Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Beach Boys are an American pop/surf rock group from Hawthorne, California. They formed in 1961. The original members were brothers Brian, Dennis, and Carl Wilson, their cousin Mike Love, and their friend Al Jardine.  Many of the band's early songs were about life in southern California, the beach, girls, cars, and surfing.

David Marks replaced Jardine when he went away to school; after Jardine's return, Marks left the band. Bruce Johnston later became a regular band member, first replacing Brian Wilson on tour, then  joining in on recording sessions. Reunions with some of the original band members still occur from time to time.

Discography
Studio albums
Surfin' Safari (1962)
 Surfin' U.S.A. (1963)
 Surfer Girl (1963)
 Little Deuce Coupe (1963)
 Shut Down Volume 2 (1964)
 All Summer Long (1964)
 The Beach Boys' Christmas Album (1964)
 The Beach Boys Today! (1965)
 Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) (1965)
 Beach Boys' Party! (1965)
 Pet Sounds (1966)
 Smiley Smile (1967)
 Wild Honey (1967)
 Friends (1968)
 20/20 (1969)
 Sunflower (1970)
 Surf's Up (1971)
 Carl and the Passions – "So Tough" (1972)
 Holland (1973)
 15 Big Ones (1976)
 The Beach Boys Love You (1977)
 M.I.U. Album (1978)
 L.A. (Light Album) (1979)
 Keepin' the Summer Alive (1980)
 The Beach Boys (1985)
 Still Cruisin' (1989)
 Summer in Paradise (1992)
 Stars and Stripes Vol. 1 (1996)
 That's Why God Made the Radio (2012)
Selected archival releases 
 The Pet Sounds Sessions (1996)
 The Smile Sessions (2011)
 The Big Beat 1963 (2013)
 Keep an Eye on Summer 1964 (2014)
 Becoming the Beach Boys: The Complete Hite & Dorinda Morgan Sessions (2015)
 Beach Boys' Party! Uncovered and Unplugged (2015)
 1967 – Sunshine Tomorrow (2017)
 Wake the World: The Friends Sessions (2018)
 I Can Hear Music: The 20/20 Sessions (2018)

See also
 Smile (1966–1967) 
 Discographies of Brian Wilson, Dennis Wilson, Carl Wilson, Mike Love, and Al Jardine

Other websites

1961 establishments in the United States
1960s American music groups
1960s establishments in California
1970s American music groups
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American pop music groups
American rock bands
Hawthorne, California
Musical groups established in 1961
Musical groups from California
 
Warner Bros. Records artists
A modem (comes from: modulator demodulator) is a piece of computer hardware. It is used to communicate between distant computers. Two modems, one on each computer, are required to make a connection, and each modem can send and receive data to and from the other modem. 

 Modulation is changing the digital data from a computer to analog data (audio tones or sounds) to be sent over telephone lines.
 Demodulation is changing the analog data which is received over the telephone lines to digital data to be used by the computer.
   
Modems are classified by the amount of data they can send in a given time, normally measured in bits per second (bit/s, bps, or baud). They are also classified by their connection method. Dial-up modems were the usual kind in the 20th century, and DSL modems and Cable TV modems are now more used.
Modems that connect to the computer by a cable are called external modems. Modems that go inside the computer are internal modems. Some internal modems are part of the motherboard; others are inserted into the computer on a PC card. Most DSL and cable modems are external.

Many modems are used to connect to the Internet through telephone service or cable television service. Slow telephone service is called dial-up (maximum 56,000 bits per second). Faster telephone service is called DSL and is usually more than ten times faster. Cable modems connect through cable television, and are similarly fast. 

A Consumer Electronics Association study in 2006 found that dial-up Internet access is on a decline in the United States. In 2000, dial-up Internet connections accounted for 74% of all U.S. residential Internet connections. This decline has been more or less mirrored in Canada and Australia.
Dial-up modem use in the US dropped to 60% by 2003, and in 2006 stood at 36%. Voiceband modems were once the most popular means of Internet access in the U.S. But as more homes adopted faster ways of accessing the Internet, the traditional 56K modem is losing popularity.

References

Computer hardware
Telecommunications
Many good things were said about it when it was created, including being named Time Magazine's "1993 Product of the Year". It also had many technologies that were new and advanced. But the 3DO cost more money than the video game consoles that were already popular. This meant more people bought consoles from Sega or Nintendo instead of the 3D0. Because of this, no more 3D0s were made after 1996.  It was also not advertised very well, so almost no one knew about it. Some games planned for it include Alone in the Dark and Myst. The 3DO company also wanted to make another console called the M2, but it was never released.

References 

video game consoles
The APF-M1000 was a video game console made by APF in 1978. The controllers had numbers (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0 called a numeric keypad) and a joystick. With a joystick, the player moves the joystick and uses it to control the action in the game. It could only be used on a color TV. It came built-in with the game "Rocket Patrol".

Specifications 
CPU: Motorola 6800 at 3579 kHz
RAM: 1 KB
Colors: 8 on-screen
Resolution: 256 by 192

Cartridge list 
MG1008 Backgammon
MG1006 Baseball
MG1007 Blackjack
MG1004 Bowling/Micro Match
MG1012 Boxing
MG1005 Brickdown/Shooting Gallery
MG1009 Casino I: Roulette/Keno/Slots
MG1001 Catena
MG1003 Hangman/Tic Tac Toe/Doddle
MG1011 Pinball/Dungeon Hunt/Blockout
Built-In Rocket Patrol
MG1013 Space Destroyers
MG1010 UFO/Sea Monster/Break It Down/Rebuild/Shoot

Video game consoles
Windsor is a city in southern Ontario, Canada, which is across the Detroit River from the U.S. city of Detroit, Michigan. Windsor was founded in 1749 by the French. It has a population of 233,763 (counted in 2017).

Media

CKLW 800

CBET CBC

Cities in Ontario
QWERTY is a certain typewriter or computer keyboard layout that is commonly used in some English-speaking countries.  The term comes from the fact the first 6 letters of the top row of keys are Q, W, E, R, T, and Y. The QWERTY design was patented by Christopher Sholes in 1874 and sold to E. Remington and Sons during the same year.

History
History 

The QWERTY layout was invented by Christopher Sholes, the inventor of the first modern typewriter. At first the letters on the typewriter were placed alphabetically. However, when the user of the typewriter learned to type quickly, the bars attached to letters became caught in one another. The typist had to stop and unstick the typebars with his hands. A business associate of Sholes named James Densmore suggested splitting up the keys to speed up typing by preventing the typebars from striking the typewriter roller at the same time and sticking together. Some people say the QWERTY layout was created to slow down typing speed, while others say it worked by separating series of English letters.

The alternative Dvorak Simplified Keyboard was invented in the 1930s to be more efficient than QWERTY but it remained rare.
Accents
The QWERTY layout was made to type in English, therefore it has no accent marks as they are not used in native English words. People from other countries whose own languages used accent marks (such as French, which has letters like "é", "î", and "ç") had problems. Depending on the operating system and the application being used, one can type accents marks by holding down the Alt key while pressing several number keys in a row. As an example, holding the Alt key, pressing the number keys 1, 5, and 6, then releasing the Alt key will generate a character numbered 156 in some character set. The Control or Alt key can be also used together with a letter. In some word processors, like Microsoft Word, characters with accent marks could be found under a category named "Special Characters" or something similar. Windows also has a program called "Character Map" that can be used to find and copy characters that could be pasted into other applications later on.

International Variants
Some languages use the similar AZERTY layout. Some QWERTY keyboards for different languages and countries may look different..

Belgian and French
The keyboards made in Belgium and France switch the letters Q and W with the letters A and Z. They also move the letter M to the right of L. These types of keyboards are called AZERTY keyboards.

Czech
Some keyboards for the Czech language use QWERTZ keyboards.  They switch the Z and Y like the German version, but use "ů" to the right of L and ú next to P.  The row that normally has numbers has the accents ě, š, č, ř, ž, ý, á, í, é.  The user of the keyboard uses the shift key to make numbers.

Scandinavia
Danish and Norwegian layouts switched Æ, Ø, and Å where Swedish and Finnish use the letters Ä and Ö.

Faroese
Faroese keyboards add Æ and Ø next to L, and Å and Ð next to P.

German
German keyboards add an Ü to the right of P—and Ö, Ä to the right of L—and switch the Z and Y keys both because Z is a much more common letter than Y in German.
Hungarian
Hungarian keyboard add an É and Á after L, Ö above O, Ü above P, Ő after P, Ú after Ő, Ó above Ú, Í under A, and switch Z and Y, like in German.

Icelandic
Icelandic layouts add Ð to the right of P, Æ to the right of L, Ö to the right of 0 in the top row and Þ to the rightmost place in the bottom row.

Italian
Italian typewriter keyboards use a QZERTY layout where Z is swapped with W and M is at the right of "L". Computers use a QWERTY keyboard with è to the right of P and ò to the right of L.

Lithuania
Lithuanian keyboards typically use the standard QWERTY and utilize the numbers row + shift to insert the language specific symbols.

Portuguese

Portuguese keyboards maintain the QWERTY layout but add the key Ç after the L key. The Spanish version has the letter Ñ, the Ç.
Romanian
Romanian keyboards have a QWERTZ layout, swapping Y with Z; ă and î are added to the right of the letter P, while ș and ț are added to the right of the letter L; â replaces the backslash character. Changes are also made to the upper number keys, the numbers remain the same, but some of the symbols are shuffled. The most notable change is that hyphen (-) is swapped with slash (/).

Spanish
Spanish keyboards add ñ and Ñ characters to the right of the L instead of the semicolon and colon.

Turkish
Turkish layouts add Ğ and Ü to the right of P, Ş and İ to the right of L, Ö and Ç to the right of M.

Related pages 
 Dvorak Simplified Keyboard

References

Writing tools
Typography
Computer keyboard
A list is a part of a text, which has many words separated by commas (,) or a group of words going down the page that may use bullet points, letters, or numbers. Semicolons (;) are also used sometimes to separate items in a list.

These are lists:

I have invited Peter, Mary, and Henry to my birthday.

People who I have invited to my birthday are:
Peter
Mary
Henry

People I invited to my birthday: Peter; Mary; Henry.

Related pages 

 Mailing list

Basic English 850 words
Antimatter is a term in particle physics. Antimatter is a material composed of antiparticles. These have the same mass as particles of ordinary matter but have opposite charge and properties, such as lepton and baryon number.

Encounters between a particle and an antiparticle led to both of them being destroyed. This gives rise to high-energy photons (gamma rays), neutrinos, and lower-mass particle–antiparticle pairs.

What is it made of? 
In physics, all the elementary particles, or the basic building blocks of the things we can touch, come in pairs. Each particle has what is called an antiparticle. This may look and act just like the regular particle, except for one major difference. An example is the electron and the positron.
Annihilation 
Albert Einstein found a formula that can show how much energy a certain amount of something has, whether it is matter or antimatter. This formula is , and is one of the most well known equations. In simple terms, if you take the mass of something and then multiply it by the speed of light, and then multiply it by the speed of light again, you will get how much pure energy a given piece of something has. Since the speed of light is such a big number, this means that even a small amount of matter can have a lot of energy (it has been projected to be 4 times more effective per mass than nuclear fission).
For fast particles, it is no longer true that the energy is . Instead, Dirac's new equation worked for particles where the energy was given by . In the new equation for energy, the symbol is called the momentum, and it measures how fast the particle is going and how hard it is to stop. This equation says that very fast particles have more energy, so they are different from slow particles. You can take the square root of each side of this equation, since both sides are equal. However, any real square root has two answers, and . You can think of the answer with negative energy as being antimatter.
The reason this is important to understand antimatter is because scientists found that when matter and antimatter touch each other, the amount of energy that is released comes very close to the amount of energy  says should be all together in those two pieces. The reason is that each particle of matter, when it touches its antiparticle in the antimatter world, both change over into pure energy, or annihilate each other. This release of such a high amount of energy is why a lot of science fiction writers use antimatter for fuel in their stories. For example, author Dan Brown uses antimatter in "Angels and Demons" as a very powerful weapon. It is also being looked at as a fuel source for real-life missions to outer space in the future.
Where is all of the antimatter? 
Many scientists think that in the first few moments after the Big Bang, which created the universe a very long time ago, both matter and antimatter mixed together. If the Big Bang made equal amounts of matter and antimatter, then the two would annihilate and become energy. After a long time, there would be no matter and no antimatter left, just energy. But our universe today looks like it is almost all matter and hardly any antimatter. Physicists do not yet know for sure that equal amounts of matter and antimatter were created, and because of this, they are also wondering where the antimatter went, and if any was left over from the beginning of the universe.
One explanation is that there was just a little bit more matter than antimatter in the beginning, so that whatever was left over after most of the matter and antimatter annihilated into energy became the mostly-matter universe we see today.  Another theory is that there is lots of antimatter on the other side of the universe, hidden far beyond our vision. They could have formed their own galaxies and solar systems too.

Uses 
Because antimatter can make so much energy, it can be used for a lot of things, such as fuel for going into outer space, or in our cars. The problem is that antimatter is very expensive to make, and is almost as expensive to store, since it cannot touch regular matter. It takes several hundred million dollars to make less than one-millionth of a gram of antimatter. In fact, it is the most expensive and the rarest substance on Earth. Since it is so expensive, this means that antimatter is not practical to use as a weapon or as an energy source, because so little of it is obtainable.
Recently, however, scientists have trapped antimatter for over 16 minutes (1000 seconds total).

It does have a use in medicine, because a special kind of scanner called the PET, which stands for positron emission tomography, uses positrons to go into the human body. Doctors can look at the way the positron changes into energy inside a person's body, and be able to tell if something is wrong inside a person. This kind of machine works differently than an X-ray machine or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine, and can help doctors see things that those other machines cannot see.

References

 
Matter
Minsk or Miensk (Мінск (official spelling in Belarus), Менск; Минск ; Mińsk) is the capital and a major city of Belarus. About 2 million people lived in the city as of 2021. Minsk is also a headquarters of the Commonwealth of Independent States. As a capital, Minsk has a special administrative status in Belarus and is also the capital of Minsk voblast (province) and Minsk raion. Minsk is built next to the Svislach and Niamiha rivers. The timezone in Minsk is GMT +2.

The oldest mentions of Minsk date back to the 11th century (1067). In 1326 Minsk became a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and received its town privileges in 1499. From 1569 it was a capital of the Minsk Voivodship in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was annexed by Russia in 1793 as a result of the Second Partition of Poland. During 1919–1991 Minsk was the capital of the Byelorussian SSR.  In 2019, Minsk hosted the European Games.

Other websites
Other websites 

 Photos of Minsk on GOMINSK.ORG 
 Photos on Globus.tut.by
 Weather of Minsk - minsk.the.by
Mercedes:
is a female first name, see Mercedes (name)
a German car manufacturer, see Mercedes-Benz
Events 
 The Fraticelli pose a problem for the Roman Catholic church
 In Europe, climate change leads to the Great Famine of 1315–1317
Events 
 Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Osman I (1299-1326) to Orhan I (1326-1359)
 Aradia de Toscano, is initiated into a Dianic cult of Italian Witchcraft (Stregheria), and discovers through a vision that she is the human incarnation of the goddess Aradia. Known as La Bella Pelegrina amongst the outlaws near Lake Nemi, she becomes the leader of a religious anarchist movement.
The chancellor of Germany (German: Bundeskanzler, literally: federal chancellor) is the head of government of the Federal Republic of Germany.  The Chancellor of Germany is elected by the majority of the members of the Bundestag, the German parliament.  The chancellor is the German people's version of a Prime Minister or Premier.

The current chancellor is Olaf Scholz (SPD) since 8 December 2021.

Chancellors since 1949 
 Konrad Adenauer (CDU), 1949–1963
 Ludwig Erhard (CDU), 1963–1966
 Kurt Georg Kiesinger (CDU), 1966–1969
 Willy Brandt (SPD), 1969–1974
 Helmut Schmidt (SPD), 1974–1982
 Helmut Kohl (CDU), 1982–1998
 Gerhard Schröder (SPD), 1998–2005
 Angela Merkel (CDU), 2005–2021
 Olaf Scholz (SPD), since 2021

Related pages 
 List of chancellors of Germany
 Reich Chancellor, chancellors of the German Reich

References
Mysore is a city in Karnataka, India. Mysore is  south-west of Bangalore. Travel time from Bangalore to Mysore is 2-3 hours by road or rail. Mysore is the second largest city in Karnataka.

Mysore Palace, Jaganmohan Palace, Chamundi Hills, Brindavan Gardens, and Mysore Zoo are the places to see in Mysore. Some people go to Mysore to see the Dasara procession. 

People also go to Mysore to learn yoga.

Cities in Karnataka
Kannada () is a language, and it is a script used for writing the language. Most people in the southern Indian state of Karnataka speak Kannada, and there are speakers in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala and Goa. There are some differences in the way Kannada is spoken in these places.There are about 44 million people who speak the language.It had been since 2nd Century.

Language profile
Kannada is a Dravidian language, which is a different language family from the Indo-European or Aryan languages of the north, such as Hindi but close to the other southern languages like Telugu. It has about 3000 years of written history. The first version is known as the Old Kannada script. By about 3000 it had morphed into the Kannada and Telugu scripts. Printing presses introduced by Christian missionaries  at the beginning of the 19th century standardized the Kannada and Telugu scripts.
Script
The Kannada script is a type of writing system called an alphasyllabary. All consonants have a built-in vowel. Other vowels are indicated with diacritics, which appear next to the consonants. When they appear at the beginning of a syllable, vowels are written as separate letters. When consonants appear together without intervening vowels, the second consonant is written as a special joint symbol, usually below the first. The direction of writing: left to right in horizontal lines.

Literature
It has highest number of Janapeeta literary awards compared to any Indian language. Kannada had a huge boost during the Vijayanagar period. Shri Vinoba Bhave called "Kannada" script the "Queen of Kannada Scripts" not for all Language. "Vishwa Lipigala Raani".

References

Other websites 
 Kannada News
 Kannada News
 Kannada Newspaper
 Online Kannada News

Dravidian languages
Languages of India
Events 
January 24 – Matthias I Corvinus becomes King of Hungary
 Start of Magdalen College, University of Oxford
 George of Podebrady becomes King of Bohemia
 Pope Pius II becomes pope
 Turks issue a decree to protect the Acropolis after they conquer Athens.
Events 
 February 2 – Battle of Mortimer's Cross – Yorkist troops led by Edward, Duke of York defeat Lancastrians under Owen Tudor and his son Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke in Wales.
 February 17 – Second Battle of St Albans – The Earl of Warwick's army is defeated by a Lancastrian force under Queen Margaret, who recovers control of her husband.
 March 4 – The Duke of York seizes London and proclaims himself King Edward IV of England
 March 29 – Battle of Towton – Edward IV defeats Queen Margaret to make good his claim to the English throne. Thought to be the bloodiest battle ever fought in England.
 Edward, Richard of York's son, crowned as Edward IV, King of England (reigns until 1483)
 August 15 – The Empire of Trebizond, the last major Romano-Greek outpost falls to the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II after a siege of 21 days.
 Louis XI of France succeeds Charles VII of France as king (reigns until 1483)
 Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli become students of Verrocchio
Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is founded by the Ottomans
 François Villon: Le Grand Testament
 Donatello: Judith and Holofernes
1467 was a common year.

Events 
 October 29 – Battle of Brusthem: Charles the Bold defeats Liege
 Beginning of the Sengoku Period in Japan.
 Circa this year, polyalphabetic cipher invented by Leone Battista Alberti.
 Regent of Sweden Erik Axelsson Tott supports the re-election of deposed Charles VIII of Sweden to the throne.
 Pope Paul II arrested and tortured some of the abbreviators, among them was Filip Callimachus.
The Arab League is an organization made up of countries in the Arab world in Northern Africa and Southwest Asia. Most, though not all of these countries use Arabic as their official language. The purpose is to find ways for the countries to have unity and to work together to solve their problems.

Background (1900 - 1945) 
The Arab League, a regional organisation, finds its roots in two distinctive influences: Arab nationalism (or Arab nationalist movement), and British government support.
Arab Nationalism and Colonialism 
The Arab Nationalism represent both a movement that seek the unity of Arab territories in the Arab wolrd and express a rejection of the Ottoman Empire domination. This domination limited the sovereignty of these countries in the region. However, in the beginning of the twentieth century, the control of the Ottoman Empire was facing the rising power control of colonial powers. Both France and Great Britain, by the Skyes-Picot agreement,  enforced their domination over each of their mandates (Syra and Lebanon for France, Iraq and Palestine for Great Britain). This partition prevented the evolution of Arab nationalist movement by dismantling the region and creating tensions between the countries.
In the second half of the 1930s, two groups emerged around the question of Arab unification. The 'maximalists' (Syria, Iraq, Transjordan) saw a link between unity and "nation" as way to erase the legacies of colonialism. In opposition, the 'minimalists' (Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Lebanon) expressed a strong rejection for unification but rather a regional association that will push toward political, cultural, and economic cooperation without impact on their state sovereignty. In reaction, pan-Arab conferences emerged regarding regional issues such as the Palestine situation.

Decolonisation and Unification 
Before Wolrd War II, Great Britain supported regional actions initiated by Syrian, Lebanese and Iraqi leaders. This support appeared to undermine French influence on its own mandate.
In Egypt, from July 1943 to February 1944, discussions on a programme for an 'Arab Union' between the prime minister Mostafa el-Nahhas and representatives of Arab countries take place. In July 1944, the Egyptian Prime Minister calls the Arab countries' delegates to join a conference regarding the consolidation of this project. This conference takes place in Alexandria on September 25,1944 with the Preparatory Comittee and discusses the organisation and the question of state sovereignty in the union. However, this discussion is unstable due to the different positions of the countries: Syria is in favor, Lebanon and Yemen calls for a different form of cooperation. Regarding this, Egypt shows a model that conciliate both side by confirming the maintain of state sovereignty. This model is supported by Saudi Arabia and nuanced by Iraq that express the need of a voluntary arbitration between the members. This conference end in October 7, 1944 by the denomination Alexandria Protocol
. This protocol declared the agreement for the establishment of the Arab League, in the spirit of Arab nationalism. From February 14 to March 3,1945, a commitee prepared the draft for the Pact of Arab League. In a second session, the commitee revised and approved the draft. By March 22, 1945, the commitee in the General Arab Conference signed the pact, which confirmed the creation of the Arab League.
Mission
The organization uses the Arabic Language in its summits and all official papers, although it has never been stated by the League that Arabic is the Official Language. The Arab League was founded following the Protocol of Alexandria signed in 1945 by seven Arab States: Egypt, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Yemen, Trans-Jordan (Jordan). Today the League has 22 members. All countries having Arabic as an official language are among the members of the League, except for Israel, Eritrea and Chad which are not members.

Organisation 
An international treaty called "the Pact of the League of Arab Sates" organise the Arab League. This treaty is commonly called "the Pact". It has been signed by the first seven members in 1945.
Members 
The countries in the Arab League are:
 Egypt - March 22, 1945 (Founder) (suspended, 1979-1989)
 Iraq - March 22, 1945 (Founder)
 Jordan - March 22, 1945 (Founder) (entered when still using the name "Transjordan")
 Lebanon - March 22, 1945 (Founder)
 Saudi Arabia - March 22, 1945 (Founder)
 Syria - March 22, 1945 (Founder)
 Yemen - May 5, 1945 (Founder)
 Libya - March 28, 1953
 Sudan - January 19, 1956
 Morocco - October 1, 1958
 Tunisia - October 1, 1958
 Kuwait - July 20, 1961
 Algeria - August 16, 1962
 United Arab Emirates - June 12, 1971
 Bahrain - September 11, 1971
 Qatar - September 11, 1971
 Oman - September 29, 1971
 Mauritania - November 26, 1973
 Somalia - February 14, 1974
 Palestine - succeeding to the position held by the Palestine Liberation Organization since September 9, 1976
 Djibouti - April 9, 1977
 Comoros - November 20, 1993
The Council 
The Arab League main organ is the Council (article 3 of the Pact). Each state member of the organisation has a representative in the Council with one vote (article 3 of the Pact). When the Council vote on a subject, the members of the League do not have to apply the decision if they voted against it (article 7 of the Pact). The members of the Council meet ordinary twice a year in March and in September (article 11 of the Pact). The president of the Council is one of the state. It changes every ordinary meeting.

The Secretary-General 
The Council chooses a Secretary-General with a two-third vote. The Secretary-General is responsible for the administrative organisation of the meetings. Also, when the Council votes a resolution, the Secretary-General makes sure the decisions are followed by member states.
List of Secretaries-General 
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" width="100%"
!
!Secretary-General
!Birth–Death
!Took office
!Left office
!Nationality
!Photo
|-
|1
| Abdul Rahman Azzam 
| 1893–1976
| 22 March 1945 
| September 1952
| 
| 
|-
|2
| Abdul Khalek Hassouna 
| 1898–1992
| September 1952
| 1 June 1972
| 
|
|-
|3
| Mahmoud Riad 
| 1917–1992
| 1 June 1972
| March 1979
| 
| 
|-
|4
| Chedli Klibi 
| 1925–2020
| March 1979
| September 1990 
| 
| 
|-
|5
| Ahmed Asmat Abdel-Meguid 
| 1924–2013
| 15 May 1991
| 15 May 2001
| 
| 
|-
|6
| Amr Moussa 
| 1936–present
| 15 May 2001
| 1 July 2011
| 
| 
|-
|7
| Nabil Elaraby 
| 1935–present
| 1 July 2011
| 3 July 2016
| 
| 
|-
|8
| Ahmed Aboul Gheit 
| 1942–present
| 3 July 2016
| ''| 
| 
|}

 The Joint Defense Council 
Ministers of Defense and Ministers of Foreign Affairs from the member states compose the Joint Defense Council.

 Positions on conflicts
Conflicts between countries of the Arab League 
The members of the Arab League agree not to resolve their conflicts with force (article 3 of the Pact). If there is a conflict between two members of the Arab League, they can call for a resolution of the Council. In that case, the resolution is binding to both countries.

 Israeli-Palestinian conflict 
The Arab League is politically involved in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Even before the creation of the League, Arab countries, particularly Saudi Arabia and Iraq had discussions on lobbying in Washington, D.C. and in London to fight zionism. Saudi Arabia even declared: the "danger of Zionism is one that threatens the interests of all Arabs and Moslems."

During the Alexandria conference in 1944, the founders of the Arab League chose Musa Alami to represent the Palestinian Arabs in the conference. In the Pact, the member states declare they support to the "Arabs of Palestine" against Israel.
During a summit in Lebanon in October 1947, the League decided that Arab nations would protect Palestinian territory with their regular armies. However, the member states were not able to agree on how they would implement this decision.

In the 1964 summit in Cairo, the League promoted the creation of a Palestinian entity. It led to the creation of the Palestinian Liberation Organization.

After the 1967 summit in Khartoum, the League issued a declaration called the Khartoum Resolution''. It is famous for the "three noes" policy described in article 3 of the declaration."(...) the framework of the main principles by which the Arab States abide, namely, no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, no negotiations with it, (...)"

References

International organizations
Political organizations based in Asia
1945 establishments in Asia
Middle East
Arab world
Political organizations based in Africa
1478 was a common year.

Events 
 February 18 – George, Duke of Clarence, convicted of treason against his older brother Edward IV of England, is privately executed in the Tower of London.
 April 26 – The Pazzi attack Lorenzo de' Medici and kill his brother Giuliano during High Mass in the Florence Cathedral.
 December 28 – Battle of Giornico – Swiss troops defeat the Milanese.
 Lorenzo de' Medici becomes sole ruler of Florence
 Grand Prince Ivan III of Moscow conquers Novgorod
 Vladislav II of Bohemia makes peace with Hungary
 Eskender succeeds his father Baeda Maryam as Emperor of Ethiopia at the age of six.
Events 
 January – Galileo observes Neptune, but mistakes it for a star and so is not credited with its discovery.
 February 7 – An Assembly of the Russian Empire elects Mikhail Romanov to be Tsar of Russia, and establishes the Romanov Dynasty.
 June 29 – Fire destroys London's Globe Theatre
 Francesco Andreini's L'Adamo is published.
 King James I of England successfully mediates the Peace of Knäred treaty between Denmark and Sweden.
 The New River was opened, to supply London with drinking water from Hertfordshire
 Adriaen Block's ship Tyger is destroyed by fire, forcing him and his crew to spend the winter on Manhattan
 James I of England comdemns duels in his proclamation Against Private Challenges and Combats
 Ottoman Empire invades Hungary
 Locust swarm destroys La Camarque, France
 Sultan Agung takes the throne of the kingdom of Mataram on Java.
 December 6 death of Anton Praetorius
1608 was a leap year.

Events 
 March 18 – Sissinios formally crowned Emperor of Ethiopia
 May 14 – Protestant Union founded in Auhausen.
 July 3 – Quebec City founded by Samuel de Champlain.
 August 24 – The first official English representative to India lands at Surat.
 October 2 – Dutch lensmaker Hans Lippershey demonstrates the first telescope in the Dutch parliament
 Swedish troops enter Moscow
 First cheques come to use in Netherlands
 Quebec city is founded by Samuel De Champlain
Events 
 March 17 – formation of the Cathay Company to send Martin Frobisher back to the New World for more gold
 May 28 – Publication of the Bergen Book, better known as the Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, one of the Lutheran confessional writings. The earlier version, known as the Torgau Book (1576), had been condensed into an Epitome; both documents are part of the 1580 Book of Concord.
 September 17 – Peace of Bergerac signed between Henry III of France and the Huguenots
 The church in San Pedro in the Atacama Desert in Chile was built.
 November – The Great Comet of 1577 passed by Earth.
The 1870s was the decade that began on January 1, 1870 and ended on December 31, 1879.

Events 
 The invention of the telephone (1876) by Alexander Graham Bell. 
 The light bulb was invented.
 The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison.
 Ludwig Boltzmann's statistical definition of thermodynamic entropy
 Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) results in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire
 Continuing expansion of the British Empire; beginning of the New Imperialism
 Bulgaria and Romania declare independence following the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
 In the United States, continuation of post-Civil War reconstruction until its conclusion under President Rutherford B. Hayes in 1877
World leaders 
 Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
 Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald (Canada)
 Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie (Canada)
 Tongzhi Emperor (China)
 Guangxu Emperor (China)
 Emperor Wilhelm I (German Empire)
 Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (German Empire)
 King Victor Emmanuel II (Italy)
 King Umberto I (Italy)
 Emperor Meiji (Japan)
 Pope Pius IX
 Pope Leo XIII
 Emperor Alexander II (Russia)
 King Alfonso XII (Spain)
 Queen Victoria (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli (United Kingdom)
 President Ulysses S. Grant (United States)
 President Rutherford B. Hayes (United States)
 Nasser-al-Din Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia)
Events 
 Alexander becomes King of Poland.
 The Safavid kingdom was established in northern Iran.
 Martin Luther enters the University of Erfurt.
Jon Voight (born December 29, 1938) is an American actor. Voight came to publicity in the late 1960s with his Academy Award–nominated performance as Joe Buck, a would-be gigolo, in Midnight Cowboy (1969). He has received an Academy Award for Best Actor, having received it for his role in the 1978 film Coming Home, in which he played a paraplegic Vietnam War veteran. In the 1970s, he became renowned as a Hollywood star. 

Voight is a Republican who supports anti-communism.

Early life and family
His mother was of German ancestry; his father was of Slovak ancestry. Voight is the middle of three brothers: volcanologist Barry Voight was born in 1937; musician Chip Taylor was born in 1940.

Voight's son James Haven and daughter Angelina Jolie are actors.

References

Other websites
Other websites

1938 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from New York (state)
BAFTA Award winning actors
Movie producers from New York (state)
Screenwriters from New York (state)
People from Yonkers, New York
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
Republicans (United States)
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Anti-communists
Eugene Joseph "Gene" McCarthy (March 29, 1916 – December 10, 2005) was a United States senator from Minnesota.  He ran for President of the United States five times. He died from Parkinson's disease.

Other websites

Eugene J McCarthy Lectureship at Saint John's University
Eugene McCarthy (1916–2005): The Legacy of the Former Senator and Anti-War Presidential Candidate 
Eugene J. McCarthy, Senate Dove Who Jolted '68 Race, Dies at 89 — The New York Times
Minnesota senator shook world in '68  — Star Tribune of Minneapolis

1968 United States presidential candidates
1972 United States presidential candidates
1976 United States presidential candidates
1992 United States presidential candidates
United States senators from Minnesota
United States representatives from Minnesota
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
1916 births
2005 deaths
Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger (born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian-American former professional bodybuilder, actor, film producer, screenwriter, and director. He was the governor of the American state of California from 2003 to 2011. He currently lives in Los Angeles, California.

After serving in the army, Schwarzenegger moved to Munich, where he often slept in a gym because he did not have anywhere else to live.

Schwarzenegger then moved to the United States in 1968 and eventually became an actor. He has been in several big budget Hollywood movies including The Terminator series. He eventually stopped acting in order to run for governor of California in 2003. In 2003, Governor Gray Davis was removed as governor and Schwarzenegger was elected. His term ended in early January 2011, and he was replaced by Jerry Brown.
Before becoming an actor, Schwarzenegger was also a bodybuilder and had won both the Mr. Olympia and Mr. Universe titles over 7 consecutive times. Schwarzenegger has also set up his own official competition, Arnold Classic.

In 1971, Schwarzenegger's younger maternal half-brother Meinhard died in a car accident due to driving while drunk.

In 1986, Schwarzenegger married Maria Shriver, but they separated and divorced in 2011. They have 2 daughters, Katherine and Christina, and also 2 sons, Patrick and Christopher. Schwarzenegger also has a son with another woman. Some people think that Arnold had cheated on his wife but, such statements have not been proven.

In 2013, Schwarzenegger returned to acting with a role in the movie Escape Plan.

Film

Television

Commercials

Music videos

Soundtrack appearances

Video games

Related pages
 Reactions to the Russian invasion of Ukraine

References
References

Other websites 
 
 Schwarzenegger.com - official website
 Arnold Schwarzenegger Workout 
 Schwarzenegger bodybuilding 
 

1947 births
Living people
People from Styria
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Republican Party (United States) politicians
Governors of California
Actors from Los Angeles
American television actors
American movie actors
American movie producers
Austrian movie actors
Austrian television actors
Austrian voice actors
Austrian stage actors
Kennedy family
American bodybuilders
WWE Hall of Fame
21st-century American politicians
In Judaism, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is God's divine force over the Universe or the creatures within it. In Nicene Christianity, God the Holy Spirit is the third person of the Trinity. In Islam, the Holy Spirit acts as an agent of divine communication. In the Baha’i Faith, the Holy Spirit is seen as the "go-between" God and man and "the outpouring grace of God and the effulgent rays that emanate from His Manifestation".

Further reading

References

Theology
Christian theology
Islamic theology
Judaism
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying data across network boundaries. It establishes the Internet. In the past, IP did not provide the connectivity; It only specified how packets are supposed to be created. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) allowed this functionality. Since one could not perform its task without the other, they earned the name TCP/IP to show how they depend on each other.

Think of IP as something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it into the system, but there is no actual direct link between you and the recipient. Instead, there is a "web" of links interconnecting with each other. This is where IP and TCP come in. IP tells packets what their destination is and how to get there; TCP ensures a reliable connection, checking packets for errors, requesting a "re-transmission" if it detects one.
Function 
The Internet Protocol gets information from a source computer to a destination computer. It sends this information in the form of packets.

There are two versions of the Internet Protocol currently in use: IPv4 and IPv6, with IPv4 being the version most used. IP also gives computers an IP address to identify each other, much like a typical physical address.

IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite, which is a set of communications protocols consisting of seven abstraction layers (see OSI model),
The main purpose and task of IP is the delivery of datagrams from the source host (source computer) to the destination host (receiving computer) based on their addresses. To achieve this, IP includes methods and structures for putting tags (address information, which is part of metadata) within datagrams. The process of putting these tags on datagrams is called encapsulation. Think of the analogy of the postal system. IP is similar in that it allows a package (a datagram) to be addressed (encapsulation) and put into the system (the Internet) by the sender (source host). However, there is no direct link between sender and receiver.
The package (datagram) is almost always divided into pieces, but each piece contains the address of the receiver (destination host). Eventually, each piece arrives at the receiver, often by different routes and at different times. These routes and times are also determined by the Postal System, which is the IP. However, the Postal System (in the transport and application layers) puts all the pieces back together before delivery to the receiver (destination host).

Note: IP is actually a connectionless protocol, meaning that the circuit to the receiver (destination host) does not need be set up before transmission (by the source host). Continuing the analogy, there does not need to be a direct connection between the physical return address on the letter/package and the recipient address before the letter/package is sent.
Originally, IP was a connectionless datagram service in a transmission control program created by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974. When format and rules were applied to allow connections, the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol was created. The two together form the Internet Protocol Suite, often referred to as TCP/IP.

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) was the first major version of IP. This is the dominant protocol of the Internet. However, IPv6 is active and in use, and its deployment is increasing all over the world.
IP Packets 
IP packets or datagram has two parts. The first part is the header, which is like a label on an envelope. The second part is the payload, which is like the letter inside an envelope. The header contains the source and destination IP addresses, and some extra information. This information is called metadata, and is about the packet itself. Putting data in a packet with a header is encapsulation.

Routing 
Every computer on a network does some kind of routing. Dedicated computers talk with each other to figure out where to send packets. These computers are called routers, and talk using routing protocols.

Along every hop in a packet's journey, a computer reads the header. The computer sees the destination IP address and figures out where to send the packet.

Reliability 
ARPANET, the early ancestor of the internet, was designed to survive a nuclear war. If one computer was destroyed, communication between all the other computers would still work. Computer networks still follow this same design.
Computers talking to each other handle the "smart" functions to simplify computer networks. The end nodes will check for errors instead of a central authority. Keeping the "smart" things on the end computers or nodes follows the end-to-end principle.

The Internet Protocol sends packets out without ensuring they arrive safely. This is best-effort delivery, and is unreliable. Packets could get messed up, lost, duplicated, or received out of order. Higher level protocols like the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensure packets are delivered correctly. IP is also connectionless, so it does not keep track of communications. It assumes that another protocol such as TCP will keep track of connections.
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) uses a checksum to check for errors in an IP header. Every checksum is unique to a source/destination combination. A routing node generates a new checksum when it gets a packet. If the new checksum is different from the old one, the routing node knows the packet is bad and throws it out. IPv6 assumes another protocol will check for errors and leaves out the checksum. This is to improve performance.

History 
In 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers published a paper called "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication". The paper described a way for computers to talk to each other using Packet Switching. A big part of this idea was the "Transmission Control Program". The Transmission Control Program was too big, so it split into TCP and IP. This model is now called the DoD Internet Model and Internet Protocol Suite, or the TCP/IP Model.
Versions 0 to 3 of IP were experimental, and used between 1977 and 1979. Versions 2 and 3, and a draft of version 4, allowed an address length of up to 128 bits, but this was mistakenly reduced to 32 bits in the final version of IPv4. Versions 7-9 were prototypes of what eventually became IPv6.

IPv4 addresses will run out, because the number of possible addresses is running out. To fix this, the IEEE made IPv6 which had even more addresses. While IPv4 has 4.3 Billion addresses, IPv6 has 340 undecillion of them. This means we will never run out of IPv6 addresses. IPv5 was reserved for the Internet Stream Protocol, which was only used experimentally.

References

Internet protocols
Events 
 Production of steel revolutionised by invention of the Bessemer process
 Benjamin Silliman fractionates petroleum by distillation for the first time
 First transatlantic telegraph cable laid
 First safety elevator installed by Elisha Otis
 Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species, putting forward the theory of evolution by natural selection
 Epidemiology begins when John Snow traces the source of an outbreak of cholera in London to a contaminated water pump.
 Discovery of Neandertal fossils in Neanderthal, Germany
 Solar flares discovered by Richard Christopher Carrington
 Crimean War (1854–1856) fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire. The majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea.
 The Indian Mutiny: revolt against the East India Company's British rule in India
Dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British.
 156 are killed in Paris in a failed assassination attempt on Napoleon III, Emperor of France
 Moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania.
 Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party.