Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Tory party had paternalistic ideas such as charity for the poor. Malthus said this would not work, and it would only lead to increased numbers of the poor. The theory was developed into Whig economic ideas such as The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834. Its opponents  described the act as "a Malthusian bill designed to force the poor to emigrate, to work for lower wages, to live on a coarser sort of food". The act brought the construction of workhouses despite riots and arson.

By that time the ideas were widespread in progressive social circles. One supporter was the novelist Harriet Martineau who also knew Charles Darwin. The ideas of Malthus were a significant influence on the development of Darwin's ideas.

Though Malthusianism has since come to be identified with the issue of general over-population, the original Malthusian concern was more specifically with the fear of over-population by the dependent poor.
One of the earliest critics of Malthusian theory was Karl Marx who referred to it. Many people today believe that Malthus was right about human population growth getting out of hand.

Sources 
Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin (London: Michael Joseph, the Penguin Group, 1991). 
Marx's footnote on Malthus from Capital

References

Other websites 

Antony Trewavas, "Malthus foiled again and again,", Nature, August 8, 2002

Economic history
Population
Gregory James "Greg" LeMond (born June 26, 1961 in Lakewood, California) is an American  road racing cyclist who raced as a professional from 1981 to 1994.

He became the first American to win the Tour de France in 1986.  In 1987 he was injured in a shooting accident, and could not race again until 1989, when he won the Tour de France again.  He beat the French cyclist Laurent Fignon in an individual time trial using aero bars, which made him more aerodynamic (able to move through air easily). He won the Tour de France again in 1990. He now runs a bicycle company, and works to help people who are victims of sexual abuse. He has been diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Major achievements and accolades
1979
  UCI Road World Championships U23 Road Race
1980
 Member, United States Olympic Cycling Team
1981 – Renault-Elf-Gitane
First year as a professional.
 Coors Classic (1st overall; 2 stage wins)
 Tour of Oise (1 stage win)
1982 – Renault-Elf-Gitane
 Tour de l'Avenir (1st overall; 3 stage wins)
 UCI Road World Championships Road Race (2nd-Silver Medal)
 Tour Méditerranéen (2nd overall)
 Giro di Lombardia (2nd)
 Grand Prix des Nations (2nd)
1983 – Renault-Elf-Gitane
  UCI Road World Championships Road Race (1st - Gold Medal)
 Dauphiné Libéré (1st overall; 3 stage wins)
 Tour Méditerranéen (Stage 1 win)
1984 – Renault
 Tour de France (3rd overall; 1st young rider, 1st Stage 3 Team Time Trial)
 Liège-Bastogne-Liège (3rd)
 Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré (3rd overall; Stage 7b win)
 Tirreno-Adriatico (5th overall)
1985 – La Vie Claire
 UCI Road World Championships Road Race (2nd - Silver Medal)
 Coors Classic (1st overall; Stage 5 win)
 Tour de France (2nd overall; 2nd points; 1st Stage 21 ITT)
Giro d'Italia (3rd overall)
 Vuelta al País Vasco (2nd overall)
 Paris-Roubaix (4th)
 Omloop Het Volk (4th)
1986 – La Vie Claire
 Tour de France (1st overall; Stage 13 win; 7 days in maillot jaune)
 Giro d'Italia (4th overall; Stage 5 win)
 Milan-Sanremo (2nd)
 Coors Classic (2nd overall; Stage 5 win)
 Tour de Suisse (3rd overall; 1st points classification)
 Paris-Nice (3rd overall)
 Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana (6th overall; Stage 4 win)
1988
 Tour of the Americas (2nd overall)
1989
 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year
 ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year
  UCI Road World Championships Road Race (1st - Gold Medal)
 Tour de France (1st overall; Stage 5 ITT win; Stage 19 win; Stage 21 Champs-Élysées ITT; 7 days in maillot jaune)
 Tour of the Americas (3rd overall)
 Giro d'Italia (39th overall)
1990 – Z
 ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year
 Tour de France (1st overall; 2 days in maillot jaune)
 Züri-Metzgete (2nd)
 UCI Road World Championships Road Race (4th)
Giro d'Italia (105th overall)
1991 – Z
 World's Most Outstanding Athlete Award, Jesse Owens International Trophy
 Tour de France (7th overall; 6 days in maillot jaune)
 Tour DuPont (12th overall)
1992 – Z
 USA Cycling's Korbel Lifetime Achievement Award
 Tour DuPont (1st overall; Prologue (ITT))
1996
 Inductee, United States Bicycling Hall of Fame
1999
 Fox Sports Network's "50 Greatest Athletes of the Century"
2006
 International Cycling Center's "Lifetime Achievement Award" winner

References

Other websites
 Greg LeMond, The Official Web Site 
 LeMond Bicycles Worldwide 
 LeMond Fitness
 Complete Palmarès 
 Greg Lemond/Gitane

1961 births
Living people
American cyclists
Sportspeople from Los Angeles
Tour de France winners
Sir Francis Galton FRS (Birmingham, 16 February 1822 – Surrey, 17 January 1911), half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an English  scientist. His main field of work was human biology and inheritance of mental characteristics.

Galton was a polymath: an anthropologist, a eugenicist, a tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician, and statistician. He was knighted in 1909.

Galton produced over 340 papers and books in his lifetime. He created the statistical concepts of normal distribution, correlation and regression toward the mean. He was the first to apply statistical methods to the study of human differences and inheritance of intelligence.
He was the first person to do twin studies. His method was to trace twins through their life-history, making many kinds of measurement. Unfortunately, though he knew about monozygotic (identical twins) and dizygotic twins, he did not appreciate the real genetic difference. Twin studies of the modern kind did not appear until the 1920s.

He also introduced the use of questionnaires and surveys to collect data on human communities. He needed such data for genealogical and biographical works and for his anthropometric studies. He was a pioneer in eugenics, coining the very term itself and the phrase "nature versus nurture". As an investigator of the human mind, he founded psychometrics (the science of measuring mental faculties) and differential psychology.
Books by Galton 
1853 Narrative of an explorer in tropical South Africa.
1855. The art of travel, or shifts and contrivances available in wild countries. Murray, London.
1863. Meteorographica. Macmillan, London.
1869 [2nd ed 1892]. Hereditary genius: its laws and consequences. Macmillan, London.
1874. English men of science: their nature and nature.
1883. Inquiries into human faculty and its development. Macmillan, London.
1884. Record of family faculties. Macmillan, London.
1889. Natural inheritance. Macmillan, London.
1892. Fingerprints. Macmillan, London.
1893. Decipherment of blurred finger prints.
1895. Fingerprint directories.
1909. Memories of my life. Macmillan, London.
1909. Noteworthy families. Murray, London.

References

1822 births
1911 deaths
English biologists
English geneticists
British geographers
British meteorologists
People from Birmingham
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, and a prominent liberal political and social theorist of the Victorian era.

Works
Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution. He saw evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. 

Spencer never married; he remained a bachelor. He contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, politics, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology.
Like Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, he read Malthus' Essay on the principle of population, and was deeply impressed by its argument. Malthus said that sooner or later population growth gets checked by famine and disease, and there are then many deaths. So, he was prepared for Darwin's idea of natural selection, which he preferred to call "survival of the fittest". He did this in  Principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species.
"This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called ‘natural selection’, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life."
Spencer's term does strongly suggest natural selection, yet as he extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, Spencer made use of Lamarckism rather than natural selection, so it seems he was not a Darwinian after all. Others took up his social ideas, and drew the conclusion that it was useless to try and help the poor, and that competition without limits was the way society should go. Darwin himself did not accept these ideas, but they were quite widespread in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century.

References

1820 births
1903 deaths
19th-century English philosophers
British feminists
Libertarians
A national sport is a sport or game that was invented and firstly played by citizens of the same country or nation. It also means the game or sport has a long history of popularity in the country or nation.
Each country has its own national sport.

Sports
Sport
Coevolution is where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of one or more other species. Species whose lives connect, evolve together. What happens is that survival rates in each species changes as a result of changes in the other species.

Examples of coevolution are:
 Species which mutually benefit
Flowers and the animals that pollinate them
Life-forms in a symbiosis
Species which are antagonistic
Predators and their prey
Parasites and their hosts
Coevolution is extremely common, and may involve more than two species. Mimicry rings, with dozens of species, are known.

New or 'improved' adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread of related features in the other species.

History
History 

The study of coevolution dates back to Darwin's On the Origin of Species. There he discussed how cats increased heather by reducing mice. The point being that mice raid bumblebee nests and bumblebees pollinate red heather. So more cats cause more heather.p74 In the last paragraph of the Origin Darwin remarks:

Hermann Müller was an important worker on co-evolution. His studies on bees and the evolution of flowers were quoted by Darwin in The Descent of Man. His papers in the journal Nature had heading On the fertilisation of flowers by insects and on the reciprocal adaptations of both. This shows Müller fully understood the concept of coevolution.
Pollination 
The life and death of living things is intimately connected, not just with the physical environment, but with the life of other species. These relationships are dynamic, and may continue for millions of years, as has the relationship between flowering plants and insects (pollination).The gut contents, wing structures, and mouthparts of fossilized beetles and flies suggest that they acted as early pollinators. The association between beetles and angiosperms during the Lower Cretaceous period led to parallel radiations of angiosperms and insects into the late Cretaceous. The evolution of nectaries in Upper Cretaceous flowers signals the beginning of the mutualism between hymenopterans and angiosperms.
Parasitism 
Another good example is malaria, in which there are three 'partners': the mosquito, the parasite Plasmodium, and a land vertebrate, such as a mammal or bird. The actual species of malaria differs according to the vertebrate, so there are actually thousands of different relationships which follow the same pattern.

Rapid speciation 
Adaptive radiation and speciation rates can be high in parasites. Sibling species are very common in the bug Erythroneura, in which about 150 transfers from one host to another has resulted in about 500 species in the genus.

The clearest evidence comes from the large size of many parasitic families. 
"Even though some parasitic taxa evolved much later than predatory taxa, families of parasites on plants are on average almost eight times larger than those of predators, and families of parasites on animals are over ten times larger".p26
A huge number of species are parasitic. A survey of the feeding habits of British insects showed that about 35% were parasites on plants, and slightly more were parasites on animals. That means that nearly 71% of insects in Britain are parasitic. Since British insects are better known than those elsewhere (because of the length of time they have been studied), this means that by far the majority of insect species throughout the world are parasitic. Another estimate went:p3
¼ of all insect species are parasitic on plants.
¼ of all insects are parasitic on the above insects.
In addition, many insects and other invertebrates are parasitic on other animals.

There are several other invertebrate phyla which are wholly or largely parasitic. Flatworms and roundworms are found in virtually every wild species of vertebrate. Protozoan parasites are also ubiquitous. Hence parasitism is almost certainly the most common feeding method on Earth.
Numbers of species 
Recent publications have given an overview of the 150 years of research into co-evolution after the Origin of species.
"Specializations in interactions with other species is the root cause why the world has millions of species rather than thousands".p8
Many species are parasites or are specialised to live in one or a few hosts. A single species of tropical tree is, on average, a host to 162 host-specific beetle species. Since there are 50,000 tropical tree species, and beetles amount to 40% of total insect species, and there are also tree-specific species below the canopy, it is possible to estimate the total number of arthropod species living in tropical forests. The number is 30 million. This contrasts rather strongly with the total of 1.4 to 1.8 million species which have already been described. It seems textbooks have underestimated the number of species in existence by a factor of about 20.
The single factor which most causes this high number of species is phytophagy: the huge number of insect species, each eating one or a few plant species. And what insects do, so do fungi, nematodes, mites and other invertebrates.

Geographic mosaic 
The geographic mosaic theory of coevolution was developed by John N Thompson as a framework for envisioning the coevolutionary process in real populations and species. It has been an attempt to incorporate the minimum components of population biology needed for an ecologically and evolutionarily realistic theory of coevolution and evolving interactions in general. It applies to pairs of interacting species, small groups of interacting species, and large webs of interactions. 

Assumptions: Geographic mosaic theory is based on several observations long known to biologists. These observation are taken as assumptions in the development of geographic mosaic theory:

1. Species are often collections of genetically distinct populations
2. Interacting species often differ in their geographic ranges

3. interactions among species differ among environments in their ecological outcomes.

The Hypothesis: From these assumptions, geographic mosaic theory argues that coevolution proceeds by natural selection acting on three sources of variation that affect interactions among species. These three sources of variation can be formally partitioned as genotype by genotype by environment interactions (GxGxE).

1. Geographic selection mosaics: The structure of natural selection on interactions differs among environments (e.g., high vs. low temperatures, high vs. low nutrient conditions; a surrounding species web that is species-rich vs. species poor). This variation occurs because genes are expressed in different ways in different environments (GxE interactions) and species affect each other's fitness in different ways in different environments.
For example,  an interaction may be antagonistic in one environment and mutualistic in another environment; or it may be antagonistic in all environments but selection may favor different traits in different environments).

2. Coevolutionary hotspots: The intensity of reciprocal selection differs among environments. Interactions are subject to reciprocal selection only within some local communities, called coevolutionary hotspots. These coevolutionary hotspots are embedded in a broader matrix of coevolutionary coldspots, where local natural selection is non-reciprocal  or where only one of the participants occurs.

For example, an interaction may be mutualistic or antagonistic in some environments (coevolutionary hotspots) but commensalistic in other environments (coevolutionary coldspots).
3. Trait remixing: The overall genetic structure of coevolving species continually changes through new mutations, genomic alterations, gene flow among populations, differential random genetic drift among populations, and extinction of local populations that differ in the combinations of coevolving traits they harbor. New genetic material on which natural selection can act can result from simple genetic mutations, chromosomal rearrangements, hybridization between populations, or whole genome duplications (polypoloidy). These processes contribute to the shifting geographic mosaic of coevolution by continually altering the spatial distributions of potentially coevolving genes and traits.

The combination of these processes continually changes the distribution of genotypes within any local population and the distribution of genotypes among populations.
NOTE: Some descriptions of geographic mosaic theory collapse this “trait remixing” part of geographic mosaic theory to gene flow. That is an incorrect characterization. The point of trait remixing is that through a combination of genetic, genomic, and ecological processes, the available distribution of coevolving traits on which natural selection can act continues to change over time within and among populations.

In studies of coevolution, a GxGxE interaction can be viewed either in the most formal way at the gene or genotype level (i.e., how selection acts on the same gene or genotype in across contrasting environments), or it can be viewed more generally at the level of how natural selection acts on two or more interacting species across many contrasting environments. 

See books by John N Thompson (1982 Interaction and Coevolution; 1994 The Coevolutionary Process; 2005 The Geographic Mosaic of Coevolution; 2013 Relentless Evolution)
Related pages 
Evolutionary arms race
Rough-skinned newt, garter snake and toxin resistance.
Defence against herbivory
Figs
The Red Queen

References
Rongorongo is a system of writing native to Easter Island. It cannot be read. There are two dozen examples of rongorongo script, mostly carved on tablets made from wood of the portia tree Thespesia populnea, known as makoi in Rapanui (Easter Island) language. The longest inscription in existence is the Santiago Staff, a wooden sceptre 126 centimetres long and 6.5 centimetres wide, bearing 2300 glyphs (Gr. γλυφη "carving"). The staff, which once belonged to an Easter Island king, was acquired by the Chilean Navy in 1870 and is now in Santiago's Museum of Natural History.
In 2019, only 25 texts were seen as authentic. These texts and artefacts are distributed over diffent museum in the world, none remains on the Easter Island. The total text corpus is about 14,000 "letters", made of about 600 different glyphs. The writing was probably used for religious puroposes; only very few people used it. The age of the writing is unknown. In the 19th century, Europeans received the first objects with writing on them. Some glyphs show plants that do not exist, or have never existed on Easter Island. One example is the Breadfruit, which has never existed on Eastter Island. The knowledge of the plant must have been passed on from the first settlers, from generation to generation.  

When the Euopeans came ot the island, they paid high prices for tablets containing Rongoro. Today, there are a number of artefacts containing Rongorongo whch are clear forgeries. There are some, where the claim is disputed.

References

Other websites 
Unicode.

Thespesia
Thespesia 

Unreadable writing systems
Easter Island
The Candle Festival (known in Thai as Haetian) is held in Ubon Ratchathani, Isan, Thailand.

At the start of rainy season, it is traditional for the devout to donate to monks items of personal use, such as candles. This part of the festival became the core of the Ubon Ratchathani version of the event. It is now a major event both for residents and for tourists: giant candles are paraded through the town, each representing a local temple, district or other institution. The more elaborate versions are accompanied by scenes of Hindu and Buddhist mythology sculpted in wood or plaster and coated with wax.

Festivals in Asia
Thai culture
The portia tree (Thespesia populnea) Family Malvaceae, is a small tree or shrub 5-10 (-20) m high that is pantropical in littoral environments, although probably native only to the Old World. In Hawai‘i and elsewhere in the Pacific it is possibly indigenous, although may have been spread by early Polynesians for its useful wood and fiber.

Common names vary according to the country and include "Indian tulip tree", "Pacific rosewood", "seaside mahoe" (in Florida), surina (the "elegant tree"), suriya (Sinhala), bebaru or baru baru (Malay), milo or miro (in many Polynesian languages), mako‘i (Rapanui), gangaraavi (Telugu), poovarasu (Tamil), and plaksa (Sanskrit).

Traditionally it was planted in sacred groves and used for religious sculpture throughout eastern Polynesia. It was used for the rongorongo tablets of Easter Island.

Sources 
 Binggeli, P. 1999.Miro

Other websites 
 Milo at Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawaii
 description

Malvaceae
Trees
The Legend of Zelda: The Minish Cap, known in Japan as , is an action adventure video game made by Flagship and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance game console.

2004 video games
2005 video games
Flagship games
Game Boy Advance games
Game Boy Advance-only games
Virtual Console games
Minish Cap
The PAL region is a PAL region which covers most of Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe.

Related pages
 PAL
 Regional lockout

Television technology
The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventures, known in Japan as , is an action adventure video game made by Nintendo for the Nintendo GameCube game console.

2004 video games
Cooperative video games
Nintendo GameCube-only games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Four Swords Adventures
The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Ages and The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Seasons are action adventure video games made by Capcom and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Color game console.

Plot

Oracle of Seasons
The Triforce sends Link to the land of Holodrum, where he stumbles upon a traveling group of performers. After resting with them a bit, he finds out that the mysterious dancer from the troupe is actually the Oracle of Seasons, Din. An evil general named Onox comes and captures her in order to gain power. By doing so he also puts all the seasons into chaos and evil spreads throughout the land. Link must find all the essences of nature to defeat the evil general to save Din.
Oracle of Ages
The Triforce sends Link to the land of Labrynna, where he finds a woman named Impa. They go to see a singer named Nayru. Nayru is the Oracle of Ages. Impa is revealed to have been possessed by Veran, Sorceress of Shadows, who leaves Impa and goes to possess Nayru, causing the time to fall into chaos. Link must find the Essences of Time in order to save Nayru from Veran.

References

2001 video games
2013 video games
2016 video games
Flagship games
Game Boy Color games
Virtual Console games
Oracle of Ages and Oracle of Seasons
Video games with time travel
Single-player video games
is an action-adventure video game made by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 game console. The game was remade in 2015 for the Nintendo 3DS titled The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask 3D.

It was also included in The Legend of Zelda: Collector's Edition.
After The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, Link is led to Termina by the possessed Skull Kid and is turned into a Deku, a small, wooden creature. He meets the Happy Mask Salesman, a very moody man. He offers to fix Link if he gets the mask Skull Kid got with a time of three days. However, three days passed, and the Skull Kid, possessed with Majora's Mask (what the Happy Mask Salesman needed) brings the moon down to destroy Termina. Link stops him, gets his ocarina back, and returns back three days ago. He returns to the Salesman who believes Link has the mask. He reheals him before he sees Link never got the mask. Link now has to stop the moon that will destroy everything, which is being done by Majora's Mask, the mask held by Skull Kid. To stop it, he needs to summon the Four Giants. He fights the possessed spirits, and the Giants hold the moon. However, Majora's Mask leaves Skull Kid and goes to the Moon, After helping people, Link finally goes to the moon. It is actually a plain with a tree
. Under the tree, a kid agrees to play with him as the final battle takes hold. Link finally defeats the evil in Majora's Mask and it is now a lifeless mask. He returns it to the Salesman. After this, Link leaves Termina as the game ends.
Related pages
The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time

2000 video games
Nintendo 64 games
Nintendo GameCube games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Majora's Mask
Video games with time travel
The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening, known in Japan as , is an action-adventure video game made by Nintendo for the Game Boy game console. It was remade for the Game Boy Color with full color graphics and new features.

History 
Unlinke most The Legend of Zelda games, Link's Awakening's history is outside of the Hyrule kingdom. No location or character of the other games appear, aside the presence of the main hero Link and a mention to the princess Zelda. The game takes place in a completely new region, the Koholint island.

After the events of A Link to the Past, the hero Link travels by boat to other countries to become stronger. When he is going back to Hyrule, a storm destroys his boat, and Link loses consciousness. Marin, a girl living on Koholint, takes him to her house. When Link wakes up, he meets Marin and her father, Tarin. Marin is fascinated by Link and by the world outside Koholint, and she tells Link that if she were a seagull, she would travel beyond her island.
Links goes out to find his sword and when he finds it, an owl tells him that if he wants to go back home, he must wake up the Wind Fish, the guardian of the island that sleeps in an egg at the top of the island. For this he needs the eight Instruments of the Sirens. Link explores dungeons to find these instruments. When he searches the seventh instrument, at the Ancient Ruins, he finds a texts that tells the reality about the Koholint isle: it is a dream world that only exists in the dream of the Wind Fish.

After finding all eight instruments, Link goes to the top of the island: mount Tamaranch. There he plays the 'Ballad of the Windfish' with the instruments. This breaks the egg; Link then goes into the egg. Here, he fights against the last monster. When he wins the battle, the owl reveals that he is a part of the Wind Fish's spirit, and the Wind Fish confirms that this world was only a dream.
Link plays the ballad of the Wind Fish a second time, and the Wind Fish finally wakes up; Koholint and its inhabitants disappear, everything of this dream disappears. Link wakes up in the ocean, on a piece of wood (his boat was destroyed). The Wind Fish flies above him. After the credits, if the player did not lose any life during the game, we see a seagull flying away and Marin's face appears (she, the seagull, finally is outside of her island).

References

1993 video games
1998 video games
1999 video games
2011 video games
2016 video games
Game Boy games
Game Boy Color games
Virtual Console games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Link's Awakening
Video game remakes
The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past, known in Japan as  is an action-adventure video game made by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo game console. It's the third game of The Legend of Zelda series, though it is a prequel to The Legend of Zelda and Zelda II: The Adventure of Link. It's about a young boy named Link who has to save Princess Zelda and six other maidens from Ganon using the Master Sword to save them. It got great reviews and it's one of the best-selling Super Nintendo games of all time.

Plot
Plot

Setting
A Link to the Past is in Hyrule, the main area of The Legend of Zelda series. The Light World has many areas from other The Legend of Zelda games, like Hyrule Castle, Death Mountain, the Lost Woods, Lake Hylia, and Kakariko Village. Most of Hyrule is grass-land, with deserts, forests, and villages. The Dark World, a dark version of Hyrule, has very little grass-land and has a large pyramid in the middle. When people enter the Dark World, they get turned into what's in their hearts (for example, Link turns into a pink bunny).
Characters
Link - The star of the game. Link and his Uncle are both is messaged telepathically by Princess Zelda to come save her at Hyrule Castle.
Princess Zelda - Princess Zelda is held prisoner by Agahnim, an evil wizard who killed the king.
Ganon - The enemy of the game. He's a large pig monster known as the King of Evil, but used to be a man called Ganondorf and was called the King of Thieves. He turned Golden Land evil, and it became the Dark World, and used Agahnim to try to take over the Light World too.
Agahnim - Ganon's top minion. He was made in charge of taking over the Light World by Ganon, and has to seal away the seven maidens, which includes Princess Zelda.
The Seven Maidens - There are seven maidens - one of them being Princess Zelda - who were put into crystals and held prisoner in the Dark World by Agahnim. Agahnim left them in the hands of seven of Ganon's minions.
Sahasrahla - An old man who helps Link throughout the game.
Link's Uncle - Link's Uncle goes to save Princess Zelda but is killed by soldiers at Hyrule Castle. But just before his death, he gives his sword and shield to Link to go save her.
The story starts with Link in bed when a voice calls out to him. The voice is Princess Zelda's, and she asks for help escaping from Hyrule Castle before the evil wizard Agahnim can seal her away like the other maidens before her. Link's Uncle hears it too, and goes to save her. When Link follows him into the sewer, he finds his Uncle half-alive, and his Uncle gives Link his sword and shield before he dies. Link breaks Zelda out of her cell and takes her through a secret path to a sanctuary where she stays and hides. Link is told by an old man called Sahasrahla that he has to find the pendants of power, wisdom, and courage in three dungeons so he can break the seal on the ancient weapon, the Master Sword. Link finds the pendants in the Eastern Palace, the Desert Palace, and the Tower of Hera, and brings them to the Lost Woods, where he pulls the Master Sword out of its pedestal. Zelda gets kidnapped before he can get to her, and Link fights Agahnim
. He and Agahnim go to the Dark World, and Link appears on top of a large pyramid. He has to find the seven crystals that have seven maidens in them, including Zelda, so he can get to Ganon's Tower. After he gets them all, he goes to the top of the tower and battles Agahnim again. He kills him, and Ganon in a bat form flies out of the corpse and into the Pyramid of Power. Link battles Ganon using the Master Sword and Silver Arrows, and eventually kills him. He finds the Triforce that Ganon used to corrupt the Golden Land, and uses it to wish everything back to normal, and Link puts the Master Sword back in the pedestal.
A Link to the Past plays like The Legend of Zelda for the NES with a bird's eye view view instead of Zelda II: The Adventure of Link's sidescrolling view, and stars a boy named Link. He has a sword and shield, and many other items from older games including a bow, a boomerang, and bombs. He always has a sword and shield out when he has them, and can have one other item equipped. Link uses them to explore Hyrule, battle enemies, and solve puzzles. It adds onto the gameplay of The Legend of Zelda, with better controls and new items, like the hookshot and Pegasus Boots which have appeared in many The Legend of Zelda games after it. It also adds a feature used in many games after it, which is going back and forth between two worlds. This was first used again after A Link to the Past in The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, where Link travels back and forth in time. Link also has a magic meter like in Zelda II, which he needs to use items like the Lantern and Ice Rod
. Throughout Hyrule, there are many items to find and Heart Pieces too that add to Link's health.
Link has to go around Hyrule and battle enemies, find items, and find the dungeons that he has to go to. There are many kinds of items, some of them being too strong for a sword. There are a lot of puzzles that require Link to use his many items to complete in the dungeons. In every dungeon, there is almost always these items - a Compass, a Dungeon Map, several Keys, a Big Key, a special dungeon item usually used to beat the dungeon, and a magical item after the boss. The boss at the end of the dungeon is always different, and are much more powerful than regular enemies in the game.

Music
Kōji Kondō, a famous Nintendo musician, was in charge of the soundtrack for this game. Several songs in this game were remixed in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, including the Dark Woods theme.

Development
Development

Reception
The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past is considered to be one of the best Super Nintendo game ever made and one of the best video games ever made too. It was praised for how good the controls were, and how entertaining it was to explore the world and dungeons.

Re-releases
This game has been re-released several times, including a Satellaview remake, Game Boy Advance remake, and a port to the Wii's Virtual Console.

BS The Legend of Zelda: Kodai no Sekiban
A Link to the Past was remade for the Satellaview, a Super Nintendo Entertainment System add-on, and was called BS The Legend of Zelda: Kodai no Sekiban. It has a different plot and a slightly changed world. It had voice acting, and it lasted for four weeks. Each week, you have to do something, and when the next week comes, there's a new quest to do.
The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past & The Four Swords
A Link to the Past was re-released on the Game Boy Advance as The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past & The Four Swords. It came with a modified port of A Link to the Past along with the multiplayer-only game Four Swords. The port added a new dungeon to the game called The Palace of the Four Sword. Four Swords's graphical style is similar to The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker.

On September 28, 2011, an updated version of Four Swords called The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Anniversary Edition was released. It is available on Nintendo's DSiWare service. It includes a single player mode and more areas.

References

1991 video games
Flagship games
Game Boy Advance games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Nintendo Research & Development 2 games
Link to the Past
Virtual Console games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Single-player video games
Zelda II: The Adventure of Link is an adventure-role-playing video game made by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System game console. 

It was also released in The Legend of Zelda: Collector's Edition.

Plot
The main hero of the series, Link, finds out that Princess Zelda has gone under a deep sleep after a fight with a wizard. While trying to find crystals to awaken Zelda, Link also fights off followers of Ganon, who are trying to bring him back to life.

Gameplay
The gameplay of The Adventure of Link is very different from the rest of the series. It is a role-playing game where the player gains experience and levels up stats. The map is also different; the overworld is a birds-eye view, while smaller maps are side scrolling where the player moves only left and right.
Development
Shigeru Miyamoto wanted to have a very different game than the first game, The Legend of Zelda. While Miyamoto was still the producer of the game, it was developed by new people than before. Instead of keeping a view from above, Zelda II has a side-view of the game when fighting enemies or exploring dungeons. The game was originally developed for the Famicom, but was released on worldwide systems after.

References

1987 video games
The Legend of Zelda games
Famicom Disk System games
Game Boy Advance games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii U
In rhetoric, a tautology is the repetition of a statement, for example, "With malice toward none, with charity for all". 

Unlike a tautology in logic, it is not automatically true.

Examples 
 The phrase "A is A", often mistakenly attributed to Aristotle, was a favorite of Ayn Rand. The idea frequently appears in her  philosophy, especially as written in her novel Atlas Shrugged.
 The phrase A is B because A is B.
 In his book Mostly Harmless, Douglas Adams used the phrase, "Anything that happens, happens. Anything that in happening causes something else to happen, causes something else to happen. Anything that in happening happens again, happens again. Though not necessarily in that order."
 Comedian Mitch Hedberg joked about a tautological advertisement for a boxing match: "It said, It's a fight to the finish! (pause) That's a good place to end."

Figures of speech
A tautology can also be a figure of speech
In propositional logic, a tautology (from the Greek word ταυτολογία) is a propositional formula that is always true, and is sometimes denoted by the symbol  (a symbol also reserved for the truth value 'true'). In other words, a tautology cannot be wrong. For example, formulae in maths are tautological, because they always hold true for any values. The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein first applied the term to propositional logic in 1921.

A statement in logic is considered contingent if it is neither a tautology nor false.

Some examples of tautologies in natural language include: 
 "I know that this is Wikipedia because I know that this is Wikipedia."
 "I am president of this club because I am the president of this club."
 "The first rule of the tautology club is the first rule of the tautology club."
These tautologies are sentences of the following form:
 A is true because A is true
Indeed, if A is not true, then A is not true, so the tautology is still true.
Related pages 

 Logic

References 

Logic
The longhorn beetles or long-horned beetles (Cerambycidae) are a family of beetles that have long antennae. The antennae may be longer than the beetles' body. Over 35,000 species have been described.

The length of the antennae is an obvious feature of their body. Their long antennae sprout from tubercles on the face. Cerambycids with short antennae still have the tubercles. Otherwise they vary greatly in size, shape, sculpture, and colour.

Many of the species are mimics of Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps). The rest are cryptically colored. The titan beetle (Titanus giganteus) from northeastern South America is often considered the largest insect (though not the heaviest, and not the longest including legs). Its maximum body length is just over .

References

Other websites 
 cerambycoidea.com
 Photo gallery of word-wide long-horned beetles
Macroevolution refers to large-scale evolution. For some, this means the origin of species. For others, it means the large-scale changes seen in the fossil record. 
"Major changes in structure and ways of life over.. tens of millions of years". R.L. Carroll.
"A large evolutionary pattern... events that result in the origin of a new higher taxon". Dictionary of Genetics.
"All macroevolutionary processes take place in populations and in the genotypes of individuals, and are thus simultaneously microevolutionary processes". Mayr.
"A vague term for the evolution of great phenotypic changes, usually great enough to [put] the lineage into a distinct genus or higher taxon". Futuyma.
"Evolution on the grand scale". Ridley.
It is a term of convenience: for most biologists it does not suggest any change in the process of evolution. For a few palaeontologists, some things they see in the fossil record cannot be explained just by the gradualist evolutionary synthesis. They are in the minority. There are some interesting discussions by other palaeontologists.

Some biologists use the term for evolution in already separated gene pools. For them, macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species. Again, this is a minority position. Most biologist would not call evolution at the species level "macroevolution".
Microevolution, on the other hand, refers to smaller evolutionary changes within species or populations. During microevolution changes in allele frequencies definitely do occur. Some biologists, Richard Dawkins in particular, have suggested that the gene is the object of selection. This was always challenged by Ernst Mayr "The individual is the entity which survives or not, which reproduces or not, and which reproduces successfully or not". Changes in gene frequency in populations is a by-product of what happens to individuals.

Relation of macroevolution to microevolution 
Paleontology, evolutionary developmental biology, and sequence analysis contribute much evidence for the patterns and processes that can be classified as macroevolution. An example of macroevolution is the appearance of feathers during the evolution of birds from one group of dinosaurs.
Within the modern evolutionary synthesis school of thought, macroevolution is thought of as the compounded effects of microevolution. Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one – the only difference between them is of time and scale.

Some creationists have also adopted the term 'macroevolution' to describe the form of evolution they reject. They may accept that evolutionary change is possible within species (microevolution), but deny that one species can evolve into another (macroevolution). These arguments are rejected by biologists, who hold that there is ample evidence that macroevolution has occurred in the past.

Research topics
Some examples of subjects whose study falls within the realm of macroevolution:
The debate between punctuated equilibrium and gradualism
 Speciation and extinction rates
 Mass extinctions
 Adaptive radiations such as the Cambrian Explosion
 Changes in biodiversity through time
 The role of development in shaping evolution, particularly such topics as heterochrony and developmental plasticity
 Genomic evolution, like horizontal gene transfer, genome fusions in endosymbioses, and adaptive changes in genome size

Origin of the term
Russian entomologist Yuri Filipchenko (or Philipchenko, depending on the transliteration) first coined the terms 'macroevolution' and 'microevolution' in 1927 in his German language work, Variabilität und Variatio.

Since then, their meanings have been revised several times and fallen into disfavour with many, who prefer to speak of biological evolution as one process.

Criticisms of macroevolution
Evolution as a whole is strongly supported by many kinds of evidence.
The issue for biologists is whether there is any sense in having the special term macroevolution. The answer is yes for a few biologists who proposed one or more evolutionary mechanisms which worked above the species level. The ideas of punctuated equilibrium and species selection were suggested, but in each case most biologists felt they could be explained by the usual small-scale changes. This explains why 'macroevolution' is perhaps a term biologists do not need to use.

When discussing the topic, creationists use "strategically elastic" definitions of micro- and macroevolution.  Macroevolution, by their definition, cannot be attained. Any observed evolutionary change is described by them as being "just microevolution".

The debate between biologists continues, with some biologists stating that there is significant evidence that other factors have acted during macroevolution, and others maintaining that macroevolution can still be fully explained by the mechanisms of microevolution.

References
References

Other websites 
 Introduction to macroevolution on the Understanding Evolution website
 Macroevolution as an independent discipline: Macroevolution in the 21st century
 Macroevolution as the common descent of all life: "29+ evidences for macroevolution"

Evolution
A gene pool is the set of all possible variations (alleles) of all genes of a population. It is a concept in population genetics.

For example, plants have genes that say what colour their flowers will be. The gene pool of peas has an allele for red flowers and another one for white flowers.

Classical genetics
Transcription is when RNA is made from DNA. The DNA sequence is copied by a special enzyme called RNA polymerase to make a matching RNA strand.

"All living things, with their myriad variations, use an almost identical microscopic machine to read their genes. This machine – RNA polymerase – is responsible for a process called transcription, which by producing RNA from DNA, takes the first step in reading the blueprint of life that is encoded in all of our genes".

The matching RNA strand is a 'pre-messenger RNA'. Next, the non-coding introns are stripped out by a spliceosome. The remaining exons are put together to make a messenger RNA.

The product is called messenger RNA (mRNA) because it carries a genetic message from the DNA to the protein-making machinery of the cell. Transcription is the first step that leads to the expression of the genes.
The stretch of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule is called a transcription unit. This contains:
 sequences which regulate the protein synthesis 
 sequences which do not code: introns
 sequences which do code for amino acid sequences in the protein. They are called exons. 

As in DNA replication, only one of the two DNA strands is transcribed. This strand is called the template strand, because it provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript. The other strand is called the coding strand. Its sequence is the same as the newly created RNA transcript (except for thymine being substituted for uracil).

The DNA template strand is read 3' → 5' direction by RNA polymerase and the new RNA strand is synthesized in the 5'→ 3' direction. RNA polymerase binds to the 3' end of a gene (promoter) on the DNA template strand and travels toward the 5' end.
Roger D. Kornberg won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription".

Related pages 
RNA splicing
Intron
Oncogene
Transcription factor
Translation (genetics)
Reverse transcriptase

References 

Cell biology
Molecular biology
DNA
William Hilton Hovell (April 26 1786 — November 9 1875) was an English explorer of Australia. Together with Hamilton Hume he explored much of Victoria.

Early life
William Hovell was born at Yarmouth, Norfolk, England. He joined the Royal Navy  and became a captain. In October 1813, he moved to New South Wales with his wife Esther Arndell. He got work as a ship captain and made several trading trips along the coast and to New Zealand. In 1816 he was shipwrecked in Bass Strait.  In 1819 he lived near Sydney and did some exploring to the south. He reached the Burragorang Valley in 1823.

Corio Bay