Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Bibliography 
 Ida Stevenson Weldon Vernon (1969) Pedro de Valdivia, Conquistador of Chile, Greenwood Press
 John Milton Nickles, Marie Siegrist (1965) Bibliography and Index of Geology Exclusive of North America, Geological Society of America, v.28

References

Other websites
 Concepción municipality 
 El Sur, newspaper of Concepción 
 Viveconce, Event schedule of Concepción 
 Octava, Website directory  
 HelloChile - Spanish tutoring and tourism in and around the city of Concepción, Information in English about the Chilean life and places to visit 
 Municipal Library of Concepción 
  WorldFlicks in Concepción (Chile): Photos and places on Google Maps 
 Concepción in the Encyclopedia Britannica 

1550 establishments
 
1550s establishments in South America
16th-century establishments in Chile
Capitals of Chilean regions
In the physical sciences, mass and weight are different. The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in the object. Weight is a measure of the force on the object caused by a gravitational field. In other words, weight is how hard gravity pulls on an object. This means the mass of an object will remain at wherever it is on the earth's surface, but if it is moved from the equator to the North Pole, its weight will grow by 0.5% because of the increase in the earth's gravitational field.

Mass is measured in kilograms or pounds. A one-liter volume of water has a mass of one kilogram. Weight is measured in newtons, the standard unit for force. A one-kilogram mass placed on  a bench presses down on the bench with almost ten newtons of force.
Overview
The weight of something is the value measured at the Earth's surface. Unfortunately the common terms used to describe the weight of an object are units of mass such as kilograms or pounds. For almost all of human history weight has been measured on the surface of the Earth. Here, the weight is proportional to the mass. Objects which have the same mass have the same weight. An object with the twice the mass of another will also have twice the weight. As a consequence it is common practice to use the two words, mass and weight, as if they mean the same thing, and to use kilograms or pounds as the units for both mass and weight. Using the same terms to describe and measure the two different properties has led to confusion between these two properties, mass and weight. Mass and weight are not the same thing.
Generally, mass refers to how "heavy" something is. However, mass is really an inertial property; that is, the tendency of an object to remain at constant velocity unless acted upon by an outside force. According to Newton's second law of motion, as expressed in the formula an object with a mass, m, of one kilogram will accelerate, a, at one meter per second per second (about one-tenth the acceleration due to Earth's gravity) when acted upon by a force, F, of one newton.

Feeling the difference
It is possible to feel the difference between weight and mass by suspending an object with a mass of over ten kilograms on a rope with a length of two or more meters. If a person pushes upwards against the underneath of the object with one finger they will feel the weight of the object. If they push momentarily against the side of the suspended object with one finger they will feel the mass of the object. (It is important that they do not push the object sideways far enough to begin to raise it.)

Matter
Physics
Microsoft Security Essentials (MSE) is a free antivirus software created by Microsoft that provides protection against computer viruses, rootkits, spywares, and trojans for Windows XP. MSE x86 (32-bit) replaces Windows Live OneCare, a commercial subscription-based antivirus service and the free Windows Defender, which only protected users from adware and spyware. It is geared for consumer use, unlike Microsoft's upcoming enterprise-oriented product Microsoft Forefront.

Related pages
 Microsoft

Other websites 
 

Microsoft software
Antivirus software
Down By Law is a punk rock band made in or around 1990. Frontman Dave Smalley of "Dag Nasty" fame teamed up with the members of "Chemical People" for their first album and went through many changes all around over the years. Starting on Epitaph records with their first self called LP, DBL continued on Epitaph until "Last of the Sharpshooters" in 1997. A brief stint on Go Kart Records saw the release of "Fly the Flag", and now with their newest release of "Windward Tides and Wayward Sails" in 2003 finds them on Union Label Group.

1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American punk bands
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Bhagat Singh ( — 23 March 1931) was an Indian socialist revolutionary. He is considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian Independence Movement.

Early life 
Singh was born to Vidyavati Kaur and Sardar Kishan Singh, in a Sikh Jat family on 28 September 1907 at Lyallpur in Punjab Province of British India. His family had earlier been involved in revolutionary activities against the British government.

His uncle, Swaran Singh, had participated in the freedom struggle against the British. When in 1907, an another uncle of Bhagat, Ajit Singh was arrested and exiled to Rangoon in Burma, Swaran asked the people of Punjab to force the government for his release and due to his efforts Ajit Singh was released from Rangoon Jail in October 1907.

After coming back from jail, Ajit Singh decided to start a major revolt against the British. He began agitating the farmers and peasants to start a movement against them. The movement called 'Pagdi Sambhal Jatta' was launched in 1908.
The British came to know of his intentions and arrested him on 13 January 1911, when he was attending the Lohri festival celebration at his relative's house. In February, Ajit Singh escaped from jail and ran away home, only to inform about his planning to start a mass struggle abroad India. Ajit Singh bid farewell to his family and fled to Persia in March.
In 1912, Bhagat joined the District Primary School in Lyallpur and received his elementary education there till class 5th. In 1917, his family shifted to Lahore for his higher education. In Lahore, he was admitted to the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V) School, and he received rest of his elementary education from there. When he was in the 8th standard, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (13 April 1919) took place. The very next day (on 14 April) he went to the bagh telling at his home that he was going to school. After running about 30 miles from Lahore, Bhagat reached Amritsar. At 2 pm, as Bhagat entered the bagh's compound he saw blood scattered all over the ground. The turbans and torn clothes of panic-stricken people laid lifeless on the ground. The walls of the compound were red with blood. As it was curfew in Punjab those days, the blood hadn't been cleaned. Bhagat had taken a glass bottle with him before leaving from home. He took a handful of blood-stained soil and put it in the bottle
. He reached home and put the bottle infront of the Sikh Guru's portrait and prayed to him for peace and solace for the victims of the massacre and he pledged to teach the British a lesson.
In 1920, Mahatma Gandhi launched the Non-cooperation movement to encourage a mass protest against the British and to boycott their trade in India and to end their cooperation with the British rule. Many people joined the movement and discarded the use of foreign goods and clothes. The people boycotted schools and colleges. Lawyers such as Pandit Nehru's father Motilal boycotted law courts and other government institutions. They publicly burnt their lawyers' dress in protest.

Bhagat Singh also actively participated in the movement. He along with a group of people used to burn foreign clothes publicly and used to boycott government-funded schools, he was only 14 years old.
In February 1922, In Chauri Chaura village of Gorakhpur in United Provinces, non-violent activists of the town lead a march to a nearby liquor shop to picket it. Some policemen began thrashing the activists. The protesters became angry and they burnt down the police station where the policemen had taken refuge, killing all 22 policemen inside. Mahatma Gandhi was shocked to hear about the incident and he suspended the non- cooperation movement realising that the people had still not understood the message of non-violent protest against the British. This created much chaos around the common people as they thought that if Gandhi had not suspended the movement they would have easily achieved independence.

When Bhagat came to know about this, he was disappointed with Gandhi's decision to suspend the movement and he lost confidence in the philosophy of non-violence.
In 1923, He joined the National College in Lahore. There he studied as well took part in many extracurricular activities. In August 1923, an essay competition was held at the college by Punjab Hindi Sahitya Sammelan. The topic was to write about any of the special acknowledgements about Punjab. Bhagat Singh wrote an essay on the following topic:

Besides this, a month later he joined a Dramatics Society near the college campus and began to organize functions and shows.

In late October, the society organized a show for the governor of Punjab. When the governor Edward Douglas Maclagan arrived the theatre, the audience present there consisting mainly of college students didn't show courtesy to the governor. He became so angry with the irrespective treating that he walked out of the theatre, but Bhagat Singh didn't mind and performed the show infront of the limited audience.
While studying in National College, he used to spend most of his time in the college library reading books about armed revolution in foreign countries.

He was inspired by the Russian revolutionaries who believed that armed revolt can only bring freedom. His first act which brought to notice was that occured in March 1924. It is said that one of his friend's bullock cart driver was beaten harshly by some English officials as the sign the outside the office of the officials read - 'Dogs and Indians are not allowed'. He took revenge and along with Sukhdev he attacked the officials car and beated them with lathis (wooden sticks) and escaped unnoticed in the night.

In April, his father asked him to get married for which he refused. His father pressurised him for it, so one night, he quietly left his home for going to Kanpur. Before leaving he wrote a letter to his father:
Bhagat Singh worked for Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi in the newspaper Pratap Press in Kanpur for some months. Then he met Chandra Shekhar Azad and they began to work together for freedom struggle.

In early 1925, his father called him home as his grandmother was very ill. He wrote to him for coming home, promising he would not force him to get married:

In March 1925, he accepted his father's wish returned to Lahore but had to soon escape from there as police had came to know of his whereabouts. He went to Delhi and started publishing the Daily Veer Arjun Newspaper for 6 months.

In October, he returned to Kanpur to free the Kakori prisoners who had been arrested after the train robbery in Kakori (9 August) along with their leader Ram Prasad Bismil. The prisoners were temporarily detained at Kanpur police station before being shifted to different central jails across United Provinces.
On 22 November, along with Azad, Bhagat went to the police station unnoticed and broke the lockups and freed one their comrades but the police soon arrived and they had to run away. Their plan had failed.

In March 1926, he organized the Naujawan Bharat Sabha to encourage the young men of his country to fight for there freedom. He began to address big public meetings and asked them to overthrow the British rule in India. He also took the help of dramatics society for the purpose of spreading his message.

On 16 October, when the Dussehra festival fair was held in Lahore Maidan. At 7 pm, a bomb exploded in crowded section of maidan when the Ramleela play was held. 12 people died in this explosion and about five times of that were injured. People rushed out of the maidan to save their lives.

Next day, The Tribune was published as follows-
The British Government took advantage of the incident and arrested Bhagat on the pretext that he was involved in the bomb incident on 29 May 1927. The real reason for his arrest was to stop him from instigating people against the British rule.

It was later found that the bomb explosion was caused by a man named Channa Din who was bribed by the Lahore police to get an excuse for arresting the revolutionaries.

He was released for a security deposit of ₹ 60,000 for having found no evidence against him, about a month later.

Activities 
He became involved in numerous revolutionary activities. He quickly gained prominence in the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) and became one of its chief leaders. Eventually, the name of the organization was changed to Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) on 9 September 1928.
The Commission reached Lahore on 30 October 1928. Here, the protest march was being lead by Lala Lajpat Rai. As the members of commission got down from the train at Lahore Railway Station. The protesters began yelling 'Simon Go Back', soon the protest turned violent and the police had to resort to lathi charge to stop the protest. The SP of Lahore James A. Scott began to beat Lalaji with a baton. Lalaji became wounded from the batoning but he continued to yell 'Simon Go Back...Simon Go Back...Simon Go Back...' Lalaji was wounded and he fell to the ground, before he fell he is said to have announced:

18 days later, Lalaji succumbed to his wounds. Bhagat Singh who was also in the protest march was the witness to this incident and decided to take revenge.
To avenge this, Bhagat made a plan by calling a meeting at Mozang House (an HSRA hideout). On the night, of 10 December the plan to kill the SP Scott was made. Jaigopal was asked to keep a watch on Scott for five days and report the time to fix for execution of plan.

On 15 December, the last meeting was held in which Sukhdev presented a map of the Police Headquarters of Lahore where Scott used to work. Bhagat and Rajguru were chosen to execute the plan. Jaigopal was told to signal Bhagat and Rajguru as he sees Scott coming out of the office. The plan was now ready to be executed.
On 17 December, Bhagat along with Rajguru & Chandrashekhar Azad went to the area of Police Headquarters. Bhagat and Rajguru hid behind a tree nearby. Jaigopal also came riding on his bicycle and acted as he was repairing it to wait for Scott. At 1620 hours, as another police officer ASP Saunders came out of the office Jaigopal mistook him for Scott and signaled Bhagat and Rajguru. As soon as Saunders approached the tree, Rajguru came out and shot him in the head which wounded him and Bhagat shot thrice in his chest and killed him.

The Head Constable Chanan Singh chased Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Azad but was wounded by Azad's covering fire.

The traffic inspector Fern who was standing there controlling the traffic saw them running and started chasing them. Bhagat fired at Fern but he ducked down to prevent the shot and thus the shot missed. The four then escaped through the D.A.V college backdoor to arranged safehouses.
Next day, Posters appeared all over the walls of Lahore informing the public about the revenge action against the British-

The rest of the matter of the poster contained the motives behind the murder of the officer and warning given to the Intelligence Department and bureaucracy. It was signed by Balraj (a pseudonym of Chandrashekhar Azad).

When the news of Saunder's murder reached the British government, it launched a search operation in the whole of Lahore. The CID was asked to keep a watch on every person departing and arriving in Lahore.

On 18 and 19 December many people were arrested on suspicion of the murder. Many people were beated mercilessly and caught and jailed without warrant.

The HSRA decided that it is not safe for Bhagat to be in Lahore as he would be soon caught by the police if so. So they planned Bhagat's escape from Lahore to reach Calcutta.
On the evening of 19 December Sukhdev requested Durga Bhabhi (wife of Bhagwati Vohra, member of HSRA) to accompny Bhagat to escape from Lahore. Durga Bhabhi agreed willingly.

To avoid recognition Bhagat had shaved his beard and cut his long hair (a violation of Sikh customs) and had wore an English outfit. He asked Durga Bhabhi to wear an English outfit too. Rajguru was asked to become the porter at the station.

At about 6:00 am, Bhagat along with Durga Bhabhi and Rajguru, who acted as their porter and Azad reached the Railway Station and boarded the first train from Lahore to Calcutta.

At Calcutta, Bhagat and Chandra Shekhar Azad met Jatindranath Das, a scholar and a scientist in January 1929. Jatin was asked to make bombs, arsenals and other weapons for the HSRA. The HSRA set up a bomb factory in Agra for the purpose. In March, the arsenals were tried and tested in secret near the Yamuna River.
In April, the British Government introduced two bills called as Public Safety Bill and Trade Dispute Bill. The first was for the purpose of curbing mass protests that were taking place in many parts of the country and the second was for lowering the pension of the mill workers and farmers by 10%.

Meanwhile, the Bombay Textile Mill workers announced a strike on 15 February to protest against low wages paid by the Sir Nusserwanjee Wadia, the owner of the mill. The workers remained on strike for many days. They also barred the Wadia's entry in the mill. Wadia reported the problem to his friend who was a British officer. The officer agreed to help him. On 1 April, he came with a large cavalry force to disperse the protesting workers to make way for Wadia. First the officer requested the workers to end the strike but they refused to do so. The officer then ordered the cavalry to lathi-charge on the workers. Many were injured in this lathi-charge.
To put a stop on the strikes of workers, the government decided to pass the bills as soon as possible. They decided to pass the bills on 8 April with the special powers of the Viceroy Lord Irwin in the Central Assembly.

Bhagat Singh decided to protect the rights of the farmers of his country to protest against unjust laws of the government and decided to halt the passing of bills.

He made a plan to bomb the Central Legislative Assembly in New Delhi. He partnered with Batukeshwar Dutt for this task.

On 8 April, as the Speaker Vithalbhai Patel stood up to announce the passing of bill at 1230 hours, He bombarded the assembly with two bombs making sure that this will not harm any person. They were shouting slogans of revolution and threw pamphlets.

After the bombarding, they surrendered. Bhagat along with Dutt was jailed. They were kept in Delhi Central Jail (present day Maulana Azad Medical College, Delhi) from 22 April to 13 June.
The trial for Delhi Assembly Bomb case began on 7 May with an introductory hearing with the Presiding Judge Justice Frank Ernest Bran Pool. In the next hearing, a month later on 6 June, lawyer Asaf Ali defended Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt. Asaf tried his best to defend the revolutionaries but in vain as on 12 June, both were sentenced to transportation for life in Delhi Jail.

In the Court hearings, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt made a statement to clarify their motives for bombing and about the repressive action of government against the labourers and farmers of the country who have a large participation in the economic development of the country. The typewriter had written the whole statement. Here is a small part of the statement.

The next day, the police came to know about his involvement in the murder of ASP Saunders and soon made preparations to transfer him to Mianwali Jail and Dutt to Lahore Central Jail.
The police then took Bhagat and Batukeshwar Dutt to Mianwali & Lahore respectively on 13 June.

The same day, Bhagat reached Mianwali Jail. He was kept in this jail while all other HSRA revolutionaries were kept in Lahore's Borstal Jail.

The next day, as Bhagat got to know that the English prisoners and thieves were treated with dignity and were given healthy food but there was discrimination with Indian prisoners and revolutionaries and given unhygienic food as well.

Bhagat began his longest (112 days) hunger strike in jail which lasted from 15 June to 5 October 1929. Together many other revolutionaries began hunger strike that day.

The demands that Bhagat placed before the Jailor Major Pindi Das Chopra were-

1. There should be no discrimination between the English and Indian prisoners.

2. Indian prisoners should be given books and newspapers to read and clean clothes to wear as given to the English.

3. Healthy food should be provided to the Indian prisoners.
The demands were refused many times by the jail authorities and the police forced the prisoners to break their hunger strike treacherously.

They would often beat the prisoners to drink milk or swallow food to halt the hunger strike but the prisoners were adamant.

The Lahore Conspiracy Case trial began on 10 July 1929, in the Lahore Jail court house. Bhagat Singh had been shifted a day earlier to this jail for the trial. The Presiding Judge was Justice Rai Sahib Pandit Sri Kishen. There were in total 14 accused and 2 approvers in the case. Jaigopal later turned approver.

Meanwhile, Jatin Das who had begun his hunger strike 28 days after Bhagat, died on 13 September 1929 due to weakness. Thousands of people attended his funeral procession in Lahore and felt proud for the brave revolutionary Jatin Das. He was cremated at Calcutta on 16 September.

At last, on 5 October the Jail authorities agreed to the prisoners' demands and they ended their hunger strike.
Rajguru gets arrested at a motor garage in Pune on 30 September 1929 and is presented in the court hearing on 18 October.

Kundan Lal and Bejoy Kumar Sinha also get arrested in September.

On the other hand, The Conspiracy Case trials went on with no decision for months. Jaigopal betrayed the HSRA by telling that Bhagat was involved in the murder of Saunders. On 21 October 1929, as Jaigopal spoke the truth a revolutionary Prem Dutt became so angry he insulted him and threw his shoes towards him. Jaigopal fainted and collapsed in the witness box.

Prem Dutt was handcuffed but the revolutionaries protested so Magistrate Rai Saheb ordered all of them to be handcuffed but they refused to cooperate. The police then started to beat them and forced them to be handcuffed. They were badly wounded due to this. Many had to be taken away from the court on stretcher.
To speed up the slow-moving trial, Lord Irwin declared emergency on 1 May 1930. Arrests of the accused were speeded up and the arrested ones were to pass through trials of the special tribunal. The tribunal had been appointed by the Viceroy on 30 April. The tribunal consisted three senior judges – Justice Coldstream, Justice G. C. Hilton and Justice Agha Hyder.
The trials of the special tribunal began on 5 May 1930 at the court of special magistrate in Poonch House. The location had been shifted from the Lahore Jail. The accused were forcibly taken to the trials as they had refused to come to the court. The revolutionaries knew well that the presiding judge is a British and he will no doubt give them a harsh punishment. On 12 May, the revolutionaries were again harshly beaten with sticks and were dragged to the court for trial. The revolutionaries boycotted the trials from that day on and did not present themselves in the court. They demanded that Justice G. C. Hilton must be removed and an Indian judge preside the case. But the government denied their wish. In June, they removed Justice Agha Hyder (who had tried to stop the police from beating the revolutionaries as he had sympathy for them) and presiding judge Justice Coldstream and made Justice G. C. Hilton the presiding judge and appointed Justice Abdul Qadir and Justice Tapp instead.
The revolutionaries permanently boycotted the trials due to the opposite result of their demand.

Thus, the trials continued in the absence of the accused. They were only conducted on the basis of testimonies of the 3 government approvers Jaigopal, Hans Raj Vohra & Phonindra Nath Ghosh.

The testimonies were utilised as prime evidence against the accused and were thus used to give the judgement in the case.

On 7 October 1930, the special tribunal of three judges pronounced their judgement as follows —

Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru was ordered to be hanged on 27 October 1930 at 8 am, but due to consideration process of many of the mercy appeals filed, the sentence was delayed. Finally the date was decided as 24 March 1931.

Many nationalist leaders appealed to the government to reduce the punishment of the three comrades especially Madan Mohan Malaviya, Mohammed Ali Jinnah and Subhash Chandra Bose who had positive views about the revolutionaries.
Especially, Mahatma Gandhi asked the Viceroy Lord Irwin to revoke the death sentence of the three revolutionaries but he refused to do so.

On 22 March, the Jailor decided to bring forward the hanging time 11 hours earlier to prevent public protest outside the jail.

The families of the three were not allowed to meet them on 23 March. The father of Bhagat, Kishan Singh with his wife waited outside for a long a time to get a last glimpse of his brave son but even they were denied.

At 7:20 pm, the Jailor P. D. Chopra arrived with other officers to take them to the gallows. At that time, Bhagat was reading the biography of Russian communist leader Vladimir Lenin. He called out to Bhagat to get ready as they were getting late. He replied 'wait a minute, one revolutionary is meeting the other'. He read for a few minutes and came out of the cell.

While going towards the gallows, Bhagat, Sukhdev and Rajguru weren't even slightly afraid. They were singing the patriotic song 'Mera Rang De Basanti Chola'.
At 7:28, the three arrived at the execution site (Phansighat) where several members of the jail staff including Jail Doctor Narinder Singh Sodhi, IG Prisons Fredrick Barker, Senior officer Charles Stead and District magistrate Allan Arbuthnot Lane Roberts, were waiting for them. Jail warden Chhatar Singh was also present. Bhagat said to Lane Roberts 'Sir, today you will see how bravely the great sons of India embrace death'.

So at 7:30 pm, the three were hanged till death by the Lahore Central Jail authorities.

After hanging, their bodies were carried away secretly to Ferozepore through the backdoor of the jail.

Late at night, the authorities reached the Sutlej river banks at Ferozepore where they burnt the bodies of the three revolutionaries.
Soon a big crowd armed with fire torches arrived the river banks. The authorities were frightened and they fled from the scene. The people in the crowd then informed Bhagat's father Kishan Singh about the incident who along with Vidyawati came rushing to Ferozepore. Kishan Singh wept with grief along with pride at the same time for his brave son. The next day, the people and Kishan Singh cremated the body of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru.

Thus the brave Indian revolutionary laid down his life for liberating his motherland.

In the memory of their martyrdom the day 23 March is celebrated every year as 'Martyrs Day'.

The Government of India has made memorials and released postage stamps to honour these brave martyrs of India.

Indian history in brief

Notes

References 

Freedom fighters
1907 births
1931 deaths
Wisdom teeth are a set of four teeth, farthest back in a person's mouth. Most people get them late in their teenage years or in their early twenties.  Many people have to have surgery to get rid of them because they often grow in a crooked way, or because there is no room for them.

References

Teeth
Miguel Juan Sebastián Piñera Echenique; born December 1, 1949) was the President of Chile from 2010 to 2014 and again from 2018 until 2022. He was elected once again in the 2017 presidential election. 

He won the second round of the presidential election that took place on January 17, 2010, and subsequently took office on March 11, 2010. He is a well-known economist, investor, businessperson, politician, former Senator, and leader of the presidential and parliamentary electoral coalition Coalition for Change. He is a billionaire and one of the richest people in Chile.
Presidential Elections 2009–2010
Piñera ran for President of Chile in the 2009-2010 election. Since August 2009, he led in opinion polls, competing with Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, Marco Enríquez-Ominami and Jorge Arrate; all of whom are left-of-center candidates. In the election of December 13, 2009, Piñera placed first in the results by obtaining 44.05 % of the votes, while Frei placed second by obtaining 29.6 % of the votes. Since neither candidate received more than half of the total votes, Chileans returned to the polls for a final run-off election on Sunday, January 17, 2010.

In popular culture 
Actor Bob Gunton portrays Piñera in the 2015 movie The 33, which is about the 2006 Copiapó mining accident.

References

Relating page
2019 Chilean protests

1949 births
Living people
Presidents of Chile
Businesspeople from Santiago
Billionaires
Politicians from Santiago
The   is a time in the Japanese history from 1185 through 1333 in the history of Japan.  This grouping of years is named after city of Kamakura which was the center of power of the Kamakura shogunate.

The government of shoguns which was functionally established in 1192 by Minamoto no Yoritomo.

The Kamakura period ended in 1333 with the destruction of the shogunate. Imperial rule was re-established under Emperor Go-Daigo.

Mongol Invasions of Japan (1274, 1281) also happened in this period.

Flourishing of Buddhism
Buddhism expanded during this period. A number of monks founded separate Buddhist sects, including
• Hōnen, founder of the Jōdo shū sect
• Shinran, disciple of Hōnen; founder of Jōdo Shinshū
• Ippen, founder of the Ji sect
• Dōgen, founder of the Sōtō school of Zen
• Eisai, founder of the Rinzai school of Zen
• Nichiren, founder of the sect of Buddhism named after him

The older Buddhist sects such as Shingon and Tendai continued to thrive.
Timeline 
 1185 (Genryaku 2, 24th day of the 3rd month): Taira clan (Heike) defeated at sea by Minamoto Yoshitsune
 1191 (Kenkyū 2): Esai establishes Zen in Japan
 1192 (Kenkyū 3): Minamoto Yoritomo  appointed as shogun
 1207 (Ken'ei 1): Hōnen and his followers are exiled
 1221 (Jōkyū 3): In the , Emperor Go-Toba tried to take power from the Kamakura shogunate. The effort did not succeed.
 1252 (Kenchō 2): Great Buddha of Kamakura was put in place at Kōtoku-in.
 November 19, 1274 (Bun'ei 11, 20th day of the 10th month): Kublai Khan sent a fleet and an army to invade Japan;  or the "Bun'ei War".
 1281 (Kōan 4):  or the "Kōan War".
 1293 (Einin 1):  Disastrous  earthquake and tsunami hit Sagami Bay and Kamakura, killing 23,034 people.
 1333 (Genkō 3): Nitta Yoshisada destroys the Kamakura shogunate in the .

Gallery

Related pages 
 List of Japanese eras

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Metropolitan Museum of Art,  Kamakura and Nanbokucho Periods (1185–1392)
 British Museum, Kamakura period (AD 1185-1333) 
 Japan-guide.com,  Kamakura Period (1192 - 1333)

Periods in Japanese history
Samurai
12th-century establishments in Japan
1330s disestablishments in Japan
1333 disestablishments
1185 establishments
Modulation can mean:

 Modulation (music), the changing of a piece of music from one key to another.
 Frequency Modulation (FM) or Amplitude Modulation (AM), ways to send analog radio signals.
 Phase-shift keying and frequency-shift keying, ways to send digital signals.
The American Football Conference (AFC) is one of the two conferences of the National Football League (NFL), the other being the National Football Conference (NFC). Every year, the winner of the AFC Championship Game receives the Lamar Hunt Trophy and gets to play against the winner of the NFC Championship Game in the Super Bowl. As of 2010, the Pittsburgh Steelers, who have won the AFC Championship Game seven times, have won the most AFC Championship Games. The most recent champion is the Kansas City Chiefs. 

National Football League
After seismic waves make a structure vibrate, a tuned mass damper (or seismic damper) can decrease their damaging effect and improve the building's seismic performance. Vehicles use small dampers and buildings use large ones. Some examples of dampers' design and implementation are presented in the images below:

Related pages
Seismic Dampers 
Seismic vibration control

References

Earthquake engineering
Nelsinho Baptista (born 22 July 1950) is a Brazilian football manager. Most recently, he managed Kashiwa Reysol.

References
sambafoot 
Kashiwa Reysol 

1950 births
Living people
Brazilian footballers
Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras managers
Cesare Prandelli (born 19 August 1957) is a former Italian football player. He has played for some Italian clubs (e.g. Atalanta, Juventus). He manages for Fiorentina.

1957 births
Living people
Footballers from Lombardy
Italian football managers
Gerhard Johannes Paul Domagk  (October 30 1895 – April 24 1964) was a German doctor. He won the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine,  for discovering the antibacterial effect of protonsil.

References

1895 births
1964 deaths
German doctors
German Nobel Prize winners
is a Japanese professional athlete.  He is best known as an association football player and coach.

References

Other websites
  Roasso Komamoto at J-League.or.jp 

1962 births
Living people
Footballers from Shizuoka Prefecture
Carl Peter Henrik Dam  (February 21 1895 — April 17 1976) was a Danish chemist. He won the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine,  along with Edward Doisy,  for the discovery of Vitamin K.

References 

1895 births
1976 deaths

Danish chemists
Biochemists
Danish Nobel Prize winners
Josip Kuže (13 November 1952 – 16 June 2013) was a Croatian football manager. He manages for Albania national team.

References

1952 births
2013 deaths
Croatian footballers
FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt managers
Size 
Cairo publishers make 60% of Arabic language books printed in the world. The state owned General Egyptian Book Organisation, is the largest book publisher in the Arab world. The fair has displays and speakers from publishers and government agencies from around the world, as well as sellers of books, video, and other media. Lectures, readings, and other public events take place during the three weeks the of the book fair, with items in Arabic, English, and other languages. The fair brings in ordinary Egyptians, with media on a range of topics, outdoor events, and even fireworks to entertain the large crowds.

The CIBF was started by the General Egyptian Book Organisation, a government publishers and retailers group, in 1969 as part of the celebrations of the 1000th anniversary of the start of the city of Cairo.  The 41st fair was held from 21 January to 5 February 2009.
Controversy
The CIBF has had problems in recent years. Leftist and Muslim militant authors, works critical of the government, and works with sections or topics that are seen as sexually or culturally controversial have been banned from the book fair. During the 2000 book fair, Islamist protests became violent. That year, more than 2000 members of Muslim student groups protested outside Al-Azhar University. This led to rare public protests against the Egyptian government, violence, 75 arrests and a number of injuries. The students were protesting an Egyptian Ministry of Culture publisher printing and selling copies of the 1983 novel A Banquet for Seaweed by the Syrian writer Haidar Haidar. After the protests, two members of the government printing house were also arrested for "disparaging religion" and publishing a work "offensive to public morals".
In later years a number of books from foreign publishers have been taken by Egyptian authorities. These have included works by Czech Milan Kundera, Moroccan Mohamed Choukri, Saudi Ibrahim Badi, Lebanese Hanan al-Sheikh, and fellow Lebanese novelist Elias Khoury  In 2005, Egyptian police arrested a number of book sellers and activists at the book fair. Two Egyptian journalists were arrested for giving out "false propaganda against the government" and others for presenting socialist work.

References

 Cairo International Book Fair . ISTC Travel guide. 2005.
 Ingrid Wassmann. Censorship and social realism at the Cairo Book Fair. Arab Media & Society. Issue 5, Spring 2008.
 The 40th Cairo Book Fair: Competition between Center and Periphery. Mona Naggar. Translated from the German by Isabel Cole. Neue Zürcher Zeitung/Qantara.de 13 February 2008.
 Pink suitcases, flowerpots turn heads at book fair. Shaina Azad. Daily News Egypt. January 29, 2009.

Other websites
 www.cairoibf.org : official site (Arabic).
Cairo
1969 establishments
20th-century establishments in Egypt
Park Kyung-Hwan (박경환 born 29 December 1976) is a South Korean professional athlete.  He is best known as an association football player.

Club career statistics 

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|1998||Bellmare Hiratsuka||J. League Division 1||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
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References

Other websites
 http://people.nate.com/people/info/pa/rk/parkkyunghwan/ 

1976 births
Living people
South Korean footballers
Alexander Alekhine  (31 October 1892 – 24 March 1946) was the fourth World Chess Champion, and the only one to die holding the title.p7

Chess career 
By the age of twenty-two, he was already one of the strongest grandmasters. During the 1920s, he was one of the hypermoderns, and won many tournaments. In 1927, he became World Champion by beating Capablanca. The match of 34 games was the longest world championship match held until 1985.

In the early 1930s Alekhine dominated tournament play, and won top-class tournaments by large margins. He also played first board for France in four Chess Olympiads, winning prizes in each. His tournament record became less good from the mid-1930s onwards; alcoholism is often blamed for this. Although Alekhine offered Capablanca a rematch on the same terms that Capablanca had set for him, negotiations dragged on for years. It became clear that Alekhine would never let the match take place. Meanwhile, he defended his title with ease against Bogolyubov in 1929 and 1934.
Alekhine was defeated by Euwe in 1935, but regained his crown in the 1937 rematch. His tournament record was now uneven, and rising stars (such as Keres and Botvinnik) threatened his title. Negotiations for a title match were halted by the start of World War II in 1939.

Alekhine was known for his attacking style: he was good at turning an initiative into a win. He was the first world champion to work hard on opening theory. Alekhine was the first to be a full-time dedicated professional of the modern type. He said he spent eight hours a day studying the game, and produced many innovations in chess openings.

Alekhine was declared an "Enemy of the Soviet Union" after making anti-Bolshevik statements in 1927. However, after his death, the Soviet chess leaders called him "one of the founders of the Soviet School of Chess". He is still highly regarded as a chess writer. His finest works were his collections of his own games, which influenced many players.

Character
Character 

Alekhine was a brilliant player with a poor character: "Not everyone liked his personal character, but all admired his chess genius".p7 That he sometimes lied, and was often half-drunk is mentioned by all his biographers. He married a Russian baroness in 1920, which legitimised their seven-year-old daughter. The following year he married a Swiss woman, and obtained permission to leave Russia. 

The marriage, which was probably bigamous, broke up soon after. Later he married twice more. He settled in Paris, becoming a naturalised French citizen. He studied law at the Sorbonne, and claimed to have got a doctorate there in 1925: he was known widely as 'Dr. Alekhine'. Researchers have failed to find any trace of this in the records of the Sorbonne.p69 Having at last won the world title, Alekhine used every device to avoid giving Capablanca a return match. He remarked to a friend "Somehow the match will never take place".p8
Alekhine stayed in Nazi-occupied Europe during the war, where he played in tournaments organised by the Nazis. Anti-Semitic articles appeared under his name. Although he later claimed they were forged by the Nazis, the original manuscripts in his hand were found amongst his last wife's effects when she died.p309–313 Whether Alekhine was personally anti-semitic is not so clear. He had good relationships with some Jewish chess players, and his fourth wife was Jewish. Negotiations with Mikhail Botvinnik for a world title match were proceeding in 1946 when Alekhine died in Portugal. "It is not too callous to say that he was fortunate to have died at that time. Feeling was very strong in France against those who came under suspicion of collaboration with the enemy".p75
Books 
Alekine wrote over twenty books on chess. Some of the best-known are:
  Originally published in two volumes as My best games of chess 1908-1923 and My best games of chess 1924-1937
 
 
 Alekhine, Alexander 1972. International chess tournament. New York 1927. Chess Digest, Dallas.
 
 Alekhine, Alexander 1932. Auf dem Wege zur Weltmeisterschaft. Berlin, De Gruyter. Translated as On the road to the world championship (transl. C.J. Feather & K.P.Neat) Pergamon, Oxford.
 
 Alekhine, Alexander 1947. Gran ajadrez: mis mejores analisis. Madrid.
 Skinner L.M. and Verhoeven R.G.P. 1998. Alexander Alekhine's chess games 1902–1946. McFarland, Jefferson NC.

References 

Russian chess players
1946 deaths
1892 births
A smoke bomb or smoke grenade is a bomb that produces a cloud of smoke. It can be used as a toy to make large clouds of colored smoke. It is normally used in the military though. Smoke bombs are used to hide positions and objects from sight behind a thick cloud of smoke. Armies also use smoke grenades to hide soldiers from the enemy. Smoke grenades can be used to mark a spot on the ground (for example, a spot where you want a helicopter to land). Smoke bombs can be thrown or shot. They normally contain a powdered chemical that is ignited. It produces a large cloud of smoke quickly. Then something else starts burning, keeping the smoke cloud thick.

Related pages
Grenade
Bomb

Toys
Weapons
Law enforcement equipment
was a  after Kenji and before Shōō.  This period started in February 1278 and ended in April 1288. During this time, the emperor|emperors were  and .

Events of the Kōan era
 1281 (Kōan 4): Second invasion attempt by Mongol forces. This is called the Kōan War (Kōan no Eki).

 1297 (Kōan 10, 10th month): In the 14th year of Go-Uda's reign, the emperor abdicated; and his cousin became the new emperor.

Related pages 
 Kamakura period
 Kōan (Muromachi period), 1361-1362

References

Other websites
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar"

 

Japanese eras
1278 establishments
13th-century establishments in Japan
1288 disestablishments
13th-century disestablishments in Japan
Elevated building foundation (EBF) is a kind of seismic base isolation technology which is made a major part of a building superstructure. It is made to protect the building's superstructure against damage from the shaking caused by an earthquake.

This goal can be met with the right building materials, size, and setup of elevated building foundation for the building site and local soil conditions.

As a result of multiple wave reflections and diffractions, as well as energy dissipation of the seismic waves as they move up through the elevated building foundation, any movement of seismic wave energy into the building superstructure will be decreased, which will lower seismic loads and improve seismic performance of the structure.

In other words, the building does not shake as much because it is sitting on the elevated building foundation, and will probably take less damage from the earthquake.

Notes

Earthquake engineering

en:Elevated building foundation
was a  which came after Bun'ei and before Kōan.  The period started April 1275 and ended February 1278. During this time, the emperor was .

Events of the Kenji era 
 1275 (Kenji 1): The Mongols sent an ambassador to Kamakura along with the delegation sent from the Goryeo.

Related pages 
 Kamakura period

References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar"

Japanese eras
1270s in Japan
Seismic load is one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering which means application of an earthquake-generated agitation to a building structure or its model. It happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground, or with adjacent structures, or with gravity waves from tsunami.

Seismic loading depends, primarily, on:

 Anticipated earthquake’s parameters at the site
 Geotechnical parameters of the site
 Building structure’s parameters
 Characteristics of the anticipated gravity waves from tsunami (if applicable).

Sometimes, seismic load exceeds ability of a structure to resist it without being broken, partially or completely. Due to their mutual interaction, seismic loading and seismic performance of a structure are intimately related.

Other websites
Earthquake Performance Evaluation Tool Online

Notes

Earthquake engineering
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (February 27, 1807 – March 24, 1882) was an American teacher and poet. Some of his poems are "Paul Revere's Ride", The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy. He was one of the five Fireside Poets. He was one of the most influential persons in the culture of the 1800s in the USA.
Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine and studied at Bowdoin College. He then spent time in Europe. He returned and became a professor at Bowdoin and, later, at Harvard College. His first major books of poetry were Voices of the Night (1839) and Ballads and Other Poems (1841). Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854 to spend more time writing. He lived the rest of his life in Cambridge, Massachusetts, living in George Washington's old headquarters building. His first wife, Mary Potter, died in 1835 after a miscarriage. His second wife, Frances Appleton, died in 1861 after her dress caught fire. Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time after she died. He mostly worked on his translation. He died in 1882.
Longfellow mainly wrote lyric poems which are known for their musicality. His poems often told stories of mythology and legend. He became the most popular American poet while he was alive. He was also successful in other countries. Some criticized him for imitating European styles and for writing poems for everyday people. In 1884, Longfellow became the first non-British writer for whom a commemorative bust was placed in Poet's Corner of Westminster Abbey in London. He is the only American poet represented with a bust.

Early life 
Longfellow was born in Maine. One of his grandfathers was a state Senator and the other grandfather had been a Revolutionary War general and a Congressman. Then following his graduation in 1826 from Bowdoin College, where he was a classmate of Nathaniel Hawthorne, Longfellow went to Europe to study.

When he returned to the United States three years later, he taught European languages, first at Bowdoin and then at Harvard.
After 18 years of teaching at Harvard, he resigned his position because he felt it interfered with his writing.

Influences on society and culture 
He was a commanding person in the culture life of 19-century America, a romantic who identified with the great traditions of European literature and thought. Also at the same time, he was rooted in American life and history that charged his imagination with amazing themes and made him ambitious for success.

End of life 
During the last years of his life, Longfellow received many honors, including honorary degrees from Cambridge and Oxford Universities in England. After his death, a bust of Longfellow was placed in the Poet’s Corner of Westminster Abbey—the first American to be so honored. In the late 19th century, Longfellow was without a doubt the most popular American poet.

List of works