Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
was the 23rd  emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  Historians consider details about the life of Emperor Kenzō to be possibly legendary, but probable.  The name Kenzō-tennō was created for him posthumously by later generations. 

No certain dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign.  The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.

Traditional history 
Kenzō was a grandson of Emperor Richū; and he was adopted as heir by the childless Emperor Seinei.

Events of Kenzō's life 
Very little is known about the events of Kenzō's life and reign.  Only limited information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.

After his death 
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Kenzō.
According to the Imperial Household Agency, Kenzō final resting place is in an earthen tumulus (kofun). This emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) which is associated with the burial mound.

Related pages
 Emperor of Japan
 List of emperors of Japan
 Japanese imperial family tree
 Kofun period

References 

Emperors of Japan
are earthen tombs or tumuli in Japan.  They were constructed between the early 3rd century and early 7th century. 

These burial mounds are referenced in the name of the Kofun period (middle 3rd century - early-middle 6th century). 

Many of the kofun have a keyhole-shaped mound () which is unique to ancient Japan.

Related pages
William Gowland, English engineer who made the first survey for Saki kofun group
Ernest Satow, English diplomat who wrote about kofun in Kozuke for the Asiatic Society of Japan

References
飛鳥高松塚 (Takamatsuzuka, Asuka), 橿原考古学研究所編, 明日香村, 1972.
前方後円墳 (Keyhole-shaped kofun), 上田宏範,  学生社, 東京, 1969.
前方後円墳と古代日朝関係 (Keyhole-shaped kofun and diplomatic relations between ancient Japan and Korea), 朝鮮学会編, 東京, 同成社, 2002.

Other websites

 Japanese Archaeology: Kofun Culture
 Kofun Period
 Prehistoric Archaeology of Japan  

History of Japan
Burial monuments and structures
Chess and computers have been connected since the earliest days of the computer. In the 19th century Charles Babbage had thought of the idea,p87 and in the 20th century Alan Turing, the mathematician and Bletchley Park codebreaker, put some thought into the idea. He was not a very good chess player, but was one of the creators of the first British computer.  

There are two types of chess programs. One are chess engines that play against an opponent. And the other one are chess databases that help the user become a better player. The two types can be made to work together, though they have different functions and work in different ways.
Chess engines 
Chess engines are computer programs that can play chess games against human opponents. Many have been created; they can play at master level, though their processes are quite different from those of a human being.p87 The best engines on the fastest computers have won matches against former chess world champions Kasparov and Kramnik, but the software can be used at an easier level for a learner.

Competitions are run by putting engines against each other, and the results are published. At all times and live over the Internet are broadcast the Top Chess Engine Championship and the Chess.com Computer Chess Championship. Although they are made for entertainment, their engine ratings are quite good.
However, for very good engine ratings (they are called 'statistically significant') a huge amount of chess games needs to be played. Such results are provided by rating lists. Here are a few links to them:
 Computer Chess Rating Lists 40/15
 Chess Engines Grand Tournament 40/20
 FastGM's Rating List 60"+15'

Best chess engines 

As of 2023, the best chess engines are Stockfish and Dragon by Komodo. Very good is also Leela Chess Zero. However, the Leela engine needs a powerful GPU.

On-line playing sites 
Lichess is a website where players of all  play strengths are welcome and can play against each other. Registration and use is not charged. It has also apps for various mobile telephones.
There are also websites which a player can join for a fee and play on line. Here, the subscriber will play against other subscribers, not a computer. All standards of players are amongst the members, and various events are on offer at different rates of play. The two leaders in this market are:
Internet Chess Club 
Playchess

Chess databases 
Chess databases do not actually play. They give access to the recorded history of master chess. There are two components. First, there is the software, which lets one search and organise the database material. Then there is the actual database, typically one to four million games.

In practice, databases are used for two purposes. First, for a player to train his/her ability at specific openings. Second, to look up specific opponents to see what they play, and prepare against them beforehand.

Using databases is one way that young players can achieve mastery at an early age.
ChessBase 
ChessBase is the biggest database, and widely used by masters. Although it can be used online, most users download the software and data onto their laptop. Then they take the laptop to tournaments, to help prepare for games. Players may not use computers or any other aid during games, but much preparation goes on behind the scenes. ChessBase has to be purchased, and it is not cheap.

New in Chess 
This is a Dutch magazine for advanced players, which runs an on-line database called NicBase as part of its services. NicBase is free, and has over a million games.

Chessgames 
Chessgames.com runs an on-line database of games. It is partly free, but requires registration. Full access to all its facilities is by a fairly modest subscription. It has over half a million games on its database.

References 

Chess
Computers
Julio César Romero (born 28 August 1960) is a former Paraguayan football player. He has played for Paraguay national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1980||rowspan="4"|New York Cosmos||rowspan="4"|NASL||32||14
|-
|1981||21||4
|-
|1982||21||6
|-
|1983||25||10

|-
|1984||rowspan="5"|Fluminense||rowspan="5"|Série A||12||5
|-
|1985||17||5
|-
|1986||9||0
|-
|1987||15||3
|-
|1988||25||6

|-
|1988/89||Barcelona||La Liga||7||1

|-
|1989/90||Puebla||Primera División||13||2
99||34
78||19
7||1
13||2
197||57
|}

International career statistics

|-
!Total||34||13
|}

References

1960 births
Living people
Paraguayan footballers
Lee Jong-Min (born 21 May 1987) is a South Korean professional athlete.  He is best known as an association football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|2006||Montedio Yamagata||rowspan="3"|J. League 2|| || || || || || 
|-
|2009||Tochigi || || || || || || 
|-
|2010||rowspan="2"|Avispa Fukuoka|| || || || || || 
|-
|2011||J. League 1|| || || || || || 
|-
|2012||Matsumoto Yamaga||J. League 2|| || || || || || 
 || || || || || 
 || || || || || 
|}

References

Other websites
 Lee Jong-Min at Guardian.co.uk 

1987 births
Living people
South Korean footballers
Sin Byung-Ho (born 26 April 1975) is a South Korean professional athlete.  He is best known as an association football player. He was a member of the Korean national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|2000||Yokohama F. Marinos||J. League 1||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|2001||Mito Hollyhock||J. League 2||28||11||3||2||0||0||31||13

|-
|2002||Ulsan Hyundai||K-League||0||0||||||7||1||7||1
|-
|2002||rowspan="4"|Chunnam Dragons||rowspan="4"|K-League||26||8||||||0||0||26||8
|-
|2003||42||16||5||4||colspan="2"|-||47||20
|-
|2004||12||2||0||0||9||1||21||3
|-
|2005||8||0||0||0||0||0||8||0
|-
|2006||Gyeongnam||K-League||16||2||2||1||10||3||28||6
|-
|2007||rowspan="2"|Jeju United||rowspan="2"|K-League||8||0||1||0||6||0||15||0
|-
|2008||2||2||1||0||4||0||7||2
28||11||3||2||0||0||31||13
114||30||9||5||36||5||159||40
142||41||12||7||36||5||190||53
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1998||1||0
|-
|1999||0||0
|-
|2000||1||0
|-
!Total||2||0
|}

References

1977 births
Living people
South Korean footballers
Fernando Almeida de Oliveira (born 18 June 1978) is a Brazilian football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1996||rowspan="7"|Vitória||rowspan="7"|Série A||2||0||||||||||||||2||0
|-
|1997||1||0||||||||||||||1||0
|-
|1998||1||0||||||||||||||1||0
|-
|1999||21||3||||||||||||||21||3
|-
|2000||11||0||||||||||||||11||0
|-
|2001||18||4||||||||||||||18||4
|-
|2002||21||5||||||||||||||21||5

|-
|2003||rowspan="4"|Kashima Antlers||rowspan="4"|J. League 1||27||5||4||0||4||1||3||2||38||8
|-
|2004||26||5||3||0||7||1||colspan="2"|-||36||6
|-
|2005||30||2||2||1||2||2||colspan="2"|-||34||5
|-
|2006||19||7||0||0||3||1||colspan="2"|-||22||8

|-
|2007||Cruzeiro||Série A||2||0||||||||||||||2||0
77||12||||||||||||||77||12
102||19||9||1||16||5||3||2||130||27
179||31||9||1||16||5||3||2||207||39
|}

References

1978 births
Living people
Brazilian footballers
Derlis Florentín (9 January 1984 - 28 March 2010) was a former Paraguayan football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|2005||Mito Hollyhock||J. League 2||17||8||0||0||17||8
|-
|2005||Consadole Sapporo||J. League 2||19||1||0||0||19||1
36||9||0||0||36||9
36||9||0||0||36||9
|}

References

1984 births
2010 deaths
Paraguayan footballers
An Sun-Jin (born 19 September 1975) is a South Korean professional athlete.  He is best known as an association football player.

References

Other websites

1975 births
Living people
South Korean footballers
Association football midfielders
J2 League players
Mito HollyHock players
South Korean football managers
Joseph-Désiré Job (born 1 December 1977) is a Cameroonian football player. He plays for Lierse and Cameroon national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1996/97||rowspan="3"|Olympique Lyonnais||rowspan="3"|Division 1||0||0
|-
|1997/98||22||5
|-
|1998/99||19||6
|-
|1999/00||Lens||Division 1||24||4

|-
|2000/01||rowspan="2"|Middlesbrough||rowspan="2"|Premier League||13||3
|-
|2001/02||4||0

|-
|2001/02||Metz||Division 1||13||2

|-
|2002/03||rowspan="4"|Middlesbrough||rowspan="4"|Premier League||28||4
|-
|2003/04||24||6
|-
|2004/05||23||4
|-
|2005/06||1||0

|-
|2005/06||Al-Ittihad Jeddah||Professional League||28||9

|-
|2006/07||rowspan="2"|Sedan Ardennes||Ligue 1||25||9
|-
|2007/08||Ligue 2||3||0
|-
|2007/08||Nice||Ligue 1||9||0

|-
|2008/09||Al-Kharitiyath||Stars League||23||7

|-
|2009/10||Diyarbakırspor||Süper Lig||8||0

|-
|2009/10||Lierse||Second Division||||
115||26
93||17
28||9
23||7
8||0
0||0
267||59
|}

International career statistics
|-
|1997||2||0
|-
|1998||11||1
|-
|1999||3||2
|-
|2000||6||0
|-
|2001||6||0
|-
|2002||3||0
|-
|2003||6||1
|-
|2004||3||1
|-
|2005||2||0
|-
|2006||0||0
|-
|2007||3||0
|-
|2008||3||2
|-
|2009||1||0
|-
!Total||49||7
|}

References

1977 births
Living people
Cameroonian footballers
Terry Venables (born 6 January 1943) is a former English football player. He has played for England national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1959/60||rowspan="7"|Chelsea||rowspan="3"|First Division||1||0
|-
|1960/61||36||0
|-
|1961/62||12||1
|-
|1962/63||Second Division||42||2
|-
|1963/64||rowspan="3"|First Division||38||8
|-
|1964/65||39||7
|-
|1965/66||34||8
|-
|1965/66||rowspan="4"|Tottenham Hotspur||rowspan="4"|First Division||1||0
|-
|1966/67||41||3
|-
|1967/68||36||2
|-
|1968/69||37||0
|-
|1969/70||rowspan="6"|Queens Park Rangers||rowspan="4"|Second Division||34||5
|-
|1970/71||38||10
|-
|1971/72||27||1
|-
|1972/73||37||1
|-
|1973/74||rowspan="2"|First Division||36||2
|-
|1974/75||5||0
|-
|1974/75||Crystal Palace||Third Division||14||0
508||50
508||50
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1964||2||0
|-
!Total||2||0
|}

References
References

1943 births
Living people
Footballers from London
English football managers
England national football team managers
Crystal Palace F.C. players
Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players
FC Barcelona managers
England at UEFA Euro 1996
Shingo Hyodo (born 29 July 1985) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Yokohama F. Marinos.

Club career statistics

|-
|2008||rowspan="3"|Yokohama F. Marinos||rowspan="3"|J. League 1||28||2||4||1||7||0||39||3
|-
|2009||30||1||2||0||10||1||42||2
|-
|2010||||||||||||||||
58||3||6||1||17||1||81||5
58||3||6||1||17||1||81||5
|}

References
Yokohama F. Marinos 

1985 births
Living people
Footballers from Nagasaki Prefecture
Takayuki Nishigaya (born 12 May 1973) is a former Japanese football player.

Club career statistics

|-
|1996||rowspan="2"|Nagoya Grampus Eight||rowspan="2"|J. League 1||13||0||1||0||7||0||21||0
|-
|1997||22||0||1||0||7||0||30||0
|-
|1998||Avispa Fukuoka||J. League 1||25||0||3||1||3||1||31||2
|-
|1999||Verdy Kawasaki||J. League 1||3||0||0||0||0||0||3||0
|-
|2000||JEF United Ichihara||J. League 1||0||0||0||0||2||0||2||0
|-
|2001||Albirex Niigata||J. League 2||37||0||0||0||2||0||39||0
100||0||21||1||5||1||126||2
100||0||21||1||5||1||126||2
|}

References

1973 births
Living people
Footballers from Shizuoka Prefecture
Chess notation is a method for writing down chess moves: after a player makes a move, both players write it down. This is compulsory in all organized chess events.

The system must have these elements: the move number, the piece moved, the square it starts from (optional), the square it goes to, and other relevant information such as captures, and castles.p275 There are other notations for recording positions.

There have been ways of describing moves from quite early on. Manuscripts with move descriptions are known in Arabic (9th century) and from Europe (13th century).p275 These early notations are usually quite cumbersome; "The pawn of the king forward two houses".p229; 469; 848 This kind of notation is called descriptive. In a descriptive notation each player describes squares from his own point of view, e.g. 1 P–K4 P–K4. A notation which uses labels for the ranks and files is called algebraic. In this notation a square has only one label, e.g. 1 e4 e5.

Algebraic notation
The moves of a chess game are written down by using a special notation.Article 8 and Appendix E Usually algebraic chess notation is used. In algebraic notation, each square has one and only one name (whether you are looking from White's side of the board or Black's). Here, moves are written in the format of: abbreviation of the piece moved – file where it moved – rank where it moved. For example, Qg5 means "queen moves to the g-file and 5th rank" (that is, to the square g5). If there are two pieces of the same type that can move to the same square, one more letter or number is added to show the file or rank from which the piece moved, e.g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3". The letter P showing a pawn is not used, so that e4 means "pawn moves to the square e4".
If the piece makes a capture, "x" is written before the square in which the capturing piece lands on. Example: Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the Pawn left is used in place of a piece initial. For example: exd5 means "pawn captures on d5."

If a pawn moves to its eighth rank, getting a promotion, the piece chosen is written after the move, for example e1Q or e1=Q. Castling is written by the special notations 0–0 for kingside castling and 0–0–0 for queenside. A move which places the opponent's king in check normally has the notation "+" added. Checkmate can be written as # or ++. At the end of the game, 1–0 means "White won", 0–1 means "Black won" and ½-½ is a draw.
Chess moves can also be shown with punctuation marks and other annotation symbols. For example: ! means a good move, !! means a very good move, ? means a bad move, ?? a very bad move (sometimes called a blunder), !? a creative move that may be good, and ?! a doubtful move. For example, one kind of a simple "trap" known as the Scholar's mate, as in the diagram to the right, may be recorded in full notation:

1. e2-e4  e7-e5
2. Qd1-h5?!  Nb8-c6
3. Bf1-c4  Ng8-f6?? (3...Qe7 is better)
4. Qh5xf7#  1–0

Here is a famous short game in the more usual short notation:
Réti v Tartakower, Vienna 1910
e4 c6
d4 d5
Nc3 dxe4
Nxe4 Nf6
Qd3?! e5?!
dxe5 Qa5+
Bd2 Qxe5
0-0-0 Nxe4??
Qd8+!! Kxd8
Bg5+ Kc7
Bd8# 1–0

Figurine notation 
 ;  ; ,; ,; , 

This is algebraic notation with little figurines instead of initial letters for the pieces. Figurine notation is used in print and computer chess. Since it avoids initial letters for pieces, it is more international.
Réti v Tartakower, Vienna 1910
e4 c6
d4 d5
c3 dxe4
xe4 f6
d3?! e5?!
dxe5 a5+
d2 xe5
0-0-0 xe4??
d8+!! xd8
g5+ c7
d8# 1–0

Notation for positions 
In addition to the Forsyth notation, positions may be recorded in this simple fashion:
White: Kf2; Qe3; Rf6, Rf7; Ne2; pawns d4, e5, h3.
Black: Kc8; Qa2; Rf8, Rc7; Ba6; pawns d5, e6, f7, h4. White to play.

References 

Chess
Notation
Akiba Rubinstein (Stawiski, Poland, 12 December 1882 – 15 March 1961, Antwerp, Belgium) was a Polish chess Grandmaster in the first part of the 20th century. Around 1910 he was one of the three best players in the world.p346

Biography 
Rubinstein was Jewish, and his family planned for him to become a rabbi. However,  he did not finish his studies, and chose to devote himself to chess entirely. The decision came in 1903 after he won fifth place at a tournament in Kiev. He learned to play chess when he was 16, and played with the strong master Gersz Salwe in Łódź.
Rubinstein's best period was from 1907 to 1912. It began with his win at Karlovy Vary in 1907, and a shared win at St. Petersburg in the same year. It closed in a string of wins in 1912. He won five consecutive major tournaments that year: San Sebastian, Piešťany, Breslau (the German championship), Warsaw and Vilnius (although none of these events included Lasker or Capablanca).p79 Some believe that he was better than World Champion Emanuel Lasker at this time. Ratings from Chessmetrics support this conclusion, placing him as world #1 between mid 1912 and mid 1914. Others believe he was not quite so strong as Lasker, and was eclipsed by José Raúl Capablanca after 1911.
Rubinstein was never given a chance to play Lasker for the world chess championship: he was unable to raise enough money to meet Lasker's financial demands. In the 1909 St. Petersburg tournament, he had tied with Lasker and won his individual encounter with him. However, he had a poor result at St. Petersburg tournament 1914, not reaching the final pool of five players. A match with Lasker was arranged for October 1914, but it never took place because of the outbreak of World War I.

After the war Rubinstein was still an elite grandmaster, but his results lacked their previous formidable consistency. Nevertheless, he won at Vienna in 1922, ahead of future world champion Alexander Alekhine, and was the leader of the Polish team that won the Chess Olympiad at Hamburg in 1930 with a superb record of thirteen wins and four draws. A year later he won an Olympic silver.
Mental health 
After 1932 he withdrew from tournament play, mostly because his symptoms of schizophrenia prevented normal life. He suffered from a fear of people and society. He lived then in a sanitorium, and later rejoined his family.

Rubinstein lived on for almost 30 years afterwards. He left behind no literary works (perhaps because of his mental problems), but a great heritage in his games. During World War II he was placed in an asylum. One account says that when the Nazis eventually arrived to haul the aged Jewish grandmaster from his asylum to the death camps, he was so patently insane that they abandoned the attempt.

Chess heritage
He was one of the earliest chess players to take the endgame into account when choosing and playing the opening. He was exceptionally talented in the endgame, particularly in rook endings, where he broke new ground. Silman ranks him as one of the five best endgame players of all time, and a master of rook endgames.
He originated the Rubinstein System against the Tarrasch variation of the Queen's Gambit declined: 1.d4 d5 2.Nf3 c5 3.c4 e6 4.cxd5 exd5 5.Nc3 Nc6 6.g3 Nf6 7.Bg2 cxd4 8.Nxd4 Qb6 (Rubinstein - Tarrasch, 1912). He is also credited with inventing the Meran variation, which stems from the Slav defence.

Today, he certainly has no shortage of lines named for him. 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.e3. is the Rubinstein variation of the Nimzo-Indian defence.

The Rubinstein Trap, a trap in the Queen's Gambit declined is named after him because he fell into it twice. One version of the trap runs 1.d4 d5 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.cxd5 exd5 5.Bg5 Be7 6.e3 0-0 7.Nf3 Nbd7 8.Bd3 c6 10.0-0 Re8 11.Rc1 h6 12. Bf4 Nh5? 13. Nxd5! Now 13...cxd5?? is met by 14.Bc7, winning the queen, while 13...Nxf4 14.Nxf4 leaves White a pawn ahead.

The Rubinstein Memorial tournament in his honor has been held annually since 1963 in Polanica Zdroj, with a glittering list of top-flight winners.
Notable chess games
George Rotlewi vs Akiba Rubinstein, Lodz 1907, Tarrasch Defense: Symmetrical Variation (D02), 0-1 A very impressive attacking combination; "perhaps the most magnificent combination of all time" (Carl Schlechter)
Akiba Rubinstein vs Emanuel Lasker, St.Petersburg 1909, Queen's Gambit Declined: Traditional Variation (D30), 1-0 This game ends in an interesting position where Lasker has no good moves (zugzwang).
Akiba Rubinstein vs Karel Hromádka, Moravská Ostrava 1923, King's Gambit: Declined. Classical Variation (C30), 1-0
Akiba Rubinstein vs Carl Schlechter. San Sebastian 1912, 1-0  Capablanca has heaped enormous praise on this game, calling it "a monument of magnificent precision".  A quintessential game of Rubinstein.
Hermanis Mattison vs. Akiba Rubinstein, Carlsbad, 1929, (C68), 0-1 A famous rook and pawn ending that seemed "hopelessly drawn", but was won by Rubinstein.  The editor of the tournament book said that if this game had been played 300 years earlier, Rubinstein would have been burned at the stake for dealing with evil spirits.
Further reading
Donaldson, John and Nikolay Minev 1994. Akiba Rubinstein: uncrowned king. International Chess Enterprises, Seattle.  Volume 1 of Rubinstein's games, with annotations and biographical material.
Donaldson, John and Nikolay Minev 1995. Akiba Rubinstein: the later years. International Chess Enterprises, Seattle.  Volume 2 of Rubinstein's games, with annotations and biographical material.

Other websites
 Capablanca on Rubinstein 
 Chess poster biog chess poster bio

References

1882 births
1961 deaths
Jewish sportspeople
Polish chess players
Polish Jews
Chess grandmasters
Martín Chambi Jiménez, (Puno, Peru November 5, 1891 – Cuzco, September 13, 1973) was a photographer who came from the south of Peru. He was also known as Martín Chambi de Coaza. He was the only well known indigenous Latin American photographer of his time.

He is considered one of the great figures of American photography.

Chambi is famous for the historic and social value of his photographs. He was a portrait photographer in the cities and the countryside of the Peruvian Andes. He was the leading portrait photographer in the Andean city of Cusco. Chambi also took many landscape photographs, and he sold these photographs as postcards.  He was one of the first to use the postcard format in Peru.

In 1979, MOMA in New York had a Chambi exhibition.  The exhibition later moved to various locations. It inspired other international exhibitions of his work.
Quotations
"It is wrong to focus too much on the testimonial (historical) value of his photos. They have that, indeed, but, in equal measure they express the milieu (society) in which he lived and they show (...) that when he was behind a camera, he became a giant, a true inventor, a force of invention, a recreator of life."
- Mario Vargas Llosa

"I've read that in Chile they think that the indigenous South American peoples have no culture, that they are  not civilised, that they are intellectually and artistically inferior to European white peoples. The artworks are a graphic testament that is more eloquent than my own opinion, always.  I hope that this testament will be examined fairly and objectively.  I feel I am representing my race; my people will speak through the photographs."
- Martín Chambi, 1936
Early life
Martín Chambi was born in a poor Quechua family.  He was born in one of the poorest parts of Peru, at the end of the nineteenth century. His father worked in a gold mine by the River Inambari.  Martín sometimes went to work with his father too.  He saw his first photographer there at the mine. Chambi learned the basic techniques from a photographer at the Santo Domingo Mine. This meeting fired his ambition.

Chambi tried to work as a professional photographer after this. He traveled to the city of Arequipa in 1908, where photography was more developed.  Many professional photographers lived in Areqiupa. They had developed individual photographic styles and professional techniques.

Chambi was an apprentice in the studio of Max T. Vargas.  After nine years he created his own studio in Sicuani in 1917. He published his first postcards in November 1917.
In 1923 he moved to Cusco and opened a studio there. In Cusco he photographed rich society people and poor indigenous people. During his career, Chambi also travelled all over the Andes.  He photographed the landscapes, Inca ruins, and local people.  Chambi was with the American explorer Hiram Bingham when Bingham "discovered" Machu Picchu, the great Inca monument.
Chronology
1891 - Born in Coaza, Puno (Peru) to a Quechua-speaking indigenous family.
1905 - Father dies. Travels to the banks of the Inambari to work in the gold mines, meets photographers working at the Santo Domingo Mine owned by the Inca Mining Co.
1908 - Apprentice in the photographic studio of Max T. Vargas, in Arequipa.
1917 - Opens his first photographic studio in Sicuani, Puno.
1920 - Establishes himself in the city of Cusco, photographing in an artistic "painterly" style that he learned in Arequipa.
1927 - Beginning of his mature photographic style.
1938 - Opens studio gallery.
1950 - Cusco earthquake. End of the "Cusco School". After this, he gradually stops working actively as a photographer.
1958 - Exhibition in his honor after 50 years of his photography career.
1964 - Chambi Exhibition en Mexico ("Primera Convención de la Federación Internacional de Arte Fotográfico")
1973 - Chambi dies in Cusco, in his old studio on Calle Marqués.
1976 - Chambi is the subject of a video documentary, El arte fotográfico de Martín Chambi, by José Carlos Huayhuaca.
1977 - Chambi's photographs are archived and restored for the first time, financed by the Earthwatch Foundation (Belmont, Massachusetts). This marks the beginning of international fame.
1979 - Retrospective exhibition at MOMA in New York City.
1981 - Latin American photography exhibition in Zurich.
1986 - BBC Arena film "Martín Chambi and The Heirs of the Incas" is shown worldwide.
1990 - Exhibition dedicated to Chambi at the Círculo de Bellas Artes in Madrid. A book of his work is published to honor the exhibition.
Publications
Martín Chambi, Photographs 1920-1950 (Smithsonian Institution Press 1993) 
 (originally published in Spain by Lunwerg Editores, 1990)

Martín Chambi and the Heirs of the Incas 
(A documentary film by Paul Yule and Andy Harries, originally made for the BBC in 1986)

1891 births
1973 deaths
Peruvian people
Photographers
The Kia Venga is a car produced by Kia since 2009. It is based on the Hyundai i20 and Kia Soul's platform.

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Venga
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
The reception history of Jane Austen shows how Austen's works, at first having modest fame, became wildly popular. Her books are both the subject of great study and the center of various fan culture. Jane Austen, the writer of such works as Pride and Prejudice (1813) and Emma (1815), has become one of the most famous novelists in the English language.
During her lifetime, Austen's books did not make her very famous. Like a great number of women writers at that time, she chose to publish her books secretly. Only among people in the aristocracy, her writing was an open secret. At the time they were published, Austen's works were thought fashionable by members of high society. However, they received only a few good reviews. By the mid-nineteenth century, her works were respected by people who were learned in literature. They thought that liking her works was a sign that they were clever. In 1870, her nephew published Memoir of Jane Austen. This showed her to a wider public as "dear, quiet aunt Jane". After this, her works were published again in popular editions. By the twentieth century, lots of groups had formed. Some praised her and some defended her from the "teeming masses". However, they all claimed to be true Janeites, or people who really appreciated Austen.
Early in the twentieth century, scholars made a collection of her works (the first for any British novelist). But it was not until the 1940s that Austen was widely accepted as a "great English novelist". In the second half of the twentieth century, people began studying Austen more and more, and in different ways. For example, they studied her works artistically, ideologically, and historically. The university English departments began developing in the first half of the twentieth century. As they grew, criticism of Austen split into remarkable high culture and popular culture trends. In the late twentieth century, fans made Jane Austen societies and clubs. They praised Austen, her time, and her works. In the early twenty-first century, Austen fans support an industry of printed sequels and prequels. They also support Austen's work in television and film.

Background
Background

Jane Austen lived her entire life as part of a large and close family. Her family was in the lower part of the English gentry. Her family's steady support was very important to Austen's development as a writer. For example, Austen read her first drafts of all of her books to her family. In this way, she received encouragement and help. In fact, it was her father who first tried to put her book in print. Austen's training as a writer lasted from when she was a teenager until she was about 35. During this time, she experimented with different literary forms. This included the epistolary novel (novel in letters), which she tried and did not like. She wrote and revised three important novels and began a fourth. When Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814) and Emma (1815) came out in print, she became a successful writer.
However, novel-writing was not easy for women in the early nineteenth century. This was because it made them famous. It also made people think them unfeminine. So like a great number of other female writers, Austen published her books secretly. In time, though, her writing became an open secret among the aristocracy. In one of her visits to London, the Prince Regent invited her to his home. His librarian showed her around and said that the Regent liked her books very much. The librarian added that "if Miss Austen had any other Novel forthcoming, she was quite at liberty to dedicate it to the Prince". Austen did not like the prince, who spent a lot of money. She did not want to follow this suggestion. However, her friends persuaded her to follow it. Therefore, Emma was dedicated to him. Austen refused the librarian's suggestion after that to write a historical romance for the prince's daughter's marriage.
In the last year of her life, Austen revised Northanger Abbey (1817) and wrote Persuasion (1817). She also began another novel, which was later titled Sanditon. She could not finish it before her death. Austen did not have time to see Northanger Abbey or Persuasion through the press. However, her family published them as one book after she died. Her brother Henry included a "Biographical Notice of the Author". This short biography made people think of Austen as a quiet aunt who wrote in her free time. "Neither the hope of fame nor profit mixed with her early motives (purposes) ... [S]o much did she shrink from notoriety, that no accumulation of fame would have induced (made) her, had she lived, to affix (put) her name to any productions of her  public she turned away from any allusion to the character of an authoress." However, Austen shows excitement in her letters about getting her books in print. She was also interested in how much money the books would make. Austen was a professional writer.
Austen's works are noted for their realism, biting social commentary, and clever use of free indirect speech. They are also remarkable for their burlesque and irony. They criticize the novels of sensibility of the second half of the eighteenth century. They are part of the change to nineteenth-century realism. As Susan Gubar and Sandra Gilbert explain, Austen laughed at "love at first sight, the primacy (first importance) of passion over all other emotions and/or duties, the  exploits of the hero, the vulnerable sensitivity of the heroine, the lovers' proclaimed (declared) indifference to financial considerations, and the cruel  of parents". Austen's stories, though comic, focus on the way women depend on marriage to secure social standing and economic security. She was also concerned with moral problems, like Samuel Johnson, who strongly influenced her.
1812–1821: Individual reactions and contemporary reviews
[[Image:New-Monthly-Magazine-1816-25-p66-novels-inc-Austen-Emma-detail.jpg|right|thumb|300px|In 1816, the editors of The New Monthly Magazine noted Emma'''s publication. However, it did not see it as important enough to review.|alt=A part of a magazine which reads "Emma. By the author of 'Pride of Prejudice'. 3 vols. 12 mo. 1l. 1s."]]
Austen's books quickly became fashionable. Aristocrats who liked to set the fashion and taste of the day especially liked them. Henrietta Ponsonby, Countess of Bessborough wrote about Sense and Sensibility in a letter to a friend. She said: "it is a clever novel.  ... tho' it ends stupidly, I was much amused by it." The 15-year-old daughter of the Prince Regent, Princess Charlotte Augusta, compared herself to Marianne Dashwood. She remarked, "I think Marianne & me are very like in disposition, that certainly I am not so good, the same , &tc". Pride and Prejudice was enjoyed by Richard Sheridan, a person who wrote plays. He told a friend to "[b]uy it immediately" for it "was one of the cleverest things" he had ever read. Anne Milbanke, future wife of Lord Byron, wrote that "I have finished the Novel called Pride and Prejudice, which I think a very superior (good) work." She added that "is the most probable fiction I have ever read" and had become "at present the fashionable novel"
. The Dowager Lady Vernon told a friend that Mansfield Park was "[n]ot much of a novel, more the history of a family party in the country, very natural". Lady Anne Romilly told her friend, the writer Maria Edgeworth, that "[Mansfield Park] has been pretty generally admired here". Edgeworth later said that "we have been much entertained with Mansfield Park".
High society liked and approved of Austen's novels. However, they received few reviews while she was alive. There were two for Sense and Sensibility. Pride and Prejudice received three. Mansfield Park received none. There were seven for Emma. Most of the reviews were short, careful, and approving. They mostly focused on the moral lessons of her books. Brian Southam writes about these reviewers: "their job was merely to provide brief (short) notices, extended with quotations, for the benefit (good) of women readers compiling their library lists and interested only in knowing whether they would like a book for its story, its characters and moral".
Famous writer Walter Scott wrote the longest and deepest of these reviews. He was asked by publisher John Murray to review Emma. Emma had come out in print (without saying who the writer was) in the March 1816 issue of the Quarterly Review. Using the review as a way to praise the novel, Scott praised Austen's works. He praised her ability to copy "from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life, and presenting to the  correct and striking representation of that which is daily (every day) taking place around him". Modern Austen scholar William Galperin has noted that "unlike some of Austen's lay readers, who recognized her divergence (difference) from realistic practice as it had been prescribed and defined at the time, Walter Scott may well have been the first to install Austen as the realist par excellence". Scott wrote in his private journal in 1826 about Austen. This later became a widely quoted comparison:
Also read again and for the third time at least Miss Austen's very finely written novel of Pride and Prejudice. That young lady had a talent for describing the  and feelings and characters of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I ever met with. The Big Bow-wow strain I can do myself like any now going, but the exquisite touch which renders (makes) ordinary commonplace things and characters interesting from the truth of the description and the sentiment is denied to me. What a pity such a gifted creature died so early!Northanger Abbey and Persuasion were published together in December 1817. They were reviewed in the British Critic in March 1818 and in the Edinburgh Review and Literary Miscellany in May 1818. The reviewer for the British Critic felt that Austen's great use of realism was proof of a limited imagination. The reviewer for the Edinburgh Review thought differently. He praised Austen for her " invention"
. He was also pleased with Austen's stories because they mixed familiar scenes with surprising twists. Austen scholars have pointed out that these early reviewers did not know what to make of her works. For example, they wrongly understood her use of irony. Reviewers thought Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice were stories of virtue overcoming vice.
In the Quarterly Review in 1821 another review came out. Richard Whately was an English writer and theologican. He published the most serious early review of Austen's work. Whately compared Austen and great writers such as Homer and Shakespeare with favor. He praised the dramatic quality of her stories. He also said that the novel was a real, respectable genre of literature. He argued that imaginative literature, especially narrative, was very valuable. He even said they were more important than history or biography. When it was well done, as Austen's works were, Whately said that novels wrote about human experience that the reader could learn from. In other words, he believed that it was moral. Whately also addressed Austen's position as a female writer. He wrote: "we suspect one of Miss Austin's [sic] great merits in our eyes to be, the insight she gives us into the peculiarities of female  heroines are what one knows women must be, though one never can get them to acknowledge (admit) it
." No better criticism of Austen was put in print until the late nineteenth century. Whately and Scott had begun the Victorian era's view of Austen.
1821–1870: Cultured few

Austen had a great number of readers who liked and respected her in the nineteenth century. According to critic Ian Watt, they liked her " to ordinary (usual) social experience". However, Austen's works were not exactly what her Romantic and Victorian British audience liked. They wished for "powerful emotion [be] authenticated by an egregious display of sound and color in the writing". Victorian critics and audiences liked the work of writers like Charles Dickens and George Eliot. Compared to them, Austen's works seemed narrow and quiet. Austen's works were put in print again beginning in late 1832 or early 1833. Richard Bentley printed them in the Standard Novels series, and remained in print for a long time after that. However, they were not bestsellers. Southam describes her "reading public between 1821 and 1870" as "minute beside the known audience for Dickens and his contemporaries".
The people who read Austen saw themselves as clever readers. They were the cultured few. This became a well-known theme of Austen criticism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. George Henry Lewes was a philosopher and literary critic. He spoke about this theme in a series of articles in the 1840s and 1850s. "The Novels of Jane Austen" was put in print in Blackwood's Magazine in 1859. In there, Lewes praised Austen's books for "the economy of  easy adaptation of means to ends, with no aid (help) from superfluous elements". He also compared her to Shakespeare. He argued that Austen was not good at making up plots. However, he still enjoyed the dramatic quality of her works. He said: "The reader's pulse never throbs, his curiosity is never intense (very strong); but his interest never wanes (stops) for a moment
. The action begins; the people speak, feel, and act; everything that is said, felt, or done tends towards the entanglement or disentanglement of the plot; and we are almost made actors as well as spectators (viewers) of the little drama."
Writer Charlotte Brontë liked Austen's writing because they were truthful about everyday life. However, Brontë called her "only shrewd (clever) and observant". She said there was not enough passion in her work. To Brontë, Austen's work seemed formal and narrow. In a letter written to G.H. Lewes in 1848, Brontë said that she did not like Pride and Prejudice. She said:

 Nineteenth-century European translations
Soon after Austen's works were printed in Britain, they appeared in some European countries. They began appearing in 1813 with a French translation of Pride and Prejudice. It was quickly followed by German, Dutch, and Swedish editions. They were not always easy to get in Europe. Austen was not well known in Russia. The first Russian translation of an Austen novel did not appear until 1967. Austen’s works were translated into various European languages. However, Europeans did not see her works as part of the English novel tradition. This was partly because of the changes made by translators. They put in sentimentalism into Austen's works. They also failed to put in her humor and irony. Therefore, European readers more often thought of Walter Scott's style as the English novel.
The great changes made by her translators made the Continent receive Austen differently than in Britain. For example, the French writer Isabelle de Montolieu translated several of Austen's novels into the French sentimental novel. In Montolieu's Pride and Prejudice, lively conversations (talks) between Elizabeth and Darcy were replaced by calm, proper ones. In Jane Austen's work, Elizabeth said that she has "always seen a great similarity in the turn of [their] minds" (her and Darcy's). She says this is because they are "unwilling to speak, unless [they] expect to say something that will amaze (surprise) the whole room". However, this becomes "Moi, je garde le silence, parce que je ne sais que dire, et vous, parce que vous aiguisez vos traits pour parler avec effet." ("Me, I keep silent, because I don't know what to say, and you, because you excite your features for effect when speaking
.") Cossy and Saglia explained, "the equality of mind which Elizabeth takes for granted is denied (not given) and gender distinction introduced". Austen’s works were seen in France as part of a sentimental tradition. Because of this, people were more interested in the works of French realists like Stendhal, Balzac, and Flaubert. Austen was also treated as a romantic writer in Germany.
1870–1930: Explosion in popularity
Family biographies
For years, people thought the same of Austen as Scott and Whately. Only a few people actually read her novels. In 1870 the first important Austen biography, A Memoir of Jane Austen, was written by Jane Austen's nephew, James Edward Austen-Leigh and printed. This changed the way people thought of Austen. When it came out in print, Austen's popularity and critical standing increased greatly. The Memoir made people think of an untrained writer who wrote masterpieces. People thought Austen was a quiet, middle-aged unmarried aunt. This made them feel that her works were safe for respectable Victorian families to read. The Memoir made Austen's books be printed again in great numbers. The first popular editions came out in 1883. They were a cheap series printed by Routledge. This was followed by editions with pictures, collectors' sets, and scholarly editions. However, critics still said that only people who could really understand the deep meaning of Austen's books should read them
. However, after the Memoir was printed, much more criticism about Austen was printed. More came out in two years than had come out in the last 50 years.
In 1913, William Austen-Leigh and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh printed a family biography. It was titled: Jane Austen: Her Life and Letters—A Family Record. William and Arthur were both part of the Austen family. It was based mostly on family papers and letters. It is described by Austen biographer Park Honan as "accurate, staid (steady), reliable, and at times vivid and suggestive". The authors moved away from the sentimental tone of the Memoir. However, they did not go much beyond the family records and traditions they always had. Therefore, their book offers only facts. It does not offer much interpretation.

 Criticism
In the last part of the nineteenth century, the first critical books about Austen's works were printed. In 1890 Godwin Smith printed the Life of Jane Austen. This began a "fresh phase in the critical heritage". This began "formal (official) criticism". People began focusing on Austen as a writer and analyzing the ways that made her writing special. Southam said that there was much more Austen criticism around 1780. He also said that the reviews became better. However, he was troubled at the "certain uniformity" in them:
We see the novels praised for their elegance of form and their surface 'finish'; for the realism of their fictional world, the variety and vitality (strength) of their characters; for their pervasive humour; and for their gentle and undogmatic morality and its unsermonising delivery. The novels are prized for their 'perfection'. Yet it is seen to be a narrow perfection, achieved within the bounds of domestic comedy.
Richard Simpson, Margaret Oliphant, and Leslie Stephen were some of the best reviewers. In a review of the Memoir, Simpson said Austen was a serious but ironic critic of English society. He began two interpretative themes: using humor to criticize society and irony as a means of moral study. He continued Lewes's comparison to Shakespeare, and wrote that Austen:
began by being an ironical critic; she manifested her  by direct censure, but by the indirect method of imitating and exaggerating the faults of her , humour, irony, the judgment not of one that gives sentence but of the mimic who quizzes while he mocks, are her characteristics.
Austen's works had been in print in the United States from 1832. However, it was only after 1870 that Americans began seriously considering Austen's works. As Southam says, "for American literary nationalists Jane Austen's cultivated scene was too pallid, too constrained, too refined, too downright unheroic". Austen was not democratic enough for Americans. Also, her books did not have the frontier themes that often came out in American literature. The way Americans thought about Austen was represented in an argument between William Dean Howells and Mark Twain. Through his essays, Howells helped make Austen much more popular. Twain, however, used Austen to argue against the Anglophile tradition in America. In his book Following the Equator, Twain described the library on his ship: "Jane Austen's  absent from this library. Just that one omission alone would make a fairly good library out of a library that hadn't a book in it."

Janeites