Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Tellurium(IV) fluoride, also known as tellurium tetrafluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeF4. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains fluoride ions.

Properties 
Tellurium(IV) fluoride is a white solid. It reacts with water to make tellurium dioxide and hydrofluoric acid. It reacts with many metals when heated.

Preparation 
It is made by reacting tellurium dioxide with sulfur tetrafluoride. It can also be made by reacting cold fluorine with tellurium. Another way is reacting selenium tetrafluoride with warm tellurium dioxide. Fluorine can also react with tellurium(II) chloride or tellurium(II) bromide to make tellurium(IV) fluoride.

Related pages 
Tellurium(VI) fluoride
Tellurium(IV) chloride

Tellurium compounds
Fluorine compounds
Tellurium(IV) oxide, also known as tellurium dioxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeO2. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions.

Properties
Tellurium(IV) oxide can be yellow or white. The white form is the manmade form. The yellow form is natural, also known as tellurite. The manmade form is most common in chemical reactions. At high pressure, the manmade white form turns into the yellow form. It melts at a high temperature to make a red liquid.

Tellurium(IV) oxide does not dissolve in water. It reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid. It can react with many strong acids and powerful oxidizing agents. It can also react with strong bases. It makes one's breath smell like garlic when it is eaten.

Preparation
Tellurium(IV) oxide is made by burning tellurium in air.

Uses
It is used in devices that can convert light into sound. It can make glass with special properties.

Safety
It can cause birth defects. It also makes bad breath.
Related pages
Tellurium(IV) chloride
Tellurium(VI) oxide

Tellurium compounds
Tellurium oxide can refer to either of these chemical compounds.

Tellurium dioxide, TeO2
Tellurium trioxide, TeO3
Tellurium(VI) fluoride, also known as tellurium hexafluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeF6. It contains tellurium in its +6 oxidation state. It also contains fluoride ions. It is the oldest known tellurium fluoride.

Properties 
Tellurium(VI) fluoride is a colorless gas. It condenses to a white solid when made cold. It has a very bad smell. It is very toxic. It is similar to selenium hexafluoride, even though it is less volatile (not as easily evaporated). It reacts with water to make telluric acid and hydrofluoric acid. It reacts with tellurium under  to make tellurium tetrafluoride.

Preparation 
It is made by reacting hot fluorine with tellurium. Cold fluorine gas makes tellurium tetrafluoride. It can also be made by reacting fluorine with tellurium trioxide. Another way to make it is reacting selenium tetrafluoride and tellurium dioxide to make tellurium tetrafluoride, which is heated above  to make tellurium hexafluoride and tellurium.
Related pages 
Tellurium(IV) fluoride
Tellurium(IV) chloride

Tellurium compounds
Fluorine compounds
Tellurium fluoride can refer to either of these chemical compounds:

Tellurium(IV) fluoride
Tellurium(VI) fluoride
Avram Glazer (born October 19, 1960 in Rochester, New York) is the joint-chairman of Manchester United Football Club with his brother Joel.

Glazer lives in New Orleans with his wife and their two children. He is a son of Malcolm Glazer.

References

1960 births
Living people
American billionaires
American chief executives
Businesspeople from New York (state)
Avram
Jewish American sportspeople
Jewish billionaires
Jewish businesspeople
People from Rochester, New York
Sportspeople from New York (state)
Telluric acid is a chemical compound. It is an acid. Its chemical formula is H6TeO6. It contains hydrogen and tellurate ions. It contains the TeO66- form of the tellurate ion.

Telluric acid is a weak acid. It reacts with strong bases to make tellurates. It is a powerful oxidizing agents. It can be dehydrated to make tellurium trioxide. The metatelluric acid, H2TeO4, does not exist. 

Telluric acid can be made by reacting tellurium dioxide with chromium trioxide or hydrogen peroxide. 

It is used to make other tellurates such as sodium tellurate.

Related pages
Tellurous acid
Sodium tellurite

Sources

Acids
Tellurium compounds
Electrical resistivity is a concept in electrical engineering. It is a measure of how much a material stops the flow of electric current through it. Most metals have very low electrical resistivity.

More precisely, "the resistivity of a material of conductor is the resistance of its unit area of cross section and per unit of its length". The International System of Units uses the ohm metre for measuring how much electrical resistivity there is. Electrical resistivity is the inverse of electrical conductivity. This term is more used for semiconductors and insulators.

 
The name of this formula, is Pouillet's law. (It is named after Claude Pouillet):

The resistance of a given element is proportional to the length, but inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. For example, if  = ,  =  (forming a cube with perfectly conductive contacts on opposite faces), then the resistance of this element in ohms is numerically equal to the resistivity of the material it is made of in Ω⋅m.
The resistivity of a substance is equal to the resistance of a rod of that substance which is 1 metre long and 1 square metre in cross-section.  This can be a 1 cubic Metre cube. So we can also say that the resistivity of a substance is equal to he resistance between the opposite faces of a 1-metre cube of the substance.

Electricity
Manzanar was the name of a Japanese American internment camp in California.  It was near Lone Pine, California, in the desert near Death Valley.  Thousands of people were kept there; most of them were Japanese people from Los Angeles.  The camp opened in 1942 and was closed in 1945.  Today, the camp is a National Historic Site.

References

Other websites

20th century in California
World War II
Concentration camps
National Historic Landmarks of the United States
California Historical Landmarks
Don Philip Rupasinghe Gunawardena (11 January 1901 – 26 March 1972) was a Sri Lankan politician. He introduced Trotskyism to Sri Lanka. He studied in the United States and picked up liberal ideas there.

References

1901 births
1972 deaths
Indian independence movement
Communists
Sri Lankan politicians
"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" is an extremely popular Christmas song that is played every holiday season. The words were written by Ralph Blane and the music by Hugh Martin in 1943. The song was first introduced by Judy Garland in the 1944 movie, Meet Me In St. Louis. A modified version was introduced by Frank Sinatra who felt the original was too sad for his 1957 album, A Jolly Christmas. It has also been recorded by many other performers including Christina Aguilera, Demi Lovato, Sam Smith and the Pretenders. In 2007 ASCAP listed the song at number three in the 25 most played holiday songs.

References

1944 songs
Christmas songs
Pop songs
Frank Sinatra songs
Christina Aguilera songs
The Pretenders songs
Jewel (singer) songs
Sam Smith (singer) songs
Demi Lovato songs
Monica (singer) songs
Beverley Knight songs
Perry Como songs
Michael McDonald (musician) songs
Connie Francis songs
Crystal Gayle songs
Hurricane Diane was a really bad Hurricane to the East Coast of the US during 1955. The storm caused severe destruction and an unusually severe death toll. Diane was among several hurricanes that bashed the East Coast during 1955, the others being Connie and Ione. The name Diane was later retired.

Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes
Retired tropical cyclone names
Hurricanes in the United States
1955 in the United States
1950s in weather
Martha Stewart (born Martha Helen Kostyra, August 3, 1941) is an American entrepreneur, author, and media personality. Stewart is famous for the Martha Stewart Living TV show and magazine. She was born in Jersey City, New Jersey to Polish-American parents.

In 2004, Stewart was convicted of obstructing justice and lying to investigators about a stock sale. She served five months in a West Virginia prison. She was on ABC but moved to another channel. In May 2018, President Donald Trump said he was thinking about pardoning Stewart for her charges.

References

1941 births
Living people
American fraudsters
Businesspeople from New Jersey
American billionaires
Television personalities from New Jersey
Writers from New Jersey
American bloggers
Paul Christison Edwards (born ) is an English  organist and composer of music for the Anglican Church.

Biography
Paul Edwards spent his childhood in the village of Turvey in Bedfordshire.  He liked church music, especially the sound of the big organ in the church at Turvey.  He became a chorister at St Paul’s Cathedral for four and a half years and then spent the same amount of time as lay clerk at Peterborough Cathedral.  He has been organist and choir master at several churches in Bedfordshire, including All Saints, Turvey and St. Paul's Church, Bedford.  He works as a teacher, piano accompanist and choral singer.
Edwards has made a series of recordings of interesting old organs of North Bedfordshire.  He has transcribed and edited ten volumes of 18th century English Organ Music.  The list of all his compositions has 450 opus numbers.  They include about 150 hymn tunes and a large number of anthems.  Many of these works have been published in collections including Hymns for Today’s Church, Psalms for Today and Carols for Today.  His carol No Small Wonder, written in 1983 was published in Carols for Today in 1986 and was recorded on LP by Canterbury Cathedral  Choir.  It was sung at the famous Nine Lessons and Carols service broadcast on the BBC Television by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge in 2000.  His music has been recorded on several CDs.

Edwards finds inspiration for his compositions in the English countryside, especially that of Norfolk   He also enjoys driving and photographing busses and coaches.

References

Other websites

 

English composers
English organists
Living people
1955 births
A lay clerk, also known as a lay vicar, is a term used in the United Kingdom to describe a male singer who sings in a cathedral choir or a choir belonging to a college of one of the large traditional universities.  A lay clerk is usually paid for the job.  When he is called "lay vicar" the term "vicar" comes from the Latin word "vice" (meaning "deputy").  A lay vicar is not in holy orders (he is not a priest).  Today there are a few female lay clerks, e.g. in Dublin.

The term "layman" was used in the Middle Ages for a chorister who sings some of the music that was too difficult for the priests to sing.  Today many of the lay clerks in places such as Oxford or Cambridge combine their work as layclerk with studying at University.  It is similar to a scholarship for studying.

Singers
Christian religious occupations
Sir Richard Owen KCB (Lancaster, 20 July 1804–18 December 1892) was an English biologist, comparative anatomist and palaeontologist.

Owen is probably best remembered today for coining the word Dinosauria (meaning 'Terrible Reptile'), and for his outspoken opposition to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

Owen was the driving force behind the establishment, in 1881, of the British Museum (Natural History) in London.

Owen's technical descriptions of vertebrates were important. His Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates (3 vols. London 1866–1868) was a standard reference work for many years.

His career was tainted by accusations that he failed to give credit to the work of others and even tried to appropriate it under his own name.

Controversies with his peers
"Owen: the most distinguished vertebrate zoologist and palaeontologist... but a most deceitful and odious man." Richard Broke Freeman (Charles Darwin: a Companion. Dawson 1978)
Owen credited himself and Georges Cuvier with the discovery of the Iguanodon, completely excluding any credit for the original discoverer of the dinosaur, Gideon Mantell. This was not the first or last time Owen would deliberately claim a discovery as his own, when in fact it was not. Owen was finally dismissed from the Royal Society's Zoological Council for plagiarism.

Owen was highly critical of Darwin's On the Origin of Species, in part because Darwin did not refer much to the previous scientific theories of evolution. Instead, Darwin compared the theory of evolution by natural selection with the unscientific theory in the Bible.

Owen, in Darwin's opinion, was "Spiteful, extremely malignant, clever; the Londoners say he is mad with envy because my book is so talked about". "It is painful to be hated in the intense degree with which Owen hates me".
Owen was also a party to the threat to end government funding of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew botanical collection (see Joseph Dalton Hooker):
"At the root was Owen’s feeling that Kew should be subordinate to the British Museum (and to Owen) and should not be allowed to develop as an independent scientific institution with the advantage of a great botanic garden." 

In the first part of his career Owen was regarded rightly as one of the great scientific figures of the age. In the second part of his career his reputation slipped. This was not solely due to his underhanded dealings with colleagues; it was also due to the serious errors of scientific judgement which were discovered and publicized. A fine example was his decision to classify man in a separate sub-class of the Mammalia (see Thomas Henry Huxley). In this Owen had no supporters at all. Also, his unwillingness to come off the fence concerning evolution became increasingly damaging to his reputation as time went on.
Owen continued working after his official retirement at the age of 79, but he never recovered the good opinions he had got in his younger days.

References 

1804 births
1892 deaths
English naturalists
British zoologists
English palaeontologists
English science writers
British anatomists
English evolutionary biologists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Order of the Bath
People from Lancashire
British physiologists
British surgeons
Ashcroft v. Al-Kidd is a 2011 case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. It was a civil lawsuit filed in federal court. It argued that holding Muslim-Americans after the September 11 attacks was unconstitutional.

Background
A young man named Lavoni T. Kidd was a prominent football player at the University of Idaho. He is an American citizen. While at college, Kidd converted to Islam and took the name Abudulla al-Kidd.

In 2003, the police arrested Al-Kidd as he was boarding a flight to Saudi Arabia, where he planned to study.  He was held for 15 nights under the federal material witness statute (a law that allows police to hold people who are going to testify in court) because he was going to testify in the trial of Sami Omar Al-Hussayen.  FBI Director Robert S. Mueller told Congress that al-Kidd's capture was one of the FBI's "success" stories.  Al-Kidd was never charged with a crime or called as a witness. He was later released.
Al-Kidd went to court, suing John Ashcroft, who was United States Attorney General from 2001 to 2005.  Al-Kidd said he was strip-searched, shackled, interrogated without having a lawyer with him, and treated as a terrorist.  The American Civil Liberties Union lawyers who represented al-Kidd claimed he was one of 70 Muslim men who were treated this way.

Aschroft claimed that he had "absolute immunity" from civil lawsuits like al-Kidd's. In other words, because his actions were part of his duties as Attorney General, nobody can sue him about those actions.  Ashcroft also claimed that he had "qualified immunity" that prevents such lawsuits unless the official violated someone's constitutional rights.

In 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit found that Ashcroft could be sued and held personally responsible for the wrongful holding of al-Kidd. On October 18, 2010, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear Ashcroft's appeal.
Supreme Court decision
On May 31, 2011, the Supreme Court ruled against al-Kidd by a vote of 8-0.  (Usually there are nine Supreme Court Justices, but Justice Elena Kagan did not participate in the al-Kidd case.)

To show that Ashcroft could be sued, al-Kidd's lawyers had to meet a very high burden of proof.  They needed to prove that Ashcroft was directly involved in holding al-Kidd, or that he knew what was happening to al-Kidd.  The Court ruled that al-Kidd's lawyers had not proved these things.  They suggested that al-Kidd's detention was handled mostly by people who were much less powerful than Ashcroft.

All eight Supreme Court Justices agreed that the Ninth Circuit's ruling should be reversed.  However, the Justices reached this decision for different reasons.

Majority opinion
Majority opinion

Justice Antonin Scalia wrote a majority opinion.  He was joined by Chief Justice John G. Roberts and Justices Anthony Kennedy, Clarence Thomas, and Samuel Alito.  Scalia wrote that a Magistrate Judge had issued a valid arrest warrant for al-Kidd based on specific information about him.  Al-Kidd was not arrested in a general effort to sweep a large group of Muslims into jail  he was specifically arrested because he was suspected.
In a footnote in his opinion, Scalia argues with Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg about what type of "individualized suspicion" is needed to justify arresting a person.  Scalia wrote that a person does not need to be suspected of "wrongdoing"  he just needs to be suspected.  Scalia found that Ashcroft was protected from any possible lawsuits for ordering this group of arrests:
The objectively reasonable arrest and detention of a material witness pursuant to a validly obtained warrant cannot be challenged as unconstitutional on the basis of allegations that the arresting authority had an improper motive.

Concurring opinions

Justice Kennedy wrote a concurring opinion.  He was joined by Justices Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, and Sonia Sotomayor for Part I of his opinion.  He also wrote that al-Kidd's lawsuit should be dismissed.
Kennedy wrote the second part of his opinion alone.  In this part, he described his concern that the Attorney General of the United States cannot be personally sued just because lower courts in some parts of the United States have made legal decisions opposing his policies.

Justice Ginsburg, joined by Justices Breyer and Sotomayor, wrote that it was "uncertain" just how powerful the Material Witness Statute was.  For example, she/ questioned whether a "law-abiding citizen" who was not suspected of wrongdoing could be sent to jail if he saw "a crime during the days or weeks before a scheduled flight abroad."  Ginsburg, Breyer, and Sotomayor were also concerned about how al-Kidd was treated in jail.  The Court did leave al-Kidd with the right to sue his jailers for mistreating him.

Justice Sotomayor, joined by Justices Ginsburg and Breyer, wrote that the Court did not have to think about Constitional questions to decide this case.

References

United States Supreme Court cases
2011 in the United States
Brit milah is the Jewish ritual circumcision ceremony performed on eight-day-old male babies. The foreskin is cut off from the end of the penis. The operation is carried out by a person called a mohel, a ritual circumciser, who has been trained and qualified for this task.This ceremony is important for many Jewish people as it is a symbol of the covenant that God made with Abraham. A special role on a Bris have the Sandek (Godfather), he hold the baby at the ceremony

References

Judaism
Lithium nitrate is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is LiNO3. It contains lithium and nitrate ions.

Properties
Lithium nitrate is a colorless solid. It makes a red flame when heated. It is an oxidizing agent. It breaks down when heated into lithium oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen.

Preparation
This metal can be made by reacting lithium, lithium hydroxide, lithium oxide, or lithium carbonate with nitric acid.

Uses
Lithium nitrate is used in fireworks to make a red color. It is also used in flares.

Related pages
Lithium nitride

Lithium compounds
Nitrogen compounds
Lithium peroxide is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Li2O2. It contains lithium and peroxide ions.

Properties
Lithium peroxide is a white solid. It gives off oxygen when heated. It is an oxidizing agent.

Preparation
Lithium peroxide is made by reacting lithium hydroxide with hydrogen peroxide and removing the water.

Uses
It is used to absorb carbon dioxide on spaceships. It also releases oxygen when it absorbs carbon dioxide.

Safety
Lithium peroxide reacts violently with water to make oxygen. It also is an oxidizing agent and can catch things on fire. It is corrosive because it is basic.

References

Lithium compounds
Adam McKay (born April 17, 1968) is an American actor, director, writer and comedian. Born in Pennsylvania, he directed and wrote several movies and won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay in The Big Short.

Living people
1968 births
American movie actors
American television actors
American movie directors
Comedians from Philadelphia
Actors from Philadelphia
Earth Hour is an event organized by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). It is held on the last Saturday of March every year. The WWF asks people to shut off their lights and appliances for one hour. They want to raise awareness for climate change. It was started in 2007.

Other websites

International environmental organizations
Climate change
Energy conservation
2007 establishments
March events
Police action is a term for the use of military forces without declaring war. Many military actions are called police actions. People do not declare war commonly any more.

Military
Sir Martin John Evans (born 1 January 1941, Stroud, Gloucestershire) is a British geneticist.

His first success was with Matthew Kaufman. In 1981 they were the first to grow embryonic mice stem cells in a laboratory.

Evans, Oliver Smithies and Mario Capecchi discovered a technique in genetic engineering. It is known as homologous recombination of transgenic DNA. This is important because it is the most reliable method of changing animal genomes.

The three put this to use in two more inventions: gene targeting and knockout mice, and were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2007.

References

1941 births
Living people
English biologists
Knights Bachelor
English geneticists
People from Gloucestershire
British Nobel Prize winners
Ahmed Al Safi (, born 1971) is an Iraqi sculptor and painter.

References

Other websites
AlSafiArt 
Saatchi Gallery
Baghdad Journal - Artnet.com

1971 births
Living people
Sculptors
Painters from Asia
Maria Stuarda is an Italian opera in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti, libretto by Giuseppe Bardari, after Friedrich Schiller's play Maria Stuarda. It was first performed in Naples, on October 19,1835, under the name of Buondelmont due to censorship problems, and in its original version in Milan, on December 30, 1835. One of Donizetti's finest work, it is notable for the confrontation scene between Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth I of England, which in real life never took place. It was heartbreaking. The soprano later became famous and well loved.

Principle roles and voice types

 Maria Stuarda - soprano

Sources
 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993. 

Compositions by Gaetano Donizetti
1830s operas
Roberto Devereux is an Italian opera in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti, libretto by Salvatore Cammarano, after François Ancelot's Elisabeth d'Angleterre, it was first performed in Naples, on October 29, 1837. It is a powerful and sweeping work and is sometimes considered one of the most "verdian" of Donizetti's operas. After almost a century of neglect, it was revived in Naples by soprano Leyla Gencer in 1964, and has since then been regularly performed, notably by sopranos Montserrat Caballé and Beverly Sills. The plot is about the love between Queen Elizabeth I of England and her favorite Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex.

Principal roles
 Elisabetta I - soprano
 Roberto Devereux - tenor
 Sara, Duchess of Nottingham - mezzo-soprano
 Duke of Nottingham - baritone

Sources
 The Complete Dictionnary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.

1830s operas
Compositions by Gaetano Donizetti
Roman Wales is the area of modern Wales that was under Roman Empire control.

Roman Wales was an area of south western Britannia under Roman Empire control from the first to the fifth century AD.  Romans called it Cambria but later considered it to be part of "Roman Britain" along with England.  South east Wales was fully made Roman at the beginning of the fifth century.

Pre-Roman Wales 
Up to and during the Roman occupation of Britain, the native inhabitants of Iron Age Britain spoke "Brythonic" languages (a sub-family of the Celtic languages) and were regarded as Britons (or Brythons). The area of modern Wales was divided among a number of tribes, of which the Silures in modern south-east Wales and the Ordovices in central and northwest Wales were the largest and most powerful. These two tribes were the ones who put up the strongest force to the Roman invasion: Mona (the island of Anglesey) was only conquered by Gnaeus Julius Agricola in 78 AD.
Roman invasion of Wales 
The first attack on the Celtic tribes of what is now Wales was made under the legatus Publius Ostorius Scapula about 48 AD. Ostorius first attacked the Deceangli in the north-east, who appear to have surrendered with little resistance. He then spent several years campaigning against the Silures and the Ordovices. Their resistance was led by Caratacus, who had fled what is now southeast England when it was conquered by the Romans. He first led the Silures, then moved to the territory of the Ordovices, where he was defeated by Ostorius in 51 AD. Caratacus fled to the Brigantes, whose queen handed him over to the Romans.

Resistance
Resistance

The Silures waged effective warfare against the Roman forces. Ostorius died with this tribe still unconquered; after his death they won a victory over the Roman Second Augusta Legion, Legio II Augusta. There were no more attempts to extend Roman control in Wales until the governorship of Caius Suetonius Paulinus, who attacked further north and captured the island of Anglesey in 60 or 61 AD. However he was forced to stop the offensive to meet the threat from the rebellion of Boudica.

The Silures eventually came under Roman rule by Sextus Julius Frontinus in a series of campaigns ending about 78 AD. His successor Gnaeus Julius Agricola subdued the Ordovices and recaptured Anglesey by the beginning of 78 AD.

Occupation and romanisation
The Romans occupied the whole of the area now known as Wales, where they built Roman roads and Roman forts, mined gold at Luentinum and conducted commerce, but their interest in the area was limited because of the difficult geography and shortage of flat agricultural land. Most of the Roman remains in Wales are military in nature.

The area was controlled by Roman legionary bases at Deva Victrix (modern Chester) and Isca Augusta (Caerleon), two of the three such bases in Roman Britain, with roads linking these bases to Roman auxiliary forts such as Segontium (actual Caernarfon) and Moridunum (actual Carmarthen).
Romans are only known to have founded one town in Wales, Venta Silurum (Caerwent) in Monmouthshire, although the fort at Moridunum (Carmarthen) was later superseded by a civilian settlement. The modern-day Wales is thought to have been part of the Roman province of "Britannia Superior", and later of the province of "Britannia Secunda", which also included part of what is now the West Country of England.

The later part of the third century witnessed a new concern: defending the coast from seaborne marauders from Hibernia (actual Ireland).  The response was a Saxon Shore-style fort at Cardiff and refurbishment elsewhere.

It is not clear when the legionary garrison at Caerleon was finally withdrawn, possibly by the end of the third century, although it may have left a skeleton force there as late as the mid-fourth century.

The military dispositions in late fourth-century Wales at Cardiff, Caernarfon, Holyhead and Caerhun seem to have been concerned with continuing incursions by Irish bands.
The remaining recognisably military posts seem to have been abandoned c.AD 393 when soldiers were needed to counteract a rebellion in Gaul. There is some evidence that troops may have been left to guard the towns of Carmarthen and Caerwent into the fifth century.

End of Roman Wales 
Wales was occupied by the Romans from the first century AD to the Roman withdrawal from Britain nearly four centuries later, leaving their province to develop into Sub-Roman Britain and the emergence of Wales in the Early Middle Ages.

The only city founded by the Romans in Wales is Caerwent, called Venta Silurum in 75 AD when was created, and the last place to be left by the Romans.

The town lacked substantial defences until the mid 4th century, when stone town walls were built. A small garrison may have been based in the town during that period. Large sections of the defensive walls are still in place, rising up to 5 metres (17 feet) in height in places.
The walls have been described as "easily the most impressive town defence to survive from Roman Britain, and in its freedom from later rebuilding one of the most perfectly preserved in Northern Europe."

Indeed, the Roman town remained occupied after the Roman troops left, until at least the end of the fifth century. Caerwent has been even called the possible Camelot of King Arthur, because it is located only ten miles from the Roman fort Isca Silurum (actually Caerleon), that Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote was the place of the Round Table.
Furthermore, it appears that Christian worship was already established in the town in the fifth century, and it may have had a bishop. A monastery was founded by Saint Tatheus in the 6th century, and a Christian cemetery was also established around the site of the present church.
  
The name Venta gave its name to the emerging Kingdom of Gwent, and the town itself became known as Caer-went or "Castra/Fort of Venta/Gwent". Tradition holds that Caradog Freichfras of Gwent moved his court from Caerwent to Portskewett during the second half of the 6th century, finishing in this way the last romanised presence in Wales.

Finally, Gwyn A. Williams argues that even at the time of the erection of Offa's Dyke (that divided Wales from medieval England) the people to its west saw themselves as "Roman", citing the number of Latin inscriptions still being made into the 8th century.

References
References

Further reading 
 Aldhouse-Green Miranda, Ray Howell. Gwent in Prehistory and Early History: The Gwent County History. London, 2004. 
 Davies, John. A History of Wales. Penguin Books. London, 1994. 
 Millett, M. The Romanization of Britain. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1990
 Mommsen, Theodore. The Provinces of the Roman Empire. Barnes & Noble Books. New York, 1996

Related pages 
 Roman Empire
 History of the United Kingdom
 Roman Britain
 Welsh People

Other websites 
 Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales
 Roman Wales on the RCAHMW website 
 Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust info on Roman Wales 
 58 pages of artifacts and places associated with Roman Wales on Gathering the Jewels the website of Welsh cultural history
 Iron Age and Roman Coins in Wales : A study by Cardiff University

History of Wales
Places of Ancient Rome
The Georgia Dome was a domed stadium in Atlanta that opened in 1992 and was torn down in 2017. It was the largest domed building in the world until 1999.

The Dome took up 9.19 acres of land and cost $214 million to build. It was supported by the State of Georgia, after which the stadium was named. It was not far from the CNN Center, Georgia World Congress Center and Philips Arena.

Many different sporting events took place in the dome, mostly football and basketball. It was home to the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League until it was replaced by the nearby Mercedes-Benz Stadium for the 2017 season.

Other websites
Official website

National Football League venues
Football stadiums in the United States
Sports buildings in Atlanta
Atlanta Falcons
2017 disestablishments in the United States
1992 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Disestablishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Memphis most commonly refers to:

 Memphis, Egypt, a former capital of ancient Egypt
 Memphis, Tennessee, a major American city

Memphis may also refer to:

Places

United States
 Memphis, Alabama
 Memphis, Florida
 Memphis, Indiana
 Memphis, Michigan
 Memphis, Mississippi
 Memphis, Missouri
 Memphis, Nebraska
 Memphis, New York
 Memphis, Ohio
 Memphis metropolitan area, centered on Memphis, Tennessee
 Memphis, Texas

Elsewhere
 Mampsis, Mamshit or Memphis, a Nabatean city

Movie
 Memphis (movie), a 2013 film directed by Ricky Memphis

Music
 Memphis (band), a musical duo
 Memphis Industries, a record label
 Memphis (musical), a Broadway musical by David Bryan and Joe DiPietro

Albums
 Memphis (Boz Scaggs album), 2013
 Memphis (Roy Orbison album), 1972
 Coin Coin Chapter Four: Memphis, 2019
Songs
 "Memphis, Tennessee" (song) or "Memphis", by Chuck Berry, 1959; covered by many performers
 "Memphis" (The Badloves song), 1994
 "Memphis" (Joe Jackson song), 1983
 "Memphis", by David Nail, 2002
 "Memphis", by Justin Bieber from Journals, 2013
 "Memphis", by White Zombie from Psycho-Head Blowout, 1987

Other uses
 Memphis (mythology), the wife of Epaphus, who was, according to legend, the founder of Memphis, Egypt
 Memphis (genus), a genus of brush-footed butterflies
 Memphis (cigarette), a cigarette brand of Austria Tabak
 Memphis (typeface), a slab-serif typeface designed in 1929 by Dr. Rudolf Wolf
 Memphis Group, an influential design movement of Italian designers and architects in the 1980s
 USS Memphis (CA-10), a US Navy armored cruiser wrecked by a tsunami in 1916
 USS Memphis (SSN-691), a nuclear attack submarine of the United States Navy
 Windows 98, codenamed Memphis during development
 City of Memphis (train), a passenger train route
People with the name
 Memphis Bleek, New York rapper
 Memphis Depay, Dutch footballer
 Randall 'Memphis' Raines, a character in Gone in 60 Seconds
 Ricky Memphis, Italian actor

Related pages
West Memphis, Arkansas, part of the Memphis, Tennessee, metropolitan area
Memphis Grizzlies, American professional basketball team based in Memphis, Tennessee
New Coke was a type of Coca-Cola that was sold from 1985 to 2002. Its flavor was sweeter than normal Coke. It was later sold as Coke II. It is a product of the Coca-Cola Company. 

Coca-Cola
Rock of Ages Corporation is a company in Vermont.  It mines granite, which it sells largely for use in memorials, though it also makes smaller products.

It was started in 1885, and has its headquarters in Graniteville, Vermont, which is close to Barre.

There are around 230 people who work for the company.  Rock of Ages had a profit of about $800,000 in 2008.

In October 2010, another mining company, Swenson Granite Company, said it would buy Rock of Ages for $39 million.

Rock of Ages runs the largest granite quarry in the world.  It is about  deep, and covers about 50 acres.

References

Mining companies
Companies based in Vermont
1885 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Vermont
International PEN is a worldwide association of writers. It was founded in London in 1921 to increase friendship and intellectual co-operation among writers everywhere. At first, he letters P, E, and N stood for "Poets, Essayists and Novelists". Now the group includes any other kinds of writers, such as journalists and historians.
Other goals included: to make the role of literature stronger in developing international understanding and world culture; to fight for freedom of expression; and to act as a powerful voice to help writers who are harassed, imprisoned, and sometimes killed for their views. It is the world’s oldest human rights organization.

Role of PEN

PEN is a non-governmental organization that has a formal consultative relations with UNESCO and Special Consultative Status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.
The first PEN Club was founded in London in 1921 by Catherine Amy Dawson Scott. John Galsworthy was its first President. The first members included Joseph Conrad, Elizabeth Craig, George Bernard Shaw, and H.G. Wells.

The club established these goals:
To promote intellectual co-operation and understanding among writers;
To create a world community of writers that would emphasize the central role of literature in the development of world culture; and,
To defend literature against the many threats to its survival which the modern world poses.

Past Presidents of International PEN have included Malcolm Afford, Alberto Moravia, Heinrich Böll, Arthur Miller, Mario Vargas Llosa, Homero Aridjis and Jiří Gruša. The current President is John Ralston Saul and the current Executive Director is Caroline McCormick.
International PEN has its headquarters in London. There are also 145 independent PEN Centers in 104 countries around the world. Each of these centers are open to qualified writers, journalists, translators, historians and others actively engaged in any branch of literature. Nationality, race, color or religion cannot effect membership.

PEN Affiliated Awards

PEN awards dozens of literary awards each year. Some examples include:

The PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction
The PEN/Malamud Award, for excellence in the art of Short Fiction
The PEN/O. Henry Prize Stories (a yearly anthology, not an award)

PEN Charter
Literature, national though it be in origin, knows no frontiers, and should remain common currency among nations in spite of political or international upheavals.

In all circumstances, and particularly in time of war, works of art and libraries, the heritage of humanity at large, should be left untouched by national or political passion.
Members of PEN should at all times use what influence they have in favor of good understanding and mutual respect among nations; they pledge themselves to do their utmost to dispel race, class, and national hatreds and to champion the ideal of one humanity living in peace in the world.

PEN stands for the principle of unhampered transmission of thought within each nation and among all nations, and members pledge themselves to oppose any form of suppression of freedom of expression in their country or their community.

PEN declares for a free press and opposes arbitrary censorship in time of peace. It believes that the necessary advance of the world toward a more highly organized political and economic order renders free criticism of governments, administrations, and institutions imperative. And since freedom implies voluntary restraint, members pledge themselves to oppose such evils of a free press as mendacious publication, deliberate falsehood, and distortion of facts for political and personal ends.
Writers in Prison Committee
International PEN's Writers in Prison Committee works to help persecuted writers worldwide. The Writers in Prison Committee monitors the cases of over 900 writers who have been imprisoned, tortured, threatened, attacked, made to disappear, and killed for the peaceful practice of their profession. It publishes a bi-annual Case List  documenting free expression violations against writers around the world. This committee was started in 1960 in response to increasing attempts to silence voices of dissent by imprisoning writers,

Notable Members of International PEN
Homero Aridjis, President Emeritus.
Heinrich Böll
Joseph Conrad
Elizabeth Craig
Hermann Friedmann
Robie Macauley
Arthur Miller
Harold Pinter
Alfred Schmidt
George Bernard Shaw
H. G. Wells

References

 German Writers in French Exile, 1933-1940, by Martin Mauthner (London: 2007), .
Other websites
 International PEN
 PEN American Center (NYC)
 PEN Center USA (L.A.)
 PEN Canada
 PEN Sierra Leone
 PEN Turkish
 English PEN
 PEN Esperanto
 PEN South Africa
 PEN Poem Relay website, a protest related to the Beijing Olympics 

International organizations
1921 establishments in Europe
Organisations based in London
Cultural organizations
Human rights organisations in the United Kingdom
1920s establishments in the United Kingdom
Liu Xia (; born 1 April 1961, Beijing, China) is a painter, poet, and photographer who resides in Beijing, China. She was married to 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo.

Biography
Liu used to be a civil servant in the Beijing tax bureau. She met her husband Liu Xiaobo while part of the Beijing literary scene in the 1980s. She married Liu Xiaobo while he was in prison in a Chinese labor re-education camp between the years of 1996 and 1999.
Ms. Liu prefers to lead the solitary life of an intellectual. However, she has been forced to act for her husband in public because of he is often in prison for his activism. She has been described as her husband's "most important link to the outside world." She also personally experiences pressures from the Chinese authorities for publicly voicing opinions because she is the wife of one of China's most prominent human rights advocates. Since his arrest,  the government watches her constantly. She speaks out on issues of human rights both for herself and  for her husband. Although she may not want always want to, she has continued to speak publicly all during their marriage and while her husband has been in prison Despite the pressures, she attempts to keep her life normal.
Liu Xiaobo's was sent to prison for 11 years after he helped write the political manifesto 2008 called Charter 08. Liu Xia begged her husband to not participate in writing the document. At first, he did as she asked. But later, he  spent much of his time  writing and re-writing the document which took three years. He later got more than 300 prominent workers, Chinese Communist Party members, and intellectuals, to sign the charter. 10,000 people added their names to a charter support list on the Internet.

After it was announced that her husband had won the Nobel Peace Prize, Liu Xia said that “For all these years, Liu Xiaobo has persevered in telling the truth about China and because of this, for the fourth time, he has lost his personal freedom." She also said that she would visit him in jail and "give him a big hug".  After visiting him, however, she was placed under house arrest and her mobile phone number was canceled. Liu Xiaobo died on 13 July 2017 from liver cancer complications.
Related pages
List of Chinese painters
Liu Xiaobo

References 

1961 births
Living people
Chinese poets
Chinese painters
Photographers
Jilin University (; often abbreviated JLU or 吉大) is a national university. China's Ministry of Education controls the university directly.

References

Other websites

Jilin University  (English)
 Jilin University Official Application Online Site

Colleges and universities in the People's Republic of China
1946 establishments in Asia
1940s establishments in China
Jilin
The Down to the Countryside Movement was a government plan in China in the late 1960s and early 1970s.  During the Cultural Revolution, anti-bourgeois thinking was very common. Mao Zedong said that richer youth from the cities would be sent to mountains or farming villages so they could learn from the workers and farmers there.

Many fresh high school graduates were forced out of the cities. They had to stay in far away areas of China. They became known as the Rusticated Youth of China Many of them lost the chance to go university. Some call them China's "lost generation." Famous authors who have written about their experiences during the movement include Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo, Jiang Rong and Zhang Chengzhi, both of whom went to Inner Mongolia.

Bibliography

History of the People's Republic of China
Hu Jintao (born 21 December 1942) is a Chinese politician who was the paramount leader of China and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 2002 to 2012. Hu Jintao also served as the President of the People's Republic of China from 2003 to 2013 and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission from 2004 to 2012.

Hu was born in Taizhou, Jiangsu. Hu left office of General Secretary on 15 November 2012 and the office was taken by Xi Jinping.

Hu Jintao was educated as a hydraulic engineer from Tsinghua University in 1965. According to official biographies, he has a photographic memory. Politically, he is moderate and careful. He spent most of his previous career in Tibet and the poorer provinces, and was therefore unknown to Western analysts until he unexpectedly became the General Secretary (paramount leader). Even as a general secretary, he was quite private - and so has never given an interview.

References
References

1942 births
Living people
General Secretaries of the Communist Party of China
Presidents of the People's Republic of China
Politicians from Jiangsu
Beginning in the 1960s, Havel mostly wrote about the politics of Czechoslovakia. After the Prague Spring, he became more and more active against the government. In 1977, he became famous internationally for his work on the human rights manifesto, Charter 77. He became known as a leader of the opposition in Czechoslovakia. He was also sent to prison for these activities. The 1989, Havel became president during the "Velvet Revolution". As president, he led Czechoslovakia and later the Czech Republic to an open democracy with several political parties. His country changed greatly during the thirteen years he was president. The Czech Republic separated from Slovakia, even though Havel was against separation. The Czech Republic also joined NATO and started negotiating membership in the European Union. The country became a member of the EU in 2004. He was one of the first people to sign the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism.
Early life 
Václav Havel was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia on 5 October 1936. He grew up in a well-known and wealthy entrepreneurial and intellectual family. His family was active in culture and politics in Czechoslovakia from the 1920s to the 1940s. His father owned part of the suburb of Barrandov. This is the highest part of Prague. Havel's mother came from a well-known family. Her father was an ambassador and journalist. Havel completed his required education in 1951. However, the Communist government did not allow him to continue to study formally because of his bourgeois family background.
In the early 1950s, the young Havel entered a four-year apprenticeship as a chemical laboratory assistant. He took evening classes at the same time and completed secondary education in 1954. None of the colleges or universities with humanities programs would accept Havel for political reasons. So, he chose to study at the Faculty of Economics of Czech Technical University in Prague. He dropped out after two years.  In 1964, Havel married Olga Šplíchalová. His mother was against the marriage.

Presidency

Havel was already leader of the Civic Forum, and on 29 December 1989, he became president. He left office after his second term as Czech president ended on 2 February 2003. Every member of the Federal Assembly voted to make him president. This was a surprising change because Havel had always said that he was not interested in politics. He and other dissidents had said that change should come from groups of people directly, not from the government.
Havel was quite popular throughout his career. However, some of his actions caused controversy and criticism. One of his first acts as a president was to pardon many people. He wanted to reduce the number of people in overcrowded prisons and release people who had been put in prison during the Communist era even though they were innocent. He did not trust the decisions of a corrupt court of the previous government. He thought the courts had been unfair to most people in prison.  Critics said that this amnesty caused more crime. In his memoir, To the Castle and Back, Havel wrote that most of the people he released had less than a year left to stay in prison. Statistics about this are not clear.

Havel said that the most important thing he did as president was breaking up the Warsaw Pact. Ending this group of countries was very complicated because the association was a deep part of how the countries worked. It took two years before the Soviet troops finally left Czechoslovakia completely.