Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
A pretzel (French: Bretzel, Alsatian: bradchdal, German: Breze or Brezel) is a baked snack that originated in Germany. It is traditionally twisted into a unique knot-like shape. The pretzel dough is made from wheat flour and yeast. Before baking, it is dipped into "Natronlauge" (, sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) or sodium carbonate solution (Na2CO3)) and sprinkled with coarse salt. During baking, a Maillard reaction then gives the pretzel its characteristic brown color and distinctive flavor. In Bavaria, it is obligatory in a Weißwurst breakfast.

Because they are made mostly of wheat, pretzels can be problematic for people who have wheat allergy, coeliac disease, or wheat intolerances.

There are different types of pretzels, like chocolate pretzels.

References

Other websites 

 Sturgis Pretzel House: Pretzel History 
 German Brezel History
 Video Clips of Pretzel
 History at Snyders of Hanover 

Snack foods
German food
Shoplifting is theft by stealing goods or money from a retail store. It can be done by placing the item in pockets, under clothes or in bags and leaving the store without paying for the item in question.

Shoplifting, when detected, is punishable by law enforcement.

Theft

no:Shoplifter (sang)
A portrait is a painting or a photograph of a person's face and its expression. The purpose of a portrait is to show the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person. For this reason, in photography, a portrait is actually not a snapshot, but a calm image of a person in a still position. A portrait normally shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer.

Gallery

Other websites 

 National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution
 National Portrait Gallery London
 Painting The Century 101 Portrait Masterpieces
 Jeanne Ivy's Self-Portrait Page  - What Artists Find When They Search in the Mirror.
 Portrait Detectives - Fun interactive introduction to the analysis of portraiture.
 Reportret - A gallery of reconstructions of missing portraits from world history.

Painting styles
A steroid is a organic compound, either natural or man-made, which has four cycloalkane rings in its structure. Plants, animals and fungi make hundreds of different natural steroids.

Steroid hormones are steroids which act as hormones in the body. Natural steroid hormones are usually made from cholesterol in the adrenal glands and gonads. Cholesterol is a plentiful steroid in animal cells: it is important for  cell membranes.

Examples of steroid hormones include 
estrogen, 
testosterone, 
progesterone,
Vitamin D3 or cholecalciferol.

One review noted: The adrenal gland hormones play a vital role in adapting to "ever-changing environmental and emergency situations, and help vertebrates in their successful survival".

Prednisone is an important man-made steroid medication, used to treat inflammation.

Distribution in living things 
Prokaryotes: there are pathways in mycobacteria which may be the origin of steroids in all higher forms of life.
Fungi
Plants
Animals
Medical use 
Some steroid hormones are anabolic steroids (AAS). Since the discovery and synthesis of testosterone in the 1930s, AAS have been used by physicians for many purposes, with varying degrees of success:
 Bone marrow stimulation: For decades, AAS were the mainstay of therapy for hypoplastic anemias due to leukemia or kidney failure, especially aplastic anemia. AAS have largely been replaced in this work by synthetic protein hormones that stimulate growth of blood cell precursors.
 Growth stimulation: AAS can be used by pediatric endocrinologists to treat children with growth failure. However, the availability of synthetic growth hormone, which has fewer side effects, makes this a secondary treatment.
 Stimulation of appetite and preservation and increase of muscle mass: AAS have been given to people with chronic wasting conditions such as cancer and AIDS.
 Hormone replacement for men with low levels of testosterone; also for improving libido in elderly males.
Stimulation of lean body mass and prevention of bone loss in elderly men, as some studies indicate. However, a 2006 placebo-controlled trial of low-dose testosterone supplementation in elderly men with low levels of testosterone found no benefit on body composition, physical performance, insulin sensitivity, or quality of life.
 Induction of male puberty: androgens are given to many boys distressed about extreme delay of puberty. Testosterone is now nearly the only androgen used for this purpose. It has been shown to increase height, weight, and fat-free mass in boys with delayed puberty.
 In low doses as a component of hormone replacement therapy. Testosterone is usually used for this purpose, although methyltestosterone is also used.
 Treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Although they have been approved for this, there are "virilizing side effects" (made women look more male).
 Treatment of breast cancer in women, although they are now rarely used for this purpose.
Abuse 
Certain anabolic steroids, such as testosterone, are used to help make muscles stronger.  Such steroids are used to improve a person's performance, but they are sometimes overused and abused by athletes.  The rate of steroid abuse grew greatly in the early 21st century, all over the world.  Overuse of anabolic steroids can have bad effects on the human body.  They can cripple or kill. Sports organisations now regulate their use.

Related pages
Doping in sport
Adrenal gland

References

Other websites 
 US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health
 Corticosteroids Medline Plus

 
Drugs
Road rage means violent behavior by a driver of a road vehicle. This includes verbal abuse, offensive gestures, and dangerous driving methods. Road rage may cause violence or accidents.

References 

Human behavior
Violence
Graceland is a  estate and large white-colored mansion that was owned by Elvis Presley. It is located in Memphis, Tennessee, USA.

Further reading
Engel, Matthew. "Still stuck on Elvis, fans exalt the King". The Guardian (London), August 17, 2002, p. 1.
Harris, John. "Talking about Graceland". The Guardian (London), March 27, 2006.

Other websites 
Official website
O.T.I.S. Odd Things I've Seen
National Historic Landmark news release 
Elvis Information Network History of the building

Memphis, Tennessee
Elvis Presley
Buildings and structures in Tennessee
Harry Julius Shearer (born December 23, 1943, in Los Angeles, California) is an American comedic actor, voice actor, comedian, writer, musician, author, radio host, director and producer. Shearer is famous for playing the voices of several minor characters for The Simpsons (1989 to present).

Shearer was a child actor.  He acted on the Jack Benny radio program.

Shearer was a member of the Credibility Gap comedy group.  The radio stations KRLA and later KPPC broadcast the Credibility Gap.  He performed on the Pop Chronicles music documentary.

Shearer portrayed Derek Smalls in the 1984 comedy movie This is Spinal Tap. Rob Reiner directed this movie. 

Shearer speaks the voices for many characters on The Simpsons cartoon.  Some of the characters he plays are  Mr. Burns, Waylon Smithers, and Ned Flanders.

Filmography

Film

Television

Music video

Video games
Video games

Other websites
 Harry Shearer's official site
 archived Harry Shearer site
 Harry Shearer's blog at the Huffington Post
 Harry Shearer  at Voice Chasers 
 Harry Shearer 'takes aim' with "Not Enough Indians"  (video of an appearance at Cody's Books, Berkeley, CA Nov 26, 2006)
 Harry Shearer on The Hour
 Scene Missing Magazine Interviews Harry Shearer

References 

American television actors
American voice actors
Comedians from Los Angeles
Actors from Los Angeles
HuffPost writers and columnists
1943 births
Living people
Nancy Jean Cartwright (born on October 25, 1957 in Dayton, Ohio) is an American actress, voice actress, comedian, clown, jester, mime and tap dancer. She is known for providing the voices of Bart Simpson, Nelson Muntz, Todd Flanders and Ralph Wiggum on the animated television show The Simpsons. She also plays the voice of Chuckie Finster on Rugrats and All Grown Up!.

Cartwright graduated from Fairmont High School. She went to Ohio University and the University of Los Angeles (UCLA). At UCLA, she earned a degree in theatre.

Filmography

Film

Television

Video games

Music videos

Theme park
r

References

Other websites 

 Nancy Cartwright Official site
 

1957 births
Living people
American voice actors
Ohio University alumni
Coco Lee (; born Ferren Lee, 17 January 1975 – 5 July 2023) was a Hong Kong-born American singer and songwriter. Her real name is Ferren Lee-Kelly and 李美林 Lǐ Měi Lín in Chinese (although she also used the stage name 李玟 Lǐ Wen when she wrote songs). She sang Cantonese, Mandarin and English.

Early life
CoCo Lee was born in Hong Kong to a Chinese Indonesian father  and a Hong Kong Chinese mother. Her father died when she was young, and CoCo moved at age 10 with her mother, and her 2 sisters to California, United States. She went through school while trying out her singing voice and she followed her older sisters in entering many local singing contests. CoCo Lee went to high school in San Francisco, California. CoCo later went for a short time to the University of California, Irvine. CoCo is close to her mother, who has at times managed her career.
After Lee's high school graduation in 1993, she went on holiday in Hong Kong, probably seeing her two sisters Carol and Nancy Lee take part in the Miss Hong Kong Pageant, and while there, she became runner-up in the 12th Annual New Talent Singing Awards. The following day, the local record label Capital artists Records contacted her.

Record companies
CoCo Lee appeared in some compilations with other singers with Capital artists. Then, in 1994 she worked with Fancy Pie Records and recorded four albums with them. She later signed with another record company in 1996 by Sony Music, who has continued to represent her until 2008. After that, she changed her record company and decided to work with Warner Music (Taiwan).

Career

CoCo sang the song A Love Before Time for the action-drama movie Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. People around the world could see her when she sang this song live at the 2001 Academy Awards ceremony.
In 2002, CoCo was the star singer at a Houston Rockets basketball game. She became the first East Asian singer to ever sing the American National Anthem at a major world sporting event.

Aside from her fame in singing Mandarin music, CoCo's English-language songs have also become famous. Her love song Before I Fall In Love was included in the soundtrack of the romance movie Runaway Bride.

Walt Disney Pictures also hired her to sing the title song and be the voice of the heroine Fa Mulan in the Mandarin version of Mulan. She recorded the song Reflections, which she also sang at the 2005 opening of the Hong Kong Disneyland with Lea Salonga. A Reflections PV was also filmed. She also sang an English version which appears on her maxi single Take a chance on love.
CoCo was also an actress. She co-starred in the Chinese comedy movie Master of Everything (Bamboo Shoot) with John Lone, which won the Best Foreign Film award at the 2005 Beverly Hills Film Festival. While in character within the movie, she sings one of her own songs, Di da di.

In the world of fashion, CoCo was an Omega Global Ambassador in 2004, and Chanel named CoCo its first "Asian-Pacific Celebrity Ambassadress" in 2001. She got her nickname "CoCo" from being an admirer of CoCo Chanel.

In June 2005, CoCo's engagement to Canadian millionaire businessman Bruce Rockowitz was made public, although it seems to have happened some months earlier. Even though Rockowitz is 18 years older than she, her mother approved the marriage.

CoCo returned to the San Francisco bay area in 2007 for a live concert at the Shoreline Amphitheatre on 22 September 2007 with special guest Alex To. It was her first live performance in her hometown in several years.
In 2008, Coco was chosen to sing one of the Olympic songs, "Forever Friends", opposite Sun Nan.

On 17 July 2009, she had a solo concert at Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles. She's the first Chinese singer to ever performed in this place. She notably sang 3 Michael Jackson's songs Gone too soon, Rock with you and The way you make me feel in homage to her idol.

On 14 August, she released her new Mandarin album East to west with Warner Music. The main hit singles are Party time, Beautiful theme song and Turn. It also contains the cover of Jay Sean's Maybe called Love now and BYOB, a song to encourage people to bring and recycle their own shopping bags to save the environment.

She recorded the song Smile Shanghai (微笑上海) with other artists including JJ Lin, Andy Lau, Jam Hsiao or Jane Zhang for Shanghai World Expo 2010.
On March, 27 2010, Lee began her "East2West" World Tour Concert in Taipei at Taipei Arena. She pursued at the Encore Theatre in Wynn Casino in Las Vegas on 3 and 4 July, then in Singapore Indoor Stadium in Singapore on 2 October and in Nanning on 16 December.

In March 2011, Lee  was one of many artists participating in the recording of "Artists 311 Love Beyond Borders" (愛心無國界311燭光晚會) official theme song called Succomb not to sorrow (不要輸給心痛) in Cantonese version.

On 7 April 2011, her song Dreams on oriental seas (梦在东方的海上) featuring Sun Nan was broadcasted. It had been named as he theme for the 14th FINA world championships. It took take place in Shanghai in July 2011.

On 8 June 2011, Lee announced that she recently set up her own studio. That way, she was more free to write and produce music that she loved. Her newest album was planned for Summer 2011.

On 25 June, her song Four seas alliance (四海盟約), the theme song for the 2011 China television drama Water Margin (水滸傳), was broadcasted.
Death
Lee attempted suicide on 2 July 2023, and was sent to the hospital in an unconscious state. She died three days later. She was 48 years old.

Voice
CoCo Lee's voice has been favourably compared with that of Mariah Carey and other western artistes, due to her tonality, strength and vocal range. Her voice is classified as a light-lyric soprano, with a vocal range of three octaves. Her lowest recorded note is an E3 and highest recorded note is E6. Her highest chest voice note is F6 in the song Before I Fall in Love.

Discography
Discography

Studio albums
Fancy Pie Records releases
 June 1994: Love from Now On
 December 1994: Promise Me
 June 1995: Brave Enough to Love
 September 1995: Woman in Love
 December 1995 : You are in my heart concert
 August 1996 : Beloved Collection
 May 1997: Dance with the wind
Sony Music releases
 March 1996: CoCo Lee (or Love me longer)
 November 1996: CoCo's Party
 June 1997: Sincere
 November 1997: CoCo Lee (Cantonese album)
 January 1998: DiDaDi (HMV Music Chart: #1)
 July 1998: Sunny Day
 December 1998 : Million fans concert
 May 1999: Today Until Forever
550 Music release
 November 1999: Just No Other Way (HMV Music Chart: #1)
Sony Music releases
 January 2000 : The Best of My Love
 August 2000: True lover you and Me
 October 2001: Promise
 June 2002 : D. IS CoCo
Sony BMG releases
 March 2005: Exposed (HMV Music Chart: #1)
 September 2006: Just Want You (HMV Music Chart: #1)
 May 2008 : 1994–2008 Best Collection
Warner Music releases
 August 2009: East To West

Maxi singles
Maxi singles

Sony Music releases
 April 1998 : Di da di color remix
 August 1998 : Take a chance on love
550 Music releases
 1999 : Do you want my love
 2000 : Wherever you go

Compilations
Capital Artists releases
 June 1993 : Red hot hits 93' Autumn edition (火熱動感93'勁秋版)
Capital Artists and Fancy Pie releases
 September 1994 : Red hot hits 94' Love Party (火熱動感94'戀愛Party)
 November 1994 : Statement of love, duet songs (愛情宣言, 情歌對唱)
 December 1994 : Merry Christmas (聖誕禮讚)
 1995 : I'm still your lover (best of Love from now on and Promise me)
Asian Chart-topping hits and singles
Not exhaustive
 "Yesterday's passion"
 "Di Da Di"
 "Take a Chance on Love"
 "Do You Want My Love" Hot Dance Music/Club Play: #49
 "Before I Fall in Love"
 "Wherever You Go"
 "A Love Before Time" (English and Mandarin for the soundtrack of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon)
 "Reflection"
 "No Doubt" feat. Blaaze
 "All Around the World"
 "So Good"
 "Hip-Hop Tonight"
 "Brave Enough to Love"
 "Another Sad Love Song" (Dance Version)
 "The Ninth Night"
 "Dangerous Lover"
 "I Have a Dream" (2008 Single)
 "Bring Your Own Bag (BYOB)" (Recycling Jingle)
 "Party time"
 "Turn"
 "Beautiful theme song"

Videography
Videography

Fancy Pie releases
 1995 : Foot print (VCD)
 1995 : You're in my heart concert (VCD)
Sony Music releases
 1996 : Coco's workout camp (VCD)
 1998 : Coco in Italy (VCD + photo book)
 1998 : Di da di (VCD)
 1998 : Sunny day (VCD)
 1999 : Million fans concert (VCD/DVD)
550 Music releases
 2000 : Just no other way, The Video Collection (VCD)
Sony Music releases
 2002 : Coco so crazy (VCD)
 2002 : All my Coco (DVD)
 2004 : Master of everything (DVD/VCD)

References

Other websites 
 Coco's Facebook fans page
 Her Twitter
 listen to her songs online 
 official forum
 Buy her albums
 http://www.cocolee.com 
 http://www.cocofans.com
 http://www.cocolee.net
 
 Miss Teen Chinatown 1991 profile at San Francisco Chinatown web site
 Coco Lee Interview
 Coco Lee's Lyrics and Pinyin Translation 
 Coco Lee & Alex To live in Mountain View,CA September 23,2007
1975 births
2023 deaths
Hong Kong singers
C-pop singers
American composers
Singer-songwriters from California
Hong Kong actors
American contemporary R&B singers
American dance musicians
American movie actors
American hip hop singers
American pop singers
American record producers
American soul singers
Mezzo-sopranos
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Daniel Schneidermann (born April 5, 1958 in Paris) is a French journalist. He mainly reports about televised media. He is most active in weekly columns. Schneidermann has written in Le Monde and is presently in Libération. He also can be seen on the television program Arrêt sur images (Freeze-frame), broadcast by the public television channel France 5.

1958 births
Living people
Writers from Paris
French journalists
A pound (usually abbreviated as lb, plural lbs) is a unit used to measure the mass of something. It is used in the imperial system and the United States customary system. There are a number of different definitions. The most commonly used definitions band  today is the international avoirdupois pound. This is equal to , and is divided into 16 avoirdupois ounces.

Avoirdupois pound 
The avoirdupois pound (abbreviation lb., plural lbs.) is the most common unit. This type is used for all purposes except the uses of the troy pound. Most people from the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Liberia and Burma use this as their standard measure of their personal mass.

Troy pound 

The troy pound (abbreviation t lb., plural t lbs.) is generally not used anymore. It was used in England by apothecaries and jewellers. A troy pound contains 12 troy ounces. The troy ounce is still used to measure the mass of precious metals and gems.
Metric pound 
In some European countries, a metric pound is an informal term for half a kilogram (500 grams). In the Netherlands, however, the metric pound () is equal to one kilogram.

Comparison

References 

Imperial units
Units of mass
Eastern Armenia was a part of Ottoman Armenia and Persian that was merged with the Russian empire.

The Eastern Armenian dialect of the Armenian language is spoken mostly in the Caucasus region (including Armenia) and in Iran and Russia.

Related pages
History of Armenia
Ottoman Armenia
Russian Armenia
Greater Armenia
Western Armenia
Lesser Armenia

History of Armenia
Western Armenia (), also referred to as Byzantine Armenia, later Turkish Armenia, or Ottoman Armenia is a term coined following the division of Greater Armenia between Byzantine Empire (Western Armenia) and Persia (Eastern Armenia) in 387 AC.

History
After the death of Armenian king Arshak III, in 390 AC, the Western Armenia was governed by Greek generals. In the 7th century Western Armenia was one of the centers of Pavlikian Christian popular sect. Since 9th century the most part of Western Armenia included Vaspurakan and Taron was under the rule of Bagratid dynasty of Armenia. Then the Zakarid Armenia of 13-14th centuries included some parts of Western Armenia.
 
After Turkish-Persian wars of 1602-1639 Western Armenia became part of Ottoman Empire. Since Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829 that term is referred to the Armenian-populated historical regions of the Ottoman Empire that remained under Ottoman rule after the eastern part was ceded to the Russian Empire.
Western (Ottoman) Armenia was composed of six vilayets (vilâyat-ı sitte), the vilayets of Erzurum, Van, Bitlis, Diyarbekir, Kharput, and Sivas. After the collapse of Ottoman Empire Western Armenia remained under Turkish rule, and in 1894–96 and 1915 Turkey perpetrated systematic massacres and forced deportations of Armenians.

After the Armenian genocide the distinct Western Armenian dialect of the Armenian language (recognized as one of the major dialects of Armenian  ) is spoken primarily in Istanbul, Lebanon, Egypt, other parts of Armenian diaspora, and formerly in eastern Turkey. It differs orthographically from Eastern Armenian, there are also phonological differences. In some parts of the diaspora, the Armenian schools, such as L'École Arménienne Sourp Hagop and the Armenian Sisters Academy instruct Western Armenian to the students, instead of Eastern Armenian, the official dialect of the Republic of Armenia.
Modern period
The fate of Western Armenia — commonly referred to as "The Armenian Question" — is considered as a key issue in the modern history of the Armenian people. The first and second congresses of Western Armenians took place in Yerevan in 1917 and 1919. Since 2000, an organizing committee of congress of heirs of Western Armenians who survived the Armenian Genocide is active in diasporan communities.

Publications
Dr Arman Kirakosian, English Policy towards Western Armenia and Public Opinion in Great Britain (1890-1900), Yerevan, 1981, 26 p. (in Armenian and Russian).

Related pages
Kingdom of Armenia
Armenian Highland
Wilsonian Armenia
Armenian Empire

References

Other websites
Disappearance of Western Armenia after World War 1 
Video: Provinces of Western Armenia

History of Armenia
The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons lasted from 1385 to 1569. It was created by the accession of Wladislaus II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to the Polish throne in 1386. The Union of Krewo united Poland and Lithuania into one monarchy. The union was confirmed but also transformed into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569. This was shortly followed by the end of the Jagiellon dynasty that had ruled Poland for two centuries.

Related pages
 History of Poland 

History of Poland
The Jagiellons were a royal dynasty that came from Lithuania and reigned in some Central European countries (present day Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Ukraine, Latvia, Estonia, Kaliningrad, parts of Russia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia) between the 14th and 16th century. 

Members of the dynasty were grand dukes of Lithuania 1377–1392 and 1440–1572, kings of Poland 1386–1572, kings of Hungary 1440–1444 and 1490–1526, and kings of Bohemia 1471–1526. The family was a branch of the Lithuanian Gediminaičių dynasty.

The name (other variations used in English include: Jagiellonians, Jagiellos, Jogailos, Jagiellas) comes from Jogaila (pol.: Jagiełło), the first Polish king of that dynasty.

Jagiellon rulers 
Jagiellons were hereditary rulers of Poland and Lithuania.

The Jagiellon rulers of Poland–Lithuania (with dates of ruling in brackets) were:
Ladislaus (Jogaila) (in Lithuania 1377–1401; in Poland 1386–1434). (also known as Władysław II Jagiełło)
 Ladislaus III (1434–44)
 Casimir (1447–92)
 John Albert (1492–1501)
 Alexander (1501–05)
 Sigismund (1506–48)
 Sigismund Augustus (1548–72) (also known as Sigismund II)

Footnotes

Other websites 
 Pages and Forums on Lithuanian history 
 Jagiellonian Observatory

History of Poland
Royal dynasties
D'oh! (also spelled out as annoyed grunt), is a famous catchphrase created by the fictional character Homer Simpson, from the popular animated television series, The Simpsons. It was also famously accepted into the Oxford English Dictionary in 2002. The quote is normally used when Homer hurts himself, finds out that he has done something stupid, or when something bad has happened or is about to happen to him. He often gives himself a facepalm at the same time. Other characters from the Simpsons have also been heard using the chatchprase too, the most common being his son Bart. Homer has also been known to change this phrase slightly. For example, in The Simpsons Movie he shouts "D'oooooome!" when the town is sealed in the glass dome.

Other websites 
 The definitive "D'oh" list 
 Homer Simpson says "D'oh!" 32 times (WAV sound file)
 D'oh! joins the Oxford English Dictionary - BBC News

The Simpsons

de:Die Simpsons#„Neinn!“
sv:Homer Simpson#Kända citat
Aqua regia (Royal water in Latin) is a very strong acid. It is made by mixing one part concentrated nitric acid and three parts concentrated hydrochloric acid. The acid was named by alchemists because it can dissolve the noble metals gold and platinum. Tantalum, iridium and a few other metals are not dissolved by it.

History 
Aqua regia was discovered around the year 800AD, by Jabir Bin Hayyan (Geber), when he mixed common salt with vitriol (sulphuric acid). In the Middle Ages it was one of the ways that alchemists tried to find the philosopher's stone.
When Germany invaded Denmark in World War II, the Hungarian chemist George de Hevesy took the Nobel Prize medals of Max von Laue and James Franck to keep them safe. De Hevesy dissolved the medals, which were made of gold, into aqua regia. He did this so the Nazis would not steal them. He placed the jar that held the solution of aqua regia and gold on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. The jar looked the same as hundreds of other jars in the laboratory, so the Nazis thought that all the jars had normal chemicals in them. After the war, de Hevesy returned to the lab, found the jar with the solution, and removed the gold from it. He returned the gold to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the Nobel Foundation used the gold to make new medals for Laue and Franck.
Uses 
Aqua Regia is used in metal etching and scientific analysis. It is also used to clean certain lab machines from tiny metal particles. It is particularly used in the extraction and purification of gold and platinum. Users mix it immediately before use so it won't decompose.

References 

Acids
is the Japanese kami (spirit) of fertility, rice and agriculture. Inari is sometimes represented as a male, female or both. 

The traditional messengers of Inari are foxes.

References

Gods and goddesses of Japan
The Kurgan model of Indo-European origins is about both the people and their Proto-Indo-European language.

It uses both archaeology and linguistics to show the history of their culture at different stages of the Indo-European expansion.

The Kurgan model is the most widely accepted theory on the origins of Indo-European. 
"The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse".
 "The single most popular proposal is the Pontic steppes".

Background
When it was first suggested in 1956, Marija Gimbutas's answer to the question of Indo-European origins was a pioneering interdisciplinary synthesis of archaeology and linguistics. From the nineties on, new archaeological evidence from Northern European prehistoric cultures was put forward on the influence and expansion of Kurgan cultures.
Related pages 
proto-Indo-Europeans
Shaft tomb, Tumulus
Anatolian hypothesis
Armenian hypothesis

References 

Indo-European
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
Marija Gimbutas (Lithuanian: Marija Gimbutienė, born Marija Birutė Alseikaitė) (Vilnius, Lithuania, January 23, 1921 – Los Angeles, United States February 2, 1994), was a Lithuanian-American archeologist, known for her research into the Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures of "Old Europe" and the theories that she introduced. Between 1946 and 1971, her writings merged traditional spadework with linguistics and mythologies.

1921 births
1994 deaths
Archaeologists
Lithuanian people
People from Vilnius
The Luwians also known as Luvians were a people closely related to the Hittites. Sometime after 2300, the Luwians, an Indo-European-speaking people, settled in southern Anatolia.

The Luwians were related to the Hittites and were the dominant group in the Late Hittite culture.

Related pages
Urartu
Luwian language

References

Other websites
Luwian Studies on YouTube

Indo-European
Ancient people
Phrygia () was a kingdom in the west central part of the Anatolia. The Phrygian people started to live in the area from c. 1200 BC, and made a kingdom in the 8th century BC. It was ruined by Cimmerian invaders c. 690 BC, then conquered by its neighbor Lydia, before it passed successively into the Persian Empire of Cyrus, the empire of Alexander and his successors, was taken by the king of Pergamon, and became part of the Roman Empire. The Phrygian language survived until about the 6th century AD.

Other websites 
 Phrygian Period in Anatolia 
 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica

Former monarchies of Asia
History of Turkey
White Genocide (Armenian: Ճերմակ or սպիտակ ջարդ, Jermag or Spitag Chart) is the word Western Armenians use to describe assimilation in the West. Armenians were forcibly deported from their homeland in Anatolia during the Armenian Genocide in 1915-1918, and never allowed to return. Western Armenians consider Armenians who assimilate within the local population of the country where they were eventually forced to emigrate (such as France, USA, Argentina, etc.) as lost to their nation due to the continuing exile after the actual genocide itself, and thus consider that lost Armenian to be another victim of the genocidal attempt to eliminate the Armenians. The term "White Genocide" was also used for the regions of Nagorno-Karabakh and Nakhichevan where Armenians were forcibly deported and cleansed from the regions.

Related pages
Armenian Genocide
Sumgait pogrom

References 

Armenian Genocide
Genocides in Europe
Didier Yves Drogba Tébily (born 11 March 1978 in Abidjan) is a retired Côte d'Ivoire professional football player.

Early life 
He lived in Abidjan until he was 5 years old and then he moved to France to live with his uncle, Michael Goba. His uncle had been a professional football player in Côte d'Ivoire.

Career 
In the 2006/07 season, he was the top scorer of the English Premier League with 20 goals. Drogba played for Le Mans at Ligue 2 in 1998. He moved to Olympique Marseille in 2003 and scored 29 goals in the next season. In July 2004, Drogba moved to Chelsea in the English Premier League. Drogba stayed at Chelsea for about 10 years. Drogba was a member of Côte d'Ivoire’s national team and was their top scorer with 65 goals in 105 appearances.

Club career statistics
|-
|1998/99||rowspan="4"|Le Mans||rowspan="4"|Division 2||2||0||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|1999/00||30||7||0||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||32||7
|-
|2000/01||11||0||2||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||13||0
|-
|2001/02||21||5||1||1||2||1||colspan="2"|-||24||7
|-
|2001/02||rowspan="2"|En Avant Guingamp||Division 1||11||3||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||11||3
|-
|2002/03||Ligue 1||34||17||3||4||2||0||colspan="2"|-||39||21
|-
|2003/04||Olympique Marseille||Ligue 1||35||19||2||1||2||1||16||11||55||32

|-
|2004/05||rowspan="6"|Chelsea||rowspan="6"|Premier League||26||10||2||0||4||1||9||5||41||16
|-
|2005/06||29||12||3||1||1||0||7||1||40||14
|-
|2006/07||36||20||6||3||5||4||12||6||59||33
|-
|2007/08||19||8||1||0||1||1||11||6||32||15
|-
|2008/09||24||5||6||3||2||1||10||5||42||14
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||||||
144||51||8||6||8||2||16||11||176||70
134||55||18||7||13||7||49||23||214||92
278||106||26||13||21||9||65||34||390||162
|}

International career statistics
|-
|2002||1||0
|-
|2003||7||4
|-
|2004||7||6
|-
|2005||8||7
|-
|2006||14||8
|-
|2007||8||4
|-
|2008||8||4
|-
|2009||7||8
|-
|2010||||
|-
!Total||60||41
|}

Awards 
Chelsea
 English Premier League(2004-05) (2005-06) (2014-2015)
 FA Cup (2007)
 Football League Cup (2005) (2007)
 FA Community Shield (2005-06)
Personal
 English Golden Boot (2006-07)
 African Footballer of the Year(2006-07)

Other websites 
 Didier Drogba's official website - in English and French
 Profile on Chelsea's official site 
 BBC profile 
 Didier Drogba videos at GoalVideoz.com

References 

1978 births
Living people
Ivorian footballers
Chelsea F.C. players
Sportspeople from Abidjan
Muscatine is a city in Muscatine County, Iowa. In 2000, 22,697 people lived in the city of Muscatine.

History
Muscatine began as a trading post in 1833. The city was first called Bloomington in 1839. The name was later changed because there were so many other cities named Bloomington. Some people think the name "Muscatine" came from the name of a local Native American tribe.

A person from Germany founded a button company in Muscatine in 1884. They made buttons from clam shells found in the Mississippi river. Muscatine was and still is called the "Pearl button capital of the world."

Sam Clemens, also called Mark Twain, worked at the newspaper the city for a short amount of time. He also wrote about Muscatine in his book Life on the Mississippi.
"And I remember Muscatine--still more pleasantly--for its summer sunsets. I have never seen any, on either side of the ocean, that equaled them. They used the broad smooth river as a canvas, and painted on it every imaginable dream of color, from the   and delicacies of the opal, all the way up, through cumulative intensities, to blinding purple and crimson conflagrations which were enchanting to the eye, but sharply tried it at the same time. All the Upper Mississippi region has these extraordinary sunsets as a familiar spectacle. It is the true Sunset Land: I am sure no other country can show so good a right to the name. The sunrises are also said to be exceedingly fine. I do not know."
Notable natives
 Samuel Clemmens, also called "Mark Twain" - writer
 Norman Baker- businessman, radio pioneer, helped finish the air-powered calliope
 Roy J Carver- businessman and philanthropist
 C Maxwell Stanley- founder of Stanley Consultants, delegate to the United Nations
 Ellis Parker Butler- writer
 Lee Allen- medical illustrator
 Dr. Ronald K Ross- academic physician
 Dr. David G. Meyers- academic cardiologist
 Ernie Peniston- rhythm and blues musician
 Max Allan Collins-  Writer of screenplay of the movie Mommy. The movie was filmed in Muscatine's Wood Creek neighborhood in 1995. He also wrote the graphic novel Road to Perdition, which became a screenplay and was filmed in 2002, starring Tom Hanks and Jude Law.
 Terry Beatty- artist who has worked as a penciler and inker in the comic book industry.
 Phil Vischer- creator of VeggieTales
 Natalie Larson- Professional artist and marathon runner

References
References

Other websites 
 Official website of the City of Muscatine 
 Official website of Muscatine County
 Muscatine Chamber of Commerce 
 Muscatine Journal
 Muscatine Web Design 
 Muscatine Art Center

Cities in Iowa
County seats in Iowa
The Armenian Army is the army of Armenia. Armenia has sent around 1,500 officers to be trained in Greece and Russia over the past years. Since the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War, Armenia has made the army boost the defense and help defend Nagorno-Karabakh from a possible new attack by neighboring Azerbaijan.

Related pages
 Military history of Armenia
 Armed Forces of Armenia
 Armenian Air Force
 Armenian Air Defense
 Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army
 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict

Other websites 
 Military Parade in Stepanakert, Artsakh
 Armenian Military Photo Gallery 

Military of Armenia
Armies
1992 establishments in Armenia
The Armenian Air Force is the aerial group of the Armed Forces of Armenia. It was a part of the military reform program of Ter-Grigoriants. 

Armenian anti-aircraft defense has an anti-aircraft missile brigade and two regiments armed with 100 missile launchers of various models and fixes. These missile launchers include the M79 Osa, Krug, S-75, S-125, and S-300. There are also 24 Scud ballistic missiles with eight launchers.

Related pages
Armed Forces of Armenia

Other websites 
Russia is satisfied with Armenia’s air defense capabilities.

Military of Armenia
Air forces
The Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia is the Army, Air Defense, and Border Guard. Some parts were formed out of the former Soviet forces in the Armenian SSR. 

The Commander-in-Chief of the military is the President of Armenia, currently Robert Kocharyan. The Ministry of Defense is in charge of political leadership. It is currently headed by Mikael Harutyunyan. Military command is in the hands of the General Staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, who is Lieutenant-General Seyran Ohanyan.  Armenia established a Ministry of Defense on 28 January 1992. The Border guards purpose is to patrol Armenia's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian troops continue to watch its borders with Iran and Turkey.

Related pages
Military history of Armenia
Armenian Army
Armenian Air Defense
Armenian Border Guard

Other websites 

Armenian Ministry of Defense

Military of Armenia
Organizations based in Armenia
The president of Armenia (, Hayastani Nakhagah) is the head of state of Armenia. They are elected to a single seven year term by the National Assembly of Armenia.

List

References

Other websites
Rulers of Armenia

 
1991 establishments in Europe
1990s establishments in Armenia
Filmography 
1988: Armenia 1988 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCOGxwGooHE
2002: The Manuscript of Indepedence, Մատյան Անկախության - (Levon Ter-Petrosyan,Robert Kocharyan,Serj Sargsyan) 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EERMf2jdMlc

References

Other websites 
 Official Presidential site of Armenia 
 ARF history 
 Levon Ter-Petrossian at ArmeniaPedia.org

1945 births
Living people

Presidents of Armenia
In plainchant, intonation is when a solo singer - usually the priest - sings the first phrase of a piece of music before the choir start to sing.  The intonation is the tune on which the music is based.  For example, when the choir sings a piece called Gloria the priest first sings "Gloria in excelsis Deo" ("Glory be to God") by himself, unaccompanied.  Then the choir continue singing with the words "et in terra pax....." ("and peace on earth....).
The word "intonation" is used in music to describe whether someone who is playing a musical instrument is playing in tune. This is not used for instruments such as the piano which are tuned already, but for an instrument such as the violin there is a lot of skill and practice needed to play with good intonation (to play well in tune).  A violinist needs to put his or her fingers in exactly the right place on the fingerboard, otherwise the note will be sharp (too high) or flat (too low).  Musicians playing in a group will need to listen to one another so that their tuning (intonation) is good. Players of wind instruments and singers all need to pay careful attention to their intonation.
Related pages
Musical tuning

Musical performance techniques
Vocal music
In music tuning an instrument means getting it ready so that when it is played it will sound at the correct pitch: not too high or too low.

When two or more instruments play together it is particularly important that they are in tune with one another.  This means that when they play the same note it is indeed exactly the same note.  If the two instruments are not in tune with one another it will sound unpleasant because two notes which are very slightly different in pitch will produce a “beat”.
Tuning instruments
Instruments such as the piano or organ have to be tuned by people who are specialists in tuning.  For most instruments, however, the players themselves need to tune their instruments before they play.  Players of string instruments can turn the pegs at the top of their instruments to change the tension (tightness) of the string.  Players of wind instruments can make their instruments very slightly longer or shorter by pushing out or pulling in one of the joints.  Timpanists turn the taps which are around the top of their instruments to change the tension of the drum head.
When an orchestra gives a concert the instruments have to tune carefully so that they are in tune with one another.  Usually it is the principal oboist’s job to stand up and play the note A so that everyone can tune to that note.  In some countries such as the US it is tradition for the principal violinist (concertmaster) to give the A.  If the orchestra are going to play with a piano soloist they will have to tune to the A of the piano because the piano has already been tuned by the piano tuner.
When a violinist tunes his instrument he is making sure that his four strings are tuned perfectly to G, D, A and E.  Each string is wound around a peg near the top of the scroll, so that turning the peg changes the tuning.  He may also have “adjusters” or “fine tuners” which are at the other end of the string where it is attached to the tailpiece.  The adjusters make it easier to make small changes to the tuning.  The violinist will make sure that the A is in tune, then the A and D can be played together so that they are exactly a fifth apart, then the D and G and finally the A and E are compared.

If they are not tuning to a piano, players of instruments sometimes use a tuning fork which gives an exact note (usually an A) so that they know they are in tune.  There are also electronic tuning devices.

Tuning systems
Tuning systems

When an instrument such as the piano is tuned, the piano tuner has to know how to make each note relate correctly to the others.  During the course of music history there have been several systems of doing this.  These different tuning systems are all about the exact scientific relationship between the notes of the scale.  There has been an enormous amount of discussion among musicians about how best to tune instruments.

Comma of Pythagoras
When two notes are an octave apart the higher note is vibrating at twice the speed of the lower note.  For example: if a string is vibrating at 440 Hz (440 times a second) the note we hear is an A (the A above Middle C on the piano).  If the string is stopped halfway up (e.g. because the player presses it down with a finger) it will vibrate at 880 Hz and we will hear the note one octave higher.

The note which vibrates at 1 ½ times the frequency of the basic note will be the note a perfect fifth higher (an E).
If a piano tuner starts by tuning a C, then tunes a G so that it is exactly 1 ½ times the frequency of the C, he can continue tuning in fifths (a D, then an A etc.) until he arrives back at C again.  However, he will find that, for mathematical reasons, the last C is not in tune with the first C.  This was discovered long ago by Pythagoras and is called “the comma of Pythagoras”.

Solutions to the comma of Pythagoras
Musical tuning systems throughout the centuries have tried to find ways of dealing with this problem.  From the 16th century onwards several music theorists wrote long books about the best way to tune keyboard instruments.  They often started by tuning up a fifth and down a fifth so that these notes were perfectly in tune (e.g. C, G and F), then they would continue (tuning the D to the G and B flat to the F) until they met in the middle around F sharp.  Sometimes old organs today are tuned by such a method.  Playing in keys with very few sharps or flats (such as C, G or F) sounds very beautiful, but playing in keys with lots of sharps or flats sounds horribly out of tune.
In 1584, Zhu Zaiyu, a prince of Chinese Ming Dynasty, published the invention of equal temperament in his book A New Account of the Science of the Pitch-Pipes. In 1585 Simon Stevin invented a similar system. Some scholars think one of these really invented this system. Others think both did, or neither.
Around 1700, based on this new system, Johann Sebastian Bach wrote two books of 24 preludes and fugues (called the Well-Tempered Clavier) to prove that it was now possible to play in any key.

Systems for the twelve-note chromatic scale
Here are some of the main ways of tuning the twelve-note chromatic scale which have been developed in order to get round the problem that an instrument cannot be tuned so that all intervals are "perfect":
Just intonation, in which the ratios of the frequencies between all notes are based on whole numbers with relatively low prime factors, such as 3:2, 5:4, 7:4, or 64:45; or in which all pitches are based on the harmonic series, which are all whole number multiples of a single tone. Such a system can be used on instruments such as lutes, but not on keyboard instruments.
 Pythagorean tuning, a type of just intonation in which the ratios of the frequencies between all notes are all based on powers of 2 and 3.
 Meantone temperament, a system of tuning which averages out pairs of ratios used for the same interval (such as 9:8 and 10:9), thus making it possible to tune keyboard instruments.
 Both just intonation and meantone temperament can be thought of as forms of regular temperament.
 Well temperament, any one of a number of systems where the ratios between intervals are not equal to, but approximate to, ratios used in just intonation.
Equal temperament (a special case of well-temperament), in which notes of the scale which are next to one another are all separated by logarithmically equal distances, which are integer powers of 21/12.
Related pages
Scordatura

Musical instruments
This is a list of Members of the Red Army Faction. After Andreas Baader escaped from jail in 1970, the media began referring to the "Baader-Meinhoff Gang". When Baader and Meinhof were arrested, they became known as the Red Army Faction.

First generation 
These are the earliest members, from the late 1960s. The most important had all been arrested by 1972.

Second generation Red Army Faction
Other young terrorists available to swell the shrinking ranks of the Gang. Like the first generation they were mostly middle class and a lot of them were students. A lot of them were terrorists who joined the Gang after their own groups dissolved (e.g. the Socialist Patients' Collective (SPK), J2M).

Third Generation Red Army Faction
This generation was active mostly throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. More vicious than their predecessors, they did not have as much cause as the earlier generations to rebel.
 Wolfgang Grams
 Birgit Hogefeld
 Andrea Klump
 Eva Sybille Haule-Frimpong
References
 Jillian Becker Hitler's Children  
 Tom Vague Televisionaries: The Red Army Faction Story 1963-1993 
 Baader-Mienhof.com Guide to Baader-Meinhof Gang Members 
 RAF information site
 The Stoke Newington 8 Defence Group Armed Resistance in West Germany: Notes From The Red Army Fraction (1972)

Red Army Faction
German terrorists
Red Army Faction
The Captain of Köpenick (born Wilhelm Voigt on February 13, 1849 - January 3, 1922) was a German shoemaker, criminal and  impostor who became world-famous in 1906 for a trick he played in Berlin when he pretended to be a Captain in the army.

Early life
Voigt was born in Tilsit, a town which was then part of Germany but is now called Sovetsk near Kaliningrad, Russia. In 1863, aged 14, he was sent to prison for 14 days for stealing.  He was expelled from school. 

Voigt’s father taught him how to make shoes.  However, Voigt continued to steal and forge and was often sent to prison.  Eventually he was let out of prison in 1906.