Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Located 25 miles south of the equator, Jarvis Island, is an uninhabited coral island located in the South Pacific Ocean. Jarvis has no known natural freshwater sources, and very little rain. This creates a very bleak, flat landscape with plants no larger than shrubs. Jarvis Island has no ports or docks, other than a reef the guano miners blew up in order for the cargo boats to be able to drop anchor. Its grass, vines and low-growing bushes are primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for wildlife. The island has a tropical desert climate, with high temperatures in the day, constant wind, and a very hot sun. There is no evidence that the island has ever supported a native human population, but on August 30, 1913, the Amaranth was carrying a cargo of coal from Newcastle, New South Wales, to San Francisco when it crashed on Jarvis' southern shore. Ruins of ten wooden buildings, and a two-story house among them, could still be seen by the Amaranth crew, who left Jarvis aboard two lifeboats
. Also, Settlers were moved to Jarvis Island in 1935 to maintain a weather station and plan a landing field. A settlement called Millersville was established on the west coast of the island because of it was the highest elevation. The Japanese shelled the island in 1942 and the men living on Jarvis were evacuated soon afterward. The United States claimed possession of Jarvis under the Guano Islands Act of 1856. The Act gave American citizens the right to claim any unclaimed, uninhabited islands for the purpose of mining guano. Because at the time guano was a very valuable asset used for fertilizer.
References

Other websites
 Jarvis Island Home Page Website with photos, weather, and more.
 Jarvis Island information website  Has several photos of the old Millersville settlement, together with more modern photos of the island.
 WorldStatesmen Offers brief data on Jarvis island.
 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge  The Jarvis Island refuge site.

United States Minor Outlying Islands
Pacific islands
Islands of Oceania
Uninhabited regions
Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was an American colonel in the United States Army. He became the General-in-chief of the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. He led the Army of Northern Virginia in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War. He started out as an engineer but then moved up the ranks. Before the Civil War, Lee was an officer in the Mexican-American War. He was also head of West Point. As a colonel in the United States Army he led a battalion of marines to put down the rebellion at Harpers Ferry Armory and captured their leader, John Brown.

Early years
Lee was born at Stratford Hall in Westmoreland County, Virginia, on January 19, 1807. His parents were American Revolutionary War General and Governor of Virginia, Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee, and his wife, Anne Carter Lee. In 1818, Lee's father died in the West Indies without ever seeing his son again. Robert was raised by his mother in Alexandria, Virginia.
Washington ancestry
Lee and George Washington were both descendants of Augustine Warner, Sr. and his wife, Mary Towneley Warner. Lee was descended through their daughter, Sarah. Washington was descended through their son, Augustine, Jr. Lee and Washington were third cousins, twice removed.

Education
Lee attended Eastern View, a school in Fauquier County, Virginia.  He may have attended schools in Shirley, Virginia, and in Alexandria, Virginia. His mother instructed him in the Episcopalian faith. Lee attended the United States Military Academy at West Point, and graduated second in the class of 1829.

Marriage

On June 30, 1831, Lee married Mary Custis at Arlington House. She was the granddaughter of George Washington's stepson, John Parke Custis. They made their home at Arlington House. They had seven children.
Middle years
Lee fought in the Mexican–American War under General Winfield Scott as a captain. Later, Scott wrote about Lee calling him "the very best soldier I ever saw in the field." After the war, Lee helped the army build forts. In 1855, Lee became a lieutenant colonel, and joined a cavalry regiment. As a Colonel, Lee was called on to stop the "slave rebellion", otherwise known as John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry. Brown's raid was ended in less than an hour by Lee.
Civil War
Lee inherited a number of slaves with Arlington House. He proved not to be a very good slave master. He tried kindness and refused to use torture. But the slaves knew their freedom had been granted them in the will and refused to work. Lee wanted to grant them their freedom but needed them to help him see out the work at Arlington House. Personally, Lee hated slavery calling it an "evil" to both blacks and whites. But he thought it had to be ended gradually or the economy of the South would wikt:collapse. But Lee did agree with other Southerners thinking that blacks were inferior. He believed God would work out the problem in his own time. Lee, like Thomas Jefferson had mixed feelings about slavery.
At first, Lee did not command any soldiers in battle. Instead, he helped Confederate president Jefferson Davis make military decisions. In 1862, he became the commander of the Army of Northern Virginia. He would lead the army for the rest of the war. He would win many battles, even though the Union army in the battles had more men and weapons. At the Battle of Gettysburg, he tried to invade the Union in order to end the war. But his army was defeated and he had to retreat back into Virginia.

During 1864 and 1865, Lee fought Union general Ulysses S. Grant in Virginia. During the end of 1864 and the beginning of 1865, Lee and Grant fought near Richmond, Virginia in a series of battles called the Siege of Petersburg. In April 1865, Grant forced Lee to retreat from Richmond. After a series of battles, Grant surrounded Lee near Appomattox Courthouse and forced Lee to surrender. Before he surrendered, he said "I would rather die a thousand deaths than surrender".
After the war
President Andrew Johnson issued a proclamation granting amnesty and pardon to those Confederates who were a part of the rebellion against the United States. It contained 14 exempted classes and members of these groups had to make an application to the President of the United States asking for a pardon. Lee sent an application to General Grant. On June 13, 1865, Lee wrote to President Johnson:

On October 2, 1865, Lee became president of Washington College in Virginia. That same day Lee signed his Amnesty Oath as required by President Johnson. But Lee was not pardoned and his citizenship was not restored.
His amnesty oath was found over a hundred years later in the National Archives. It appears United States Secretary of State William H. Seward had given the application to a friend to keep as a souvenir. The State Department had simply ignored Lee's application and it was never granted. In a 1975 Joint resolution by the United States Congress, Lee's rights as a citizen were restored with the effective date of June 13, 1865. The act was signed into law by President Gerald R. Ford on August 5, 1975.

Lee had a stroke on September 28, 1870 and died on October 12, 1870. Washington College changed its name to Washington and Lee University in Lee's honor. Lee's birthday is celebrated in several southern states as a holiday.

Legacy
Legacy

Robert E. Lee's legacy is complicated, and bring to mind a skilled military leader during the American Civil War, yet his association with the Confederacy raises ethical questions about his role in defending slavery. Opinions on his legacy vary, with some emphasizing his military tactics and others saying negative things and his allegiance to a cause rooted in maintaining slavery. It's a topic that has raised ongoing historical and moral discussions. However, historians engage in ongoing debates about Robert E. Lee's legacy. Some focus on his military prowess and strategic brilliance, while others examine his choice to fight for the Confederacy, a cause deeply entwined with slavery. These discussions often delve into the complexities of historical figures and the background of their actions.

References
References

Other websites 
 Civil War Journal - Robert E. Lee; YouTube
 Robert E. Lee in the Post-War Years (Lecture); YouTube
 Document for October 2nd: Robert E. Lee’s Amnesty Oath, 10/02/1865; National Archives
 Surrender at Appomattox, 1865

1807 births
1870 deaths
Confederate Army generals
Deaths from pneumonia
The 1830s was the decade that began on January 1, 1830 and ended on December 31, 1839.

Events 
 Ayya Vaikundar appeared after the incarnation, above the sea of Thiruchendur.
 Croquet invented in Ireland.
 Mormon religion founded in New York.
 Belgium founded. 
 Ecuador declares independence. 
 Queen Victoria becomes ruler of Great Britain.

World leaders 
 Emperor Francis II (Austria)
 Emperor Ferdinand I (Austria)
 Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
 King Louis-Philippe (July Monarchy France)
 Frederick William III of Prussia (Prussia)
 Pope Gregory XVI
 Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
 King Ferdinand VII (Spain)
 King William IV (United Kingdom)
 Queen Victoria (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord Grey (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord Melbourne (United Kingdom)
 President Andrew Jackson (United States)
 President Martin Van Buren (United States)
 Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
 Fath Ali Shah, 1797–1834
 Mohammad Shah Qajar, 1834–1848
Births 
 Emily Dickinson, writer
 Gustave Eiffel, engineer
 Johannes Brahms, German musician
 Alfred Nobel, inventor
 Grover Cleveland, politician

Deaths 
 Simón Bolívar, leader
 Jean-François Champollion, Egyptologist
 Sir Walter Scott, writer
 James Weddell, explorer
 Alexander Puskin, writer
The 1820s was the decade that began on January 1, 1820 and ended on December 31, 1829.

Events 
 Greek War for Independence
 Much of South America declares independence from Spain.
World leaders 
 Emir Dost Mohammad Khan (Afghanistan)
 Supreme director José Rondeau (Argentina)
 Acting supreme director Juan Pedro Julián Aguirre y López de Anaya (Argentina)
 President Bernardino Rivadavia (Argentina)
 President Vicente López y Planes (Argentina)
 General Manuel Dorrego (Argentina)
 General Juan Manuel de Rosas (Argentina)
 Emperor Francis II (Austria)
 Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
 Sheikh Sulman ibn Ahmad Al Khalifah (Bahrain)
 Sheikh Khalifah ibn Sulman Al Khalifah (Bahrain)
 Administrative leader Tendzin Drugdra (Bhutan)
 Administrative leader Choki Gyaltshen (Bhutan)
 President Simón Bolívar (Bolivia)
 President Antonio José de Sucre (Bolivia)
 President José María Pérez (Bolivia)
 President José Miguel de Velasco (Bolivia)
 President Pedro Blanco (Bolivia)
 President Andrés de Santa Cruz (Bolivia)
 Emperor Pedro I (Brazil)
 Sultan Muhammad Kanzul Alam (Brunei)
 Sultan Muhammad Alam (Brunei)
 Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (Brunei)
 King Ang Chan II (Cambodia)
President Bernardo O'Higgins (Chile)
 President Agustín Eyzaguirre (Chile)
 Provisional triumvirate of the three provinces Congreso de Plenipotenciarios (Chile)
 Interim Supreme Director Ramón Freire (Chile)
 Acting Supreme Director Diego José Benavente (Chile)
 President Manuel Blanco Encalada (Chile)
 President Francisco Antonio Pinto (Chile)
 President Francisco Ramón Vicuña (Chile)
 President José Tomás Ovalle (Chile)
 Emperor Daoguang (China)
 President Simón Bolívar (Greater Colombia)
 King Frederick VI (Denmark)
 Governor Muḩammad ‘Alī (Egypt)
 Emperor Iyoas II (Ethiopia)
 Emperor Gigar (Ethiopia)
 Emperor Baeda Maryam III (Ethiopia)
 President José Cecilio del Valle (Federal Republic of Central America)
 President Manuel José Arce (Federal Republic of Central America)
 President José Francisco Barrundia (Federal Republic of Central America)
 King Louis XVIII (Restoration France)
 King Charles X (Restoration France)
 Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias (Greece)
 King Henri Christophe (Haiti)
President Jean Pierre Boyer (Haiti)
 Pope Pius VII
 Pope Leo XII
 Shogun Tokugawa Ienari (Japan)
 Khan Omar Beg (Kokand)
 Khan Mohammed Ali (Kokand)
 Emperor Sunjo (Korea)
 Emir Jaber I Al-Sabah (Kuwait)
 Emperor Agustín de Iturbide (Mexico)
 President Guadalupe Victoria (Mexico)
 President Vicente Guerrero (Mexico)
 President José María Bocanegra (Mexico)
 President Pedro Vélez (Mexico)
 Sultan Slimane (Morocco)
 Sultan Abderrahmane (Morocco)
 Fath Ali Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia)
 King Frederick William III (Prussia)
 Emperor Alexander I (Russia)
 Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
 King Victor Emmanuel I (Sardinia)
 King Charles Felix (Sardinia)
 King Rama II (Siam)
 King Rama III (Siam)
 King Ferdinand VII (Spain)
 Pasha Yusuf Karamanli (Tripoli)
 King George IV (United Kingdom)
 King William I (United Kingdom of the Netherlands)
 President James Monroe (United States)
 President John Quincy Adams (United States)
 Emperor Minh Mang (Vietnam)
Births 
 Clara Barton
 Louis Pasteur

Deaths 
 Carl Maria Von Weber
 Thomas Jefferson
 John Adams

Notes
Events 
 Simon Bolivar finds Gran Colombia.
 The United States buys Florida from Spain. 
 The U.S. State of Alabama got its statehood.
 Singapore was founded by Sir Stamford Raffles.

Births 
 May 24 – Queen Victoria, British royal (d. 1901)
 August 26 – Albert, Prince Consort, Husband of Queen Victoria (d. 1861)
 date unknown
 George Eliot, English writer (d. 1880)
 Charles Kingsley, writer (The Water Babies) (d. 1877)
Isaiah was a prophet of God in Judaism, Islam, Christianity and Bahá'í. He lived from about 740 to 681 BC. The name Isaiah means "the Lord is salvation" in the Hebrew language. 

Isaiah is also the name of a book in the Old Testament of the Bible, which tells the story of the Israelites in Isaiah's time.  According to Christianity, Isaiah predicted in this book, the birth and then death of Jesus, hundreds of years before it actually happened.  Judaism does not agree with that interpretation.

Isaiah was known to be the Shakespeare of the Bible due to his good education and the quality of the passages he wrote. He was cut in half by King Manasseh which led to his gruesome death. Most of Isaiah's Bible passages begin with 'God's message to'.

Old Testament prophets
Ancient Israeli people
680s BC deaths
Leopold Poetsch was a German antiSemitic professor and a high school teacher of Adolf Hitler who influenced the future leader's later views. 

Poetsch came from the southern German border area. There, political fights between Slavs and ethnic Germans angered him and made him one who was for the Pan-German movement. He started to teach in Maribor, Slovenia and later moved to Linz, Austria to teach history.

Hitler was very interested in what Poetsch said. Poetsch hated the Habsburgs and argued that all ethnic Germans should be united by a single government. He said that the Aryan race was stronger, in better health, and more fit to rule than all other people. Poetsch said that Jews and Slavs were what he called "inferior races". (This view was held a lot in Germany after World War I.)
Hitler began reading an anti-Semitic newspaper in his area. In his later years, Hitler spoke of Poetsch as a "great man." As dictator of Germany, Hitler tried to get all German-speaking people together and persecuted Slavs, Jews, Gypsies, and others. Hitler later tried to kill them all in the "Final Solution."

References
Shirer, William L. Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon & Schuster, 1990. ISBN 0-671-72868-7

German academics
1853 births
1952 deaths
The Armenian genocide was the forced deportation and the killings of most Armenians from 1915 to 1917 in the Ottoman Empire, which was ruled by the Young Turks.

Planning 
In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined World War I on the side of the Central Powers. İsmail Enver, the Minister of War, launched a disastrous military campaign against Russian forces in the Caucasus in the hope of capturing Baku. His forces were routed at the Battle of Sarikamis, and many of his men froze to death.
Returning to Istanbul, Enver largely blamed the Armenians living in the region for actively siding with the Russians. Despite the tensions, the Armenians had thrived under Ottoman rule. Most Armenians were better educated and wealthier than their Turkish counterparts, who were jealous of their success. The resentment was fuelled by suspicions that the Christian Armenians would support fellow Christian governments, especially Russia, which shared an unstable border with the Ottoman Empire, as opposed to the Muslim Ottoman caliphate.

In 1914, the Ottoman War Office had already begun a propaganda drive to present Armenians as a liability and a threat to the Ottomans' security. An Ottoman naval officer in the War Office described the planning:

The Ottoman government, moving quickly, arrested an estimated 250 Armenian intellectuals on the night of 24 April 1915. The acts of genocide against the Armenians continued for nine years until 1922, with around 388,000 Armenians remaining.
The massacres of Armenians in 1894, 1895, 1896 and 1909 were still fresh in their minds.

Acts committed by Turks 

In the beginning, around 1915-1916, Armenians were kicked out of their homes, which were claimed by Turks. During a Turkification campaign, the government squads kidnapped children, converted them to Islam, and gave them to Turkish families. In some places, they raped and forced women to join Turkish “harems” or serve as slaves. Women would mark their bodies with scars or burn a part of their face to be unfit to join a harem. Muslim families moved into the homes of deported Armenians and seized their property.

At the same time, the Turks created a 'Special Organization', which in turn organized 'killing squads' or 'butcher battalions' to carry out, as one officer put it, “the liquidation of the Christian elements”. The killing squads were often made up of murderers and other ex-convicts. People were drowned in rivers, thrown off cliffs, crucified and burned alive.

Foreign accounts
Foreign accounts

Denial of killings
Guenter Lewy claims in his book,The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide, that there is not enough evidence of the Young Turk regime organizing the killings of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire.
According to Lewy, even though their fate in World War I proved tragic, it was not a "real" genocide because "there were no centrally organized and state-sponsored premeditation and genocidal intention".
A major obstacle for the wider recognition of the genocide in the world is the official position of Turkey, which states that there was no systematic attempt to annihilate the Armenian population and that the 1915 massacres happened because of the Tehcir Law and the war. In December 2008, a group of Turkish scholars launched an online petition for people who wanted to apologize for what happened. The people who created the petition failed to use the word "genocide" but used "the Great Catastrophe" regarding the event. Many Turks viewed the Armenians as a threat to the Ottoman Empire in a time of war and argued that people of various ethnicities were killed during the violence. Turkey and its leaders fear that recognizing the word "genocide" could cost considerable sums of money in reparations, as well as public embarrassment.

Gallery

Related pages
 Pontic Greek Genocide
 Adana massacre
 Hamidian massacres

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Encyclopedia Entries on the Armenian Genocide, Armenian National Institute
 Armenian National Institute: the 1915 Armenian Genocide
 Armenian Genocide - ArmeniaPedia
 Armenian Genocide
The prime minister of the United Kingdom or British prime minister is the head of government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister controls the Government of the United Kingdom through the cabinet. The prime minister is the chairman of the British cabinet and a member of the Privy Council. It is normal for the prime minister to be the leader of the political party which has a majority in the House of Commons. 

The prime minister is not the head of state, but is the most important politician in Parliament. By tradition, the monarch of the United Kingdom chooses the prime minister. The monarch chooses the leader of the political party with enough votes to get laws passed in Parliament.

Rishi Sunak (Conservative Party) became prime minister on 25 October 2022.
Background
The prime minister is usually the leader of the political party which wins most seats after a general election. There are 650 are available in the United Kingdom. Voters vote for their own local member of parliament, not for the prime minister. Voters in their constituency choose their member of parliament. The prime minister is a member of parliament, and only voters in one constituency can vote for them.

The first prime minister was Robert Walpole in the eighteenth century. He was known as the "First Lord of the Treasury".  The first person to be use the title "prime minister" officially was Henry Campbell-Bannerman in 1905.
Well-known prime ministers in the 20th century included David Lloyd George,  Stanley Baldwin, Winston Churchill, Clement Attlee, Margaret Thatcher, and Tony Blair. The prime ministers usually live and work at 10 Downing Street or Chequers while in office. Chequers was donated to the country by Winston Churchill.
	
There are several other official residences, some owned by the government, others held by trusts. The  Chevening House estate, in Kent is an example. Dorneywood is another.

Living former prime ministers
There are seven living former British prime ministers:

Related pages 
List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

References
The River Forth is a river in Scotland. 

The source is Loch Ard, in Kinlochard. The river flows through the city of Stirling, and the city of Edinburgh is on the south of the Firth of Forth estuary.

Rivers of Scotland
Fife
West Lothian
Alejandro Toledo is a former president of Peru. He won the 2001 election for president. He gained international prominence after leading the opposition against president Alberto Fujimori, who held the presidency from 1990 to 2000.

Early life
He pursued his undergraduate and graduate education at the University of San Francisco and Stanford University. He originally joined the technical and academic field, from where he participated as an analyst on politics and economics on some occasions.
Political career
He entered politics when he founded the País Posible party, participating for the first time in the 1995 general election. In 2000, he managed to become in the largest opposition leader to the government of Alberto Fujimori, before whom in the midst of a controversial and bumpy process, lost the election for a second time. After the transition stage and the return of democracy in Peru, he participated for the third time in the 2001 elections against Lourdes Flores of National Unity and Alan García of the Peruvian Aprista Party; he competed with the latter in the second round, winning with 53.1% of the popular vote.

Arrest
On 16 July 2019, Toledo was arrested in the United States. On 19 March 2020, he was released on bail.

Personal life
He is from the town of Chimbote in Ancash Region, Peru. He is married to Eliane Karp of Belgium.

References

Presidents of Peru
1946 births
Living people

People from Chimbote
Inuktitut is a language of the Arctic, spoken by Inuits in Canada and in Greenland.  Inuktitut is a very complex language.  It is an official language in Nunavut and the Northwest Territories.

The Inuit write Inuktitut in two ways. One way to write Inuktitut is by using the Roman alphabet. The other way to write Inuktitut is by using an abugida, which is a kind of alphabet which has  letters based on syllables.

The Inuktitut syllabary uses a small part of the Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics, a set of letters made up for writing down many of the languages of the First Nations people  in Canada.

Some words in English come from Inuktitut or another Inuit language. Among them are the words anorak, igloo, and kayak.

References

Eskimo-Aleut languages
Fall Out Boy (often shortened to FOB) is an alternative rock band from Chicago, Illinois, USA. The members are Pete Wentz (bassist), Patrick Stump (vocals), Andy Hurley (drums), and Joe Trohman (guitar). They have written successful songs, including "Thnks fr the Mmrs", "Sugar, We're Goin Down" and "Dance, Dance".

Overview 
Their music is mostly like the pop-punk style, or genre, of music. The band got the name "Fall Out Boy" from a character who appeared in one episode of The Simpsons. "Sugar, We're Goin' Down" was the first single from their album From Under the Cork Tree. It has peaked at number eight on the Billboard charts. The second single was "Dance, Dance" which picked up major airplay in the U.S. The third single was "A Little Less Sixteen Candles, a Little More Touch Me." Their third album is Infinity on High and it had lots of success around the world.
Two songs from the album were very popular across the world. They are "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race" and "Thnks fr th Mmrs". The second song's title is "Thanks for the Memories" without the vowel letters, which is meant to look as if it were from a text message.

The third single from Infinity on High is called "The Take Over, The Breaks Over". The fourth is "I'm Like a Lawyer With the Way I'm Always Trying to Get You Off (Me & You)". Their fourth album Folie à Deux, was released on December 16, 2008. "I Don't Care" was the first song released from the album. In late 2009 the band took a rest. Patrick Stump went solo and released his debut album Soul Punk on October 18, 2011.

His EP Truant Wave was released on February 22, 2011. Bassist Pete Wentz formed the electropop band Black Cards. Guitarist Joe Trohman and Andy Hurley formed a rock band The Damned Things with people from Anthrax and Every Time I Die.
Fall Out Boy came off hiatus in 2013, releasing a new single "My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark (Light 'Em Up)" and an album Save Rock and Roll, along with a supporting tour, They went on the Save Rock and Roll Arena Fall Tour September 2013 with fellow rock band Panic! at the Disco in support of the album as well. In September 2014, they released a new single, called "Centuries".

Discography
 Fall Out Boy's Evening Out with Your Girlfriend (2003)
 Take This to Your Grave (2003)
 From Under the Cork Tree (2005)
 Infinity on High (2007)
 Folie à Deux (2008)
 Save Rock and Roll (2013)
 PAX AM Days (2013)
 American Beauty/American Psycho (2015)
 Make America Psycho Again (2015)
 MANIA'' (2018)

References

Other websites

Fall Out Boy's MySpace Profile
Official Website

2001 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in Illinois
American pop rock bands
American punk bands
 
Musical groups established in 2001
Musical groups from Chicago
Pop punk bands
The modern Greek alphabet has 24 letters. It is used to write the Greek language. The Greek alphabet is also frequently used in science and mathematics to represent various values or variables. Most letters in the Greek alphabet have an equivalent in the English language.

The twenty-four letters (each in uppercase and lowercase forms) are: 

Α α, Β β, Γ γ, Δ δ, Ε ε, Ζ ζ, Η η, Θ θ, Ι ι, Κ κ, Λ λ, Μ μ, Ν ν, Ξ ξ, Ο ο, Π π, Ρ ρ, Σ σ or ς, Τ τ, Υ υ, Φ φ, Χ χ, Ψ ψ, and Ω ω.

The Greek alphabet is thought to be where most European alphabets came from. The alphabet was borrowed from the Phoenician alphabet around the 10th century BC, with many changes to make it fit the Greek language.
Some of the Phoenician letters for sounds not used in Greek were turned into vowels. The Phoenicians had written their abjad without any vowels, and this is the case with Hebrew and Arabic to the present day. Obviously, their peoples knew how to say the words, so that worked well for them. But the Greek addition of vowels was better for countries where it might be a second language. 

The Greek change made reading easier for trading with other cultures. In general,  Indo-European languages did not use consonant-based roots (where the word's central meaning is based on the consonants) like those in Semitic languages such as Phoenician, Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic. 

At first, Greek was written from right to left, same as Phoenician, but after the 6th century BC, it was written from left to right.
There were some differences in the early Greek alphabet depending on what part of the Greek world it was used in. But over time, all Greeks started to use the same alphabet, especially after the Ionic alphabet of Miletus was officially adopted in Athens in 403 BC. A little later, the rest of Greece did the same, and by 350 BC, during the life of Alexander the Great, almost all Greeks were using the same twenty-four letter Greek alphabet. 

Later, Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 257185 BC), a Greek scholar and grammarian, invented the three diacritics (accent marks): acute, grave, and circumflex, to mark the tone or pitch of Greek words.
Although the Greek letters accurately represented all the main sounds of the Greek language early on, the sounds of the Greek language changed over time. Some of the vowel sounds began to sound similar to one another, aspirated voiceless stops became voiceless fricatives, and voiced stops became voiced fricatives. One can get an idea of how older Greek pronunciations sounded, by looking at the Latin and English spellings of Greek loanwords like "philosopher", "Chimera", "Cyprus", and "Thessalonica".

Rough breathing or "H" sound 
Another diacritic is a comma, usually above initial vowels. This signaled whether or not the sound of the letter 'H' was present. It is not available in the English standard character-set.  If this comma-like diacritic above the vowel is reversed, it indicates the presence of an /h/ sound before a vowel, diphthong, or rho. Thus, the Greek name Ἕκτωρ is pronounced Hektōr, not Ektor. Another example is ἥρως, pronounced hḗrōs ("hero").
Modern orthography 
In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute accent. This marks the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, that is, words with more than one syllable.

Related pages
 Ancient Greek language
 Greek language
 History of the alphabet

References

Other websites 
 Greek alphabet
 Greek Unicode Issues

 
10th century BC
Good Charlotte is an American punk music band. They are from Waldorf, Maryland. They have many popular songs, including "The Anthem", "Girls and Boys", "Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous", and "The Click".  

Their third album is unique. The Chronicles of Life and Death came in two different versions: the Life version, and the Death version.  The only difference between them is the last song on the CD.  The Life version has "Falling Away", and the Death version has "Meet My Maker".

The lead singer of the band is Joel Madden.  His twin brother, Benji, is also in the band. But besides them, there is Billy (guitarist), Paul (bassist) and Dean (drums).

Influences
Good Charlotte's influences include All, Rancid, The Smiths, Ben Lee, Government Issue, MxPx, Pixies, The Clash, Weezer, Minor Threat, The Cure, Beastie Boys, Everclear, Green Day, Nirvana, Sex Pistols and The Vandals.
Discography
Studio albums
 Good Charlotte (2000)
 The Young and the Hopeless (2002)
 The Chronicles of Life and Death (2004)
 Good Morning Revival (2007)
 Cardiology (2010)
 Youth Authority (2016)

Other websites 
Official Site 
Good Charlotte Fan Site 
Official Good Charlotte Myspace
Interview: Joel Madden of Good Charlotte 

1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American punk bands
 
Musical groups established in 1996
Musical groups from Maryland
1996 establishments in Maryland
Battle Creek is a city in western Michigan, USA. The headquarters of the Kellogg's cereal company is located in this city.

Other websites

 Official website

Cities in Michigan
Grand Rapids is an American city in Michigan. Located in western Michigan, about 200,000 people were living here in 2018.

Former American president Gerald Ford grew up in Grand Rapids. Grand Rapids is also the birthplace of Amway and the Meijer store chain.

Grand Rapids is the county seat of Kent County. It is the second largest city in the state, after Detroit. The third largest is Warren.

The city has many attractions, including the Frederik Meijer Gardens and Sculpture Park and John Ball Park, which is a zoo. Grand Valley State University has a campus in downtown Grand Rapids.

Many Reformed Christians from Dutch ancestry live in Grand Rapids.

Other websites 

County seats in Michigan
Juan Evo Morales Aima (born October 26, 1959) was the President of Bolivia from 2006 through 2019. He is an Aymara Native American, and is politically a leftist. He is the founder and leader of the Movement toward Socialism (or MAS) political party. Movimiento al Socialismo is its Spanish name.

Presidency
On January 22, 2006, he became President of Bolivia. His party has declared that he is the first indigenous person to be president of Bolivia. Not everyone believes this to be true because of his mestizo heritage and similar backgrounds of several past Bolivian presidents. Nonetheless, he is likely the first culturally indigenous president of Bolivia.
Policies
Born in Oruro, Morales was a leader in a union of coca growers. Morales has said he does not like United States policy toward Latin America, criticizing the country's past failures to stand up for democracy, trade agreements which he feels have not helped Bolivia, and especially for the US's anti-drug policies. Coca is a component in cocaine, but is also an important part of Bolivian culture. Morales became well known for this, and he was elected to Congress.
Even though he was forced out of Congress in 2002, he became a very popular person in Bolivia, and won the country's presidential election in 2005. As president, he focused on economic changes that moved the country toward a more socialist economy, instead of a capitalist one. He also worked with other leaders in South America like Rafael Correa and Nestor Kirchner. Morales has been a popular president, and has been reelected in 2009 and 2014. During this time he has criticized both George W. Bush and Barack Obama and has had arguments with the United States.

In 2016, Morales wanted to pass a Constitutional amendment that would allow him to run for another term in 2019. Many people in Bolivia saw this as a power grab, and the amendment lost the election.
2019 political crisis
On 20 October 2019 Morales won 47.1% of the vote in the first round of the 2019 Bolivian general election. The results were immediately challenged and led to widespread protests. On 9 November 2019 the Organization of American States published a preliminary report that there were "clear manipulations". The police joined the protests against Morales and on 10 November the military forced him to resign.

References

1959 births
Living people
Presidents of Bolivia
Democratic socialists
Native American people
Lake Titicaca (, "Titiqaqa Lake") is a large, deep lake in the Andes mountains. The eastern part is in Bolivia and the western part of it is in Peru. It is the largest lake in South America.
Lake Titicaca is at  above sea level. It is often called the "highest navigable lake" in the world. It means that it is the highest lake that boats use for trade. There are many other lakes in the world that are higher. The lake has 41 islands. Some of the islands are home to many people.

Ecology 
Lake Titicaca is home to more than 530 species of water animals.
Several threatened species such as the huge Titicaca water frog and the Titicaca grebe, a bird which cannot fly, only live in or near the lake.

Since 2000, the water level of Lake Titicaca has gone down. This is because of shorter rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers. The Global Nature Fund (GNF) says that the natural life in and around Lake Titicaca is under threat from water pollution and the introduction of new species by humans.

Islands

Uros
Islands

Uros 

The "Floating Islands" are small islands made by the Uros (or Uru) people. They use layers of cut totora, a thick reed that grows in Lake Titicaca. The Uros make the islands by continuously bending over the reeds that grow in the lake.

Legend says that the Uru people came from the Amazon river area, and moved to Lake Titicaca. The local people did not allow them to have their own land. They then built the reed islands, which could be moved into deep water or to different parts of the lake for safety.

The islands are a golden colour. Many are about  big. The largest are about half the size of a football field. Each island has a few houses. The people living together on an island are usually all related. Some of the islands have watchtowers and other buildings, also made out of reeds.
, about 1,200 Uros lived on 60 islands. They are mostly in the west corner of the lake near Puno, a large port town in Peru. The islands have become one of Peru's tourist attractions. This means that the Uros can earn money by bringing visitors to the islands by motorboat and selling crafts.

Amantani 

Amantani is another small island on Lake Titicaca. The people living here speak the Quechua language. About 4,000 people live in 10 communities on the nearly circular  island. It has two mountain peaks, called Pachatata (Father Earth) and Pachamama (Mother Earth). Both peaks have ancient ruins on the top. The hillsides planted with wheat, potatoes, and vegetables. Most of the small fields are worked by hand. Long stone fences divide the fields, and cattle and sheep also graze on the hillsides.

Taquile
Taquile 

Taquile is a hilly island located  east of Puno. About 2,200 people live here. It is narrow and long and was used as a prison during the Spanish Colony and into the 20th century. In 1970, it became property of the Taquile people, who have inhabited the island since then. There are pre-Inca ruins on the highest part of the island.
Taquile is famous for its weaving and knitting. "Taquile and Its Textile Art" were honoured by UNESCO with the label "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity".

Isla del Sol 
Isla del Sol (Spanish for "island of the sun") is one of the largest islands of the lake. It is a rocky, hilly island. There are no cars or paved roads on the island. About 800 families live here.
There are over 180 ruins on the island. Most of these are from the Inca period around the 15th century AD. Among the ruins on the island are the Sacred Rock, a labyrinth-like building called Chicana, Kasa Pata, and Pilco Kaima. The island is also mentioned in Inca mythology.
Isla de la Luna 

Isla de la Luna (Spanish for “island of the moon”) lies east of the bigger Isla del Sol. Legends say that this is where Viracocha told the moon to rise.
Archaeological excavations show that the Tiwanaku peoples (around 650–1000 AD) built a large temple on the Island of the Moon. The buildings on the island today were built by the Inca on top of the earlier Tiwanaku ones.

Suriki 
Suriki lies in the Bolivian part of Lake Titicaca. Suriki is the last place where they still make reed boats.

References

Other websites

 Lake Titicaca – The Highest Navigable Lake in the World
 Bolivian Navy and Naval Ensign
 Management issues in the Lake Titicaca and Lake Poopo system: Importance of developing a water budget
 Peru Cultural Society – Lake Titicaca History

References 

La Paz Department (Bolivia)
Geography of Peru
Titicaca
Howland Island is a small island in the north Pacific Ocean, just north of the Equator. It is owned by the United States.

Weather 
Howland island is a very hot and sunny island with wind blowing almost all the time. It only rains every once in a while.

Location 
Howland Island is located at 0 48 N, 176 38 W.

Gallery

References

Other websites

Howland in Google Maps
Geography, history and nature on Howland Island 
Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge 
'Voyage of the Odyssey' – pictures and travelogue
Howland Island at Infoplease
Howland Island – Small Island, Big History 
Pictures of the 1993 expedition to Howland island

United States Minor Outlying Islands
Pacific islands
Islands of Oceania
The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the time from June 1 to November 30, 2005 when hurricanes officially formed in the Atlantic Ocean. Storms sometimes form before and after these dates but most storms form during the season. Tropical Storm Zeta formed on December 30 and dissipated on January 6, which is after the November 30 end of the season. It was the most active Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history.

2005 broke many records set. There were 28 storms that were tropical storms which was broken by 2020 and 15 that became hurricanes. For the first time ever storms were named by the Greek alphabet as the normal name list had been used up.  The storm which caused the most damage was Hurricane Katrina, which hit New Orleans, USA, and killed over 1000 people. The strongest storm of the season was not Katrina, it was Hurricane Wilma. Wilma was the strongest hurricane ever in the Atlantic Ocean, reaching a record low pressure of 882 mbar.
Storms
 STORM CLASSIFICATIONS:  Numbers 1 - 5 indicate Hurricanes, from 1 (weakest) to 5 (strongest)TS Tropical Storm | TD Tropical Depression | SS Subtropical Storm | SD Subtropical Depression

Tropical Storm Arlene

Arlene, the first storm of the season, formed near Honduras on June 8 and moved north. It came close to western Cuba on June 10 before entering the Gulf of Mexico. Arlene strengthened just below hurricane strength before making landfall on western Florida. The storm quickly weakened while moving inland, and later became an extratropical remnant on June 13.

Tropical Storm Bret

Tropical Storm Bret was a weak tropical storm that formed as Tropical Depression Two in the western Gulf of Mexico, then quickly became Tropical Storm Bret. The storm made landfall in Tuxpan, Veracruz, Mexico the next morning. It dissipated on June 30. The storm cause 2 deaths and $9 million in damage.

Hurricane Cindy
Hurricane Cindy

Hurricane Cindy was a tropical cyclone that reached minimal hurricane strength for a very short time in the Gulf of Mexico during July and made landfall in Louisiana. It was the third named storm and first hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. Hurricane Cindy left 3 deaths and $320 million in damage.

Hurricane Dennis

Hurricane Dennis was very powerful hurricane that reached a peak of 150 mph. Hurricane Dennis moved mostly northwestward in its track. It made landfall in Grenada, and almost made landfall in Jamaica, and also made landfall in Cuba, and Florida (United States).

Hurricane Emily

Hurricane Emily was the strongest and only known category 5 hurricane in July. It beat a record in strength set by Hurricane Dennis only 6 days before. Hurricane Emily was one of four category 5 hurricanes in 2005. Hurricane Emily caused about 17 deaths and $1.014 billion in damage.

Tropical Storm Franklin
Tropical Storm Franklin formed north of the Bahamas on July 21 and moved steadily across the western Atlantic while coming close to Bermuda on July 26. Later, Franklin became an extratropical cyclone near Newfoundland, before being absorbed by another non-tropical system. Franklin caused no damages and killed no people while it stayed in the ocean during most of its life.

Tropical Storm Gert

Tropical Storm Gert was a weak and short lived storm. Tropical Storm Gert formed in the Bay of Campeche on July 23. The storm made landfall in Mexico and dissipated on July 25.

Tropical Storm Harvey

 
Tropical Storm Harvey was a strong tropical storm that moved across the Atlantic Ocean from August 2 to August 8. Harvey caused no damages or deaths and was the eighth named storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. Tropical Storm Harvey only affected Bermuda.

Hurricane Irene
Hurricane Irene 

Hurricane Irene was a rather long lived storm (about 2 weeks). It took it a while to become a hurricane. The only effects from Irene were large waves. Irene caused no damage or deaths.

Tropical Storm  Jose

Tropical Storm Jose was a strong but very short lived storm. It quickly formed in the Bay of Campeche and made landfall in Mexico. Tropical Storm Jose dissipated the next day. Tropical Storm Jose caused 8 deaths and $45 million in damages.

Hurricane Katrina

Hurricane Katrina was a powerful category 5 hurricane. Katrina was the costliest hurricane in U.S. history. Katrina devastated the U.S. Gulf Coast, especially New Orleans, a city in Louisiana. It beat the old record from Hurricane Andrew. Katrina left $125 billion in damage and 1,836 dead.

Tropical Storm Lee
Tropical Storm Lee

Tropical Storm Lee formed east of the Lesser Antilles as a tropical depression on August 28. On the next day, the depression weakened into a tropical low. The low then moved north and became stronger. It became a tropical storm for a short time on August 31. Lee quickly weakened again into a remnant low and was absorbed by a cold front on September 2.

Hurricane Maria

Hurricane Maria was a major hurricane in September 2005. This storm was rare because it affected New Jersey, Iceland, Scotland, and Norway. Hurricane Maria caused 3 deaths and $3.1 million in damage.

Hurricane Nate

Nate was a category 1 hurricane. Hurricane Nate also helped Hurricane Maria kill one person in Bermuda, and another in New Jersey.

Hurricane Ophelia

Hurricane Ophelia was a category 1 hurricane in September of 2005. It moved strangely just offshore of the United States. In all, Ophelia killed 3 people and caused $70 million in damage, mostly to North Carolina.

Hurricane Philippe
Hurricane Philippe

Hurricane Philippe was a category 1 hurricane that moved near land, but did not affect land. This was the third of eleven uses of a "P" name.

Hurricane Rita

Hurricane Rita was a powerful category 5 hurricane that started east of the Bahamas on September 26. It moved south of Florida and into the Gulf of Mexico. Rita became a category 5 hurricane very fast, then made landfall. Hurricane Rita made landfall as a category 3 hurricane in Texas, on September 24. By September 26, Rita had died over the U.S. The hurricane killed about 120 people and caused $10 billion in damage. This was only the second time that an "R" name was used in the Atlantic, the first being Roxanne.

Hurricane Stan

Hurricane Stan was the sixth of the seven storms in 2005 to make landfall in Mexico. The storm caused $1 billion in Mexico and the Central American region. The exact number of people killed is unknown, but the guess is around 1,660, though it could be up to 2,000.

Tropical Storm Tammy
Tammy was a tropical storm that only existed for a total of two days and brought minor damages to the southeastern United States. It peaked with 50 mph (85 km/h) just before making landfall on the northern Florida coast. Tammy formed from a strong non-tropical low on October 5 just off the Floridan coast. It moved north, peaking with 50 mph (85 km/h) winds just before making landfall on Atlantic Beach, Florida on October 6. Tammy died shortly later. Most of the damages were losses from FEMA that totaled up to $30 million. Tammy also killed 10 people. This was only the second time that a name starting with the letter "T" in the Atlantic Ocean. The first use was from Hurricane Tanya in 1995.

Hurricane Vince
Hurricane Vince

Hurricane Vince was a very rare and unusual hurricane. Hurricane Vince formed in the Atlantic, in a location where the water was too cold for a storm to form. It was only a hurricane for about 6 hours. The storm performed another rare feat, which was making landfall in Spain. This was the first time that a "V" name had been used in the Atlantic.

Hurricane Wilma

Hurricane Wilma was the strongest hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic Ocean. Hurricane Wilma lasted as a storm from mid to later October in 2005. Wilma left $28.8 billion in damage, mostly to Florida and the Yucatán Peninsula.

Tropical Storm Alpha

Tropical Storm Alpha was the first tropical storm to get a Greek alphabet name. It caused 43 people to die over Haiti, Dominican Republic, and the Bahamas. All of this happened before Hurricane Wilma absorbed Alpha on October 24.

Hurricane Beta