Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Colour of light emitting diodes 
 
In the electric circuit shown on the right, the voltage drop across the light emitting diode (LED) depends on the material of the LED. For silicon diodes the drop is 0.6 V. However for LEDs it is between 1.8 V and 2.7 V. This information enables a user to calculate the Planck constant.

The energy needed for one electron to jump the potential barrier in the LED material is given by   

where
Qe is the charge on one electron.
VL is the voltage drop across the LED.

When the electron decays back again, it emits one photon of light. The energy of the photon is given by
the same equation used in the photoelectric effect. If these equations are combined, the wavelength of light and the voltage are related by

The table below can be calculated from this relationship.

Value of the Planck constant and the kilogram redefinition
Since its discovery, measurements of h have become much better. Planck first quoted the value of h to be  erg·sec. This value is within 5% of the current value.

As of 3 March 2014, the best measurements of h in SI units is  J·s. The equivalent figure in cgs units is  erg·sec. The relative uncertainty of h is .

The reduced Planck constant (ħ) is a value that is sometimes used in quantum mechanics. It is defined by

.

Planck units are sometimes used in quantum mechanics instead of SI. In this system the reduced Planck constant has a value of 1, so the value of the Planck constant is 2π.
 
Plancks constant can now be measured with very high precision. This has caused the BIPM to consider a new definition for the kilogram.  The international prototype kilogram is no longer used to define the kilogram. Instead the BIPM defines the Planck constant to have an exact value. Scientists use this value and the definitions of the metre and the second to define the kilogram.

Value of Theoretical Planck constant
The Planck constant can also be mathematically derived:

Here,  is the permeability of free space,  is the speed of light,  is the electric charge of electron,  is the Bohr's radius, and  is the frequency of revolution of the electron in a hydrogen atom . When these constant values are substituted to the theoretical Planck constant, the theoretical Planck constant value is exactly equal to the experimental value.

The Planck's constant elementary formula in terms of proton-to-electron mass ratio, the charge of electron, speed of light and vacuum permittivity is derived in. It is expressed as follows:

where  is the elementary charge of an electron,  the mass of a proton, the mass of an electron,   the vacuum permittivity, and  the speed of light.

Related pages 
 Wave–particle duality

Notes

References 

Physical constants
Sebastian Newbold Coe, Baron Coe CH KBE (born 29 September 1956, and often nicknamed Seb Coe) is a former athlete and politician from the United Kingdom. A middle distance runner, Coe won the 1500 m gold medal at the Olympic Games in 1980 and 1984, and set eight outdoor and three indoor world records. He is widely considered to be amongst the greatest middle distance runners of all time. Following his retirement from athletics, he served as a Member of Parliament for the Conservative Party from 1992-97. He became a life peer in 2000. He is the head of the London bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics. After the International Olympic Committee awarded the games to London, he became the chairman of the London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games. In 2007, he was also elected a vice-president of the International Association of Athletics Federations.
Personal life
Coe was born in Hammersmith, London. He grew up in Warwickshire and Sheffield. His mother, Tina Angela Coe, died in Hammersmith and Fulham, London, in 2005, aged 75. His mother was half Indian, born to a Punjabi father Sardari Lal and an English mother Vera. His father, Peter Coe (born Percy N. Coe in Kingston upon Thames), died on 9 August 2008, aged 88, while Coe was in Beijing.

Coe married Nicky McIrvine, a former Badminton three-day-event champion, in Surrey, in 1990. They have two sons and two daughters, all of whom were born in Surrey:

 The Hon. Madeline Rose Coe (8 July 1992–)
 The Hon. Harry Sebastian Newbold Coe (29 September 1994–)
 The Hon. Peter Henry Christopher Coe (31 May 1996–)
 The Hon. Alice India Violet Coe (25 September 1998–)

The marriage ended in divorce in 2002 after twelve years and Coe moved out of the family home. Coe married Carole Annett in summer 2011.
On 12 February 2010, Coe was the 19th runner on the 106th day of the Vancouver Olympic Torch Relay. Coe's leg was along the Stanley Park Seawall, and he exchanged a "torch kiss" with the previous runner, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and the next runner, a 19 year old member of the Squamish community.

Awards
He was awarded with the first Prince of Asturias Award in sports category in 1987.

Coe was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1982 and an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1990. He was created a life peer in 2000 as Baron Coe, of Ranmore in the County of Surrey.

In December 2005, Coe was given a Special award at the BBC Sports Personality of the Year awards ceremony. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2006 New Year's Honours List for services to sport.

Personal bests

Styles and honours
Styles and honours

 Mr Sebastian Coe (1956–1982)
 Mr Sebastian Coe MBE (1982–1990)
 Mr Sebastian Coe OBE (1990–1992)
 Mr Sebastian Coe OBE MP (1992–1997)
 Mr Sebastian Coe OBE (1997–2000)
 The Rt. Hon. The Lord Coe OBE (2000–2006)
 The Rt. Hon. The Lord Coe KBE (2006–)

Related pages
 Steve Ovett
 Steve Cram
 Olympic Games
 Middle distance track event

References

Other websites
Other websites

 Sebastian Coe's foreword to 'Running the Race', biography of Olympic champion Eric Liddell  
 Sebastian Coe's entries on the official blog of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games 
  Sebastian Coe Profile: Made In Sheffield 
 Guardian profile of Sebastian Coe 
 Article by Sebastian Coe about his amazing rise to fame in 1979, The Daily Telegraph, 11 August 2009, Accessed 11 August 2009.
 Sebastian Coe has revamped London's bid for the 2012 Olympics
 Sebastian Coe promises Olympics to remember
 Sebastian Coe greatest race: the 2012 Olympics
 Why London won the games: The Sebastian Coe factor
 Coe Pays Tribute To Lord Stratford
 Students interview Sebastian Coe 
 Sebastian Coe's Biography
1956 births
Living people
British athletes
British Olympic gold medalists
British Olympic silver medalists
Conservative Party (UK) MPs
Members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Medalists at the 1980 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Politicians from London
Politicians from Yorkshire
Sportspeople from London
Sportspeople from Sheffield
Sportspeople from Warwickshire
United Kingdom Life Peers
Theme restaurants are.restaurants in which the idea for the restaurant takes priority. It influences the architecture, food, music, and overall "feel" of the restaurant. The food usually takes a backseat to the presentation of the theme. These restaurants generally attract customers only because of the theme itself.

One example is the Rainforest Cafe restaurants which have the obvious theme of a "Tropical Rainforest". Medieval Times has its theme of "Medieval Europe". The Jekyll & Hyde Club has an atmosphere of Jack the Ripper and Victorian horror novels.  One strange but famous theme restaurant in Berlin, Germany is called "das Klo" (German for "The toilet"). It shows the insides of a toilet.
Many people consider the Rainforest Cafe to be biggest example of a theme restaurant.  They also consider it the restaurant which kicked off the theme restaurant trend. Theme restaurants may be experiencing a decline in popularity, given the closings of several Planet Hollywood, Jekyll & Hyde Club, and Wilderness Cafe locations in recent years. Theme restaurants often depend on tourist business, since the theme soon becomes stale to locals. The focus is not necessarily placed on good food and service. Certain tourist destinations such as the Mall of America or Orlando, Florida have better chances of supporting theme restaurants. Theme restaurants are generally common at theme parks, such as Universal Studios.

Some well-known theme restaurants
Dolly Parton's Dixie Stampede:American Patriotic
 Ed Debevic's: 50s Diner
 Johnny Rockets: 50s Diner
 Hard Rock Cafe: Rock music
 Jekyll & Hyde Club: Victorian English Horror
 Medieval Times: Medieval
 Planet Hollywood: Movie stars
 Rainforest Cafe: Jungle Rainforest
 ESPN Zone: Sports Bar
 Bubba Gump Shrimp Company: The film Forrest Gump

References 

Restaurants
John Laing plc is a British developer and operator of privately financed, public sector infrastructure projects such as roads, railways, hospitals and schools. Before being bought by Henderson Private Equity in December 2006, John Laing plc was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was part of the FTSE 250 Index.

History
The business started in 1848.  James Laing (born in 1816), along with his wife Ann Graham, and some employees whom they had hired, built a house on a plot of land that they had bought for £30 in Cumberland. The £150 proceeds from the first house financed the building of the next two houses on the same plot of land. One of these houses was kept by the Laing Family to live in. The family and the business later moved near Carlisle.

When James Laing died in 1882, his son, John Laing (born in 1842) took over the running of the company. John began to take larger contracts but kept the business in the Carlisle area.
John's son, John William Laing, (born in 1879) was working for the business before he was 20 years old, and so it became John Laing and Son. By 1910, John William Laing was running the business. More employees were recruited and larger projects were undertaken, including factory construction.

In 1920 the firm became a limited company, and two years later moved its headquarters from Carlisle to a thirteen acre (5 ha) site at Mill Hill in north-west London.

William Kirby Laing and John Maurice Laing, the fifth generation of the founding family, joined the company in 1950.

John Laing & Sons (Holdings) Ltd was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1952. The family and its trusts and charities held the majority of the shares. John William Laing became the chairman, and his sons became joint managing directors. By this time, the number of employees was around 10,000, and every site had a quality supervisor. John William Laing retired in 1957.
Under William Kirby Laing and James Maurice Laing, the company continued to expand. They gained contracts for power stations. They also worked on road construction while continuing to build houses. In 1985, Martin Laing, of the sixth generation of the founding family, became chairman.

Martin Laing determined that the company should begin to diversify. Home construction in the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Spain, and California was now one of the major sources of the company's growth.

As the company celebrated its 150th anniversary in 1998, it faced falling profits caused by cost overruns on the Millennium project and continuing problems within its construction division, related to competition and overcapacity.
In 1999 John Laing plc purchased a controlling interest in the Chiltern Rail franchise and by 2002 had structured itself into two main divisions, namely Homes and Investments. It underwent yet another change when Sir Martin Laing retired in early 2002. Bill Forrester took over as executive chairman. For the first time in its history Laing did not have a member of the founding family at the head of the company.

The business expanded rapidly in the late 1990s, such that for the year ended 31 December 2001 its turnover was in excess of £1 billion. Following significant losses on certain construction contracts it adopted a new policy of having the PPP / PFI businesses, in which it had been quite successful, as core activities. As a consequence it disposed of its construction division, which was sold to O'Rourke in 2001, its property developments divisions, which were sold to Kier Group, and its house building arm which was sold to George Wimpey in 2002.
In December 2006 John Laing plc was acquired by the Private Equity arm of Henderson Group.

The Laing Rail division - operators of Chiltern Railways and London Overground (with MTR Corporation), and holders of a stake in the open-access railway operator Wrexham & Shropshire - was put up for sale by in September 2007. The division was purchased by German rail operator Deutsche Bahn in January 2008, subject to approval by authorities.

In June 2008 John Laing formed a consortium with Hitachi and Barclays Private Equity called Agility Trains to bid for the contract to design, manufacture, and maintain a fleet of long-distance trains for the Intercity Express Programme. The bid was successful and the contract was awarded to the consortium on the 12 February 2009.

Current operations
John Laing now has operations in the UK, North America, Europe and Asia.

Former operations

Laing Construction
John Laing’s former construction division, Laing Construction, undertook a number of landmark projects including:
The M1 motorway completed in 1959, Coventry Cathedral completed in 1962, Clifton Cathedral completed in 1973, the Sizewell B nuclear power station completed in 1995, the Second Severn Crossing completed in 1996, the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff completed in 1999 and Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital completed in 2001.

Laing Rail
The subsidiary Laing Rail owned and operated Chiltern Railways and was joint operator of London Overground (with MTR Corporation) and Wrexham & Shropshire (with Renaissance Trains). In 2008 Laing Rail was sold to Deutsche Bahn.

References

Other websites

Yahoo profile

Companies of England
1848 establishments in England
Christian Dannemann Eriksen (born 14 February 1992) is a Danish footballer who plays for the English team Manchester United and the Denmark national team as an midfielder. He made his debut for the Denmark national team in March 2010, and was the youngest player of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. 

In 2011, Eriksen was named Danish Football Player of the Year, Dutch Football Talent of the Year, Ajax Talent of the Year (Marco van Basten Award), and made the UEFA Euro U-21 Team of the Tournament. He won the Eredivisie with Ajax in 2010–11, 2011–12, and in 2012–13 before signing with Tottenham Hotspur in August 2013. He won the Tottenham Hotspur Player of the Year award for the 2013–14 season and in 2015, he won the Danish Football Player of the Year award for the second year in a row.

Club career
Club career

Early career in Middelfart and Odense
Eriksen started playing football in his hometown Middelfart before his third birthday. In 2005 he switched to Odense Boldklub, who competed in the Danish youth championships. His team lost the semi-final against Brøndby IF, but afterwards he was named "Best Technical Player" of the tournament. The following year OB won the tournament, when Eriksen scored the only goal in the final. After some good performances for OB's U-16 team and later on U-19 team and the Danish U-17 team, major European football clubs including Chelsea and Barcelona began to take notice. The player had trials with Barcelona, Chelsea, Real Madrid, Manchester United and Milan, but finally decided to move to Ajax, stating "My first step should not be too big. I knew that playing in the Netherlands would be very good for my development. Then Ajax arrived and that was a fantastic option".

AFC Ajax
AFC Ajax

Youth & entrance in the first squad
On 17 October 2008 it was announced that Eriksen had signed a two-and-a-half-year contract with Amsterdam-based Ajax. The transfer fee received by OB was estimated at €1 million (£847,199). He worked his way through the youth teams, and was promoted to the first team squad in January 2010, where he was given the number 51 shirt. Within the month, he made his first team debut for the Dutch team in the Eredivisie on 17 January 2010 against NAC Breda. Ajax manager Martin Jol compared him to the likes of Ajax youth products Wesley Sneijder and Rafael van der Vaart and described him as a good reader of the game in the traditional "number 10" role like the two Dutch internationals and Danish legend Michael Laudrup, who also played for Ajax.
On 25 March 2010 he scored his first goal for Ajax in a 6–0 win against opponent Go Ahead Eagles in the Dutch Cup. On 10 April 2010, Eriksen extended his contract with Ajax until the summer of 2014, stating "I can still learn a lot here, I'm not finished yet and I hope I can mean a lot for the club." On 6 May 2010, Eriksen played in the second match of the final of the 2009–10 Dutch Cup as Ajax beat Feyenoord 1–4, with 1–6 on aggregate. At the end of his first professional season at Ajax, Eriksen had played 21 competitive matches, scoring one goal, and had made his international debut for Denmark. For his second season in the first team of Ajax, Eriksen was given the number 8 shirt.
Breakthrough season
Eriksen started the 2010–11 season well, scoring his first Ajax league goal on 29 August 2010 in an away victory over De Graafschap. On 11 November 2010, Eriksen scored his first goal at the Amsterdam ArenA a 3–0 Cup victory over BV Veendam. In December, Eriksen was named Danish "Talent of the Year". Several days after receiving this award, Eriksen once again proved his value to Ajax by scoring the only goal in a 0–1 away league victory over Vitesse. On 17 February 2011, Eriksen scored his first goal in a European tournament, the Ajax goal to 2–0, when Ajax beat Anderlecht 3–0 in the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League. On 13 March 2011, Eriksen scored a solo goal, running from the half way line to finish it off with a strike to secure a 3–1 win over Willem II.
During the rest of the season, Eriksen became more and more important for Ajax, due to his growing capabilities as the team's playmaker, providing many assists. After a good season during which he developed himself into an undisputed starter in the side that won the 2010–11 Eredivisie (Ajax's first Eredivisie title in seven years), he was named Ajax's Talent of the Year. On 23 May 2011 he was named Dutch Football Talent of the Year, the second Danish player to win the award since Jon Dahl Tomasson in 1996. He was elected by a jury under command of Holland's all-time best player Johan Cruyff. "He's a player I really like with all my heart," Cruyff praised Eriksen. "This prize is just the beginning, a stimulus to get the maximum out of his career. The talent is there, the recognition also; now it is up to the player himself. He is a typical product of the Danish school. You can compare him with Brian and Michael Laudrup. Only time will tell if Eriksen can reach the same level as them.".
On 18 October 2011, Eriksen scored his first goal in the UEFA Champions League when Ajax beat Dinamo Zagreb 2–0 in the group stage, making him the 2nd youngest player to score in the 2011–12 season. In the second match versus Dinamo Zagreb on 2 November he provided assists to Gregory van der Wiel and Siem de Jong as well as being involved with the third goal, as Ajax cruised to a 4–0 victory. He was named Danish Football Player of the Year on 7 November after helping Ajax win the Eredivisie the previous year and guiding the national team to a successful Euro 2012 qualification campaign, after receiving the award Eriksen said, "I am extremely honoured to be standing here tonight. I did not expect it, it really means a lot to me. I would like to thank my team-mates in the national team as well as my team-mates at Ajax"
. Following the success of Eriksen's third consecutive Eredivisie title in the 2012–13 season, he opted not to renew his contract with Ajax, and with one year still remaining on his current contract he was permitted to search for a new club. Having come to terms with Tottenham Hotspur in England, Eriksen left Ajax having appeared in 113 league matches, scoring 25 goals and 41 assists. He played in 16 matches for the KNVB Cup, scoring four goals and making four assists. He made 30 appearances on the continental stage for Ajax, scoring three goals, and making 9 assists all together. Having also competed in the Johan Cruijff Shield three years in a row.
Tottenham Hotspur

2013–14 season

On 30 August 2013, Tottenham Hotspur announced that they had completed the transfer of Eriksen from Ajax, in a deal believed to be worth £11 million (€13.5 million), after Eriksen passed a medical at the club. Eriksen joined the club on the same day as Erik Lamela, who joined from Roma, and Vlad Chiricheș, who joined from Steaua București, and took the club's total spending for the 2013 summer transfer window to £109.5 million.

On 14 September 2013, he made his Premier League debut against Norwich City, providing an assist for Gylfi Sigurðsson. Spurs manager André Villas-Boas commented: "It was a great debut for Christian, he is a pure number 10, a creative player and his individual quality made all the difference."
On 19 September 2013, Eriksen "clipped a wonderful dipping shot" over the goalkeeper to score his first Tottenham goal and complete a 3–0 win over Tromsø IL in the Europa League. He added to his Tottenham goal tally with a goal from a free kick in a 1–1 draw against West Bromwich Albion on Boxing Day 2013, and the second goal in Spurs''' 2–1 win against Manchester United on 1 January 2014. On 23 March, after goals from Jay Rodriguez and Adam Lallana had given Southampton a 2–0 lead against Tottenham at White Hart Lane, Eriksen scored twice to level the score and assisted Gylfi Sigurðsson to score the winning goal.

On 12 April 2014, he scored a stoppage-time equalizer as Spurs came from 3–0 down to draw 3–3 at West Bromwich Albion. By the end of the season, Eriksen had scored 7 goals in the Premier League.

2014–15 season
2014–15 season

Throughout the 2014/15 campaign, Eriksen played an integral part in many Spurs victories. The Danish international had a habit of scoring late winners, most notably against Swansea City, Sunderland, Hull City and many others.

On 10 January 2015, Eriksen was voted Danish Football Player of the Year twice in a row, making him the first player to do so since William Kvist.

On 28 January 2015, Eriksen completed his greatest performance of the campaign in the Capital One Cup semi-final second leg against Sheffield United to send Tottenham into the League Cup Final. His first goal, a 30-yard curling free kick, was plauded by the likes of Michael Owen and Gary Neville among others on Twitter. Despite a late threat from the Blades, Eriksen then scored a second late-on to send Spurs to Wembley.
Eriksen completed the 2014/15 campaign having featured in every Premier League game for Mauricio Pochettino. The Dane became the third Spurs player to reach double figures in the league, alongside Nacer Chadli and Harry Kane, scoring 10 goals.

On 9 June 2015, Eriksen confirmed to Danish media whilst on international duty that he would stay at Tottenham for the foreseeable future. Eriksen was quoted as saying: "I feel right at home at Tottenham and I haven't thought about leaving yet."

International career
Youth squads
Eriksen was called up to the Denmark national under-17 football team in July 2007, and impressed in his debut for the team on 31 July. In 2008, he scored 9 goals in 16 games for the U-17s, and was named Danish U-17 Talent of the Year by the Danish FA. He was also one of four nominees for the 2008 Danish Talent of the Year award, which was won by Mathias Jørgensen. He played 27 games for the under-17 team until February 2009. He played a total of 8 games for the Denmark U-18 and Denmark U-19 teams during 2009. Eriksen was also called up for the Danish U-21 squad to the European championship in Denmark in 2011, the Danish team only participated in the group stage and Eriksen scored a goal against Belarus.

Senior squad
He received his first senior Denmark call-up in February 2010, making his debut in Denmark's friendly match against Austria in March, to become Denmark's fourth youngest full international, being the youngest debutant since Michael Laudrup.
On 28 May 2010, Denmark coach Morten Olsen announced that Eriksen would be part of the final squad of 23 participating in the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. He was the youngest player participating in the tournament. At the World Cup, Eriksen played two matches, against the Netherlands and Japan, but Denmark were unable to progress beyond the group stage.

On 9 February 2011, in a 1–2 friendly loss at home against England, Eriksen was named Man of the Match, and was praised for his performance by a number of prominent footballing figures, including Chelsea star Frank Lampard, Man Utd star Rio Ferdinand (on Twitter), manager Morten Olsen and several media experts in Denmark and England. On 4 June 2011 Eriksen scored his first national team goal, to give Denmark a 2–0 lead over Iceland in their Euro 2012 qualifier. In doing so, he became the youngest Danish player ever to score a goal in European qualification, being 9 days younger than Michael Laudrup when he scored his first goal in 1983.
On 10 January 2015, Eriksen was voted Danish Football Player of the Year twice in a row, making him the first player to do so since William Kvist.

Sponsorship
In 2012, Eriksen signed a sponsorship kit deal with American sportswear and equipment supplier, Nike. He appeared in an advert for the new Nike Green Speed II alongside Raheem Sterling, Stephan El Shaarawy, Mario Götze, Eden Hazard and Theo Walcott in November 2012.

Christian then transitioned from Nike's Mercurial range, to the more 'creative' orientated Magista.

Career statistics

Club

1 Includes UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League matches.

2 Includes Johan Cruijff Shield matches.

International

International goals
"Scores and results table. Denmark's goal tally first:

Honours

Club
Ajax
 Eredivisie (3): 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13
 KNVB Cup (1): 2009–10
 Johan Cruijff Shield (1): 2013
Individual
 AFC Ajax Talent of the Future (1): 2010
 AFC Ajax Talent of the Year (1): 2011
 Dutch Football Talent of the Year (1): 2011
 Danish U-17 Talent of the Year (1): 2008
 Danish Talent of the Year (2): 2010, 2011
 Danish Football Player of the Year (2): 2013, 2014
 Dutch Bronze Boot (1): 2012
 Tottenham Hotspur Player Of The Year (1): 2013–14

References

Other websites

Christian Eriksen at tottenhamhotspur.com
 
 Christian Eriksen at Topforward
 Danish national team profile
 Voetbal International profile 

1992 births
Danish footballers
Living people
Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players
2022 FIFA World Cup players
Denmark at the 2010 FIFA World Cup
Denmark at UEFA Euro 2012
Denmark at the 2018 FIFA World Cup
Denmark at UEFA Euro 2020
Denmark at the 2022 FIFA World Cup
Norman Robert Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank, OM, FRIBA, FCSD, RDI (born 1 June 1935) is an English architect. His company, Foster and Partners, has an international design practice. He is the United Kingdom's biggest builder of landmark office buildings.

He is one of Britain's most prolific architects of his generation. In 1999, he was awarded the Pritzker Architecture Prize, often referred to as the Nobel Prize of architecture. In 2009 Foster was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award in the Arts category.

Biography
Early life
Foster was born to Robert Foster and Lilian Smith in 1935 in Reddish, Stockport, Cheshire. They moved, soon after his birth, two miles to 4 Crescent Grove in Levenshulme, Manchester, which they rented for fourteen shillings (70p) a week: Foster has no recollection of Reddish. Foster's parents were diligent, hard workers – so diligent that Foster, as an only child, felt their heavy workload restricted his relationship with them and he was often looked after by neighbours or other family members. He attended Burnage Grammar School for Boys in Burnage. In a Guardian interview in 1999, Foster said he always felt 'different' at school and was bullied and he retired into the world of books. He considered himself quiet and awkward in his early years often making faux pas.
He left school at 16 and worked in the Manchester City Treasurer's office. Next, he joined the National Service in the Royal Air Force. After he was discharged, in 1956 Foster attended the University of Manchester's School of Architecture and City Planning. He graduated in 1961. Later, Foster won the Henry Fellowship to the Yale School of Architecture, where he earned his Master's degree Foster also met Richard Rogers at Yale. He then travelled in America for a year. He returned to the UK in 1963. Then he set up an architectural practice as Team 4 with Rogers and the sisters Georgie and Wendy Cheesman. Georgie (later Wolton) was the only one of the team that had passed her RIBA exams. This allowed them to set up in practice on their own. Team 4 quickly earned a reputation for high-tech industrial design.

Education
Education

Foster took a job as assistant to a contract manager with John Bearshaw and Partners, a local architectural practice.  The staff advised him, that if he wished to become an architect, he should prepare a portfolio of drawings using the perspective and shop drawings from Bearshaw's practice as an example. Bearshaw was so impressed with the drawings that he promoted the young Foster to the drawing department of the practice.

In 1956 Foster won a place at the University of Manchester School of Architecture and City Planning. Foster was not eligible for a maintenance grant so took up a number of part-time jobs to fund his studies, becoming an ice-cream salesman, night-club bouncer and working night shifts at a bakery to make crumpets. He combined these with self-tuition via visits to the local library in Levenshulme. Foster took a keen interest in the works of Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier and Oscar Niemeyer and graduated from Manchester in 1961.
Foster won the Henry Fellowship to the Yale School of Architecture, where he met future business partner Richard Rogers and earned his master's degree. Vincent Scully encouraged Foster and Rogers to travel in America for a year. After returning to the UK in 1963 he set up an architectural practice as Team 4 with Rogers and the sisters Georgie and Wendy Cheesman. Georgie (later Wolton) was the only one of the team that had passed her RIBA exams allowing them to set up in practice on their own. Team 4 quickly earned a reputation for high-tech industrial design.

Foster + Partners
Foster + Partners

After Team 4 went their separate ways, Foster and Wendy Cheesman founded Foster Associates, which later became Foster and Partners in 1967. A long period of collaboration with American architect Richard Buckminster Fuller began in 1968 and continued until Fuller's death in 1983. They collaborated on several projects that became catalysts in the development of an environmentally sensitive approach to design – including the Samuel Beckett Theatre project.
Originally they concentrated on industrial buildings. The turning point was the 1969 administrative and leisure center for Fred. Olsen Lines in London Docklands, where workers and managers are not separated any more. Foster and Partners' breakthrough building in the UK was the Willis Faber & Dumas headquarters in Ipswich, of 1974. The client was a family run insurance company which wanted to restore a sense of community to the workplace. Foster created open plan office floors long before open-plan became the norm. In a town not over-endowed with public facilities, the roof gardens, 25 metre swimming pool and gymnasium enhanced the quality of life for the company's 1200 employees. The building has a full-height glass façade moulded to the medieval street plan and contributes drama, subtly shifting from opaque, reflective black to a glowing backlit transparency as the sun sets. The design was inspired by the Daily Express Building in Manchester a work Foster admired in his youth
. The building is now Grade I* listed.
The Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, an art gallery and museum on the campus of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, was one of the first major public buildings to be designed by Foster, completed in 1978, and became grade II* listed in December 2012. In 1990 Foster's design for the Terminal Building at London Stansted Airport was awarded the European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture / Mies van der Rohe Award.

Foster gained a reputation for designing office buildings. In the 1980s he designed the HSBC Main Building in Hong Kong for HSBC. The building is marked by its high level of light transparency, as all 3500 workers have a view to Victoria Peak or Victoria Harbour. Foster said that if the firm had not won the contract it would probably have been bankrupted. Foster believes that attracting young talent is essential, and is proud that the average age of people working for Foster and Partners is 32, just like it was in 1967.

Present day
Present day

Today, Foster + Partners works with its engineers to use computer systems. They pay attention to basic physical laws such as convection. They have created efficient buildings like the Swiss Re London headquarters in London. The walls let in air for passive cooling and then let it out as it warms and rises.

Foster's earlier designs reflected a sophisticated, machine-influenced high-tech vision. His style has evolved into a more sharp-edged modernity. In 2004, Foster designed the tallest bridge in the world, the Millau Viaduct in Southern France, with the Millau Mayor Jacques Godfrain stating; "The architect, Norman Foster, gave us a model of art."

In January 2007, The Sunday Times reported that Foster had called in Catalyst, a corporate finance house, to find buyers for Foster + Partners. Foster does not want to retire, but wants to sell his 80-90% holding in the company valued at £300M to £500M.
Foster is a member of the board of Trustees for the architectural charity Article 25. They design, construct and manage safe, sustainable buildings in dangerous parts of the world. He has also been on the Board of Trustees of The Architecture Foundation.
The reason for his wealth is he receives 15% of the building cost.

In 2007, he worked with Philippe Starck and Sir Richard Branson of the Virgin Group for the Virgin Galactic plans.

Foster designed the Apple Campus in Cupertino and is currently designing most of their Apple stores. He is also designing Bloomberg's headquarters in London. He also recently designed the Monaco Yacht club and the McLaren technology centre.

Foster currently sits on the board of trustees at architectural charity Article 25 who design, construct and manage innovative, safe, sustainable buildings in some of the most inhospitable and unstable regions of the world. He has also been on the Board of Trustees of the Architecture Foundation.
He has recently set up the Norman Foster Foundation which promotes interdisciplinary thinking and research to help new generations of architects, designers and urbanists to anticipate the future.

Foster recently set up his personal Instagram account under the username @officialnormanfoster where he publishes photos of his everyday life

Recognition
Foster was knighted in 1990 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1997. In 1999, he was created a life peer, as Baron Foster of Thames Bank, of Reddish in the County of Greater Manchester. He was a Crossbencher; he resigned from the House of Lords in 2010 because he refused to pat UK taxes on his foreign earnings.

Norman Foster is the second British architect to win the Stirling Prize twice: the first for the American Air Museum at the Imperial War Museum Duxford in 1998, and the second for 30 St Mary Axe in 2004.

Foster was awarded the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1999.
He is also a Fellow of the Chartered Society of Designers and winner of the Minerva Medal, the Society's highest award. In Germany Lord Foster received the Order Pour le Mérite.

Most recently, in September 2007, Foster was awarded the Aga Khan Award for Architecture, the largest architectural award in the world, for the University of Technology Petronas, in Malaysia.

It was announced in January 2008 that Foster was to be awarded an honorary degree from the Dundee School of Architecture at the University of Dundee. In 2009 Foster was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award in the category Arts.

In 2012, Foster was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires.

In 2017, he was awarded the Freedom of the City of London for his contribution to contemporary architecture.
Personal life
Foster married business partner Wendy Cheesman. She died in 1989, leaving him with four sons. whilst he was greiving, he was also diagnosed with bowel cancer. He next married Indian-born Begum Sabiha Rumani Malik. Sabiha was married to Andrew Knight when she and Foster met. Knight was Chairman of News International. Foster and Sabiha divorced in 1998. Foster is now married to Elena Ochoa, Chairman of the Tate International Council, and founder of Ivory Press. He has five children and three grandchildren.

Foster flies his own private jet and helicopter between his homes in London, France, Switzerland, Marthas Vineyard, New York and Madrid.

Selected projects
Foster has established an extremely prolific career in the span of four decades. The following are some of his major constructions:

Masterplans
Masterplans 

 More London, London, UK (1998–2000)
 Duisburg Inner Harbour, Germany (1991–2003)
 Trafalgar Square Redevelopment, London, UK (1996–2003)
 Quartermile, Edinburgh, Scotland 2001-
 Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, UAE 2007-
 West Kowloon Cultural District, Hong Kong (2009)
 Thames Hub, UK, 2011-
 Cardiff Central Square, UK, 2015-

Bridges 
 Millau Viaduct, the highest road bridge in the world (2004)
 Western Årsta Bridge, Årstabroarna, Sweden (1994/2005)
 Millennium Bridge in London (1999/2002)

Government 
 Reichstag building redevelopment in Berlin (1999)
 London City Hall (2002)
 New Supreme Court Building, Singapore (2005)
 Palace of Peace and Reconciliation in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan — (September 2006)
 Buenos Aires City Hall (new headquarters), Buenos Aires, Argentina  (April 2015 )
Cultural 
 Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts at University of East Anglia in Norwich, UK (1978)
 Clyde Auditorium, part of the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre complex, Glasgow (1997)
 Sackler Galleries, Royal Academy of Arts, London, UK (1985–1991)
 Carré d'Art, [Nîmes, France] 1984–1993
 American Air Museum, Imperial War Museum Duxford, UK (1997) — Stirling Prize
 Redevelopment of the Queen Elizabeth II Great Court of the British Museum (2000)
 The Sage Gateshead, [Gateshead, England], (1997–2004)
 The Zenith, Le Zénith#Le Zénith de Saint-Étienne, St Etienne, France (2004–2007)
 The Robert and Arlene Kogod Courtyard, Smithsonian Institution, [National Portrait Gallery], Washington, DC (2004–2007)
 Winspear Opera House, Dallas (2003–2009)
 Art of the Americas Wing, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, [Boston, USA](1999–2010)
 Khan Shatyr Entertainment Center, [Astana, Kazakhstan](2006–2010)
 Sperone Westwater Gallery, [New York, USA] (2008–2010)
 Extension to Lenbachhaus art museum, Munich (2013)
Higher education 
 Kings Norton Library, Cranfield University, UK (1994)
 Faculty of Law, Cambridge, Cambridge, UK (1995)
 Faculty of Management (now known as Aberdeen Business School), The Robert Gordon University, UK (1998)
 Imperial College School of Medicine, Sir Alexander Flemming Building, London, UK 1994–1998
 Center for Clinical Science Research, Stanford University Stanford, California, USA (1995–2000)
 British Library of Political and Economic Science, London School of Economics,
The Bow, Calgary, Canada, 500 Centre Street SE
London, UK (1993–2001)
 Imperial College London, Flowers Building London, UK 1997–2001
 Faculty of Social Studies, University of Oxford, UK (1996–2002)
 James H. Clark Center, Stanford, California, USA (1999–2003)
 Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia (2004)
 Tanaka Business School, as of 2008 renamed the Imperial College Business School, London 2004
 Free University of Berlin Berlin, Germany 2005
Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada (2006)
 Library, California State University California, USA 2000–2008
 Yale School of Management, new campus, New Haven, CT (projected 2013)
 Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE (2007–2015)
 China Resources University, Shenzhen (2011-2016)
Sports 
 Wembley Stadium reconstruction (2007)
 Lusail Iconic Stadium, Qatar (2010)

Transportation 
 Metro Bilbao, Spain (1995)—Line 2 (2004)
 Hong Kong International Airport, Chek Lap Kok in Hong Kong (1998)
 Canary Wharf Underground Station, London, UK (1999)
 Expo MRT Station, Singapore (2001)
 Dresden Central Station Redevelopment, Germany (1997–2006)
 Beijing Capital International Airport (2008)
 London Heathrow Airport East Terminal (projected 2013)
 Spaceport America, New Mexico (2005–2013)
 Four railway stations for the Haramain High Speed Rail Project, Saudi Arabia (projected 2015)
 Kai Tak Cruise Terminal (projected 2013)
 New Mexico City International Airport (projected 2020)
 Slussen, re-development and masterplan of a major transportation hub in central Stockholm (projected 2022)
 Queen Alia International Airport, Amman, Jordan 2005–2013
 Thames Hub, UK, from 2011
 Thames Hub Airport, UK, from 2013
Office 
 Fred. Olsen Lines terminal, London Docklands (1971)
 Willis Building (Ipswich), UK, (1971–1975)
 HSBC Tower (1986)
 Commerzbank Tower in Frankfurt, Germany (1997)
 Citigroup Centre, London, London, UK (1996–2000)
 HSBC HQ, 8 Canada Square, London, UK (1997–2002)
 The Gherkin (30 St Mary Axe), London — Swiss Re headquarters (2004) — Stirling Prize winner
 McLaren Technology Centre, base for the McLaren Formula One team and McLaren Group (2004)
 Deutsche Bank Place, Sydney, Australia, (1997–2005)

 Hearst Tower, New York City (June 2006)
 Willis Building (London) London, UK (2001–2007)
 Caja Madrid, Madrid, Spain (2002–2009)
 Apple Campus 2 in Cupertino, California
 The One, Toronto (under construction)
Leisure 
 The Great Glashouse National Botanic Garden of Wales, Wales, UK (1995–2000)
 Elephant House, Copenhagen Zoo#Foster's Elephant House, Denmark (2002–2008)
 Dolder Grand restoration, Zürich, Switzerland (2002–2008)
 Faustino Winery Bodegas Faustino, Castilla y Leon, Spain (2007–2010)
 ME Hotel, ME by Meliá, London, UK (2004–2013)

Mixed use 
 Albion Riverside, London, UK (1998–2003)
 Al Faisaliyah Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, (1994–2000)
 The Index (Dubai), Dubai, UAE (2010)
 The Troika (Kuala Lumpur), Malaysia (2004–2011)
 The Bow, Calgary (2005–2013)
 Central Market Project, Abu Dhabi, UAE (2006–2013)
One Central Park, Sydney
 (Formerly) 200 Greenwich Street, New York (projected 2020) Two World Trade Center
 CityCenterDC, Washington, D.C. (first portion projected 2012; second portion projected 2015)
 Crystal Island (completion date not set yet)
 Hermitage Plaza, La Défense, Paris from 2008
 India Tower (cancelled)
 Comcast Technology Center, Philadelphia (predicted completion date 2017)
 VietinBank Business Center Office Tower, Hanoi, Vietnam (predicted completion date 2017)
 Battersea Power Station Phase 3, London, UK (under construction)

Residential 
 The Murezzan, St Moritz, Switzerland (2003–2007)
 Regent Place, Sydney, Australia (2003–2007)
 Jameson House, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (2004–2011)
 The Aleph, Buenos Aires, Argentina (2006–2013)
 Anfa Place, Casablanca, Morocco (2007–2013)
 Faena House, Miami Beach
 The Towers by Foster + Partners, Brickell (Miami)
 Arcoris Mont Kiara, Malaysia (projected 2016)
 610 Lexington Avenue (projected 2016)
 50 United Nations Plaza (projected 2014)
Non-architectural projects
Foster's other design work has included the Nomos desk system for Italian manufacturer Tecno, and the motor yacht Izanami (later Ronin) for Lürssen Yachts.

Related pages
 Thin-shell structure
 Peter Rice

References

Other websites

 Foster and Partners
 Bio at the Pritzker Prize 
 
 Interview with Norman Foster(video) 
 Foster's projects on the map , Gauardian gallery of 16 projects
 Building "The Gherkin" (film) 
 A (video) tour of the Clark Center
 Norman Foster's building Valencia Conference Centre
 Foster and Partners Projects in the Middle East
 TED Talks: Norman Foster's green agenda at TED in 2007
 Foster chosen for iconic redevelopment  Mikhail Bode, Russia Beyond the Headlines 18 December 2007

1935 births
Living people
English architects
United Kingdom Life Peers
People from Stockport
Order of Merit
Knights Bachelor
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Pritzker Architecture Prize winners
Members of the House of Lords
The Cessna 152 is a single-engine airplane.  It can carry up to two people including the pilot. Many pilots throughout the world have gotten their training with C152s.

Cessna aircraft
Thomas Heatherwick (born 17th February 1970) is an English designer and artist. He is known for innovative use of engineering and materials in public monuments and sculptures. He heads the Heatherwick Studio, which he founded in 1994.

Biography
Born in London, he studied three dimensional design at Manchester Polytechnic and at the Royal College of Art, winning several prizes. Shortly after graduating from the Royal College of Art after a two-year furniture MA course in 1994, he was commissioned by Harvey Nichols department store in Knightsbridge to design a temporary structure for the shop's facade. His design was a ribbon of laminated wood that wound through the storefront windows. The design was widely acclaimed and won him a D&AD yellow pencil (the gold award) in 1997.
In 2004 he curated an exhibition at the Design Museum consisting of 1,000 'every day' design objects that he had collected.

Key works

The B of the Bang was a £1.42 million 56m-high sculpture of 180 giant spikes, erected outside the City of Manchester Stadium to celebrate the 2002 Commonwealth Games. Safety problems happened soon after it was completed in 2004 when one spike came apart. Eventually 22 more were removed as a safety measure. The object was rewelded and fenced off. It continued to cause concern and debate over its future. Finally Manchester City Council took legal action against Heatherwick studio and their subcontractors, who in November 2008 agreed to pay £1.7 million in damages. The installation was removed in 2009.
Notable works
 Sculpted forms in laminated wood, Guastavino Restaurant, New York City
 B of the Bang, Manchester
 Bleigiessen, Wellcome Trust, London
 Blue Carpet, Newcastle upon Tyne 
 The Rolling Bridge (also known as "the curling bridge"), Paddington Basin, London
 Longchamp store in the SoHo district of New York City
 Interior, Konstam Restaurant, Kings Cross, London WC1
 Southorn Playground, Wan Chai, Hong Kong
 "Zip Bag" handbag for Longchamp
 East Beach Cafe, Littlehampton
 Boiler Suit, Guy's Approaches, Guy's & St Thomas' Hospital, London
 Aberystwyth Arts Centre, Aberystwyth University
 Sitooterie II, Barnards Farm, West Horndon, Essex.
Awards
Thomas Heatherwick was awarded an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Arts by Manchester Metropolitan University - his alma mater - on July 21, 2007. It is in recognition of his design work across a broad spectrum of architecture, engineering and public art, achieving national and international acclaim for his innovative use of materials, his eclectic range of projects, and the resolution of them in new and exciting ways.

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Heatherwick Studio Official website
 Profile in Icon magazine 
 Heatherwick and the Conran Collection in Icon magazine 
 Profile in Art & Architecture - PDF 
 Thomas Heatherwick  at Sculpture.org.uk
 Profile in The Observer 26 September 2004
 East Beach Cafe
 Manchester Metropolitan University's Honorands 
 Artist in plea on 'bang' future - BBC News story
 Rolling Bridge in Frame and Form magazine 
 Glass Bridge in Frame and Form magazine 

1970 births
Artists from London
British fashion designers
Living people