Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
After the Nazis occupied parts of the Soviet Union, they treated Soviet civilians terribly.  During the siege of Leningrad, more than 1.2 million civilians died.  Nazi soldiers destroyed thousands of peasant villages across Russia, Belarus, and the Ukraine.  In 1995, the Russian Academy of Sciences reported that the Nazis caused 13.7 million civilian deaths in the occupied Soviet Union, including Jews.  This was 20% of the area's population.  These deaths included:
 7.4 million victims of Nazi genocide and reprisals
 2.2 million deaths of persons deported to Germany as forced labor
 4.1 million deaths from famine and disease

About three million people also died of starvation in areas that the Nazis had not taken over.

Roma and Sinti people 
Under the Nazis' Nuremberg Laws, the Sinti and Roma people were called "enemies of the race-based [Germany]," just like Jews.  Like with the Jews, the Nazis wanted to kill all of the Roma and Sinti people in Europe.
In 1936, the Nazis began deporting Roma and Sinti people, first to areas on the outside edges of cities, and later to the same ghettoes that Jews were sent to.  In 1942, Heinrich Himmler ordered that the Roma and Sinti people (including children) should be sent to Auschwitz concentration camp.  The Nazis also sent many Roma and Sinti adults and children to other death camps, like Bełżec, and to other concentration camps, like Ravensbrück.

Historians estimate that 220,000 to 500,000 Roma and Sinti were killed by the Nazis.  This was about one in every four Roma and Sinti people who lived in Europe at the time.  However, one researcher says that as many as 1.5 million Roma and Sinti may have died during The Holocaust.
After World War II, it took a long time for countries to admit that Nazi Germany had committed a genocide against the Roma and Sinti people.  In 1982, West Germany admitted that a genocide of the Roma had happened. In 2011, the Polish Government ruled that Poland would honor the Roma genocide on the 2nd of August, every year.

Disabilities

The Nazis believed that people with disabilities were "life unworthy of life," and that they did not deserve to live.  People with disabilities also did not fit into the Nazis' ideas about having a race of perfect "Aryans."

The Nazis forced about 375,000 people to be sterilized so they could not have children with disabilities.  These people included people with physical disabilities, mental illnesses, intellectual disabilities, and the Deaf.
People with disabilities were the first people the Nazis killed in gas chambers.  In 1939, the Nazis set up a program called the T-4 Euthanasia Program.  As part of this program, the Nazis sent children and adults with disabilities to hospitals like Hartheim Euthanasia Centre, where they were killed with poison gas.  They also killed some children with disabilities right after they were born.  By the end of World War II, the Nazis had killed about 275,000 people with disabilities.  About 5,000 to 7,000 of these victims were children.

Homosexuality
Homosexuality

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people were also victims of The Holocaust.  The Nazis were especially cruel to gay men.  They thought that homosexual people hurt Nazi Germany in a few ways:
 The Nazis thought gay men were too weak and too much like women to be able to fight for Nazi Germany
 The Nazis wanted "Aryan" Germans to have as many children as possible, but gay men would not be creating children
 The Nazis thought homosexuality was contagious, and that other Germans would become homosexual just by being around gay people

By 1936, Heinrich Himmler was trying to use Germany's laws, and make new laws, to persecute gay men.  At least 100,000 gay German men were arrested, and 50,000 were convicted and put in prison. Some were forced into state-run psychiatric hospitals.  Courts ordered hundreds of European gay men living in Nazi-controlled areas to be castrated with chemicals.
Between 5,000 and 15,000 gay men were imprisoned in concentration camps.  They were often treated even worse than other prisoners. They had to wear a pink triangle on their shirts, just like men convicted of sexually abusing children and having sex with animals.

Lesbians were not usually treated as badly as gay men.  They were usually not put in prison just because they were lesbians. In the concentration camps, they usually wore a black triangle.

According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, "Nazi Germany did not seek to kill all homosexuals. Nevertheless, the Nazi state, through active persecution, attempted to terrorise German homosexuals into sexual and social conformity, leaving thousands dead and shattering the lives of many more."
After World War II, many homosexuals who were liberated from the concentration camps were still persecuted in Germany. They could be charged under Paragraph 175, a law which made "lewdness between men" illegal.  If they were convicted, they would be sent to prison.  (The time they spent in the concentration camps would be subtracted from their sentences.)  This was very different from how other Holocaust victims were treated.  Other victims were compensated (given money) for the loss of family members and educational opportunities.  Gay victims were treated like criminals.

Politics
The Nazis also killed many people who did not agree with the Nazis' political beliefs.  They thought of these people as political enemies of Nazi Germany.
Political prisoners 
The Nazis were especially cruel to people who spoke out or fought against the Nazi government.  When they arrested these people, the Nazis often killed them right after questioning them.  Sometimes, the Nazis killed their families too.  People who were not killed right away were sent to the political People's Court.  This court was famous for the number of death sentences it gave.

Leftists 
The Nazis thought of leftists as political enemies.  Leftists included anarchist, communists, socialists, liberals, libertarians and social democrats. German communists and Social Democrats were some of the first people to be sent to Dachau concentration camp.  The Nazi Party hated communism, and was worried that German communists would be loyal to the Soviet Union, a communist country.  The Nazis spread rumors about communist violence to get the Enabling Act of 1933 passed.  This law gave Adolf Hitler his first powers as a dictator.
Hitler and the Nazis also hated German leftists because they did not agree with the Nazis' racism.  When the Nazis took over a place, communists, socialists, liberals and social democrats were usually some of the first people they abused.  Sometimes they would murder leftists right away.

Religion

Jehovah's Witnesses

As part of their religious beliefs, Jehovah's Witnesses refused to serve in the German Army, salute the Nazi flag, or say "Heil Hitler" ("Hail Hitler").  They refused to go along with Nazi beliefs and laws that went against their religious beliefs.

Because of this, many Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps.  Between 2,500 and 5,000 Witnesses died in the concentration camps.

Roman Catholics

The Nazis also attacked the Catholic Church during The Holocaust.  Hitler wanted to destroy Catholicism and Christianity in Nazi Germany, and make Nazi Germany pagan instead. Thousands of German clergy, nuns, and Catholic leaders were arrested after the Nazis took over.
In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland, beginning World War II.  Poland was mostly Catholic.  The Nazis wanted to destroy Poland.  They started by destroying the Catholic Church in Poland.  They arrested the Church's leaders and closed churches and monasteries.  In 1940, the Nazis created a special barracks just for priests at Dachau concentration camp. Of 2,720 clergy imprisoned at Dachau, almost all (94.88 percent) were Catholic.  About 1,700 were Polish priests; half of them died or were killed at Dachau.  The Nazis even made it illegal for priests anywhere to give Catholic sacraments to Polish people.  At least one German priest was sent to Dachau for taking a confession from a Polish Catholic.

In 1933, Germany had made an agreement with the Holy See to protect Catholicism in Nazi Germany.  However, the Nazis often broke this agreement. They shut down the Catholic press, schools, political parties and youth groups in Germany amid murder and mass arrests.
The Church was treated especially badly in lands that Germany took over.  In Austria, Catholic property was taken, Catholic organizations were closed, and many priests were sent to Dachau.  In Czechoslovakia, the Nazis refused to let people follow religious orders; closed schools; made religious teachings illegal; and sent priests to concentration camps.  Catholic people, bishops, clergy, and nuns protested and attacked Nazi policies.

In 1942, Dutch bishops protested the mistreatment of the Jews. When the Dutch Archbishop refused to obey the Nazis, the Gestapo rounded up Catholic "Jews" and sent 92 to Auschwitz  A Dutch Catholic nun named Edith Stein was murdered at Auschwitz.  So was Maximilian Kolbe, a Polish priest.  Both were eventually made into Catholic saints by Pope John Paul II in the 1980s.  Other Catholic victims of the Holocaust have also been beatified, including some of the Polish priests who died at Dachau.

Protestants
Protestants

Some Protestant Churches agreed with Nazi ideas.  Others did not.  To try to take over Protestantism in Germany, the Nazis formed the National Reich Church: an official state church that taught a state religion based on Nazism.  The Reich Church:
 Took away all Christian crosses and replaced them with the Nazi swastika
 Fired all clergy members and replaced them with Nazi speakers
 Demanded that the Bible never be printed in Germany again
 Put Hitler's book Mein Kampf on the altars of all its churches

They fired all clergy members who were not "Aryan."  Church members called themselves "German Christians" and said they had "the swastika on their chest and the cross in their heart."
Protestant groups that disagreed with Nazi ideas formed the Confessing Church, a group of German churches.  Martin Niemöller was one or their leaders. Nazis persecuted the Confessing Church.  In May 1936, the Confessing Church sent a letter to Hitler criticizing his actions.  The Nazis reacted by:
 Arresting hundreds of pastors
 Sending some of the Confessing Church's leaders to concentration camps
 Taking all of the Confessing Church's money
 Making it illegal for the Confessing Church's members to give money to the Church

Most pastors and churches were not members of either the Reich Church or the Confessing Church.  Pastors who spoke out against what the Nazis were doing were threatened, arrested, and sometimes sent to concentration camps.

Bahá'í Faith

In 1937, the Nazis made it illegal to practice the Bahá'í Faith.  The Nazis closed all Bahá'í organizations in Germany.  The Nazis did not like the Bahá'í Faith because it taught pacifism.
Throughout the Holocaust, Bahá'ís were arrested and given very expensive fines.  The Nazis also continued to close their organizations.

Freemasons 

The Nazis blamed Freemasonry for Germany losing World War I.  They said the Freemasons' leaders were part of a conspiracy with Jewish people to take over Germany.  In 1941, Adolf Hitler decided that Masons were political enemies.  The Nazis sent tens of thousands of Masons to concentration camps.  Between 80,000 to 200,000 Freemasons were killed.

Total deaths
This table estimates the total number of deaths caused by The Holocaust.

Photo gallery

References

The Holocaust
Charles Louis Schultze (December 12, 1924 – September 27, 2016) was an American economist and public policy analyst. He served as the Chairperson of the Council of Economic Advisers during the President Carter Administration.

Schultze was appointed the assistant director of the Bureau of the Budget by President John F. Kennedy in 1962, and was the Director from 1965 until 1968 during President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society agenda.

Schultze was born in Alexandria, Virginia. He studied at Georgetown University and at the University of Maryland, College Park. He was a veteran of WWII, serving in the army in the European theater. Schultze died from complications of sepsis caused by dementia on September 27, 2016 in Washington, D.C., aged 92.

References

Other websites
 Brookings scholar page
 Census Bureau biography
 Selected papers of Charles Schultze cited in the Allan H. Meltzer book A History of the Federal Reserve.
1924 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from sepsis
Deaths from dementia
American economists
United States Council of Economic Advisers
Directors of the Office of Management and Budget
American military personnel of World War II
Politicians from Virginia
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
People from Alexandria, Virginia
Military people from Virginia
Ramón Eusebio Castro Ruz (October 14, 1924 – February 23, 2016) was a Cuban politician. He was the older brother of Fidel and Raúl Castro. He was a key figure of the Cuban Revolution. Castro was born in Birán, Oriente Province. After the revolution, Castro left his family farm as it became legal property of the state. He continued to dedicate himself to the study of agriculture.

Castro died on February 23, 2016 in Havana. He was aged 91.

References

Other websites
Braga, Michael. The other Castro brother  in the Sarasota Herald-Tribune, June 15, 2004
 

1924 births
2016 deaths
Cuban politicians
Fidel Castro
ThrustSSC, Thrust SSC, or Thrust supersonic car, is a car powered by a jet engine. It was made by Richard Noble, Glynne Bowsher, Ron Ayers and Jeremy Bliss of the United Kingdom.

Thrust SSC is the fastest land vehicle. When tested on 15 October 1997, the car traveled at 1227 kilometres per hour.

References

Automobiles
École Centrale de Nantes (or Centrale Nantes) is a graduate engineering school in France. Its campus is in Nantes.

It awards the following degrees:
 Bachelor of Science (Hons) in Engineering
Diplôme d'ingénieur - equivalent to a Master of Science and Engineering
Masters of Science, Technology and Health 
Erasmus Mundus Joint Master Degrees
Advanced Masters (Mastères Spécialisés)
PhD

Centrale Nantes is a member of the Ecoles Centrale Group, (with CentraleSupélec, Centrale Lille, Centrale Lyon, Centrale Marseille, and Centrale Beijing). The school also takes part in international networks: T.I.M.E (Top Industrial Managers for Europe), RMEI , Magalhaes and Heritage Network. In 2014, the Alliance Centrale - Audencia - ensa Nantes was created, bringing together Centrale Nantes, Audencia Business School and l'Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Nantes. As part of this alliance the Centrale-Audencia-ensa business incubator was created.
Classes are taught in French and English languages. The school has students from over 70 nationalities.

Admission 
Admission to courses at Master's level is possible after two- or three-year scientific undergraduate studies. The main admission routes are via: 
 a Bachelor degree in science (for the 2-year curriculum), or
 the French nationwide selective examination with numerus clausus : concours Centrale-Supelec (for the 3-year curriculum)
 selection by a partner institution (e.g. Top Industrial Managers for Europe (TIME) double degrees procedures applicable in Europe (2+2-year curriculum, including 2 years in France)
The engineering programme, which leads to the award of diplôme d'ingénieur, typically lasts three years. It involves work experience and time spent abroad. Students who successfully completed Master's level courses earn 300 ECTS credits in the European education system.
 
Students enrolled in a double degree programme spend two years at Centrale Nantes and two years in the partner institution. After these four years a double master's degree is awarded.

Research labs 
Research at Centrale Nantes is centred on three main priorities: factory of the future, energy transition and engineering for health. The main research topics are:
 Ocean engineering and MRE
 Computer science and automation
 Robotics
Energy and engines
Manufacturing and Additive Manufacturing
Engineering for health
 Civil engineering and innovative concrete
 Numerical simulation and high performance computing 
Materials science and composites
 Urban environment

References

More reading 

 Official website
Official website

Technical colleges and universities in France
1919 establishments in France
Nantes
Broca's area is a region in the brain of humans and other hominids. It is in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left. It works as part of "speech production".

Language processing has been linked to Broca's area after Pierre Paul Broca. Broca did autopsies on patients who had difficuty speaking when they were alive. He found damage to a particular area of the brain.  They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain. 

Since then, the region he identified has become known as Broca's area. The deficit in language production is Broca's aphasia, also called 'expressive aphasia'. 

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have identified activation patterns in Broca's area associated with various language tasks. However, slow destruction of the Broca's area by brain tumors can leave speech relatively intact. This suggests that, given time, its functions can shift to nearby areas in the brain.
Related pages 
 Cerebral hemisphere
 Lateralization of brain function
 Wernicke's area

References 

Anatomy of the brain
Language
Star City may refer to:

Places
Canada
Star City, Saskatchewan

Russia
Star City, Russia

United States
Star City, Arkansas
Star City, Illinois
Star City, Indiana
Star City, Michigan
Star City, Nevada
Star City, West Virginia
Lafayette, Indiana, nicknamed Star City
Lincoln, Nebraska, nicknamed Star City
Roanoke, Virginia, nicknamed the Star City of the South

Entertainment
Star City (amusement park), a theme park in Manila, Philippines
Star City (entertainment complex), an entertainment venue in Birmingham, United Kingdom
Star City (shopping mall), a shopping complex in Seoul, South Korea
The Star (casino), a casino in Sydney, formerly known as Star City

Others
Star City (comics), a fictional city
The antbirds are a large passerine bird family, the Thamnophilidae. They are found in subtropical and tropical Central and South America, from Mexico to Argentina. There are more than 200 species called antshrikes, antwrens, antvireos, fire-eyes, bare-eyes and bushbirds.

They are related to the antthrushes and antpittas (family Formicariidae), the tapaculos, the gnateaters and the ovenbirds. Despite some species' common names, this family is not closely related to the wrens, vireos or shrikes.

Antbirds are generally small birds with rounded wings and strong legs. They have mostly dull grey, white, brown and rufous plumage. The two sexes have somewhat different pattern and colouring. Some species communicate warnings to rivals by exposing white feather patches on their backs or shoulders. Most have heavy bills, which in many species are hooked at the tip.
Most species live in forests, although a few are found in other habitats. They eat mostly insects and other arthropods. Small vertebrates are occasionally taken. Most species feed in the understory and midstory of the forest, although a few feed in the canopy and a few on the ground.

About eighteen species specialise in following columns of army ants to eat the small invertebrates flushed out by the ants.

Antbirds are monogamous, mate for life, and defend territories. They usually lay two eggs in a nest.  Both parents share the tasks of incubating eggs  and raising the nestlings. After fledging, each parent cares exclusively for one chick.

Thirty-eight species are threatened with extinction as a result of human activities. The main threat is habitat loss, which lets predators get at their nests more easily.

References 

Tyranni
The Fort de Joux (or Château de Joux) is a castle, transformed into a fort, in France. It is located in La Cluse-et-Mijoux in the Doubs department in the Jura mountains.

Castles in France
Forts in Europe
Doubs
15th-century buildings and structures
Ratified on December 15, 1791, the Eighth Amendment (Amendment VIII) to the United States Constitution is a part of the United States Bill of Rights. This amendment has three parts that each grant specific rights. The excessive bail clause limits excessive bail for any person arrested for a crime but has not yet been placed on trial. The excessive fines clause is intended to limit fines imposed by state and federal governments on persons who have been convicted of a crime. The most controversial and most important part is the cruel and unusual punishment clause. The Eighth Amendment applies to criminal punishment and not to most civil procedures.

Text
Text

Background 
The wording of the Eighth Amendment is almost the same as three of the provisions in the English Bill of Rights of 1689. These provisions were based on the case of Titus Oates, whose lies under oath caused the execution of many innocent people. Because the English authorities did not want to make honest people fear to give evidence in court, he was not put to death. While his punishment included those considered ordinary at the time, the combination of these punishments were applied in an excessive and brutal way. Oates was convicted of sedition, thrown into prison to remain there. However, after James II of England became king in 1685, he was tried again, this time for perjury. In addition to being imprisoned for life, he was to be "whipped through the streets of London five days a year for the remainder of his life." The first use of the provision of the English Bill of Rights was the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776.
Excessive bail clause 
Bail is the amount of money, property or bond that a defendant has to give to the court to guarantee his or her appearance at trial. The bail put up by the defendant may be recovered at the end of the trial. But if a defendant fails to appear at the time the trial is scheduled, the bail is forfeited and the defendant may face additional penalties. A judge, when setting the amount of bail, has to consider several factors. These include the nature of the offense, how much evidence there is against the accused and what ties the defendant has to the community. The judge must also take into account the defendant's ability to pay the amount of the bail and how likely it is the defendant will simply flee and not stand trial. All defendants are presumed innocent. Setting bail for an unreasonable amount would restrict the freedom and ability of the defendant to make a living as well as make it difficult to support his or her family.
Excessive fines clause 
This clause limits the government's power to set fines, which are payments for a punishment or offense. The amount of the fine must be proportional to the seriousness of the offense. A fine violates this clause if it is grossly disproportional to the nature of the defendant's offense.

In 1993, in Austin v. United States, the United States Supreme Court ruled that this clause applied also to civil procedures. In doing this the Court reversed not only its own previous rulings but also those by several circuit courts of appeal.
Cruel and unusual punishments clause 
The phrase "cruel and unusual punishments" was first used in 1789 in the English Bill of Rights. In 1776, George Mason added it to the Virginia Declaration of Rights. In 1791, this same prohibition became the central part of the Eighth Amendment. Patrick Henry was among those who argued that prohibiting cruel and unusual punishment should be part of the Bill of Rights. Otherwise the new federal government could use torture to get confessions. Torture was still being used at the time by Spain, France and Germany. The United States should not follow their example. Because of these arguments this was added to the Eighth Amendment. Very few would disagree that the use of rack, thumbscrews or the gibbet are cruel and unusual punishments and clearly violate the Eighth Amendment. But past that point it becomes controversial as to what is and what is not cruel and unusual punishment.
In 1910, in Weems v. United States, the Supreme Court admitted that “what constitutes a cruel and unusual punishment has not been exactly decided.” The Supreme Court began using the "evolving standards of decency" test. In Trop v Dulles (1958) the Court agreed with the view that what are prohibited "cruel and unusual punishments" should change over time based on punishments that offend society's "evolving sense of decency." Very recently the courts have been reluctant to keep the term "unusual" in their judicial interpretations.

Originalists find that evaluating whether a punishment is cruel and unusual still come under the evolving standards test and public opinion. In Coker v. Georgia (1977) the Supreme Court held that the death penalty is unconstitutional for those convicted of rape. This was based largely on the fact only one of the 50 states used this sentence. Even then, juries in that state did not use it very often.
Waterboarding has been seen as torture since the Spanish Inquisition. US Soldiers who were caught waterboarding in the Philippines in 1901, or during the Vietnam War, in 1968, were put on trial. When done by other governments the US has not failed to call it torture. The Bush administration maintained it was not bound by the constitutional test outside of the United States. Justice Antonin Scalia had said in an interview with the BBC that he did not see anything in the constitution that prohibited torture of detainees. Not when it was for the purpose of gaining information. He said it would be unconstitutional if it were inflicted as a punishment, however. At his inauguration in 2009, US President Barack Obama pledged to end “enhanced interrogation techniques” by the CIA and to close Guantánamo through executive orders.

Notes

References 

United States Bill of Rights
08
Wernicke's area is an area of the brain. It is one of the two parts of the cerebral cortex linked to speech (the other is Broca's area). It is involved in the production of written and spoken language. 

It is in Brodmann area 22, in the dominant cerebral hemisphere. The dominant hemisphere is the left in about 95% of right handed individuals, and 60% of left handed individuals. 

As with Broca's area, Wernicke's area was discovered by autopsies of patients who had speech difficulties. Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist, had a patient who could speak quite well, but was unable to understand the speech of others.  After the patient's death, Wernicke found damage to an area at the upper portion of the temporal lobe, just behind the auditory cortex. He thought, correctly, that this area was responsible for speech comprehension. This kind of aphasia is known as Wernicke's aphasia, or receptive aphasia.
"When you ask a person with this problem a question, they will respond with a sentence that is more or less grammatical, but which contains words that have little to do with the question or, for that matter, with each other. Strange, meaningless, but grammatical sentences come forth, a phenomenon called "word salad".Like Broca's area is not just about speech production, Wernicke's is not just about speech comprehension. People with Wernicke's aphasia also have difficulty naming things, often responding with words that sound similar, or the names of related things, as if they are having a very hard time with their mental dictionaries".

Despite the fact that Broca's and Wernicke's areas are in different lobes, they are quite near each other. They are connected by a tract of nerves called the arcuate fascilicus, and by another recently discovered tract.

References 

Anatomy of the brain
Language
In abstract algebra, a monoid is a set of elements
along with an operation that has two key properties:

The operation can combine the elements associatively; e.g. 
There exists an identity element; e.g. , or 

The operation need not have the commutative property.

In computing science common monoids include addition, multiplication, or, and. These properties are useful for various problems e.g. they allow a large set of data to be divided, processed in parallel and combined. As each part produces a monoid, the final combined result will be the same. This also works with more complex monoids, such as a map from words to the number of times they appear in a document.

Character strings also form a monoid over concatenation with the empty string "" as the identity element. Examples of the two properties are "abc" + ("def" + "ghi") = ("abc" + "def") + "ghi" and "abc" + "" = ""+ "abc" = "abc".  This is true even though "abc" + "def" ≠ "def" + "abc".

Other websites 

Abstract algebra
Peter Fritz Willi Lustig (October 27, 1937 – February 23, 2016) was a German television presenter and author of children's books. He was known as leading actor in the weekly children's television show Löwenzahn. He hosted the show from 1979 up until 2006; during its first year the show was still called Pusteblume). He also appeared on the shows Mittendrin (1987–1995) and Gordos Reise ans Ende der Welt (2007).

Lustig died on February 23, 2016 at his home in Bohmstedt, Germany. He died from stomach cancer. He was aged 78. He was surrounded by his family. He is survived by four children and nine grandchildren.

References

1937 births
2016 deaths
Cancer deaths in Germany
Deaths from stomach cancer
German children's writers
German television presenters
People from former German territories
People from Wrocław
Ryszard Janusz Bender (February 16, 1932 – February 24, 2016) was a Polish politician and historian. He was a specialist on the history of the January Uprising. He was professor of History at John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin.

Life
From 1976 to 1980 and 1985 to 1989, he was a deputy of the Sejm. In 2007, he was elected as a member in the Senate of Poland from the Law and Justice party. He retired from the senate in 2011.

Bender was accused of antisemitism and Holocaust denial after he said that Auschwitz was "not a death camp" but a "labour camp". He later said his remarks were taken out of context. He has also spoken out in defense of Dariusz Ratajczak.

Death
Bender died of a stroke on February 24, 2016 in Lublin, Poland. He was aged 84.

References

Other websites

 Official website of Ryszard Bender 

1932 births
2016 deaths
Polish politicians
Polish academics
Polish historians
Carlo Biotti (1901 – 10 December 1977) was an Italian judge. He became the President of the Court of Milan. His forced removal from the case brought by the widow of Giuseppe Pinelli against the police commissioner Luigi Calabresi in 1971 became a cause célèbre.
Biotti was the leading judge in the case brought by the widow of Giuseppe Pinelli against the police commissioner Luigi Calabresi.  Calabresi had led the investigation into the Piazza Fontana bombing. Pinelli died in mysterious circumstances during a police interrogation after the bombing. On 27 May 1971, Biotti was removed at the request of Calabresi's lawyer. The lawyer claimed that in a private conversation Biotti had admitted that for career reasons he had already formed an opinion on the case. It was a claim that Biotti vehemently denied.  Neither Biotti nor his two fellow judges were convinced that Pinelli had died from falling from the police station window. His forced removal prevented the exhumation of Pinelli's body, and delayed the investigation for two years.
Biotti fought for years to clear his name and in November 1974 was completely exonerated by the Court of Florence. He died three years later at the age of 76. In the 2012 film Piazza Fontana: The Italian Conspiracy, the character of Carlo Biotti is played by Bob Marchese.

From 1964 Biotti was also a director of A.C. Milan.

References 

Italian judges
1901 births
1977 deaths
Robert J. Walker (known as Bob Walker; February 2, 1929 – February 15, 2016) was an American sailor. He was the third Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy.  On September 26, 1975, Walker was sworn in as the third Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy.  Walker was a much more conservative, traditional MCPON than his predecessor, John Whittet. He retired in the 1980s.

Walker was born in Baldwin, New York. He attended a grammar and high school in Oxford, New York. Walker died of complications from pneumonia in Norfolk, Virginia. He was aged 87.

References

Other websites

 Extensive bio at quarterdeck.org
 Three Stars and a Crow 

1929 births
2016 deaths
Military people from New York (state)
People from New York (state)
John Edward Reinhardt (March 8, 1920 – February 18, 2016) was an American diplomat. He was born in Knoxville, Tennessee. He was the United States' ambassador to Nigeria from 1971 to 1975. This made him one of the first black ambassadors. From 1975 to 1977, he was Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs. He became the director of the United States Information Agency from 1977 to 1980.

Reinhardt died in Silver Spring, Maryland from a stroke. He was aged 95.

References

1920 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from stroke
Ambassadors of the United States
Politicians from Tennessee
People from Knoxville, Tennessee
Casas de Don Pedro is a municipality in Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain. It has a population of 1559.

Municipalities in Extremadura
Fayette is a town of Maine in the United States. It is in Kennebec County.

References

Towns in Maine
1795 establishments in the United States
1790s establishments in Maine
Jefferson City is a city in Tennessee in the United States.

Cities in Tennessee
A player character or playable character (PC) is a made-up character in a role-playing or video game whose actions are chosen by a player of the game rather than the rules of the game. The characters that are not used by a player are called non-player characters (NPCs). The actions of non-player characters are generally chosen by the game itself in video games, or based on rules followed by a gamemaster in tabletop role-playing games. The player character acts as a fictional, different body for the player using it.

Most video games have one player character for each person playing the game. Some games offer a group of player characters for the player to choose from, letting player control one of them at a time. Where more there is more than one player character to choose, the characters may have different abilities, strengths, and weaknesses to make the gameplay different with each.

Overview
Overview

Avatars
A player character may sometimes be based on a real person, such as in sports games that use the names and looks of real sports people. Historical people and leaders may sometimes appear as characters too, such as in strategy or empire building games like Sid Meier's Civilization series. These characters are avatars rather than true player characters, because the player character's name and image have little or even no effect on the game itself. Avatars are also often seen in casino game simulations.
Role-playing games
In role playing games such as Dungeons and Dragons or Final Fantasy, a player generally makes or chooses a character that may be nothing like themself. The character is usually of a race and class (often not real) such as zombie, berserker, rifleman, elf, or cleric, each with their own strengths and weaknesses. The skills of the characters (such as magic and fighting ability) are given as numbers which can be made better as the gamer plays through the game and gains experience points through doing quests or fighting enemies.

Blank characters
In many video games, the player character is a "blank slate" who has no given personality or backstory. Crono, Link and Chell are examples of such characters. These characters often do not speak. In strategy games the player character is often not shown and called by a title such as "Commander" or "General", so that the player can imagine themself in the character's job.
Fighting games
Fighting games often have a large number of player characters to choose from, with some basic moves that all or most characters can use and some special moves only used by one or a few characters. Having many different characters to play with, all with different moves and abilities, makes the gameplay of fighting games more wikt:variety:varied and difficult.

Secret characters

A secret or unlockable character may be a playable character in a video game available after finishing the game or doing certain tasks. In some video games, characters that are not secret but appear only as non-player characters like bosses or enemies become playable characters after beating them, doing certain other things, or sometimes cheating.

Related pages
Non-player character

References

Video game characters
Role-playing video games
Video game gameplay
Casas de Reina is a municipality in Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain. It has a population of 199.

References

Municipalities in Extremadura
Province of Badajoz
Casas de Don Antonio is a municipality in Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain. It has a population of 204.

Municipalities in Extremadura
Mathematical logic is a field of mathematics that tries to formalize logic so that it can be used for mathematics more easily. Logic is about reasoning, and mathematical logic shows this with symbols. Most of mathematical logic was developed in the 19th and 20th century.

This field can be said to have four main sub-fields:
set theory
the study of mathematical proofs
the study of recursion, and
model theory

Related pages 
Philosophy of mathematics
Propositional logic

Mathematics
The greater bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea apoda) is a bird-of-paradise in the genus Paradisaea.

Carolus Linnaeus named the species Paradisaea apoda, or "legless bird-of-paradise". Apparently, early trade-skins to reach Europe were prepared without wings or feet by natives. This led to the stary that these birds were beautiful visitors from paradise kept aloft by their plumes and never touched the earth until death. The relevant point is that they were killed and traded for their feathers.

Description
The greater bird-of-paradise is the largest member in its genus. Males measuring up to  (excluding the long twin tail wires). The female is smaller, at only .

The plumage of this species is also sexually dimorphic. The male has an iridescent green face and a yellow with silver crown, head and nape. The rest of the body plumage is maroon-brown. The flank plumes, used in displays, are yellow at the base, turning white and streaked with maroon.
The female has unbarred maroon brown plumage. In both sexes the iris is yellow and the bills blue.

References 

Birds of Asia
Birds of Indonesia
Paradisaeidae
Birds of Oceania
The Progressive National Baptist Convention, Incorporated (PNBC) is a group of African-American Baptists that supports civil rights and social justice. Since it started, the Convention now has member congregations outside of the United States, particularly in the Caribbean and Europe.

Baptist churches

Christian organizations based in the United States
Ratified on December 15, 1791, the Ninth Amendment (Amendment IX) to the United States Constitution is a part of the United States Bill of Rights. James Madison wanted to make sure that the Bill of Rights was not seen as granting only those rights that it listed. It is one of the least referred to amendments by the Supreme Court. The Ninth Amendment, when mentioned, usually plays a secondary role in supporting a new right. One of the few that depends on the Ninth Amendment is the constitutional right to privacy. What the Ninth Amendment means, simply put, is that the people of the United States have other rights besides those listed in the Constitution.

Text
Text

Rights retained by the people 
In 1787, at the Constitutional Convention, the new Constitution had to be ratified by nine of the thirteen states. Any states that did not ratify the Constitution would not be a part of the United States. Many people opposed the creation of a national government that would have power over the state governments. They were called Anti-Federalists. They believed each state should be a sovereign country. The Federalists wanted a strong central government. In order to pass the Constitution and begin a new form of government a compromise was reached. Leading Federalists such as Patrick Henry and George Mason suggesting adding a Bill of Rights to the Constitution in the form of amendments. On September 25, 1789, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution and submitted them to the states for ratification. On December 15, 1791, the states ratified ten of the amendments which became the Bill of Rights.
Originally the framers of the Bill of Rights wanted to make clear that these rights were not taken to increase the powers of the national government. They were also not intended to guarantee additional rights of the people. The modern interpretation, however, is that the people have rights not listed in the Bill of Rights.

References 

United States Bill of Rights
09
Disulfiram is a medication used to treat chronic alcoholism.  It is sold under the brand names Antabuse and Antabus.

Disulfiram works by making people feel very sick if they drink alcohol.  It is not a cure for alcoholism.  Usually, alcoholics who take disulfiram also need to get counseling and support.

Effects
When a person gets treatment for alcoholism, disulfiram may be part of their treatment plan.  However, the person has to go through alcohol withdrawal first.  It is not safe to take disulfiram if a person has had any alcohol in the past 12 hours.

When a person takes disulfiram, they get very sick if they drink any alcohol.  They will start feeling sick 5 to 30 minutes after they drink.  Usually, the more a person drank, the sicker they will feel.  Their symptoms may include:
 Nausea and vomiting
 Headache and neck pain
 Confusion
 A fast heart rate
 Trouble breathing
 Sweating and red skin
 Low blood pressure with dizziness or fainting
These symptoms can last anywhere from a half hour to a few hours.

Problems

Cravings
One of the symptoms of alcoholism is wanting alcohol very, very badly.  This is called craving.  An alcoholic feels like they need alcohol to live.

One problem with disulfiram is that it does not stop alcohol cravings.  If an alcoholic takes disulfiram, they will keep craving alcohol, but will get very sick if they do drink.  Many alcoholics solve this problem by just not taking disulfiram.  One year-long study done in 1986 found that disulfiram did not seem to work.  However, the researchers found that only 20% of the alcoholics actually took their disulfiram.  The other 80% stopped taking disulfiram so they could drink alcohol without getting sick.
However, later studies found that when disulfiram is supervised - when someone watches an alcoholic take their disulfiram - the medication works.  Alcoholics getting supervised disulfiram drink less, go longer periods of time without drinking, and participate more in other treatments than alcoholics getting un-supervised disulfiram.  Family members, friends, clinics, or courts can make sure that alcoholics take their disulfiram.

Disulfiram tablets can also be placed under the skin by a surgeon.  These tablets release disulfiram continuously for up to 12 weeks.  This makes it impossible for an alcoholic to decide not to take their disulfiram so they can drink.

Also, a doctor can prescribe a newer drug, like naltrexone, along with disulfiram.  Naltrexone does block alcohol cravings.  The two drugs can work together to make it easier for the alcoholic not to drink.
Not a cure
The United States National Institutes of Health says:
Disulfiram is not a cure for alcoholism. When [disulfiram is] used alone, without proper motivation and supportive therapy, it is unlikely that it will have any [real] effect on the drinking pattern of the chronic alcoholic.

Just taking disulfiram is usually not enough to keep an alcoholic from drinking.  Disulfiram works best when an alcoholic also:pp. 130–144
 Has a counselor
 Has supportive friends and family
 Goes to groups where alcoholics try to help each other stop drinking
 Honestly wants to stop drinking

Other uses
Disulfiram may help other medical problems too.  It kills some parasites that can cause infectious diseases.

Researchers are also studying whether disulfiram could treat cancer, HIV, and cocaine addiction.

Related pages
 Alcoholism

References

Alcoholism
Drugs used in psychiatry
Organonitrogen compounds
Organosulfur compounds
François Dupeyron (14 August 195025 February 2016) was a French movie director and screenwriter. He directed 17 movies since his career began in 1977. His movie La Chambre des officiers was entered into the 2001 Cannes Film Festival. He was born in Tartas, Landes, France.

Dupeyron died in Paris from a heart attack on 25 February 2016. He was aged 65.

References

Other websites

 

1950 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
French movie actors
French screenwriters
Sir Peter Kenilorea KBE  (23 May 1943 – 24 February 2016) was a Solomon Islander politician, officially styled The Rt Hon. Sir Peter Kenilorea as a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom. He served as the Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands from 1978 to 1981 and again from 1984 to 1986.

Kenilorea died in Honiara on 24 February 2016. He was aged 72.

References

1943 births
2016 deaths
Prime Ministers of the Solomon Islands
Rafael Iriondo Aurtenechea (24 October 1918 – 24 February 2016) was a Spanish football player and manager. He played as a forward. He won a total of 286 games and scored over 88 goals over the course of 15 seasons. He played for Athletic Bilbao and Real Sociedad. He became a manager, working for nearly 30 years and being in charge of both clubs.

Early life
Iriondo was born in Guernica, Spain.

Career
Iriondo began his career in 1939 with the football team Atlético Tetuán.

After 328 official games for Athletic with 115 goals, Iriondo moved to another team in the region, Barakaldo CF, in 1953. After a couple of months, however, he returned to the top division and joined Real Sociedad. He retired shortly after the end of the 1954–55 season.

Iriondo started coaching quickly after retiring, with modest SD Indautxu in the second division. He continued in his native Basque Country in the following years, with Deportivo Alavés and Barakaldo.

Iriondo retired in 1982 after coaching Real Betis.
Death
Iriondo died on 24 February 2016 in Bilbao, Spain from respiratory failure. He was aged 97.

References

Other websites
National team data  

Spain stats at Eu-Football

1918 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from respiratory failure
Spanish footballers
Spanish football managers
Rayo Vallecano managers
Peter van de Merwe (13 January 1942 – 24 February 2016) was a Dutch football player. He played as a goalkeeper. Van de Merwe played his entire career for hometown club NAC Breda from 1959 to 1970. Van der Merwe played his final league game against AZ'67 in October 1970. He retired when he was 29 after persisting injury worries. He had played 257 matches for NAC. He was later diagnosed with rheumatics and had to live with a wheelchair. He played his first game for the Netherlands in a May 1962 friendly match against Northern Ireland.

Van de Merwe died in Sint Willebrord, Netherlands on 24 February 2016 from mesothelioma. He was aged 74.

References

Other websites
 EU-Football

1942 births
2016 deaths
Cancer deaths in the Netherlands
Deaths from mesothelioma
Footballers from Breda
A root server is a special server in the domain name system that tells a computer what name servers to use for a single top level domain like .com or .net. There are 13 root servers that are in use. They use the letters A through M.

A root server is used when a computer tries to look up a domain. For example, if a person types www.google.com into a web browser, their computer will ask their ISP what the IP address for www.google.com is. If the ISP's DNS server does not know (does not have it cached), it will ask a root server which DNS server can tell it the address. The ISP's root server will then get the address from the DNS server that the root server tells it to.

History

In 1981, the idea of a domain name system was made as part of RFC 799. RFC 819, RFC 882, and RFC 883 said how DNS was supposed to work and made it easier to understand. In 1984, RFC 920 was the first RFC to say what the top level domains would be for the new DNS. In 1985, the first domain name was made and "modern" DNS began.
References

Internet