Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Government 

The mayor of New York is Eric Adams, a Democrat. The city also has a City Council that makes some local laws. Most laws in New York City are set by the state government in Albany.

Transportation 
Subway transportation is provided by the New York City Subway system, one of the biggest in the world. Pennsylvania Station, the busiest train station in the United States, is here.

John F. Kennedy International Airport, which is in the Queens borough of New York, is one of the busiest airports in the United States.

Famous sights

References 

Notes

Other websites 

 
 NYC Go, official tourism website of New York City
 
 

1620s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
1624 establishments
17th-century establishments in New York
Former capitals of the United States
October (Oct.) is the tenth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between September and November. It has 31 days. The name comes from the Latin octo for "eight". It was the eighth month of the year before January and February were added to the beginning of the year.

October begins on the same day of the week as January in common years, but does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in leap years. October always ends on the same day of the week as February, and additionally, January in common years.

The Month 

October is the tenth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming after September and before November. It has 31 days. Its name comes from Latin octo, meaning eight, as it was the eighth month of the year in the Old Roman Calendar before January and February were added to the beginning of the year, though its name did not change. The tenth month at the time was December.
October is an Autumn (Fall) month in the Northern Hemisphere and a Spring month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each Hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of April in the other.

October begins on the same day of the week as January in common years, but no other month in leap years begins on the same day of the week as October. October ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and February every year, as each other's last days are 39 weeks (273 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively.

In common years, October starts on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August of the previous year. In common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August and November of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, October starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September and December of the following year. In years immediately before common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and December of the following year.

October is the month of the Rosary devotion.

October 31/November 1 is Samhain in old Pagan tradition. Several current observances at this time are believed to be related to it. They are: Halloween (October 31) in many western traditions, All Saints Day (November 1), All Souls Day (November 2), and the Day of the Dead (October 31 to November 2), which is celebrated in Mexico.

Holidays

Fixed Observances
October 1  National Day of the People's Republic of China
 October 1  Independence Day (Nigeria)
 October 1  National Day (Cyprus)
 October 1  Independence Day (Tuvalu)
 October 1  Independence Day (Palau)
 October 1  International Day of Older Persons
 October 2  Gandhi Jayanthi (India)
 October 2  Guardian Angels Day
 October 2  International Day of Non-Violence, birthday of Mahatma Gandhi
 October 2  Independence Day (Guinea)
 October 3  Unity Day (Germany)
 October 3  Foundation Day (South Korea)
 October 4  Independence Day (Lesotho)
 October 4  World Animal Day
 October 5  Republic Day (Portugal)
 October 5  International World Teachers' Day
 October 6  Armed Forces Day (Egypt)
 October 7  Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary
 October 8  Independence Day (Croatia)
 October 9  Leif Erikson Day
 October 9  Independence Day (Uganda)
 October 10  National Day in the Republic of China (Taiwan)
 October 10  Independence Day (Fiji)
 October 11  National Coming Out Day (United States)
October 12  National Day of Spain
 October 12  Independence Day (Equatorial Guinea)
 October 16  World Food Day
 October 18  Alaska Day
 October 19  Constitution Day (Niue)
 October 21  Apple Day
 October 21  Trafalgar Day (United Kingdom)
 October 23  Remembrance of the Hungarian Revolution (Hungary)
 October 23  Chulalongkorn Day (Thailand)
 October 24  United Nations Day
 October 24  Independence Day (Zambia)
 October 25  Day of the Romanian Army
 October 25  Day of the Basque Country
 October 25  Constitution Day (Lithuania)
 October 25  Republic Day (Kazakhstan)
 October 26  National Day of Austria
 October 27  Independence Day (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
 October 27  Independence Day (Turkmenistan)
 October 29  Republic Day (Turkey)
 October 31  Nevada Day
 October 31  Protestant Reformation Day
 October 31  Halloween
 October 31/November 1  Samhain (an approximate date)
 October 31 to November 2  Day of the Dead (Mexico)
Moveable Events 
 Jewish New Year, September/October
 Munich Oktoberfest, runs from mid-September until around October 3
 The Summer Paralympics have often taken place in this month.
 The Nobel Prize winners of the year are announced in October
 Northern Hemisphere: Harvest festivals take place around this time.
 Second Monday in October:
 Thanksgiving Day in Canada
 Health and Sports Day in Japan
 Columbus Day in the United States
 Divali (Hinduism), takes place in October or November
 Last Sunday in October: End of Daylight saving time in the EU; clocks are turned back one hour.

Selection of Historical Events
October 1, 1890  Yosemite National Park is created by United States Congress.
 October 1, 1946  The Nuremberg Trials of leading Nazis ends.
 October 1, 1949  The People's Republic of China is declared by Mao Zedong.
 October 1, 1960  Nigeria becomes independent.
 October 1, 1961  British and French Cameroon merge.
 October 1, 1978  Tuvalu becomes independent.
 October 1, 1994  Palau becomes independent from a UN Trusteeship, though remains dependent on US aid.
 October 2, 1958  Guinea declares independence.
 October 3, 1932  The Kingdom of Iraq is formed.
 October 3, 1990  Germany is officially re-united.
 October 4, 1957  The Soviet Union launches the Sputnik 1 probe into orbit.
 October 4, 1966  Lesotho becomes independent.
 October 5, 1910  Portugal becomes a Republic.
 October 6, 1860  The Introduction of the so-called Section 377 of the British Indian penal code (Law) was enacted in British India respectively.
 October 6, 1973  The Yom Kippur war begins as Egypt and Syria launch an attack on Israel.
October 6, 1981  President of Egypt Anwar Sadat is shot dead at a military parade.
 October 6, 1987  Fiji becomes a Republic.
 October 7, 1949  East Germany is founded.
 October 9, 1962  Uganda becomes independent.
 October 10, 1780  The Great Hurricane of 1780 kills 20,000 to 30,000 people in the Caribbean.
 October 10, 1928  Chiang Kai-shek becomes leader of the Republic of China.
 October 10, 1970  Fiji becomes independent.
 October 10, 2010  The Netherlands Antilles are split up.
 October 12, 1492  Christopher Columbus reaches the Caribbean.
 October 12, 1871  The Introduction of the so-called Criminal Tribes Act was an enacted extension in British India respectively.
 October 12, 1968  Equatorial Guinea becomes independent.
 October 12, 1999  The population of the world is said to have officially reached six billion.
 October 13, 2010  Successful rescue of 69 miners trapped underground near Copiapo, Chile.
 October 14, 1066  The Battle of Hastings results in William the Conqueror taking over England.
October 14, 1964  Martin Luther King, Jr. wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
 October 14, 1981  Hosni Mubarak becomes President of Egypt.
 October 14, 1991  Aung San Suu Kyi wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
 October 15, 1917  Dutch exotic dancer Mata Hari is executed for espionage in France.
 October 16, 1582  Spain, Portugal, Italy and Poland switch from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar.
 October 16, 1978  Pope John Paul II becomes Pope, remaining in this position until 2005.
 October 17, 1989  The Loma Prieta earthquake strikes the San Francisco Bay Area.
 October 18, 1867  Alaska officially changes from Russian to US control.
 October 18, 1898  The US takes control of Puerto Rico.
 October 18, 1989  Leader of East Germany Erich Honecker resigns.
 October 20, 1973  Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia, is officially opened.
 October 20, 2011  2011 Libyan civil war: Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi is killed.
October 21, 1805  The naval Battle of Trafalgar ends in British victory, although Admiral Horatio Nelson is killed.
 October 22, 1962  The Cuban Missile Crisis begins.
 October 23, 1956  The Hungarian Uprising begins.
 October 24, 1945  The UN is officially founded.
 October 24, 1964  Zambia becomes independent.
 October 26, 1905  Norway becomes independent from Sweden.
 October 26, 1955  Austria declares 'Permanent Neutrality'.
 October 27, 1962  The Cuban Missile Crisis ends.
 October 27, 1979  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines becomes independent.
 October 27, 1991  Turkmenistan becomes independent from the Soviet Union.
 October 28, 1886  The Statue of Liberty is officially dedicated near New York City, as a gift to the United States from France.
 October 29, 1923  The Republic of Turkey is officially declared by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
 October 29, 1929  The Wall Street crash occurs, starting the Great Depression.
 October 29, 1998  Hurricane Mitch causes much destruction in Central America.
October 31, 1517  Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther is believed to have nailed his 95 theses to Wittenberg Castle Church in Germany on this date.
 October 31, 1984  Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi is shot dead by two Sikh security guards. Riots against the Sikh population start soon after.
 October 31, 2011  The population of the world is said to have officially reached seven billion on this date.
Trivia 
 October has the 300th day of the year. October 27 in a common year, October 26 in a leap year.
 Because Daylight Saving Time ends in October in some Northern Hemisphere countries, it is sometimes seen as the "longest" month there.
 In a common year, October 31 falls on the same day of the week as February 28 while in a leap year, it falls on the same day of the week as February 29.
 October 1 is the only day in October to start within the third quarter of the calendar year.
 This month is tied with November as the months with the most births of US Presidents as of January 20, 2021: with six - Jimmy Carter (October 1), Rutherford B. Hayes (October 4), Chester A. Arthur (October 5), Dwight D. Eisenhower (October 14), Theodore Roosevelt (October 27) and John Adams (October 30).
 October's flower is the Calendula.
 One of October's birthstones is the opal. The meaning of the opal is hope. The other birthstone of October is the pink tourmaline.
References

Other websites 
 Octobre in easy French

10
Of is a preposition used in the English language to show a possessive relationship. For example, the phrase "book of maps" means that the book has maps. The phrase "father of Mike" means the father that is being mentioned is Mike's father.

Basic English 850 words
One (1) is the first natural number, followed by two. The Roman numeral for one is I.

Mathematics 
In mathematics, 1 is the multiplicative identity. It is sometimes called the "unity". It is also the only number for which these special facts are true:
 Any number  multiplied by 1 equals that number: . For example, .
 Any number  divided by 1 equals that number: . For example, .
 Any number , other than 0, divided by itself always equals 1: . For example: .
 1 cannot be divided by any other number bigger than itself so that the result is a natural number.

In mathematics, 0.999... is a repeating decimal that is equal to 1. Many proofs have been made to show this is correct.

Computer science 
The number one is important for computer science, because the binary numeral system uses only 1s and 0s to represent numbers. In machine code and many programming languages, one means "true" (or "yes") and zero means "false" (or "no").
Other meanings 
 In Germany and Austria, one is the grade for "very good". It is the best grade of six possible grades in Germany, and the best of five possible grades in Austria. In the Netherlands, one is the lowest grade, and ten the highest. In Poland, one is also the lowest grade, and the highest is six.
 In numerology, the number one is a symbol for everything (unity), the beginning, and God.

Related pages 

 Zero
Mathematical constant

References 

Integers
Square numbers
"O Canada" () is the national anthem of Canada. Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, and Adolphe-Basile Routhier wrote the words in French. It was first sung in French in 1880. Robert Stanley Weir wrote the English words for the song, which are not a translation of the French lyrics, in 1908.

It was sung as the national anthem for many years before the government made it official on 1 July (Canada Day) in 1980.

"O Canada" has been translated into many languages. Some of these languages are spoken by people living in Canada, but they trace their roots in other parts of the globe. These languages include Chinese, Japanese, German, Spanish, Italian, Punjabi, Russian, and Ukrainian. The song has also been translated into indigenous languages (languages spoken by First Nations), such as Inuktitut, Ojibwe, Cree, and Mi'kmaq.

Lyrics

English lyrics

French lyrics

Multilingual versions

Translations into indigenous language

1880s songs
North American anthems
National symbols of Canada
Oahu (or Oʻahu) is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. It means "the gathering place" (a place where people meet) in the Hawaiian language. Most of the people of Hawaii live there (1.2 million of the state's 1.7 million in the mid-1990s). The total land area is . Honolulu, the capital city of Hawaii, is on this island. Other well-known places on Oahu are Waikiki, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma Bay, Kaneohe Bay, and both the North Shore and Makaha (which are famous for very big ocean waves).

History
Kamehameha I made Oahu his capital when he became the first king of Hawaii. Iolani Palace was built later on by others of the royal family. It is the only royal palace on American soil.
Oahu was perhaps the first of the Hawaiian Islands which the crew of HMS Resolution saw on 18 January 1778. This was during Captain James Cook's third Pacific Ocean trip. Europeans did not land on Oahu until 28 February 1779 when Captain Clerke of the HMS Resolution stepped ashore at Waimea Bay. Clerke took command of the ship after Captain Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14.

Economy
Today, Oahu has become a tourism and shopping center. Almost 7 million visitors (mainly from the American mainland and Japan) go there every year to enjoy the special island holiday found only in Hawaii.

Oahu in TV
Oahu can be seen in hundreds of movies and TV shows. Some of them are Magnum, P.I., Lost, Hawaii Five-O and Jake and the Fatman.

Islands of Hawaii
Open content is content that is openly accessible, usable, editable, and distributable by anyone for any purpose, even commercially. Open content is licensed with an open license that authorizes use of the content as described above.

When someone creates something (like a picture or book), they can open it for the use of others. This means that other people are allowed to copy it and change it if they want. Something that is open content may be free of charge, but it does not have to be. 

The Simple English Wikipedia is open content. So are other Wikipedias. If a person changes open content or makes new open content, everyone can give it to anyone else, or even sell it.

License 

The rules that say how people can use, change and pass around open content are called a license. A license explains exactly what you are allowed to do with the content that falls under it. Licenses are often written in difficult language (legal jargon), but many licenses have summaries that are much easier to understand.
The makers of open content get to choose what license to use for their work, and everyone else has to follow it. Only the maker, who owns the copyright, can change it to another license.  Most open content licenses say that when others change the work, they must also declare it to be open and under the same license.  This is called share-alike and means that anything based on work will always be open content.

All the content in Wikipedia is open under the rules of the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License, a very well-known open content license. Another well-known open content license is the GNU Free Documentation License.

Related pages 
 Open educational content
 Open data
 Openness

References

Other websites 

 Openverse, search engine for finding open content

Art
Orthography is an official or correct way to write a particular language. It includes rules of spelling. Orthography may also include rules about punctuation, capitalization, and diacritics (e.g. accents). In English, spelling is a problem for all learners, and is the main issue in orthography.

Some languages have someone to decide the correct spelling, such as the Académie française. English does not. English orthography was the work of the early printers. They had to decide how particular words would be spelled in their books. Gradually the number of alternative spellings began to drop. The word which is "merry" today was spelled in about 30 ways in written sources from the 9th to the 16th century.p970

English orthography 
English orthography, or English spelling, is the way the 26 letters of the alphabet are used to write down the 36 (IPA) sounds of English. The first manuscripts in Old English were written using the Latin alphabet. It had 24 letters.p16
Vowels 
No alphabet fits its language exactly. One reason for this is that there are always more sounds than letters. In English there are far more vowel sounds than vowels. The ancient Greeks, who were the first to use letters for vowels, decided to use only a few letters for their vowel sounds. This choice influenced all later alphabets:
"The importance of the Greeks in the history of alphabetic writing is paramount. All the alphabets in use in Europe today stand in direct or indirect relation to the ancient Greek".

English would need about 20 vowels to represent the vowel phonemes (~sounds) in common use,p237 and some languages do have more letters for vowels. The Georgian language has a total of 41 letters. A shorter alphabet works by using two or three letters for a single sound, or one letter for several sounds.
Consonants 
The English alphabet has only three consonants which have one sound, cannot be produced by other combinations and are never silent: n, r and v. The English language uses 22 to 26 consonant phonemes.

Dialects 
The other reason that alphabets never exactly fit languages is dialect. A spoken language varies from place to place and from time to time. This is very obvious with English, as the pronunciation is so different in different parts of the world. A written language will always be less flexible than its spoken parent. It has a different function, and is produced mechanically. It must serve everyone who speaks the language, and it does this by keeping the spelling similar from one time to another.

Therefore, all alphabets have sounds which are difficult to represent with the letters in use. And English also has other problems: sounds that can be written in different ways, and spelling which can be pronounced in different ways. This all gives rise to problems of spelling.
British and American English 
Differences between American English and British English spelling came about mainly as the result of one man. Noah Webster (1758–1843) wrote a Grammar, a Spelling book, and finally an American dictionary of the English language. In the course of this, he proposed a number of simplifications in spelling. In his dictionary, he chose s over c in words like defense, he changed the re to er in words like center, he dropped one of the Ls in traveler. At first he kept the u in words like colour or favour but dropped it in later editions. He also changed tongue to tung: that did not stick. His main reason was to help children learn to read and write. Webster's dictionary contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before.
Webster did create a slightly different identity for American English. But, because his efforts did not address some of the most glaring problems, his variations make little difference to the way the language is used.  An example of the real problems in English orthography is the word ending -ough, which is pronounced several different ways: tough, bough, cough...  The root causes of spelling variation are historical.  Loan words come with their own (foreign) spelling.  Some French loan words are still spelled in the French way; others have been changed.
English spelling reform has been proposed by many people since Webster, such as George Bernard Shaw, who proposed a new phonetic alphabet for English. In some cases Webster's changes have been widely adopted in Britain: the spelling programme came from the French; US program is clearly simpler, and more consistent with word endings in English. In our modern world, English orthography is still a problem. In some countries (notably, France) a national committee can give advice and direction as to spelling. English has long escaped from national custody.
 Spelling, though important, is less important than how the language is used in practice. The differences between British and American English in use are more to do with idiom, slang and vocabulary than they are to do with spelling. In this respect, spelling in writing or print is a bit like pronunciation in speech. They are the necessary outer clothes, but the inner substance is more important.
In Wikipedia (note the spelling), articles may be in either American or British English, but should be consistent within each article. More details: Wikipedia:Manual of Style
Dictionaries and phonetics 
Modern British spelling and use was greatly influenced by the two great English dictionaries, Samuel Johnson's A dictionary of the English language (1755), and James Murray's Oxford English Dictionary. Johnson's dictionary was hugely influential, abroad as well as at home. The dictionary was exported to America.

"The American adoption of the Dictionary was a momentous event not just in its history, but in the history of lexicography. For Americans in the second half of the eighteenth century, Johnson was the authority on language, and the subsequent development of American dictionaries was coloured by his fame".p224
For American lexicographers, the dictionary was impossible to ignore:
"America's two great nineteenth-century lexicographers, Noah Webster and Joseph Emerson Worcester, argued fiercely over Johnson's legacy ... In 1789 [Webster] declared that 'Great Britain, whose children we are, and whose language we speak, should no longer be our standard; for the taste of her writers is already corrupted, and her language on the decline.' ... Where Webster found fault with Johnson, Joseph Worcester saluted him ... In 1846 he completed his Universal and critical dictionary of the English Language.p226
Languages that use phonetic spelling are easier to learn to spell than others. With phonetic spelling the words are spelled as they are pronounced. The Italian word "orologio" for instance is pronounced oh-ro-LO-jo ("gi" always making a "j" sound.) In English, one comes across the word "knife". In "knife", the "k" is not spoken, even though in English it's more common to pronounce "K"s when they are in words.

History of English spelling 
One of the problems we have is that similar sounding words may be spelt quite differently. Rough and ruff; meet and meat; great and grate. Words with complicated spelling may be pronounced simply: Leicester is pronounced 'Lester'. Even what rules we do have are frequently broken. "i before e except after c" has over 100 exceptions.p272 Almost all these problems have come about for historical reasons. English has been changing for the last thousand years, and as the language changes, so parts of it get stuck with different spellings.
Originally a 23-letter alphabet for the 35 or so phonemes (sounds) of Old English. Other letters were added later.
 After the Norman conquest, French scribes introduced new spellings.
 Printing. Many of the early printers came from the continent of Europe, and brought other spelling norms to England. But, although print stabilised spelling, pronunciation continued to change.
 Printing coincided with the Great Vowel Shift at the end of Middle English (end 14th to 15th centuries). To avoid complex details, here is what happened: over a century, the pronunciation of all the vowels changed, and is still not standard throughout Britain. In any event, the spelling of thousands of words now reflects their pronunciation in Geoffrey Chaucer's time.
 16th-century scholars tried to indicate the history of a word by its spelling: the silent 'b' in 'debt' is there to reflect the Latin debitum.
 More loan words added in the late 16th to early 17th century, such as pneumonia, idiosyncrasy, epitome, cocoa.
English has a huge number of words, but its spelling comes from many different sources. "The large and varied lexicon of English has been bought at the expense of an increasingly deversified graphology".p275

Differences between languages 
Some languages have a high correspondence between phonemes and letters. That means they get close to one letter for each sound. If there was a perfect correspondence, that language would have phonemic orthography. English is highly non-phonemic. It has almost every kind of deviation known:
 different letters for the same sound
 two or more letters for a single sound
 sound depends on nearby letters
 vast range of words whose sound varies according to dialect
 huge number of loan words with imported spellings
 defective: it does not represent some important differences in phonemes. Example: the difference between the voiced th (the) and the unvoiced th (thin).
This field of study is called "orthographic depth". The orthographic depth of an alphabetic script is the degree to which a written language deviates from simple one-to-one letter–phoneme correspondence. It shows how easy it is to predict the pronunciation of a word from its spelling. Shallow orthographies are easy to pronounce based on the written word, and deep orthographies are difficult to pronounce based on how they are written. In shallow orthographies, the spelling-sound correspondence is direct: given the rules of pronunciation, one is able to "say" the word correctly.

Most other international languages have similar problems: in French, Arabic or Hebrew, new readers have difficulty learning to decode words. As a result, children learn to read more slowly. In both Spanish and Italian there is a more direct connection between spelling and pronunciation. Those are languages with low orthographic depth.

Related pages 
 Ghoti

References 

Spelling
The word oil is used for many different kinds of liquids. Oil usually does not mix with water.

Vegetable oils are made from plants. Many are used in foods and for cooking. Some kinds of plant oils that people use are palm oil, maize (corn), olive, peanut, soy, and sunflower.

Other kinds of oil are made from crude oil (petroleum), which comes from under the ground. People use large oil wells to bring the oil up to the surface. The oil is sent in special ships called tankers or in pipelines to factories called refineries where it is distilled into LPG, gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel, and fuel oil. Plastics are among the petrochemicals made from crude oil or natural gas. Oils from crude oil are also used as fuels for engines or as lubricants to make the parts of machines work together without sticking or stopping.
Different kinds of oils are also used for many other things, for example, to make cosmetics, medicines, paints, and detergents, like washing up liquids. Soap(s) are similar to detergents, but they are generally made from animal fat(s) rather than oils.

Oil is also made for various purposes, including synthetic fuel and lubricant.

See Thomas Gold for the idea that oils come from space.

Basic English 850 words
 
Hydrocarbons
OK (okay) is a word in the English language. It is used to mean that something is good or correct. It is the opposite of the word bad.

It can often be used instead of the word Yes.  It is not certain where the word "OK" originally comes from, but some experts say it came from a funny way of writing "Ol Korrect" (All correct). 

It is also the two-letter abbreviation for the state of Oklahoma in the United States of America.

You also find the phrase "Ola kala" in Greek, which means "All Correct".

For example:

I think it is 'ok' to present this project in our office.
Background
The term appears to have achieved prominence in the United States in 1840, when supporters of the American Democratic political party claimed during the 1840 United States presidential election that it stood for "Old Kinderhook," a nickname for a Democratic presidential candidate, Martin Van Buren, a native of Kinderhook, New York. "'Vote for OK' was snappier than using his Dutch name."  In response, Whig opponents attributed OK, in the sense of "Oll Korrect," to Andrew Jackson's bad spelling. The country-wide publicity surrounding the election appears to have been a critical event in okay's history, widely and suddenly popularizing it across the United States.

Notes

English words and phrases
An oxymoron  is a term for a figure of speech.   It is made up of two or more words that seem to be opposite to each other, or actually are opposite.

For example, the phrases "Wise fool", "Warm freezer", and "Legal murder" all have two words. In each one, the one word looks like the opposite of the other word.

You can have words that look opposite, but are right. For example, a "warm freezer" could be right. A freezer could be warm if it was turned off or left open.

The word oxymoron is an oxymoron; 'oxy' comes from the Greek word that means 'sharp', while 'moron' comes from the Greek word that means 'dull'.

Words that really are opposite to each other, would be words that just cannot be put together. For example, a "round square" could not happen because squares are not round.
Oxymorons sometimes appear in jokes. Sometimes, the joke is just to say that a pair of words are an oxymoron. For example, a joke that says that "glutted peasant" is an oxymoron. This means that peasants are usually hungry, if the word 'peasant' is opposite to 'glutted'.

Related pages

Paradox
 Trope

References

Logic
Figures of speech
An operating system (OS) is a kind of computer program that makes it easier for people to interact with a computer. An OS is not actually one single program but a group of small programs, like file managers, device drivers, and kernels. An OS can be small (like Damn Small Linux), or large (like Microsoft Windows). Some are meant for everyday use, like in a personal computer or a smartphone. Others are very specialized - for example, an ATM uses a kind of operating system.

An operating system has many jobs. It makes sure that all the programs share access to the computer's processor, memory, screen, input devices, and other hardware. Today, most operating systems also include a visible interface so the user can easily interact with it. An OS is also responsible for sending data to other computers or devices on a network. 

Some examples of commonly used operating systems are macOS, Linux, and Android.

History
History

One of the first computers was ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), built by the United States during World War II. It was very hard to make ENIAC do work. To program ENIAC, scientists had to move switches and cables around on the side of the computer. While this was an operating system of a kind, it is not really like modern operating systems.

The first operating system that looked and felt like today's operating systems was UNIX, made in 1969 by Bell Labs.  With UNIX, people could program computers by typing on a keyboard. Many of its features were taken from Multics, an older operating system made in 1964.

Types
Operating systems come in many different types. An OS might fit one or several of the types listed below, and the difference between the types isn't always clear.
Single- and multi-tasking 
A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time. A multitasking operating system can run more than one program at the same time. To multi-task, the computer lets each program take a turn using the processor.

Single- and multi-user 
Single-user operating systems doesn't let people create their own "accounts" on the computer - there is only one user. A multi-user operating system lets multiple users interact with the system, even at the same time.

Distributed 
A distributed operating system takes a group of distinct computers, which might be all over the place, and makes them work together like one single computer.

Embedded 
Embedded operating systems are very small OSes that are used in embedded systems. They are designed to operate on small machines, like the electronic part of a microwave, and they only do a few very specific things.

Related pages
 BIOS

References
Ideas
The ideas in philosophy are often general and abstract. However, this does not mean that philosophy is not about the real world. For example, Ethics talks about how to be good in our day-to-day lives. Metaphysics questions how the world works and what it is made of. Sometimes, people talk about how they have a ‘personal philosophy’, which means the way a person thinks about the world. This article is not about people's ’personal philosophies’. This article is about the ideas that have been discussed by philosophers (people who think and write about ways of thinking) for a long time.

Questions
Questions related to philosophy are called philosophical questions. Most philosophical questions can never be answered with certainty. They focus on important topics, such as the meaning of life, death, and morality. An example of a philosophical question is this: "Is there any knowledge in the world which is so certain that no reasonable man could doubt it?". Other questions asked by philosophers are:
What should we do in our lives?
 What happens to a soul after death, how does a soul enter into the body before death?
Why are we born?
Why should we live?
Why are there so many hurdles in life?
How do we overcome suffering?
What is the importance of the material life?
Will the universe exist forever?
 What is beauty?
 Do we have free will?
 Does God exist?
 Does the world around us exist?
 What is truth? 
 What is evil?
 What is the relationship between mind and body?
 What is the meaning of life?

History 
The word 'Philosophy' directly translates to 'love of wisdom'. It comes from the Greek word 'Philosophia', with 'Philo' meaning 'lover' and 'Sophia' meaning 'wisdom.

There are different types of philosophy from different times and places. Some philosophers came from Ancient Greece, such as Plato and Aristotle. Others came from Asia, such as Confucius, Buddha, Adi Shankara, and Laozi. Some philosophers were from the Middle Ages in Europe, such as William of Ockham or Saint Thomas Aquinas.
Influential philosophers from the 1600s and 1700s include Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, John Locke, Gottfried Leibniz, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant. Some major philosophers from the 1800s are Georg Hegel, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche, whereas the 1900s gave us Martin Heidegger and Ludwig Wittgenstein.

 Areas of inquiry Philosophy seeks to understand truths about the world and how we view it. It tries to answer important questions by making conclusions based on observations of human nature and the real world.

Sometimes, philosophy tries to answer the same questions as religion and science. Philosophers give different answers to the same question. Many types of philosophy criticize or even attack the beliefs of religion.

In his work Critique of Pure Reason, Immanuel Kant asks the following questions:
What can I say? 
What shall I do?
What dare I hope?
What is man?
The answers to these questions give the different categories of philosophy.
Categories in philosophy 
Philosophy can be divided into different groups based on the types of questions asked. Below is a list of the questions split into groups. One possible list of answers to these questions can be called a 'philosophy'. There are many different philosophies, because all of these questions have different answers according to different people. Not all philosophies ask the same questions. These are the questions that are usually asked by philosophers from the Western world:Metaphysics:

Metaphysics is sometimes split up into ontology (the philosophy of real life and living things), the philosophy of mind and the philosophy of religion; but these sub-branches are very close together.
Ontology:
 What is the world that we see around us? (What is reality?)
 Is there more to the world than what we see and hear?
 If nobody sees something happen, does that mean that it did not happen?
 What does it mean to say that something is possible? Do other worlds exist?
 Is there anything very special about being a human being, or being alive at all?
 If not, why do some people think that there is?
 What is space? What is time?

The philosophy of mind:
 What is a mind?
 What is a body?
 What is consciousness?
 Do people make choices, or can they only choose to do one thing? (Do people have free will?)
 What makes words or ideas meaningful? (What is the relation between meaningful words or ideas and the things that they mean?)

The philosophy of religion:
 Do people have souls?
 Is there a God who created the Universe?In epistemology:
What is knowledge? 
 How can we know anything?
 What is science?
 What is truth?In ethics:
 What are right and wrong, good and bad?
 Should people do some things and not others?
 What is justice?In aesthetics:
 What is beauty? What if one person thinks a painting is beautiful, but another person thinks the painting is ugly? Can the painting be beautiful and ugly at the same time?
 Are true things beautiful?
 Are good things beautiful?
 What is art? We commonly think that a sculpture in a museum is art. If a sculptor sculpts a sculpture of a rock from clay, and puts it in a museum, many would call it art. But what if a person picks up a rock from the ground - is the rock a piece of art?In logic:
 What do the words we use mean?
 How can we say things (especially ideas) in a way that only has one meaning?
 Can all ideas be expressed using language?
 How does the truth of an argument's premise affect the truth of its conclusion?
 How can we reason correctly?In axiology''':
 What has value?
What has value?
 Is time really money? or have we made it so?
 Does love, beauty, or justice hold any value?
Other divisions include eschatology, teleology and theology. In past centuries, natural science were included in philosophy, and called "natural philosophy".

 Is philosophy good or bad? 
It is easy to argue that philosophy is a good thing because it helps people understand the world better. Philosophy helps people learn how to act and think. Philosophers believe that asking philosophical questions is useful because it helps people learn about themselves, the world, and others. It can be argued that "Is philosophy good or bad?" is a philosophical question itself.

However, some people think philosophy is harmful because it encourages free-thinking and questions the beliefs that others hold. Some philosophies also clash with religion, and oppose religious beliefs. For example, philosophies such as some existentialist views say that there is no meaning to life or human existence, except the meaning that we make up or invent. Most religions disagree with this belief.
Many major sciences, including physics, biology, psychology, and chemistry, were once considered a part of philosophy. As facts about nature became more understood, these subjects separated into their own fields. In modern times, subjects such as consciousness, decision theory, and applied ethics have found independence from philosophy. It can be argued that philosophy helped promote the development of these sciences, and that it has historically been an important field of study.

 Purpose 
Philosophers ask questions about ideas, and tries to find answers to those questions. A philosopher also analyzes concepts, arguments, and problems in philosophy.

Some are academics that work for universities or colleges. These philosophers may write books and articles about philosophy and teach classes about the subject to university or college students.

Some are also monks, artists, or scientists. They also think about philosophical ideas and questions.
Philosophers often use both real and imaginary examples to make a point. For example, they may write about a real or fictional person in order to show what they think a good person or a bad person is like.

Some philosophers look for the simplest way to answer a question and say that is probably the right answer. This is a process called Occam's razor. Others believe that complicated answers to questions can also be right. For an example of a philosophical problem, see the God paradox.

Philosophers use logic to solve problems and answer questions. Logical consistency is a cornerstone of any acceptable theory. Philosophers who disagree with a theory will often try to find a logical contradiction in a theory. If they find a contradiction, this gives them a reason to reject that theory. If they do not find an inconsistency, the philosopher might show that the theory leads to a conclusion which is either unacceptable or ridiculous. This second approach is called reductio ad absurdum.
Famous philosophers 
People listed here should be genuine philosophers, rather than social or political campaigners. The lists are not meant to be complete.

 The ancient Greek philosophers 

 Heraclitus
Socrates
Plato

Aristotle

Epicurus
Diogenes

 Later European/Western philosophers 
 Saint Augustine
 Saint Thomas Aquinas
 Duns Scotus
 Bonaventure
 William of Ockham
 George Berkeley
 Auguste Comte
 René Descartes
 Ralph Waldo Emerson
 Georg Wilhelm Frederich Hegel
 Thomas Hobbes
 David Hume
 Immanuel Kant
 Søren Kierkegaard
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
 John Locke
 Niccolò Machiavelli
 John Stuart Mill
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
 Arthur Schopenhauer
 Baruch Spinoza
 William Whewell
 Friedrich Nietzsche

 Modern European and American philosophers 
 Louis Althusser
 G. E. M. Anscombe
 Simone de Beauvoir
 David Chalmers
John Dewey
Christian DeQuincey
 Martin Heidegger
 Karl Popper
 John Rawls
 Bertrand Russell
 Jean-Paul Sartre
 Ludwig Wittgenstein
 Albert Camus

 Latin American and Latina/o philosophers
Gloria E. Anzaldúa 
 Giannina Braschi 
 Sor Juana Inez de la Cruz 
 Maria Lugones 
 Ofelia Schutte
Eugenio María de Hostos

 Asian/Eastern philosophers 
 Avicenna
 Osho
 Confucius
 Siddhārta Gautama (the Gautama Buddha)
 Omar Khayyám
 Nanak
 Chuang Tzu
 Lao Tzu
 Sohrevardi
 Allama Iqbal
 Sun Tzu

Related pages
Fallacy
Truth

 General sources
General sources 

 Blumenau, Ralph. Philosophy and living. 
 Craig, Edward. Philosophy: a very short introduction. 
 Harrison-Barbet, Anthony. Mastering philosophy. 
 Russell, Bertrand. The problems of philosophy. 
 Sinclair, Alistair J.  2008. What is philosophy? An introduction. 
 Sober, Elliott 2001. Core questions in philosophy: a text with readings. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. 
 Solomon, Robert C. Big questions: a short introduction to philosophy. 
 Warburton, Nigel. Philosophy: the basics. 
 Nagel, Thomas. What does it all mean? A very short introduction to philosophy. 
  Pojman, Louis P.  Classics of Philosophy (vols. 1, 2, & 3) 
 Arthur, Edwin  The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill 
 Beardsley, Monroe  European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche 
 Cottingham, John 2008. Western philosophy: an anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., . 
 Tarnas, Richard. The passion of the Western mind: understanding the ideas that have shaped our world view''.

References
References

Other websites
The School of Life on YouTube
Einzelgänger (In search of) on YouTube

 
Humanities
Physics is a branch of science. It is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines. The main goal of physics is to explain how things move in space and time and understand how the universe behaves. It studies matter, forces and their effects.

The word  physics comes from the Greek word ἡ φύσις, meaning "nature". Physics can also be defined as "that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events".

Physics is very important in the development of new technologies, such as airplanes, televisions, computers and nuclear weapons. Mechanics, a branch of physics, helped develop the mathematical field of calculus.

Modern physics connects ideas about the four laws of symmetry and conservation of energy, momentum, charge, and parity.
Astronomy, a part of physics, is the oldest natural science. In the past it was a part of 'natural philosophy' with other fields of science, such as chemistry and biology. During the scientific revolution, these fields became separate, and physics became a distinct field of knowledge.

History

Ancient astronomy 
Astronomy is the oldest natural science. The Sumerians, and Ancient Egyptians studied the stars, mostly with a view to prediction and religion. The first Babylonian star maps date from about 1200 BC. That astronomical events are periodic also dates back to the Babylonians.  Their understanding was not scientific, but their observations influenced later astronomy. Much astronomy came from Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Ancient Egypt, and Ancient Greece. Astronomers from Egypt built monuments that showed how objects in the sky moved, and most of the names for the constellations in the Northern hemisphere came from Greek astronomers.
Natural philosophy 
Natural philosophy started in Greece around 650 BC when a movement of philosophers replaced superstition with naturalism, which refuted the spiritual. Leucippus and his student Democritus suggested the idea of the atom around this period.

Physics in the medieval Islamic world 
Islamic scholars continued to study Aristotelian physics during the Islamic Golden Age. One main contribution was to observational astronomy. Some, like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna, worked  on optics and vision. In The Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham rejected previous Greek ideas concerning vision and proposed a new theory. He studied how light enters the eye, and  developed the camera obscura. European scientists later built eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, and cameras from this book.
Classical physics 
Physics became a separate field of study after the scientific revolution. Galileo's experiments helped to create classical physics. Although he did not invent the telescope, he used it when he looked into the night sky. He supported Copernicus' idea that the Earth moved around the Sun (heliocentrism). He also investigated gravity. Isaac Newton used Galileo's ideas to create his three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation.  Together these laws explained the motion of falling bodies near the earth and the motion of earth and planets around the sun. 

In a couple centuries, the Industrial Revolution was in full swing and many more discoveries were made in many fields of science. The laws of classical physics are good enough to study objects that move much slower than the speed of light, and are not microscopic. When scientists first studied quantum mechanics, they had to create a new set of laws, which was the start of modern physics.