Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
General
The West Wing Transcripts or Fan Transcribed Scripts
The West Wing Episode Guide
The West Wing Episode Guide with consumer ratings
The West Wing Wiki 
White House Museum: "The West Wing of The West Wing" with layout, pictures, and reviews comparing the TV West Wing to the real West Wing

1999 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
1990s American drama television series
1990s American workplace television series
2000s American drama television series
2000s American workplace television series
American workplace drama television series
Golden Globe Award winning programs
NBC network shows
Peabody Award winners
Television series set in Washington, D.C.
Emmy Award winning programs
English-language television programs
American political drama television series
Servite College is a high school in Perth, Western Australia. It is in the suburb of Tuart Hill. The school is Roman Catholic and teaches both boys and girls.

History 
Members of the Servite Order came to Australia in late 1951 and by 1958 had established St. Philip’s Regional High School for Boys in Tuart Hill. In 1968, the name was changed to Servite College. In 1973, it became the first co-educational Catholic secondary school in Western Australia.

References 

Schools in Australia
Perth, Western Australia
1958 establishments in Australia
1139 was a common year.

Events 
 Alphonso I becomes first king of Portugal
Alphonse I or Alphonzo I (in Portuguese Afonso I) (25 July 1109 - 6 December 1185) was the first king of Portugal. He is best known by his prince name Afonso Henriques. 

Afonso Henriques was the son of Henry of Burgundy, Count of Portugal and Teresa of León. 

He became King on 25 July 1139, after winning the Battle of Ourique. He doubled the area of Portugal with the Reconquista and was nicknamed the Conqueror (Port. o Conquistador). He died on 6 December 1185 in Coimbra.

1109 births
1185 deaths
Kings and Queens of Portugal
Amália da Piedade Rebordão Rodrigues, known just by Amália Rodrigues (July 23, 1920 – October 6, 1999) was a Portuguese singer and actress. She was called the "Rainha do Fado" ("Queen of Fado") and she was very important in making the fado popular all over the world. Her younger sister, Celeste, was also a popular singer. She was born in Lisbon.

Rodrigues died of a heart attack on October 6, 1999 in Lisbon, aged 79.

Other websites 
 
  Amália: uma estranha forma de vida

1920 births
1999 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Disease-related deaths in Portugal
Portuguese singers
Portuguese movie actors
Guitarists
Edward E. "Ted" Kaufman (born March 15, 1939) is an American politician.  He was a U.S. Senator from Delaware.  He used to work for Joe Biden when Biden was a Senator.  Kaufman replaced Biden as Senator when Biden became Vice President of the United States in 2009.

References

Living people
1939 births
United States senators from Delaware
Politicians from Philadelphia
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Orrin Grant Hatch (March 22, 1934 – April 23, 2022) was an American politician and lawyer. He was a U.S. Senator from Utah from 1977 until 2019.  He was a Republican and a Mormon. After the Republicans won control of the Senate in the 2014 elections, Hatch became President pro tempore on January 6, 2015.

Hatch ran for President of the United States in 2000, but he dropped out of the race after losing the first primary election. He was seen as a possible candidate for the United States Supreme Court. On January 2, 2018, Hatch announced his retirement from the Senate after low approval ratings.

Early life
Hatch was born in Homestead, Pennsylvania on March 22, 1934 to Jesse Hatch and Helen Frances. He was raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Hatch studied at Brigham Young University and at the University of Pittsburgh. He worked as an attorney in Pittsburgh and in Utah.
United States senator (1977–2019)
In 1976, in his first run for public office, Hatch was elected to the United States Senate. He defeated Democrat Frank Moss, who had been a Senator for three terms, or 18 years. During the campaign, Hatch said that Moss had been in the Senate too long. He joked, "What do you call a Senator who's served in office for 18 years? You call him home." Hatch argued that many Senators, including Moss, had lost touch with the people who voted for them. Hatch himself held office for 42 years.
In 1995 Hatch was the leading figure behind the Senate's anti-terrorism bill. This bill was passed in response to the Oklahoma City Bombing. As a senior member of the Senate Select Intelligence Committee, Hatch was also important in the 2008 extension of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. He said, "This bipartisan bill will help defeat terrorism and keep America safe. No, the legislation is not perfect, but it ensures that the increased expansion of the judiciary into foreign intelligence gathering doesn’t unnecessarily hamper our intelligence community.”

Hatch has been a longtime advocate of amending the United States Constitution to require that total spending of the federal government for any fiscal year not exceed total receipts. He proposed the DREAM Act, which would provide a pathway to citizenship for the children of undocumented immigrants, who were children when their parents came to the United States.
Senator Hatch co-sponsored the Restoring the 10th Amendment Act (S. 4020 111th Congress), which would strengthen state rights under the 10th Amendment. The bill would provide special standing for state officials in challenging proposed regulations.

In 2018, Hatch announced that he would retire after seven terms in the Senate.

Supreme Court
Hatch has long expressed interest in serving on the U.S. Supreme Court, but due to his age decided not to express any interest anymore. It was reported that he was on Ronald Reagan's short list of candidates to succeed Lewis F. Powell, Jr. on the United States Supreme Court, but was passed over at least in part because of the Ineligibility Clause. Despite that, he vocally supported Robert Bork, who was chosen instead.
2000 presidential campaign
In 2000, Hatch made a failed bid for the Republican presidential nomination, losing to then-Texas Governor George W. Bush. During the first Republican debate, Hatch made web usability a campaign issue, a first for a presidential candidate. He claimed his website was more user-friendly than Bush's. At least one web usability expert agreed.

Personal life
Hatch married Elaine Hansen on August 28, 1957. They had six children.

Hatch was a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Hatch served as a member of the board of directors of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

In November 2018, Hatch received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Donald Trump.

Hatch played the piano, violin and organ. Hatch had written songs for many. He co-authored "Everything And More", sung by Billy Gilman. Hatch earned over $10,000 as an LDS music recording artist while he was senator.
Hatch died on April 23, 2022 in Salt Lake City, Utah from problems caused by a stroke. He was 88 years old.

References

Other websites

 
 
 Collected news and commentary  at The Salt Lake Tribune
 Profile  at SourceWatch

1934 births
2022 deaths
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
American Latter Day Saints
Politicians from Pittsburgh
Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate
United States senators from Utah
Republican Party (United States) politicians
2000 United States presidential candidates
Lawyers from Pittsburgh
Lawyers from Utah
Writers from Pittsburgh
Writers from Utah
Deaths from stroke
Much of the work of the United States Senate is done in committees, or groups of about 15 Senators.  Each committee deals with a certain subject, such as farming or roads.  In general, most laws start in a committee before they are voted on by the Senate.  Also, when the Senate wants to ask the President or another important person questions, they usually do it in a committee.

Standing committees
, there are 88 subsidiary bodies of the US Senate: 16 standing committees with 67 subcommittees, and five non-standing committees.

Non-standing committees
There are five non-standing, select, or special committees. They are similar to standing committees.

Related pages
List of United States House of Representatives committees

References

Committees of the United States Senate
United States Senate
Johnny Rozsa is a well known New York photographer. Rozsa was born and raised in Nairobi, and is of Jewish descent. He arrived in London in the 1960s and, after college, ran a vintage shop in Covent Garden. Here he met fashion editors, models, actors, and photographers on a daily basis. 

Rozsa photographed famous people including Hugh Grant, Halle Berry, Janet Jackson, Nicholas Cage, John Malkovich and Natasha Richardson.

Rozsa published a book in 2009 called Untouched, which included many of his photographs.

References

Other websites
Official website

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
African Jews
American Jews
American photographers
British Jews
British photographers
Jewish artists
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Nairobi
Lichens are a symbiosis of at least two quite different organisms. The partnership always involves a fungus, which lives with one or more partners which can do photosynthesis. The photobiont partner may be a green alga and/or a cyanobacterium.p5,6,13

The algae or bacteria live inside the fungus, and exchange nutrients with it. The lichen is different in shape and mode of life from any of the partners. It is a distinct form of life. Botanists did not know this until about 1875.

There are more than 2,000 species in Britain and Ireland alone, many of which are found in temperate rainforests.
Classification 
Lichens pose a problem for biological classification, because the three types of organism concerned come from three different kingdoms. After long debate, lichen are now classified as fungi, under the genus and species of the host fungus.p47–48 This allows specimens to be put into boxes and labelled. By having specific names, researchers know what they are working on: that is one of the basic functions of taxonomy. The system still has its problems. In those fungi which may associate either with an alga, or with a cyanobacterium, the resulting forms (called photomorphs) may look quite different, yet are now referred to by the same name.p13
20% (one in five) of fungal species live in lichens. Lichen fungi belong to several different groups of fungi. Most common (over 40%) are Ascomycetes, which produce spores in a sac-shaped container, the ascus. Only a few types of alga occur within lichens; these algae also have their own names. Algae may be sometimes the dominant partner in so-called 'jelly lichens', Collema and Leptogium, but this is rare. More usually, the algae are the green alga Trebouxia. Other species are the orange Trentepohli, and the cyanobacterium Nostoc.p9–10

Their life habit 
The life habit of lichens is to stick closely onto surfaces.
Lichens can occur anywhere on land, and some can live in aquatic environments. The nearest rock, wall or roof probably has lichen on it. Often the lichen is mat-like, and clings to the surface. Some are like little bushes: see the photos. Lichens are famous for not needing a regular supply of water; their metabolism can go into suspension, and later revive. When growing on mineral surfaces, some lichens slowly break down the substrate, and extract tiny amounts of mineral nutrient. Fungi form the main part of the thallus (body), with the photobiont contributing 20% or less.p17 The photobiont is usually on the inside of the thallus.

Lichen thalli may grow together and fuse, and this may happen between different species and genera.p23 These are called 'mechanical hybrids'. They get noticed when the two forms are differently colored.
Survival 
Lichen do survive extreme conditions. They are found in some of the most extreme places on Earth – the frozen north, hot deserts, rocky coasts. They are common as epiphytes on leaves and branches in rain forests and temperate woods. They can live on bare rock, walls and gravestones, and on exposed soil surfaces.p19 There are about 200 different kinds of lichens in Antarctica. In the Horlick Mountains, at 86 degrees south, there are six different kinds of lichen. In the Himalayas, they grow at altitudes up to 18,000 feet (~5500m).p216

The European Space Agency discovered that lichen can survive unprotected in space. Two species of lichen were sealed in a capsule and launched on a Russian Soyuz rocket. Once in orbit the capsules were opened. Two species of lichen were exposed to the vacuum of space, to cosmic radiation and huge swings of temperature. After 15 days the lichens were retrieved and were found to be in full health: no damage was found.
Rain forests 
There are a huge number of lichen species in rainforests, far outnumbering flowering plants. The lichen are mostly epiphytes, living on trees. A single site in Costa Rica yielded about 300 species of lichen on leaves, in the understory of the rain forest; a single fallen Elaeocarpus tree in New Guinea held 173 species; the evergreen laurel Ocotea atirrensis was found with 50–80 lichen species on a single leaf.p60–61
Mutual benefits 
When partnerships are very close, it is difficult to assign benefits to either partner. Their success is as a pair (or trio). Sometimes the partners can exist as separate organisms: certainly their close relatives can. Probably most of the algae and all of the cyanobacteria can survive on their own, though in more restricted habitats. The details vary according to the specific species or strains involved. The man who first realised the nature of lichen, Simon Schwedener, thought of the partnership as one of controlled parasitism. Obviously, the photobiont provides photosynthetic products: carbohydrates as sugar alcohols (green algae) or glucose (cyanobacteria). The bacteria also convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonium ions (NH4+) which the fungus can use in amino acids for proteins.p26
Reproduction 
Many lichens reproduce without sex (asexual reproduction). They make small groups of algal cells surrounded by fungal filaments. These soridia can be blown by wind. Some lichens just break up into fragments when they dry. Wind carries the pieces, which grow when moisture returns. Also, lichen fungi can reproduce sexually by forming fruiting bodies containing spores. These fruiting bodies are usually perennial, and may be long-lasting: some in the Swiss Alps have lived for over 50 years. After dispersal by wind, such fungal spores must meet with an algal partner to form a lichen.p19–22

History on Earth 

The fossil record for lichen dates back 400 million years for certain, and the signs are that earlier forms existed 600 million years ago. They must have been one of the earliest life-forms on land. It is thought, from the number of fungal and algal species involved, that the symbiosis must have taken place many times between different species.p46
It has been suggested that some or all of the Ediacaran biota might be lichen. The proposal has been received with some skepticism.

Lichenometry 
Lichenometry is a method of dating exposed rock by using the growth of lichen. It uses an estimate of how long the lichen's radius or width grows over time.

Other uses 

Many lichen are sensitive to changes around them. For this reason, they are used by scientists to show changes in the environment, such as air pollution, ozone depletion, and metal contamination. Lichens have also been used to make dyes, perfumes, and herbal medicines.

Some lichen produce natural antibiotics that kill bacteria. Humans have used these compounds as natural antibiotics. Extracts from many Usnea species were used to treat wounds in Russia in the mid-twentieth century.
The map lichen Rhizocarpon geographicum grows extremely slowly, and can reach an age of over 1000 years. It may be used for dating: the diameter of the largest lichen of a species on a rock surface shows the time that the rock has been exposed.

Lichen are the main winter food for reindeer. The deer can get at shrubby lichen under the snow. In summer they have much more choice of food. Some lichen are eaten by humans. A kind of lichen, which is called Iwatake in Japanese and Seogi in Korean language, is collected from cliffs, and used in various Korean and Japanese foods. Lichen have a high level of acid. Care must be taken, as there are at least two kinds of lichen that are toxic.
The bacterial or algal partners produce pigments that absorb sunlight in photosynthesis. There are reports dating back almost 2000 years of purple and red colours being extracted from lichens. Lichens of the family Roccellaceae are commonly called 'orchella weed' . They have been important in history, because they could supply orcein, a dye.  Rocella tinctoria is the source of the pH indicator litmus. Orcein is got by boiling the lichen, and litmus is produced by adding ammonia and air. Orcein is also used as a food dye, with the E number E121.

Today, dyes based on lichens have largely been replaced by synthetic ones.

References

More reading 
Ahmadjian V. 1993. The lichen symbiosis. Wiley, New York. .
Gilbert, Oliver 2000. Lichens. New Naturalist series #86, HarperCollins, London.

Fungi
Botany
Bacteria
Algae
Extremophiles
Non-vascular plants
Symbiosis
The history of the Earth describes the most important events and stages in the development of the planet Earth from its formation to the present day.

The age of the Earth is about 4.56 billion years. Nearly all branches of science have helped us understand the main events of the Earth's past. There has been constant geological change and biological evolution. The geological time scale (GTS), as defined by international convention, shows the large span of time from the beginning of the Earth to the present. 

The Earth is about one-third the age of the universe. Earth formed as part of the birth of the Solar System. What eventually became the solar system started as a large, rotating cloud of dust and gas. The Sun was composed of hydrogen and some helium. All the heavier elements were produced by stars long gone. They were picked up by the Sun on its travels in the Milky Way galaxy.
The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago during the Eoarchean era. There are microbial mat fossils, such as stromatolites, found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia.

Other work may push this estimate back even further. The origin of life on Earth was at least 3.77 billion years ago, possibly as early as 4.41 billion years ago.

Hadean

Origin

The formation of Earth occurred as part of the formation of the Solar System. It started as a large rotating cloud of dust and gas. This cloud, the solar nebula, was composed of hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements produced in supernovas. Then, about 4.68 billion years ago, the solar nebula began to contract, rotate and gain angular momentum. This may have been triggered by a star in the region exploding as a supernova, and sending a shock wave through the solar nebula.
As the cloud rotated, it became a flat disc perpendicular to its axis of rotation. Most of the mass concentrated in the middle and began to heat up. Meanwhile, the rest of the disc began to break up into rings, with gravity causing matter to condense around dust particles. Small fragments collided to become larger fragments, including one collection about  from the center: this would become the Earth. As the Sun condensed and heated, nuclear fusion started, and the solar wind cleared out most of the material in the disc which had not yet condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce accretion disks around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield planets.
 Age of the Earth
 Late Heavy Bombardment

Moon
Moon

The Earth's relatively large natural satellite is the Moon.  During the Apollo program, rocks from the Moon's surface were brought to Earth. Radiometric dating of these rocks has shown the Moon to be 4527 ± 10 million years old, about 30 to 55 million years younger than other bodies in the solar system. New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48±0.02 Ga (billion years ago), or 70–110 mya after the start of the Solar System. Another notable feature is the relatively low density of the Moon, which must mean it does not have a large metallic core, like all other terrestrial bodies in the solar system.
The impactor, sometimes named Theia, is thought to have been a little smaller than the current planet Mars. Theia finally collided with Earth about 4.533 Ga.
Models reveal that when an impactor this size struck the proto-Earth at a low angle and relatively low speed (), much material from the mantles (and proto-crusts) of the proto-Earth and the impactor was ejected into space, where much of it stayed in orbit around the Earth. This material would eventually form the Moon. However, the metallic cores of the impactor would have sunk through the Earth's mantle to fuse with the Earth's core, depleting the Moon of metallic material. The giant impact hypothesis thus explains the Moon's abnormal composition. The ejecta in orbit around the Earth could have condensed into a single body within a couple of weeks. Under the influence of its own gravity, the ejected material became a more spherical body: the Moon.
The radiometric ages show the Earth existed already for at least 10 million years before the impact, enough time to allow for differentiation of the Earth's primitive mantle and core. Then, when the impact occurred, only material from the mantle was ejected, leaving the Earth's core of heavy elements untouched.

The impact had some important consequences for the young Earth. It released an enormous amount of energy, causing both the Earth and Moon to be completely molten. Immediately after the impact, the Earth's mantle was vigorously convecting, the surface was a large magma ocean. The planet's first atmosphere must have been completely blown away by the enormous amount of energy released. The impact is also thought to have changed Earth’s axis to produce the large 23.5° axial tilt that is responsible for Earth’s seasons (a simple, ideal model of the planets’ origins would have axial tilts of 0° with no recognizable seasons). It may also have sped up Earth’s rotation.

Archean
Archean

Archean Earth
At the beginning of the Archean, the Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today, and was still twice the current level by the beginning of the Proterozoic.  Thus, plates  and volcanic activity were considerably more active than they are today; the Earth's crust was not only thinner than is today, but probably broken up into many more tectonic plates, with numerous hot spots, rift valleys, and transform faults. The existence of plate tectonics in this eon is disputed: it is an active area of modern research.p297-302

There were no large continents until late in the Archean; small protocontinents were the norm, prevented from coalescing into larger units by the high rate of geologic activity.  These felsic protocontinents probably formed at hot spots rather than subduction zones, from a variety of sources:  mafic magma melting more felsic rocks, partial melting of mafic rock, and from the metamorphic alteration of felsic sedimentary rocks.p297-301
The Archean atmosphere apparently lacked free oxygen. Temperatures appear to have been near modern levels, although astronomers think that the sun was about one-third dimmer. This suggests larger amounts of greenhouse gases than later in Earth history.

Archean geology

When the Archean began, the Earth's heat flow was nearly three times as high as it is today, and it was still twice the current level at the transition from the Archean to the Proterozoic (2,500 Ma). The extra heat was the result of a mix of remnant heat from planetary accretion, from the formation of the metallic core, and from the decay of radioactive elements.
The oldest rock formations exposed on the surface of the Earth are Archean or slightly older. Archean rocks are known from Greenland, the Canadian Shield, western Australia, and southern Africa.  Although the first continents formed during this eon, rock this age makes up only 7% of the world's current cratons; even allowing for erosion and destruction of past formations, evidence suggests that only 5-40% of the present continental crust formed during the Archean.p301
In contrast to the Proterozoic, Archean rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep-water sediments, such as greywackes, mudstones, volcanic sediments, and banded iron formations. Greenstone belts are typical Archean formations: they are made of alternating high and low-grade metamorphic rocks.  The high-grade rocks come from volcanic island arcs, and the low-grade metamorphic rocks come from deep-sea sediments. These sediments eroded from the island arcs and ended in a forearc basin.  In short, greenstone belts show where protocontinents were stuck together.p302-3

Archean life
The processes that gave rise to life on Earth are not completely understood, but there is substantial evidence that life came into existence either near the end of the Hadean Eon or early in the Archean Eon.
The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite of biogenic origin found in 3.7 billion–year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. Fossils of cyanobacterial mats (stromatolites) are found throughout the Archean—becoming especially common late in the eon—while a few other probable bacterial fossils are known from chert beds.p307 In addition to bacteria, microfossils of the extremophilic archaea have also been identified.

Life in the Archean was limited to simple single-celled organisms (lacking nuclei), called prokaryotes. In addition to the domain Bacteria, microfossils of the domain Archaea have also been identified. There are no known eukaryote fossils.p306, 323 No fossil evidence yet exists for viruses. Fossilized microbes from terrestrial microbial mats show that life was already established on land 3.22 billion years ago.

Proterozoic
Proterozoic

The Proterozoic record
The geologic record of the Proterozoic is much better than that for the preceding Archaean.  In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many strata that were laid down in extensive, shallow epicontinental seas; furthermore, many of these rocks are less metamorphosed than Archean-age ones, and plenty are in fact unaltered.p315 Study of these rocks show that the eon featured rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and mountain-building (orogeny) activity.p315/8; 329/32

The first known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic. One ice age began shortly after the beginning of the eon. There were at least four during the Neoproterozoic, climaxing with the "Snowball Earth" of the Varangian glaciation.p320; 325
The build-up of oxygen 
The Great Oxygenation Event was one of the most important events of the Proterozoic.  Though oxygen was undoubtedly released by photosynthesis well back in Archean times, it could not build up to any significant degree until chemical sinks--unoxidized sulfur and iron—had been filled; until roughly 2.3 billion years ago, oxygen was probably only 1 to 2% of its current level.(Stanley, 323)  Banded iron formations, which provide most of the world's iron ore, were also a prominent chemical sink; most accumulation ceased after 1.9 billion years ago, either due to an increase in oxygen or a more thorough mixing of the oceanic water column.p324
Red beds, which are coloured by haematite, indicate an increase in atmospheric oxygen after 2 billion years ago; they are not found in older rocks.(Stanley, 324)  The oxygen build-up was probably due to two factors:  a filling of the chemical sinks, and an increase in carbon burial, which stored organic compounds which would have otherwise been oxidized by the atmosphere.p325

Proterozoic life
The first advanced single-celled and multi-cellular life roughly coincides with the oxygen accumulation; this may have been due to an increase in the oxidized nitrates that eukaryotes use, as opposed to cyanobacteria.(Stanley, 325)  It was also during the Proterozoic that the first symbiotic relationship between mitochondria (for animals and protists) and chloroplasts (for plants) and their hosts evolved.p321-2

Eukaryotes such as acritarchs blossomed, as did cyanobacteria; in fact, stromatolites reached their greatest abundance and diversity during the Proterozoic, peaking roughly 1.2 billion years ago.321-3
Classically, the boundary between the Proterozoic and the Paleozoic was set at the base of the Cambrian period when the first fossils of animals known as trilobites appeared. In the second half of the 20th century, a number of fossil forms have been found in Proterozoic rocks, but the boundary of the Proterozoic is still fixed at the base of the Cambrian: that is 542 mya.

Phanerozoic

Paleozoic
The Paleozoic covers the time from the first appearance of abundant, hard-shelled fossils to the time when the continents were beginning to be dominated by large, relatively sophisticated reptiles and relatively modern plants. The Paleozoic is a time in Earth's history when complex life forms evolved, took their first breath of oxygen on dry land, and when the forerunners of all multicelular life on Earth began to diversify. There are six periods in the Paleozoic era: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.
The upper (youngest) boundary is set at a major extinction event 250 million years later, known as the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Modern practice sets the older boundary at the first appearance of a distinctive trace fossil called Phycodes pedum.

Geologically, the Paleozoic starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called Rodinia and at the end of a global ice age (Snowball Earth). Throughout the early Palaeozoic, the Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era, the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth's land area.

At the start of the era, life was confined to bacteria, algae, sponges and a variety of somewhat enigmatic forms known collectively as the Ediacaran fauna. A large number of body plans appeared nearly simultaneously at the start of the era—a phenomenon known as the Cambrian Explosion.
There is some evidence that simple life may already have invaded the land at the start of the Palaeozoic, but substantial plants and animals did not take to the land until the Silurian and did not thrive until the Devonian. Although primitive vertebrates are known near the start of the Palaeozoic, animal forms were dominated by invertebrates until the mid-Palaeozoic. Fish populations exploded in the Devonian. During the late Palaeozoic, great forests of primitive plants thrived on land forming the great coal beds of Europe and eastern North America. By the end of the era, the first large, sophisticated reptiles and the first modern plants (conifers) had developed.

Mesozoic 
The Mesozoic covers the time when life was dominated by large sophisticated reptiles.  The lower (oldest) boundary is set by the P/Tr extinction event. The upper (youngest) boundary is set at the K/T extinction event.
Geologically, the Mesozoic starts with almost all the Earth's land collected into a supercontinent called Pangaea. During the era, Pangaea split into the northern continent Laurasia and the southern continent Gondwana. Laurasia then split into North America and Eurasia. Gondwana broke up progressively into continents: South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Australia and Antarctica.

The Mesozoic is known as the Age of Dinosaurs. It also saw the development of early birds and mammals and, later, flowering plants (angiosperms). At the end of the Mesozoic, all the major body plans of modern life were in place, though in some cases  notably the mammals  the forms that existed at the end of the Cretaceous were relatively primitive.

Cenozoic 
The Cenozoic is the age of mammals. During the Cenozoic, mammals diverged from a few small, simple, generalized forms into a diverse collection of terrestrial, marine, and flying animals. Flowering plants and birds also evolved substantially in the Cenozoic .
Geologically, the Cenozoic is the era when continents moved into their current positions. Africa and Australasia split from Gondwana to drift north, and India collided with Southeast Asia; Antarctica moved into its current position over the South Pole; the Atlantic Ocean widened and, late in the era, South America became attached to North America.

Related pages 

 Earliest known life forms
 Earth phase
 Historical geology
 Human timeline
 Nature timeline
 Spaceship Earth
 The Blue Marble

References

Other websites
 Earth – Speed through space – about 1 million miles an hour NASA. ("WP discussion")

Other sources 
New Scientist Essential Guide #17: Planet Earth: the incredible story of our unique home. Published in 2023, and full of interesting ideas.

Earth
Moon
Earth sciences
Tomo Sugawara (born 3 June 1976) is a retired Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

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|1995||rowspan="4"|Verdy Kawasaki||rowspan="4"|J. League 1||1||1||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||1||1
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|1996||18||1||5||0||14||0||colspan="2"|-||37||1
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|1998||12||1||3||0||4||0||colspan="2"|-||19||1

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|1999||Santos||Série A||1||0||||||||||||||1||0
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|2000||rowspan="6"|Vissel Kobe||rowspan="6"|J. League 1||22||0||0||0||4||0||colspan="2"|-||26||0
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|2001||15||0||2||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||19||0
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|2002||21||0||0||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||22||0
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|2005||15||1||1||0||6||0||colspan="2"|-||22||1
|-
|2006||rowspan="5"|Tokyo Verdy||rowspan="2"|J. League 2||32||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||1||0||33||0
|-
|2007||33||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||33||0
|-
|2008||J. League 1||23||0||1||0||3||0||colspan="2"|-||27||0
|-
|2009||rowspan="2"|J. League 2||18||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||18||0
|-
|2010||||||||||||||||||||
271||4||16||0||48||0||1||0||335||4
1||0||||||||||||||1||0
272||4||16||0||48||0||1||0||336||4
|}

References

1976 births
Living people
Footballers from Hokkaidō Prefecture
Shin Kanazawa (born 9 September 1983) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Omiya Ardija.

Club career statistics

|-
|2002||rowspan="4"|Omiya Ardija||rowspan="3"|J. League 2||28||1||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||29||1
|-
|2003||7||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||9||0
|-
|2004||41||4||2||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||43||4
|-
|2005||J. League 1||17||0||3||0||4||0||colspan="2"|-||24||0
|-
|2006||rowspan="2"|Tokyo Verdy||rowspan="2"|J. League 2||30||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0||33||0
|-
|2007||20||3||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||21||3
|-
|2008||rowspan="3"|Omiya Ardija||rowspan="3"|J. League 1||22||0||2||0||3||0||colspan="2"|-||27||0
|-
|2009||29||0||2||0||6||0||colspan="2"|-||37||0
|-
|2010||||||||||||||||||||
194||8||14||0||13||0||2||0||223||8
194||8||14||0||13||0||2||0||223||8
|}

References

1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Saitama Prefecture
Donizete Francisco de Oliveira (born 21 February 1968) is a former Brazilian football player. He has played for Brazil national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1987||rowspan="3"|Fluminense||rowspan="3"|Série A||7||0
|-
|1988||23||1
|-
|1989||14||1
|-
|1990||rowspan="2"|Grêmio||rowspan="2"|Série A||19||1
|-
|1991||13||0
|-
|1992||rowspan="3"|Bragantino||rowspan="3"|Série A||20||1
|-
|1993||13||0
|-
|1994||15||1
|-
|1995||São Paulo||Série A||16||0
|-
|1996||rowspan="2"|Cruzeiro||rowspan="2"|Série A||19||0
|-
|1997||12||0
|-
|1998||Vitória||Série A||19||0
|-
|1999||rowspan="2"|Cruzeiro||rowspan="2"|Série A||18||0
|-
|2000||21||0
|-
|2001||Vasco da Gama||Série A||15||0

|-
|2001||Urawa Red Diamonds||J. League 1||7||0

|-
|2001||Palmeiras||Série A||1||0
|-
|2002||Vasco da Gama||Série A||0||0
245||5
7||0
252||5
|}

International career statistics
|-
|1990||3||0
|-
|1991||2||0
|-
|1992||0||0
|-
|1993||0||0
|-
|1994||0||0
|-
|1995||0||0
|-
|1996||0||0
|-
|1997||0||0
|-
|1998||0||0
|-
|1999||0||0
|-
|2000||1||0
|-
!Total||6||0
|}

References

1968 births
Living people
Brazilian footballers
Harrow School, often called simply Harrow, is a secondary school for boys in Harrow in London, England. Harrow has educated boys since 1243 but was officially founded by John Lyon under a Royal Charter of Elizabeth I in 1572.  Harrow is located in Harrow on the Hill, now in the London Borough of Harrow. The school has about 800 students. They live across twelve boarding houses, and all of them board full time.

Harrow is an independent fee-paying school, of the type known in Britain as public schools. The equivalent term in the US would probably be private schools (see discussion at public school). The annual fees at Harrow are at present £41,775 per year, which includes board, tuition and textbooks. 

The Harrow Foundation also runs an independent Grammar School in Harrow, called the John Lyon School, and several international schools. The John Lyon School is also fee-paying and academically selective.
In 2013 66% of pupils got 5 A*-C GCSE grades including English and Maths. 14.1% of students go to Cambridge or Oxford. 

In 2013 a TV series called Harrow: a Very British School started. It follows boys and staff of West Acre of the West Acre boarding house for a year 

Famous men who went to Harrow include Benedict Cumberbatch, eight prime ministers (seven UK and the first Prime Minister of India), Lord Byron, James Blunt, C. W. Alcock, and John Amery.

References 

Schools in London
London Borough of Harrow
Harrow can mean:
 Harrow (tool), the farm implement

 London Borough of Harrow
 Harrow, London
 Harrow School
Roger Frederick Wicker (born July 5, 1951 in Pontotoc, Mississippi, United States) is a senior United States Senator from Mississippi. He took over Mississippi's first congressional district soon after Jamie L. Whitten's death in 1995.

References

Other websites
 
 Official U.S. Senate Site

1951 births
Living people
Lawyers from Mississippi
Military people from Mississippi
American colonels
People from Pontotoc, Mississippi
State legislators of the United States
United States representatives from Mississippi
United States senators from Mississippi
Republican Party (United States) politicians
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
The Return of Jafar (also known as Aladdin: The Return of Jafar or simply Aladdin 2) is a 1994 American direct-to-video animated movie, released on VHS by Buena Vista Pictures, and the sequel to the 1992 Disney animated movie Aladdin. The movie is about Jafar trying to get revenge on Aladdin.

1994 animated movies
Aladdin (Disney)
Disney animated movies
Disney direct-to-video movies
English-language movies
Aladdin and the King of Thieves (also known as Aladdin 3: The King of Thieves) is a 1996 American Disney animated movie and the second sequel to the 1992 Disney animated movie Aladdin. The story is about Aladdin attempting to save his father. Robin Williams returned to voice the Genie after he turned down the first sequel.

Cast
 Scott Weinger as Aladdin
 Robin Williams as The Genie
 Gilbert Gottfried as Iago
 Jack Angel as Guard
 Phil Proctor as Guards

1996 movies
Aladdin (Disney)
Disney animated movies
English-language movies
"Ja, vi elsker dette landet" (, meaning "Yes, we love this country") is the national anthem of Norway. Before it became the country's anthem, it was a patriotic song written in 1859 by a Norwegian writer named Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson. His cousin Rikard Nordraak set his lyrics to music in 1863. Until 2017, it had been an unofficial anthem of Norway, alongside "Sønner av Norge" and "Norges Skaal".

Lyrics
This song has eight verses in total. However, only the first, seventh and eighth verses (highlighted in bold) are used for the national anthem.

Norwegian original

English version
An English recording of the song, based on the first, seventh and eighth stanzas, was popular among Norwegian Americans sometime in the 1900s.

Controversies
Controversies

Norwegian independence
In 1905, the Union between Sweden and Norway was broken apart after many years of Norwegian struggle for equality between the two states. The declaration of independence by Norway made Sweden really angry, bringing both of them to the brink of war. In Sweden, pro-war conservatives were opposed by the Social Democrats, whose leaders Hjalmar Branting and Zeth Höglund spoke out for a peaceful settlement with Norway. Swedish socialists sang "Ja, vi elsker dette landet" to show their support for Norway leaving the Union.

Nazi occupation
During the Second World War, the anthem was used both by the Norwegian resistance and the Nazi collaborators. When the Nazis took control of Norway, they did not let anyone play this anthem.
Urdu translation
In May 2006, a newspaper proposed that the national anthem be translated into Urdu, since there are a lot of Pakistani immigrants in Norway. The editor's idea was that people from other ethnic groups should be able to honour their adopted country with devotion, even if they're not fluent in Norwegian. This was, however, met with criticism. Someone even sent a bunch of hate mail to the editor, calling her a traitor and threatening her with decapitation.

References

1860s songs
European anthems
National symbols of Norway
The mass number (symbol: A) of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus. The mass number is different for each isotope of a chemical element.

We write a mass number after an element's name or as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol. For example, the most common isotope of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. We write it as carbon-12 or 12C.

Mass number is not the same as:
 atomic number (symbol: Z), which is the number of protons in a nucleus of an atom
 atomic mass (symbol: ma), which is the mass of a single atom, commonly expressed in unified atomic mass units
 relative atomic mass (symbol: Ar, also called atomic weight), which is the ratio of the average mass per atom of an element from a given sample to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

The difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons (N) in a given nucleus: N = A − Z.
The mass number is not shown on the periodic table. For each element, what is shown is the standard atomic weight and the atomic number.

References 

Chemistry
Nuclear physics
James Caleb Boggs (May 15, 1909 – March 26, 1993) was a Republican U.S. Senator from Delaware from 1961 to 1973. He was Governor from 1953 to 1960 and a Congressman from 1947 to 1953. He was defeated in 1972 by future  President of the United States, Joe Biden. He was born in Cheswold, Delaware.

Boggs died on March 26, 1993 in Wilmington, Delaware at the age of 83.

References

1909 births
1993 deaths
Governors of Delaware
United States representatives from Delaware
United States senators from Delaware
Republican Party (United States) politicians
LazyTown (Icelandic: Latibær) is an Icelandic children's television musical series. The series is educational and teaches children to be healthy and exercise. The program was created Magnús Scheving, an aerobics champion who also plays the character Sportacus, and it is based upon his Icelandic stage plays. The series has won multiple awards.  

The show has been very successful and has aired in many countries around the world.
Basis of the program
The show features live-action characters and puppet characters in a colorful town called LazyTown. At the start of the series, the town's citizens are very lazy. The mayor's niece, Stephanie, comes to change that. An athletic superhero named Sportacus helps her. He teaches the children of the town to eat healthy food and exercise each day. However, their fun is often stopped by the town's laziest man, Robbie Rotten. He tries to make the children lazy again and tries to remove Sportacus and Stephanie from the town. Robbie's plans often fail. The show' has an educational message for viewers, and songs or dance numbers performed by the characters. Usually Stephanie is the lead singer or dancer.
Characters
 Sportacus: Sportacus is the main protagonist, a mustached superhero who is a skilled athlete, often moving around by performing acrobatic flips and moves. He lives in an airship. Like Stephanie, he is a skilled singer and dancer. Played by Magnús Scheving (the creator of LazyTown).
 Stephanie: Stephanie is a pink-haired girl who enjoys singing, dancing, and playing sports. Her favorite color is pink as seen with her hair, clothes, and other accessories. Played by Julianna Rose Mauriello and later by Chloe Lang.
 Robbie Rotten: Robbie is the main antagonist, a lazy man who wants the children of LazyTown to remain indoors and be lazy. Played by Stefán Karl Stefánsson. 
 Ziggy: A kindhearted boy who eats a lot of sweets and candy. He looks up to Sportacus. Voiced and puppetry by Guðmundur Þór Kárason and Lorraine Parsloe in UK dub.
Pixel: An intelligent boy who lives in a house filled with robotic gadgets. He often plays video games and uses devices to perform simple tasks instead of doing them himself. Voiced by Kobie Powell and Chris Knowings. Puppetry by Ronald Binion and Julie Westwood and Joanna Ruiz in UK dub.
 Stingy: A greedy and possessive boy who often claims that objects belong to him, even if they do not. He drives around in a car and owns a piggy bank called "Piggy." Voiced and puppetry by Jodi Eichelberger and Sarah Burgess/Julie Westwood in UK dub.
 Trixie: A trouble-making girl who rides around on a scooter. Voiced and puppetry by Sarah Burgess and Aymee Garcia and Joanna Ruiz in UK dub.
 Mayor Milford Meanswell: The town's mayor and Stephanie's uncle. Voiced and puppetry by David Matthew Feldman.
 Bessie Busybody: The mayor's assistant. Voiced and puppetry by Julie Westwood.
Children's television series
2004 television series debuts
2014 television series endings
Icelandic culture
Blockland is a multiplayer computer game made on the Torque Game Engine, where people make things using blocks. Blockland has around 35,500 players. People could build up to 128,000 bricks on every server to keep the game running best. 

In 2009, Lego were talking to Eric "Badspot" Hartman about selling Blockland. It has been talked about by The Screen Savers and Shack News. In 2005, when Blockland was in beta, Blockland was on an article on Globe and Mail in which Eric says 20,000 people downloaded Blockland in the ten days since it "became big". Right now, the full game costs $20.

References

Other websites 
Blockland Official Website

2007 video games
Windows games
Tarzan II (also known as Tarzan 2 and Tarzan II: The Legend Begins) is a direct-to-video midquel to the 1999 Disney animated movie Tarzan, released on June 14, 2005. The movie tells the story of a young Tarzan's adventure to discover who he really is. It features two new songs from Phil Collins and takes place during the song "Son of Man" from the first movie. It is the last film in the chronology of Walt Disney's version of Tarzan.

Cast 
 Harrison Chad - Tarzan
 Glenn Close - Kala
 Brenda Grate - Terk
 Harrison Fahn - Tantor
 Lance Henriksen - Kerchak
 George Carlin - Zugor
 Estelle Harris - Mama Gunda
 Brad Garrett - Uto
 Ron Perlman - Kago
 Connor Hutcherson - Tonka

Other websites
 
 

2005 movies
Sequel movies
Disney animated movies
Disney direct-to-video movies
Tarzan (Disney)
Tarzan movies
Jungle movies
A tactical victory happens when the winning side in a battle loses fewer troops than the other side.

War