Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
In a wireless network, often a transmitter has many different messages, and each one needs to be sent to a different person.

The sum-rate capacity of a system that transmits all the messages at the same time—and uses dirty-paper codes to reduce the interference between messages—can be many times the sum-rate capacity of a similar system that only sends one message at a time (TDMA).

Any one receiver is only concerned with the messages for that receiver—all the other messages the transmitter is simultaneously sending to everyone else are—to that receiver—irrelevant noise that only interferes with the desired message.
The "dirty paper" story can be seen as a parable for wireless communication.
 In both cases, a person wants to get a message to some other person.
 The limited amount of power at the radio transmitter is analogous to the limited amount of ink.
 The "other messages the transmitter is simultaneously sending" are analogous to the dirt is already on the paper.
 The transmitter—which knows exactly all the other messages it is simultaneously sending—is analogous to the writer—who knows where the dirt is on the paper.
 Other channel noise that the transmitter does not know about until after the message is sent—environmental noise, other transmitters, etc. -- is analogous to dirt added after the message is written.

Recently, there has been interest in DPC as a possible solution to optimize the efficiency of wireless networks, in particular multiuser MIMO networks  and into an interference aware coding technique for dynamic wireless networks.

Digital watermarking
People doing "informed digital watermarking" use dirty paper codes, using this analogy:
 The "cover work" to be watermarked is analogous to the dirty paper.
 The person adding the watermark already knows what the cover work looks like, analogous to the writer who knows where the dirt is on the paper.
 The person adding the watermark wants the watermarked work to look the same as the original "cover work", so he makes only small modifications, analogous to the writer using only a limited amount of ink.
 Changes that happen during normal processing or malicious tampering are analogous to dirt added after the message is written.
 The person who tries to detect the watermark in the watermarked work is analogous to the reader.
 Trying to detect the watermark in the watermarked work, without seeing the original -- "blind detection"—is analogous to "cannot distinguish between dirt and ink".

Related pages 
 Multiple-input multiple-output communications
 Advanced MIMO communications
 Cognitive radio

References
References 

Telecommunications
Encodings
The Klamath River flows through Oregon and northern California in the United States. It is  long. The river empties into the Pacific Ocean.

The Klamath is the second largest river in California after the Sacramento River.

Rivers of California
Rivers of Oregon
Humboldt County, California
Del Norte County, California
Bandai Co., Ltd. is a Japanese company that makes toys and video games. It is the third largest toy maker in the world.

Manufacturing companies of Japan
1950 establishments in Japan
Companies based in Tokyo
Battle is a town in East Sussex, England, UK. It is known as this because it was the place where the Battle of Hastings was fought.

References 

Towns in East Sussex
John Phillip Key (born 9 August 1961) was the 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand and was the leader of the New Zealand National Party.
John Key entered the New Zealand Parliament in 2002 representing the north-west Auckland area of Helensville as a National MP, a seat that he still holds. In 2006 he succeeded Don Brash as the National Party leader in 2006. Key led his party to victory in the November 2008 general election.

On 5 December 2016, Key resigned as prime minister and as party leader. Bill English soon replaced Key as prime minister and party leader.

Personal Life 

Key was born in Auckland, New Zealand, to George Key and Ruth Key. His father, who was from the UK, died of a heart attack in 1967. Key and his two sisters were raised in a state house in Christchurch by his Jewish mother.
He attended Burnside High School, and earned a Bachelor of Commerce degree in accounting from the University of Canterbury in 1981. He has attended management studies courses at Harvard University, although he did not receive a degree from this institution.

Key met his wife Bronagh when they were both students at Burnside High School. They married in 1984. She is currently full-time mother of their two children, Stephie and Max.
Before politics 
In 1995, he joined Merrill Lynch as head of Asian foreign exchange in Singapore. That same year he was promoted to Merrill's global head of foreign exchange, based in London, where he may have earned around US$2.25 million a year including bonuses, which is about NZ$5 million at 2001 exchange rates. Some co-workers called him "the smiling assassin" for maintaining his usual cheerfulness while sacking dozens (some say hundreds) of staff after heavy losses from the 1998 Russian financial crisis. He was a member of the Foreign Exchange Committee of the New York Federal Reserve Bank from 1999 to 2001.

Prime Minister (2008-2016) 

Key became Prime Minister following the general election on 8 November 2008 which ended  the Labour-led government of nine years under Helen Clark. The National Party, promoting a policy of "change", won 45% of the party vote and 59 of the 122 seats in Parliament, a big margin over the Labour Party which won 43 seats.
Key was sworn in as Prime Minister on 19 November 2008 along with his new cabinet. His first international outing as Prime Minister was the 20th APEC meeting in Peru the following day.

Key announced he will step down from the role of Prime Minister and leader of the National Party effective 12 December 2016.

References 

1961 births
Living people
Jewish politicians
Oceanic Jews
Politicians from Auckland
Prime Ministers of New Zealand
Leaders of the Opposition (New Zealand)
The New Zealand city of Dunedin has produced a large number of famous people. Many of these are natives of the city; others travelled to Dunedin to be educated at the University of Otago.

The arts
Visual arts
 Illustrator and engraver John Buckland Wright.
 Māori sculptor Carissa Proffit (born 1974), who works in Oamaru stone.
 Australian war artist H. Septimus Power was born in Dunedin in 1877.
 Cartoonist David Low
 Caricature artist Murray Webb
 Māori painter Ralph Hotere lives and works in Port Chalmers.
 Painters Grahame Sydney, Jeffrey Harris and Claire Beynon all live in Dunedin.
 Pete Wheeler, painter, lived in Dunedin foir several years
 Frances Hodgkins (1869 – 1947), New Zealand's most celebrated expatriate painter, was born in Dunedin, trained at the Dunedin School of Art and first matured here as an artist.
 Alfred Henry O'Keeffe (1858-1941), a prominent artist during the early 20th Century
 John Thomson, Sculptor (born in Dunedin, living and working in the UK)
 Colin McCahon, painter
 Children's book illustrators Robyn Belton and David Elliot currently live in Dunedin, David in Port Chalmers.
 Prominent architects Francis Petre and Robert Lawson both lived and worked in Dunedin.
Literature
 Thomas Bracken, late-nineteenth century poet who wrote the New Zealand National Anthem God Defend New Zealand and who was the first person to publish the phrase "God's Own Country".
 Nobel Prize short-listee Janet Frame, born there in 1924, died there in 2004: NZ Edge biography .
 Writer James K. Baxter was born in Dunedin in 1926 and wrote many of his plays there in the 1960s in association with Rosalie and Patric Carey's Globe Theatre.
 Playwright Roger Hall
 Short story writer O. E. Middleton
 Brian Turner poet and Former Hockey International
 Graham Bishop (geologist) poet and writer; authored The Real McKay - The remarkable life of Alexander McKay, geologist (2008);  Poles Apart, Climbing Mount Aspiring; co-authored From Sea to Silver Peaks, Vanishing Ice
 Catherine Chidgey, author, who now lives in Dunedin
 Writer and publisher A.H. Reed
 Philip Temple
 [Tina F Morris] aurhor
Drama
 Actor Sam Neill has close associations with Dunedin. He was raised to the west of Dunedin, in Queenstown, Central Otago, where he still resides.
 Alan Dale is a New Zealand actor who also has been on many Australian TV Shows.

Music
 Many of New Zealand’s top bands of the 1980s and early 1990s started out in Dunedin, establishing the Dunedin Sound. These include The Chills, The Clean, Straitjacket Fits, Sneaky Feelings, The 3Ds and Toy Love, and musicians Martin Phillipps and David Kilgour.
Politics and business 
 A large proportion of the country's leading companies in and beyond the twentieth century originated in Dunedin. A selection of relevant company or brand names includes Arthur Barnett, Cottonsofts, Donaghy, Fletchers, Fisher and Paykel, Fulton Hogan, Hallensteins, Methven, Mosgiel, NZI, Ravensdown, the Union Company of Sir James Mills, Wests, Whitcoulls, and Wrightson.
 Deputy Prime Minister (since 1999) Michael Cullen
 Pamela Tate SC, appointed Solicitor-General for Victoria, Australia in 2003, was born in Dunedin, and received one of her degrees from the University of Otago.
Ethel Benjamin, New Zealand's first female lawyer.
 Mai Chen - prominent constitutional lawyer
Science 
 Tramway and mining engineer George Smith Duncan
 Two of the founders of modern plastic surgery, Harold Gillies and Archibald McIndoe were born in Dunedin in 1882 and 1900 respectively.
 Popular email program Pegasus Mail was written by David Harris while he was employed by the University of Otago.
 Michael Woodruff a pioneer in the science of organ transplantation
 Andrew Wilson created the first Bose-Einstein condensate in the southern hemisphere in 1998 at the University of Otago.
 John Carew Eccles became a professor and head of the Department of Physiology at the University of Otago from 1944 to 1951; before winning the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1963 for describing the electric transmission of impulses along nerves. .
 Political scientist Jim Flynn, discoverer of the Flynn effect in IQ, is based at the University of Otago.
 Forensic psychiatrist John Macdonald

Sport
Sport

Cricket 
 Australian test cricket international Clarrie Grimmett.
 New Zealand test cricket international and Black Caps coach Warren Lees.
 New Zealand test cricket captain Ken Rutherford.
 New Zealand test cricket captain Bert Sutcliffe MBE.
 New Zealand test cricket international and Black Caps coach Glenn Turner.
 Jeff Wilson (see under Rugby, below)
 New Zealand test cricket wicket keeper Brendon McCullum, raised in South Dunedin.
 Pakistani test cricket international and TVNZ cricket commentator, Billy Ibadulla.
Netball and basketball 
 Double international Silver Ferns netball captain and Tall Ferns basketball international Belinda Colling
 New Zealand netball international and Silver Fern coach Lois Muir.
 Silver Ferns netball captain Lesley Rumball - New Zealand's most capped netball player.
 Silver Ferns netball captain Anna Stanley.
 Double international Silver Ferns netball and Tall Ferns basketball international Donna Wilkins
 Current Silver Ferns netball captain Adine Wilson.
 Tall Blacks basketball captain Glen Denham
Rugby union 
 All Black rugby union first-five Tony Brown.
 Double international All Blacks rugby union and Kiwis rugby league player Marc Ellis.
 Scotland rugby union international John Leslie.
 All Black rugby union full-back and coach Laurie Mains.
 All Black rugby union captain Anton Oliver.
 All Black rugby union captain Taine Randell.
Double international All Blacks rugby union and Black Caps cricket player Jeff Wilson.
Black Fern and New Zealand Olympic Rugby Sevens Utility Back Kelly Brazier
Other sports 
 Olympic champion long jumper Yvette Corlett (née Williams).
 Olympic  Finn class yachting gold medalist and three times America Cup-winning captain Russell Coutts (DCNZM, CBE).
 Greg Henderson, former world champion and Olympian in track and road cycling.
 Internationally recognised swimming coach Duncan Laing.
 Double Olympic champion swimmer Danyon Loader.
 World record-breaking middle-distance athlete Jack Lovelock.
 New Zealand hockey international (and award winning poet) Brian Turner.
 New Zealand international golfer Greg Turner.
 New Zealand soccer international Steve Wooddin.

Military 
 Sir Keith Park, World War I air ace, later Air Marshal in the defence of London during World War II.
 Duncan Boyes, English recipient of the Victoria Cross in 1864 in Japan, was buried in Dunedin in 1869.
 Robert Martineau, English recipient of the Victoria Cross in 1899 in South Africa, was buried in Dunedin in 1916.

References

Dunedin
Peter Warlock (born London, 30 October 1894; died London, 17 December 1930),  was an English composer. “Peter Warlock” was not his real name. His real name was Philip Heseltine. He was also a music critic. When he wrote about music he used his real name, but when he composed music he used the pseudonym (borrowed name) "Peter Warlock", which is the name by which he is usually remembered today.

Life 
Philip Heseltine did not come from a musical family. When he was two years old his father died. His mother married again and went back to live in Wales, where she came from. Philip went to school at Eton College.
He was still a teenager when he was introduced to the composer Delius, who lived in France. They became good friends and Philip made piano arrangements of some of Delius’s music. Later he wrote a book about Delius. He studied in Germany for a time, and then at Oxford where he studied classics. He learned about music by teaching himself. He did not fight in World War I. He was a conscientious objector, but also, his health was not good enough for him to be in the army.

He spent most of his life in London, but he did visit Ireland for a year, and also spent three years with his mother in Wales, and four years in Kent where he lived with Ernest Moeran. Heseltine and Moeran often got drunk together. He became friends with the composer Bernard van Dieren whose music influenced him a lot. He also liked poetry from the time of Queen Elizabeth I.

He died in his apartment from gas poisoning. It is not certain whether it was suicide, but he did let his cat out before he turned on the gas.
His music
His music, written under the name of Peter Warlock, often has links with his literary writings. Some of the best works he wrote are his songs, especially the song-cycle The Curlew, which has lyrics from poems by W. B. Yeats. One of his most popular works is the Capriol Suite for string orchestra.

Warlock wrote many carols, such as Adam Lay Ybounden, Tyrley Tyrlow, and Bethlehem Down.

Warlock was not influenced by folksong like many other English composers of the time. He liked many different styles, including  Renaissance music and the music of Bartók whom he met.

Other websites
The UK branch of the Peter Warlock Society website 

1894 births
1930 deaths
20th-century English composers
A land mine (called a "mine" when a naval mine is clearly not what is meant) is an explosive weapon that is put on the ground or just underneath the ground so that it explodes when a person or vehicle goes by. They are called "mines" because people who put them there often dig a tunnel under the ground (like miners who dig for coal etc.). Many people can be killed by mines, including civilians. Sometimes mines can lie in the ground and kill and injure people years after a war has ended. 

There are different types of land mines. Big anti-vehicle mines are against vehicles. Smaller infantry mines are used against foot soldiers.

Explosives
Charles Wood (born Armagh, 15 June 1866; died Cambridge, 12 July 1926) was an Irish composer and teacher.

Charles Wood was born in Armagh, Ireland.  His father sang in the Cathedral choir.  Charles had music lessons from the cathedral organist, then he went to the Royal College of Music where he studied composition with C.V.Stanford and Hubert Parry.  He also learned to play the horn and piano.  After four years he went to Selwyn College, Cambridge, at first to study, then to teach harmony and counterpoint.  In 1889 he got a teaching job at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.  Soon he became their first Director of Music and Organist. When Stanford died, Wood became Professor of Music at Cambridge.
Wood is mainly remembered today for his Anglican church music.  He wrote music for the Communion Service and service settings of the Magnificat and Nunc dimittis.   These are often sung today in cathedrals and churches. He wrote many fine anthems including O thou, the central orb.  In Cambridge he is remembered for the chimes he wrote for the clocks of Gonville and Caius College.

His pupils included Ralph Vaughan Williams at Cambridge and Herbert Howells at the Royal College of Music.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie ISBN 1-56159-174-2

1866 births
1926 deaths
20th-century composers
Romantic composers
Irish composers
Sir Arthur Bliss CH KCVO (London, 2 August 1891; died London, 27 March 1975) was a British composer (a person who writes music).  When he started composing, his music sounded very modern and harsh. As he got older he changed his style and wrote more Romantic music in the style of English composer Edward Elgar.  For more than twenty years he was Master of the Queen's Music.

Early life
His father was American, his mother was English.  He went to school at Rugby. He went to Cambridge University where he studied with Irish composer Charles Wood.  Wood also taught the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams. Bliss got to know Elgar whose music influenced him very much.

For a short time he learned music from Charles Villiers Stanford at the Royal College of Music.  During World War I he served in the army.
After World War 1
After the war he started to play his music in public.  These compositions show the influence of Stravinsky, Ravel and Les Six.  His music even sounded jazzy.  After a few years his music became more Romantic.  Elgar asked him to write something for the Three Choirs Festival in 1922.  The piece he composed was his Colour Symphony in which he tries to describe colours in music.

During the 1920s his music became more traditional.  He wrote a lot of music for movies including music for the movie Things to Come (H.G.Wells).  He loved the theatre and composed music for the ballets Checkmate and Miracle in the Gorbals.  One of his best works is the choral symphony Morning Heroes (1930). This was written to remember those who were killed in World War I.
America
When World War II started he was in the USA.  He stayed there and taught at Berkeley, California until 1941.  Then he returned to England.  For a time he was Director of Music of the BBC.  He wrote an opera The Olympians.  In 1953 he was made Master of the Queen's Music.  He kept that position until his death, writing many pieces of music for official royal occasions.

He was given many honours, including the Companion of Honour and the Royal Victorian Order.

In his later years he composed several works for orchestra as well as for choirs.

He died on 27 March 1975.  His wife, Gertrude died on 21 November 2008 at the age of 104.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie

Other websites
The Arthur Bliss society

20th-century English composers
1891 births
1975 deaths
Companions of Honour
Royal Victorian Order
Plumbing (which comes from the Latin word plumbum, which means lead, as pipes were once made from lead) is the job of working with pipes, tubing and plumbing fixtures for drinking water systems and getting rid of waste. A plumber is someone who fixes or puts in piping systems, plumbing fixtures and equipment such as water heaters. Many plumbers are construction workers. The plumbing industry is an important part of every developed economy because people need clean water and safe ways to move and store waste.

Plumbing also refers to a system of pipes and fixtures put in a building to move water and the get rid of waste that is in water. Plumbing is different from water and sewage systems because plumbing system serves one building, while water and sewage systems serve a group of buildings or a city.

History
History 

Plumbing was very rare until modern cities grew in the 19th century. At about the same time, public health leaders began wanting better systems to get rid of waste. Before this, people got rid of waste by collecting it and dumping it onto the ground or into rivers. However, there were some plumbing pipes in the city settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 B.C. Plumbing was also used during the ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese civilizations as they built public baths and needed drinking water, and somewhere to drain waste. The Romans used pipe inscriptions to stop people from stealing water.
Materials 
Water systems in ancient times used gravity to move water. They used pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo or stone. Today, water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes are now made of copper, brass, plastic, or other nontoxic material. Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast-iron, and lead. Lead is not used in pipes today because it can be poisonous.

The 'straight' sections of plumbing systems are of pipe or tube.  A pipe is usually made by casting or welding, where a tube is made through extrusion.  Pipe usually has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, where tubes have thinner walls, and needs special joining techniques such as 'brazing', 'compression fitting', 'crimping', or for plastics, 'solvent welding'.

As well as the straight pipe or tubing, many fittings are required in plumbing systems, such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions.
Plumbing fixtures are designed for the people who use the water.  Some examples of fixtures include water closets (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.

Regulation 
Much of the plumbing work in places where many people live is done under government rules. Putting in plumbing and fixing plumbing generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect the people who live or work in the buildings.

References 

Water infrastructure
Waste
Engineering
Copepods (meaning "oar feet") are small, shrimp-like crustaceans that swim in seas, lakes, and ponds. Copepods are very important in the food web, and many animals eat them.

There are 10 orders of copepods and over 4500 species; a few orders are free-swimming, but many are parasites (of fish). The free-swimming copepods move through the water in jerky motions by moving their swimming legs. 

Crustaceans
Donegal is a town in County Donegal, Republic of Ireland. 

There are many sandy beaches in the area round Donegal and the town is used as a base for hill-walking in the nearby Bluestack Mountains. Traditionally the largest employer in the town has been Magee of Donegal, makers of tweed garments.

Towns in Ireland
Gaeltacht
County Donegal
Dingle is a town in County Kerry, Republic of Ireland. It has a large natural harbour.

Towns in Ireland
County Kerry
Young is a town in New South Wales, Australia. It is the centre of Young Shire. It is on the Olympic Highway. It is about 2 hours drive from Canberra. Young is in a valley surrounded by hills. In 2001 there were 6,821 people living in Young.

Young is known as the Cherry Capital Of Australia and every year hosts the National Cherry Festival.

History 
 The indigenous people of the district were members of the Burrowmunditory tribe, part of the Wiradjuri people.

James White was the first European settler in the area. He started Burrangong Station (farm) in 1826 by taking an area of 100 square miles.

Gold was found in the area in 1860. Until that time the area was called Lambing Flat. This was an area where sheep were grazed before the gold rush. The town was officially listed in 1861. About 470,000 ounces of gold were sent by the armed gold escort from the goldfields. Up to 20,000 miners were digging for gold including about 2,000 Chinese miners.
From November 1860 through to June 1861 European miners attacked Chinese gold miners in the area. This is now known as the Lambing Flat riots. As gold became harder to find, European miners got upset that the Chinese miners were still finding gold. Many Chinese miners were attacked, robbed and killed. They were chased off the goldfields. Eventually the riots were stopped and the Chinese miners had their mining areas given back. The New South Wales Parliament passed the Chinese Immigration Bill. This put a limit on the number of Chinese that could come to New South Wales on any ship. They also had to pay a tax to come New South Wales.

In 1889 Young was the first country town in Australia to have electricity for the streets and houses. Young was the first Local Government Area to start a country school bus system in New South Wales
Education 
There are seven schools in Young:
 Bellhaven Special School
 St Mary's Primary School
 M-E-T School Young Campus
 Young North Primary School
 Young Public School
 Hennessy Catholic College
 Young High School

Sport 
 Young Yabbies are a Rugby Union team playing in the Southern Inland Rugby Union competition.
 Young Cherrypickers are a Rugby League team playing in the Group 9 competition
 Young Saints are an Australian Rules Football team playing in the Central West competition.
 Young Lions are a Soccer team playing in the Bathurst District Soccer Senior Mens and Senior Women's competition.

Newspapers 
 Burrangong Argus 1864-1914 (became the Young Witness)
 Burrangong Chronicle 1873-1902 (became the Young Chronicle)
 Burrangong Courier 1962
 The Lambing Flat Miner 1862-1961
 Young Chronicle 1902-1947 (incorporated in The Young Witness)
 The Young Witness 1914-
Radio Stations 
 2LF AM 1350 (commercial),
 ROCCY FM FM 93.9 (commercial),
 SBS FM 98.7 (retransmission),
 JJJ 90.7,
 ABC Radio National 89.1/97.1,
 ABC Riverina 89.9/96.3,
 Classic FM 88.3,
 Cherry Capital Music & Sport "2YYY, FM 92.3" (Local Community Broadcasting Radio Station).

The Lambing Flat Chinese Tribute Gardens 
Young Shire Council has started these gardens next to Chinaman’s Dam. This is an old railway dam about 4 km south of Young. They are made to create a peaceful feeling like the Japanese garden at Cowra.

Chinaman’s Dam was built in the 1860s by Dutch brothers, Herman and John Tiedeman. They used the water for the sluicing of their Victoria Hill gold claims. In the 1870s, the brothers sold the area, including the dam, to a Chinese group who worked the site. It is in a small gully called Pitstone on Sawpit Gully.
In 1882 the NSW government started to build the first part of the Blayney to Demondrille railway line. To provide water for the steam trains, they decided to use the dam and pump water from it to a tank, known as Young Tank, at the 246 mile post. It is not known whether the railways improved the old dam or built a new one.

From 1885 to 1901, trains stopped at Young Tank to refill with water. In 1901, trains were able to get water at Young Railway Station. The supply of water came from Chinaman’s Dam. The size of the dam was enlarged in 1911 to hold about 2 million gallons.

The dam was a popular spot for swimming.

When the town water supply was connected to the Burrinjuck Dam, the railways stopped using Chinaman’s Dam. In 1937 the area turned into a 36-acre park. The Shire Council looks after the gardens. The dam has since been made bigger.

References

Towns in New South Wales
1826 establishments
1820s establishments in Australia
Ammunition, often called ammo, comes from the French word la munition. At first it meant all items used for war. This was from the Latin word munire (to provide). It now is used only for bullets and other projectiles that are thrown at the enemy by guns, and the gunpowder or other propellant that throws the projectiles. The group word for all types of ammunition is munitions. This means any explosive thing that can be used in combat and includes bombs, missiles, warheads, and mines (landmines, naval mines, and claymore mines). These are made in munitions factories. 

Ammunition is mainly used to attack a target. Ammunition can include flares and incendiary devices that start fires.  Since the invention of the cartridge, ammunition has come to mean the putting of a projectile - the item that is sent to hit the target, and its propellant - the chemical that creates the force, into a single package.
Ammunition is a complex subject.  It includes many different weapons used by people, such as explosives and propellants, cartridges, high explosive projectiles (HE), warheads, special shells to attack armour and aircraft, carrier projectiles, fuses, mortar ammunition, small arms (revolver and pistol) ammunition, grenades, mines, flares, improved conventional munitions, and computer guided munition.

References

 
Explosives
An emirate is a political territory that is ruled by an emir, a dynastic Arab Monarch. The word emirate or amirate comes from , Imaarah ; plural: إمارات, Imaraat.  The United Arab Emirates is a federal state of seven federal emirates, each administered by a hereditary emir, these seven elect the federation's President and Prime Minister. Most emirates have either disappeared or become part of a larger modern state, some changed their rulers' title, e.g. to Malik (Arabic for King) or Sultan. Therefore true emirate-states have become rare. 

In Arabic the term can be generalized to mean any province of a country that is administered by a member of the ruling class, especially of a member of the royal family, as in Saudi Arabian governorates.

List of independent Emirates 
 Kuwait
 Qatar
 United Arab Emirates
List of former and integrated emirates 
 The Emirate of Armenia
 Emirate of Sicily, Sicily 965-1072
 Emirate of Granada, Spain 1228-1492
 Emirate of Trarza, modern southwest Mauritania 1640s-1910s
 Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
 Islamic Emirate of Waziristan
 Az Zubayr
 Bahrain, became a kingdom in 2002

References

Other websites 
 What Is Life Really Like In Dubai, UAE?; YouTube

Feudalism
Forms of government
Mike Busniuk (born December 13, 1951 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player. He is the younger brother of Ron Busniuk, who played for the Buffalo Sabres.

Records
Only player in AHL history to be a member of four consecutive Calder Cup championship teams (1976–1979)

Other websites

1951 births
Living people
Canadian ice hockey forwards
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Maine Mariners (AHL) players
Nova Scotia Voyageurs players
Philadelphia Flyers players
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
American Hockey League players
The Glasgow Subway is a subway system serving Glasgow, Scotland, UK.  It started in 1896. Then it was run by cables.  There are 15 stations.  in 1935 it was changed to run on electricity. It is a circular system, and has stayed the same since it started. It carries 13 million passengers each year.  

Now it is run by the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport.

References

Rail transport in Scotland
Subway
Tyne and Wear Metro is a rapid transit system in Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead, South Tyneside, North Tyneside and Sunderland.

It opened in stages from August 1980 and now has 60 stations, with two lines covering 77.5 km (48.2 mi) of track.  It was mostly made from  converted former railway lines linked with some new tunnels.

References

Light rail in the United Kingdom
Transport in England
Electric railways in the United Kingdom
Rapid transit in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures in Tyne and Wear
Sydney Rae White (born 30 November 1991) is an English actress and singer.

Biography 
Sydney was born in London on 30 November 1991. She first attended Broomfield House School in Kew. She got her parents to take her to the children's agency Young'uns. After her first audition she was offered the role of Cosette in Les Misérables. The next year she had four performances per week at London's Palace Theatre while still doing schoolwork. Sydney then auditioned for the Sylvia Young Theatre School. She was accepted and started in September 2002.

Sydney lives in West London with her parents, two older brothers (Paul and Adam) and two younger brothers (Cameron and Spike). She also has a dog called Digger. She won a LAMDA award in 2003. She currently stars in the CBBC programme Young Dracula. She plays one of the main characters, Erin Noble.
Filmography 
 The Snow Queen (2005) (TV)...Gerda
 Prime Suspect: The Final Act (2006) (TV)...Girl on Heath
 The Sarah Jane Adventures (1 episode, 2007)... Bubbleshock girl
 Disney Channel Games...Herself
 As the Bell Rings (1 episode, 2007)...Emma
 Welcome to PCA (2009) (TV)...Missy Mean
 The Rules of Love (Jess) (2010)
 Doctors (Nikki) (2010)
 Young Dracula (2011-Present) (TV)...Erin Noble

Discography

Albums 
 Welcome to PCA (2009)

Singles 
"Sun goes down" (2011)

English television actors
English singers
1991 births
Living people
In 1832 South Carolina said a new tariff law was unconstitutional, thus not really a law. Vice President John C. Calhoun agreed, but President Andrew Jackson disagreed. Jackson threatened to send troops. The two sides negotiated. Congress changed the tariff, and South Carolina decided the new law was not against the Constitution.

In 2011 the Supreme Court made a ruling that, in essence, says lower court judges can ignore the law. There were three petitions before the Court asking if federal courts need to be stopped from ignoring laws, rules and facts. The Supreme Court refused to grant certiorari (a writ seeking judicial review of a matter). In other words, the Court refused to consider the three petitions.

References 

United States law
Emir (; female: ; emira; (Persian and Urdu: ) "commander" or "general", also "prince"; also transliterated as amir, aamir or ameer) is a high title of nobility or office. It is used throughout the Arab world and historically in some Turkic states and Afghanistan. Emirs are usually considered high-ranking sheiks, but in monarchical states the term is also used for princes; then "emirate" means more or less the same as principality in this context.
Emir is used also as a name in Turkey like Emir Niego and Emir Sevinc.  
Emir is the most common spelling in English and many other languages (for example, United Arab Emirates). The spelling amir, that is closer to the original Arabic, is more common for its compounds (e.g., admiral) and in individual names.

Related pages

Islamic titles 
 Caliph
 Mahdi
 Sheikh
 Sayyid
 Sultan

Other websites
 WorldStatesmen Religious Organisations – see also many present Muslim countries

Heads of state
UTC+08:00 is the timezone for:
 Brunei
 China
 Republic of China
 Hong Kong
 Indonesia (central areas)
 Macau
 Malaysia
 Mongolia
 Philippines
 Singapore
 Western Australia - Australian Western Standard Time (AWST)

UTC offsets
Launceston is a city in Australia. It is the second biggest city in the state of Tasmania. It has about 100,000 people. It is at the place where the North Esk, South Esk and Tamar Rivers meet. It was founded in 1806.

References

Cities in Tasmania
1806 establishments
19th-century establishments in Australia
A governess is a female person who works for a family, teaching the children in their home. She is not like a nanny who looks after them all day, dressing them etc. The governess's job is to be their teacher. She saw to their discipline and early education. Often girls received all their education from their governess (or sometimes a tutor), though boys usually went away to boarding school before their teen years, and then some went on to college.

Very few children nowadays have a governess, but it was quite common in the families of rich people until around the beginning of the 20th century. In England quite a lot of young children who lived in the country, a long way from good schools, had a governess. When the boys were old enough they were sent away to a boarding school.

Governesses taught basic skills such as Reading, Writing and Arithmetic. They may also have taught other skills such as French, piano playing and drawing or painting. Sometimes other teachers might be
A governess was not a household worker, but she was not treated like a member of the family either. This meant that they were often quite lonely, and they usually ate their meals alone. For girls from a middle class background who were not married it was one of the only ways of earning a living. When the children she taught (her "charges") grew up, she would have to find a new job.

Novels of the time were usually about rich families, and a governess often comes into the story, e.g. in Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre or Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey. Maria, the main character in The Sound of Music, leaves the convent and becomes a governess to the children of the von Trapp family.

Other websites
The Confederation of the Rhine was a client state of First French Empire. It existed from 1806 through 1813. Its ruler was Napoleon I of France, called "Protector of the Federation".  It included most of the German states but not the two biggest, Prussia and Austria.  The Confederation of the Rhine was one of the successors of Holy Roman Empire and one of the predecessors of the German Confederation.  The confederation only lived a few years but it was a precedent for the later unification of Germany.  It temporarily unified many of the diverse German states east of the Rhine River.

19th century in Germany
Former federations
Former states in Germany
1806 establishments in Europe
1813 disestablishments
1810s disestablishments in Europe
1800s establishments in Germany
19th-century disestablishments in Germany
Puppet states
Leonard Constant Lambert (23 August 1905 – 21 August 1951) was a British composer and conductor.

Early years
Lambert’s father was the painter George Washington Lambert who had come to England from  Australia. Lambert was often ill when he was a child.   He went to school at Christ's Hospital and won a scholarship to the  Royal College of Music. He soon became interested in French and Russian music. He became friends with other famous people including the Sitwell family, William Walton, Philip Heseltine and Bernard van Dieren.  He and Edith Sitwell were the reciters at a performance of Walton’s Façade.

Lambert was a prodigy: he was composing music for orchestra when he was only 13, and when he was 20 he was asked to write a ballet for Serge Diaghilev's world-famous Ballets Russes (Romeo and Juliet).

He soon became very famous.  His best known work is The Rio Grande for piano solo, chorus and orchestra.  It has a mixture of musical styles: jazz, habaneras and the influence of  Delius and Duke Ellington.
Works
During the 1930s he performed a lot as a conductor with the Vic-Wells Ballet (later the Royal Ballet), but he stopped composing music. Lambert thought he had failed as a composer, and only finished two more big works in the last  sixteen years of his life. He continued conducting, and appeared at Covent Garden and in BBC broadcasts, and travelled to Europe and America conducting ballets.  He was an excellent ballet conductor and helped the dancers to give their best performance.

During the war he became ill.  He refused to see a doctor.  He was working very hard and also drinking a lot.

Lambert liked jazz and thought it was an important influence on popular culture of the time.  He wrote a book about this, called Music Ho! (1934).  The book is widely read today, although it shows a very personal approach to music.
Lambert was married twice.  His first marriage was to Florence Kaye.  He later married Isabel Nichols, an artist, in 1947.  After Constant Lambert's death, Isabel married the composer Alan Rawsthorne.

Lambert died on 21 August 1951.  He had pneumonia and it was also found that he had diabetes made worse by alcoholism.

20th-century English composers
British conductors
1905 births
1951 deaths
Deaths from diabetes
Deaths from pneumonia
English writers
Movie score composers
Music critics
People from London
Kensington is a neighborhood in Calgary, Alberta.  It is around the intersection of Kensington Road and 10th St. NW.

The neighborhood hosts Christmas in Kensington Village in December, the Sun and Salsa Festival in July, as well as the Bizarre Bikes & Bazaar in May.

Kensington is home to the Calgary Kookaburras Australian rules football club.

References

Calgary
Neighborhoods
Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (born London, 15 August 1875; died Croydon,  1 September 1912) was an English composer.

Coleridge-Taylor died in Holborn, London.  His black father was a doctor from Sierra Leone,  his mother was English. His parents were not married. The father went back to Africa by February 1875. He had the job of coroner for the British Empire in the Gambia in the late 1890s.  He did not know anything about his son’s existence.

Life
Coleridge-Taylor was brought up in Croydon .  He studied the violin at the Royal College of Music and composition with Charles Villiers Stanford.  In 1899 he married Jessie Walmisley who had been a student with him at the RCM.  Her parents did not want her to be married to someone of  mixed race.  The couple had a son, Hiawatha (1900-1980) and a daughter, Avril, born Gwendolyn (1903-1998).
Soon Coleridge-Taylor became known as a composer.  Edward Elgar helped him get one of his pieces performed at the Three Choirs Festival.  Two months later Stanford conducted the cantata Hiawatha’s Wedding Feast, the piece for which he is best remembered.  He toured the United States in 1904.  This made him even more interested in finding out about his racial heritage. He wanted to do for African music what Johannes Brahms had done for Hungarian music and Antonín Dvořák for Bohemian music. He had met the American poet Paul Laurence Dunbar in London and set some of his poems to music.  Several people encouraged him to learn more about his heritage.

Coleridge-Taylor was a shy man, but he was a very good conductor.  He was often asked to adjudicate at music festivals.
Coleridge-Taylor was 37 when he died of pneumonia. His widow hardly had any money, but  King George V gave her a pension of GB£100, which shows how popular Coleridge-Taylor had been as a composer.   A memorial concert was held later in 1912 at the Royal Albert Hall and gathered £300.

Coleridge-Taylor's works were often performed by Sir Malcolm Sargent who conducted ten seasons of a costumed ballet version of Hiawatha at the Royal Albert Hall between 1928 and 1939 with the Royal Choral Society (600 to 800 singers) and 200 dancers.

His music
Coleridge-Taylor's best-known work is his cantata Hiawatha's Wedding-feast, which was  performed very often by choral groups in England during his lifetime and for many years after his death.  He wrote several other pieces about Hiawatha: The Death of Minnehaha, Overture to The Song of Hiawatha and Hiawatha's Departure.
He also wrote a lot of chamber music, anthems and other works.  The orchestral piece Petite Suite de Concert used to be very popular, but its Romanticism sounds a little old-fashioned now.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed Stanley Sadie; 

1875 births
1912 deaths
20th-century English composers
Romantic composers
The Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro is a Catholic university based in the neighborhood Gavea in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It was founded in 1941 by D. Sebastião Leme and the Rev. Leonel Franca, and was officially recognized in January 15, 1946.
The PUC-Rio was one of the first universities that taught Entrepreneurship in the graduation courses in Brazil.

Colleges and universities in Brazil
Buildings and structures in Rio de Janeiro
1941 establishments
1940s establishments in Brazil
Quim Monzó (born in Barcelona, Spain, in 1952) is a Catalan writer of novels, short stories and discursive prose, mostly in the Catalan language.

In the early 1970s, Monzó reported from Vietnam, Cambodia, Northern Ireland and East Africa for newspapers in Barcelona. His fiction is full of irony. His other prose maintains this humor. One collection of his essays, Catorze ciutats comptant-hi Brooklyn, is notable for its account of New York in the days immediately following September 11.

Bibliography

Books in English
 O'Clock, 1986. New York: Ballantine Books. Translated by Mary Ann Newman. 
 The enormity of the tragedy, 2007. London: Peter Owen Publishers. Translated by Peter Bush. 
 Gasoline, 2010. New York & Rochester: Open Letter. Translated by Mary Ann Newman. 
 Guadalajara, 2011, Rochester, NY: Open Letter. Translated by Peter Bush. ; 
 A thousand morons, 2013, Rochester, NY: Open Letter. Translated by Peter Bush. ; 
 Why, Why, Why?, 2019, Rochester, NY: Open Letter. Translated by Peter Bush. ;
Books in Catalan

Fiction
 L'udol del griso al caire de les clavegueres, 1976..
 Self Service, 1977. In collaboration with Biel Mesquida.
 Uf, va dir ell, 1978.
 Olivetti, Moulinex, Chaffoteaux et Maury, 1980.
 Benzina, 1983.
 L'illa de Maians, 1985.
 La magnitud de la tragèdia, 1989.
 El perquè de tot plegat, 1993.
 Guadalajara, 1996.
 Vuitanta-sis contes, 1999.
 El millor dels mons, 2001.
 Mil cretins, 2007.

Collected articles and essays
 El dia del senyor, 1984.
 Zzzzzzzz, 1987.
 La maleta turca, 1990.
 Hotel Intercontinental, 1991.
 No plantaré cap arbre, 1994.
 Del tot indefens davant dels hostils imperis alienígenes, 1998.
 Tot és mentida, 2000.
 El tema del tema, 2003.
 Catorze ciutats comptant-hi Brooklyn, 2004.
 Esplendor i glòria de la Internacional Papanates, 2004

Other websites 
 
Website dedicated to Quim Monzó
Open Letter Publishing House 
Peter Owen Publishers 
More than twenty-five years of essays by Monzó in the Barcelonian newspaper La Vanguardia
1952 births
Living people
Writers from Barcelona
The Northern Light Infantry (NLI) is a Light Infantry Regiment of the Pakistan Army. Headquartered in Gilgit, the capital of Northern Areas, Pakistan, it is the main force protecting the strategically important northern areas of Pakistan.

Military of Pakistan
The National Command Authority (NCA) of Pakistan is the Pakistani organisation responsible for policy formulation. It has control over employment and development for all strategic nuclear forces and strategic organizations.

Military of Pakistan
A setting is the time, location, and atmosphere (e.g. happy, sad, exciting, frightening, etc.) that a piece of writing is taking place in.

Fiction
The National symbols of Pakistan (Urdu:); Each Country of the world adopts some signs or emblems, which they regard as the representative of their country traits. Pakistan has several “Official National Symbols”. Pakistanis have several official National symbols including a historic document, a flag, an emblem, an anthem, a memorial tower as well as several national heroes. The symbols were adopted at various stages in the existence of Pakistan and there are various rules and regulations governing their definition or use.

Oldest symbol 
The oldest symbol is the Lahore Resolution or "Resolution of Pakistan", adopted by the All India Muslim League on the 23rd of March in 1940, and which presented the formal demand for Greater Autonomy for Muslims in United India, and later led to the demand for a separate and Independent 'Pakistan'. The Minar-e-Pakistan memorial tower which was built in 1968 on the site where the Lahore Resolution was passed in 1940.
The national flag was adopted just before independence was achieved on 14 August 1947. The national anthem and the state emblem were each adopted in 1954. There are also several other patriotic symbols including the national animal, bird, flower and tree; and some other things known as "National Identity". The “National symbols” and mostly national things of Pakistan are mentioned and listed here respectively.

National identity 
The following section introduces you to the natural National Identity Elements of Pakistan. These symbols are intrinsic to the common “Pakistani national identity and heritage”.

Pakistanis are known to be are proud of these patriotic National Symbols as they infuse a sense of pride and patriotism in every Pakistan's heart. They have been selected carefully to project the image of Pakistan at its best.