Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Fiberglass (also called fibreglass and glass fibre) is material made from extremely fine fibers of glass.  

It is used as a reinforcing material for many polymer products. The composite material, that is produced by this method is called "fiberglass" in popular usage. The proper names are fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP).

Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of fiberglass was only made possible when finer tools for machines were produced. The first major use was in "glass wool" for insulation, starting in the 1930s.  

Glass fiber is formed when silica-based or other formulation glass is extruded into many fibers with small diameters that are suitable for textile processing.  Glass is unlike other polymers because, even as a fiber, it has little crystalline structure (see amorphous solid).  The properties of the structure of glass in its soft stage are very much like its properties when spun into fiber.
Safety 
Bare fiberglass can cause skin irritation and cuts when handled without gloves. There have been concerns that fiberglass can be accidentally inhaled into the lungs, where it might cause cancer and other lung problems, similar to asbestos. Fiberglass has been called "man-made asbestos". Substitutes for fiberglass building insulation, such as cellulose and aerogel, have started to appear.

Related pages
Optical fiber

References

Other websites
https://www.facebook.com/OEMfibreglass/
OEM Fibreglass 
Owens-Corning
Fiberglass and health 
UC Davis PDF on Fiberglass Health Effects
FULLTECH Fiber Glass Corp.
SORG GmbH & Co KG
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Fibrous Glass Page

Fibers
Glass
Insulation
Composite materials are made from two or more basic material. They are not just placed together. They are merged together. This create a material with useful properties unlike the individual elements.

The composite material as a whole may behave differently from either of its parts. For example, reinforced concrete (made of concrete and steel) has resistance to pressure and to bending forces. Bullet-proof glass (made of glass and plastic) is far more resistant to impact than either glass or plastic on their own.

Concrete itself is a composite material. It is one of the oldest man-made composites, used more than any other man-made material in the world.

Wood is a natural composite of cellulose fibres in a matrix of lignin. The earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. This ancient brick-making process was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings. It is still used today in some places.
Fibre-reinforced polymers are in wide use today, as is glass-reinforced plastic.

The Biblical book of Exodus tells of the Israelites that were oppressed by Pharaoh and forced to make "bricks without straw".

Related pages
Alloy
Fibre
Polymer
Thermoplastic
Reinforced concrete

References

Other websites 

Composite material key concepts 
Society of Manufacturing Engineers: Plastics, Composites & Coatings Community
Synthetic materials
A fibre (also spelled as fiber) is a piece of material which is long, thin and flexible, like a length of thread. Plant fibres are the basis of fabric such as cotton. Silk and wool fibres come from animals. In the 20th century many artificial fibres were invented like nylon and polyester.

They are very important in the structure of plants and animals, because they hold tissues together.

There are many uses for fibres. They can be spun together into filaments, thread, string or rope. They can be woven in fabric or in composite materials

Natural fibre

Natural fibers include those made by plants, animals, and geological processes. They can be classified according to where they came from:
Vegetable fibers are based on arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin. Examples include cotton, hemp, jute, flax, abaca, piña, ramie, sisal, bagasse, and banana. Plant fibers are used to make paper and textile (cloth). It is also used as dietary fiber.
 Wood fiber is fiber that gotten from trees. They include groundwood, lacebark, thermomechanical pulp (TMP), and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps.
 Animal fibers mainly consist of proteins. Examples are silkworm silk, spider silk, sinew, catgut, wool, sea silk and hair.
 Mineral fibers include the asbestos group. Asbestos is the only long mineral fiber that can be found in nature. Six minerals have been classified as "asbestos". They include chrysotile, amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite. Short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite and palygorskite.
Biological fibers also known as fibrous proteins or protein filaments consist of biologically important proteins, mutations or other genetic defects can lead to severe diseases. For example, the collagen family of proteins, tendon, muscle proteins like actin, cell proteins like microtubules and many others, spider silk, sinew and hair etc.
Man-made fiber
Man-made are fibers that are changed by man. Man-made fibers consist of regenerated fibers and synthetic fibers.

Semi-synthetic fiber
Semi-synthetic fibers are made from raw materials with natural long-chain polymer structures. They are only changed and partially degraded by chemical processes. The first semi-synthetic fiber is rayon. Most semi-synthetic fibers are cellulose regenerated fibers.

Cellulose regenerated fibers 
Cellulose fibers are a type of man-made fibers, regenerated from natural cellulose. The cellulose comes from many sources: rayon comes from tree wood fiber, bamboo fiber comes from bamboo, seacell comes from seaweed, etc.

Some examples of this type of fiber are:

 Rayon
 Bamboo fiber
 Lyocell, a brand of rayon
 Modal
 Diacetate fiber
 Triacetate fiber

Synthetic fiber

Synthetic fibers come from synthetic materials such as petrochemicals.

Metallic fibers
Metallic fibers 

Metallic fibers can be gotten from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel, aluminum or iron.

Carbon fiber 

Carbon fibers are fibers that are mostly made up of carbon atoms. Carbon fibers are often based on oxidizing carbonized polymers through pyrolysis  like PAN.

Silicon carbide fiber 
In silicon carbide fibers the basic polymers are not hydrocarbons but polymers. About 50% of the carbon atoms are replaced by silicon atoms.

Fiberglass

Fiberglass are also man-made fibers that come from natural raw materials. It is made from a specific type glass, and optical fiber, which is made from purified natural quartz.

Polymer fibers
Polymer fibers 

 Polymer fibers are a type of man-made fibers, which are based on synthetic chemicals. These fibers are made from:
 Polyamide nylon
 PET or PBT polyester
 Phenol-formaldehyde (PF)
 Polyvinyl chloride fiber (PVC) vinyon
 Polyolefins (PP and PE) olefin fiber
 Acrylic polyesters
 Aromatic polyamids (aramids)
 Polyethylene (PE), eventually with extremely long chains / HMPE
 Elastomers can even be used
 Polyurethane fiber
 Elastolefin

Related pages
 Textile
 Optical fiber
 Tensile strength

References

Fibers
A fibre-reinforced polymer (also fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP)) is a composite material that consists of a polymer matrix that is reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually fibreglass, carbon, or aramid, the polymer is usually an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic. FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automobile, marine, and construction industries.

Related pages
 Glass-reinforced plastic

Other websites
 Business Week story about FRPs used to construct bridges

Polymers
Synthetic materials
Fibreglass (US: fiberglass) is a composite material. It is a fibre-reinforced polymer made of a plastic reinforced by fine fibres made of glass. The composite material may be called glass-reinforced plastic (GRP).

Fibreglass is cheaper and more flexible than carbon fibre. It is stronger than many metals (when compared by weight), and can be moulded into complex shapes. The plastic matrix is usually a thermoset polymer – such as epoxy or polyester resin,  or it may be a thermoplastic.

The benefits of fibreglass include:

 Fibreglass is strong with a long durability, and can withstand weathering
 Designs that cannot be achieved with glass can be done so with fibreglass
 Cost effective
 Fibreglass is non-conductive, as well as being radio frequency transparent, and has a lower reaction to thermal-conductivity
 Has the appearance of glass while offering more diverse usages
Uses 
 Sail planes, Sports cars, micro cars, karts, lorries, wind turbine blades.
 Pods, domes and architectural features where a light weight is needed
 Roofing products, swimming pools and composite housing
 Protective sleeving for RF Antennas
 Electrical enclosures
 Piping for above and below ground systems

Use of the term 
"Fiberglass" refers to the complete glass fiber reinforced composite material, rather than just the glass fibre inside it.

References

Other websites 
Building a fibreglass fishing boat
Glass reinforced polyester use in Europe 
Polymers
Building materials
Synthetic materials
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP or CRP), is a very strong, light and expensive composite material or fiber-reinforced plastic. Similar to glass-reinforced plastic, one uses commonly the name of its reinforcing fibers (carbon fiber) for the composite material. The plastic is most often epoxy, but other plastics, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are also sometimes used. Some composites contain both carbon fiber and other fibres such as kevlar, aluminium and fiberglass reinforcement. Less commonly, the terms graphite-reinforced plastic or graphite fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) are also used.

It has many applications in aerospace and automotive fields, as well as in sailboats, and notably in modern bicycles and motorcycles, where these qualities are of importance. It is becoming increasingly common in small consumer goods as well, such as laptop computers, tripods, fishing rods, paintball equipment, racquet sports frames, stringed instrument bodies, classical guitar strings, and drum shells.
Related pages
Carbon fiber
Graphite
Aramid
Fiberglass

Other websites 

Japan Carbon Fibre Manufacturers Association (English)
Carbon fibre page from the Department of Polymer Science at USM
Engineers design composite bracing system for injured Hokie running back Cedric Humes
Polymers
Synthetic materials
Carbon fiber (British English: carbon fibre) is a type of fiber that is made of carbon atoms. It is also sometimes called graphite fiber. It has the highest compressive strength of all the reinforcing materials (composites), and it has a high strength to weight ratio and low coefficient of thermal expansion. The density of carbon fiber is also much lower than the density of steel. Carbon fiber is in the form of several thousand long, thin strands of material that is composed of mostly carbon atoms.

Applications 

Carbon fiber is most notably used to reinforce composite materials, particularly carbon fiber reinforced polymers. Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC)  is used structurally in high-temperature applications. The fiber is also used to filter high-temperature gases.

Molding a thin layer of carbon fibers significantly improves fire resistance of polymers or thermoset composites. This works because a dense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat.
The increasing use of carbon fiber composites is displacing aluminum from aerospace applications in favor of other metals.

Related pages
 Carbon fiber reinforced plastic

Notes

Other websites 
 The Chemistry of Carbon Fiber
 Making Carbon Fiber
 Bacon's breakthrough  at ACS.org
 Carbon Fiber at pslc.ws

Fibers
Woven fabrics
In mathematics, a coefficient is a constant multiplicative factor of a certain object. For example, the coefficient in 9x2 is 9. A coefficient can also be a variable such as ,  and . 

The object can be such things as a variable, a vector, a function, etc. In some cases, the objects and the coefficients are indexed similarly, leading to expressions such as:

where an is the coefficient of the variable xn for each n = 1, 2, 3, …

Related pages 

 Polynomial

References 

Algebra
Coefficient could have one of the following meanings: 
In mathematics, a coefficient is a constant multiplication of a function was once called its differential coefficient, a usage now mostly displaced by the modern term.
In physics, a physical coefficient is an important number that characterizes some physical property of an object.

Also,
The Coefficients were an Edwardian London dining club.
Enrico Fernando Fermi (September 29, 1901 — November 28, 1954) was an Italian-American physicist who worked on the first nuclear reactor and helped make quantum theory. He also was important to particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermi won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1938 for his work on induced radioactivity. He built the world's first nuclear reactor. Fermi was one of the greatest scientists of the 20th century.

Early life 
Fermi was born in Rome and went to a local grammar school. He was very good at maths and science and won a prize from Scuola Normale   Superiore of Pisa. He went to the University of Pisa where he studied physics. In 1923 he was given a scholarship from the Italian government and went to Göttingen for more study. He was given a Rockefeller scholarship in 1924 and studied in Leyden. He came back to Italy at the end of 1924 and became Lecturer in Mathematical Physics and Mechanics at the University of Florence.
Scientist in Italy 
In 1926, Fermi discovered the statistical laws, now called Fermi statistics. These laws explain the actions of the particles which are subject to the Pauli exclusion principle, which are now called fermions. These are different to the particles called bosons which are explained by Bose-Einstein statistics. In 1927 he became Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Rome. He spent time studying electrodynamics, and began to closely look at the atomic nucleus. In 1934, using discoveries made by Wolfgang Pauli, Frédéric Joliot, Irène Joliot-Curie, he was able to show changes in almost every element bombarded with neutrons. This led to the discovery of slow neutrons, nuclear fission and making elements that were not in the Periodic Table.

Fermi expressed his concerns about the dangers of nuclear energy at one of the meetings of the University of Chicago before the end of the WWII.

References
References 

1901 births
1954 deaths
Cancer deaths in Chicago
Burials at Oak Woods Cemetery
Deaths from stomach cancer
Italian scientists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
American nuclear physicists
People from Rome
American theoretical physicists
Italian Nobel Prize winners
Examples of Physical Coefficients
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (thermodynamics) (dimensionless) - Relates the change in temperature to the change in a material's dimensions.  
 Partition Coefficient (KD) (chemistry) - The ratio of concentrations of a compound in two phases of a mixture of two immiscible solvents at equilibrium.
 Hall coefficient (electrical physics) - Relates a magnetic field applied to an element to the voltage created, the amount of current and the element thickness. It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is made.
 Lift Coefficient (CL or CZ) (Aerodynamics) (dimensionless) -  Relates the lift generated by an airfoil with the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow around the airfoil, and the planform area of the airfoil. 
 Ballistic coefficient (BC) (Aerodynamics) (units of kg/m²) - A measure of a body's ability to overcome air resistance in flight. BC is a function of mass, diameter, and drag coefficient.
Transmission Coefficient (quantum mechanics) (dimensionless) - Represents the probability flux of a transmitted wave relative to that of an incident wave.  It is often used to describe the probability of a particle tunnelling through a barrier.  
 Damping Factor a.k.a. viscous damping coefficient (Physical Engineering) (units of Newton-seconds per meter) - relates a damping force with the velocity of the object whose motion is being dampened.
 Coefficient of friction (dimensionless) which could be static or dynamic - it relates friction, a force resisting motion between things touching each other, to a normal force, a force pushing the things together.  
 ''Diffusion coefficient - relates concentration differences in a medium with how much or how fast diffusion occurs in Fick's Law.
Solids mostly expand in response to heating and contract on cooling. This response to temperature change is expressed as its coefficient of thermal expansion.

The coefficient of thermal expansion is used:
in linear thermal expansion
in area thermal expansion
in volumetric thermal expansion

These characteristics are closely related. The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be measured for all substances of condensed matter (liquids and solid state). The linear thermal expansion can only be measured in the solid state and is common in engineering applications.
Thermal expansion coefficients for some common materials
The expansion and contraction of material must be considered when designing large structures, when using tape or chain to measure distances for land surveys, when designing molds for casting hot material, and in other engineering applications when large changes in dimension due to temperature are expected. The range for α is from 10-7 for hard solids to 10-3 for organic liquids. α varies with the temperature and some materials have a very high variation. Some values for common materials, given in parts per million per Celsius degree: (NOTE: This can also be in kelvins as the changes in temperature are a 1:1 ratio)

Applications
For applications using the thermal expansion property, see bi-metal and mercury thermometer
Thermal expansion is also used in mechanical applications to fit parts over one another, e.g. a bushing can be fitted over a shaft by making its inner diameter slightly smaller than the diameter of the shaft, then heating it until it fits over the shaft, and allowing it to cool after it has been pushed over the shaft, thus achieving a 'shrink fit'

There exist some alloys with a very small CTE, used in applications that demand very small changes in physical dimension over a range of temperatures.  One of these is Invar 36, with a coefficient in the 0.6x10-6 range.  These alloys are useful in aerospace applications where wide temperature swings may occur.

Other websites
MatWeb: Free database of engineering properties for over 64,000 materials
Clemson University Physics Lab: Linear Thermal Expansion 
USA NIST Website - Temperature and Dimensional Measurement workshop
Hyperphysics: Thermal expansion

References

Heat
Physical quantity
Surveying is the technique and science of accurately finding out the position of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually, but not always, associated with positions on the surface of the Earth. They are often used to make land maps and boundaries for ownership of land. A person who does the surveying is called a surveyor. In order to find the information they need, surveyors use geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, geology and law.

Surveying has been very important in the development of the human environment since the beginning of recorded history (ca. 5000 years ago) and it is a requirement planning of nearly every form of construction. Its most common uses are in the fields of transport, building and construction, communications, mapping, and the making of legal boundaries for land ownership.
Origins 
Surveying has existed throughout much of our history.  In ancient Egypt, when the Nile River overflowed its banks and washed out farm boundaries, the boundaries were recreated by surveyors using simple geometry. The construction of the pyramids, including the Great Pyramids of Giza (built c. 2700 BC) show us that the Ancient Egyptians used surveying efficiently.

Surveyor

A surveyor is a person who has the skills to accurately find out the position of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually, positions on the surface of the Earth. Finding these points is called "surveying". Surveyors are needed to make land maps and boundaries for ownership of land. In order to find the information they need, surveyors use geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, and law.
There are different types of surveyor. A construction or building surveyor is the person who has to make sure that buildings are being put up in the correct place and fit in with planning and building laws. A quantity surveyor is the person who keeps track of costs on a building project.  A hydrographic surveyor measures features to do with water, such as rivers, lakes and oceans.  A marine surveyor inspects ships.  A mine surveyor is the person who finds out the position of underground mines, for example gold mines or coal mines.

Related pages
 Architecture
 Cartography
 Topography
 Trigonometry

Notes

References 
 Keay J (2000), The Great Arc: the dramatic tale of how India was mapped and Everest was named, Harper Collins, 182pp, .
 Pugh J C (1975), Surveying for Field Scientists, Methuen, 230pp,
Other websites 
 National Society of Professional Surveyors 
 The Irish Institution of Surveyors
 National Geodetic Survey
 National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
 UK Ordnance Survey
 U.S. Geological Survey
 International Federation of Surveyors
 The Institution of Surveyors, Australia 
 The Survey Association (UK)
 Survey of India
 New Zealand Institute of Surveyors

Architecture
Geography
Geometry
Jorge Manrique (c. 1440 – 1479) was a major Spanish poet, whose main work, the Coplas a la muerte de su padre (Stanzas about the Death of his Father), is still read today. He was a supporter of the great Spanish queen, Isabel I of Castile, and actively participated on her side in the civil war that broke out against her half-brother, Enrique IV, when the latter attempted to make his daughter, Juana, crown princess. Jorge died in 1479 during an attempt to take the castle of Garcimuñoz after Isabel gained the crown.
Manrique were one of major Spanish aristocratic families of the Jewish converso descent. See, Norman Roth, "Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain", Madison, WI: The University of Wisconcin Press, 1995, p. 333. Jorge Manrique was a great-nephew of Iñigo López de Mendoza (marquess of Santillana), a descendant of Pero López de Ayala, chancellor of Castile, and a nephew of Gómez Manrique, corregidor of Toledo, all important poets of the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. He was, therefore, a member of a noble family of great consequence.

1440 births
1479 deaths
Spanish poets
Minutes to Midnight is third studio album by American nu metal band, Linkin Park. Production on the album started as early as late 2003, and initially had a projected release date of sometime in late 2004 or early 2005, but was scrapped due to touring and support of their previous album, Meteora, then prouduction started back up in 2006. It was released on May 14, 2007 all over the world and on May 15, 2007 in North America. Rick Rubin and Mike Shinoda produced the album.

The name "Minutes to Midnight" comes from the Doomsday Clock.

List of songs 
 "Wake" – 1:41
 "Given Up" – 3:09
 "Leave Out All the Rest" – 3:29
 "Bleed It Out" – 2:44
 "Shadow of the Day" – 4:50
 "What I've Done" – 3:25
 "Hands Held High" – 3:53
 "No More Sorrow" – 3:42
 "Valentine's Day" – 3:17
 "In Between" – 3:17
 "In Pieces" – 3:38
 "The Little Things Give You Away" – 6:22

B-sides 
 "No Roads Left" – 3:59

List of singles 
 "What I've Done"
 "Bleed It Out"
 "Shadow of the Day"
 "Given Up"
 "Leave Out All the Rest"
Other websites 
 Minutes to Midnight album website
 Linkin Park website

2007 albums
Linkin Park albums
Concept albums
Rock albums
Thelxinoe or  is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2004 from pictures taken in 2003, and originally got the designation .

Thelxinoe is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 20,454,000 km in 597.607 days, at an inclination of 151° to the ecliptic (153° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.2685.

It was named in March 2005 after Thelxinoe, one of the four original Muses according to some Greek writers, and a daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) by Mnemosyne.

Thelxinoe belongs to the Ananke group, retrograde non-spherical moons which orbit Jupiter between 19,300,000 and 22,700,000 km, at inclinations of about 150°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Oskar Lafontaine (; born 16 September 1943 in Saarlouis-Roden) is a left-wing German politician and a founder member of the new political party Die Linke.

Education and family
Lafontaine studied physics at the Bonn University and the Saarland University from 1962 to 1969.

He is Roman Catholic and is married to Christa Müller who leads a campaign against genital mutilation in Africa. They have a son, Carl Maurice, born 1997.

Career

Political rise
Lafontaine's political career began locally as mayor of Saarbrücken. He became widely known as a critic of chancellor Helmut Schmidt's support for the NATO plan to put Pershing II missiles in Germany. From 1985 to 1998 he was Minister-President of the Saarland. As minister-president, Lafontaine tried to keep the traditional industries of steel production and coal mining in the state with subsidies. He was also President of the Bundesrat in 1992/93.
Chancellor candidacy
In the German federal election of 1990, Lafonntaine was the SPD's Chancellor candidate. The party lost because of support for the CDU who were the government during reunification. During the campaign he was attacked with a knife by a mentally deranged woman after a speech in Cologne. His carotid artery was slashed and he remained in a critical condition for several days.

Political comeback
At the "Mannheim convention" in 1995, Lafontaine was elected chairman of the SPD, replacing Rudolf Scharping. He was mainly responsible for bringing the whole of the SPD against Helmut Kohl and his CDU party, instead of cooperating with the CDU. Lafontaine said that any help given to Kohl would only help to keep the CDU in government.

This idea put the SPD ahead in the opinion polls in September 1998. He was appointed Federal Minister of Finance in the first government of Gerhard Schröder.
Minister of Finance
During his short time as Minister of Finance, Lafontaine was a figure of attack by UK Eurosceptics. This was especially because he wanted to make taxes the same in the European Union. This would have meant some UK taxes would increase.

On 11 March 1999, he resigned from all his official and party offices, saying that not getting any help from other members of the cabinet. Later he become known for his attacks against Angela Merkel's government in the tabloid Bild-Zeitung which is generally considered conservative.

The Left Party
On 24 May 2005 Lafontaine left the SPD. On 10 June, he said he would run as the lead candidate for The Left Party.PDS (Die Linkspartei), a coalition of the Electoral Alternative for Labour and Social Justice (WASG), which is based in western Germany, and the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), which was the successor to the East German communist party
He joined the WASG on 18 June 2005 and was selected to head their list for the 2005 Federal Election in North Rhine-Westphalia on the same day. He also stood in the Saarbrücken constituency, but lost. Nevertheless, the result of the Linkspartei in the Saarland was the best in any of the federal states in the West of Germany.

Criticisms of Lafontaine
An article by Lafontaine on Erich Honecker, state and party leader of the GDR and a Saarländer like him, in the magazine Der Spiegel was criticized by many people who said it concentrated on a few good things Honecker did, and ignored the bad things. In the late 80s and early 90s he lost some support from left-wing people because he seemed to want pro-business policies and he called for a reduction of the influx of Germans from Eastern Europe and asylum-seekers.

Other websites

  www.Sozialisten.de The German Left Party
 The German Left Party pages in English 
 European-Left

Books 
Oskar LaFontaine: The Heart Beats on the Left Polity,

References
References

1943 births
Living people
Members of the German Bundestag
German mayors
German politicians of the Left Party
Government ministers of Germany
Ministers-President of Germany
Politicians from Saarland
A group is any column on the periodic table. Elements in the same group usually have similar properties, because they have the same number of electrons in the outermost electron shell. There are eight main groups of elements, numbered 1, 2, and 13-18. The other ten groups are transition metals:

Group 1: the alkali metals (lithium family) *not including hydrogen
Group 2: the alkaline earth metals (beryllium family)
Groups 3-12: the transition metals
Group 13: the triels (boron family)
Group 14: the tetrels (carbon family)
Group 15: the pnictogens (nitrogen family) 
Group 16: the chalcogens (oxygen family)
Group 17: the halogens (fluorine family)
Group 18: the noble gases (helium/neon family)

Alkali Metals 
See Alkali metal

The most reactive metals consisting of Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs), and Francium (Fr) 
 never include hydrogen.
Alkaline Earth Metals 
See Alkaline earth metal. They consist of Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Radium (Ra)

Transition groups 
See Transition metals. Transition Metals are the most number of elements in the periodic table. They consist of Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni), Manganese (Mn), Mercury (Hg), Scandium (Sc), Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), Cadmium (Cd), Tungsten (W), Platinum (Pt), Yttrium (Y), Molybdenum (Mo) and others.

The noble gases 
The noble gases are the 18th group in the periodic table. They consist of Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), and Radon (Rn). They were previously called Inert gases due to their inert properties.
Periodic table
In mathematics, differential coefficient is a term out of use now. The former differential coefficient of a function f(x) is now called its derivative df(x)/dx. It is the (not necessarily constant) multiplicative factor or coefficient of the differential dx in the differential df(x).  

The differential coefficient of f is a constant function only if f is a linear function.

Early editions of Silvanus P. Thompson's Calculus Made Easy use the older term.  In his 1998 update of this text, Martin Gardner puts "derivative" instead of "differential coefficient".  He speaks of it only in context with Thompson's criticism of the term.

Calculus
A period in the periodic table is any horizontal row of elements. 

Each elements in the same period has one more proton than the one to its left.  This means its atomic number is one number higher. The elements in the same period are very metallic on the left and nonmetallic on the right. The smaller atoms are on the left and the larger ones are on the right because the atoms have more protons and electrons.

The first period has 2 elements, hydrogen and helium. The second period and third period each have 8 elements. The fourth period and fifth period each have 18 elements. The sixth period and seventh period each have 32 elements. F-block elements are counted in the sixth and seventh periods. Hence, each one has 32 elements in it.

Standard periodic table 

Chemical Series of the Periodic Table

 Alkali metals
 Alkaline earths
 Lanthanides
 Actinides
 Superactinides
 Eka-superactinides
 Transition metals
 Poor metals
 Metalloids/Semi metals/Half metals
 Nonmetals
 Halogens
 Noble gases
State at standard temperature and pressure. The color of the number (atomic number) above the element symbol shows the state of the element at normal conditions.
 those in blue are gases
 those in green are liquids
 those in black are solid

Radioactivity

 Those with solid borders have stable isotopes (Primordial elements)
 Those with dashed borders have only radioactive naturally occurring isotopes
 Those with dotted borders do not occur naturally (Synthetic Elements)
 those without borders are too radioactive to have been discovered yet.
Periodic table
Physics
Atomic orbitals are the places surrounding the nucleus of an atom where the electrons are most likely to be at any given time. It is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom.

The word 'orbital' is used because it was thought that electrons behaved similarly to the solar system, where the nucleus is like the sun and the electrons orbit like the planets. 

The number of atomic orbitals in an element is defined by the period the element is in. Electrons move between orbitals depending on how much energy they have and how many other electrons there are.

In atomic theory and quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a quantum number. Each such orbital can be occupied by one or two electrons. The way orbitals are arranged is related to the electron configurations of atoms. They were derived from descriptions provided by early spectroscopists of certain alkali metal spectroscopic lines as being sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental.
Related pages
Electron cloud
Electron shell
Molecular orbital

References 

Quantum chemistry
Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf is a borough of Berlin, formed in 2001 by joining together the old boroughs of Charlottenburg and Wilmersdorf.
It has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 315,200 inhabitants.
Its current mayor is Monika Thiemen (SPD).

The Technical University of Berlin (Technische Universität Berlin), the Berlin University of the Arts (Universität der Künste), the opera (Deutsche Oper Berlin), the Charlottenburg Palace and the Olympic Stadium are located in Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf.

Related pages
 Charlottenburg
 Wilmersdorf

Other websites 

 Official Homepage (English version)
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg is a borough of Berlin. It is a new borough, only made in 2001 by joining the old boroughs of Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg.
It occupies  and has a population of about 255,200 as of 2003.

Its current mayor is Franz Schulz (Green Party).

Other websites 

 Official Homepage 
 Xhain.info - Private Portal (in German)
Lichtenberg is a borough of Berlin, Germany. In 2001 it took over the old borough of Hohenschönhausen. Lichtenberg now has an area of  and a population (as of 2003) of about 260,200 inhabitants.

The present mayor of the borough is Christina Emmrich (Die Linke).

Lichtenberg contains the Tierpark Berlin, the larger of Berlin's two zoological parks. Lichtenberg was also the site of the headquarters of the Stasi, the East German intelligence service. The complex is now a museum.

The Berlin-Hohenschönhausen Memorial is on the site of the main prison of the Stasi.

Other websites

 Official Homepage (in German)
Proteaceae is a family of flowering plants. Mainly restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, it is a fairly large family, with around 80 genera but fewer than 2000 species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae they make up the order Proteales.

Subfamilies 
Traditionally divided in two subfamilies:Persoonioideae and Grevilleoideae. Recently, workers have recognized seven subfamilies: 
Persoonioideae,
Bellendenoideae, 
Eidotheoideae, 
Proteoideae, 
Sphalmioideae,
Carnarvonioideae
Grevilleoideae

Other websites 
Protea family 
toxicosis in dogs
Phylogeny, biogeography, and the evolution of life-history traits in Leucadendron (Proteaceae)
Marzahn-Hellersdorf is one of the 12 new boroughs of Berlin. It was created in 2001 when the old boroughs of Marzahn and Hellersdorf were merged (joined together).

Marzahn-Hellersdorf is in northeast Berlin. It has borders with Lichtenberg in the west, Treptow-Köpenick in the south and the state of Brandenburg in the east and north.

The borough contains of five former villages: Biesdorf, Hellersdorf, Kaulsdorf, Mahlsdorf and Marzahn, which became part of Berlin in 1920.

Twinnings 
Marzahn-Hellersdorf has several twin towns:
  Tychy
  Halton
  Lauingen
  Minsk
  Budapest IVth borough and XVth borough

Other websites

 Official Homepage (in German)
 Marzahn-Hellersdorf Website (in German)
 Photo essay
A billionaire is a person who has a net worth of at least one billion (1,000,000,000) units of currency. This is usually used for major currencies with large values, like Pound Sterlings £, American dollars $, or Euros €.

Billionaires (in United States dollars)
In March 2021, there were 2,755 people in the world who were considered to be billionaires (in United States dollars).

Every year, the American business magazine Forbes, and its website, releases a list of billionaires called The World's Billionaires.

The number of billionaires per million people

Related pages 
 Millionaire

References 

 
Money
Neukölln is a borough of Berlin. It has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 307,400 inhabitants and one of the highest percentage of foreigners in Berlin.
Its current mayor is Heinz Buschkowsky (SPD).

History
When it was first mentioned in 1360, the village was called Richardsdorf and owned by the Order of St. John

The coat of arms of the borough has a Maltese cross to remember this part of its history.

In 1737, Frederick William I of Prussia let Moravians from Bohemia settle in the area. They built their own church and houses off the village centre along the road to Berlin, which is now called Richardstraße. The new Bohemian village was granted its own constitution in 1797.

When both parts of the village were reunited in 1874, the population was 8,000 inhabitants. It had nearly doubled, to 15,000 by the next year.
On 1 May 1899 the area, then the largest village of Prussia, became an independent city and got its current name in 1912. Its independence ended in 1920, when it was made part of Greater Berlin . Between 1966 and 1975, the "Gropiusstadt" was built. This city-within-a-city  was designed by architect Walter Gropius. Gropius was the last director of the Bauhaus school of arts and architecture, which set up in Berlin when it moved from Dessau. Gropiusstadt has over 60,000 inhabitants.

Individuals associated with Neukölln
Actress Mady Rahl and Lotte Ulbricht, wife of East German leader Walter Ulbricht, were born in Neukölln.

References in popular culture
 "Neuköln" (deliberately spelt with one 'l') is an instrumental piece by David Bowie, the ninth track on his 1977 album "Heroes".
 The last track of Miss Kittin's first solo album I Com is called "Neukölln 2".

Twin cities
  Cologne
  Wetzlar
  Leonberg
  Marino
  Bat Yam

Other websites
  Official Homepage
  WebTV from Berlin, Neukoelln
Pankow [] is one of the new borough of Berlin. In 2001, the old borough of Pankow was merged (joined) with the former boroughs of Prenzlauer Berg and Weißensee.

It has an area of  and about 347,100 inhabitants. Pankow's current mayor is Matthias Koehne (SPD).

Between 1945 and 1960 many members of the government of East Germany lived in the Majakowskiring district of Pankow. Western writers often called Pankow capital of East Germany, or used Pankow as shorthand for the East German government.

The Rykestrasse Synagogue Germany's largest synagogue, is located in the Prenzlauer Berg neighbourhood of the Pankow district.

Other websites 

 Official Homepage
Reinickendorf is a borough of Berlin. It has an area of  and has, as of December 31 2003, 246,577 inhabitants.

Reinickendorf was created in 1920 by the Greater Berlin Act, and was not changed in the borough reforms of 2001.

Its current mayor is Marlies Wanjura (CDU).

Parts of town 
Reinickendorf is split in ten parts:
 Reinickendorf (73,847)
 Märkisches Viertel (35,833)
 Tegel (33,873)
 Wittenau (29,597)
 Heiligensee (17,800)
 Frohnau (17,309)
 Hermsdorf (16,950)
 Waidmannslust (10,316)
 Konradshöhe/Tegelort (6,031)
 Lübars (5,021).

Politics 
The last elections for the BVV (elections for the representatives in the boroughs parliament) were in October 2001.

Twinning 
  - Greenwich, London, United Kingdom

Other websites

 Official Homepage
Pasithee or , is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the designation .

Pasithee is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,307,000 km in 726.933 days, at an inclination of 166° to the ecliptic (164° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.3289.

It was named in August 2003 after Pasithee, one of the Charites, goddesses of charm, beauty, nature, human creativity and fertility, daughters of Zeus (Jupiter) by Eurynome. Pasithee, better known as Aglaea, is the spouse of Hypnos (Sleep) and presides to hallucinations and hallucinogens.

It belongs to the Carme group, made up of non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 km and at an inclination of about 165°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Steglitz-Zehlendorf is a borough of Berlin. It was formed in 2001 when the former boroughs of Steglitz and Zehlendorf were joined together.

Steglitz-Zehlendorf has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 288,300 inhabitants. Its current mayor is Norbert Kopp (CDU).

Landmarks 
 The Bierpinsel (literally, "Beer Brush"), a 1970s style tower in Steglitz
 The Botanical Garden in Berlin
 The Library of the Philological Faculty at the Free University of Berlin in Dahlem, by Norman Foster
 The Wannsee lake and villa, home to the notorious Wannsee Conference
 Lichterfelde West Villen Kolonie - exclusive residential area of 1860 with tree lined and cobbled streets

Other websites 
 Official Homepage (in German)
Thrillville is a PlayStation 2, Xbox and PlayStation Portable video game. It was made by LucasArts and Frontier Developments. Players make their own theme park. They make roller coasters, game stalls, rides, race tracks and food and drink shops.

Story 

Uncle Mortimer, a strange scientist, puts the player in charge of Thrillville. It is a large theme park with roller coasters, games, rides, and racetracks. The player then picks a character. The character can be moved through each theme park. He must try to finish missions in the theme park before he can move on to the next one.

Garrison, another theme park owner, has his own theme park called Globo-joy. Globo-joy competes against Thrillville. The player must do difficult tasks to make Thrillville the best theme park.

Minigames 

Thrillville has many minigames that can be played in the theme park, or with up to four other players.
Entertainer: Players must hit the right button at the right time to make the cheerleaders dance to the music
 RC wars: Players must drive remote-control cars into each other, to try to make the other car explode.
 Event Horizon: Players can pick between four space ships. Each ship has a different weapon. The goal is to destroy the other ships.
 Robot Invasion, Hauntings, Pirate Raiders, and Wild Frontier: Players move around in a battle arena. They can shoot either the other players or robot enemies.
 Star Sniper, Ghoul Gunner, Blackbeard's Booty, and Prospect Stakeout: Players shoot targets that pop out of certain areas.
 Dune Buggy, Anti-Grav Racer, Go-karts, Monster Truck, and Formula Thrills: Players race to the finish on a race track.
 Trojan Quest: Players can pick between four heroes. Playes must kill skeletons and evil monsters.
 Luftwaffe 109: Players can pick between four airplanes. They must shoot down enemy airplanes.
 Trampolines: Players bounce on a trampoline, doing tricks in the air.
Saucer Sumo: Players control a flying saucer and try to bump the other players off the edge of the ring.
 Saucer Soccer: Players control a flying car and try to get the soccer ball and shoot it into the goal.
 Minigolf: Players play a game of miniature golf.
 Sparkle Island: Players play as a cat-like hero and shoot blobs.
 Mechanic: Players arrange tubes to fit on a board. They have to connect one part of the board to another.
 Groundskeeper: Players suck up the trash and wash the vomit that has collected in the theme parks.
Thrillville: Off the Rails
Thrillville: Off the Rails was the second game of the series. It came out in 2007 for the PlayStation 2, Wii, Xbox 360, Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable and Microsoft Windows. "Off the Rails" allows roller coasters to crash. It also added more minigames, characters with conversation skills amd more options. Off the Rails also added many songs including  "Parklife" by Blur and "Smile (Lily Allen song)" by Lily Allen.

Simulator video games
2006 video games
Video game series
Volvo is a Swedish car and truck maker founded in 1927. It has the following two divisions:

 Volvo Cars (Swedish: Volvo personvagnar), which produces standard size cars, and was owned by the Ford Motor Company 1999 to 2010.
 Volvo Group, which produces trucks, boat engines, buses and more.

Volvo is now the leading producer in what most people would call safe family cars.

One of the Volvo's cars, the Volvo S60 is used by police departments in some parts of Europe and the United Kingdom.

In March 2010, Ford signed a deal to sell Volvo Cars to the Chinese automaker Geely for $1.8 billion. Volvo cars has is making all of it's cars zero emission by the year 2030.

Models
 Volvo C30
 Volvo S60
 Volvo S80
 Volvo V70
Volvo S60
Volvo S40
Volvo V50
Volvo V40
Volvo FH
Volvo XC40
Volvo XC90

References 

Automobile companies of Sweden
Gothenburg
Tempelhof-Schöneberg is one of the new borough of Berlin, formed in 2001 by merging the old boroughs of Tempelhof and Schöneberg.

Tempelhof-Schöneberg has an area of  and has, as of November 2004, about 335.000 inhabitants. Its current mayor is Ekkehard Band (SPD).

Other websites 

 Official Homepage
Treptow-Köpenick is a borough of Berlin, formed in 2001 by merging the former boroughs of Treptow and Köpenick.

Treptow-Köpenick has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 233,700 inhabitants. It's current mayor is Gabriele Schöttler (SPD).

Other websites
Platanaceae is a family of flowering plants. The family has only one genus platanus. This genus has six to ten species of tall trees. The trees grow naturally in temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In all species, the flowers grow in dense groups of small flowers. The fruits are small achenes with hairs near the base.

Plant families
Proteales
Microsoft Office Online is the website of Microsoft Office. It has images, articles, templates, downloads and other attractions.

Trivia 
By November 2004, Microsoft Office Online received over 52 million visitors, with over 746 million page views, ranking it in the top 100 sites worldwide.

Other websites
Official website
Office Live

Microsoft websites
Visual Studio Tools for Office (Sometime written as VSTO) is an add-on product for Microsoft's Visual Studio product that enables developers to create applications using Microsoft Office.

Other websites 
Visual Studio Tools for Office page

Microsoft Visual Studio
Callirrhoe or , is one of Jupiter's farthest named moons. It was found by Spacewatch on October 6, 1999 and originally designated as an asteroid (). It was found to be in orbit around Jupiter by Tim Spahr on July 18, 2000, and then given the designation .

Callirrhoe is about 8.6 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 24,356,000 km in 776.543 days, at an inclination of 141° to the ecliptic (140° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.264.

It was named in October 2002 after Callirhoe, daughter of the river god Achelous, one of Zeus' (Jupiter's) many conquests.

It belongs to the Pasiphaë group, non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at distances ranging between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km, and with inclinations ranging between 144.5° and 158.3°.

As a navigation exercise, the New Horizons spacecraft imaged it on January 10, 2007.

References 

Jupiter's moons