Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Parashu-rama, as the sixth avatar of Vishnu. He is linked to the Rama Jamadagnya of the Rigveda fame.
 Rama-chandra, as the seventh avatar of Vishnu and of the ancient Ramayana fame.
 Bala-rama, also called Halayudha, as the elder brother of Krishna both of whom appear in the legends of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

The name Rama appears repeatedly in Hindu texts, for many different scholars and kings in mythical stories. The word also appears in ancient Upanishads and Aranyakas layer of Vedic literature, as well as music and other post-Vedic literature, but in qualifying context of something or someone who is "charming, beautiful, lovely" or "darkness, night".

The Vishnu avatar named Rama is also known by other names. He is called Ramachandra (beautiful, lovely moon), or Dasarathi (son of Dasaratha), or Raghava (descendant of Raghu, solar dynasty in Hindu cosmology). He is also known as Ram Lalla (Infant form of Rama).
Additional names of Rama include Ramavijaya (Javanese), Phreah Ream (Khmer), Phra Ram (Lao and Thai), Megat Seri Rama (Malay), Raja Bantugan (Maranao), Ramudu (Telugu), Ramar (Tamil). In the Vishnu sahasranama, Rama is the 394th name of Vishnu. In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, Rama connotes the metaphysical concept of Supreme Brahman who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self (Atman, soul) in whom yogis delight nondualistically.

The root of the word Rama is ram- which means "stop, stand still, rest, rejoice, be pleased".

According to Douglas Q. Adams, the Sanskrit word Rama is also found in other Indo-European languages such as Tocharian ram, reme, *romo- where it means "support, make still", "witness, make evident". The sense of "dark, black, soot" also appears in other Indo European languages, such as *remos or Old English romig.
Legends
This summary is a traditional legendary account, based on literary details from the Ramayana and other historic mythology-containing texts of Buddhism and Jainism. According to Sheldon Pollock, the figure of Rama incorporates more ancient "morphemes of Indian myths", such as the mythical legends of Bali and Namuci. The ancient sage Valmiki used these morphemes in his Ramayana similes as in sections 3.27, 3.59, 3.73, 5.19 and 29.28.

 
 
 |group=lower-greek}} He has been depicted in many films, television shows and plays.

Related pages
 Hindu philosophy
 Ramayana
 Vaishnavism
 Erlang Shen

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Religion in India
Buddhism
Hinduism
Bournemouth is a town in Dorset, in the country of England. It is the biggest town in Dorset. It is next to Poole and Christchurch.

Bournemouth
Christchurch is a town in Dorset, England. It is next to Bournemouth.

Sister city
Christchurch is twinned with:
 Saint-Lô, France, since 1985

References

Other websites

Towns in Dorset
A symphony is a piece of music written for an orchestra to play. It may be quite a long piece. Usually it is divided into parts, usually 3 or 4 parts, which are called movements. 

The first movement of a symphony can be a fast movement, often in sonata form. The second movement can be a slow movement. The third movement can be a minuet or scherzo and a trio. The fourth movement may be called “Finale”; it can be in Rondo form or sonata form or a combination of these. There are lots of different ways of writing a symphony, but this is the pattern that was used by Joseph Haydn who is known as the “Father of the Symphony”, and many composers since have used his pattern of movements for their symphonies.

Connotations 
The word “symphony” comes from the Greek words “sym” (together) and “phone” (sound).

“Symphonic” means “like a symphony”. It is often used to describe music which is quite long and develops tunes over a long period.
A large orchestra is often called a “symphony orchestra”. This is to distinguish it from a small orchestra called a “chamber orchestra”.

Some of the most famous composers of symphonies are Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Gustav Mahler, Jean Sibelius and Dmitri Shostakovich.

Related pages 
Symphonic poem

Musical forms
Upper Franconia (, ; Main-Franconian: ) is a regierungsbezirk (administrative region) of the German state Bavaria. It has an area of 7,230 km² and about 1,200,000 people. It borders the German states of Sachsen and Thuringia, and also the Czech Republic. Bayreuth is its capital.

Cities and districts

Cities which are urban districts

Coburg,
Bamberg,
Hof,
Bayreuth.

Smaller cities

Forchheim,
Kulmbach,
Lichtenfels,
Marktredwitz,
Neustadt bei Coburg
Kronach,
Rödental,
Wunsiedel,
Selb,
Münchberg,
Helmbrechts,
Rehau,
Stadtsteinach,
Bad Staffelstein,
Ebermannstadt,
Burgkunstadt

Districts

Coburg Rural District
Bamberg Rural District
Forchheim Rural District
Bayreuth Rural District
Lichtenfels Rural District
Kronach Rural District
Hof Rural District
Kulmbach Rural District
Wunsiedel i. Fichtelgebirge Rural District

References
The Weimar Republic is the name now used for the republic which governed Germany from 1918 to 1933.

Officially it was the German Reich (): ( ).  

It was  also unofficially referred to as the German Republic ().

Origin 
After the German Empire was defeated in World War I, Germany became a republic, but it was still called "Deutsches Reich" (German Empire). 

Today it is called the Weimar Republic and this period is called the Weimar period, because the constitution was made in the city of Weimar.

Beginning 
On November 9, 1918, the Republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building in Berlin and two hours later a socialist republic was proclaimed around the corner at the Berlin Castle by Karl Liebknecht.

The Emperor, or Kaiser, Wilhelm II, went into exile in the Netherlands. The new Republic was declared even before end of World War I on 11 November 1918.The fighting in World War I stopped on 11 November 1918 when the Armistice of Compiegne was signed.
Problems 
The Weimar Republic had a lot of problems. The Treaty of Versailles made things very difficult for the economy. Inflation got completely out of hand. There were political problems because governments ruled only for a short time, not long enough to be able to make important decisions. There were a lot of radical right and left extremists, for example monarchists (people who wanted back the monarchy) and communists, who believed that all things, especially property, land and money, should be shared. Political parties had their own militias to fight each other.

One of the paramilitary organizations that arose after World War I was the  meaning "Steel Helmet, League of Front Soldiers". They operated as the armed branch of the national conservative German National People's Party (DNVP). they were placed at party gatherings in the position of armed security guards (Saalschutz). In 1935 they became part of the Nazi Party.
Positives 
The Weimar period is also known for its culture. Artists tried out modern ideas and used new things like film. The Bauhaus began in the 1920s.

End 
The Weimar Republic came to an end on 23 March 1933, when Chancellor Adolf Hitler installed the Enabling Act, which established the Third Reich.

References

Other websites 
 The Constitution of the German Reich (Weimar constitution) of 11th August 1919, in full text 
 PSM Data Bank
 historical Documents 

1930s disestablishments in Germany
1910s establishments in Germany
States and territories disestablished in the 20th century
States and territories established in the 20th century
Weimar
 
1918 establishments in Europe
1933 disestablishments in Europe
In mathematics, a lemma is a "mini-proof"; a small hypothesis which is proved and then provides a part of a more important theorem.

Popular Lemmas 
A good small thing can lead to many big things. Some powerful results in mathematics are known as lemmas, such as Bézout's lemma, Dehn's lemma, Euclid's lemma, Farkas' lemma, Fatou's lemma, Gauss's lemma, Greendlinger's lemma, Itō's lemma, Jordan's lemma, Nakayama's lemma, Poincaré's lemma, Riesz's lemma, Schur's lemma, Schwarz's lemma, Urysohn's lemma, Yoneda's lemma and Zorn's lemma. While these results originally seemed too simple to get independent interest, they have turned out to be important to the theories in which they occur.

Mathematical theorems
Avatar, a word in Hinduism, is a deity which comes down to earth in a human form, an animal form or a partly human and partly animal form. Rama was an avatar of Vishnu, one of the three main gods of the Hindus. Similarly, Buddha was also an avatar. Both of these avatars had human form, but avatars of the Hindu mythology have also appeared in animal form. For example, Matsya had the form of a fish and Varaha had the form of a boar.

The word is usually translated into English as "incarnation", but better as "appearance" or "manifestation". This is the sense in which the word 'avatar' is used in various media today.

According to Hindu mythology, the important avatars of god Vishnu are named below:

 Matsya
 Kurma
 Varaha
 Narasimha
 Vamana
 Parashurama
 Rama
 Balarama
 Krishna
 Buddha
 Kalki
Several Hindu scriptures have details and stories about Vishnu's avatars. These texts also tell that Vishnu will appear again the Kalki avatar. The following stories are of the avatars that appeared in animal forms or partly animal and partly human forms.

Matsya is the first avatar of Vishnu, in the form of a big fish. Sometimes, it is said that he took the form of a half-man and half-fish. There is a story about this in Hindu mythology. The story tells about a very wicked demon (an asura) who snatched the Vedas, the holy books of the Hindus, and went deep inside the sea. At this point, Vishnu came as the Matsya (fish) avatar, who went deep into the sea and brought back the Vedas. He gave the Vedas to Manu. The Hindu scriptures say that Manu was the first man in the world. He may also be compared with Noah.

Kurma is the second avatar of Vishnu, in the form of a tortoise. Kurma is a word in the Sanskrit language that means a tortoise. This avatar of Vishnu is a symbol of strength and stability.
Varaha was the third avatar of Vishnu, in the form of a black boar. Varaha is a word in the Sanskrit language that means a boar. The Hindu scriptures tell a story about this avatar. There was a demon (a daitya) named Hiranyaksha. He threw the earth (called prithivi by the Hindus) into the waters of the ocean. The earth was about to sink in the ocean. At this point, Vishnu took the form of a black boar, entered the water and carried the earth on its body. Thus Vishnu, as Varaha, saved the earth from destruction.

Narashimha was the fourth avatar of Vishnu, in the form of a man with the head of a lion. This avatar of Vishnu is also a symbol of great strength.

All other avatars of Vishnu after Narashimha avatar were in the form of human beings.

Although the avatars of Vishnu are the most important in the Hindu mythology, there are stories about avatars of other deities, like of Shiva, Ganesha and Devi.

Avatar is next birth of God in Hinduism.

References

Note

Related pages

 Sugata Bhuddha
 Puranass
Avatar can mean:
Avatar, the incarnation of a God in Hinduism.
Avatar, a picture representing a person on the internet.
Avatar: The Last Airbender, a Nickelodeon animated television series
Avatar (2009 movie), James Cameron's 3-D science fiction movie
Constantine I (27 February 272 – 22 May 337 AD) was a Roman emperor from 306 until he died. He was emperor for longer than any other emperor since Augustus, the first emperor. He was the first ruler of the Roman Empire to be a Christian. He made the old city Byzantium into a new, larger city: Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). The city's name means "City of Constantine" in Greek. He was the son of the emperor Constantius I, and members of their Constantinian dynasty controlled the empire until 364.

Six years after Constantine said that he was emperor, he was fighting for control of Rome with Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, a bridge over the Tiber River. When he saw a cross in the sky with the words , he changed his deity from Apollo to Jesus and won the battle or war.
Early life 
Constantine (; ) was born in Naissus (Niš, Serbia). He was born on 27 February. The Calendar of Philocalus and the works of the Latin writer Polemius Silvius both say Constantine was born in 272 or 273. The Latin historian Eutropius wrote the same information. However, the Greek historian and bishop Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Constantine was born around the year 285.

Constantine's father was Constantius, who later became Roman emperor. Constantine's mother was Helena. She was not from the nobility. The Greek historian Procopius wrote that Helena had come from Drepanon, a city in Bithynia. The Latin theologian Ambrose wrote that Helena was a . Helena and Constantius may not have married, and Helena may have been Constantius's concubine.

Constantine was a military tribune in the Roman army by 293, the year his father became caesar (a junior Roman emperor) on 23 March.
Constantius and the other caesar Galerius each became augustus (a more senior Roman emperor) on 1 May 305. On that day, the emperors Diocletian and Maximian retired. Maximinus Daza and Valerius Severus each became caesar.

Emperor

306–310 
The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that Constantius I died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum (York, England). There, on the same day, the army of Constantius made Constantine augustus. (Later, around August 306, the augustus Galerius agreed that Constantine was caesar, but not that he was augustus.) Roman Egypt accepted Constantine was an emperor.

In autumn 306 or early the next year, Constantine made a military campaign against the Franks. Constantine said that he was Roman consul for the first time in 307. However, the Roman provinces that other emperors controlled did not accept that Constantine was consul. Constantine may have been in Roman Britain again in 307.
Maximian and Constantine may have met at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany) in 307, possibly in late summer. Maximian made Constantine augustus. Constantine married Maximian's daughter Fausta. (This could have been in late summer, September, or as late as 25 December. Historians are not in agreement about the date.) At the start of his reign, only the lands that Constantine controlled accepted Constantine as augustus. Then, the lands that Maximian's son Maxentius controlled also accepted that Constantine was an augustus.
In 308 Constantine fought a war against the Bructeri. In November 308, the emperors Diocletian, Maximian, and Galerius met at Carnutum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria) and agreed that Constantine was a caesar. Constantine himself continued to say that he was an augustus. The Latin writer Lactantius wrote that in 309, Constantine got the title in . The Roman provinces that Galerius controlled said that Constantine was Roman consul for the first time in 309, but the provinces Constantine and Maxentius controlled did not accept this.

In 310, probably on the 1 May, Galerius made Maximinus Daza augustus. From this time, the whole empire started to agree that Constantine was an augustus as well. In summer 310, Constantine again fought a military campaign against the Franks. A war between Constantine and Maximian began. Maximian was at Massilia (Marseille, France) when Constantine took control of the city, probably in around July 310. Then Maximian died, probably by suicide.
On 25 July 310, it was Constantine's fifth anniversary festival as emperor (his ). At that time, Constantine gave himself the name in . Constantine said that his father Constantius had been part of the family of the emperor Claudius Gothicus. This was fiction.

310–315 
On 30 April 311, the augustus Galerius made a edict. The Edict of Serdica mostly ended the persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire. At the start of May, Galerius died. Constantine was Roman consul for the second time in 312.
Constantine was consul for the third time in 313. Constantine fought a civil war with Maxentius. The Calendar of Philocalus says that the Battle of the Milvian Bridge happened on the 28 October 313. In this battle, Constantine's army overcame the army of Maxentius. Maxentius died in the battle. The Latin writer Lactantius wrote about these events. After the battle, Constantine went across the Tiber River and took control of Rome itself. The Calendar of Philocalus says that Constantine went into the city on 29 October, and that there was a festival for two days.
After 18 January 313, Constantine was in Mediolanum (Milan, Italy). There Constantine met his co-emperor, Licinius, in January or February. Either in autumn 313 or during the first half of 314, Constantine travelled to Britain. On 1 August 314 in the city of Arelate (Arles, France), the Council of Arles started (a meeting of bishops. Constantine was consul for the fourth time in 315. In the first half of 315, Constantine probably had success in a military campaign he fought against the Goths and Sarmatians.

The Calendar of Philocalus says that Constantine came again to Rome in July 315. There was a ceremony (an ) when Constantine came to the city. The Calendar says that there was a festival for two days. Constantine got the . On 25 July 315, it was Constantine's tenth anniversary as emperor (his ).
315–320 
On 27 September 315 Constantine went away from Rome. There was another ceremony (a ) when Constantine went out of the city. At some time, Constantine fought a civil war with his co-emperor Licinius. The Calendar of Philocalus says that Constantine's army overcame Licinius's army at the Battle of Cibalae on 8 October 314, but historians are not in agreement about the date. It may have been in 316. After this civil war, Constantine and Licinius made peace. This was either at the end of 314 or in January 317. As part of the agreement, Constantine got from Licinius the Roman provinces next to the Danube. (Licinius kept Thracia however.)
The Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale both say Constantine and Licinius chose co-emperors on 1 March 317. Constantine and his co-emperor made their three sons their junior co-emperors (their ). Crispus and Constantine II (Constantine's sons) and Licinius II (Licinius's son) were each made caesar at Serdica (Sofia, Bulgaria). Constantine was Roman consul for the fifth time in 319. He was consul for the sixth time in 320. On the 25 July 320, it was Constantine's fifteenth anniversary as emperor (his ).

320–325 
In 321, it was the fifth anniversary of Crispus, Constantine II, and Licinius II as emperors (each caesar's ). In summer 322, Constantine won a military victory against the Sarmatians. At the start of 323, Constantine fought a war against the Goths.
In 324, Constantine and Crispus fought another war against their co-emperor Licinius. The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that Constantine's army overcame the army of Licinius in a battle near Hadrianopolis (Edirne, European Turkey) on 3 July 324. Constantine's armies again overcame Licinius's soldiers at the Battle of Chrysopolis. The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that this battle was on the 18 September 324. Licinius and Licinius II both retired from being emperors. On 8 November that year, Constantine made his son Constantius II caesar. At that time, all Constantine's co-emperors were Constantine's own children (the  Crispus, Constantine II, and Constantius II).
On 20 May 324 at Nicaea (İznik, Turkey) the Council of Nicaea started. This meeting of bishops ended on 19 July 325. The Greek historian Socrates Scholasticus wrote about these events. The Chronicle of the Latin theologian Jerome and the Chronicon Paschale both say that on 25 July 325, it was Constantine's twentieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) at Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey).
325–330 
Constantine was Roman consul for the seventh time in 326. The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that in around March 326, Constantine executed his oldest son, the caesar Crispus. The Calendar of Philocalus says that on 18 July 326 (or the 21 July) Constantine again came to Rome. When he came to the city there was another  ceremony. Jerome wrote that on 25 July 326, it was Constantine's twentieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) in Rome. (326 was the second year in which Constantine had a festival for the same twentieth anniversary.) Jerome's Chronicle and the Chronicon Paschale both say that Constantine set up the city of Helenopolis on 7 January 327. Constantine was consul for the eighth time in 329. The year was the last time Constantine was consul. The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that on 11 May 330, Constantine was in Byzantium. On that day, Constantine dedicated again the city. After that, Byzantium had the name Constantinople (; ).
330–335 
The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that on 25 December 333, Constantine made his youngest son, Constans, his caesar. They were probably at Constantinople then. In 333 or 334, Calocaerus started a rebellion in Cyprus. The Consularia Constantinopolitana says that the Romans forced the Sarmatians out of the Banat area around the Danube in 334.

Around 335, Shapur II's armies attacked Armenia, as part of the Roman–Persian Wars. Shapur's Sasanian Empire sent Narses to invade Armenia, but the attack did not have success and Narses died. The Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale both say that on 25 July 335, it was Constantine's thirtieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) at Constantinople. Eusebius of Caesarea gave a speech at the festival.
335–337 
On the 18 September 335, Constantine made Dalmatius caesar. Constantine probably made Hannibalianus "King of Kings and of the Pontic people" () on the same day. Eusebius of Caesarea's Life of Constantine says that a Persian embassy from the Sasanian Empire came to Constantine at Constantinople not long after the festival of Easter. Constantine had been at Constantinople on Easter (3 April 337).

Death 
Eusebius of Caesarea's Life of Constantine says that Constantine died at Ancyrona, near Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey). He died on 22 May 337.
Religion 
 Constantine was the first Christian Roman emperor. His rule changed the Christian Church greatly. In February 313, Constantine met with Licinius in Milan where they made the Edict of Milan. The edict said that Christians could believe what they wanted. This stopped people from punishing Christians, who had often been martyred, or killed for their faith. It also returned the property which had been taken away from them. In 311, Galerius had made a similar edict, though it did not return any property to them. In pagan Rome before this, it had been against the law to practise Christianity, and Christians had often been tortured or killed.  Constantine protected them.  He went on to organize the whole Christian Church at the First Council of Nicea, even though he himself did not get baptized until near the end of his life.
Constantine did not support Christianity alone.  After winning the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, he built the Arch of Constantine) to celebrate, but the arch was decorated with pictures of sacrifices to gods like Apollo, Diana, or Hercules.  It had no Christian symbolism.  In 321, Constantine said that Christians and non-Christians should all join the "day of the sun" (the eastern sun-worship which Aurelian had helped him introduce). His coins also had symbols of the sun-cult until 324. Even after pagan gods disappeared from the coins, Christians symbols never appeared on the coin, either. Even when Constantine dedicated the new city of Constantinople, he was wearing the Apollonian sun-rayed Diadem.

References
References

Other websites 
 
 
Letters of Constantine: Book 1, Book 2, & Book 3
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Constantine I
12 Byzantine Rulers  by Lars Brownworth of Stony Brook School (grades 7–12). 40 minute audio lecture on Constantine.
Constantine I in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Constantine the Great A site about Constantine the Great and his bronze coins emphasizing history using coins, with many resources including reverse types issued and reverse translations.
House of Constantine bronze coins Illustrations and descriptions of coins of Constantine the Great and his relatives.
BBC North Yorkshire's site on Roman York, Yorkshire and Constantine the Great 
 This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Constantine I relating to Christianity.
 Professor Edwin Judge discusses Constantine's legacy for a Centre for Public Christianity vodcast 

 Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York'

272 births
337 deaths
Byzantine emperors
4th-century Roman emperors
Cleopatra (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ) 69 BC – 10 August 30 BC  was Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt. She was its last active ruler.

She was one of the most famous women in  history. Her full name was Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator. She was  the last of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Pharaohs set up in Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great. After her death, Egypt became the Roman province of Aegyptus.

The main historical source for her life is Plutarch's Life of Antony, available in translations.

In regard to her skin color, "She was not dark-skinned", according to Stacy Schiff; A different view is that there is incomplete data (or not enough information) to know the skin color, according to historian Mary Beard.

Antony and Cleopatra is the famous tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written sometime between 1603 and 1607. It was first printed in 1623.
Life of Cleopatra 
Cleopatra was born in Alexandria, then the capital of Egypt. When she was 18 years old, her father, who was king, died. She and her brother, Ptolemy XIII, became the leaders of Egypt. She was queen and her brother was king. Her brother was only 10 years old, so she was the real leader.

Cleopatra made some enemies amongst the courtiers. The reign of Cleopatra was ended by a cabal of courtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus. They removed Cleopatra from power, as her being a woman, and made Ptolemy sole ruler, in about 51 to 48 BC. She had to leave the country. Ptolemy was king, but because he was still a boy, Pothinus and his friends were the real leaders of Egypt.

Caesar and Pompey 
At that time, two Roman generals were fighting to be the leaders of the Roman Republic. They were Pompey and Julius Caesar. Julius Caesar defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece, 48 BC. Pompey fled to Egypt from Pharsalus, and was murdered by the orders of Ptolemy.
Then Caesar came to Alexandria, the capital of Egypt. Economically, Egypt was a bread-basket which could feed the people of Rome. Popular mythology has it that Cleopatra received Caesar in her own unique way. She lay down on a carpet. Then her servants rolled up the carpet with Cleopatra inside. Then the carpet was taken to the palace where Caesar was staying. The guards saw some people carrying a carpet and they did not stop them. They carried the carpet to Caesar. Then Cleopatra came out of the carpet. Caesar fell in love with her and they became lovers. At the time, Cleopatra was 21 years old and Caesar was 52 years old.

Caesar decided to make Cleopatra queen again. Ptolemy did not like that. There was fighting, but Caesar won. Ptolemy tried to leave, but he fell in the river Nile and drowned. Another younger brother became king, but Cleopatra was again the real leader of Egypt. Cleopatra did not marry Julius Caesar, but they did have a son. He was called Caesarion.
Soon after Caesarion was born, Caesar was murdered as he walked to the Senate in Rome. Cleopatra and her entourage were in Rome when Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44 BC. Cleopatra fled back to Egypt.

Mark Antony and Octavian 
Mark Antony, who was Caesar's military commander, and Octavian, Caesar's legal heir, defeated the group who had conspired against Caesar. This group was led by Brutus and Cassius, who took their army to the Eastern Mediterranean, and controlled much of that area. The issue was finally settled by the Battle of Philippi, fought in Macedonia.

Caesar's place was taken by three joint Consuls, the Second Triumvirate. Their names were Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus. Lepidus was a minor character, and the long-term fate of the Empire was decided by a conflict between Antony and Octavian. Mark Antony came to see Cleopatra, and they fell in love, though Antony already had a wife. Cleopatra had three more children. Two were twins, and the father of all three was Mark Antony.
The conflict between Octavian and Antony became serious, and soon there was war. Cleopatra was wealthy, and she used her money to help Antony. But Octavian won the war. He became the ruler of the Roman Empire and was known as Augustus or Caesar Augustus. He took control of Egypt from Cleopatra. After her kingdom was conquered, she committed suicide by letting an asp (a poisonous snake and small cobra) bite her. Antony also committed suicide.

Caesarion was murdered by Octavian, and her other children were taken as prisoners to Rome. Two of them died of illness, but her daughter, Cleopatra Selene II, married an African King Juba II of Numidia. The couple were sent to Mauritania to rule by Octavian. They lived a full life there, and had children.
There are many stories told of how rich Cleopatra was, but we cannot be sure if these are true. For example, one story says that she took baths in milk, to make her skin softer. Another story says that she made a bet with Antony that she could make the most expensive meal ever. To win the bet, she took a pearl earring, dissolved it in vinegar, and drank it.

Related pages 
Cleopatra (1963 movie)
Antony and Cleopatra
216 Kleopatra

References 

69 BC births
30 BC deaths
1st millennium BC pharaohs
People from Alexandria
CSS is an abbreviation. It can stand for the following:
 Cascading Style Sheets, a technology to make HTML look better
 The Chinese Space Station, a planned space station in low earth orbit
 Content Scrambling System, a way to make it harder to copy DVDs
 Counter-Strike Source, an online first person shooter game
Kelly Brianne (born Kelly Brianne Clarkson; April 24, 1982), known professionally as Kelly Clarkson, is an American singer and actress. Clarkson won the first season of the television series American Idol and first season of the coach The Voice.

Clarkson has recorded eight albums. Clarkson has sold over 10.6 million albums in the United States, becoming the highest-selling American Idol winner. According to Nielsen SoundScan, Clarkson is also ranked on the top 200 album sellers of the Nielsen SoundScan era at number 187.

Early life 
Kelly Clarkson was born in Fort Worth, Texas. She is the third and youngest child of Jeanne Rose Clarkson a first grade teacher, and Stephen Michael Clarkson.
Clarkson's parents divorced when she was six years old, after having been married for seventeen years.  The family then moved to Burleson,Texas, where her mother remarried. She is of Greek (from a maternal great-grandfather), English, Irish, German, and Scottish ancestry. Her mother is a descendant of Republican state senator Isaiah Rose, whose life story was discussed on Clarkson's episode of Who Do You Think You Are?, in 2013.

Clarkson went to Pauline G Hughes Middle School and Burleson High School. She originally wanted to be a marine biologist, but changed her mind after she saw the movie Jaws. In seventh grade, one of her teachers overheard her singing in a hallway and asked her to audition for the school choir.
In high school, Clarkson performed in musicals such as Annie Get Your Gun, Seven Brides for Seven Brothers and Brigadoon. She sang at her high school talent show, after which an audience member shared some inspiring words with her: "God has given you this gift. You've got to sing. You're destined to sing." Clarkson continued singing and soon started classical training, hoping that music would be her ticket to a college scholarship.

After finishing high school, Clarkson was offered full scholarships to The University of Texas at Austin, the University of North Texas, and the Berklee College of Music. However, she decided against college to pursue a career in music saying, "you're never too old to go to college."

American Idol
American Idol 

On September 4, 2002, Clarkson won the first season of American Idol, beating Justin Guarini by a margin of 58% to 42%. After the results were announced, Clarkson performed the song "A Moment Like This", which was written for the winner of American Idol and would be released on her first CD Thankful. When it was released as a single in October 2002, it set a record on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart when it rose from number 52 to number one. Thankful sold 236,000 copies in its first week in the U.S.

Personal life
Clarkson married Brandon Blackstock in 2013.  They have a daughter, River Rose, and a son, Remington.  Blackstock also has two children from a previous relationship.  In June 2020, it was announced that Clarkson had filed for divorce.

On March 30, 2022, it was reported that Clarkson had changed her name legally to Kelly Brianne, making her middle name into her last name.  She still uses Clarkson professionally.

Discography
Discography

Albums
 Thankful (released April 15, 2003)
 Breakaway (released November 30, 2004)
 My December (released June 26, 2007)
 All I Ever Wanted (released March 3, 2009)
 Stronger, (released October 21, 2011)
 Greatest Hits – Chapter One, (released November 16, 2012)
 Wrapped in Red, (released October 25, 2013)
 Piece by piece (released on February 27, 2015)
 Meaning of Life (released on October 27, 2017)
Singles
 "A Moment like This/Before Your Love" (2002)
 "Miss Independent" (2003)
 "Low" (2003)
 "The Trouble with Love Is" (2003)
 "Breakaway" (2004)
 "Since U Been Gone" (2004)
 "Behind These Hazel Eyes" (2005)
 "Because of You" (2005)
 "Walk Away" (2006)
 "Never Again" (2007)
 "Sober" (2007) (Not released in Australia)
 "One Minute" (2007)
 "Don't Waste Your Time" (2007)
 "My Life Would Suck Without You" (2009)
 "I Do Not Hook Up" (2009)
 "Already Gone" (2009)
 "All I Ever Wanted" (2010)
 "Mr. Know It All" (2011)
 "Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)" (2011)
 "Dark Side" (2012)
 "Catch My Breath" (2012)
 "Don't Rush" (2012)
 "People Like Us" (2013)
 "Tie It Up" (2013)
 "Underneath the Tree" (2013)

References

Other websites 

Official website

1982 births
Living people
American Idol winners
American pop singers
Extras
Grammy Award winners
 
Writers from Fort Worth, Texas
Musicians from Fort Worth, Texas
Actors from Fort Worth, Texas
Singer-songwriters from Texas
Maurice Ravel (born Ciboure, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, 7 March 1875; died Paris, 28 December 1937) was a French composer. His name is often thought of together with that of Claude Debussy, but their music is really very different. Ravel liked children and animals and his music is often about them. He liked to write about fairy tales and stories from far away lands. He wrote some lovely piano music, most of which is difficult to play. Boléro is a 17-minute piece for orchestra. A short version was used by ice-skaters Torvill and Dean for the dance that made them Olympic champions in 1984.

His life

Early years
Maurice Ravel was born in Ciboure in France. His father was an engineer. Both parents were interested in culture. Soon after he was born the family moved to Paris and stayed there.

It soon became clear that Maurice was musically gifted, so his father arranged for him to have piano lessons with a well-known teacher. In 1889 he entered the Paris Conservatoire.
He left the Conservatoire in 1895, but went back in 1897 to study composition with Gabriel Fauré and counterpoint and orchestration with Andreé Gédalge. At this stage Ravel was not sure of himself as a composer. His first work that was to become very well-known was the short piece for orchestra called Pavane pour une infante défunte. Fauré had been a very good teacher for Ravel, who dedicated his virtuoso piano piece Jeux d’eau (meaning “Play of water” or “Fountains”) and his String Quartet to Fauré. However, Ravel never got a prize for composition, so he left Fauré’s class in 1903.
Early career
Ravel was starting to live the life of a dandy. He always dressed very smartly, and got to know people with similar tastes. He tried to win the Prix de Rome in 1904 and again in 1905. However, the judges liked traditional music and did not understand Ravel’s style. There was a big argument at the Conservatoire which led to the director, Dubois, resigning and Fauré taking his place. Meanwhile, Ravel left Paris for a time with some friends and started writing some of his best compositions. These included Introduction and Allegro for seven instruments including harp, the Rapsodie espagnole for orchestra, his first opera L’heure espagnole and Gaspard de la Nuit, a virtuoso piece for the piano. In Paris the music critics continued to argue about Ravel’s music.
Recognition at last
In 1909 the Ballets Russes visited Paris. They were the world’s most famous ballet group. Their director Diaghilev asked Ravel to write a ballet for them Ravel took about three years to compose the music for Daphnis et Chloé. Other works he completed before the war broke out include Shéhérazade for soprano and orchestra (not to be confused with the work by Rimsky-Korsakov with the same title), and the Piano Trio.
World War I
When World War I broke out Ravel felt very strongly that he wanted to do something for his country. However, he was not allowed to join the French army because he was 2 kg underweight. So he became a driver for the motor transport corps. In 1916 he became ill with dysentery. After a time in hospital he was taken back to Paris to get better, but then his mother died and this had a terrible effect on him. The war years had slowed him down as a composer. He had composed Le Tombeau de Couperin (well-known both as a piano solo piece and for orchestra) which looks back to the style of music in the Baroque period. It took him a long time to finish La Valse (The Waltz), one of his most popular pieces.
After the war
After the war had ended Debussy was dead and Ravel was seen to be the greatest living French composer. He was offered the award of Légion d’honneur but he would not accept it. He bought himself a house outside Paris. Here he could compose in peace and quiet. He wrote his opera L’enfant et les sortileges (The child and magic) and the famous virtuoso piece for solo violin called Tzigane. He toured in Europe and the United States and was welcomed everywhere as a great composer. He was given an honorary doctorate at Oxford University.

Ravel worked on several things: some ballet music which resulted in the orchestral piece Boléro, a Piano Concerto in G, and the Piano Concerto for the Left Hand that could be played just with the left hand (written for the pianist Paul Wittgenstein who had lost his right arm in the war), and several other projects which were not finished.
His final years
In 1932 he started to become ill. For several years he had already been finding it difficult to sleep, and this may have been the beginning of the brain disease which would finally kill him. A road accident in 1932 made it worse. Soon he could no longer sign his own name, he could hardly move and hardly speak. He had a brain operation in 1937, but he died.
His music
Ravel was a very private man. We know nothing about his sexual life. His music came to him during walks on his own, in the country or in Paris, often at night, and in any weather. Then he would come home and write them down. He worked at each composition until it was perfect and never showed it to anybody until it was ready. He liked to collect little things such as toys, and these objects often became part of the music. Baroque music forms, gamelan music, Spanish music, ancient modes and unusual harmonies were all important in his musical style. He only had a few pupils, including Vaughan Williams, but no one could imitate his music because it is always so personal, full of perfection and humour.

References
 The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980; 

1875 births
1937 deaths
20th-century French composers
Jean-Philippe Rameau (born Dijon, September ? 1683; died Paris, 12 September 1764) was a French composer.  He is famous for his music for harpsichord and for his operas.  His most well-known operas are: Hippolyte et Aricie, Castor et Pollux, and Dardanus. He is also known for his one act opera "Pigmalion" which he is said to have composed in 8 days. He is also known as an important music theorist by writing many books on the matter.

Other websites 
 Jean-Philippe Rameau / Discography 

1683 births
1764 deaths
18th-century French composers
Baroque composers
Music theorists
Bedřich Smetana (b. Litomyšl, Bohemia, March 2, 1824; d. Prague May 12, 1884) was a Czech composer. He was a Romantic composer. Smetana, Dvořák and Leoš Janáček are the three most famous composers who wrote Czech nationalist music. His music is typical of the Czech people. His eight operas are about Nationalist stories. He wrote six tone poems for orchestra called Ma Vlast which means “My Home Country”.

Youth and early career
He returned to Prague and arranged to have lessons in harmony, counterpoint and composition. He gave a piano recital, but nobody came to listen, so he decided to start a school of music, although he hardly had any money.

In 1848, revolutions were taking place in central Europe, including in Prague. A strong feeling of nationalism was growing. The Czechs (people who lived in Bohemia and Moravia) wanted to be able to express themselves in their own language instead of in German, which was still the official language in Bohemia. Smetana, who only spoke German, agreed with the nationalists’ ideas, but he still did not realize how important it would be for him in the future to be able to speak Czech.
Smetana married Kateřina and they had four daughters, but three of them died. He still had very little money, so he went to Sweden where he was very successful as a piano teacher and conductor. He composed the first of his symphonic poems: Richard III. After three years in Sweden he decided to return to his homeland because of his Kateřina’s health, but she died on the way. Smetana spent two more years in Sweden. He married again. After the Austrian defeat by Napoleon III in 1859, it became clear that there were going to be big changes in his native country. The Czechs were going to be allowed to have a national opera and put on plays in the Czech language instead of having to perform everything in German. Smetana realized that this was an exciting chance for him. After a big farewell concert in Stockholm to which the Swedish royal family came, Smetana returned to Prague.

The composer of National Czech music
Gradually Smetana’s reputation grew and he started to write operas in Czech which became very popular. The first one was called The Brandenburgers in Bohemia. Mayr made things very difficult for Smetana but the audience loved the opera and it was performed ten more times. His next opera is the one which has become his best-known opera internationally: The Bartered Bride. Smetana got the job of director of the Provisional Theatre instead of Mayr. Smetana made lots of improvements, introducing well-known German, French and Italian operas to the audiences as well as new operas by young Czech composers. The operas Dalibor was first performed on the day that the first stone was laid for the building of the National Theatre. It was a great occasion, although the music critics were unkind and said that his music sounded too much like Wagner
. His opera Libuše was written for the coronation of Franz Joseph in Prague, but that coronation never happened, so the opera was not performed for another ten years when the National Theatre was opened (1881). He spent several years composing a cycle of six symphonic poems called Ma Vlast (My Country). These are very popular today, especially the second one, Vltava, which describes the river Vltava flowing from its source all the way to the sea.
Deafness 

In his last years Smetana became totally deaf. He was suffering from syphilis. He heard horrible high squeaks in his ears a lot of the time. He showed this when composing his String Quartet no 2: the first violin plays a very long high note for a long time in the last movement, showing the audience what he had to suffer. He became very depressed and his wife did not help by quarrelling a lot with him. It became painfully difficult for him to compose. In the end he was writing four bars a day. His mental state got worse. He was guarded all day in case he harmed himself. He did not recognize his own family. He was put in an asylum where he died shortly afterwards.

His music
His music 

As soon as the Czech people were allowed to produce plays and operas in their own language Smetana thought it was his duty to write a series of nationalist operas. His operas were based on the nation’s history and legends. His symphonic cycle Ma Vlast was programme music, full of heroism, often describing nature and the countryside. Smetana also wrote a lot for piano. He was the most important Czech composer there had been at that time. Smetana and Dvořák were the founders of modern Czech music.

Czech composers
Romantic composers
1824 births
1884 deaths
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that produces light from electricity. LEDs last a long time and do not break easily (compared to incandescent lightbulbs). They can produce many different colors. They are efficient - most of the energy turns into light, not heat. 

An LED is a type of diode that makes one color of light when electricity is sent through it in the expected direction (electrically biased in the forward direction). This effect is a kind of electroluminescence. 

The color of the light depends on the chemical composition of the semiconducting material used, and can be near-ultraviolet, visible or infrared.  The color affects how much electricity is used by the LED.  A white LED has either two or three LEDs inside, of different colors. Some white LEDs have one single-color LED inside (usually blue), combined with a phosphor that converts that single color to white.
LEDs are used in many places. Early LEDs could only emit infrared, and were used in optical fiber communication. Later ones were used as red indicator lights on many electronic devices, and in the 1980s they also made other colors. In the 21st century they are used for bright advertising signs, brake lights on cars, in TVs, and more recently, light bulbs for the home. White LEDs bright enough to illuminate rooms are usually more expensive than regular lightbulbs but they last longer and burn less electricity.

LEDs, which make their own light, should not be confused with LCDs, which block light. Some displays, however, mix the two technologies, using LEDs to backlight the LCD.

Today, some LEDs are surface-mount devices (SMD), so they can be very small.

Types
Organic light-emitting diode
Crystal light-emitting diode

References

Nikolay Zheludev 2007.  The life and times of the LED – a 100-year history. Nature Photonics. 1, 189–192. .    is a full-text version.

Electronic components
Antonín Leopold Dvořák (8 September 1841  1 May 1904) was a Czech composer. Along with Smetana and Janáček, Dvorak is one of three famous composers who wrote nationalist Czech music. He wrote chamber music including several string quartets, piano music, songs, operas, oratorios and nine symphonies. The last of his symphonies is known as the New World Symphony because he wrote it in the United States (the “New World”). The slow movement with its solo played on the cor anglais is especially famous.

Life

Youth 
Dvořák was born in a village near Prague, Czechoslovakia (Today Prague is the capital city of the Czech Republic) but in those days it was part of the Austrian Empire until 1867 after the Austro-Prussian War Of 1866 when it became Austria-Hungary . His father was a butcher and innkeeper. He also played the zither and composed a few simple dances.