Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
All aerobic organisms produce  when they oxidize carbohydrates, fatty acids, and proteins in the mitochondria of cells. The large number of reactions involved are exceedingly complex and not described easily. (They include cellular respiration, anaerobic respiration and photosynthesis). Photoautotrophs (i.e. plants, cyanobacteria) use another reaction: Plants absorb  from the air, and, together with water, react it to form carbohydrates:
Carbon dioxide is soluble in water, in which it spontaneously interconverts between CO2 and  (carbonic acid). The relative concentrations of , and the deprotonated forms  (bicarbonate) and (carbonate) depend on the acidity (pH). In neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming the most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater, while in very alkaline water (pH > 10.4) the predominant (>50%) form is carbonate. The bicarbonate and carbonate forms are very soluble. So, air-equilibrated ocean water (mildly alkaline with typical pH = 8.2–8.5) contains about 120 mg of bicarbonate per liter.
Industrial production 
Industrial carbon dioxide is produced mainly from six processes:
 By capturing natural carbon dioxide springs where it is produced by the action of acidified water on limestone or dolomite.
 As a by-product of hydrogen production plants, where methane is converted to CO2;
 From combustion of fossil fuels or wood;
 As a by-product of fermentation of sugar in the brewing of beer, whisky and other alcoholic beverages;
 From thermal decomposition of limestone, , in the making of lime (Calcium oxide, );

Chemical reaction 
Carbon dioxide can be created with a simple chemical reaction:
 
 carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide

References 

Carbon compounds
Greenhouse gases
Oxides
An intermission or interval is a break in a performance of play or opera. An intermission may be twenty minutes or longer: time for people to have a drink and time for the performers to relax.  Plays and operas are usually divided into acts.  The intermission will come where there is a suitable break between the acts.  There are a few operas (e.g. those by Richard Wagner) which are so long that there may be two intermissions.

Theater
David Duchovny (born August 7, 1960) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Fox Mulder on the television series, The X-Files. On August 13, 2007, his series Californication began airing on the Showtime television network.

References

1960 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from New York City
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Laramie is a city in the U.S. state of Wyoming. It is the county seat of Albany County. Located in southeastern Wyoming, on the Laramie River, 49 miles (79 km) west of Cheyenne, surrounded by divisions of the Medicine Bow National Forest (headquartered at Laramie). It was founded in 1868 when several thousand persons made a settlement—a jumble of tents and shanties on the treeless plain between the Laramie and Medicine Bow ranges—during construction of the Union Pacific Railroad. Most of the builders moved on, leaving a handful to build a permanent city from a heretofore lawless settlement. 

Laramie’s growth was slow but steady. It attracted attention in 1870 as the site of the first “mixed” jury trial in the United States, when six women served on a grand jury. Its lawlessness further declined with the establishment, in 1873, of the Wyoming Territorial Prison. Humorist Bill Nye lived in Laramie; The Boomerang, a newspaper that he helped found in 1881, is still published (as the Laramie Daily Boomerang).
For years the search for precious metals in the Medicine Bow Mountains, 30 miles (48 km) to the west, provided employment. The railroad, cattle and sheep ranches, forest products, and the University of Wyoming (founded there in 1886) are important factors in the economy, as are tourism and cement making. The University Stock Farm is in the city, and the Geological Museum on the main campus exhibits a dinosaur skeleton discovered in the area. The university also maintains an art museum, an anthropology museum, and an insect museum.

Laramie city, river, plains, and mountains take their name from Jacques La Ramie, a French-Canadian fur trapper killed about 1819 by Indians on the river. The city’s attractions include Wyoming Territorial Park and the Laramie Plains Museum. Inc. 1874. Pop. (2000) 27,204; (2010) 30,816.

Recent history 
In 1998, Matthew Shepherd was murdered in this town.

References

Other websites 

City of Laramie, official website
Cities in Wyoming
County seats in Wyoming
Albany County, Wyoming
The Black Death was a pandemic in Europe and Asia during the 14th century. 

This outbreak of disease was at its worst between 1347 and 1351. 

It killed between 50 million and 100 million people across Europe.

Historians cannot be sure which disease caused the Black Death. However, most think that it was the bubonic plague. That is a bacterial infection caused by the Yersinia pestis species of bacteria.

The Black Death may have begun in Central Asia or East Asia. It definitely appeared in Crimea in 1347. It was probably carried by fleas living on black rats, which traveled on Genoan ships and brought the plague to port cities around the Mediterranean. Rats may also have traveled along trade routes like the Silk Road and brought infected fleas to European cities. When the fleas bit humans, they infected them with the plague by injecting a bit of Y. pestis bacteria into the wound. Symptoms would start three to seven days later.
Not everybody agrees that plague caused the Black Death. Some historians have suggested that anthrax or a viral hemorrhagic fever caused the pandemic.

Impact 
The disease killed around a third of Europe's population, but some areas were less affected than others. There were 75 to 200 million people across Eurasia died during the pandemic.

Until the 1700s, the plague seems to have reappeared in Europe at least once every generation. Some of the smaller plagues were more intense than others and caused more deaths. Later outbreaks include the Italian Plague of 1629–1631, the Great Plague of London (1665–1666), the Great Plague of Vienna (1679), the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720–1722, and the 1771 plague in Moscow. The most virulent form of the plague seems to have disappeared from Europe in the 18th century.
The Black Death had a very big effect on Europe's population. It changed Europe's social structure, which was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in widespread persecution of minorities such as Jews, Muslims, foreigners, beggars, and lepers. The uncertainty of daily survival influenced people to live for the moment, as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353).

At the time, 14th-century European writers called the pandemic the "Great Mortality". Later outbreaks made it become called the "Black Death".

Media 

The Black Death appears in some modern literature and media, used as a subject or a setting. For example, Edgar Allan Poe's short story The Masque of the Red Death (1842) is set in an unnamed country during a fictional plague that shares many things in common with the Black Death.

Albert Camus's writings used that theme too. His novel The Plague (1947) ws set against an outbreak of the plague in Algeria and discussed how people handle the epidemic.
Medical aspects 
In humans, the bubonic plague causes fevers, severe flu symptoms, and buboes. The last are large swellings filled with pus that usually appear in the groin, under the arms, on the thighs, and behind the ears. Buboes are black and purple, which may be how the Black Death got its name. The disease was painful, and many victims died horrible deaths.

The medical knowledge of the time was based on Hippocrates's theory of humorism, which said the body consists of different fluids. If they are in harmony, a person is healthy. If they are not, disease results. Very often, diseases were also seen as a punishment from God.

The theory of humorism did not explain why disease spreads from one person to another. Most people thought that infection was caused by miasma ("bad air"). The bad air could come from within the earth and so cause the disease. Remedies against the disease included opening only north-facing windows, not sleeping during the day, and not working too hard.
In 1348, Philip VI of France asked the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Paris about the cause of the Black Death. It concluded that the pandemic had been caused by a bad conjunction of Jupiter, Saturn and Mars on 20 March 1345. Since that answer was based on astrology, many people believed it, and it was translated into many languages.

Because nobody understood what caused the plague, doctors had no effective treatments. Often, doctors simply told their patients to go to Confession so that their sins would be forgiven if they died. Eventually, the pandemic caused doctors to change their ideas about how the human body worked. Just 200 years later, Girolamo Fracastoro discovered that diseases spread through infection.

Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 caused over 1,000 deaths, mainly in Sydney. That led to a Public Health Department, which did some leading-edge research. It found that plague transmission from rat fleas to humans by the bacillus Yersinia pestis.
Germ warfare 
Mongol forces used the plague as a biological weapon in 1347. That was one of the earliest uses of germ warfare in history.

In Crimea, Mongol forces were fighting for control of Caffa, a Black Sea port (now Feodosiya, Ukraine). At the time, Caffa was a Genoese trade centre. Mongol forces began a siege. During the siege, they are reported to have catapulted plague-infested bodies over the walls into the city. Genoans fled the siege by using ships. Some historians believe the Caffa refugees brought the plague back to Italy with them, which started the pandemic.

Related pages 
 Great Plague of London

References

Other websites

Primary sources online 
 Agnolo di Tura's account 
 Gabriele de' Mussi's account 
 Marchionne di Coppo di Stefano Buonaiuti's account 
 A Petrarch account  and More quotes from Petrarch
Secondary sources online 
 The History Guide "Satan Triumphant: The Black Death"
 Symptoms, causes, pictures of bubonic plague
 Overview of the black death
 BBC news story on controversy over Black Death origins
 Examination of "Ring around the Rosy"'s relationship to the plague
 Black Death Overview from BBC history
 Plague and Public Health in Renaissance Europe. Primary source documents and analyisis
 Secrets of the Dead . Mystery of the Black Death  PBS
 Pandemics in Eastern Europe 

Plague pandemics
Middle Ages
Liverpool is a city in North West England, United Kingdom with a population of about 485,000 in 2015. It is part of the Liverpool-Birkenhead metropolitan area, the fifth-largest metropolitan area in the UK. The local government is Liverpool City Council.

Liverpool is on the eastern side of the River Mersey. It used to lie in the old area of West Derby in the south west of Lancashire. It became a borough in 1207 and a city in 1880. In 1889, it became separate from Lancashire. Liverpool's growth as a large port was matched by the growth of the city during the Industrial Revolution.

It was most famous as a port during the late 19th and early 20th century. It is the birthplace of the famous rock group The Beatles. It is also famous because of its football teams, Everton F.C. and Liverpool F.C.

People from Liverpool are called Liverpudlians or Scousers. People from Birkenhead are called "true Scousers" by some.
History
Liverpool became very important due to trade in sugar, tobacco and especially slaves. In 1818, the Black Ball Line, with a fleet of sailing ships, offered the first regular passenger service with emphasis on passenger comfort, from England to the United States.

In the 19th Century, transatlantic trade and passenger travel was served to destinations such as New York City from Liverpool by:
Black Ball Line (trans-Atlantic packet) (1817–1877)
Cunard Line (1840–)
White Star Line (1845–1934)
Collins Line (1818–1858)
Leyland Line (1873–1901)
Guion Line (1866–1894)
Inman Line (1850–1893)
In 1830, Liverpool and Manchester became the first cities to have a railway connecting them to each other, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Not including airports in London, Liverpool Airport was the first airport in Britain opening in 1930. In 2008 it was awarded the title European Capital of Culture.
Geography
Liverpool is a city on the River Mersey, on the coast next to the Irish Sea. On the other side of the river Mersey is the Wirral. In 1846 the Albert Dock was opened and in 1988, turned into a shopping centre.

Culture
The city is the birthplace of the famous rock group The Beatles and the musical style Merseybeat. It has several art galleries, museums and theatres. The Tate Liverpool is a gallery of modern art, the Walker Art Gallery displays classical art, the Bluecoat and FACT exhibit contemporary art. Museums include the World Museum, the Maritime Museum and the Museum of Liverpool. There are two cathedrals, Liverpool Cathedral which is known as Anglican and Metropolitan Cathedral which is Catholic. There are two famous football clubs, Liverpool F.C. and Everton F.C. It has several parks including Sefton Park and Stanley Park.
Transport
Liverpool Airport opened in 1930, it was later renamed Liverpool John Lennon Airport. It has three tunnels under the River Mersey, one for trains and two (Queensway and Kingsway) for cars travelling to and from Wirral.

Rail
It has a local train network called Merseyrail and the station Liverpool Lime Street provides train travel to and from the rest of the United Kingdom. Until the 1950s it also had Liverpool Overhead Railway and Liverpool Corporation Tramways. Liverpool is connected to the West Coast Main Line railway connecting London, Birmingham, Manchester, Edinburgh and Glasgow.

Road
Motorways running into Liverpool include the M62 from Manchester, the M58 and the M53 from Wirral. The inner ring road is Queens Drive and the outer ring road is the M57.
Sea and river
Liverpool Cruise Terminal opened in 2007 and provides travel to Europe. Regular ferries services operate to Wirral and the Isle of Man. River cruises operate down the Manchester Ship Canal and the Leeds Liverpool Canal also connects into Liverpool.

Education
Liverpool has several universities;
University of Liverpool,
Liverpool John Moores University,
Liverpool Hope University
Liverpool Institute of Performing Arts.

Famous places 
 Albert Dock
 St George's Hall
 Liverpool Cathedral
 Speke Hall
 Merseyside Maritime Museum
 International Slavery Museum
 Tate Liverpool
 The Beatles Story
 Pier Head
 Al-Rahma Mosque
 Goodison Park
 Anfield
Famous people from Liverpool 
David Morrissey, actor
Steven Gerrard, Rangers F.C. Manager, Former Liverpool F.C. & England National Team captain
 Jamie Carragher, Liverpool Football Club Legend
 The Beatles (John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr).
 Tom Baker, actor (Doctor Who)
 Ken Dodd, comedian
 Echo and the Bunnymen
 Julian Lennon, musician, son of John Lennon and his first wife, Cynthia.
 Brian Epstein, music mogul
 Frankie Goes to Hollywood, music group
 Gerry Marsden, musician
 Gerry and the Pacemakers, music group
 Cilla Black, entertainer
 Paul O'Grady, former drag act and television presenter
 Jason Isaacs, actor
 Miles Kane, musician
 Melanie C, Sporty Spice, member of the Spice Girls
 John Bishop, comedian and actor
 Clive Barker, author & director
 Peter Serafinowicz, actor & comedian
 Kim Cattrall, actress
 Jodie Comer, actress
 Freddie Starr, Comedian, actor & musician
Development 
There has been a lot of development work which is part of a regeneration plan for Liverpool. It is because Liverpool was the Capital of Culture for 2008.

References 

 
Port cities and towns of England
1166 (MCLXVI) was .

Births 
 December 24 – John I of England

Events 
 Marko III follows Yoannis V as patriarch of Alexandria.
 Henry the Lion builds the first bronze statue north of the Alps.
 Giraldo Sempavor captures Evora.
Serfdom is the forced labour of serfs in a feudal society.  In medieval Europe, serfs were peasant farmers who worked without pay for a lord.  In exchange, they got to live and work on the lord’s manor.  They also got the lord’s protection.

Serfs had more rights than slaves (for example, serfs could own property).  However, they were not completely free.  They could not move, marry, or leave the manor without the lord’s permission.  In most serfdoms, serfs were legally part of the land.  If the land was sold, they were sold with it.

Serfs worked in their lord’s fields.  They sometimes did other things related to agriculture, like forestry and transportation (by both land and river).  Some also worked in craft and manufacturing.

Serfdom developed from agricultural slavery in the Roman Empire.  It spread through Europe around the 10th century.  During the Middle Ages, most European people lived in serfdoms.
Serfdom lasted up to the 1600s in England and until 1789 in France.  In most other European countries, serfdom continued until the early 19th century. 

Serfdom was unusual in the Russian Empire until the 18th century when it became widespread. Alexander II of Russia abolished it in 1861,

The system of serfdom 
During the Middle Ages in Europe, monarchs, the Catholic Church, and the nobility owned all land.  Serfs did not own land.  Instead, they did manual labor for landowners in exchange for a place to live and work.

Most serfs were workers, but some were craftsmen - like the village blacksmith, miller or innkeeper.

The serf's feudal contract 
Serfs had a feudal contract, just like a baron or a knight. A serf's feudal contract said that he would live and work on a piece of land owned by his lord. A serf was allowed to have their own home, fields, crops, and animals on the lord’s land. Serfs had some rights in the feudal contract. In return for their work, the serf would get protection.
During feudal times, people said that a serf "worked for all", a knight or baron "fought for all," and clergy "prayed for all." Serfs were in a lower social class than knights and barons. However, they were better off than slaves.

A manorial lord could not sell his serfs like Romans sold slaves.  However, serfs were legally tied to the land they worked on.  If their lord sold his land, his serfs were sold along with the land.  Serfs could not sell the land they lived on, and could not leave the manor without their lord’s permission.  Often, they needed the lord’s permission before they could marry someone who was not also a serf for that lord.

Becoming a serf
A free man usually became a serf because he owed a large debt. He would make an agreement with the lord of the land. The lord would keep him safe, give money to pay his debt, and give him land to work on. In return, he would work for the lord. All his children would become serfs.
The serf's duties
Serfs had to pay taxes to their lord. The lord would decide how much each serf had to pay, based on the size of the land the serf lived on. Usually, serfs had to pay 1/3 of their land’s value in taxes, which is less than most middle class Americans pay in taxes in the present day. When the lord was fighting a war, serfs also had to pay wartime taxes.

Money was not very common during the Middle Ages. Serfs usually paid their lord by giving food and working without pay.  Usually, serfs spent five or six days a week working for their lord. On these days, the lord would give his serfs better food.  However, serfs had to do the lord’s work before they could do their own work. When the lord’s crops needed to be harvested, the serf’s own crops needed to be harvested too. Still, the serf could not harvest his own food until he had done his required work for the lord.
At different times in the year, serfs would do different things. A serf might plough his lord's fields, harvest crops, dig ditches, or repair fences. The rest of his time he could take care of his own fields, crops and animals.

There were strange tests to decide if something was good enough to be given for taxes. A chicken, for example, had to be able to jump over a fence. That showed that the chicken was young and healthy.

Lords also required serfs to pay fines when they did certain things.  For example, a serf would have to pay a fine:

 If he inherited money or property
 If he became a priest or monk
 If his children moved to the city instead of staying and being a serf on the lord’s manor
 If he used his own mill to grind the grain he grew

When a serf died, his children could only stay on the land if they gave the lord their best animal.
Serfs had to pay to use the lord’s grain mill.  Many serfs thought this was unfair.  Millers charged a fee called multure, which was usually 1/24 of the total grain milled.  The serfs often thought the millers were not honest.

Many serfs had to use their lord’s ovens to bake their daily bread.  They had to pay to use these ovens.  They also had to pay to use the lord’s carts to carry their produce.

Benefits of serfdom
Serfs had some freedoms. They could get and keep property and money. Some serfs had more money and property than their free neighbours. Sometimes, serfs could buy their freedom.

The lord could not make serfs leave his land unless he had good reasons. The lord was supposed to protect them from criminals or other lords, and he was supposed to give them charity during famines.

Agricultural benefits 
Serfs could grow what they wanted on their lands. Sometimes they had to pay their taxes in wheat, which is difficult to grow. They could take the wheat they did not give for taxes to the market.
Mostly, serfs were subsistence farmers, eating what they grew. Their heirs usually got an inheritance.

Variations 
The rules for serfdom were different at different times and places. In some places, serfdom changed into different types of taxation.

In the 13th-century Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, serfs had to work two to three days a week for their landlords. In the 14th century, they had to work one day per week. In the 17th century, they had to work four days per week. In the 18th century, they had to work six days per week.

Sometimes, serfs were soldiers during war. They could earn their freedom or even become nobles as a reward for bravery in war.
Serfs could also gain their freedom in other ways.  Sometimes they could buy their freedom.  Enlightened or generous owners could free a serf (this is called manumission).  Some serfs were able to flee to other towns or to newly settled land where people would not ask questions about the serf’s past.  Laws varied from country to country.  In England, a serf became free if he made his way to a chartered town and avoided being recaptured for a year and a day.

Freedom for the serfs 
When people started to use money more, and barter became less important, serfdom began to change.  Now lords could make money by renting their land.  This was more profitable than getting unpaid work from serfs.  Many lords "freed" their serfs when their work became less valuable than money.
Still, the serfs' lives were not seriously changed.  They still had to farm their land, take care of their families, and pay their taxes.  However, they could no longer be forced off their lands if they did not pay rent, or if their Lord decided he wanted to use their fields for a different purpose.

History of serfdom

Serfs in antiquity 
The helots in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta worked like serfs.  So did peasants working on government lands in ancient Rome.  However, these workers were not called “serfs.”  Instead, they were called coloni, meaning "tenant farmers.”

When Germanic tribes took over the Roman Empire, they took the lands from the wealthy Romans. They became the new lords in the same economic system of serfdom.

Beginning of serfdom
In Western Europe 
Medieval serfdom in Western Europe began with the breakup of the Carolingian Empire around the 10th century.  This empire had ruled most of western Europe for more than 200 years.  After the empire broke up, Western Europe had no strong central governments for a long time.

During this time, feudal lords worked to make serfdom the common way for people to live.  Under serfdom, rich landlords could force other people to work for them and feed them.

Serfs did most of the agricultural work in medieval Western Europe.  Slavery did exist during this time, but it was not common.  Usually slaves were only used to take care of people’s houses.

Parts of Europe, including much of Scandinavia, never used serfdom or other feudal institutions.

In Eastern Europe
In Eastern Europe 

Serfdom reached Eastern European countries later than Western Europe.  It started in Russia around the 12th century, but was not common until several hundred years later.  By the 17th century, serfdom was the most common relationship between Russian peasants and the nobility.  It was most common in the central and southern areas of the Tsardom of Russia, and later the Russian Empire.

Serfdom in Ukraine, in other Cossack lands, in the Urals and in Siberia was rare until the reign of Catherine the Great (r. 1762–1796).  At that time, it spread to Ukraine.  Noblemen began to send their serfs into Cossack lands in an attempt to harvest their extensive untapped natural resources.

Russian serfdom was different than in other Eastern European countries, because it was not changed by German law or by people coming from Germany.  In Russia, serfdom and manorialism systems were enforced by the crown (the Tsar), not by the nobility.

End of serfdom
End of serfdom

In Western Europe 
By the 13th and 14th centuries, serfdom was becoming less common in Western Europe.  The manorial system weakened as powerful monarchs took control, towns developed, and the economy improved.  At the same time, there were more protests by serfs and peasants, like Wat Tyler’s Rebellion in England in 1381.  This put pressure on the nobility and the clergy to change the system and make improvements.  New ways of renting the land gave people more freedom.

By the 15th and 16th centuries, serfdom was ending in Western Europe.  As the economy continued to change, serfdom became less profitable than renting land for money.  Other causes for the end of serfdom included changes in the population and laws about what lords could make their tenants do.
The Industrial Revolution also helped to end serfdom.  Landowners began to put their money into industries, because they made more money this way than they did from having serfs.  This caused urbanization.  As towns got bigger, farmers wanted to move off of manors.  They could make more money working in town than they could by working in a lord’s fields.

In England, serfdom ended around 1600.  After the Renaissance, serfdom was not common in Western Europe.  However, as serfdom was ending, chattel slavery was beginning in the English-speaking parts of the Western Hemisphere.

In Eastern Europe 
Serfdom existed in Russia until February 19, 1861.  In Russian Baltic provinces, it ended in the beginning of the 19th century (see Russian Serfdom Reforms).
Dates for abolition in European countries 
 Savoy: 19 December 1771
 Baden: 23 July 1783
 Denmark: 20 June 1788
 France: 3 November 1789
 Switzerland: 4 May 1798
 Schleswig-Holstein: 19 December 1804
 Grand Duchy of Warsaw (Poland): 22 July 1807
 Prussia: 9 October 1807 (effectively 1811-1823)
 Mecklenberg: October 1807 (effectively 1820)
 Bavaria: 31 August 1808
 Nassau: 1 September 1812
 Estonia (Russian Empire): 23 March 1816
 Courland (Russian Empire): 25 August 1817
 Württemberg: 18 November 1817
 Livonia (Russian Empire): 26 March 1819
 Hannover: 1831
 Saxony: 17 March 1832
 Austria: 7 September 1848
 Hungary: 2 March 1853
 Bulgaria: 1858 (when feudalism was definitely abolished in the Ottoman Empire; practically in 1880)
 Russia: 19 February 1861 (or 1974 - see 'Return of Serfdom' below)
 Danubian Principalities (Romania): 14 August 1864
 Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1918
Return of serfdom
Some people say that planned economies, especially those based on Soviet-style Communist economics (like the Soviet collective farm system) are government-owned serfdom.  Friedrich Hayek said this in his book The Road to Serfdom.

Mikhail Gorbachev grew up in a kolkhoz.  These were supposed to be collectives.  There were also sovkhoz, which were state-owned.  The government used a system of internal passports and household registration (like China's hukou system) to make people stay on their farms. They had to plant crops according to instructions from the central authorities, especially if they were on state-run farms.  The state then bought their agricultural produce at low prices and invested heavily in industrialization.  Gorbachev said this was much like being a serf.
This kind of serfdom lasted in Russia until 1974 (with a brief break during the Russian Civil War). USSR Government Decree #667 gave peasants identification documents, with an unrestricted right to move within the country, for the first time in Russian history. It is possible that a system like this still exists in rural China.

Related pages 
 Indentured servant
 Farm
 Fiefdom
 Yeoman
 Villein

Other websites 
 An extraction from the book "Serfdom to Self-Government: Memoirs of a Polish Village Mayor, 1842-1927"
 The Granary of Europe - serfdom in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 
 The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis , discussion and full online text of Evsey Domar (1970), "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis," Economic History Review 30:1 (March), pp. 18–32
 The Estabilishment of Serfdom in Eastern Europe and Russia, Richard Trethewey, American Economist, Spring 1974, Vol. 18 Issue 1
 Serfdom
 SERFS UP!
References 
 War Communism to the NEP: The Road from Serfdom
 Gorbachev's BBC Interview
 Hayek, Friedrich A. von, The Road to Serfdom, London: Routledge, 2001. 

Feudalism
A refrigerator is a machine used for keeping things cold. It is sometimes called a fridge or an icebox. It is normally maintained at 4-5  degree Celsius for household use. People put food and drinks in it, to keep those items cold or good (unspoiled) for a longer time. A refrigerator has a heat pump which takes heat away from the air inside the fridge. The heat is moved to the air outside. The heat pump is usually driven by an electric motor.

There are also ice boxes available that do not use electricity because they are filled with ice to provide the colder temperature. The ice can keep things cold until the ice melts. Ice boxes can be taken on camping trips. Sometimes they are called coolers. Refrigerator-sized iceboxes were used before electricity was available.

Most modern refrigerators are available in a variety of colours, although most are white. Smaller versions of the popular refrigerator are also used. They are mainly used in hotels and college dorm rooms.

Freezer
Freezer

A freezer is a special type of refrigerator that stores food at freezing temperatures. Inside a freezer, it is normally . Freezers can be found in household refrigerators, as well as in industry and commerce. When stored in a freezer, frozen food can be stored safely for a longer time than storing at room temperatures.

Domestic freezers can be a separate compartment in a refrigerator, or can be a separate appliance. Household refrigerators usually have a separate compartment where the heat pump is used to pump even colder temperatures to the contents. Most household freezers maintain temperatures from . Some freezer-only units can achieve  and lower. Most household refrigerators generally do not achieve a temperature lower than , because it is difficult to control the temperature for two different compartments. This is because both compartments shares the same coolant loop.
Domestic freezers normally stand upright, resembling refrigerators. Sometimes a domestic freezer is laid on its back to look like a chest. Many modern upright freezers come with an ice dispenser built into their door. Many commercial freezers stand upright and have glass doors so shoppers can see the contents.

References

Other websites

Home appliances
Machines
HVAC
Janis Ian (born Janis Eddy Fink, April 7, 1951) is an American songwriter, singer, musician, columnist, and science fiction writer.  She stated singing folk in the mid-sixties while she was still a teenager.  She sang the most in the 1960s and the 1970s, but she's still singing today. In 1975, Ian won a Grammy Award for her song, "At Seventeen".

Ian is openly lesbian and is married to a woman.

Discography
Albums
 Janis Ian (1967) #29 US (Verve) / (1978) (Columbia) / (Bonus Track) (2004) (Festival, Cooking Vinyl UK)
 For All the Seasons of Your Mind (1967) #179 US (Verve)
 The Secret Life of J. Eddy Fink (1968) (Verve)
 Who Really Cares (1969) (Verve)
 Present Company (1971) #223 US (Capitol)
 Stars (1974) #83 US, #63 (Columbia) / (Bonus Track) (2004) (Festival, Cooking Vinyl)
 Between the Lines (1975) #1 US, #22 Japan (Columbia, Festival) / (Bonus Track) (2004) (Festival, Cooking Vinyl UK)
 Aftertones (1976) #12 US, #1 Japan (Columbia) / (Bonus Track) (2004) (Festival, Cooking Vinyl UK)
 Miracle Row (1977) #45 US, #26 Japan (Columbia) /  (Bonus Track) (2004) (Festival, Cooking Vinyl UK)
 Night Rains (1979) (Columbia)
 Restless Eyes (1981) #156 US (Columbia)
 Uncle Wonderful (1983) (Festival) (Australia only)
 Breaking Silence (1993) (Morgan Creek) / (Bonus Track) (2003) (Festival, Cooking Vinyl UK)
 Simon Renshaw Presents: Janis Ian Shares Your Pain (1995) (not released until 12.09)
 Revenge (1995) (Beacon)
Hunger (1997) (Windham Hill)
 god & the fbi (2000) (Windham Hill) / (3 Bonus Tracks) (2000) (JVC Japan)
 Lost Cuts 1 (2001) (Rude Girl)
 Billie's Bones (2004) (Oh Boy, Rude Girl Cooking Vinyl US)s Night Rains (Bonus Track) (2004) (Festival, Cooking Vinyl UK)
 Billie's Bones (Bonus Track) (2004) (JVC Japan)
 Folk is the New Black (2006) (Rude Girl) / (With DVD) (2006) (Evasound)
 Revenge (Bonus Track) (2006) (Cooking Vinyl UK 2003) (WEA)
 Strictly Solo (2014)
 Hope (2020)
 The Light at the End of the Line (2021)
Compilation albums
 Remember (1978) (JVC Japan)
 The Best of Janis Ian (1980) (CBS)
 My Favourites (1980) (CBS)
 Stars/Night Rains (Double Album) (1987) (CBS)
 At Seventeen (1990) (CBS)
 Up 'Til Now (1992) (Sony)
 Society's Child: The Verve Recordings (1995) (Polydor)
 Live on the Test 1976 (1995) (BBC World Wide)
 Unreleased 1: Mary's Eyes (1998) (Rude Girl)
 The Bottom Line Encore Collection (1999) (Velvet)
 The Best of Janis Ian (2002) (Festival)
 Live: Working Without a Net (2003) (Rude Girl)
 Souvenirs: Best of 1972-1981 (US CD) (2004) (Rude Girl) / (Japan CD) (2004) (JVC Japan) / (CD/DVD) (2006) (Evasound)
 Unreleased 2: Take No Prisoners (2006) (Rude Girl)
 Unreleased 3: Society's Child (2006) (Rude Girl)
 Ultimate Best (2007) (JVC Victory)
 Best of Janis Ian: Autobiography Collection (2008) (Rude Girl)
 The Essential Janis Ian (2009)

Singles
Singles

DVDs
 Live at Club Cafe (2005) (Rude Girl)
 Janismania (2005) (Rude Girl)
 Through the Years: A Retrospective (2007) (Rude Girl)
 Janis Ian '79: Live in Japan & Australia'' (2008) (Rude Girl)

References

Other websites 
 Official website
 Janis Ian's Pearl Foundation 
 
 Janis Ian interview on Slashdot
 2006 interview
 Janis Ian archive on NPR Music

1951 births
Living people
American composers
American folk musicians
American guitarists
American science fiction writers
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American writers
Lesbians
LGBT novelists
LGBT people from New York City
LGBT singers
LGBT songwriters
Musicians from New York City
Singers from New York City
Writers from New York City
Vilnius is the largest city and the capital of Lithuania, with a population of 553,904 (850,700 together with Vilnius County) as of December 2005. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County. Vilnius is 312 kilometres (194 mi) from the Baltic Sea and Klaipėda, the most important Lithuanian seaport. Vilnius is connected by highways to other major Lithuanian cities, such as Kaunas (102 km/63 mi away), Šiauliai (214 km/133 mi away) and Panevėžys (135 km/84 mi away).

History 
See History of Vilnius

Population 
According to the 2001 census by the Vilnius Regional Statistical Office, there were 542,287 inhabitants in the Vilnius city municipality, of which 57.8% were Lithuanians, 18.7% Poles, 14% Russians, 4.0% Belarusians, 1.3% Ukrainians and 0.5% Jews.
In 1931, Vilnius had a population of 195,071, of which 65.9% were Poles, 28.0% Jews, 3.8% Russians, 0.9% Belarusians, 0.8% Lithuanians and 0.6% others (Germans, Tatars, Karaims, Latvians, Ukrainians and others). In 1939, Vilnius had a population of about 209,500, the percentage of the population remained roughly similar to 1931)

Climate 
The climate of Vilnius is considered as Humid Continental or Hemiboreal by Köppen climate classification. Summers can be hot, with temperatures above thirty degrees Celsius throughout the day. Winters can be very cold, with temperatures rarely reaching above freezing

Tourism
Tourism 

Vilnius is a cosmopolitan city with diverse architecture. There are more than 40 churches in Vilnius. Restaurants, hotels and museums have sprouted since Lithuania declared independence.  Like most medieval towns, Vilnius was developed around its Town Hall. The Old Town, the historical centre of Vilnius, is one of the largest in Europe (3.6 km²). The most valuable historic and cultural sites are concentrated here. The main sights of the city are Gediminas Castle and Cathedral Square, symbols of the capital. The Old Town of Vilnius was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1994. In 1995, the first bronzecast of Frank Zappa in the world was installed near the center of Vilnius with the permission of the government.

Economy 
Vilnius is the major economic centre of Lithuania and one of the largest financial centres of the Baltic states.
Education 
The city has many universities. The biggest are:
 Vilnius University
 Vilnius Gediminas Technical University
 Mykolas Romeris University
 Vilnius Pedagogical University

Specialized higher schools with the university status are:

 General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania
 Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre
 Vilnius Academy of Fine Arts
 National M. K. Čiurlionis School of Art

Religion
Vilnius is the Roman Catholic center of the country, with the main church institutions and Archdiocesan Cathedral located here. There are many churches in the city as there are many monasteries and religion schools. The Church architecture in the city includes Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical styles, these styles can be foundin the Old Town. Vilnius is considered one of the main centers of the Polish Baroque movement in architecture of churches. Vilnius has been home to an Eastern Orthodox Christian presence since the thirteenth century. A famous Russian Orthodox monastery, named for the Holy Spirit, is located near the Gate of Dawn.  St. Paraskeva's Orthodox Church in the Old Town is the site of the baptism of Hannibal, the great-grandfather of Pushkin, by Tsar Peter the Great in 1705. A  number of Protestant and other Christian groups are present in Vilnius, most notably the Lutheran Evangelicals and the Baptists.
Once widely known as Yerushalayim De Lita (the "Jerusalem of Lithuania"), Vilnius once was comparable only to Jerusalem, Israel, as a world center for the study of the Torah, and for its large Jewish population. That is why one part of Vilnius was named Jeruzalė. At the end of the 19th century, the number of synagogues in Vilnius was more than hundred.
Islam came to Lithuania in the 14th century from Crimea and Kazan, through the Tatars. Tatars in Lithuania have maintained their religious practices: currently, about 3,000 Tatar Muslims live in Lithuania. There are same few groups of pre-Christian pagan in the city.
Subdivisions 

The city of Vilnius is made up of 21 elderates that are based on neighbourhoods:
 Verkiai — includes Baltupiai, Jeruzalė, Santariškės, Balsiai, Visoriai
 Antakalnis — includes Valakampiai, Turniškės, Dvarčionys
 Pašilaičiai — includes Tarandė
 Fabijoniškės — includes Bajorai
 Pilaitė
 Justiniškės
 Viršuliškės
 Šeškinė
 Šnipiškės
 Žirmūnai — includes Šiaurės miestelis
 Karoliniškės
 Žvėrynas
 Grigiškės — a separate town included in the Vilnius city municipality
 Lazdynai
 Vilkpėdė — includes Vingis park
 Naujamiestis — includes bus and train stations
 Senamiestis (Old Town) — includes Užupis
 Naujoji Vilnia — includes Pavilnys, Pūčkoriai
 Paneriai — includes Trakų Vokė, Gariūnai
 Naujininkai — includes Kirtimai, Salininkai, Vilnius International Airport
 Rasos — includes Belmontas, Markučiai

Transport
Transport

Motorways 
Vilnius is the starting point of the Vilnius-Kaunas-Klaipėda motorway that runs across Lithuania and connects the three major cities. The Vilnius-Panevėžys motorway is a branch of the Via-Baltica.

Airports 
Vilnius International Airport serves most Lithuanian international flights to many major European destinations.

Public Transport 
Vilnius has a  public transportation system.  in 2023 there were 87 bus and 18 trolleybus routes in the city, 426 buses and 190 trolleybuses used the routes on weekdays. They transport about 500,000 people every day. UAB Vilnius Public Transport runs most of the routes.  Some are run by Transrevis.

Sister cities 
Vilnius has 14 sister cities.

References

Other websites

 
 Vilnius Public Transport System
Year 1524 (MDXXIV) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


Events

January–June 
 January – Giovanni da Verrazzano, on board La Dauphine in the service of Francis I of France, sets out from Madeira for the New World.
 March 1 (approximate date) – da Verrazzano's expedition makes landfall at Cape Fear.
 April 17 – da Verrazzano's expedition makes the first European entry into New York Bay and sights the island of Manhattan.

July–December 
 Summer – Paracelsus visits Salzburg. He also visits Villach during the year.
 July 8 – da Verrazzano's expedition returns to Dieppe.
 August–September – Marseille is besieged by Imperial forces under the Duke of Bourbon.
 October 28 – A French army invading Italy under King Francis besieges Pavia.

Births 
 Luís de Camões, Portuguese poet (d. 1580)
 Catherine Howard, Fifth Queen of Henry VIII of England, (born in between 1518 and 1524; d. 1542)
Deaths 
 Pietro Perugino – Italian painter
 June 12 – Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, Spanish conquistador (b. 1465)
 July 20 – Claude of France, queen of Louis XII of France (b. 1499)
 December 24 – Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer (b. c. 1469)

References
A fungus (plural: fungi) is a living organism that includes yeasts, molds, mushrooms and others. Fungi have thin thread-like cells called hyphae that absorb nutrients and anchor the fungus in place. Some, such as mushrooms, also have a body containing many cells. Fungi lack chlorophyll to capture energy from sunlight unlike plants. Instead, they derive nourishments by digesting and absorbing dead organic matter around them. The study of fungi is known as  mycology.

The fungi belong to a kingdom of living things, seperated from animals and plants.

The cells of fungi have nuclei, unlike bacterial cells. Hyphae sometimes consist multiple nuclei. Their cell walls are  composed chitin, in contrast to the cellulose found in cell walls of plants. These and other differences show that fungi form a single group of related organisms. This group of fungi is referred to as the Eumycota or Eumycetes. They share a common ancestor, making them a monophyletic group.
Fungi are saprophytic: a fungus breaks down dead organic matter around it and utilizes it as a source of food. It absorbs the food molecules through its cell wall.p107 Some fungi are parasitic or engage in symbiotic relationships.

Fungi reproduce both sexual and asexual means  in several ways. Many fungi produces spores that develop into new fungi.

Fungi came into existence approximately 1 billion years ago.Fossils from the Devonian period, contains evidence of fungi indicating they likely have an even old history. They scarcity in older fossils due to their rapid decay.

Structure

Reproduction 
Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Some fungi give rise tomushrooms: which serves as fruiting bodies.  Under the cap of a mushroom, gills contain spores that disperse, and may eventually develop into new fungi. Alternatively, fungi use a sporangium to produce asexual spores through mitosis, or sexual spores through meiosis. The spores are haploid.
Fungi can exist as single - celled or multicellular organisms. Yeast is an example of a single-celled fungus that reproduces either sexually or asexually. Asexual reproduction occurs by simple budding (binary fission).

Mycelium 

The mycelium constitutes the vegetative (non-reproductive) portion of a fungus. Typically, it exists underground (or within some other substance and is compose of filaments called hyphae (singular: hypha).

Hyphae 
Hyphae resemble threads or tiny roots. The mycelium consists of a mat of hyphae, which the fungus uses to extract nutrients. Each hypha consists of a long cell enclosed within a tube-shaped cell wall that grows from the end.

Hyphae generally form syncytia, implying that their cell walls (septa) are mostly incomplete, and the cell nuclei are not separated from each other, as in typical cells. Specific details may differ among species.
Symbiosis 
Symbiosis denotes living together. Lichens exemplify a symbiosis relationship between a fungus and an alga or bacterium. In this partnership the algal cells live within the fungal tissue. The outcome is a new mat-like life-form which clings to rock and various surfaces. Approximately 20% of all fungi lives as lichen symbiosis.

Another significant kind of symbiosis is mycorrhiza, where a fungus lives inside plant roots. Most trees contain mycorrhizal roots, as do many crop plants. This benefits both the fungus and the plant.

Pathogens 

Some fungi cause crop diseases, while others induce several diseases in humans. Some are extremly poisonous.
Uses 
 Edible fungi are widely consumed as human food. Certain types of cheese require a fungal species. Examples include Blue cheese and Camembert cheese, which owe their unique flavor and texture to the cheese. 
 Some fungi produce psychotropic (mind-altering) substances. Some people use these fungi recreationally due to their psychedelic properties. These psychedelic mushrooms are often referred as magic mushrooms because of their ability to induce hallucinations. Like any drug, their effect are temporary typically lasting for 4 to 6 hours. Due to their mind-altering effects, many countries have prohibited them. However, scientists are also investigating ways to use "magic mushrooms" as medical applications.
 In modern times, certain fungi (for example, penicillin) have served as  a source of antibiotics. These antibiotics are naturally produced by many fungi as a defense mechanism against bacteria.

Related pages 
 Mycorrhiza
 Mould
 Lichen
 Candida

References
Guernsey is an island in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy. It is one of the Channel Islands, and is the main administration island of the Bailiwick of Guernsey'. Charles III is the head of state, but it has a government of its own, with its own laws and special status when it comes to taxes.
65,573 people live there.

The Island 
Guernsey has 10 parishes. These are 
Castel, Forest, St Andrews, St Martins, St Peter Port, St Pierre du bois, St Sampson, St Saviour's, Torteval, Vale.
 
Saint Peter Port is the biggest parish by terms of population, with 16,500 people living there.

Climate 
Guernsey has an oceanic climate. 

The highest temperature ever recorded in Guernsey was  on 9 August 2003 at Guernsey Airport. 

The lowest temperature ever recorded in Guernsey was  on 20 January 1963 in Saint Peter Port. 

Source:
Source:

Language 
Guernsey has its own dialect of the Norman language, called Guernésiais. It is spoken by only 2% of the population, but is understood by around 14%. This means that only 1300 people speak it, and most of these people are elderly. Only 1 in every 1000 young people can speak it.

References

Islands of the Channel Islands