Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Kleptocracy ('klepto' meaning 'theft' in Ancient Greek) is the ruling of possibly any kind of government that uses its power to steal from its people.  This rarely-applied word was used by Charles Krauthammer, the nationally syndicated Washington Post columnist and political commentator on Fox-TV, on Saturday, March 2, and Sunday, March 3, 2014.  He referred to Russia as a kleptocracy in a TV panel discussion about its influence in the revolution in the neighboring Ukraine in late February.  His political column added another derivation of this word: kleptocratic.

"Kleptocratic" is used by Krauthammer in the following quote: "But surely the West has more financial clout than Russia's kleptocratic extraction economy that exports little but oil, gas and wisky."

Related pages
 Group of States Against Corruption
 International Anti-Corruption Academy
 International Anti-Corruption Day
 United Nations Convention against Corruption
 Transparency International

Politics
Fairfield is a town of Sauk County in the state of Wisconsin, United States.  About 1,000 people lived in Fairfield as of 2000.  Fairfield is the place where the "sand farm" was bought by Aldo Leopold in 1935.  Fairfield has an area of 35.6 square miles.

References

Towns in Wisconsin
Sauk County, Wisconsin
Dahlia is a genus of plants with large brightly-colored flowers. They are from Mexico, Central America, and Colombia. There are at least 36 species of Dahlia. Dahlia are often grown in flower gardens. This flower grows well away from strong, direct sunlight.

Flowers
Asteraceae
The Riemann hypothesis is a mathematical question (conjecture). Finding a proof of the hypothesis is one of the hardest and most important unsolved problems of pure mathematics. Pure mathematics is a type of mathematics that is about thinking about mathematics. This is different from trying to put mathematics into the real world. The answer to the Riemann hypothesis is "yes" or "no".

The conjecture is named after a man called Bernhard Riemann. He lived in the 1800s. The Riemann hypothesis asks a question about a special thing called the Riemann zeta function.

If the answer to the question is "yes", this would mean mathematicians can know more about prime numbers. Specifically, it would help them know how to find prime numbers. The Riemann hypothesis is so important, and so difficult to prove, that the Clay Mathematics Institute has offered $1,000,000 to the first person to prove it.

What is the Riemann hypothesis?

What is the Riemann zeta function???
The Riemann zeta function is a kind of function. Functions are things in mathematics like equations. Functions take in numbers and give you other numbers back. This is like how you get an answer back when you ask a question. The number you put in is called an "input". The number you get back is called a "value". Every input you put into the Riemann zeta function gives you a special value back. You mostly get a different value for each input. But each input gives you the same value every time you use it. Both the input you give, and the value you get, from the Riemann zeta function are special numbers called complex numbers. A complex number is a number with two parts, a real part and an imaginary part. The imaginary part is called imaginary because you would have to "imagine" such a number as  that when multiplied by itself is equal to . Because based on the rules of arithmetic  and  no such number could exist, it would have to be imagined
. Imaginary numbers have vast use in mathematics; without them a lot of technologies would not be possible. As a tangible example, in order to use quadratic formula to solve some equations, the answer sometimes has to be an imaginary number, and historically this was the reason why imaginary numbers were invented in the first place.
What is a non-trivial root? 
Sometimes when you put an input into the Riemann zeta function, you get the number zero back. When this happens, you call that input a root of the Riemann zeta function. You call the input a "root" when it gives you zero. Lots of roots have been found. But some roots are easier to find than others. We call the roots "trivial" or "non-trivial". We call a root "trivial" if it is easy to find. But we call a root "non-trivial" if its hard to find. The trivial roots are numbers called "negative even integers". The reason we think they are easy is because they are easy to find. There are neat rules that say what the trivial roots are. We know what the trivial roots are because of the equation that Bernhard Riemann gave. That equation was called "Riemann's functional equation".
How do we find non-trivial roots? 
The non-trivial roots are harder to find. They don't have the same neat rules that say what they are. Even though they are hard to find, lots of non-trivial roots have been found. Remember that the value of the Riemann zeta function was a kind of number called a complex number. And remember that complex numbers have two parts. One of these parts is called the "real part". We noticed an interesting thing about the real part of the non-trivial roots. All the non-trivial roots we found have a real part that is the same number. This number is 1/2, which is a fraction. This takes us to Riemann's big question, which is about how big the real parts are. The question is "do all the non-trivial roots have real part 1/2?", and the hypothesis says the answer is yes. We are still trying to find out if the answer is "yes" or "no".
What do we know so far? 
We do not know the answer to the question yet. But we do know some good facts. These facts might help us. There is a way we can find facts about the real parts of the non-trivial roots. This is with Riemann's special equation (Riemann's functional equation). Riemann's functional equation tells us about the size of the real parts. It says that all the non-trivial zeros have a real part close to 1/2. It says how small the real parts can be, and how big they can be. But it doesn't say exactly what they are. Specifically, it says the real parts have to be bigger than 0. But they have to be less than 1. But we still don't know if there might be a non-trivial root with a real part very close to 1/2. Maybe there is, but we just have not found it yet. The group of complex numbers that have a real part bigger than 0 but smaller than 1 is called the "critical strip".
The Riemann hypothesis in a picture 
The picture in the top-right corner of this page shows the Riemann zeta function. The non-trivial roots are shown with the white dots. They look like they're all in a line down the very middle of the picture. They're not too far to the left and not too far to the right. The real part is how far left-to-right you are. Being in the middle of the picture means they have a real part of 1/2. So all the non-trivial roots in the picture have a real part of 1/2. But our picture doesn't show everything because the Riemann zeta function is too big to show. So what about the non-trivial roots above and below the picture? Would they be in the middle too? What if they break the pattern of being in the middle? They could be slightly to the left or right. The Riemann hypothesis asks if every non-trivial root (white dot) would be on the line down the middle. If the answer is no, we say the "hypothesis is false". This would mean that there are white dots which are not on the line given.
References 

Number theory
Conjectures
Millbury is a town of Worcester County in the state of Massachusetts, United States. About 12,800 people lived in Millbury as of 2000.

Towns in Massachusetts
1716 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
18th-century establishments in Massachusetts
A shot glass is a small cup that people use to drink alcoholic drinks with.  Spirits are usually drunk out of shot glasses. A person usually swallows everything in the glass at once.

Containers
Alcoholic drinks
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, or RPI is a private university in Troy, NY. It was made in 1824 by Stephen Van Rensselaer because he wanted there to be schools that taught science and engineering. It is the oldest engineering school in America. Lots of students from RPI get jobs that pay a lot of money after they leave RPI. Some people who went to RPI have started big companies like NVIDIA, John Wiley and Sons, and Texas Instruments. George Low, an American who helped get spaceships into space, went to RPI.

What RPI focuses on has changed a lot since it was first made.  There still is a lot of engineering at the school, but now there is growing arts and social studies teaching at the school. A big concert hall called EMPAC was opened in 2008 at RPI.

Most of RPI's sports teams play in NCAA Division III, which does not allow athletic scholarships. The men's and women's ice hockey teams play as Division I teams in ECAC Hockey. The hockey teams are can award scholarships because of a special NCAA rule.
References

Other websites 

 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
 Institute Archives and Special Collections
 Not the Rensselaer Wiki 
 A Postcard History of RPI

Rpi
1824 establishments in the United States
1820s establishments in New York (state)
Colleges and universities in New York (state)
The Jack Russell Terrier is a small dog with a white coat that can be smooth or rough-coated. Some have a broken coat that is also called "wire-haired".

This terrier is good at fox hunting.

History 
The Jack Russell terrier were originally bred in England by the Reverend John Russell from about 1819. The Jack Russell is sturdier than the standard terrier. It is a fast runner, has a great nose and can hunt the fox even when it goes underground. It can also be used as a work dog.
"Difficulty in telling the terrier from the creature it was bolting out of its den brought about the desire for a more white-bodied dog. In all probability the English Black and Tan Terrier was crossed with the Old English White Terrier (both now extinct) to achieve the type of coat and colouring we have today in our Jack Russell Terriers".
Variants 
As with other domesticated animals, there are numerous variations. Differences in naming were caused by the different regulations of different kennel clubs. Some dog clubs make a difference between what they call "Parson Jack Russell Terriers", which are over 12" (inches) at the shoulders, and "Jack Russell Terriers" which are under 12" in height. Other clubs do not. They are broadly the same type of dog. It is easy to change the height of dogs by selective breeding, and the reason working dogs come in different sizes is to make them better at a particular job. Taller terriers were used for hunting foxes, and smaller terriers were used for hunting rabbits and rodents.
"So historically the Jack Russell and the Parson are the same breed with their breed standards written by different groups of enthusiasts in different countries. Today, the only actual difference is leg length".

References
References

Other websites 
 Jack Russell Terrier Clubs
 Jack Russell Terrier Club of America
 Jack Russell Terrier Club of Canada

 Other websites
 A Pictorial History of Working Terriers
 Terrier Work Basics
 Jack Russell Rescue Australia, the only Jack Russell Terrier Rescue group in Australia
 Jack Russell Terrier Pictures & Info
 Jack Russell Training and Raising Information 

Terriers
FCI breeds
Dog breeds originating in England
The story 
Dr James Mortimor comes to Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson to seek their help with the Baskerville family of Devon. Sir Charles Baskerville, the last of his Baskerville family was an elderly man. He believed that there was a curse on the family. In 1647 his ancestor, Hugo Baskerville, had attempted to catch a young woman whom he carried off; the girl had died of fear while Hugo was killed by a gigantic hound. Sir Charles Baskerville died of a heart attack while apparently fleeing a gigantic hound. As he was unmarried with no heirs, his estate goes to his nephew, Henry Baskerville, of Canada who is arriving in London. Although Holmes is not superstitious he does decide to take the case. Upon meeting the heir, several odd things happen: an unsigned note is delivered to Henry Baskerville warning him to stay away from the moor; then Henry's shoes beginning missing and turning up; first a new shoe and then an old one;  lastly Holmes spots a stranger in a cab following Henry and Dr Mortimor.
Holmes cannot go to Devon so he sends Dr Watson in his place as both a bodyguard to Sir Henry and as a spy. Dr Watson reports the eccentric happenings in Devon: the Baskerville's butler Barrymore and his wife who act strangely; Jack Stapleton an ex-schoolmaster and eccentric butterfly collector and his sister Beryl;  a local busybody/and crank Frankland and his estranged daughter Laura Lyons. Lastly there is a deranged convict escapee named Sheldon on the moor.  Beryl Stapleton first mistakes Watson for Sir Henry, warning him to go away; when she meets Sir Henry who begins to be attracted to her; although her brother strongly objects to their meeting together. Watson and Sir Henry find out the reason for the Barrymores strange actions, they are secretly helping Mrs Barrymore's brother, the escaped convict. Barrymore does reveal that he accidentally found a burned note to Charles Baskerville asking him to meet outside the hall from someone named L.L.
Watson confronts Laura Lyons who admits that Charles Baskerville had financed her typewriting business and says she did not meet him on the night of his death. Watson is also confronted by Franklin who claims that he saw the escaped convict on the moor hiding in a old stone hut.  Watson decides to investigate and finds the stranger is none other than Holmes!  Holmes reveals that his prime suspect is Stapleton, who is the husband not the brother of Beryl. When they hear a scream they run out to find a dead man at the foot of a cliff. It is Sheldon the convict who was wearing Henry Baskerville old clothes. After meeting Stapleton, Holmes and Watson go to Baskerville  Hall where Holmes tells Sir Henry to keep his dinner engagement with the Stapletons for the next night, although neither Holmes or Watson can go with Sir Henry as they must leave for London. Instead of leaving for London, Holmes and Watson confront Laura Lyons who is forced to admit that Stapleton had promised marriage to her
. The meeting with Sir Charles was to have been a loan connected with her divorce expenses. It was Stapleton who persuaded her not to meet with Sir Charles at the last second and also to keep quiet about the note. Holmes and Watson meet Inspector Lestrade who has a arrest warrant. That night the three men spy on Stapleton and Sir Henry;  when Sir Henry leaves to walk home, a gigantic glowing hound nearly attacks him but is killed by Holmes and Watson. At Stapleton's house they find Beryl who has been tied up and beaten by Stapleton. Stapleton flees to the moor but falls into the Grimpen Mire.
Holmes reveals his deductive reasoning: the warning note had a woman's perfume scent; the theft of the shoes gave a clue that the dog was real; Stapleton, who was a spiritual and physical throwback to Hugo Baskerville  (Holmes noticed the resemblance to the family portraits); his real name was Rodger Baskerville Jr (his father was the youngest of the Baskerville brothers and had to flee England for Central America). After marring a local beauty Beryl Garcia, he had stolen public money and fled Central America to England in 1885 where he used the money to start a public school in Yorkshire. The tutor he had hired died of consumption and the school which Baskerville then tried to use to teach his pupils crime was forced to close after an epidemic killed three students
. In 1887 He then fled to his ancestrial home in Devon with the remains of his fortune, his wife and his taste for Entomology; Holmes cannot prove it but he theorizes that Baskerville supported himself by burglaries and in the process committed a murder. When he found out that one life was between him and a valuable estate and that Sir Charles had both a weak heart and took the family legend seriously, he bought a large savage dog and hid it on the moor. He tricked Laura Lyons into writing the appointment note for Sir Charles and sent the dog, coated with phosphorous, after the old man who died of a heart attack. He tried the same trick on his cousin Henry twice-the first time however it was the convict wearing Henry clothing that fell victim. He had tied up his wife so she could not warn Sir Henry of the danger he was in
. In Holmes words: Roger Baskerville aka Jack Stapleton has for years been a dangerous and desperate man and one of the few foes worthy of confronting Sherlock Holmes The others being Dr Grimesby Roylott and Professor Moriaty).
Plot

Other websites 
 Read The Hound of the Baskervilles  at Sir Arthur Conan Doyle–His Life, All His Works and More
 
 The Hound of the Baskervilles–in HTML format.
 The Hound of the Baskervilles (Part I)  at BFRonline.biz.
 The Hound of the Baskervilles (Part II)  at BFRonline.biz.
 The Hound of the Baskervilles (Conclusion)  at BFRonline.biz.
 The Hound of the Baskervilles as an audiobook on LibriVox

Crime fiction books
Horror novels
Books by Arthur Conan Doyle
1902 books
A mach number is a number that describes speed. It is a measure of the speed of an object compared to the speed of sound. Mach number is given as a percentage compared to the local speed of sound. For example, half the speed of sound = Mach 0.5.

 

Where v is the speed of the object, and a is the speed of sound.
 

It is named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach. When writing a speed as a Mach number, the number comes after "Mach." For example, the Concorde airplane could fly at Mach 2, and a satellite re-enters the Earth's atmosphere at about Mach 25.

Categories of Mach numbers
Flying speed less than Mach 0.8 is called subsonic. Almost all airplanes, helicopters, and other aircraft are subsonic.

Flying speed from Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.2 is called transonic. If an airplane is moving at this speed, then some of the air around it moves faster than the speed of sound, but some of the air moves slower than the speed of sound.
Flying speed from Mach 1.2 to Mach 5 is called supersonic. An aircraft moving at this speed makes a shock wave. This can be heard as a very loud sound called a sonic boom. Supersonic aircraft are used in war, as fighter jets. Today, there are no supersonic aircraft for passenger use. There were some in the past, mainly the Concorde.

Flying speed above Mach 5 is called hypersonic.

References

Fluid mechanics
Measurement
Drag may be:
Drag (physics), a force that slows down objects
Drag racing, a way to race cars
Drag (clothing), a style of clothing
Drag queen, a man who dresses like a woman
Transonic means breaking the sound barrier by travelling faster than the speed of sound (1,236 kph or 768 mph).

The speed of flight is divided into four groups based on speed.
Subsonic
Transonic
Supersonic
Hypersonic

Transonic means going from subsonic to supersonic.  Subsonic ends and supersonic begins at mach 1, so transonic goes from mach 0.8 to 1.2.  When you are going through transonic speeds, drag increases and it is really hard to go any faster.  This is the sound barrier.

Aviation
Sound
Massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) are video games where players play together over the internet. These games are different from other online video games because they have very many players all playing with each other at the same time. Other online video games have fewer players playing with each other at the same time. The most popular kind of MMOG is the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). Examples are RuneScape, World of Warcraft (WOW), Roblox and Transformice.

Related pages 
 Metaverse

Online games
Video game genres
A baton is a stick.  Different batons are used by different people, for different things.

Policemen often carry batons, which can be used as weapons. These batons are also sometimes called "nightsticks."

Runners pass batons to one another in relay races.

Musical conductors use batons to lead an orchestra.

Various people in a parade or marching band might twirl batons for people to see.

Tools
Mark D. Maughmer (born January 18, 1947) is a Professor of Aerospace Engineering in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the Pennsylvania State University. He is famous for designing the first type of airplane wing tips for better glider performance. He has won many awards for being a good teacher and for having an influence in aerospace.

References

Engineers from Illinois
1947 births
Living people
American aerospace engineers
Triskaidekaphobia is the fear of the number thirteen.  The number 13 has been linked to bad luck in the western superstition. Some buildings in the United States do not have a "13th floor."

The term was first used by Isador Coriat in Abnormal Psychology.

There is also a fear of Friday the 13th. This fear is called paraskevidekatriaphobia or friggatriskaidekaphobia.

Related pages
 Tridecagon

Notes

References

Phobias
Superstitions
Magnoliales is an order of flowering plants. They are very successful, despite being an early type of flowering plant.

Classification 
The Magloliales includes six families:
 Annonaceae (custard apple family, over 2000 species of trees, shrubs, and lianas; mostly tropical but some temperate)
 Degeneriaceae (two species of trees found on Pacific islands)
 Eupomatiaceae (two species of trees and shrubs found in New Guinea and eastern Australia)
 Himantandraceae (two species of trees and shrubs, found in tropical areas in Southeast Asia and Australia)
 Magnoliaceae (about 225 species including magnolias and tulip trees)
 Myristicaceae (several hundred species including Nutmeg)

References
Bobsled or bobsleigh is a team sport played during the Winter Olympic Games. It is played by riding on iced tracks with a sled. Modern tracks are made of concrete, coated with ice. Artificial bobsleigh tracks are also available.

International bobsled competitions are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT).

The first bobsleds were built in St. Moritz, Switzerland, in the late 19th century by rich tourists from Britain who were staying at the Palace Hotel owned by Caspar Badrutt.

Related pages
Sking
Ski jumping

Notes

Other websites

Bobsleigh at the Official website of the Olympic Movement
Images for bobsleigh
Videos for bobsleigh
Bobsleigh crash

Winter Olympic sports
Winter sports
Pulp were a English band from Sheffield, South Yorkshire. The lead singer, Jarvis Cocker, started the band in 1978. For a long time, Cocker found life as a musician hard. However, in 1994, he and his band became famous when their album called his "His and Hers" became popular in the United Kingdom. They had three more albums and a number of singles before the band split up in 2001.

Albums by Pulp 
1983 - It 
1987 - Freaks 
1992 - Separations 
1994 - His 'N' Hers (Number 9 in the UK music charts) 
1995 - Different Class (Number 1 in the UK music charts)  
1996 - Countdown 1992-1983 (Number 10 in the UK music charts)  
1998 - This Is Hardcore (Number 1 in the UK music charts) 
2001 - We Love Life (Number 6 in the UK music charts)

1978 establishments in the United Kingdom
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
English punk bands
English rock bands
Musical groups established in 1978
Musical groups from Sheffield
The +44, or Plus 44, was a punk rock group that formed in 2004. It was started by former Blink-182 members Mark Hoppus and Travis Barker, with guitarist Craig Fairbaugh from the band Transplants, and Shane Gallagher from the Nervous Return. The name of the band is the title of the telephone code for the UK, +44. The band broke up on January 13, 2009, when Blink-182 reformed.

Members 
 Mark Hoppus (vocals, bass)
 Travis Barker (drums, keyboards)
 Craig Fairbaugh (rhythm guitar, vocals)
 Shane Gallagher (lead guitar)

Discography 
 2006 - When Your Heart Stops Beating

References

Other websites 
 

American punk bands
Musical groups from California
2000s American music groups
The Johns Hopkins University is a private research university in Baltimore, Maryland in the United States. Johns Hopkins opened in 1876 as part of a seven million dollar donation to start a number of institutions under his name. Johns Hopkins does more than 1.5 billion dollars of science research every year. During the pandemic, the university has been doing researching on the outbreak.

References

Other websites
 Johns Hopkins University

Association of American Universities
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore
1876 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Maryland
A trap door or trapdoor is a door in the ground or in a floor,  that one enters vertically. Some can open when someone is standing on it. People typically put small doors disguised as something normal to scare a person falling into a trapdoor. They can be used for malicious purposes like murder. However, they can be used to hide things from other people.  

Trap doors are popular in mystery themed movies. The victim who falls down the trap door often is met with danger or a hidden treasure. A standard cliché deals with the victim finding himself in an alligator filled swamp (most famously seen in Scooby Doo cartoons).

Infrastructure

fi:Kattoluukku
Pane sciocco (also called in Tuscany "pane toscano") is a variety of bread very common in Tuscany and in Umbria, two regions in Italy. Pane sciocco does not contain salt, because when it was first made in the 1600s, salt was very rare and very expensive. Pane sciocco is often eaten with typically Tuscan ham or sausages, famous for being salty.

Related pages
Tuscan food

Italian food
Breads
Lobotomy, also known as leucotomy, is a type of brain surgery. It was created in 1935 by António Egas Moniz, a Portuguese neurologist. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1949 "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses". The operation cut the connections from the pre-frontal cortex (front part of the frontal lobes) to the rest of the brain. At first it seemed a great success, but the operation is now rarely done.

He used the method for certain types of mental illness for which there was no other treatment. He first used it on patients with obsessive behaviour, which they repeated time and again. It was also used to treat other mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia and clinical depression.
The problem with lobotomies was that they forever changed a person's personality and behaviour. Sometimes, the results were beneficial: patients which had been violent became calm. But long-term studies, which were not done by Moniz, show some had severely damaged personalities.  They often had very little 'drive' and motivation.

Today, antipsychotic drugs, like chlorpromazine, may treat the symptoms of such disorders. Lobotomies are not common today.

Social context 
One question is why was such a dramatic surgical technique so widely accepted. It is generally agreed that psychiatrists wanted to find some way of helping thousands of patients in psychiatric hospitals in the twentieth century. Also, those same patients had little power to resist the increasingly radical and even reckless interventions of asylum doctors.

Indications and outcomes 
According to the Psychiatric Dictionary in 1970:
According to the same source, prefrontal lobotomy reduces:
anxiety feelings and introspective activities; and feelings of inadequacy and self-consciousness are thereby lessened. Lobotomy reduces the emotional tension associated with hallucinations and does away with the catatonic state. Because nearly all psychosurgical procedures have undesirable side effects, they are ordinarily resorted to only after all other methods have failed. The less disorganized the personality of the patient, the more obvious are post-operative side effects. ... 

Convulsive seizures are reported as [effects] of prefrontal lobotomy in 5 to 10 percent of all cases. Such seizures are ordinarily well controlled with the usual anti-convulsive drugs. Post-operative blunting of the personality, apathy, and irresponsibility are the rule rather than the exception. Other side effects include distractibility, childishness, facetiousness, lack of tact or discipline, and post-operative incontinence.

References
References

Further reading 
Jones W.L. 1983. Ministering to minds diseased: history of psychiatric treatment. London: Heinemann.

Surgery
Brain
Controversies
The Black Pearl is a book for teens by Scott O'Dell first published in 1967. It is about the son of a pearl dealer living in the Lower California peninsula. It won the Newbery Honor in 1968.

Story 
The story is about a Mexican teenager named Ramon Salazar who works with his father finding and selling pearls. One day, Ramon went diving in an underwater cave in search of pearls and found a pearl bigger than his fist. It was so shiny and big that he thought that it was called the Pearl of Heaven. The pearl was found in a lagoon that belonged to an Indian who warned Ramon that the pearl belonged to the Manta Diablo.

Movie adaptation 
In 1977, Saul Swimmer directed the U.S.-Spanish co-production The Black Pearl, also known in Spanish as La Perla Negra.

Related pages
Herman Melville: Moby-Dick (1851)
John Steinbeck: The Pearl (1947) (also set among the pearl divers of La Paz)
Ernest Hemingway: The Old Man and the Sea (1952) (aging Cuban fisherman struggling with a giant marlin)

1967 books
Newbery Honor books
1977 drama movies
American drama movies
Spanish movies
A hot air balloon is a type of aircraft. It is lifted by heating the air inside the balloon, usually with fire. 

Hot air weighs less than the same volume of cold air (it is less dense), which means that hot air will rise up or float when there is cold air around it, just like a bubble of air in a pot of water. The greater the difference between the hot and the cold, the greater the difference in density, and the stronger the balloon will pull up. This means that balloons can carry more weight on a cold day, or if the air inside the balloon is very hot. At higher temperature, the air molecules move faster. This causes the molecules to spread out and therefore hot air is less dense than cooler air.

History

The hot air balloon is the oldest form of flying technology that can successfully carry people. The earliest use of hot air to make objects fly was made in Ancient China. Paper lanterns were sent into the air for signalling.
The first hot air balloon to carry a person was made by the Montgolfier brothers. On 19 September 1783, they demonstrated their invention for King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette at the French court in Paris. The passengers were a sheep, a duck and a rooster. They flew for 480 metres.  The first flight carrying a person was on 15 October 1783. It carried Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier. The balloon was attached to the ground by a rope. The first free flight, without being attached to the ground, was a few weeks later, on 21 November 1783. It carried Marquis François d'Arlandes and Pilatre de Rozier.
How it works
The air is made up of molecules. When the air is cold, these molecules are closer together. When the air is hot, they move away from each other. So, in the same space, there are fewer molecules in hot air. Hot air is therefore lighter than cold air. This makes it rise and carry up the balloon when the air inside it is heated. The air is heated in the balloon with a burner, which uses bursts of fire to keep the air hot. The fire is fuelled by propane.

The heated air is kept inside the balloon by its fabric. This is called the "envelope". It is usually made of nylon.

The passengers and the pilot stand in the basket, which is attached to the balloon by ropes. The basket is usually made of wicker. Baskets can come in many sizes. It can have enough places for up to 36 people. It depends the size of the balloon to carry that much weight.

Festivals
Festivals 

A hot air balloon festival is a type of air show. It is where ballooners display and fly their balloons together. During these events, they fly in the morning and in the evening if the conditions allow it. People can enjoy a balloon flight if they pay. There are many activities. Sometimes, the balloons are lit up against the night sky.

At these festivals, people can see different shapes of balloons. Usually, they are kind of round but they may have forms.

References

Other websites
 Hot air ballooning 
 Hot air balloonat Library Think Quest 

Aircraft
Gaius Julius Caesar (20 BC–4 AD) was one of two brothers adopted by the first Roman emperor, Augustus. Both died in their early twenties, clearing the path for Tiberius. Gaius Caesar had achieved the rank of Consul before his death.

References 

Roman people
20 BC births
4 deaths
A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft that has two fixed wings.  The lower wing is often attached to the body of the aircraft and the top wing is raised above.  Most early airplanes were biplanes because they have a stronger structure than a monoplane.  When engineers found how to makes strong monoplanes, biplanes became rare because they produce more drag.  

Famous biplanes include the Polikarpov Po-2, Sopwith Camel, Avro Tutor, Antonov An-2, Beechcraft Staggerwing, Boeing Stearman, Bristol Bulldog, Curtiss JN-4, de Havilland Tiger Moth, Fairey Swordfish, Hawker Hart, Pitts Special and the Wright Flyer.  The Stearman is particularly associated with stunt flying with wing-walkers.

References

Aircraft
White chocolate is a type of chocolate. White chocolate is made of cocoa butter, milk, and sugar. In the United States, white chocolate must be at least 20% cocoa butter, at least 14% total milk solids, at least 3.5% milk fat, and less than 55% sugar or other sweeteners. 
In the European Union, there must be at least 20% cocoa butter, at least 14% total milk solids and at least 3.5% milk fat.

Food ingredients
Chocolate
A sea plane is a fixed-wing vehicle that can take off to the sky or water.

References 

Aircraft
Watercraft
A paraglider is a free-flying, foot-launched aircraft. 
In mountain areas, pilots usually take off from great height to fly down to the valley. In flat areas, a winch is used to tow the paraglider to a height of up to 400 meters before it is released. It is also possible to soar on the coast in laminar sea breeze. Some more advanced pilots also launch from hot air balloons or helicopters. 

Aircraft
Blank slate, or tabula rasa (which means the same thing) was a philosophical idea of John Locke. It had, like much of philosophy, a history which went as far back as Aristotle, but it was Locke who made it known to our modern world:
"Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper void of all characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be furnished? ... To this I answer, in one word, from EXPERIENCE".

Humans, when born, are thought not have mental experience or knowledge, and that everything is learned after they grow. In particular, Locke thought all knowledge came from sense data, and the mind is empty at the beginning. By 'sense data' is meant the process of hearing, seeing, touching etc.
Locke's idea was immediately picked up by others:
"Children are a sort of raw material put into our hands... [Their minds are] like a sheet of white paper".
"Our virtues and our vices may be traced to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated [cut out] from the world".—The economist and social liberal William Godwin (1756–1836), who argued for human perfectibility and enlightenment.

Many have held similar views. The founder of behaviourism, John B. Watson (1878–1938):
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors".
Related pages 
Adaptive unconscious
Behaviourism
Empiricism
Human nature
Nature versus nurture
Psychological nativism
Sociobiology

References 

Psychology
Philosophical anthropology
Lined paper is paper with lines printed on it. The lines are commonly parallel to each other, uniformly spaced with a larger space at the top. The horizontal lines are meant to separate lines of hand-written text. Lined paper is thinner than other types of paper

Paper
The coypu (or nutria, Myocastor coypus) is a large, plant-eating, rodent which lives in wetlands. The nutria first came from South America including Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile, and Uruguay. Animals were taken to Louisiana in the 1930s to be farmed for their fur. Some of these animals escaped and are now living in the Louisiana coastal wetlands. They have become a pest and have damaged the environment.

References

Rodents
Mammals of South America
The Poincaré Conjecture is a question about spheres in mathematics. It is named after Henri Poincaré, the French mathematician and physicist who formulated it in 1904.

The sphere (also called the 2-sphere, as it is a 2-dimensional surface, although it is usually seen as inside a three dimensional space) has the property that any loop on it can be contracted to a point (if a rubber band is wrapped around the sphere, it is possible to slide it down to a point). Mathematicians say that the 2-sphere is simply connected. Other spaces do not have this property, for example the donut: a rubber band that goes around the whole donut once cannot be slid down to a point without it leaving the surface.
Mathematicians knew that this property was unique to the 2-sphere, in the sense that any other simply connected space that does not have edges and is small enough (in mathematician terms, that is compact) is in fact the 2-sphere. It is no longer true if we remove the idea of smallness however, as an infinitely large plane is also simply connected. Also, a regular disk (a circle and its interior) is simply connected, but it has an edge (the bounding circle).

The conjecture asks whether the same is true for the 3-sphere, which is an object living naturally in four dimensions. This question motivated much of modern mathematics, especially in the field of topology. The question was finally settled in 2002 by Grigori Perelman, a Russian mathematician, with methods from geometry, showing that it is indeed true. He was awarded a Fields Medal and the $1 million Millennium Prize for his work, both of which he declined.
The Poincaré conjecture can also be extended to higher dimensions: this is the generalised Poincaré conjecture. Surprisingly, it was easier to prove the fact for higher-dimensional spheres: In 1960, Smale proved it to be true for the 5-sphere, 6-sphere and higher. In 1982, Freedman proved that it was also true for the 4-sphere, for which he was awarded a Fields Medal.

Geometry
Megafauna are large animals. The word is most used for the Pleistocene megafauna  the large land animals of the last ice age, such as mammoths. It is also used for the largest living wild land animals, especially elephants, giraffes, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elk, condors, etc.

Its use is connected with the discussion about the Holocene extinctions after the ice age. Most of the large land animals which were alive 12,000 years ago are now extinct, and there is much discussion as to what has caused this. The two main theories are hunting by humans, and climate change. Together, these reasons are enough to explain why these previously successful animals are now extinct. Elephant birds on Madagascar were certainly hunted to extinction, as were the Moas in New Zealand.  Archaeological sites with evidence of moa hunting are all over New Zealand. The moas became extinct about five hundred years ago. The moas had survived being hunted by Haast's Eagle, but they did not survive being hunted for food by the Maoris.
For many others the climate changes may have been the main reason for their extinction.

References
90482 Orcus (symbol: ), originally known by the provisional designation 2004 DW, is a Kuiper belt object (KBO). It is also a dwarf planet. It was found by Michael Brown, Chad Trujillo and David Rabinowitz on February 17, 2004. It was also seen in pictures from November 8, 1951. Like Pluto it is in orbital resonance with Neptune but it stays on the opposite side of the Sun from Pluto.

Moon 

A moon of Orcus was found on  22 February 2007.

The satellite was found at 0.25 arcsec from Orcus with magnitude difference of 2.7. Assuming an albedo similar to that of the primary, the magnitude suggests a diameter of about 220 km. It is thought to be a smaller KBO that was captured.
Other websites 
 MPEC 2004-D09 announcing the discovery but attributing it to Raymond J. Bambery, Steven H. Pravdo, Michael D. Hicks, Kenneth J. Lawrence, Daniel MacDonald, Eleanor F. Helin and Robert Thicksten / NEAT
 MPEC 2004-D13 correcting MPEC 2004-D09
 Chad Trujillo's page on 2004 DW 
 First BBC article
 First New Scientist article
 Updated orbital elements from Lowell Observatory 
 AstDys orbital elements
 Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris

References 

Possible dwarf planets
Kuiper belt objects
Comfortably Numb is a rock song by Pink Floyd. It was released on their album The Wall in 1979. The song is about a rock star who is visited by a doctor. The doctor gives him medicine allowing the rock star to perform again. The lyrics were written by Roger Waters and the music was written by David Gilmour and Roger Waters together. This song became very popular and became part of every Pink Floyd tour since 1981. It was even played by Roger Waters and David Gilmour on their individual solo tours. In 2004 Scissor Sisters released a disco version of the song. It reached number ten in the UK Singles Chart.
1979 songs
Pink Floyd songs
Intramuros is a district of the city of Manila in the Philippines. It is surrounded by fortified walls built in the 16th century.

Manila
The Cucurbitales is an order of flowering plants, included in the rosid group of dicotyledons. This order mostly belongs to tropical areas, with limited presence in subtropic and temperate regions. The order includes various shrubs and trees, together with many herbs and climbing plants.

One of major characteristics of the Cucurbitales is the presence of unisexual flowers, with thick pointed petals (whenever present). The pollination is usually performed by insects, but wind pollination, where flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, is also present (in Coriariaceae and Datiscaceae).

The order consists of roughly 2600 species in eight families. The largest families are Begoniaceae (begonia family) with 1400 species and Cucurbitaceae (gourd family) with 825 species.
The large families of Cucurbitales include several economically important plants. Specifically, the Cucurbitaceae are responsible for some food species, such as squash, pumpkin (both from Cucurbita), watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris), melon and cucumber (both Cucumis). The Begoniaceae are known for their horticultural species, of which there are over 130.

References
Cucurbitaceae is the plant family with melons, gourds or cucurbits. It includes crops such as cucumbers, squashes (including pumpkins), luffas, melons and watermelons. 

The family lives mostly in the tropics. Its edible fruits were amongst the earliest cultivated plants.
Grapevine is a city of Tarrant County in the state of Texas in the United States.

References 

Cities in Dallas County, Texas
Settlements in Tarrant County, Texas
1914 establishments in the United States
1910s establishments in Texas
A air pump is a pump that is used to inflate things, like a basketball. The pump often has a needle at the end and can be used to inflate other objects as well. Bicycle tires are normally filled with air. With extensive use, the tires may lose air and need to be inflated. When the air gets moved, an area of low pressure gets created which fills up with more air.

References 

Mechanics
Tools
Bruce Lorne Campbell (born June 22, 1958) is an American actor, producer, screenwriter and director. He is known for his starring role in the 1981 horror movie Evil Dead. He has since become a B-movie icon. He starred as Sam Axe in Burn Notice on the USA Network. He played Ronald Reagan in season 2 of the FX original series Fargo in late 2015.

References 

1958 births
Living people
American movie actors
American movie directors
American movie producers
American television actors
Actors from Michigan
People from Royal Oak, Michigan
Nachos are a snack food made with tortilla chips and cheese. Sometimes they have jalapeños, sauce, beans, guacamole or meat on them.

Ignacio "Nacho" Anaya created nachos at the Victory Club in 1940 when Mamie Finan, a regular customer, asked if Anaya could bring her and three other women a different snack than usual. Anaya went to the kitchen and spotted freshly fried pieces of corn tortillas. In a moment of culinary inspiration, he added melted cheese and pickled jalapeño strips. After tasting the snack Anaya created, Finan asked what it was called. Anaya responded, "Well, I guess we can just call them Nacho's Special." The dish was so popular, the owner of the Victory Club, Roberto de los Santos, put Nacho's Special on the menu and the snack quickly spread throughout the world. When the Victory Club closed in 1961, Anaya opened his own restaurant, Nacho's.

References

Snack foods
A test bay is an area used in engineering. It can be a hall, laboratory or even a department. At these places, the produced materials are tested before delivery. To test them, testing guidelines of industry or this firm are used. The test bay is part of the quality management. The protocols written during testing are evidences in case of insurance issues, say.

Engineering
Tests
A unicycle is a pedal vehicle. It is like a bicycle, but it has only one wheel. It has a seat and pedals, but no chain or gears. There is no handlebar, it is steered by gripping the seat with the legs and twisting the body.  A rider keeps their balance by moving their arms, and controlling their speed. It is usually used for acting and performing. A unicycle is more expensive than a cheap bicycle, because unicycles are far less common.

There are two kinds of unicycles; giraffe unicycles and traditional unicycles. Giraffe unicycles are much taller than traditional unicycles, and use a chain so that the performer's legs do not have to stretch very far. Giraffe unicycles are mostly used by performers in circuses.
Unicycles are often used while the performer is simultaneously juggling or plate spinning. To do this, performers usually rock back and forth on the unicycle. This is called "idling". It lets the performer pay attention to what they are doing in their hands, instead of to the ground in front of them. To "idle" a unicycle, performers usually press one foot down, anchoring it in the bottom position of the wheel. This foot both provides support and completes the rocking motion that is necessary to keep the unicycle balanced.

Many other tricks can be done when riding a unicycle.  This includes going backwards, riding up and down steps, pedaling with only one foot, hopping in place, wheel-walking (putting the feet on the tire instead of on the pedals) and riding over obstacles.

References
 

Human-powered vehicles
Cycling
Chaiyaphum () is one of the Isan (north-eastern) provinces (changwat) of Thailand. As of 2000, 1 million people live there, and has an area of 12,778.3 km². The Governor is Thawon Phrommichai.

Geography
 Chulabhorn Dam

Administrative divisions 

The province has 16 districts (amphoe); 124 subdistricts (tambon) and 1393 villages (muban).

Provinces of Thailand
Chulabhorn Dam (เขื่อนจุฬาภรณ์) is a dam in Thailand. It is named after a princess, Chulabhorn Walailak. The dam is in Tambon Thung Lui Lai, Amphur Kon San, Chaiyaphum Province on the Nam Phrom River.  It is 700 metres long and 70 metres high.  It holds a reservoir of 31 square kilometres.

Other websites 
 Chulabhorn Dam in Chaiyaphum  

Dams in Asia
Buildings and structures in Thailand