Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Emil Keres (9 July 1925 – 1 April 2016) was a Hungarian actor and theatre director. He started his career in 1950. He starred in over 100 stage productions. He also appeared in over ten movies, including Twenty Hours (1965). He was awarded the Kossuth Prize in 1965. He was born in Szombathely.

Keres died on 1 April 2016 at the age of 90.

References

Other websites
 

1925 births
2016 deaths
Hungarian movie actors
Hungarian stage actors
Hungarian television actors
IC 2118, also known as the Witch head nebula, is a reflection nebula in the constellation of Eridanus. It is about 900 light-years away from Earth.

Nebulae
NGC 1300 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation of Eridanus. It is about 61 million light-years away from Earth. It has around 110,000 light-years of diameter, about the same size of the Milky Way galaxy. It is a member of a galaxy cluster, the Eridanus Cluster, consisting of at least 200 galaxies.

It was discovered by John Herschel in 1835, and was included in the New General Catalogue as the 1300th member. The galaxy is well known for its long, bright, barred galactic bulge.
Center 
The core of larger spiral arms of NGC 1300, the nucleus shows another inner grand-design spiral structure that is about 3,300 light-years long. These cases are rare, since it requires a galaxy with a large galaxy bars, to have the inner spiral. In a nutshell, the nucleus basically has another spiral arms in it, which makes it — a spiral in another spiral. Some models suggested that the arms can be pulled inwards, shaping a spiral into the nucleus, which may be pulled by the extreme gravity of a supermassive black hole at the very center of the galaxy.

NGC 1300 is not known to have an active nucleus, indicating it is not a quasar, nor accreting matter.

Barred spiral galaxies
NGC 6302, also known as the bug nebula or the butterfly nebula, is a planetary nebula in the constellation of Scorpius. It is about 3.4 thousand light-years away from Earth.

The spectrum of NGC 6302 shows that its central star is one of the hottest stars in the galaxy. Its surface temperature is over 250,000 degrees Celsius. This means the star from which it formed must have been very large.

The central star, a white dwarf, was only recently discovered by the upgraded Wide Field Camera 3 on board the Hubble Space Telescope. 

The star now has a mass of about 0.64 solar masses. It is surrounded by a dense disc of gas and dust. This dense disc may have caused the star's outflows to form a bipolar structure like an hour-glass. This bipolar structure shows many interesting features seen in planetary nebulae such as ionization walls, knots and sharp edges to the lobes.

References 

Nebulae
Messier 7, also known as NGC 6475 or the Ptolemy cluster, is an open star cluster in the constellation of Scorpius. It is about 980 light-years away from Earth.

Open star clusters
The Lagoon nebula, also known as Messier 8 and NGC 6523, is an emission nebula, H II region and interstellar cloud in the constellation of Sagittarius. It is about 4,100 light-years away from Earth.

Nebulae
NGC 1672 is a barred spiral galaxy in the Dorado constellation. It is about 60 million light-years away from Earth.

Barred spiral galaxies
The Owl nebula is a planetary nebula in the constellation of Ursa Major. It is about 2,300 light-years away from Earth.

Nebulae
NGC 4102 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa Major. It is about 69 million light-years away from Earth.

Spiral galaxies
NGC 4605 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa Major. It is about 15 million light-years away from Earth.

Spiral galaxies
Messier 74, also known as NGC 628 and Phantom Galaxy is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Pisces. It is about 32 million light-years away from Earth.

Spiral galaxies
NGC 488 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Pisces. It is about 90 million light years away from Earth. Its diametre isn't more than 171000 light years. This galaxy is considered a prototype galaxy with multiple arms. It has a group, the NGC 488 Group and it's the unique galaxy of the group that it's insolated.
It was discovered by William Herschel on 13 December 1784. In NGC 488 appeared 2 supernovae.

Related pages
 Pisces (constellation)
 New General Catalogue

References

Other websites
 
 NGC 488-Adam Block 

Spiral galaxies
NGC 520 is a pair of colliding spiral galaxy in the constellation of Pisces. It is about 90 million light-years away from Earth.

Spiral galaxies
NGC 3521 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Leo. It is about 26 million light-years away from Earth.

Spiral galaxies
In 1994, the people of Oregon voted to approve Oregon Ballot Measure 16.  This measure created the Oregon Death with Dignity Act (ORS 127.800-995).  The Death with Dignity Act made physician-assisted suicide legal in some cases.  This means that if a competent adult with a terminal illness wanted to, they could get a prescription from a doctor.  They could then use that prescription to kill themselves.

The Death with Dignity Act made Oregon the first state in the United States to made physician-assisted suicide legal.  The law survived many legal challenges.  The Attorney General of the United States even tried to stop the law.  However, in 2006, in a case called Gonzales v. Oregon, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Oregon could continue to use the Death with Dignity Act.  Over the next ten years, four more states made physician-assisted suicide legal for terminally ill people.
Beginnings
Some states, like Oregon, allow citizens to vote on whether a law should be created.  This is called a ballot measure.  In 1994, Ballot Measure 16 was added to the voting ballot (the voting ticket) in the state of Oregon.  The ballot measure asked if Oregon should pass a law that "Allows Terminally Ill Adults to Obtain Prescription for Lethal Drugs."  The vote was close, but most voters said yes:

Since the voters had approved the ballot measure, the Oregon Death with Dignity Act (DWDA) was created.  However, the law did not go into effect until 1997.  This was because a judge ordered an injunction  a judge's order blocking the law from being used.  Eventually, on October 27, 1997, the injunction was removed.
In November 1997, the Oregon state legislature put another ballot measure on the voting ticket.  They did this after the Supreme Court decided Washington v. Glucksberg.  In that case, the Supreme Court ruled in support of laws against physician-assisted suicide.  This new ballot measure asked the voters if the Death with Dignity Act should be repealed.  60% of the voters said no; they wanted the Death with Dignity Act to stay:
The law
The Oregon Death with Dignity Act (DWDA) allows a terminally ill person to get a prescription from a doctor that they can use to end their life.  (The DWDA specifically says that people who use the DWDA are not committing suicide.)  However, there are many requirements.  For example:
 The person must be over 18, live in Oregon, and be competent (able to make decisions for themselves)
 Two doctors must agree that the person has a terminal illness
 The person must make three different requests to their doctor and wait at least 15 days
 The person must get a psychological exam if their doctor thinks a mental illness, like depression, is affecting their decision
 Their doctor must speak to them about other choices, like hospice care

Legal challenge
Legal challenge

In 2001, Attorney General John Ashcroft decided to try to stop the DWDA.  He threatened to use a federal anti-drug law to punish doctors who wrote prescriptions under the DWDA.  He threatened to take away their prescription licenses and even charge them as criminals.  The state of Oregon, joined by a doctor, a pharmacist, and terminally ill patients, sued to stop Ashcroft.  The case went all the way to the Supreme Court.  The Court ruled in favor of Oregon.  The Death with Dignity Act could continue.

Usage

Between 1998 and the end of 2015, 1,545 people have gotten prescriptions through the Death with Dignity Act.  Of these people, 991 have chosen to use the medicine to end their lives.  The other 554 (36%, or almost 2 in every 5 patients) chose never to use their prescriptions.
Of the 991 people who died from taking DWDA medications:
 Most (77.1%) had cancer.  The next most common disease (in 8% of patients) was amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; also called Lou Gehrig's disease).
 Just over half were men (51.4%)
 The median age at death was 71 years old
 Almost all (90.5%) were getting hospice treatment, and almost all (94%) died at home
 Almost all (95.6%) chose to tell their families that they were using the Death with Dignity Act.  Forty patients (4.4%) chose not to tell their families, and 19 patients (2.1%) had no families to tell.

Many of the 991 people who used their medications had the same worries about dying.  The most common were:
 Losing control over life and the ability to do things for themselves.  Almost everyone (91.6%) had this worry.
 Not being able to do activities that made them enjoy life (89.7%)
 Losing dignity (78.7%)
The law says that a person has to wait at least 15 days between asking to use the DWDA and getting a prescription.  However, some people waited up to 1009 days (over two and a half years} before using their prescriptions.

Effects
After the Supreme Court's decision in Gonzales v. Oregon, other states realized they could also legalize assisted suicide without getting into trouble with the federal government.  Since the Death with Dignity Act was decided in 2006, four other states have made physician-assisted suicide legal: Washington, Montana, Vermont, and California.

Notes

Related pages
 Gonzales v. Oregon
 Terminal illness
 Right to die

References

Other websites
 Frequently Asked Questions about the Death with Dignity Act (from the Oregon Department of Public Health)

1994 in the United States
United States federal legislation
20th century in Oregon
1990s in law
Modulus may refer to:

Math
Absolute value
Modulo operation
Modular arithmetic

Physics
Bulk modulus
Elastic modulus
Shear modulus
Young's modulus
Nikolai Bayev (, Nikoghayos Gevorkovich Bayev; October 6, 1875 – August 5, 1949) was an Armenian architect, who worked in Baku and in the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Biography
Baev was born in Astrakhan in 1875. He was a relative and childhood friend of Mariinsky Theatre singer Nadezhda Papayan.  He studied in local gymnasium and then attended the Saint Petersburg Institute of Civil Engineering, from which he graduated in 1901. From 1911 to 1918 he worked as the main architect of Baku. During this period he constructed more than 100 buildings in Baku, including the Great Theatre of the Mailov Brothers (modern days Azerbaijan State Opera Theatre, 1911), Sabunchi Railway Station, a residential sector in the former Armenikend area of Baku, and other buildings.
In 1927 Bayev moved to Yerevan and from 1929 to 1930 worked as the head of ArmSelStroy (Armenian agency for rural construction), where he constructed about 200 buildings, among them Pioneer's Palace of Yerevan, State Bank of Armenian SSR, Ministry of Justice, Yerevan Mechanical factory, old hall of Sundukyan Theatre, "Ararat" trust buildings, etc. In 1945 he was awarded by the Honorary diploma of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR.

He was a member of Armenian Union of Architects (1942). Bayev's personal archive (1896-1949) is a part of Yerevan State Archive.

References
References

Bibliography
 Edmond Tigranyan «Activity of Armenian architects in South Caucasus», Yerevan, 2003 - ISBN  978-99930-0-052-5
 (in Russian) Ерканян В.С. Армянская культура в 1800-1917 гг. / Пер. с арм. К.С. Худавердяна. Ер., 1985
 (in Armenian)  The Historical-Cultural Heritage of the Armenian Highland, International Conference, Armenia, 2012 / The Role of Armenian Architects in the Formation of Architectural image of City Baku, by Ter-Minasyan A., National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia, Institute of Arts

Other websites
 Nikoghayos Baev 
 It is a taboo in Azerbaijan that some of best buildings in Baku were constructed by Armenian architects, says Yerevans major architect. Aravot daily, february 2013

1875 births
1949 deaths
Architects
Armenian people
Soviet people
The Sundays were an English alternative rock band. They formed in the late 1980s. They released three albums in the 1990s.

The band started when Harriet Wheeler and guitarist David Gavurin met.

The Sundays got a record deal with the Rough Trade Records. Their first single, "Can't be Sure", was released in 1989. Their first album, Reading, Writing and Arithmetic, was released in 1990. The album got very positive reviews. It entered the UK chart at #4. Later in 1990, the album peaked at #39 in the United States. Its success came mostly from radio stations playing "Here's Where the Story Ends".

In late October 1992, the next album, Blind, was released. This album was also successful when it peaked at #103 on the Billboard 200. Blind sold half a million copies. The reviews were positive. Some critics thought the album didn't have the quality songwriting of the first album.
In autumn 1997, after five years, their third record, Static & Silence, was released. It got mixed reviews. "Summertime", the first song on the album, was their most successful song the UK Charts up to that time.

The Sundays took a break after the album Static & Silence.

References

1980s British music groups
1988 establishments in the United Kingdom
1990s British music groups
1997 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
British rock bands
Musical groups established in 1988
Musical groups disestablished in 1997
When a person commits a capital crime, a mitigating factor is something that might help the person avoid getting the death penalty.  ("To mitigate" means "to decrease."  A "factor" is something that causes something else.  So, in law, a mitigating factor is something that can cause punishment to decrease.)

Mitigating factors do not automatically result in decreased punishment.  Judges and juries also think about aggravating factors  things that are likely to cause a more severe punishment. 

Also, mitigating factors are not an excuse for committing a crime.  They may help explain what caused a person to commit a crime, but they do not mean the person did nothing wrong.

Importance
In the United States, mitigating factors are very important in death penalty cases.  Mitigating factors can help prosecutors decide whether to ask for the death penalty.  Also, the United States Supreme Court has ruled several times that judges and juries must think about mitigating factors before deciding on a sentence.
Supreme Court rulings

Since 1972, the Supreme Court has tried to make capital punishment in the United States fairer and more consistent.  The Court has ruled that state laws cannot say a person must get the death penalty if they commit a certain crime, no matter what.  To be fair, the Court ruled, each judge or jury has to think about whether an individual defendant deserves the death penalty.  As Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun wrote in a 1994 case: 

As part of this process, the judge or jury has to think about mitigating factors that might make a less severe punishment fit better.

In Lockett v. Ohio, , the Court ruled that state laws may not limit what mitigating factors judges and juries can consider.  The Court added that mitigating factors should include:
 Things about the defendant's character (what they are like, and how they act)
 What the defendant has done in the past
 Anything about the crime that the defendant brings up as an argument for why they should not get the death penalty
In other words, as legal scholar Jeffrey Kirchmeier explains:

Each state has its own death penalty law.  Each law gives a list of capital crimes in the state; aggravating factors that can make person more likely to get the death penalty; and specific mitigating factors.  However, the mitigating factors listed in each state law are only examples of possible mitigating factors.  Even if a state does not list a certain thing as a mitigating factor, a defendant can still bring up that factor in court.
Federal law
The United States' federal courts can try people for federal crimes and can sentence them to death.  Federal law includes a death penalty law, 18 U.S. Code § 3592.  It says that when deciding whether or not to give a defendant the death penalty, the judge or jury must "consider any factor, including these:
 The defendant was not able to understand how wrong their crime was (they had "impaired capacity")
 The defendant was forced or severely pressured to commit the crime
 Somebody else committed most of the crime
 Another defendant who is just as guilty will not be given the death penalty
 The defendant never committed a crime before
 The defendant committed the crime while they were badly mentally ill or having severe emotional problems
 The victim agreed to the criminal behavior that caused their death
 Any other things about the defendant's past, behavior, crime, or anything else that might be a mitigating factor
State laws
While each state law is a little different, most of them list the same mitigating factors as the federal law.  Examples of other mitigating factors in some of the states' laws include:
 Age (the defendant is old enough to be given the death penalty, but is still young)
 Intoxication with drugs or alcohol
 Cooperation with law enforcement officers and prosecutors
 The defendant was severely abused as a child, or was abused by the victim

Oklahoma's sentencing law, Code Section OUJI-CR 4-78, just says that mitigating factors are:

References

Capital punishment in the United States
United States law
Alessandro Moreschi (11 November 1858 – 21 April 1922) was a castrato singer of the late 19th century and the only castrato to make solo recordings.

Recordings 

All of Moreschi's recordings were made in Rome in two recording sessions for the Gramophone & Typewriter Company.  The first series of recordings were made on 3 and 5 April 1902 by Will and Fred Gaisberg.  Eighteen usable sides by the members of the Sistine Chapel Choir were made on wax. Four of them were solos by Moreschi. 

Many years later Fred Gaisburg remembered making these historic first recordings in the Vatican: "Selecting a great salon with walls covered with Titians, Raphaels, and Tintorettos, we mounted our grimy machine right in the middle of the floor." 

The second set of recordings was made in Rome in April 1904.

Sistine choir 
Alessandro was a member of the Sistine choir until Easter 1913.  He then retired and got a pension after thirty years' service.
Retirement and death
In retirement, Moreschi lived in his apartment, a few minutes' walk from the Vatican.  He died there at sixty-three, possibly of pneumonia. His funeral mass was a large and public affair in the church of San Lorenzo in Damaso.

References

Other websites 
 1904 Recording of Bach/Gounod: Ave Maria

1858 births
1922 deaths
Italian opera singers
Italian Roman Catholics
Sagas are stories mostly about ancient Nordic and Germanic life. Some are entirely invented, and some have an historical basis.

They tell about early Viking voyages, the battles that took place during the voyages, about migration to Iceland and of feuds between Icelandic families. They were written in the Old Norse language, mainly in Iceland.

The texts are tales in prose which share some similarities with the epic, often with stanzas or whole poems in alliterative verse embedded in the text, of heroic deeds of days long gone, "tales of worthy men," who were often Vikings, sometimes pagan, sometimes Christian.  They are sometimes romanticised and fantastic, but always dealing with human beings one can understand.

The best sagas are recognised as fine literature. Njál's Saga, or the Saga of Burnt Njál, is one of the most famous.
In Old English (Anglo-Saxon), Beowulf is a saga written in England, and so is the later Gawain and the Green Knight, written in a West Midlands dialect. These are both works of the imagination, but Layamon's Brut (about 1200 AD) is based on English history since the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

Sagas of Icelanders
"The Icelandic sagas are the backbone of all ... literature" from the Nordic countries, says Roy Jacobsen  (en), a translator of Sagas of Icelanders, and author.

List of the Sagas of Icelandic’s
The saga of Gísli Súrsson; or Gísla saga - (two versions) of an outlaw poet – Gísla saga
The saga of the people of Eyri; or Eyrbyggja saga
Ljósvetninga saga
Vatnsdøla
The Saga of the People of Laxárdalr; or Laxdøla saga
Valla-Ljóts saga
The Saga of Hen-Thorir; or Hænsna-Þóris saga
The saga of Gunnlaugr Snake-tongue; or Saga of Gunnlaugr Serpent-Tongue
Bandamanna saga
Egil's Saga
Hardar saga; or Harðar saga ok Hólmverja
Rankel saga
 Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss
 Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa
 Droplaugarsona saga
 Eiríks saga rauða – Saga of Erik the Red
 Færeyinga saga
 Finnboga saga ramma
 Fljótsdæla saga
 Flóamanna saga
 Fóstbrœðra saga (two versions)
 Grettis saga - Saga of Grettir the Strong
 Grœnlendinga saga – Greenland saga
 Gull-Þóris saga
 Gunnars saga Keldugnúpsfífls
 Hallfreðar saga (two versions)
 Harðar saga ok Hólmverja
 Hávarðar saga Ísfirðings – The saga of Hávarður of Ísafjörður
 Heiðarvíga saga
 Hrafnkels saga
 Hrana saga hrings (post-medieval)
 Kjalnesinga saga
 Kormáks saga
 Króka-Refs saga
Króka-Refs saga
 Laurentius Saga
 Ljósvetninga saga (three versions)
 Njáls saga
 Reykdœla saga ok Víga-Skútu
 Svarfdœla saga
 Valla-Ljóts saga
 Víga-Glúms saga
 Víglundar saga
 Vápnfirðinga saga
 Þorsteins saga hvíta
 Þorsteins saga Síðu-Hallssonar
 Þórðar saga hreðu
 Ölkofra saga
References 

 
Norse mythology
The Institut aéronautique Jean Mermoz (IAJM) is a French airline pilot school created in 1957. It is in Rungis, Ile-de-France
The school is famous for its aviation books, published in French and also in English since 2016, thanks to a cooperation with the French Civil Aviation University.
The school is member of the International Association of Aviation Personnel Schools and is in partnership with the aerospace university IPSA to offer a double-degree MSc in aviation / airline pilot.

References

Further reading 
 Official

1957 establishments in France
Aviation in France
Education in France
Val-de-Marne
The Rosendale Trestle is a bridge in Ulster County, New York. It was completed in 1872. It also was a railroad. It is 940 feet long.

Map

References 

 

1872 establishments in the United States
1870s establishments in New York (state)
Bridges in New York (state)
Least squares is the name of a procedure in mathematics, to construct a function from a number of observed values. The basic idea is to construct the function in such a way that the sum of the difference between the observed value and its data point is minimized. Since the difference may go in either direction, the value of the difference is squared, for each value.

Carl Friedrich Gauss said he developed the method in 1795. He used it to recover the lost asteroid 1 Ceres and published it in 1807. He used ideas from Pierre-Simon Laplace. Adrien-Marie Legendre developed the same method independently, in 1805.

Related pages 
 Normal distribution
 Ordinary least squares

Further reading
 Lawson, C. L., & Hanson, R. J. (1995). Solving least squares problems (Vol. 15). SIAM.
 Bjorck, A. (1996). Numerical methods for least squares problems (Vol. 51). SIAM.

Mathematical approximation
Statistics
The Assistance of Counsel Clause is a part of the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution.  It says: "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right...to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense."  This means that anyone being accused of a crime has the right to have a lawyer help defend them.  ("Counsel" is a legal word for "lawyer.")

Meaning

Since the Constitution was written, many questions have come up about what exactly the Assistance of Counsel Clause means.  The Supreme Court of the United States has made many decisions to answer these questions.  The Court has decided that Americans have five different rights under the Assistance of Counsel Clause:
 The right to a lawyer who does not have any conflicts of interest
 The right to choose what lawyer they want
 The right to have a free lawyer assigned to them if they cannot pay for a lawyer
 The right to a lawyer who is good enough at their job to be effective
 The right to defend themselves, and act as their own lawyer
When the right to counsel starts
The Supreme Court case Brewer v. Williams, , answered the question of when a person's right to a lawyer begins.  In this decision, the Court said a person has the right to have a lawyer's help "at or after":
 They are charged with a crime
 They have a court hearing
 They are indicted or arraigned (formally charged with a crime)

After any of these things happen, a person has the right to a lawyer whenever they are interrogated.

In the case Escobedo v. Illinois, , the Court also decided that suspects have the right to a lawyer when they are being interrogated by the police, even if they have not been charged with a crime yet.

People who go in front of grand juries do not have the right to have a lawyer with them.  This is because the Supreme Court does not think of grand juries as "criminal prosecutions."  (A grand jury cannot find someone guilty of a crime or punish anyone; they can only decide that a person should be charged with a crime.)
Conflict-free counsel
Every defendant has the right to a lawyer without a conflict of interest.  Here is an example of a conflict of interest: a lawyer is defending two different people.  A client named Smith wants to blame his crime on another client named Jones.  A lawyer is supposed to do what is best for their clients.  Here, the lawyer cannot do that for both clients.  If the lawyer blames Smith's crime on Jones in court, he is hurting Jones.  If he does not blame the crime on Jones, he is refusing to defend Smith the way Smith wants.  This is not fair to either client.  Also, the lawyer cannot do the best possible job for both clients at the same time.
To make sure they get a fair trial, every defendant has the right to a lawyer without a conflict of interest.  It does not matter whether the defendant is paying the lawyer, or the lawyer was assigned for free.  If a lawyer has a conflict of interest, and it hurts their defense of their client, an appeals court will automatically cancel the defendant's conviction.

Right to counsel of choice
Defendants being charged with a crime have the right to be represented by the lawyer they want.  However:
 That lawyer must be licensed to practice law in the jurisdiction where the defendant is being tried
 The lawyer must be willing to be the defendant's lawyer (either for free or for pay)
 The lawyer cannot have a conflict of interest

If a court violates a defendant's right to counsel of their choice, and the defendant appeals, the appeals court will automatically cancel the defendant's conviction.

Appointment of counsel
Defendants have the right to have a lawyer assigned (appointed) to them for free, if:
 They are being charged with a capital crime
 They are too poor to pay for a lawyer, and they are being charged with:
 A felony
 Any other crime that they could be sent to prison for

Ineffective assistance of counsel

The Supreme Court has ruled that Americans have the right to an effective lawyer.  For example, if a defendant is charged with a crime, a court cannot appoint just any lawyer.  The defendant must be given a lawyer who can try a criminal case, and can defend their client effectively.
The Supreme Court explained what "ineffective assistance of counsel" means in a case called Strickland v. Washington (1984).  In this case, a defendant was convicted.  He appealed, saying that his lawyer did not do a good enough job defending him.  The Court ruled that he could only have a new trial if he proved:
 His lawyer did not do an adequate job of defending him; and
 If the lawyer did a better job, the defendant may not have been convicted.

If a defendant can prove these things to an appeals court, they have proved that their lawyer was ineffective (not effective).  This means they have proved their Sixth Amendment rights were violated.  They will then get a new trial with a different lawyer.

Self-representation
In most cases, a defendant being charged with a crime has the right to defend himself.  This is called pro se representation.  It means the defendant has given up their right to have a lawyer.  The defendant has decided to act as their own lawyer.
However, a court can rule that the defendant will not be able to give himself a good enough defense.  If that happens, the court can rule that the defendant has to have a lawyer. 

Americans do not have the right to defend themselves in appeals courts.  In these courts, a defendant must have a lawyer.

Related pages
 Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution
 Escobedo v. Illinois (created the right to a lawyer during interrogation)
 Gideon v. Wainwright (created the right to a free lawyer for poor defendants)
 Ineffective assistance of counsel

References

United States Constitution
The Rights of Englishmen is an assumed group of rights that had its roots in the basic rights granted in the Magna Carta. The idea reached its peak during the British settlement of North America. By this time colonial Englishmen felt they were entitled to certain additional rights and liberties. These were over and above those already granted them by the English Monarchy. One of these perceived rights was the idea of no taxation without representation. This was a grievance of British colonists who believed that they were not directly represented in the British Parliament. They believed that any laws it passed affecting the colonists (such as the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act) were illegal under the Bill of Rights 1689, and were a denial of their rights as Englishmen. This led to the American Revolution and is expressed in the Declaration of Independence as "certain unalienable rights". They stopped thinking of themselves as Englishman and became Americans.

References 

Human rights
Colonial Americans
Sodomy laws in the United States were laws that made certain kinds of sexual activity illegal. In the past, there were federal laws against sodomy. Every state also had a sodomy law, even in the 20th century.

Starting in the 1960s, some states began to repeal (throw out) their sodomy laws. In 2003, in a case called Lawrence v. Texas, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that sodomy laws were unconstitutional. This means no sodomy law in the United States can be used to charge a person with a crime.

Types of laws
Most sodomy laws in the United States made both oral sex and anal sex illegal. However, state laws did not agree on who could not do these things. Every state law made sodomy between homosexual couples illegal. Other state laws also made sodomy illegal between heterosexual couples, if they were not married. The strictest laws made sodomy illegal in every case, even between married couples. Some sodomy laws also included bestiality in their definition of "sodomy."

Creation of sodomy laws
The first sodomy laws in America were created when America was still a colony of the British Empire. In the Jamestown colony (the first permanent settlement in America), sodomy could be punished by execution. Sodomy could be punished by execution in many of the other American colonies as well. In cases of rape or statutory rape, the victim was often punished also. Sometimes the victim was executed along with their rapist. Historians are not sure exactly how many people were executed for sodomy in colonial America:
 In the 1600s, when executions for sodomy were most common, there may have been five or ten people executed for sodomy (including bestiality)
 From 1700 to independence in 1776, there may have been five more executions for sodomy (including bestiality)
 Historian Anne-Marie Cusac says that about fifty people were executed in the American colonies for sexual crimes (though these crimes included rape as well as sodomy)
By the time the Bill of Rights was ratified in 1791, every state in the new United States had laws that treated sodomy as a crime.

Punishments

Before 1963, every state in the United States had laws against sodomy. The states did change these laws so that sodomy was no longer a capital crime. However, punishments could be as severe as life in prison.

Ethics scholar Richard Weinmeyer writes:

According to the Mattachine Society, one of the oldest gay rights groups in the United States, these were the punishments for breaking sodomy laws in 1964:
Repeals begin
In the 1960s, attitudes toward sex became much more liberal in the United States. As this happened, some states began to repeal their sodomy laws. Illinois was the first state to do this, in 1963. In the 1960s and 1970s, seventeen other states repealed their sodomy laws. Another seven states changed their laws to say that sodomy between heterosexual couples was not a crime. These seven states kept laws that made sodomy between homosexual couples a misdemeanor.

However, some states refused to change their laws. In 1986, the United States Supreme Court ruled that sodomy laws were constitutional, and that states could continue to use them.

Lawrence v. Texas
By 2003, thirty-one of the fifty states had repealed their laws against sodomy. Fifteen states had laws left that made sodomy a crime. Four more had laws that made sodomy between same-sex couples a crime.
In 2003, the United States Supreme Court made a landmark decision in Lawrence v. Texas. It ruled that Texas's sodomy law was unconstitutional. This ruling meant that no sodomy law in the United States was constitutional or could be used to charge a person with a crime. In other words, it made sexual activity between homosexuals legal in every state in America.

At this time, nineteen states still had sodomy laws that they had not repealed.

Some states refuse to repeal
As of 2023, a total of 12 states had not repealed their sodomy laws, even though they cannot be used any more because of Lawrence v. Texas. Nine of these state laws make both heterosexual and homosexual sodomy illegal:

Three more of these state laws ban homosexual sodomy specifically: Kansas, Kentucky, and Texas.
Since the ruling, 9 states and one territory have repealed their sodomy laws:
 Arkansas (repealed in 2005)
 Missouri (repealed in 2006)
 Puerto Rico (repealed in 2006)
 Montana (directed only at homosexual sodomy via a common law definition) (repealed in 2013)
 Virginia (repealed in 2014)
 Utah (repealed in 2019)
 Alabama (repealed in 2019)
 Idaho (repealed in 2022)
 Maryland (repealed in 2023)
 Minnesota (repealed in 2023)

Notes

References

LGBT rights in the United States
United States federal legislation
The Gulf War oil spill happened in January of 1991 during the Gulf War when Iraq troops were retreating from Kuwait. Shortly after Coalition forces (made up of 39 countries) started the air campaign against Iraq, Iraqi soldiers opened the valves at the Sea Island oil terminal. This released between five and ten million gallons of oil into the Persian Gulf—the largest oil spill in history. The spill was an environmental disaster. It destroyed the coastal habitats and marine wildlife in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.

References 

1991 in Asia
1990s disasters in Asia
20th century in Iraq
History of Kuwait
Hadizatou Mani (born 1984) is a human rights activist from Niger. In 2009, Mani received an International Women of Courage Award.

Life 

In 1996, Mani was sold as a slave for $500. She was 12 years old. 

In 2003, slavery became illegal in Niger.  Mani’s master did not tell her.  Later, he said Mani was his wife, not his slave. 

Mani received her "certificate of liberation" in 2005, and she got married. Her old master took her to court for bigamy. She got a prison sentence of six months. 

Mani took the case to court.  She worked with Timidria, a local NGO, and Anti-Slavery International, a British NGO. he brought the case to the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).   In 2008, ECOWAS said that Niger did not protect her rights.  They said Niger had to pay her a fine of 10 million CFA francs.

Awards 

In 2009 Mani was named one of the Time 100 people. 
In 2009 Mani received the International Women of Courage Award from the U.S. State Department.

References
References  

1984 births
Women who received the International Women of Courage Award
Nigerien people
Human rights activists
Living people
The West African CFA franc is the currency of eight countries in West Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Sénégal and Togo. CFA means Communauté Financière d'Afrique ("Financial Community of Africa") or Communauté Financière Africaine ("African Financial Community").

The Central African CFA franc has the same value as the West African CFA franc.

References 

Currency of Africa
Reem Al Numery is a children's rights activist in Yemen. In 2009 she received the International Women of Courage Award.

Life 

When Al Numery was 12 years old, she had to marry her 30-year-old cousin. She protested the wedding, but her father gagged her and tied her up. After the wedding, she tried to kill herself twice. 

Al Numery's father would not let her have a divorce. A judge said she was too young to decide, and she could decide when she was 15 years old.    Al Numery went to live with her mother.  Her lawyer said she would appeal.   Reem's father said he would kidnap her but Al Numery wanted to go to school.  She got her divorce in 2010

Awards 

In 2009 Al Numery received the International Women of Courage Award from the U.S. State Department. 

In 2010 Al Numery was named one of Time Magazine's most influential people.

References  

Women who received the International Women of Courage Award
1996 births
Youth activists
Living people
Yemeni people
Veronika Marchenko is a Russian activist. In 2009 she received the International Women of Courage Award.

Work 

Marchenko started the “Mother’s Right” Foundation in 1990 to bring attention to the deaths of Russian military people in peacetime.  The organization helps families of soldiers who die in peacetime, and works against corruption.   Many of the deaths are called suicides, so the families have trouble getting money after the death.  

In 2007, lawyers from Mother’s Right helped 132 families go to court for survivor's benefits.  They also helped 5,323 families of men who died.  

The organization now helps 5000 people a year. They helped a total of 80,000 people.

Other websites 

Mother's Right Foundation (English)

References 

Women who received the International Women of Courage Award
Living people
Russian activists
1959 births
People from Moscow
Russian journalists
Women's rights activists
Pancuronium bromide is a type of medication called a muscle relaxant.  Its brand name is Pavulon.  It is used in medicine for many different things.  It is also used in euthanasia.  

In the United States, pancuronium bromide is used in executions.  It is one of three drugs that are given to prisoners being executed by lethal injection.

Action
Normally, the brain sends chemical signals to the muscles to get them to work.  Pancuronium bromide stops these signals from getting to the muscles.  Without signals from the brain telling them to work, the muscles cannot move.  Because of this, a person who is given enough pancuronium bromide will be completely paralyzed until the drug wears off.  No muscle in their body will be able to move.
A dose of pancuronium bromide takes about 3-6 minutes to paralyze a person.  The drug's effects last for about 100 minutes.  A healthy adult usually needs 120 to 180 minutes to get most of their muscle movement back.  There are antidotes to pancuronium bromide that will help reverse the drug's effects more quickly.

Breathing

Pancuronium bromide paralyzes the breathing muscles along with all of the other muscles.  This means that pancuronium bromide will stop a person from breathing.  In hospitals, a person who is given pancuronium bromide is then   a tube is put down their throat to pump oxygen into their lungs.  This gives the body the oxygen it needs until the medication wears off, the breathing muscles can work again, and they can breathe in oxygen on their own.

The brain
The brain

Because the brain is not a muscle, pancuronium bromide does not paralyze the brain.  This means that pancuronium bromide is not a sedative (it will not put a person to sleep), and it does not kill pain.  If a person is given only pancuronium bromide, their brain will keep working normally even while their body is paralyzed.  They will be awake and aware of what is going on, but unable to move.

Uses in medicine
Doctors use pancuronium bromide during surgery.  It keeps the patient's body from moving, and makes it easier to put a breathing tube down their throat.  It is always given along with anesthesia so the patient is asleep and does not feel pain.

Pancuronium bromide's most common side effects are:
 A high heart rate, which can lead to high blood pressure and make the heart work harder than normal
 Irregular heart beats
 Extra salivation (this means the body makes more saliva than usual)

Euthanasia
Euthanasia

In Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, euthanasia is legal.  Doctors are allowed to give medicines to terminally ill people who want to end their lives.  In these three countries, pancuronium bromide is one of the medicines that doctors often use for euthanasia.  First they give a sedative so the person goes into a deep sleep.  Then they give pancuronium bromide, which stops the person's breathing.

Use in lethal injection

In the United States, people sentenced to death by lethal injection have usually been executed using three different medications.  Pancuronium bromide is the second medication.  First, a sedative called sodium thiopenthal puts the prisoner into a deep sleep.  Second, pancuronium bromide is given to keep the prisoner from moving and to stop their breathing.  Third, potassium chloride is given to stop the prisoner's heart.
The use of pancuronium bromide in lethal injections is controversial.  Some doctors and scientists say that potassium chloride is "extremely painful."  They say that if not enough of the sedative medicine was given, nobody would be able to tell if the prisoner was in pain, because they would be paralyzed.

However, other doctors say that if the three drugs are given correctly, lethal injection should not cause pain.  Because doctors are supposed to "do no harm", many executions are now done by people who are not doctors.  Supporters of lethal injection say that prisoners have pain when these people make mistakes, not because of the drugs themselves.

References

Capital punishment in the United States
Drugs
Poisons
Esters
Bromine compounds
Organonitrogen compounds
A foreign national is a person who is visiting or living in a country where they are not a citizen.

European Union
The European Union has a different definition of "foreign national."  In the European Union, a person is only thought of as a foreign national if they are not a citizen of any country in the European Union.  These people are called "third party nationals," not "foreign nationals."

The United States 

The United States Department of Homeland Security says that a foreign national as a person "who is a citizen of any country other than the United States."

In other words, a foreign national is a person who:
 Was born outside the United States; and
 Is a citizen of another country; and
 Has not become a United States citizen through naturalization.

References

Migration
Nationality
Aérocentre is a French group of aerospace engineering companies and research centres. It is in the region of Centre-Val de Loire in the middle of France.

There are over 321 companies. About 20.000 people work there in the aviation and space flight industries.

The headquarters of Aérocentre is in Châteauroux. The chairman of the group is Jean-Michel Sanchez.

Partners 
 Agence régionale pour l'innovation
 Banque Populaire
 Airemploi
 Centre d'études supérieures industrielles of Orléans
 Électrcité de France
 Institut Polytechnique des Sciences Avancées

Other websites 
 Website of Aérocentre

Sources and references

2009 establishments in France
Aviation in France
Aerospace engineering
Châteauroux
Technology companies of France
The 2014–15 La Liga season (known as the Liga BBVA for sponsorship reasons) was the 84th season of the premier association football league in Spain. The campaign began on 23 August 2014 and ended on 24 May 2015.

Barcelona won its 23rd title on 17 May 2015 after defeating defending champions Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón Stadium.

Results 
2014–15 La Liga - Results of first round
2014–15 La Liga - Results of second round

Statistics

Top goalscorers

Hat-tricks 

4 Player scored four goals
5 Player scored five goals

2014 in association football
2014 in Europe
2015 in Europe
2015 in association football
2010s in Spanish sport
Football in Spain
La Liga seasons
A constitutional convention is a convention where an organization's constitution can be created, revised, or amended. A general constitutional convention is called to create the first constitution of a political unit or to entirely replace an existing constitution. An unlimited constitutional convention is called to revise an existing constitution. A limited constitutional convention is restricted to revising only a limited area of the current constitution. However, such conventions may decide to go beyond their original authority. For example, the United States Constitutional Convention of 1787 was supposed to be limited to amending the Articles of Confederation. Instead, they wrote an entirely new constitution.

United States
United States

Constitutional convention 
The United States Constitution is silent regarding rules of how a constitutional convention would operate. There are no standards for states calling for a convention. Even calls for a constitutional convention made 50 to 100 years ago on an entirely different topic might be counted towards the required 34 states needed to call a constitutional convention. Oklahoma, for example, called for a convention in 1976 but then rescinded it in 2009. They were concerned that such a convention might make unforeseen changes in any area of the Constitution. Those in favor of a constitutional convention may want to count Oklahoma's call for a convention anyway.
Article V 
Article Five of the United States Constitution provides two ways that constitutional amendments can be proposed:
 By 2/3 of both houses of the Congress.
 By a majority vote in 2/3 of the state legislatures.
Either way that amendments are proposed, they must then be ratified. Article Five gives two choices for how an amendment can be ratified. Congress chooses which way to use.
Letting the state legislatures ratify the amendment.  If three-fourths (75%) of the state legislatures ratify the amendment, it becomes part of the Constitution.
 The second option is for Congress to ask each state to create a "ratifying convention."  This is a group of people  not members of the state legislature—who would decide whether or not to ratify the amendment.  If ratifying conventions in three-fourths of the states ratify the amendment, it becomes part of the Constitution.
Congress has only used the second option once: after it proposed the 21st Amendment.  (This amendment cancelled the 18th Amendment, which made alcohol illegal in the United States.  The 21st Amendment made alcohol legal again.) At the time, Congress thought that this would be the more democratic option.

Organizing 
An organized body (when an organization already has a constitution, officers and by-laws) will usually have appointed a committee on credentials and a committee on program before the convention begins. The committee on credentials (also called registration) checks the identity of delegates and gives each one a name badge or card as evidence they belong there. A program committee should have copies of the program available to all delegates before the convention begins. Other committees may be appointed as necessary.

References 

Constitutions