucleus (part of an atom) from two lighter nuclei. This process is called a nuclear reaction. It releases a large amount of energy.

The nucleus made by fusion is heavier than either of the starting nuclei. However, it is not as heavy as the combination of the original mass of the starting nuclei (atoms). This lost mass is changed into lots of energy. This is shown in Einstein's famous E=mc2 equation.
Fusion happens in the middle of stars, like the Sun. Hydrogen atoms are fused together to make helium. This releases lots of energy. This energy powers the heat and light of the star.
Not all elements can be joined. Heavier elements are less easily joined than lighter ones. Iron (a metal) cannot fuse with other atoms. This is what causes stars to die. Stars join all of their atoms together to make heavier atoms of different types, until they start to make iron. The iron nucleus cannot fuse with other nuclei. The reactions stop. The star eventually will cool down and die.
On Earth it is very difficult to start nuclear fusion reactions that release more energy than is needed to start the reaction.  The reason is that fusion reactions only happen at high temperature and pressure, like in the Sun, because both nuclei have a positive charge, and positive repels positive.  The only way to stop the repulsion is to make the nuclei hit each other at very high speeds.  They only do that at high pressure and temperature.  The only successful approach so far has been in nuclear weapons.  The hydrogen bomb uses an atomic (fission) bomb to start fusion reactions.  Scientists and engineers have been trying for decades to find a safe and working way of controlling and containing fusion reactions to generate electricity.  They still have many challenges to overcome before fusion power can be used as a clean source of energy.

Related pages 
Stellar nucleosynthesis
Supernova

Notes 

Astrophysics
Nuclear energy
Nuclear physics
The Concertmaster (American English) or leader (British English) is the most important violinist in an orchestra.  He or she will sit in the front seat, by the conductor's left.  The word concertmaster comes from the German Konzertmeister.

The leader will be the highest paid member of the orchestra.  He has to decide how the violins will play the music and write in the bowing.  He will decide where each member of the violins should sit.  He will probably also interview them and offer them the job in the orchestra.  He will talk to the conductor about anything the orchestra are not happy about (he may have to remind the conductor when it is time to stop the rehearsal!).  If part of the music is marked "solo" then he will play it as a solo while the other violins stop playing.
In the United States it is usual for the concertmaster to be on the platform before the concert and to tell the orchestra to tune their instruments, playing on his A string to give them the correct pitch.  In European orchestras it is usually the oboe that gives an A for tuning.  In Britain the leader usually comes on stage after the orchestra have tuned, and gets an applause.

Some famous orchestral leaders
of the past:
Arnold Rosé (Vienna Philharmonic)

of today:
Gordan Nikolitch (London Symphony Orchestra)
Glenn Dicterow (New York Philharmonic Orchestra)
Peter Manning ( Royal Opera House Orchestra Covent Garden  )

 
Entertainment occupations
Mutual assured destruction (MAD) is a military strategy in which two opposing military forces are powerful enough to completely destroy each other. It should help to avoid a nuclear war.  This usually happens when both forces have nuclear weapons.  If a state attacks another with nuclear weapons, the state attacked will potentially be able to attack back. The attacker must think that he will be destroyed with his victim if he attacks. The theory is that no state would start an attack if attacking its enemy means its own destruction.

The concept was discussed by Herman Kahn. It was part of the background to the film Dr. Strangelove.

References 

Military
Nuclear weapons
Stairway to Heaven was a 1971 song by Led Zeppelin. It was on the album Led Zeppelin IV.

Hidden Satanic message 
Some listeners claim that by reversing the song, a hidden Satanic message is revealed. The message is:

Oh, here's to my sweet Satan
The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan
He'll give, he'll give you 666
There was a little toolshed where he made us suffer, sad Satan

It's unlikely such a message was intentionally hidden in the song; rather, it is just a bizarre coincidence.

Other websites 
 Stairway to Heaven songfacts, tabs, videos and audio , at the Stairway to Heaven website.

1971 songs
1970s ballads
Progressive rock songs
Led Zeppelin songs
Heart (band) songs
Thin Lizzy are an Irish hard rock band that started in Dublin in 1969. Up to 1984 the band were led by bassist, songwriter and singer Phil Lynott (1949-1986). The band's famous song "The Boys Are Back in Town" is still played a lot on classic rock radio stations.  Since Lynott's death, other former members have carried on using the band name.

Phil Lynott wrote most of the band's songs. The band's music showed many musical styles including: country music, psychedelic rock, Celtic music and folk music which Lynott mixed with hard rock and heavy metal styles.

Thin Lizzy were listed at number 51 on VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock.

Notes

20th-century establishments in the Republic of Ireland
1960s music groups
1970s music groups
1980s Irish music groups
1990s Irish music groups
2000s Irish music groups
2010s Irish music groups
Hard rock bands
Irish rock bands
Musical groups established in 1969
Musical groups from Dublin
Aziz al-Abub (a.k.a. Ibrahim al-Nadhir or al-Nahdhir) was a Lebanese Hezbollah psychiatrist and mind control expert.

Aziz was a disciple of Ewen Cameron and a graduate of the Soviet Union's Patrice Lumumba Institute that specialized in mind control techniques.

Aziz al-Abub used mind-control, drugs and physical torture in the infamous 444-day (1984-1985) torture and mental derangement of American William Buckley in Beirut.

Year of birth missing

Lebanese Muslims
Lebanese nationalists
Lebanese terrorists
Muslim terrorists
Psychiatrists
Hobbits are a fictional race in the Middle-earth world invented by J. R. R. Tolkien, also often called halflings.

They appeared in the books The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Several important main characters in those books are hobbits, such as Bilbo Baggins and Frodo Baggins. 

Hobbits (or similar beings) have become very popular and are now often used in fantasy fiction and (video) games.

Appearance 
Hobbits are like small humans between two and four foot tall (between 60 and 120 centimeters). They have hair/fur on the top side of their feet, leathery foot-soles, and slightly pointed ears. They tend to be stout and often have brown and curly hair. Male hobbits do not have beards. Hobbits live longer compared to humans, and many hobbits reach the age of 100.

Culture 
Hobbits are a peaceful people and live a simple, pre-industrial life in the land which they call The Shire, and also in Bree-land.
A typical hobbit-house has a long hallway with rooms on both sides, and round doors and windows. Originally these were underground in hills, then the house was called a smial; but this architecture(style of building) is also used for 'normal' houses above ground.

Related pages
 The Hobbit
 The Lord of the Rings
 Middle-earth

Middle-earth
Fictional races
Bilbo Baggins is a Hobbit from The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. He is a major protagonist of The Hobbit and a minor protagonist of The Lord of the Rings.

Fictional biography
Bilbo Baggins was greeted by Gandalf the Grey and a group of 13 Dwarves known as the Company of Thorin Oakenshield. He was offered to help them to take back Erebor from the dragon Smaug. At the Misty Mountain, he landed at a cave and met Gollum. He took Gollum's One Ring and went back to his Company. Decades after returning from Erebor, he celebrated his 111th birthday as well as his nephew Frodo's birthday. He wanted to keep the One Ring.

Peter Jackson adaptations (2001-2003, 2012-2014)
In Peter Jackson's movie adaptations of both books, Bilbo was played by Martin Freeman when he was younger and Ian Holm when he was older.
Fictional characters introduced in 1937
Characters in The Hobbit
The Lord of the Rings characters
Middle-earth is a fictional fantasy world invented by J. R. R. Tolkien. Several of his books take place there, such as The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. It is supposed to be a long gone mythological time of our earth.

Although Middle-earth is only one continent in Tolkien's world, it is often used for the whole fictional world and all stories Tolkien invented for it. Tolkien created and worked on Middle-earth through most of his life, and it is this creation for which he is most famous.

Middle-earth has its own geography, several different species and peoples (elves, dwarves, humans, hobbits), their languages, and a history that spans thousands of years. The stories of Middle-earth are also a kind of 'artificial myth'.

"Middle-earth" is called Endor (or Endóre) and Ennor in the fictional Elvish languages Quenya and Sindarin.
Peoples 
The oldest people of Middle-earth are the immortal Elves. Second were the Dwarves. After them came mortal Men. In the Third Age, there appeared another people, the Hobbits. There are also the tree-like Ents.

Chronology 
The history of the Middle-earth world is thousands of years long. Sometimes, when big historical events happen, a new Age is begun, which starts counting again with the year 1.
First Age: The First Age can be divided into the "First Age of the Trees" and the "First Age of the Sun". Saying a year and "First Age" often means a year in the "First Age of the Sun". 
 First Age of the Trees: Begins at the creation of the Two Trees. During it are the Awakening of the Elves and the Dwarves. It ends with the destruction of the Two Trees.
 First Age of the Sun (590 years): Begins with the creation of the Sun and Moon, and ends with the War of Wrath, the final imprisonment of Morgoth and the destruction of Beleriand.
 Second Age (S.A., 3441 years): Begins after the end of the War of Wrath. During it is the destruction of Númenor (T.A. 3319). Ends with the defeat of Sauron in the War of the Last Alliance.
 Third Age (T.A., 3021 years): Begins after the Last Alliance defeated Sauron. During it are the events of The Hobbit (T.A. 2941) and the War of the Ring (T.A. 3018-3019). Ends with the destruction of the One Ring and the defeat of Sauron.
Fourth Age: Follows the defeat of Sauron and the One Ring, but starts officially when the Bearers of the Rings left for the West. During this Age the Elves become less and leave, while the humans become the dominant people of Middle-earth.
Related pages
Middle-earth characters
Middle-earth languages
Middle-earth locations

References
Arnold Josef Rosé (October 24, 1863 – August 25, 1946) was a famous violinist.  He was the leader (concertmaster) of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra for 50 years.

Arnold Rosé was born in Iaşi (Jassy) in what is now Romania.  His family was Jewish. Their name at that time was Rosenblum.  He had three brothers.  All four boys were musical and so his parents decided to move to Vienna which was a big city in Austria where there was lots of music.  Arnold’s father was a carriage builder.  In those days people often travelled by horse and cart.  His father made good quality carriages and he made plenty of money from his business.

When Arnold was seven he started music lessons.  When he was ten he was good enough to study the violin at the Vienna Conservatorium which was a special school for musical pupils.
In 1881 he played a violin solo with a famous orchestra and famous conductor: the Vienna Philharmonic under Hans Richter.  The piece he played was the Violin Concerto by Otto Goldmark.  Soon he was offered the job of orchestral leader.  This was a very important position for such a young man.  He stayed in that job for 50 years!
Rosé did other things as well as playing with the orchestra.  He gave violin lessons to talented pupils.   He like to play string quartets and he got together with three other players to make up the Rosé Quartet.  They were very good and for more than half a century people said they were the best string quartet in Europe.  Arnold’s brother Eduard was the cellist in the quartet.  They played works by lots of composers, especially  Haydn, Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven.  Rosé knew the composer Johannes Brahms and they played some of Brahms’s compositions when they had only just been written, e.g. the clarinet quintet (for clarinet and string quartet).  The Rosé Quartet also knew the composer Schoenberg and helped him to get well known by playing his music.

Another composer Rosé knew very well was Gustav Mahler.  Mahler had two sisters.  Arnold Rosé married one of them, and his brother Eduard married the other.
Arnold was kept very busy at his job as leader of the orchestra.  The orchestra played in the concert hall as well as for the opera.  At one special concert lots of flowers and plants had been brought in to the concert hall.  The orchestra were busy playing when Arnold noticed people were looking at his shoes.  He thought maybe he had an odd pair of shoes on.  When he looked down at his feet he saw a mouse sitting there.

Arnold and his wife Justine had a son and a daughter who both became musicians.  They had plenty of money to live quite comfortably.  He was given the title of Royal and Imperial Court Musician, and he had a special court carriage to take him to the opera.  He also had a carriage of his own with a footman in livery (uniform) to drive him about.
However, things changed in 1938.  The Nazis took over Austria and made life very difficult for Jewish people.  They were in great danger.  In the autumn his wife died and Arnold had to save his life by going to England.  He stayed there for most of his remaining years.  He died in London.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians ed Stanley Sadie;1980; ISBA 1-56159-174-2
Alma Rosé: “Vienna to Auschwitz” by Richard Newman with Karen Kirtley; Amadeus Press 2000; 

1863 births
1946 deaths
Austrian Jews
Austrian violinists
Concertmasters
Jewish musicians
Refugees from Nazism
Romanian Jews
Romanian musical entertainers
Important people 
 Caesar Augustus, Roman Emperor (27 BC – 14).
 Tiberius, Roman Emperor (14–37).
 Germanicus, Roman General
Significant people 
 Caesar Augustus, Roman Emperor (27 BC – 14).

Deaths 

 Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
Events 
 The Roman emperor Caligula assassinated (41), succeeded by his uncle Claudius
 Roman conquest of Britain begins under Aulus Plautius, 43
The Pontiac Silverdome is a domed stadium in the town of Pontiac, Michigan, near Detroit. It opened in 1975 and closed in 2007. The largest crowds to come to the stadium were for WrestleMania III on March 29, 1987, where the main event was a match between Hulk Hogan and André the Giant. The crowd attendance for that night reached 93,173, which is also the record for indoor attendance. The Detroit Lions NFL team played at the stadium from 1975 until 2001.

References

Sports in Detroit
Sports buildings in the United States
WrestleMania host
Buildings and structures in Michigan
1975 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Michigan
2007 disestablishments in the United States
Disestablishments in Michigan
Decades
Lists
Important people
Titus Flavius Vespasianus, Roman Emperor (79–81).
Titus Flavius Domitianus, Roman Emperor (81–96)
The Estonian language () is a Uralic language. It is mainly spoken in Estonia. The Estonian language is similar to Finnish and is one of the few national languages of Europe not to be an Indo-European language. 

The Estonian alphabet uses the Latin alphabet. It has many vowels, including Ö, Ä, Õ and Ü.

It has been influenced by and adopted many words from German and Swedish.  The Estonian language also has different dialects.

Sample words 

Finnic languages
Languages of Europe
The chromosomes of a cell are in the cell nucleus. They carry the genetic information. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and protein combined as chromatin. Each chromosome contains many genes. Chromosomes come in pairs: one set from the mother; the other set from the father. Cytologists label chromosomes with numbers.

Chromosomes are present in every cell nucleus with very few and special exceptions. This means they are found in all eukaryotes, since only eukaryotes have cell nuclei. When eukaryote cells divide, the chromosomes also divide. 

When a somatic (body) cell (such as a muscle cell) divides, the process is called mitosis. Before mitosis, the cell copies all the chromosomes and then it can divide. When they duplicate, chromosomes look like the letter "X". When they are doubled, the two halves are called chromatids (see diagram). The chromatids are joined at the centromere.
There are 46 chromosomes in a human as 23 pairs. Everyone has a set of chromosomes from their father and a set from their mother. They include a pair of sex chromosomes. The mother's eggs always contain an X chromosome, while the father's sperm contains either a Y chromosome or an X chromosome. That determines the sex of the child. If the child gets a Y chromosome from the father it is male. If it gets an X from the father, it is female.

To produce sex cells (gametes), the stem cells go through a different division process called meiosis. This reduces the 23 pairs (diploid) to 23 singles (haploid). These, when combined by fertilisation, produce the new set of 23 pairs.
Different animals have different numbers of chromosomes. If a person does not have the usual number of chromosomes, they may die or have one or more peculiarities. For example, they might get a genetic disorder like Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21), or Klinefelter syndrome (a male with two X chromosomes). Some genetic disorders are more common than others.

Polytene chromosomes 

Polytene chromosomes are over-sized chromosomes which have developed from standard chromosomes. Specialized cells undergo repeated rounds of DNA replication without cell division (endomitosis). Polytene chromosomes form when multiple rounds of replication produce many sister chromatids that are stuck together in parallel.

Polytene chromosomes are found in Drosophila species and in nonbiting midges. They also occur in arthropods of the class Collembola,  ciliate protozoa, early stages of mammalian embryos, and suspensor cells in plants.
Polytene cells have a metabolic function. Multiple copies of genes allows a high level of gene expression. In Drosophila, for example, the chromosomes of the larval salivary glands have many rounds of endoreduplication.  

Chromosome puffs (seen in diagram) are diffused uncoiled regions of the polytene chromosome. They are sites of active  transcription.

Related pages 
Karyotype
Cell division
Homologous chromosome
Mutation#Chromosome mutations
Genetics#Between Mendel and modern genetics

References
Giovanni Gabrieli (probably born Venice (date unknown), about 1553 - 57; died 21 August 1612, in Venice) was an Italian organist and composer. 

He was very famous in his day and composed a great deal of church music; motets and madrigals. He lived at the end of the Renaissance period and beginning of the Baroque.