Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Encyclopædia Britannica's changed the way they described Austen as she became more and more popular. The eighth edition (1854) called her "an elegant novelist". The ninth edition (1875) praised her as "one of the most distinguished (remarkable) modern British novelists". Austen novels began to be studied at universities. Her works also began to come out in histories of the English novel. Most people still thought of her as "dear aunt Jane", the way she was first presented in the Memoir. Howells had made this picture of Austen famous by his essays in the Harper's Magazine. Writer and critic Leslie Stephen described a mania for Austen that grew in the 1880s as "Austenolatry". It was only after the Memoir was printed that readers grew to like Austen as a person. Until then, literary elites had said their enjoyment of Austen showed how clever they were. However, around the 1990s, they grew troubled at how popular Austen's works became. They began calling themselves Janeites
. They wanted to show that they were different from the people who they thought did not understand Austen properly.
American novelist Henry James liked Austen. Once he said she was as great as Shakespeare, Cervantes, and Henry Fielding - "the fine painters of life". But James thought Austen was an "unconscious" artist who was "instinctive and charming". In 1905, James said he did not like the public interest in Austen. He said it was more than Austen's "intrinsic merit (worth) and interest" deserved. James said that this was mostly because of the "stiff breeze of the  special bookselling  body of publishers, editors, illustrators, producers of the pleasant twaddle of magazines; who have found their 'dear,' our dear, everybody's dear,  their material  pretty reproduction in every variety of what is called tasteful, and in what seemingly proves to be salable, form."
Reginald Farrer, a British travel writer, did not like the sentimental image of "Aunt Jane". Instead, he wanted to study Austen's fiction in a new way. In 1917, he published a long essay in the Quarterly Review. Jane Austen scholar A. Walton Litz called it the best single introduction to her works. Southam calls it as a "Janeite" piece without the worship. Farrer claimed that Jane Austen was not unconscious (disagreeing with James). He said that she was a writer of great concentration and a sharp critic of her society. He called her "radiant and remorseless", "dispassionate yet pitiless", with "the steely quality, the incurable rigor of her judgment". Farrer was one of the first critics who saw Austen as a  writer.

1930–2000: Modern scholarship
After Bradley and Chapman, Austen scholarship grew very quickly in the 1920s. British writer E. M. Forster pointed out Austen's works for his idea of the "round" character. It was with the 1939 publication of Mary Lascelles' Jane Austen and Her Art—"the first full-scale historical and scholarly study" of Austen—that the academic study of her works matured. Lascelles included a short essay about her, a study of the books Austen read and their influence on her writing, and a study of Austen's style and "narrative art". Lascelles felt that critics before her had all worked in a way "so small that the reader does not see how they have reached their conclusions until he has patiently found his own way to them". She wished to study all of Austen's works, style, and techniques together. Critics after Lascelles agreed that she studied them well. Lascelles was interested in Austen's connection to Samuel Johnson and her desire to discuss morality through fiction. In this she was much like Bradley before her
. But around this time, some fans of Austen began to worry that her works were being enjoyed by only a few people. They were fearful that Austen was being criticized only by academics. This was an argument that continued to the beginning of the twenty-first century.
Mid-century revisionist views started to become popular, and scholars began studying Austen more sceptically. D. W. Harding, adding to Farrer, wrote an essay called "Regulated Hatred: An Aspect of the Work of Jane Austen". He argued that Austen did not support society's customs, and that her irony was not funny but bitter. He also claimed that Austen wanted to show the faults of the society she wrote about. Through her use of irony, Austen tried to protect herself as an artist and a person from the behavior and practices she disliked. Almost at the same time, British critic Q. D. Leavis printed "Critical Theory of Jane Austen's Writing" in Scrutiny in the early 1940s. In there, Leavis argued that Austen was a professional, not an amateur (untrained), writer. Harding's and Leavis's articles were followed by Jane Austen: Irony as Defense and Discovery (1952). This was written by Martin Mudrick, who saw Austen as lonely, defensive, and critical of her society
. He carefully described the connection between Austen's attitude towards the literature of her time and how she used irony to show the difference of how society was, and how she thought it could be. An important British critic, F. R. Leavis, said in The Great Tradition (1948) that Austen was one of the great writers of English fiction. Ian Watt agreed, and helped shape the arguments about the genre of the novel. The revisionist views and Leavis's words helped Austen to have a great reputation among academics. They agreed that she "combined (put together) [Henry Fielding's and Samuel Richardson's] qualities of interiority and irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to (better than) both".
After the Second World War, people began studying Austen more deeply, and in different ways. A great number of people have studied Austen as a political writer. Critic Gary Kelly explains, "Some see her as a political 'conservative' because she seems to defend the established social order. Others see her as sympathetic to 'radical' politics that challenged the established order, especially in the form of  critics see Austen's novels , criticizing aspects of the social order but supporting stability and an open class hierarchy." In Jane Austen and the War of Ideas (1975), perhaps the most important of these works, Marilyn Butler argues that Austen was greatly influenced by the principal moral and political arguments of her time, and that she had a partisan, firmly conservative and Christian position in these arguments. Alistair M
. Alistair M. Duckworth in The Improvement of the Estate: A Study of Jane Austen's Novels (1971) argues that Austen used the concept of the "estate" to symbolise all that was important  society, which should be conserved (kept), improved, and passed down to future generations. As Rajeswari Rajan notes, "the idea of a political Austen is no longer seriously challenged". The questions scholars now study include: "the Revolution, war, nationalism, empire, class, 'improvement' [of the estate], the clergy, town versus (against) country, abolition, the professions, female emancipation; whether her politics were Tory, Whig, or radical; whether she was a conservative or a revolutionary, or occupied (kept) a reformist position between these extremes".
In the 1970s and 1980s, Austen studies was influenced by Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar's The Madwoman in the Attic (1979). The Madwoman in the Attic explores the "explosive anger" of nineteenth-century female English writers under their "decorous (proper) surfaces". This work, together with other feminist criticism of Austen, has made people see her as a woman writer. The interest these critics showed in Austen made people discover and study other women writers in Austen's time. Also, when Julia Prewitt Brown's Jane Austen's Novels: Social Change and Literary Form (1979), Margaret Kirkham's Jane Austen: Feminism and Fiction (1983), and Claudia L. Johnson's Jane Austen: Women, Politics and the Novel (1988) were printed, scholars were no longer able to argue that Austen was firmly "apolitical, or '". Kirkham, for example, said that Austen's thought and that of Mary Wollstonecraft were quite similar. She called them both "Enlightenment feminists"
. Johnson also places Austen in an eighteenth-century political tradition. However, she notes the influence Austen received from the political novels of the 1790s written by women.
In the late-1980s, 1990s, and 2000s ideological, postcolonial, and Marxist criticism dominated Austen studies. Generating heated debate, Edward Said devoted a chapter of his book Culture and Imperialism (1993) to Mansfield Park, arguing that the peripheral position of "Antigua" and the issue of slavery demonstrated that colonial oppression was an unspoken assumption of English society during the early nineteenth century. In Jane Austen and the Body: 'The Picture of Health', (1992) John Wiltshire explored the preoccupation with illness and health of Austen's characters. Wiltshire addressed current theories of "the body as sexuality", and more broadly how culture is "inscribed" on the representation of the body. There has also been a return to considerations of aesthetics with D. A. Miller's Jane Austen, or The Secret of Style (2003) which connects artistic concerns with queer theory.

Notes

Bibliography
Brontë, Charlotte. "Charlotte Brontë on Jane Austen". Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 1812–1870. Ed. B. C. Southam. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968. . 126–28.
Brownstein, Rachel M. "Out of the Drawing Room, Onto the Lawn". Jane Austen in Hollywood. Eds. Linda Troost and Sayre Greenfield. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001. . 13–21.
Cossy, Valérie and Diego Saglia. "Translations". Jane Austen in Context. Ed. Janet Todd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . 169–81.
Duffy, Joseph. "Criticism, 1814–1870". The Jane Austen Companion. Ed. J. David Grey. New York: Macmillan, 1986. . 93–101.
Fergus, Jan. "The Professional Woman Writer". The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen. Eds. Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. . 12–31.
Galperin, William. "Austen's Earliest Readers and the Rise of the Janeites". Janeites: Austen's Disciples and Devotees. Ed. Deidre Lynch. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000. . 87–114.
Gilbert, Sandra and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literature Imagination. 1979. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984. .
Gilson, David. "Later Publishing History, with Illustrations". Jane Austen in Context. Ed. Janet Todd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . 121–59.
Grundy, Isobel. "Jane Austen and Literary Traditions". The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen. Eds. Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. . 189–210.
Honan, Park. Jane Austen: A Life. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987. .
Honan, Park. "Biographies". The Jane Austen Companion. Ed. J. David Grey. New York: Macmillan, 1986. . 18–23.
Johnson, Claudia L. "Austen cults and cultures". The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen. Eds. Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. . 211–26.
Kelly, Gary. "Religion and politics". The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen. Eds. Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. . 149–69.
Kirkham, Margaret. "Portraits". Jane Austen in Context. Ed. Janet Todd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . 68–79.
Lascelles, Mary. Jane Austen and Her Art. 1939. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966.
Le Faye, Deirdre. Jane Austen: A Family Record. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. .
Le Faye, Deirdre. "Memoirs and Biographies". Jane Austen in Context. Ed. Janet Todd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . 51–58.
Lewes, George Henry. "Lewes: The great appraisal". Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 1812–1870. Ed. B. C. Southam. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968. . 148–66.
Litz, A. Walton. "Criticism, 1939–1983". The Jane Austen Companion. Ed. J. David Grey. New York: Macmillan, 1986. . 110–17.
Litz, A. Walton. Jane Austen: A Study of Her Development. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965.
Lynch, Deidre. "Cult of Jane Austen". Jane Austen in Context. Ed. Janet Todd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . 111–20.
Lynch, Deidre. "Sequels". Jane Austen in Context. Ed. Janet Todd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . 160–68.
MacDonagh, Oliver. Jane Austen: Real and Imagined Worlds. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991. .
Macdonald, Gina and Andrew Macdonald, eds. Jane Austen on Screen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. .
Pucci, Suzanne and James Thompson. "Introduction: The Jane Austen Phenomenon: Remaking the Past at the Millennium". Jane Austen and Co. Albany: Stage University of New York Press, 2003. . 1–12.
Rajan, Rajeswari. "Critical Responses, Recent". Jane Austen in Context. Ed. Janet Todd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . 101–10.
Scott, Walter. "Walter Scott, an unsigned review of Emma, Quarterly Review". Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 1812–1870. Ed. B. C. Southam. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968. . 58–69.
Simpson, Richard. "Richard Simpson on Jane Austen". Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 1812–1870. Ed. B. C. Southam. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968. . 241–65.
Southam, B. C., ed. Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 1812–1870. Vol. 1. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968. .
Southam, B. C., ed. Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 1870–1940. Vol. 2. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987. .
Southam, B. C. "Janeites and Anti-Janeites". The Jane Austen Companion. Ed. J. David Grey. New York: Macmillan, 1986. . 237–43.
Southam, B. C. "Criticism, 1870–1940". The Jane Austen Companion. Ed. J. David Grey. New York: Macmillan, 1986. . 102–09.
Stovel, Bruce. "Further Reading". The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen. Eds. Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. . 227–43.
Todd, Janet. The Cambridge Introduction to Jane Austen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. .
Tomalin, Claire. Jane Austen: A Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997. .
Troost, Linda. "The Nineteenth-Century Novel on Film: Jane Austen". The Cambridge Companion to Literature on Screen. Eds. Deborah Cartmell and Imelda Whelehan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. . 75–89.
Troost, Linda and Sayre Greenfield. "Introduction". Jane Austen in Hollywood. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001. . 1–12.
Trott, Nicola. "Critical Responses, 1830–1970". Jane Austen in Context. Ed. Janet Todd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . 92–100.
Twain, Mark. "Mark Twain on Jane Austen". Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 1870–1940. Ed. B. C. Southam. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987. . 232–33.
Waldron, Mary. "Critical Responses, early". Jane Austen in Context. Ed. Janet Todd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . 83–91.
Watt, Ian. "Introduction". Jane Austen: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1963. .
Other websites 
Chapman's Collected Works of Austen - Volume 1 at the Internet Archive
Chapman's Collected Works of Austen - Volume 2 at the Internet Archive
Chapman's Collected Works of Austen - Volume 4 at the Internet Archive
Chapman's Collected Works of Austen - Volume 5 at the Internet Archive

Jane Austen
Chess openings are listed and classified according to their first few moves. There are interesting statistics on the frequency of chess openings from chess databases.

Statistics 

The table shows how common each opening was for each era. It shows movement away from symmetrical defences and an increase in asymmetrical defences. In reply to 1.e4, the Sicilian and French Defence, and to 1.d4 the Indian Defence become more common. It also shows an increased use of the English Opening for White.

King's Pawn openings

1...e5 replies 
King's Gambit  1.e4 e5 2.f4
Ruy Lopez  1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5
Vienna Game 1.e4 e5 2.Nc3
Giuoco Piano 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Bc5
Evans Gambit 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Bc5 4.b4
Petrov Defence 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6
Philidor Defence 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 d6
Asymmetric replies 
Alekhine's Defence  1.e4 Nf6
Caro-Kann Defence  1.e4 c6
French Defence 1.e4 e6
Sicilian Defence  1.e4 c5
Open variations 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 followed by 3.d4
Closed variations 1.e4 c5 2.Nc3 not followed by d4
Scandinavian Defence 1.e4 d5 
Pirc Defence 1.e4 d6 (may also be played against 1.d4)
Modern Defence 1.e4 g6 (may also be played against 1.d4)

Queen's Pawn openings

1...d5 replies 
Queen's Gambit Accepted  1.d4 d5 2.c4 dxc4
Queen's Gambit Declined  1.d4 d5 2.c4 e6
Slav Defence  1.d4 d5 2.c4 c6

Asymmetric replies 
Dutch Defence  1.d4 f5
Benoni Defense  1.d4 c5 or 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5
Benko Gambit  1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5 3.d5 b5
King's Indian Defence  1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 Bg7
Grünfeld Defence  1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 d5
Nimzo-Indian Defence  1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4
Queen's Indian Defence 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 b6
Budapest Gambit 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5

Other opening moves 
Zukertort opening  1.Nf3
English opening  1.c4
Bird's opening 1.f4

Sources
Sources

Sources for beginners 
There are few opening book for beginners. Some degree of understanding is needed before the details of an opening can be grasped. The endgame and middlegame should be studied before opening theory. The following books show complete games with elementary explanations of the moves:
Chernev, Irving 1998. Logical chess: move by move. London:Batsford. 
Chandler, Murray 2004. Chess for children. London:Gambit. 
King, Daniel 2000. Chess: from first moves to checkmate. London:Kingfisher. Illustrated, 64 pages. 
Pritchard, David Brine 2008. The right way to play chess. 8th ed, Right Way.  
Wolff, Patrick 2005. The complete idiot’s guide to chess. 3rd ed, New York:Alpha.
Other sources 
None of these are suitable for beginners, but might be used by chess teachers and players of intermediate strength. Tip for teachers: always check the book's reviews.
John Watson. Mastering the Chess Openings, Gambit Publications. Four volumes by a leading American author and chess coach. 
Volume 1 (1. e4):  (2006)
Volume 2 (1. d4):  (2007)
Volume 3 (1. c4):  (2009)
Volume 4: a wide-ranging discussion of general opening topics.  (2010)
Openings reference works:
Nick deFirmian et al. 2008. Modern chess openings, 15th ed, Random House N.Y.   (these two versions are almost identical)
John Nunn et al. 1999. Nunn's chess openings. Everyman, London.

Related pages 
Gambit

References 

Openings
was the 24th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  Historians consider details about the life of Emperor Ninken to be possibly legendary, but probable.  The name Ninken-tennō was created for him posthumously by later generations. 

No certain dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign.  The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.

Traditional history 
Ninken was a grandson of Emperor Richū; and he was adopted  by the childless Emperor Seinei.

Events of Ninken's life 
Very little is known about the events of Ninken's life and reign.  Only limited information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.

After his death 
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Ninken.
According to the Imperial Household Agency, the emperor's final resting place is in an earthen tumulus (kofun).  Ninken is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) which is associated with the burial mound.

Related pages
 Emperor of Japan
 List of emperors of Japan
 Japanese imperial family tree
 Kofun period

References 

Emperors of Japan
was the 25th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  Historians consider details about the life of Emperor Buretsu to be possibly legendary, but probable.  The name Buretsu-tennō was created for him posthumously by later generations.

No certain dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign.  The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.

Traditional history 
Buretsu was a son of Emperor Ninken.   Buretsu was childless; and he became been the last monarch of the first Imperial dynasty of Japan.

Events of Buretsu's life 
Very little is known about the events of Buretsu's life and reign.  Only limited information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.

As emperor, Buretsu is described as wicked in the Nihonshoki, but this assessment is not mirrored in the text of the Kojiki.
After his death 
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Buretsu.

The kami of Emperor Buretsu was venerated at a Shinto shrine in Takaichi, Yamato province.

According to the Imperial Household Agency, the emperor's final resting place is in an earthen tumulus (kofun).  Buretsu  is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) which is associated with the burial mound.

Related pages
 Emperor of Japan
 List of emperors of Japan
 Japanese imperial family tree
 Kofun period

References 

Emperors of Japan
are one of the basic local entities of Japan.   They are the 47 subdivisions of the country. Prefectures are the governmental bodies of Japan which are larger than cities, towns, and villages.

History
The former provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures between 1876 and 1879.

The word todōfuken combines the suffixes of the names of the 47 prefectures. The four suffixes are: 

 -to .... one metropolis, or large city (都 -to), Tokyo (東京都, Tōkyōto) 

 
-dō .... one “circuit” (道 -dō), Hokkaido (北海道, Hokkaidō)
-fu .... two city prefectures (府 -fu), Osaka (大阪府, Ōsakafu) and Kyoto (京都府, Kyōtofu)
-ken ... forty-three other prefectures (県 -ken)
Before World War II, different laws applied to fu and ken, but now two types of prefecture are the same, outside of their names.

Lists of prefectures

List in Japanese ISO order
The prefectures are often grouped into these nine regions (Chihō). The regions are not formally specified, they do not have elected officials, and they are not corporate bodies.  However, the practice of ordering prefectures based on their geographic region is traditional.  This ordering is mirrored in Japan's International Organization for Standardization (ISO) coding.  From north to south, the prefectures of Japan and their commonly associated regions are listed in traditional and in ISO 3166-2:JP order:

Okinawa Prefecture is traditionally thought of as part of the Kyūshū region of Japan.   Okinawa Prefecture is made up of islands which are southwest of the island of Kyushu.  The Japanese government recognizes the prefecture as its own region in new 9-region, 11-region and 13-region systems.

List in Western alphabetical order
The default alphabetic order in this sortable table can be altered to mirror the traditional Japanese regions and ISO parsing.
Notes: 1- Population as of 2000; 2- Area km2; 3- Density per km2

Related pages

 Provinces of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Further reading

 Steiner, Kurt. (1965).  Local Government in Japan. Stanford: Stanford University Press.   OCLC 250059672

Other websites
National Governors' Association Website (English)
Map of Japan showing administrative divisions
Japanese essay on types of prefectures
Local Authorities for International Relations (English)
CityMayors.com profile of prefectures
 Japan Mint.  Japan 47 Prefectures Coin Program
The List of Provinces of Japan changed over time.  The number and borders of provinces evolved from the 7th century through the Meiji Period. In the 1870s, the provinces were replaced by prefectures.

The traditional way of parsing the land of Japan was "five provinces and seven circuits" (go-shichidō).

Five Provinces
The traditional five core provinces of Japan were called goki.

Kinai

Izumi
Kawachi
Settsu　

Yamashiro　
Yamato 
Yoshino (716-738)

Shichido
The traditional seven core circuits of Japan were called shichidō.

Tōkaidō

Awa
Hitachi 
Iga　
Ise　
Izu　
Kai　
Kazusa 
Mikawa　

Musashi
Owari　
Sagami　
Shima　　
Shimōsa 
Suruga　
Tōtōmi

Tōsandō

Dewa
Hida 
Iwaki (718-724)
Iwaki (1868-1872)
Iwase (718-724)
Iwashiro (1868-1872)
Kōzuke
Mino 
Mutsu 

Mutsu (1868-1872)
Ōmi 
Rikuchū (1868-1872)
Rikuzen (1868-1872)
Shinano 
Suwa (721-731)
Ugo (1868-1872)
Uzen (1868-1872)

Hokurikudō

Echigo 
Echizen
Etchū
Kaga 

Noto
Sado　
Wakasa

San'indō

Hōki
Inaba　　
Izumo　
Iwami　

Oki
Tajima　
Tamba　
Tango

San'yōdō
San'yōdō

Aki　
Bingo 
Bitchū
Bizen 

Harima　
Mimasaka 
Nagato
Suō

Nankaidō 

Awa
Awaji 
Iyo

Kii
Sanuki　
Tosa

Saikaidō 

Chikugo　
Chikuzen　
Bungo 
Buzen 
Higo 
Hizen
 
Hyūga
Iki
Ōsumi 
Satsuma　
Tane (702-824)
Tsushima

Other
Koshi Province

Hokkaidō
The island was changed from Ezo to Hokkaidō, and 11 provinces were established in  1869-1882.
Chishima 
Hidaka 
Iburi 
Ishikari 
Kitami 
Kushiro 
Nemuro 
Oshima 
Shiribeshi 
Teshio 
Tokachi

Related pages

 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan

References

Other websites
  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Japan-related lists
Gilberto Kassab ( or ; born 12 August 1960 in São Paulo) was the mayor of São Paulo, the biggest city in Brazil. He is a member of the right-wing Democrat party. Kassab became famous when he brought in laws to stop billboard advertising, which he said were "visual pollution".

References

1960 births
Living people
Mayors of São Paulo
Terra nullius means unclaimed territory. It is the correct term in international law. It means land which does not (at present) belong to any state.   The term comes from the Latin, meaning Nobody's thing. There is also an expression no man's land, but that does not have a formal legal meaning.

Rule over terra nullius can be got by occupying the territory. There are various legal problems about this concept, but in practice it is often the business of neighbouring states to decide by negotiation. Diplomacy may sometimes be replaced by warfare.

Two territories that are currently terra nullius are Bir Tawil between Egypt and Sudan, and Marie Byrd Land, in Antarctica.

References

Legal terms
Property
The Free State (Afrikaans: Vrystaat, Sotho: Foreistata; before 1995, the Orange Free State) is a province of South Africa. Its capital is Bloemfontein, which is also South Africa's judicial capital, because the Supreme Court is there. The current borders of the province date from 1994 when the Bantustans were dissolved and were merged into the provinces of South Africa. It is also the only one of the older provinces of South Africa not to undergo border changes, not counting the incorporation of the Bantustans. It borders on six other provinces, and on Lesotho.

 
1994 establishments in South Africa
The Orange Free State () was a country in southern Africa. It was ruled by the Afrikaners. It was defeated by the British Empire and its colonies, the British Cape Colony and the Natal Colony, in the Second Boer War. It became the Orange River Colony and later joined with other colonies to make the Union of South Africa.

References 

1852 establishments
19th-century establishments in South Africa
1900s disestablishments in Africa
1850s establishments in Africa
1902 disestablishments
Former countries in Africa
Bir Tawil or Bi'r Tawīl (بيرطويل in Arabic; Bi'r or بير, meaning water well), is a small, , area. It is along the border between Egypt and Sudan. It is claimed by neither country right now. It is sometimes given the name the Bir Tawil Triangle, because even though it's not an exact triangle, it's made out of two triangles that share a border. The longer side is in the north of the area. It runs along the 22° north circle of latitude.

The administrative boundary of Sudan and Egypt was made in 1902. Their political boundary was set in 1899. It was set as the 22° north circle of latitude. This area lies south of the 22° parallel. East-to-west, the area is between  long in the south. It is  long in the north. It is between  and  wide north-to-south. It is also  in size.
The Bir Tawil area came under Egyptian administration in 1902. This was because it was grazing land of the Ababda tribe based near Aswan, Egypt. At the same time, the Hala'ib Triangle north of latitude 22° north, and northeast of the area, came under Sudanese administration. This was because the tribes of this area were based in Sudan.  The two "triangles" border at one point, a quadripoint.

History
In 1899, the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement for Sudan set the border between the territories at the 22nd parallel. At that time, the United Kingdom ruled the area. In 1902 the UK drew a separate "administrative boundary". Using this boundary,  a triangle of land north of the parallel was placed under Sudanese administration. It was because its inhabitants were closer to Khartoum than Cairo, both geographically and culturally. The area was ruled by the British Governor in Khartoum.
Egypt claims the original border from 1899, the 22° north circle of latitude. This would place the Hala'ib Triangle within Egypt and the Bir Tawil area within Sudan. Sudan claims the administrative border of 1902. This would put Hala'ib within Sudan, and Bir Tawil within Egypt. As a result, both states claim the Hala'ib Triangle. Neither state claims the much less valuable Bir Tawil area, which is only a tenth the size and is landlocked.  There is no basis in international law for Sudan or Egypt to claim both territories. It would also be difficult for any other state to claim the area. This is because only Sudan or Egypt border the land. As a result, Bir Tawil is one of the few land areas of the world which is not claimed by any state. The offical currency is the Sahrawi peseta but this is no longer circulated.

Bir Tawil is probably one of only two areas in the World which aren't claimed by any state. The other such area is Marie Byrd Land in Antarctica. There are a few private people who claim Bir Tawil.
Geography
In the north of the area is the mountain Jabal Tawil (جبل طويل in Arabic, located at ). It has a height of 459 meters. In the east is Jabal Ḩajar az Zarqā'. It has a height of 662 meters.

In the south is the Wadi Tawil (وادي طويل in Arabic, also called Khawr Abū Bard, located at ), near Nogaem Valley.

Other websites 
 International Boundary Study 
 Strange Maps: The Bir Tawil Trapezoid

References 

Territorial disputes
Geography of Egypt
Geography of Sudan
Hebe Maria Camargo (March, 8 1929 – September 29, 2012) is a Brazilian television host, actress and singer.

References

Other websites 

 Site program of Hebe at the SBT
 

1929 births
2012 deaths
Deaths from cardiac arrest
Brazilian actors
São Paulo (state)
Samuel Jacob Bradford (born November 8, 1987, in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma) is an American football quarterback for the Arizona Cardinals. He played for the Oklahoma Sooners college football team. He was drafted by the St. Louis Rams with the first overall pick in the 2010 National Football League (NFL) Draft. Bradford was the 2011 NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year.

Family background
Bradford is a Cherokee. (The Cherokee Nation is a Native American tribe.)

References

1987 births
American football quarterbacks
Arizona Cardinals players
Heisman Trophy winners
Living people
Minnesota Vikings players
Philadelphia Eagles players
Sportspeople from Oklahoma City
St. Louis Rams players
The Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park in Olmedilla de Alarcón, Spain, is the world’s largest photovoltaic plant.  Built in 2008, the plant uses more than 160,000 solar photovoltaic panels to generate 60 megawatts (peak). It produces enough electricity to power more than 40,000 homes.

Related pages
Photovoltaics

References

Solar power plants
Buildings and structures in Spain
2008 establishments in Europe
2000s establishments in Spain
The Strasskirchen Solar Park is a power station in Straßkirchen, Germany. It is the second-largest photovoltaic power station in the world, with an installed capacity of 54 MW.

References

Buildings and structures in Bavaria
Power stations in Germany
Solar power plants
Hiroshi Noguchi (born 25 February 1972) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics 

|-
|1994||rowspan="9"|Kyoto Purple Sanga||rowspan="2"|Football League||25||9||0||0||colspan="2"|-||25||9
|-
|1995||27||5||0||0||colspan="2"|-||27||5
|-
|1996||rowspan="5"|J. League 1||29||2||3||0||8||0||40||2
|-
|1997||29||4||1||0||3||0||33||4
|-
|1998||25||1||2||0||3||0||30||1
|-
|1999||22||1||2||1||4||0||28||2
|-
|2000||30||1||1||0||6||0||37||1
|-
|2001||J. League 2||40||4||4||1||1||0||45||4
|-
|2002||J. League 1||1||0||0||0||1||0||2||0
|-
|2003||Omiya Ardija||J. League 2||24||1||0||0||colspan="2"|-||24||1
252||28||13||2||26||0||291||30
252||28||13||2||26||0||291||30
|}

References 

1972 births
Living people
Footballers from Ibaraki Prefecture
Siegbert Tarrasch (Breslau, now Wrocław, 5 March 1862 – Munich, 17 February 1934) was a German doctor, and one of the strongest chess grandmasters of the day.

Tarrasch was born in Breslau, in Prussian Silesia. He left in 1880 to study medicine, and qualified as a physician. He lived most of his life in Nuremberg, Bavaria, and later in Munich. Tarrasch was born Jewish, and converted to Christianity in 1909. He was a patriotic German, who lost a son in World War I, but he faced antisemitism in the early stages of Nazism.
  
Tarrasch won more strong tournaments in the 1890s than any other player, and drew a 22-game match against Mikhail Chigorin, the leading Russian player. Tarrasch was also an influential chess writer, who summarised the chess ideas of the 1890s. It was his ideas against which the hypermoderns reacted in the early 1920s.p411
Chess author 
Tarrasch was a highly esteemed chess writer. His Dreihundert Schachpartien (1895; 300 chess games) was a landmark; it was the first 'best game collection' with in-depth annotations. The notes were readable and could be understood by ordinary players. This led to his being described as the praeceptor mundi, which is Latin for 'teacher of the world'. The book was called by the American grandmaster Reuben Fine "One of the monuments of our game".f/w

Tarrasch regularly wrote tournament reports and notes for games in the Deutsch Schachzeitung, the German-language chess magazine. These annotations were read throughout the world, since that was the leading chess magazine of the day.

In his later elementary textbook The game of chess (1931) he wrote 
"Chess, like love, like music, has the power to make men happy".

References

Other websites 
Capablanca on Tarrasch and other players
1862 births
1934 deaths
German chess players
German doctors
Jewish German writers
Jewish sportspeople
People from former German territories
People from Wrocław
Tetsuya Takada (born 31 July 1969) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1993||Fujita||Football League||||||||||||||||
|-
|1994||rowspan="6"|Bellmare Hiratsuka||rowspan="6"|J. League 1||15||0||0||0||1||0||16||0
|-
|1995||27||4||1||0||colspan="2"|-||28||4
|-
|1996||12||1||3||0||0||0||15||1
|-
|1997||28||1||3||0||1||1||32||2
|-
|1998||18||0||0||0||3||0||21||0
|-
|1999||23||0||1||0||1||1||25||1
|-
|2000||Shonan Bellmare||J. League 2||11||0||1||0||0||0||12||0
134||6||9||0||6||2||149||8
134||6||9||0||6||2||149||8
|}

References

1969 births
Living people
Footballers from Hiroshima
Tadamichi Machida (born 23 May 1981) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|2000||rowspan="3"|Kashiwa Reysol||rowspan="3"|J. League 1||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|2001||7||2||1||0||0||0||8||2
|-
|2002||3||0||0||0||6||0||9||0
|-
|2003||Kyoto Purple Sanga||J. League 1||14||4||0||0||2||0||16||4
|-
|2004||Kawasaki Frontale||J. League 2||16||2||0||0||colspan="2"|-||16||2
|-
|2005||Tokyo Verdy||J. League 1||11||2||0||0||1||0||12||2
51||10||1||0||9||0||61||10
51||10||1||0||9||0||61||10
|}

References

1981 births
Living people
Footballers from Saitama Prefecture
Branko Hucika (born 10 July 1977) is a former Croatian football player.

1977 births
Living people
Croatian footballers
Sportspeople from Zagreb
Goran Vasilijević (born August 27, 1965) is a former Serbian football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1995||rowspan="2"|JEF United Ichihara||rowspan="2"|J. League 1||32||4||0||0||colspan="2"|-||32||4
|-
|1996||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
32||4||0||0||0||0||32||4
32||4||0||0||0||0||32||4
|}

References

1965 births
Living people
Serbian footballers
Owusu Benson (born 22 March 1977) is a Ghanaian football player. He has played for Ghana national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1994/95||Sportul Studenţesc Bucureşti||Divizia A||18||0

|-
|1995/96||Solothurn||Nationalliga B||0||0
|-
|1995/96||rowspan="2"|Yverdon-Sport||rowspan="2"|Nationalliga B||12||5
|-
|1996/97||31||7
|-
|1997/98||Kriens||Nationalliga A||24||4
|-
|1998/99||Sion||Nationalliga A||33||3

|-
|2000||JEF United Ichihara||J. League 1||23||2

|-
|2000/01||rowspan="2"|Wil||rowspan="2"|Nationalliga B||10||0
|-
|2001/02||30||1
|-
|2002/03||Delémont||Nationalliga A||33||2
|-
|2004/05||rowspan="5"|Kriens||rowspan="4"|Challenge League||31||1
|-
|2005/06||25||5
|-
|2006/07||33||5
|-
|2007/08||25||7
|-
|2008/09||1. Liga||||
|-
|2009/10||Buochs||2. Liga Interregional||||
18||0
287||40
23||2
328||42
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1999||1||0
|-
!Total||1||0
|}

References

1977 births
Living people
Ghanaian footballers
Sportspeople from Accra
Massimo Taibi (born 18 February 1970) is a former Italian football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1987/88||rowspan="2"|Licata||Serie C1||0||0
|-
|1988/89||Serie B||1||0
|-
|1989/90||Trento||Serie C1||23||0
|-
|1990/91||Milan||Serie A||0||0
|-
|1991/92||Como||Serie C1||34||0
|-
|1992/93||rowspan="5"|Piacenza||Serie B||38||0
|-
|1993/94||Serie A||34||0
|-
|1994/95||Serie B||38||0
|-
|1995/96||rowspan="2"|Serie A||33||0
|-
|1996/97||34||0
|-
|1997/98||Milan||Serie A||17||0
|-
|1998/99||rowspan="2"|Venezia||rowspan="2"|Serie A||33||0
|-
|1999/00||1||0

|-
|1999/00||Manchester United||Premier League||4||0

|-
|1999/00||rowspan="2"|Reggina||rowspan="2"|Serie A||18||0
|-
|2000/01||34||1
|-
|2001/02||rowspan="5"|Atalanta||rowspan="2"|Serie A||30||0
|-
|2002/03||33||0
|-
|2003/04||Serie B||46||0
|-
|2004/05||Serie A||22||0
|-
|2005/06||Serie B||42||0
|-
|2006/07||Torino||Serie A||3||0
|-
|2007/08||rowspan="2"|Ascoli||rowspan="2"|Serie B||34||0
|-
|2008/09||13||0
561||1
4||0
565||1
|}

References
References

1970 births
Living people
Footballers from Sicily
Sportspeople from Palermo
Noureddine Naybet (born 10 February 1970) is a former Moroccan football player. He has played for Morocco national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1993/94||Nantes Atlantique||Division 1||34||1

|-
|1994/95||rowspan="2"|Sporting Portugal||rowspan="2"|Portuguese Liga||26||2
|-
|1995/96||28||3

|-
|1996/97||rowspan="8"|Deportivo La Coruña||rowspan="8"|La Liga||34||1
|-
|1997/98||31||4
|-
|1998/99||30||0
|-
|1999/00||25||0
|-
|2000/01||26||1
|-
|2001/02||24||2
|-
|2002/03||25||1
|-
|2003/04||16||1

|-
|2004/05||rowspan="2"|Tottenham Hotspur||rowspan="2"|Premier League||27||1
|-
|2005/06||3||0
34||1
54||5
211||10
30||1
39||17
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1990||4||0
|-
|1991||4||0
|-
|1992||7||0
|-
|1993||8||0
|-
|1994||7||0
|-
|1995||3||0
|-
|1996||6||0
|-
|1997||7||2
|-
|1998||12||0
|-
|1999||7||0
|-
|2000||9||0
|-
|2001||9||0
|-
|2002||8||0
|-
|2003||6||0
|-
|2004||9||0
|-
|2005||3||0
|-
|2006||6||0
|-
!Total||115||2
|}

References
References

1970 births
Living people
Moroccan footballers
People from Casablanca
Kim Hyun-Seok (born 5 May 1967) is a South Korean professional athlete.  He is best known as an association football player. He was a member of the Korean national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|2000||Verdy Kawasaki||J. League 1||25||16||0||0||4||1||29||17
25||16||0||0||4||1||29||17

|-
|2000||rowspan="4"|Ulsan Hyundai||||||||||||||||
|-
|2001||||||||||||||||||
|-
|2002||||||||||||||||||
|-
|2003||||||||||||||||||
||||||||||||||
25||16||0||0||4||1||29||17
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1990||2||0
|-
|1991||4||0
|-
|1992||2||0
|-
|1993||5||1
|-
|1994||3||1
|-
|1995||3||0
|-
|1996||4||3
|-
!Total||23||5
|}

References

1967 births
Living people
South Korean footballers
Kwanzaa is a week long celebration held in the United States to honor universal African heritage and culture. People light a kinara (candle holder with seven candles) and give each other gifts. It takes place from December 26 to January 1 every year. It was created by Maulana Karenga and was first celebrated in 1966 - 1967. Non-African Americans also celebrate Kwanzaa. The holiday greeting is "Joyous Kwanzaa".

History and name of the holiday
Kwanzaa is a celebration that started in the black nationalist movement of the 1960s. It was created as a way to help African Americans reconnect with their African cultural and historical heritage. 

The name Kwanzaa comes from the Swahili phrase matunda ya kwanza, meaning first fruits of the harvest.
During the early years of Kwanzaa, Karenga said that it was meant to be an alternative to Christmas, that Jesus was psychotic, and that Christianity was a white religion that black people should shun. However, as Kwanzaa became more popular, Karenga changed his position so that practicing Christians could also feel included. He stated in the 1997 Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community, and Culture, "Kwanzaa was not created to give people an alternative to their own religion or religious holiday."

Many Christian African Americans who celebrate Kwanzaa do so in addition to observing Christmas.

Principles and symbols
Kwanzaa celebrates what its founder called the seven principles of Kwanzaa, or Nguzo Saba (originally Nguzu Saba—the seven principles of blackness). Karenga said that this "is a communitarian African philosophy," . It consists of what Karenga called "the best of African thought and practice in constant exchange with the world." These seven principles comprise Kawaida, a Swahili term for tradition and reason. Each of the seven days of Kwanzaa is dedicated to one of the following principles, as follows:
Umoja  (Unity): To strive for and to maintain unity in the family, community, nation, and race.
Kujichagulia  (Self-Determination): To define ourselves, name ourselves, create for ourselves, and speak for ourselves.
Ujima (Collective Work and Responsibility): To build and maintain our community together. To make our brothers' and sisters' problems our problems, and to solve them together.
Ujamaa (Cooperative Economics): To build and maintain our own stores, shops, and other businesses and to profit from them together.
Nia  (Purpose): To make our collective goal the building and developing of our community. This in order to restore our people to their traditional greatness.
Kuumba (Creativity): To do always as much as we can, in the way we can. This so that we can leave our community more beautiful and better than we inherited it.
Imani (Faith): To believe with all our heart in our people, our parents, our teachers, our leaders, and the righteousness and victory of our struggle.
During Kwanzaa, families also decorate their households with objects of art. They use colorful African cloth such as kente, especially the wearing of kaftans by women. Fresh fruits that represent African idealism are also used. It is normal to include children in Kwanzaa ceremonies and to give respect and gratitude to ancestors. Libations are shared, generally with a common chalice (a shared cup), Kikombe cha Umoja, passed around to all people present. A Kwanzaa ceremony may include drumming and musical selections, libations, a reading of the African Pledge and the Principles of Blackness, reflection on the Pan-African colors, a discussion of the African principle of the day or a chapter in African history, a candle-lighting ritual, artistic performance, and, finally, a feast (Karamu). The greeting for each day of Kwanzaa is Habari Gani? which is Swahili for "What's the News?"
Cultural exhibitions include the Spirit of Kwanzaa, an annual celebration held at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts featuring interpretive dance, African dance, song and poetry.

Related pages
The Black Candle (2009) – a documentary film about Kwanzaa, narrated by Maya Angelou 
Dashiki – A shirt or suit worn during Kwanzaa celebrations
Kaftan (boubou) – A dress worn by women during Kwanzaa celebrations
Kufi – A cap worn during Kwanzaa celebrations
Further reading
 A program to raise the faith level in African-American children through Scripture, Kwanzaa principles, and culture, Janette Elizabeth Chandler Kotey, DMin, Oral Roberts University,1999
 The US Organization: African American cultural nationalism in the era of Black Power, 1965 to the 1970s, Scot D. Brown, PhD, Cornell University, 1999
Rituals of race, ceremonies of culture: Kwanzaa and the making of a Black Power holiday in the United States,1966—2000, Keith Alexander Mayes, PhD, Princeton University, 2002
Interview: Kwanzaa creator Ron Karenga discusses the evolution of the holiday and its meaning in 2004, conducted by Tony Cox. Tavis Smiley (NPR), 26 December 2003
Tolerance in the News: Kwanzaa: A threat to Christmas? By Camille Jackson | Staff Writer, Tolerance.org, 22 December 2005

References

Other websites
 The Official Kwanzaa Web Site 
 The Black Candle: a Kwanzaa Celebration by Maya Angelou 
 Why Kwanzaa was created by Karenga 
 The History Channel: Kwanzaa

References
References

Holidays of the United States
1966 establishments in the United States
African-American history
Pan-Africanism
Interventional radiology is defined as the branch of medicine that diagnoses and treats a wide range of diseases using actions that are performed through the skin (for example an injection) or carried out with the least damage by x-rays, sonography, and so on.

Some of these procedures are done only for diagnostic purposes, while others are done for treatment purposes. Images are used to direct these procedures, which are usually done with needles or other tiny instruments like small tubes called catheters. The images provide road maps that allow the Interventional Radiologist to guide these instruments through the body to the areas containing diseases.

Medicine
Chess Olympiads are chess  events open to all national teams. They have been run since 1927 by the world chess organisation, FIDE. Since 1950, they have been run every two years. Earlier events were all-play-all. Then, as numbers grew, a system of qualifying sections were used. In recent times, the format has been a Swiss system. This, in chess terms, is a method whereby opponents are chosen each round to have similar scores. It has been widely used for individual tournaments.
Recognised sport
Chess is a recognized sport by the International Olympic Committee with FIDE being the recognized International Sports Federation for chess since June 1999.
As a member of the International Olympic Committee, FIDE adheres to its rules, including controversially having doping tests. The prospects of chess becoming an Olympic sporting event at some future date remain unclear. The naming of FIDE's team championship as the "Chess Olympiad" is of historical origin and implies no connection between this event and the Olympic Games.

The next Chess Olympiad will be held in 2014 in Norway.

Open section 

* In 1936 FIDE refused its approval on grounds of Nazi anti-semitism; however, the organisers accepted Jewish players, and many did play in the event.

* In 1976 the USSR and other communist countries did not compete for political reasons.

References 

Chess competitions
Cassandra Elizabeth Austen (9 January 1773 – 22 March 1845) was the older sister of Jane Austen. She was Jane's best friend and a beauty. Her fiancé died; she never married.

Childhood
Austen was born in 1773 in Steventon, Hampshire. Her father was the Rev. George Austen (1731–1805), and her mother was Cassandra, née Leigh (1739–1827). There were 8 Austen children. As Cassandra and Jane were the only girls they kept up an especially close friendship through their entire lives. Over 100 letters addressed to Cassandra from Jane are still kept. These letters have helped historians to find out more details about the life of Jane Austen. When Cassandra went to school, Jane followed her. At first it was arranged that Jane was not to go, as she was considered to be too young for schooling. However, she ended up going with Cassandra. In their mother's words, "if Cassandra's head had been going to be cut off, Jane would have hers cut off too".