Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (born September 15, 1977) is an award-winning Nigerian writer. She comes from Abba in Anambra State, southeast Nigeria.  Her book Half of a Yellow Sun won the 2007 Orange Prize for fiction.

Adichie was born in Enugu into an Igbo family. She married Ivara Alistair Esege, a Nigerian doctor.

Sampling on a Beyoncé song 
In December 2013 Beyoncé released her fifth album BEYONCÉ. The eleventh song on the album "Flawless" has a sample from Adichie's TED Talk "Why We Should All Be Feminists". Adichie's sample on the album caused her novel Americanah go up around 600 places in the Amazon chart.

References

1977 births
Feminists
Living people
Nigerian writers
People from Anambra State
The Sind Stream originates from the slopes of Zojila Pass and flowing to south west is joined by another stream coming from Dachhen-Para. Flowing southward and crossing Sind Valley, it empties into Jhelum River near Shadipura.

Rivers of Pakistan
Tributaries of the Indus River
Shaman King is a Japanese anime and manga series by Hiroyuki Takei. The manga ended with thirty two volumes and the anime ended with sixty four episodes.

Reception 
Japanese publisher Shueisha announced that it will be republished all volumes in Japan starting in March 2008. The manga condensed from its current run from 32 to 27 volumes. It was expected to publish two mangas per month.

Main characters 
Yoh Asakura
Anna Kyoyama
Manta Oyamada

Supporting characters 
Ryunosuke Umemiya
Tao Ren
Horohoro
Faust VIII
Lyserg Diethel
Joco McDonnell
Hao Asakura

The Patch Tribe 
Goldva
Silva
Kalim
Nichrom
Magna
Radim
Namari
Bron
Renim
Talim
Rutherford
Chrom
Zinc
Lip & Rap

Hao's followers 
Hoshi-gumi
Opacho
Luchist Lasso
Tsuchi-gumi
BoZ Brothers 
Peyote Diaz 
Tsuki-gumi
Hang Zang-Ching 
Mohamed Tabarsi 
"Big Guy" Bill Burton
Hana-gumi
Canna Bismarck 
Mathilda Mathis 
Marion Fauna

Guardian Ghosts 
Amidamaru
Bason
Kororo
Tokagero
Eliza
Ponchi and Conchi 
Matamune
Pascal Avaf 
Spirit of Fire

References 

Anime
Banihal Pass is at an altitude of 9,200 feet above sea level, in the eastern region of Pir Panjal range, at 75.16 longitude and 33.31 latitude. The pass connects the Valley of Kashmir with Jammu. Banihal cart road enters Kashmir valley through this pass. In 16th century, Sheikh Yaqoob Serfi and two other religious leaders had travelled through this pass to invite India's (Hindustani) Mughal Emperor Akhbar to invade Kashmir.

Mountain passes of Pakistan
Parker Brothers is a toy and game manufacturer and brand. Over almost 115 years, the company has created more than 1800 games; some of them are Monopoly, Cluedo (known as Clue in North America), Risk, Trivial Pursuit, Ouija, Aggravation and Probe.

References

Other websites 
 The Game Makers, a book by Philip Orbanes, chronicles the history of Parker Brothers.
 Parker Brothers  on the History Channel
 The story of Parker's early games

1883 establishments in the United States
American entertainment companies
Companies based in Massachusetts
Toy companies
19th-century establishments in Massachusetts
Cinema in Karachi or Kariwood () had its golden days in the 1960s when some of the prominent movie studios were in Karachi, making movies for the viewership of a large and growing working-class population.

With a metropolitan area hosting the world's second most populated city, the movie viewership is still popular in Karachi. However, the interest has shifted more towards the Hollywood and other international productions. One of the reasons for the shifting trends is attributed to the moving of film-making industry to Lahore, locally termed as Lollywood

Related pages
 Bollywood
 Lollywood
 Hollywood

Other websites
 Official web site of Lollywood 
 Official web site of karachi film industry
 News about Lollywood 
 Watch lollywood movies online
 Lollywood Forums

Cinema of Pakistan
Karachi
Gijsbert Haan (or Gysbert Haan) (January 3, 1801 - July 27, 1874) was the leader of the 1857 Secession of Dutch-Americans from the Reformed Church in America. He was the creator of the Christian Reformed Church in the United States and Canada. Haan was born in Hilversum, North Holland, the Netherlands and died of liver disease in Grand Rapids, Michigan.

1801 births
1874 deaths
American Calvinists
American Christian clergy
Dutch Calvinists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Hilversum
Namur  (, , , , ) is a province of Belgium on the border with France. It is one of the five provinces of Wallonia, the predominantly French-speaking southern region of Belgium.

History
The origin of the province of Namur goes back to 1795, when the Austrian Netherlands and the Principality of Liège joint the French Republic; they were made part of the old department of Sambre-et-Meuse.

At the fall of the First French Empire, the department is dissolved and replaced by the Province of Namur, at the time of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The province of Namur was one of the province created by the Constitution of 24 August 1815 of the Kingdom.

When the United Kingdom of the Netherlands ended after the 1830 Belgian Revolution, the province of Namur became part of the new Kingdom of Belgium.

Geography
Namur borders (clockwise from the West) on the Walloon provinces of Hainaut, Walloon Brabant, Liège and Luxembourg in Belgium, and on France.
The total area of the province is  with a population of about 499,000 in 2022. The highest point of the province is Croix-Scaille, with an altitude of  () above sea level.

Its capital is the city of Namur; other important cities are Dinant, Philippeville, Gembloux, Ciney and Andenne.

Administrative division
The province of Namur is divided into 3 arrondissements and a total of 38 municipalities.

Population by arrondissement
Population x 1,000 (on 1 January since 1980).

References

Other websites

 The province's official site
 Fédération du tourisme de la Province de Namur
A country is a political division of a geographical region.

Country could also mean:

 Country music, a genre of music
 Countryside, a rural settled place outside towns and cities
 Country (movie), a 1984 movie starring Jessica Lange and Sam Shepard
 COUNTRY Insurance & Financial Services, a group of U.S. insurance and financial services companies based in Bloomington, Illinois
Zoji La () is a high mountain pass  in India. This pass is  above sea level, at 74.50 longitude and 34.17 latitude. The pass connects a valley of Kashmir with Ladakh. Different trade routes lad to Tibet, China and Central Asia. Renchen Shah of Leh entered Kashmir through this pass and became the monarch of the land in the 14th century. Mirza Haider Doughlat also advanced through thi pass to invade Kashmir. The old historical name of the pass was Shurji La meaning lord Shiva's mountain.

Mountain passes of India
Babusar Pass is  above sea level. It connects Gilgit with Kaghan via Chilas. Prior to construction of Karakoram highway, this route was very important, because this was the only route leading to Gilgit and Baltistan from Pakistan.

Presently a road by the name of Mansehra-Naran-Jalkhad-Chilas MNJCroad is being constructed through Babusar Pass that will shorten the distance between Mansehra and Chilas by around . Work on the route is expected to conclude sometime in mid 2011.

Mountain passes of Pakistan
Khunjerab Pass is in the north of Hunza/Nagar on China's boundary. It is at an altitude of  above sea level. Karakoram Highway (Silk Route) crosses into China through this pass. All trade between China and Gilgit is carried through Khunjerab.

Mountain passes of Pakistan
Karakoram Pass is a mountain pass between India and China in the Karakoram Range. It is at a height of  above sea level. It is the highest altitude pass connecting Indian Kashmir with  Sinkiang (China).

Mountain passes of Pakistan
The height of this pass is 3738 m above sea level, it connects Gupis, Gilgit with Chitral. The top is flat, a plateau and can be crossed between late April and early November. The grade is very gradual, and the area is crossed by small streams of trout. Grazing in summer is plentiful.

Every year there is a Polo match played on Shandur Top between a team from Chitral and a team from Gilgit.

Shandur Top is one of the four major mountain passes to enter Chitral. The others are Dorah Pass from Badakshan in Afghanistan, Lowari Pass from Dir, and Broghol Pass from the Wakhan Corridor in Afghanistan.

The people who live on both sides of Shandur Top speak the Khowar language.

Mountain passes of Pakistan
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (11 December 1918 – 3 August 2008) was a Russian writer. He was the winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize in literature.

Solzhenitsyn was a novelist, dramatist, and historian. With his works, the Gulags, a network of Soviet labor camp (see forced labor), became well known. Due to this, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1970, but also was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1974. In 1994, Solzhenitsyn went back to Russia. After he died (of heart failure) he received a state funeral. He was very significant for revealing what life was like in the Soviet days.

During his imprisonment he left Marxism and converted to the Russian Orthodox Church.

Best-known works 
Much of Solzhenitsyn's work is autobiographical, based on things he saw and experienced in his own life. Solzhenitsyn was himself imprisoned in the Gulag for many years, and later was in a cancer ward (he recovered from the cancer).
After Khrushchev's Secret Speech in 1956 Solzhenitsyn was freed from exile and exonerated (cleared of all charges). The manuscript of One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich was published in edited form in 1962, with the explicit approval of Nikita Khrushchev. Khrushchev defended it at the Praesidium of the Politburo hearing on whether to allow its publishing, and added: "There's a Stalinist in each of you; there's even a Stalinist in me. We must root out this evil".

Thus the lines between autobiography, reportage, fiction and political observations are tied up together, more so than with most writers.

Poetry 
Prussian Nights (1974) (Russian: Прусские ночи)
This is a long poem. Solzhenitsyn was a captain in the Soviet Red Army during the Second World War. Prussian Nights describes the Red Army's march across East Prussia, and focuses on the traumatic acts of rape and murder that Solzhenitsyn witnessed as a participant in that march.
Novels 
The First Circle (1968) A fuller version of the book was published in English in 2009.
The title is an allusion to Dante's first circle of Hell in The Divine Comedy, where the philosophers of Greece, and other non-Christians, live in a walled green garden. They are unable to enter Heaven, as they were born before Christ, but enjoy a small space of relative freedom in the heart of Hell. The story is about prisoners (zeks) who are technicians or academics. They have been arrested under Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code in Joseph Stalin's purges after the Second World War.
Cancer Ward (1968)
Cancer Ward (1968)
The novel tells the story of a small group of cancer patients in Uzbekistan in 1955, in the post-Stalinist Soviet Union. It explores the moral responsibility – symbolized by the patients' malignant tumors – of those responsible for the suffering of their fellow citizens. During Stalin's Great Purge millions were killed, sent to labor camps, or exiled. Apart from officials who took the decisions, many more stood by and did nothing. They, too, were implicated. Others did worse: they denounced innocent people in order to gain advantages for themselves. The novel tells of how patients come to realise their part in these tragic events.
August 1914 (1971)
August 1914 (1971)
This is about Imperial Russia's defeat at the Battle of Tannenberg in East Prussia. The novel is an unusual blend of fiction narrative and historiography. It caused extensive and bitter controversy, both from the literary and the historical point of view. In 1984 a new version of the novel, much expanded, was published. By this time Solzhenitsyn had lived in the USA for some years. He was able to publish chapters previously suppressed, and new parts written after research at the library of the Hoover Institution. These included chapters on Vladimir Lenin which were published separately as Lenin in Zurich.
Short fiction 
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) 
The story is set in a Soviet labor camp in the 1950s, and describes a single day of an ordinary prisoner, Ivan Denisovich Shukhov. The book's publication was an extraordinary event in Soviet literary history; never before had an account of Stalinist repression been openly distributed.
For the Good of the Cause (1963)
In a provincial town, the students of the local college help to build new college premises by doing most of the work themselves. When it is built, Soviet authorities order that the building should be handed over to a research institute; the students are told that this is "for the good of the cause". The story is an open criticism of the lack of democracy the prevailed at the time, and the lack of integrity of political leaders.
Matryona's Place (1968)
This is Solzhenitsyn's most read short story. The narrator, a former prisoner of the gulag, longs to return to live in the Russian provinces. He takes a job at a school on a collective farm. Matryona offers him a place to live in her tiny, run-down home. They share a single room where they eat and sleep; the narrator sleeps on a camp-bed and Matryona near the stove. The narrator finds the farm workers' lives little different to those of the pre-revolutionary landlords and their serfs. Matryona works on the farm for little or no pay. Helping others one night, she is killed by a train. Her character has been described as "the only true Christian (and) the only true Communist" and her death symbolic of Russia's martyrdom.
Non-fiction 
The Gulag Archipelago (three volumes, 1973–78) 
A history of the entire process of developing and administering a police state in the Soviet Union. It was circulated in samizdat (underground publication) form in the Soviet Union until its official publication in 1989. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Russian Federation, The Gulag Archipelago became required reading in Russian high schools. The Arkhipelag GuLag (its Russian title), is both a rhyme and a metaphor used throughout the work. The word archipelago describes the system of labour camps spread across the huge Soviet Union as a vast chain of islands, known only to those who were fated to visit them.

Related pages 
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country
 List of historians by continent
List of Russian-language novelists
List of Russian novelists

Notes and references

Other websites
Other websites 

 The Nobel Prize Internet Archive's page on Solzhenitsyn
 A World Split Apart : Solzhenitsyn's 1978 Commencement Address to the graduating class at Harvard University
 Audio and textual version of speech
 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: "Saving the nation is the utmost priority for the state"  "Moscow News" (2.05.2006)
 Der Spiegel interviews Alexander Solzhenitsyn: 'I am not afraid of death' "Der Spiegel" 23 July 2007
 Vermont Recluse Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
 Solzhenitsyn’s autobiography from his non-official site 
 The introduction to the Book Gulag by Anne Applebaum 
 Russian Memorial website to Human Rights victims 
  Solzhenitsyn: biography, photos, prose, interviews, critical essays
 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn - Obituary and public tribute 
 The Solzhenitsyn Reader: new and essential writings, 1947-2005
1918 births
2008 deaths
Converts to Christianity
Deaths from heart failure
Russian playwrights
Political prisoners
Russian historians
Russian Nobel Prize winners
Russian novelists
Russian Orthodox Christians
Soviet writers
The Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) is a set of guidelines (rules) that the Debian Project uses to decide whether a software license is a free software license, which is used to decide whether a piece of software can be included in Debian. The DFSG is part of the Debian Social Contract.

The guidelines
 Free redistribution.
 Inclusion of source code.
 Allowing for modifications and derived works.
 Integrity of the author's source code
 No discrimination against persons or groups.
 No discrimination against fields of endeavor, like commercial use.
 The license needs to apply to all to whom the program is redistributed.
 License must not be specific to Debian.
 License must not contaminate other software.
 The GPL, BSD, and Artistic licenses are examples of licenses thought of as free.

History

The DFSG was first published together with the first version of the Debian Social Contract in July 1997. The primary authors were Bruce Perens and several other Debian developers at the time.

Application
Application

Software 

Most discussions about the DFSG happen on the debian-legal mailing list. When a Debian Developer first uploads a package to be included in Debian, the ftpmaster team checks the software licenses and decides whether they follow the DFSG's rules. The team sometimes discusses with the debian-legal list in difficult cases.

Non-software content 

The DFSG is focused on software, but in June 2004 the Debian project decided to use the same rules on software documentation, multimedia data and other content. The non-software content of Debian began to follow the DFSG more strictly in Debian 4.0 (released in April 2007) and following releases.

GFDL 

Much documentation written by the GNU Project, the Linux Documentation Project and others licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License contain invariant sections, which do not comply with the DFSG. This assertion is the end result of a long discussion and the General Resolution 2006-001
Related pages
 The Free Software Definition
 History of free software

References

Other websites

 Debian Social Contract and Free Software Guidelines
 debian-legal list, with archives from previous discussions
 Draft DFSG FAQ(down?)
 DFSG FAQ
 Section A.1.3 of Why OSS/FS? Look at the Numbers!  identifies some of the major issues discussed by debian-legal.
 List of software licenses currently found in Debian

Free Software Guidelines
PingOO is a communication server based on Debian.

PingOO was created by the CRI (Centre des Resources Informatiques) in Haute-Savoie (France).

Other websites
 Official site

Linux distributions
Debian-based Linux distributions
Madden NFL 09 is a video game about the National Football League (NFL) for the Xbox, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Wii, and Nintendo DS. It was the last game to be released on the original Xbox. A GameCube version was also planned, but it was canceled due to the system's discontinuation in early 2007. It was published by EA Sports and developed by EA Tiburon.

Former New York Jets quarterback Brett Favre is on the cover.
Presentation
On the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Nintendo DS versions, play-by-play and color commentary is provided by Tom Hammond and Cris Collinsworth, respectively, replacing Al Michaels and John Madden. However, Michaels and Madden still appear on the Wii, PlayStation 2, and PSP versions. Madden still has a part in Madden 09 as the person describing instructions to the Madden IQ. Madden guides you on advice and other things to help you understand how to raise your Madden IQ. Madden also appears in Mii form in the Wii version of the game, suggesting plays to run in the game's "Madden's Pick" feature.

EA's relationship with ESPN also enables tie-ins with different ESPN shows.

References

Other websites
Official website

2008 video games
Wii games
Nintendo DS games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation Portable games
Xbox games
Xbox 360 games
DGamer
Electronic Arts video games
Elena Sergeevna Katina (Russian: Елена Сергеевна Катина, born 4 October 1984), better known as Lena Katina is a Russian singer. She and Yulia Volkova are the members of the pop group t.A.T.u.

Katina was born in Moscow. She began going to school at age seven. Within a year, she left ordinary school and went to a music school and studied piano. When she was ten, she started singing with the child group "Avenue". She sang with them for three years before joining the vocal and instrumental group "Neposedi" (Fidgety Children). While a part of Neposedy, she met Julia Volkova and they became friends. Soon Lena left the group because of her age. Neposedy is for children up to 14 years old. At the age of 15 she was selected to be a part of the group which was later named Tatu (t.A.T.u).

References

Other websites 

1984 births
Living people
Child singers
Musicians from Moscow
Pop musicians
Russian singers
Eleanore of Provence (c. 1223 – 26 June 1291) was the Queen Consort of King Henry III of England.

1223 births
1291 deaths
Kings and Queens consort of England
A jam session is an informal gathering of musicians to improvise freely on various themes.  They began with jazz musicians. Musicians sometimes use jam sessions to work on new material, and some songs are made by the band during the session. A jam session will often feature improvisation.

References

Musical performance techniques
In music, a compilation is a record, usually an album, which contains songs from more than one source. For instance, it could contain songs from studio albums, live albums, EPs, and other places. The songs often have something in common, for instance a "Greatest Hits" compilation will contain the most popular songs by a band or musician.

Musical terminology
Necrophagist is a technical death metal band from Germany.  They have released two albums. The band is currently signed with Relapse Records.  They are known for their fast songs that require a large amount of skill to play.

References

Other websites 
Official website
Official MySpace

Death metal bands
German heavy metal bands
Karlsruhe
Page 44 is an indie-rock band from England. They have released 3 EPs and 1 demo album and have appeared on television in the United Kingdom. BBC said the band might become "tomorrow's superstars".

References

Other websites
Page 44's MySpace
Page 44 on Facebook

Indie rock bands
English rock bands
Logroño () is a city in northern Spain. It is the capital of La Rioja. Logroño is in the Ebro valley. The population of the city is 150.000.

Capital cities in Spain
Cities in La Rioja (Spain)
Municipalities in La Rioja (Spain)
Liberal arts is the term given to contemporary programmes of education which include areas of study across the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and the arts. It has its origins in Ancient Greece and began with a "desire for a universal understanding". Simply put liberal arts education aimed at holistic education. This can be simplified even further to an education born out of the development of number and language. It developed throughout classical antiquity but began with Pythagoras and his interest in all things mathematical. Pythagoras learnt a lot from the Ancient Egyptians and eventually after hundreds of years and various contributions this knowledge became the four specialisms (Quadrivium) of astronomy, arithmetic, geometry and music. Language became more and more important in human affairs and by 4th century Athens it was paramount to how the city state (polis) was governed. Therefore education also began to include instruction in how to speak well
. Again over hundreds of years and with numerous contributions this became formalised as the three language arts (Trivium) of grammar, dialectic, and rhetoric.
Liberal arts became formalised in the middle ages drawing on its origins in Ancient Greek and Roman culture. Perhaps the most famous image of the Liberal Arts is plate 11, Philosophy and the Liberal Arts from the Garden of Delights (The Hortus deliciarum) which was created by a group of women in the 12th century. In the image [right] you can see the seven liberal arts arranged around the Queen Philosophy who sits above Socrates and Plato. "Their encyclopedia compiled ideas drawn from philosophy, theology, literature, music, arts, and sciences and was intended as a teaching tool for women of the abbey who focused on Liberal Arts Education."

Being holistic, liberal arts education aimed at bringing the theoretical and practical together. As Dante put it, so "that the theoretical intellect by extension becomes practical, its goal then being doing and making". It was intended to be a mental and practical education which by the time of the Renaissance realised a many sided individual.
Historically it was an education reserved only for the elite, and students were predominantly young gentlemen from wealthy families deemed respectable and important. Today, in the USA liberal arts education is still restricted to "elites" who can afford to pay significant fees to attend exclusive liberal arts colleges. Across Europe liberal arts education is now far more affordable with some Universities explicitly stating that it can now "be enjoyed by everyone."

The four liberal arts 
The four liberal arts were taught in two groups: the trivium and the quadrivium :
Trivium
Grammar
 Dialectic (logic)
 Rhetoric

During the Middle Ages, the liberal arts were central to university education. The quadrivium followed the preparatory work of the trivium.
The area and range of the liberal arts evolved in time. Originally, most of the teaching, and all of the text-books, would have been in Latin, the language the students would have learnt at school before they came to college. In the beginning the courses were aimed at educating the elite in the classical works. Eventually, the meaning of "liberal arts" got extended to include both humanities and science. But even today, practical activities as agriculture, business, engineering, pedagogy or pharmacy are excluded from the liberal arts. The liberal professions include only professions which require education at university, mainly law and medicine.

The trivium
The trivium (Latin for three ways), included the literary disciplines:
Grammar, the science of the correct usage of language. It helps a person to speak and write correctly;
 Dialectic (or logic), the science of correct thinking. It helps you to arrive at the truth;
 Rhetoric, the science of expression, especially persuasion. Ways of organizing a speech or document. Adapting it so that people understand it, and believe it.

The quadrivium
The quadrivium (Latin for four ways), included the disciplines connected with mathematics. They were:

 arithmetic teaches about numbers;
 geometry teaches about calculating spaces;
 astronomy teaches about the stars;
 music teaches ratio and proportion and is related to melody and song as it was in the Middle Ages.
Liberal arts colleges, USA 
Liberal arts colleges are a modern re-interpretation of the old idea. Mostly in the United States, these colleges concentrate on good teaching, and are closer to the Oxford & Cambridge type of tuition than most universities. They are mostly or entirely fee-paying institutions, and so continue to offer an elite education to students from prosperous families or gifted students through significant financial aid. The courses are mostly or entirely undergraduate courses.
Publications on the subject
Charles Blaich, Anne Bost, Ed Chan, and Richard Lynch 2004.  Defining liberal arts education. Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts.
 Sister Miriam Joseph (2002) The Trivium: the liberal arts of logic, grammar, and rhetoric. Paul Dry Books.
 Brand Blanshard 1973. The uses of a liberal education: and other talks to students. Open Court.  
 Winterer, Caroline 2002. The culture of classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American intellectual life, 1780-1910. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

References 

 
Cultural history
Brain damage is damage to the brain from either illnesses or injuries. Brain cells are damaged, which often affects one's brain in a way that stops the brain from thinking or reacting the same way as it did before the brain was damaged.

Physical damage to the brain is called traumatic brain injury (TBI). It has occurred since ancient times, and old medical records exist.

History 
Head injuries and their effects were known in ancient times.

Ancient Mesopotamians knew of head injury and some of its effects, including seizures, paralysis, and loss of sight, hearing or speech. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written around 1650–1550 BC, describes various head injuries and symptoms and classifies them based on their presentation and tractability. Ancient Greek physicians including Hippocrates understood the brain to be the center of thought, probably due to their experience with head trauma.
Perhaps the first reported case of personality change after brain injury is that of Phineas Gage. He survived an accident in 1848 when a large iron rod was driven through his head, destroying at least his left frontal lobe.

He recovered with no apparent sensory, movement, or big cognitive damage. However, his behaviour so altered that friends described him as "no longer being Gage". This suggested that the damaged areas are involved in "higher functions" such as personality. Many cases of personality change after brain injury have been reported since.
In the 1970s, awareness of TBI as a public health problem grew. A great deal of progress has been made since then in brain trauma research, such as the discovery of primary and secondary brain injury. The 1990s saw the development and dissemination of standardized guidelines for treatment of TBI, with protocols for a range of issues such as drugs and management of intracranial pressure. Research since the early 1990s has improved TBI survival. That decade was called the "Decade of the Brain" for advances made in brain research.

References

Other websites 
Head and Brain Injuries from MedlinePlus
Dr.Diane.com Information on brain injury and related rehabilitation services.
Fact sheets on brain damage, its effects, and strategies for survivors and their families
Brain Damage Research from ScienceDaily

Diseases and disorders of the brain
An assembly language is a programming language that can be used to directly tell the computer what to do. An assembly language is almost exactly like the machine code that a computer can understand, except that it uses words in place of numbers. A computer cannot really understand an assembly program directly. However, it can easily change the program into machine code by replacing the words of the program with the numbers that they stand for. A program that does that is called an assembler.

Programs written in assembly language are usually made of instructions, which are small tasks that the computer performs when it is running the program.  They are called instructions because the programmer uses them to instruct the computer what to do.  The part of the computer that follows the instructions is the processor.
The assembly language of a computer is a low-level language, which means that it can only be used to do the simple tasks that a computer can understand directly. In order to perform more complex tasks, one must tell the computer each of the simple tasks that are part of the complex task. For example, a computer does not understand how to print a sentence on its screen. Instead, a program written in assembly must tell it how to do all of the small steps that are involved in printing the sentence.

Such an assembly program would be composed of many, many instructions, that together do something that seems very simple and basic to a human. This makes it hard for humans to read an assembly program. In contrast, a high-level programming language may have a single instruction such as PRINT "Hello, world!" that will tell the computer to perform all of the small tasks for you.
Development of assembly language 
When computer scientists first built programmable machines, they programmed them directly in machine code, which is a series of numbers that instructed the computer what to do. Writing machine language was very hard to do and took a long time, so eventually assembly language was made. Assembly language is easier for a human to read and can be written faster, but it is still much harder for a human to use than a high-level programming language which tries to mimic human language.
Programming in machine code 
To program in machine code, the programmer needs to know what each instruction looks like in binary (or hexadecimal). Although it is easy for a computer to quickly figure out what machine code means, it is hard for a programmer.  Each instruction can have several forms, all of which just look like a bunch of numbers to people. Any mistake that someone makes while writing machine code will only be noticed when the computer does the wrong thing.  Figuring out the mistake is hard because most people cannot tell what machine code means by looking at it. An example of what machine code looks like:
05 2A 00
This hexadecimal machine code tells an x86 computer processor to add 42 to the accumulator. It is very difficult for a person to read and understand it even if that person knows machine code.
Using assembly language instead 
With assembly language, each instruction can be written as a short word, called a mnemonic, followed by other things like numbers or other short words. The mnemonic is used so that the programmer does not have to remember the exact numbers in machine code needed to tell the computer to do something. Examples of mnemonics in assembly language include add, which adds data, and mov, which moves data from one place to another.  Because 'mnemonic' is an uncommon word, the phrase instruction type or just instruction is sometimes used instead, often incorrectly. The words and numbers after the first word give more information about what to do. For instance, things following an add might be what two things to add together and the things following mov say what to move and where to put it.

For example, the machine code in the previous section (05 2A 00) can be written in assembly as:
 add ax,42
Assembly language also allows programmers to write the actual data the program uses in easier ways.  Most assembly languages have support for easily making numbers and text.  In machine code, each different type of number like positive, negative or decimal, would have to be manually converted into binary and text would have to be defined one letter at a time, as numbers.

Assembly language provides what is called an abstraction of machine code.  When using assembly, programmers do not need to know the details of what numbers mean to the computer, the assembler figures that out instead.  Assembly language actually still lets the programmer use all the features of the processor that they could with machine code. In this sense, assembly language has a very good, rare trait: it has the same ability to express things as the thing it is abstracting (machine code) while being much easier to use.  Because of this, machine code is almost never used as a programming language.
Disassembly and debugging 
When programs are finished, they have already been transformed into machine code so that the processor can actually run them. Sometimes, however, if the program has a bug (mistake) in it, programmers will want to be able to tell what each part of the machine code is doing. Disassemblers are programs that help programmers do that by transforming the machine code of the program back into assembly language, which is much easier to understand. Disassemblers, which turn machine code into assembly language, do the opposite of assemblers, which turn assembly language into machine code.

Computer organization 
An understanding of how computers are organized, how they seem to work at a very low level, is needed to understand how an assembly language program works. At the most simplistic level, computers have three main parts:
main memory or RAM which holds data and instructions,
a processor, which processes the data by executing the instructions, and
input and output (sometimes shortened to I/O), which allow the computer to communicate with the outside world and store data outside of main memory so it can get the data back later.

Main memory 
In most computers, memory is divided up into bytes. Each byte contains 8 bits.  Each byte in memory also has an address which is a number that says where the byte is in memory. The first byte in memory has an address of 0, the next one has an address of 1, and so on. Dividing memory into bytes makes it byte addressable because each byte gets a unique address. Addresses of byte memories cannot be used to refer to a single bit of a byte. A byte is the smallest piece of memory that can be addressed.
Even though an address refers to a particular byte in memory, processors allow for using several bytes of memory in a row.  The most common use of this feature is to use either 2 or 4 bytes in a row to represent a number, usually an integer. Single bytes are sometimes also used to represent integers, but because they are only 8 bits long, they can only hold 28 or 256 different possible values. Using 2 or 4 bytes in a row raises the number of different possible values to be 216, 65536 or 232, 4294967296, respectively.
When a program uses a byte or a number of bytes in a row to represent something like a letter, number, or anything else, those bytes are called an object because they are all part of the same thing. Even though objects are all stored in identical bytes of memory, they are treated as though they have a 'type', which says how the bytes should be understood: either as an integer or a character or some other type (like a non-integer value). Machine code can also be thought of as a type that is interpreted as instructions. The notion of a type is very, very important because it defines what things can and can’t be done to the object and how to interpret the bytes of the object. For instance, it is not valid to store a negative number in a positive number object and it is not valid to store a fraction in an integer.
An address that points to (is the address of) a multi-byte object is the address to the first byte of that object – the byte that has the lowest address. As an aside, one important thing to note is that you can’t tell what the type of an object is - or even its size - by its address. In fact, you can’t even tell what type an object is by looking at it. An assembly language program needs to keep track of which memory addresses hold which objects, and how big those objects are. A program that does so is type safe because it only does things to objects that are safe to do on their type. A program that doesn’t will probably not work properly. Note that most programs do not actually explicitly store what the type of an object is, they just access objects consistently - the same object is always treated as the same type.
The processor 
The processor runs (executes) instructions, which are stored as machine code in main memory. As well as being able to access memory for storage, most processors have a few small, fast, fixed-size spaces for holding objects that are currently being worked with. These spaces are called registers.   Processors usually execute three types of instructions, although some instructions can be a combination of these types. Below are some examples of each type in x86 assembly language.

Instructions that read or write memory 
The following x86 assembly language instruction reads (loads) a 2-byte object from the byte at address 4096 (0x1000 in hexadecimal) into a 16-bit register called 'ax':

	mov ax, [1000h]
mov ax, [1000h]

In this assembly language, square brackets around a number (or a register name) mean that the number should be used as an address to the data that should be used. The use of an address to point to data is called indirection. In this next example, without the square brackets, another register, bx, actually gets the value 20 loaded into it.

	mov bx, 20
Because no indirection was used, the actual value itself was put into the register.

If the operands (the things that come after the mnemonic), appear in the reverse order, an instruction that loads something from memory instead writes it to memory:

	mov [1000h], bx
 
Here, the memory at address 1000h gets the value of bx. If this example is executed right after the previous one, the 2 bytes at 1000h and 1001h will be a 2 byte integer with the value of 20.

Instructions that perform mathematical or logical operations 
Some instructions do things like subtraction or logical operations like not:
The machine code example earlier in this article would be this in assembly language:

	add ax, 42

Here, 42 and ax are added together and the result is stored back in ax. In x86 assembly it is also possible to combine a memory access and mathematical operation like this:

	add ax, [1000h]
This instruction adds the value of the 2 byte integer stored at 1000h to ax and stores the answer in ax.

	or ax, bx
This instruction computes the or of the contents of the registers ax and bx and stores the result back into ax.

Instructions that decide what the next instruction is going to be
Usually, instructions are executed in the order they appear in memory, which is the order they are typed in the assembly code. The processor just executes them one after another.  However, in order for processors to do complicated things, they need to execute different instructions based on what the data they were given is. The ability of processors to execute different instructions depending on something's outcome is called branching.  Instructions that decide what the next instruction should be are called branch instructions.

In this example, suppose someone wants to calculate the amount of paint they will need to paint a square with a certain side length.  However, due to economy of scale the paint store will not sell them any less than amount of paint needed to paint a 100 x 100 square.

To figure out the amount of paint they will need to get based on the length of the square they want to paint, they come up with this set of steps:
subtract 100 from the side length
if the answer is less than zero, set the side length to 100
multiply the side length by itself

That algorithm can be expressed in the following code where ax is the side length.

	mov bx, ax
	sub bx, 100
	jge continue
	mov ax, 100
continue:
	mul ax

This example introduces several new things, but the first two instructions are familiar. They copy the value of ax into bx and then subtract 100 from bx.

One of the new things in this example is called a label, a concept found in assembly languages in general. Labels can be anything the programmer wants (unless it is the name of an instruction, which would confuse the assembler). In this example, the label is 'continue'. It is interpreted by the assembler as the address of an instruction. In this case, it is the address of mult ax.
Another new concept is that of flags.  On x86 processors, many instructions set 'flags' in the processor that can be used by the next instruction to decide what to do.  In this case, if bx was less than 100, sub will set a flag that says the result was less than zero.

The next instruction is jge which is short for 'jump if greater than or equal to'. It is a branch instruction. If the flags in the processor specify that the result was greater than or equal to zero, instead of just going to the next instruction the processor will jump to the instruction at the continue label, which is mul ax.

This example works fine, but it is not what most programmers would write.  The subtract instruction set the flag correctly, but it also changes the value it operates on, which required the ax to be copied into bx. Most assembly languages allow for comparison instruction that do not change any of the arguments they are passed, but still set the flags properly and x86 assembly is no exception.
cmp ax, 100
	jge continue
	mov ax, 100
continue:
	mul ax

Now, instead of subtracting 100 from ax, seeing if that number is less than zero, and assigning it back to ax, ax is left unchanged. The flags are still set the same way, and the jump is still taken in the same situations.

Input and output 
While input and output are a fundamental part of computing, there is no one way they are done in assembly language. This is because the way I/O works depends on the set up of the computer and the operating system its running, not just what kind of processor it has.  In the example section below, the Hello World example uses MS-DOS operating system calls and the example after it uses BIOS calls.
It is possible to do I/O in assembly language.  Indeed, assembly language can generally express anything that a computer is capable of doing. However, even though there are instructions to add and branch in assembly language that will always do the same thing there are no instructions in assembly language that always do I/O.

The important thing to note is that the way that I/O works is not part of any assembly language because it is not part of how the processor works.

Assembly languages and portability 

Even though assembly language is not directly run by the processor - machine code is, it still has a lot to do with it.  Each processor family supports different features, instructions, rules for what the instructions can do, and rules for what combination of instructions are allowed where. Because of this, different types of processors still need different assembly languages.
Because each version of assembly language is tied to a processor family, it lacks something called portability. Something that has portability or is portable can be easily transferred from one type of computer to another. While other types of programming languages are portable, assembly language, in general, is not.

Assembly language and high-level languages 

Although assembly language allows for an easy way to use all the processor's features, it is not used for modern software projects for several reasons:
It takes a lot of effort to express a simple program in assembly.
 Although not as error-prone as machine code, assembly language still offers very little protection against errors. Almost all assembly languages do not enforce type safety.
 Assembly language does not promote good programming practices like modularity.
 While each individual assembly language instruction is easy to understand, it is hard to tell what the intent of the programmer was who wrote it. In fact, the assembly language of a program is so hard to understand that companies do not worry about people dissassembling (getting the assembly language of) their programs.
As a result of these drawbacks, high-level languages like Pascal, C, and C++ are used for most projects instead.  They allow programmers to express their ideas more directly instead of having to worry about telling the processor what to do every step of the way. They're called high-level because the ideas the programmer can express in the same amount code are more complicated.

Programmers writing code in compiled high level languages use a program called a compiler to transform their code into assembly language.  Compilers are much harder to write than assemblers are. Also, high-level languages do not always allow programmers to use all the features of the processor. This is because high-level languages are designed to support all processor families. Unlike assembly languages, that only support one type of processor, high-level languages are portable.
Even though compilers are more complicated than assemblers, decades of making and researching compilers has made them very good. Now, there is not much reason to use assembly language anymore for most projects, because compilers can usually figure out how to express programs in assembly language as well or better than programmers.

Example programs 

A Hello, world! program written in x86 assembly:
adosseg
.model small
.stack 100h

.data
hello_message db 'Hello, World!',0dh,0ah,'$'

.code
main  proc
      mov    ax,@data
      mov    ds,ax

      mov    ah,9
      mov    dx,offset hello_message
      int    21h

      mov    ax,4C00h
      int    21h
main  endp
end   main.