Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Yellow Jersey

It rewards the overall leader, adding the times achieved on each step. In case of equal time in the general classification, the hundredths of a second recorded by the timekeepers at the time trial "individual" are reintroduced into the total time to separate athletes and decide the attribution of the Yellow jersey.

Points Classification

The points classification is based on the following scale :
 Arrival on a flat stage : 35, 30, 26, 24, 22, 20, 19, ... 1 point for the 25th ranked rider. 
 Arrivals on a medium mountain stage: 25, 22, 20, 18, 16, 15, ... 1 point for the 20th ranked rider. 
 Arrival on a mountain stage : 20, 17, 15, 13, 12, 10, 9, ... 1 point for the 15th ranked rider.
 Arrivals on an individual time-trial: 15, 12, 10, 8, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 point to the first 10 finishers. 
 Sprints (two or three by stage): 6, 4 and 2 points in the first 3.

Mountain Classification
The classification of the mountain is based on the following scale :
 Climb off-categorized :  20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10, 8, 7, 6 and 5 points for the first 10 finishers.
 Climb of  category : 15, 13, 11, 9, 8, 7, 6 and 5 points for top 8 finishers.
 Climb of 2 category : 10, 9, 8, 7, 6 and 5 points for the first 6 riders. 
 Climb of  category : 4, 3, 2 and 1 point for the first 4 finishers. 
 Climb of  category : 3, 2 and 1 point for the first 3 finishers. 
Points awarded in the climb off-categorized,  and 2 categories are doubled when it's the last mountain pass of the stage.

Best Young Rider Classification

The classification is reserved for young riders born in 1985 or later. The first of them in the general classification is declared leader of the best young rider.

Team classification
The general team classification is established by adding the three best individual times from each team in all stages. After the last stage, the team credited with the shortest time is declared the winner of the team standings.

Combativity award

The combativity award reward the rider who was the most generous in the effort and showing the best sportsmanship in the stage. After the last stage a Super Competitor is designated by members of the Jury of the Tour de France.

2010 in Europe
2010 in sports
2010s in Belgium
2010s in French sport
2010s in Dutch sport
Sport in Belgium
Sport in France
Sport in the Netherlands
Tour de France
A Growth ring is the ring of growth found in some living organisms, such as trees. Some animals such as shells and corals also have annual growth rings.

Counting the growth rings shows how old the organism is, or was when it stopped growing.  For example, the growth rings in furniture, walls and other wooden items can be counted.

How tree rings are developed 
Tree rings grow under the bark, and the bark is pushed out while the tree is growing. The inner part of a growth ring is formed early in the growing season, when growth is fast and is known as early wood. The outer portion is the late wood, and is denser than early wood. Many trees in places with hot summers and cold winters make one growth ring a year.
For the entire life of a tree, a year by year record or ring pattern is formed that reveals the climate conditions in which the tree grew.  If a tree grows in a dry place, you can tell its age better than when it grows in a wet place.  Switching in between bad and good conditions can result in several rings forming in one year.  Tree ring growth patterns are affected by the climate, weather, rain, temperature, soil pH, plant nutrition, carbon dioxide concentration, and sunspots.

Rings happen because of the change in growth speed through winter, spring, summer and fall, so one ring usually marks the passage of one year in the life of the tree. Tree rings are more visible in places where the seasons change between hot and cold. Enough moisture and a long growing season result in a wide ring. A dry year may result in a very narrow ring. Trees from the same area will tend to grow the same pattern of rings.
Tree growth rings can tell us about the ancient climate and growth rings can be used to tell the age of a tree. Growth rings can also be used to date the wood in old buildings, ships and frames for paintings. Tree rings are used to make radiocarbon dating more accurate.

Some perennial herb species form annual growth rings in their roots that basically follow the same principles as growth rings in trees.

Related pages 
 Dendrochronology

Climate
Trees
Albert Esch (2 April, 1883 in Eisgrub, Mähren – 26 September, 1954 in Vienna) was an Austrian landscape architect in the 20th century.

1883 births
1954 deaths
Austrian painters
Czech people
José Manuel Balmaceda (1838 – 1891) was a Chilean politician, who eventually became President of the Republic of Chile.

Biography 
Balmaceda was born in Bucalemu, in 1838. In 1865, he became one of the representatives of the government of Chile at the South American General Congress at Lima, and after his return, he obtained great distinction as an orator in the national assembly.

He became Minister of Foreign Affairs and of the Interior under the presidency of Domingo Santa Maria. He was elected President in 1886. On January 1, 1891 he claimed his intention to terminate an "intolerable situation", by refusing to convoke the assembly, and he ordered to continue the collection of taxes. This action provoked the Chilean Civil War of 1891, which ended with the overthrow of President Balmaceda, who later committed suicide on September 18, in the anniversary of his elevation to the Presidency.

References 
 Article on 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica

1838 births
1891 deaths
Presidents of Chile
Ozymandias  is a sonnet by Percy Bysshe Shelley. It was published in 1818 in the 11 January issue of The Examiner, a journal in London. It is probably Shelley's most famous short poem.

The poem has been noted for its skillful diction, and its powerful themes and imagery. The central theme of Ozymandias is the inevitable (unavoidable) ruin of leaders and empires. The message is that all leaders and the empires they build will always end up as nothing, however mighty they are.

The name Ozymandias comes from a transliteration into Greek of the throne name of Ramesses II. The sonnet paraphrases (copies in different words) the writing on the base of a statue of Ramesses. The statue is called Younger Memnon and it is from Thebes (it is now in the British Museum). The writing on the statue was recorded by Diodorus Siculus in his Bibliotheca historica. It reads: "King of Kings am I, Osymandias. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works".

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Audiorecording of "Ozymandias" by the BBC.
 LibriVox recording of "Ozymandias", selection 22, read by Leonard Wilson.
 Representative Poetry Online: Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), "Ozymandias"  (text of poem with notes)

1810s British poems
1818
Norwich International Airport  is an airport in the city of Norwich, United Kingdom.
Norwich has regular flights to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, ran by KLM, which have been operating for many years. Other services, run both internationally (normally via Schiphol), or within the British isles.

References

Norwich
Norwich
Buildings and structures in Norfolk
An IATA airport code, is a three-letter code that can be used to identify airports. This removes the need to write the name of the airport in full every time it is needed, instead an IATA code can be used.

An important use of these codes is on baggage tags. They will display the IATA code for the airport which the bags should be heading to, should they get lost.

References

Airports
Geocodes

he:יאט"א#קוד יאט"א
An ICAO code is the code used by pilots and air traffic controllers to identify airports simply and easily.

The code is made up of four numbers or letters. These are not the same as IATA codes, which are often simpler, and are made to sound like the airport's name. For example, people who fly from Heathrow airport, are likely to know it best as either Heathrow, or by its IATA code: LHR. They are less likely to know its ICAO code: EGLL.

Airports
Geocodes
Boston is the largest city of Massachusetts in the United States. It was founded in 1630. Boston is one of the oldest, richest and most culturally important cities in the United States.

History 
Boston was founded on September 7, 1630, by Puritan colonists from England. Boston's early European settlers called the area Trimountaine (Three Mountains). They renamed the town for Boston, England, in Lincolnshire because many important "Pilgrim" colonists came from there.

Most of Boston's early citizens were Puritans. Shortly after Boston's settlement, Puritans created America's first public school and America's first university, Harvard University (1636). Harvard is in the city of Cambridge, which is across the Charles River from Boston. Until the 1760s, Boston was America's largest city.
During the early 1770s, the British tried to control the thirteen colonies with taxes. This made people from Boston start the American Revolution. The Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, and several early battles happened in or near the city. It held its first town meeting in Faneuil Hall in 1743.

Boston continued to grow and attract immigrants from around the world. Many immigrants came from Ireland, and gave Boston a very Irish culture that remains today. President John F. Kennedy was a member of an Irish-American family that lived in Boston. Many immigrants also came from Italy, and lived in Boston's North End, where Italian culture remains, with various Italian stores, restaurants, bakeries, and homes.

On 15 April 2013, two bombs exploded at the Boston Marathon.

Geography 

Boston is located on the Shawmut Peninsula. The city covers . Boston Harbor and the Atlantic Ocean is located east of the city. A much larger metropolitan area surrounds Boston.
The highest point in Boston is Bellevue Hill, at  above sea level. The lowest point is at sea level. Boston is the only state capital in the contiguous United States with an ocean coastline.

Climate 

Boston has a continental climate with some ocean effects. Summers are normally warm to hot, rainy, and humid, while winters alternate between periods of cold rain and snow, with cold temperatures. Spring and fall are usually mild. Existing wind patterns that blow offshore lower the effect of the Atlantic Ocean.

The hottest month is July, with an average temperature of . The coldest month is January, with an average of . Extremes have ranged from  on February 9, 1934, up to  on July 4, 1911.

Boston's location on the North Atlantic moderates its temperature, but makes the city very likely to suffer from Nor'easter storm systems that can produce much snow and rain. The city averages  of precipitation a year, with  of snowfall per year.
Towers 
The tallest towers in Boston are the Prudential Tower and the John Hancock Tower.

Culture 

Boston has a culture that is quite similar to New England, such as a New England accent and foods that are mostly seafood, salt, and dairy products. Irish-Americans are very important in Boston's politics and religious activities. Boston people also have a style of talking which is called Boston slang.

It is often thought that Bostonians have a strong sense of culture. Perhaps this is because Boston is famous for being a very intellectual place, with much of its culture coming from its universities. The city has many complex theatres, including the Cutler Majestic Theatre, Boston Opera House, Citi Performing Arts Center, the Colonial Theater, and the Orpheum Theatre. The headquarters of Unitarian Universalism (UU) is located in Boston. The Christian Science movement has also made its home in the Boston area.
Boston has many historic places and Bostonians take pride in their city's history. The American Revolution began in Boston, and many of its leaders, such as Samuel Adams, John Adams, John Hancock, and Paul Revere were from the city. Many of the sites from the Revolution are preserved in the city, including Faneuil Hall, the Old State House, Park Street Church, and others. These form the "Freedom Trail", a walk that takes visitors past many historic places in the city.

Boston today 

Boston is one of the United States' most important cities in education and health care. Boston and the towns around it contain many of the country's leading universities. Harvard, MIT, and Boston University are some of the most famous.
Professional sports are an important part of life in Boston. The Red Sox play baseball at Fenway Park, the oldest stadium in Major League Baseball (1912). The Celtics, a basketball team, and the Bruins, a hockey team, both play at the TD Garden. Boston's football team, the New England Patriots, play in Foxborough, a town 22 miles south of the city.

Demographics

People
In 2013, the population of Boston was 645,966. The population has grown 9.6% since 2000. Boston has 13,339 people per square mile. The population is 47.8% male and 52.2% female. The racial breakdown is shown in the Racial Groups table. The people from outside the United States are 178,805. 27.7%  of the population come from outside of the United States.

Homeless Population
Mayor Marty Walsh announced his goal to help those in need for a permanent housing solution. Agencies such as Pine Street Inn, Boston Healthcare, Project Hope, and Boston Public Health Commission are helping the homeless. The homeless are helped by reducing family evictions. Property management companies and nonprofits, such as Project Hope and the Department of Neighborhood Development, will increase affordable housing options. Boston Public Health Commission and the Department of Neighborhood Development will work together to provide support for treatment options and shelters. The Wyman Re-Entry Center has a 90-day residential substance-abuse and recovery program. The Safe Harbor serves adults with HIV. The project SOAR stands for Stability, Opportunity, Achievement, and Recovery, and helps clients maintain a healthy lifestyle and provide support in moving to permanent housing.

Education
Education

Over 85.6% of the population ages 20 years and over in Boston have a high school diploma or higher in 2013. Those with a Bachelor's degree or higher make up 45.2% of the population.

Some of the Colleges and Universities in Boston are: 
 Baystate College
 Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology
 Berklee College of Music
 Boston University
 Boston College
 Bunker Hill Community College
 Emerson College
 Emmanuel College
 Fisher College
 Massachusetts College of Art and Design
 MGH Institute of Health Professions
 New England College of Business and Finance 
 Northeastern University
 School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 Simmons College
 Suffolk University
 Wentworth Institute of Technology
 Wheelock College
 University of Massachusetts Boston

There are many more not listed here.

Transportation 

The MBTA runs the city's subway (known as "the T"), commuter rail, buses, and ferries. The main airport for the city is Logan International Airport.

The main highways for the area are:
References

Notes

Related pages 
 Boston Symphony Orchestra
Further reading 
 Boston: A to Z (2000), Thomas H. O'Connor, 
 Built in Boston: City and Suburb, 1800–2000 (2000), Douglass Shand-Tucci, 
 Lost Boston (1999), Mariner Books, 
 Boston: A Topographical History, Third Enlarged Edition (2000), Belknap Press, 
 When in Boston: A Time Line & Almanac (2004), Northeastern, 
 Gaining Ground: A History of Landmaking in Boston (2003), Nancy S. Seasholes, 
 Boston's Secret Spaces: 50 Hidden Corners In and Around the Hub, (2009), Globe Pequot; First edition 
 AIA Guide to Boston, 3rd Edition: Contemporary Landmarks, Urban Design, Parks, Historic Buildings and Neighborhoods, (2008),  Michael Southworth and Susan Southworth, GPP Travel, 
 Boston: A Pictorial Celebration (2006), Jonathan M. Beagle, Elan Penn (photographer), 
 City in Time: Boston (2008), Jeffrey Hantover, Gilbert King (photographer), 
 Mapping Boston (2001), Alex Krieger (editor), David Cobb (editor), Amy Turner (editor), Norman B. Leventhal (Foreword by) MIT Press,
Boston Beheld: Antique Town and Country Views (2008), D. Brenton Simons, University Press of New England, 
 Boston (2010) by Jordan Worek; photographs by Bill Horsman, Firefly Books,
Other websites 

 
 City of Boston official website
 Greater Boston Chamber of Commerce
 Greater Boston Convention and Visitors Bureau
 WikiSatellite view of Boston at WikiMapia
 Mayor Marty Walsh
 Boston Public Health Commission 

1630 establishments in Massachusetts
 
County seats in Massachusetts
State capitals in the United States
The Parti Québécois (PQ) is a political party that wants sovereignty for the province of Quebec. The party wants Quebec to secede from Canada and become an independent country.

History
The Parti Québécois, or PQ was founded by René Lévesque. PQ's main goals are to get independence for Quebec. In the provincial election of 1976, the Parti Québécois was elected to the government of Quebec for the first time and René Lévesque, became the premier of Quebec. Many French people in Quebec were happy to see the Lévesque as premier, while many English people were not happy.

The PQ passed a bill called Bill 101. This bill is a law that makes French the only official language of Quebec and restricts the use of English in Quebec, even though English and French are both official languages of Canada. The party was elected again in the 1981 election, but in November 1984 founder René Lévesque left the party and the PQ lost the 1985 election.
The Parti Québécois  started the first Quebec referendum, having the citizens vote to decide to either leave Canada or stay a part of the country. 60% of the people who voted decided to stay in Canada. The PQ had a second referendum in 1995. The citizens once again voted to stay in Canada. The leader of the party, Jacques Parizeau, quit after the referendum failed.
The current Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe was the first to announce that he would to try to become the leader of the PQ, on May 11, 2007. Pauline Marois also said she was going to try to become leader, but Duceppe changed his mind on the 12th leaving Marois the only candidate. On  June 26, 2007 Marois won the leadership. She has said that the PQ plans to have another referendum in the future. On September 4, 2012, Marois led her party to minority victory in the Quebec general election, thus becoming the first female premier in the province's history. After an electoral defeat in 2014, she resigned. Following her resignation, Jean-François Lisée was elected as leader in 2016. The current leader is Paul St-Pierre Plamondon, elected in 2020.
Relationship with the Bloc Québécois
The Bloc Québécois is a federal political party in Canada that was founded in 1991 by future PQ leader Lucien Bouchard. The Bloc also wants sovereignty for Quebec. Although the two political parties are separate organizations, they help each other during elections.

References

Other websites
 Parti québécois website
 Parti québécois' parliamentary group website 

Nationalist organizations in North America
Social democratic parties
Political parties of Quebec
Wheel gymnastics is a form of gymnastics which originated in Germany.

Wheel gymnasts do exercises in a large wheel known as the Rhönrad, gymnastics wheel, gym wheel, or German wheel.

There are three main categories of exercise in wheel gymnasts. They are: straight line, spiral, and vault.

History
While being a child, Otto Feick, the son of a blacksmith from Reichenbach, Germany, used to roll down a hill in two wagon tires which inspired him later to invent the wheel gymnastics between 1920-1922. The current wheel gymnastics obtained its final shape in 1974 with the introduction of the PVC coating. Now, it's a competitive sport practiced in Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland, Japan, and United States of America.

Other websites
 USA Wheel Gymnastics
 Japan Rhoenrad Association

References

Gymnastics
Trampolining is a competitive Olympic sport in which gymnasts perform airborne acrobatics while bouncing on a trampoline. These can include simple jumps in the pike, tuck or straddle position to more complex combinations of forward or backward somersaults and twists.

There are two related competitive rebound sports: synchronized trampoline and double mini-trampoline.
The currently accepted basic format for individual trampoline competitions usually consists of two or three routines, one of which may involve a compulsory set of skills. The skills consist of various combinations of somersaults, shaped bounces, body landings and twists performed in various body positions.

History
In the early 1930s, an American gymnast George Nissen observed trapeze artistes performing tricks when bouncing off the safety net. He made the first modern trampoline in his garage to reproduce that net on a smaller scale and used it to help with his diving and tumbling activities. It was the beginning of a new sport.
In the USA, trampolining was quickly introduced into school physical education programs and was also used in private entertainment centers. Since trampolining became an Olympic sport in 2000, many countries have started developing programs for producing very competitive athletes.

Other 

  Directory of Trampoline Clubs worldwide at Open Directory Project (DMOZ)
 Everything about trampolining and acrobatic sports

References

Gymnastics
Priapulida (priapulid or penis worms) are a phylum of marine worms. Their name refers to their extensible spiny proboscis, which, in some species, may have a shape similar to that of a human penis. They live in the mud, which they eat, in comparatively shallow waters up to .

Their nearest relatives are probably Kinorhyncha and Loricifera with which they constitute the taxon Scalidophora. Besides arthropods and velvet worms, the priapulids are the only members of the Ecdysozoa which are relatively large in size. They feed on slow-moving invertebrates, such as polychaete worms.

Priapulid fossils are known at least as far back as the Middle Cambrian. They were probably major predators of the Cambrian period. There are only sixteen known living species of priapulid worms.

References 

Minor phyla
Invertebrates
Kinorhyncha  is a phylum of small (1 mm or less) marine invertebrates. They are widespread in mud or sand at all depths of the sea. They are sometimes called mud dragons. About 222 species are known. Kinorhynchs eat either diatoms or organic material found in the mud, depending on species.

Anatomy
Kinorhynchans are segmented, limbless animals. Their body has a head, neck, and a trunk. The trunk has eleven segments. They do not have external cilia, but have a number of spines along the body, and up to seven circles of spines around the head. These spines are used for movement. They can pull back the head and push forward; then they can grip the substrate with the spines, and draw up the body.

The body wall is a thin layer with a tough cuticle. It is moulted several times during growth. This layer is a syncytium, with nuclei, but no cell membranes.

The spines are hollow and covered by cuticle. The head is completely retractable, when is covered by a set of neck plates.
The nervous system is a ventral nerve cord, with one ganglion in each segment, and an anterior nerve ring surrounding the pharynx. This is the common arrangement  for invertebrates.  Some species have simple ocelli (eye-spots) on the head, and all species have tiny bristles on the body as touch receptors.

Reproduction
There are two sexes that look alike. A pair of gonads are in the mid-region of the trunk, and open to pores in the final segment. In most species, the sperm duct has two or three spiny structures that presumably help in copulation. The larvae are free-living.

Classification
Their closest relatives may be the phyla Loricifera and Priapulida. Together they are the Scalidophora.

Phylum Kinorhyncha
 Order Cyclorhagida
 Order Homalorhagida

References

Other websites
 Introduction to the Cephalorhyncha
 Drawings of Kinorhyncha 

Minor phyla
Invertebrates
Loricifera  is a recently discovered ecdysozoan phylum of marine animals. The phylum includes the first animals known to exist in a completely anoxic environment (no oxygen at all). The phylum was described in 1983 by Reinhardt Kristensen.

They are a phylum of very small animals which live in sediment. There are now twenty-two described species, in eight genera. In addition, there are about 100 more species which have been collected, but not yet described. Their size ranges from 100 µm to about 1 mm.

Their habitat is in the spaces between marine gravel to which they attach themselves. They are among the most recently discovered groups of Metazoans. They attach themselves quite firmly to the gravel, and this explains why they remained undiscovered for so long. The first specimen was collected in the 1970s, and later described in 1983. They are found at all depths of water, in different sediment types, and in all latitudes. They have not yet been found in the fossil record.
Anatomy 
These animals have a protective outer case called a lorica. Protected by the lorica, the animals have a head, mouth and digestive system. Development is usually direct, though there are larvae in some species. The animals have two sexes as adults. There are some complex and flexible life cycles with different forms of parthenogenetic reproduction.

Their closest relatives are thought to be the Kinorhyncha and Priapulida, with whom they share some characteristics. Together they make up the clade Scalidophora.

In anoxic environments
The newly reported animals complete their life cycle in the total absence of light and oxygen, and they are less than a millimetre in size. They were collected from the deep basin where they live in a nearly salt-saturated brine. This brine, because of its density, does not mix with the waters above. As a result, the brine is completely anoxic, and high in ammonia. Also, due to the action of sulphate reducers, it contains sulphide at a high concentration. In the brine, the abundance of cells is not high. Extremophiles predominate, including members of the deep-sea hydrothermal vent community of archaea and bacteria. Eukaryotes are also found in l'Atalante, including ciliates (45%), dinoflagellates (21%) and choanoflagellata (10%).p360–381

References
This article incorporates CC-BY-2.0 text from references 

Minor phyla
Extremophiles
Invertebrates
Saturation is the point at which a solution of a substance can dissolve no more of that substance. This point of maximum concentration, the saturation point, depends on the temperature of the liquid as well as the chemical nature of the substances involved. If a change in conditions (e.g. cooling) means that the concentration is higher than the saturation point, the solution has become 'supersaturated'.
In organic chemistry, a saturated chemical compound has no double bond or triple bond or ring. In non-cyclical, saturated hydrocarbons, every carbon atom is attached to two hydrogen atoms, except those at the ends of the chain, which have three hydrogen atoms.
In biochemistry, the term saturation refers to the fraction of total protein binding sites that are occupied at any given time. Applies to enzymes, and molecules like hemoglobin.
In organometallic chemistry, an unsaturated complex has fewer than 18 valence electrons and thus is susceptible to oxidative addition or coordination of an additional ligand. Unsaturation is characteristic of many catalysts because it is usually a requirement for substrate activation.
Related pages 
 Saturation
Chemistry
A sulphide (sulfide in US English) is an anion of  sulphur in its lowest oxidation number of -2.  Sulphide is also a term for thioethers, a common type of  compound which are known for their bad odours (example: H2S = hydrogen sulphide).

The dianion S2- exists only in strongly alkaline aqueous solutions. 

Ions
In chemistry, a sulphate (sulfate in US English) is a salt of sulphuric acid. The sulphate ion is a group of atoms with the formula SO4 and two negative charges. It consists of a central sulphur atom surrounded by four equivalent oxygen atoms. It occurs when sulfuric acid is deprotonated twice. If it is only deprotonated once, the hydrogen sulfate ion is made.

Ions
Sulfur compounds
Oxygen compounds
The L'Atalante basin is a very salty 'lake' at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea.

It is about 190 km (~120 miles) west of the island of Crete. It is called a 'lake' because, though it is under more than two miles of water, it is almost completely separate from the sea above it. Its huge salt content prevents the waters mixing. Sometimes these lakes are called brine pools. They are found in many oceans; there is one in the Gulf of Mexico.
How it formed 
L'Atalante is only one of several such lakes underneath the normal waters of the Mediterranean. When the Strait of Gibraltar was closed, about six million years ago, the Mediterranean dried up and became a huge salt lake, rather like the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake are today. Then it dried out completely, leaving an enormous amount of salt. When the Straight of Gibraltar opened again about five million years ago, water from the Atlantic Ocean rushed in to form the Mediterranean we see today. Even today, the Atlantic feeds the Mediterranean with water, because the evaporation from the 'Med' is greater than is provided by its rivers. With its huge supply of salt underneath, and the constant evaporation, the Med is a high salt sea compared with the Atlantic.
The L'Atalanta lake and its neighbours the Urania and Discovery lakes are about 35,000 years old. They were formed by salt deposits dissolving out of the Mediterranean Ridge and collecting in deep depressions at the bottom of the Med. L'Atalante is the smallest of the three. Its surface begins at about  below sea level.

Salt content 
L'Atalante's salinity (salt content) is near saturation, at 36.5%, about eight times more than seawater. This prevents the water in the brine pool from mixing with the 'normal' seawater above. Without mixing, oxygen from above can't get into the brine pool. The basin's water is completely anoxic: it has no oxygen.
Between the normal water and the brine is a short (1.5 metres) boundary zone called a halocline. The salt content rises sharply there, and oxygen reduces towards zero. This halocline between the seawater above and the brine below has many bacterial and archaeal cells: they are chemoautotrophs, which feed on ammonia from the brine but cannot function without some oxygen. Certain methane oxidizers and haloarchaea are found only in the halocline.

Life without oxygen 
Below, in the brine, the number of cells is much lower than in the halocline. Extremophiles are most common, including some of the deep-sea hydrothermal vent archaea and bacteria. Eukaryotes are also found in l'Atalante, mostly ciliates (45%), dinoflagellates (21%) and choanoflagellata (10%).p360–381
The dark grey anoxic sediments at the bottom of L'Atalante lake are covered with a  loose black layer. Microbes found in the sediments are almost all (90%) various species of Bacillus. In 2010, three metazoan species, all in the Loricifera phylum, were discovered living in the sediment, the first multicellular lifeforms known to live entirely without oxygen.

References

Mediterranean Sea
Earth sciences
Tactical voting happens when a person votes for someone other than their favorite candidate in a way to either help their favorite or achieve some other goal. This may happen in national or local elections, or even in elections for clubs and homeowner associations.

Examples 

Say 5 people are running as candidates for board members, but only 3 will be elected. For the following situations except the last, let's say you get 1 vote.

 Your favorite is almost guaranteed to win a seat on the board, so you may choose to vote for your second favorite candidate to help him out. That gives your two favorites a better chance of winning.

 Your favorite is almost guaranteed to lose, so you may choose to vote for your second favorite candidate to help him out. That gives your second choice a chance of winning even though your favorite may lose.
Your favorite is uncertain to win, so you may choose to vote for a stronger candidate, rather than see someone else win.
You don't have a favorite, but hate the current leading candidate, but you may choose to vote for somebody with less votes to even out the results between them. 

 Say you get to vote for 3 candidates and your favorite is in the middle of the pack. You may choose to vote only for your favorite and not use your other 2 votes so that your favorite faces less competition. 

Another common situation happens in primary elections, where members of one party may temporarily 'cross over' to the other party to support a candidate who is getting fewer votes, hoping their favorite will face weak competition in the main election. This type of negative voting is popular but often considered unethical.

Ethics
Ethics 

Many experts question tactical voting in that it can undermine a democratic outcome. That is, ethical voters may believe it more important how a candidate wins than who wins. Others feel the end justifies the means. Most researchers tend to frown on tactical voting.

Resources

 
 Svensson, Lars-Gunnar (1999). The Proof of the Gibbard-Satterthwaite Theorem Revisited
 The Science of Elections, Brams, Herschbach Science Online (2001). Abstract

Other websites

 Tactical Voting Can Be a Weak Strategy -- Article on tactical voting within larger strategic considerations [archived]
 VotePair.org  VotePair is a banding together of the people who started tactical voting online in the 2000 US elections
 Voting methods page  Includes extensive discussion of strategic voting in a wide range of real and theoretical voting systems

Voting
Queensberry were a German girl group that was started at the German version of Popstars in 2008. They split in 2013.

Discography

Albums

Singles 

2000s German music groups
2010s German music groups
German pop music groups
Girl groups
Musical groups disestablished in 2013
Musical groups established in 2008
The Strait of Gibraltar is the only water passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. It is between Europe and Africa; on one side is the southern tip of Spain and Gibraltar, and on the other is northern Morocco and Ceuta. The distance between the Rock of Gibraltar and Morocco is only 7.7 nautical miles (14.24 kilometers, 8.9 miles) at its narrowest point.
The water depth ranges between 300 and 900 meters.

Gibraltar
Geography of Morocco
Geography of Spain
Mediterranean Sea
Hurricane Fran was a hurricane during the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season. This storm caused over $3 billion in damage. It killed 20-30 people. Fran struck North Carolina as a strong Category 3 hurricane with winds of . The name Fran was later retired and replaced by Fay for the 2002 Atlantic season.

Storm History

Hurricane Fran started from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa, entering the Atlantic Ocean, on August 22. The low pressure area became a tropical depression on August 23. Little changed for several days. By August 26, the storm had been disorganized.

On August 27, the storm grew into a tropical storm and was named Fran. On August 29, the storm intensified into a category 1 hurricane. The interaction with Hurricane Edouard led to weakening and the storm took a northwestward direction. When Edouard was gone, the storm grew into a category 1 hurricane again.
Fran grew in early September. By September 3, it the winds were at . The system started to develop an eye. By September 5, winds were at 120 mph (195 km/h) and its pressure was 946 mbar.

On September 6, the storm hit North Carolina with winds of . Once on land, the storm rapidly weakened. It moved through Virginia. It died on September 8.

Preparations
A Hurricane Watch was issued in the Lesser Antilles in late August. As Fran moved away, the watch was ended. 

Hurricanes in Virginia
Hurricanes in North Carolina
Hurricanes in South Carolina
Retired tropical cyclone names
Type 1 diabetes, also called diabetes mellitus type 1, is an autoimmune disease that results in high blood sugar. This is because the body cannot create enough of the hormone insulin. People with type 1 diabetes need to take insulin injections to stay healthy. If they do not get enough insulin, they can become very sick or even die. People with type 1 diabetes are at increased risk of of diseases involing blood vessels such as stroke, heart disease or gangrene. About 15% of people with diabetes have type 1.

Cause 
Type 1 diabetes is a condition caused by a lack of insulin in the body. Insulin is a hormone produced by cells in the pancreas. Insulin is responsible for moving sugars out of the blood and into cells to be used by the body for energy. If insulin is not made, the body will search for other ways to get the sugars needed to feed the body's cells, including breaking down muscle and fat, leading to a loss of weight.
Insulin is not being produced in the pancreas due to an autoimmune condition attacking its cells. The body's immune system mistakenly attacks the cells responsible for producing insulin in the pancreas, the beta cell. The beta cells are damaged in a way that prevents them from producing more insulin. As more and more of these cells are damaged, less insulin is produced in the body. This means that more sugar remains in the bloodstream rather than being moved into cells. This high blood sugar causes the symptoms seen in type 1 diabetes.

The disease is thought to be strongly linked to genetic factors, but the trigger that starts the autoimmune disease is not currently known.

Epidemiology 
In the past, type 1 diabetes was generally thought to be a disorder in children and teenagers. However, it's now been found that adults can be diagnosed with the disease.
Although type 1 diabetes can now be diagnosed at any age, it is one of the most common chronic conditions in children and young adults. Being diagnosed at ages 5–7 or at the start of puberty is particularly common. Type 1 diabetes is also slightly more common in boys.

Cases of type 1 diabetes have been increasing across the world for several decades. Approximately 1 in 300 people are diagnosed with type 1 diabetes by the age of 18 in the United States.

Symptoms 
In type 1 diabetes, symptoms generally develop over a few days or weeks, though may take longer in adults. The main symptoms are:
 Feeling very thirsty
 Urinating more often than normal
 Exhaustion
 Loss of weight
 Bedwetting (especially in children)
 Blurring of sight
 Slow healing of wounds and grazes

Nausea, vomiting and heavy breathing are more serious symptoms that occur at a later stage in the disease.
Complications 
People with type 1 diabetes may have to deal with both short-term and long-term complications, particularly if the disease is not well managed.

Short-term complications

Hypoglycaemia 
Hypoglycaemia is when blood sugar levels decrease to below normal. This is most commonly due to overuse of medications for diabetes type 1 like insulin, poor diet control, and rigorous exercise. The risk of suffering from low blood sugar is increased by drinking alcohol. This may lead to various other symptoms, including confusion, loss of consciousness, clumsiness, seizures or death.
Diabetic ketoacidosis 
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a very serious complication of type 1 diabetes. It is a medical emergency and requires rapid medical attention to prevent further damage to a patient, if left untreated it can potentially lead to death. DKA occurs when there is not enough insulin in the body to supply sugars to the body's cells. In order to give its cells enough energy to survive, the body begins to produce acidic ketone bodies which are then used to feed energy to the cells.

If too many ketone bodies build up the blood becomes acidic, damaging the body and leading to the symptoms:
 Vomiting
 Dehydration
 Difficult breathing
 Fast heartbeat
 Confusion
 Coma

Long-term complications 

If diabetes is not treated, even mildly raised blood sugar levels can damage nerves, organs and blood vessels in the body.
Small blood vessel complications 
 Diabetic retinopathy, damage to the blood vessels prevent enough blood from reaching the eye. This can lead the eye's retina being damaged, resulting in loss of vision or blindness.
 Diabetic neuropathy, damage to blood vessels near nerves can result in reduced blood flow. This can damage the nerves, leading to a loss in the sense of touch, normally starting from the hands or feet, before spreading up the body.
 Diabetic nephropathy, blood vessels in the kidney become damaged, making the kidney work less effectively. In severe cases. this can result in kidney failure.
 Sexual dysfunction

Large blood vessel complications 
 Increased risk of heart disease and stroke
 Narrowing of blood vessels (peripheral arterial disease).
 Diabetic foot, narrowing of blood vessels reduces sensitivity and slows wound healing in the foot. If not managed appropriately, can lead to ulceration and gangrene in the foot. In very severe cases, amputation may be required.
Management 
There is no known cure for diabetes. Instead, treatment is designed to help keep blood sugar levels normal in order to reduce the chances of complications developing as the disease progresses. There are two main method that are combined to manage diabetes type 1:

Lifestyle 
 Healthy eating: eating a diet focused on fruit and vegetables, whilst limiting fats, salt and sugar helps keep blood sugar levels in check. 
 Exercise: regular physical activity helps to lower your blood sugar level. A good goal to aim for is 150 minutes of exercise a week.
 Stopping smoking: smoking further increases the risk of heart disease, peripheral arterial disease and stroke. Stopping or reducing smoking will reduce the risk of these complications.
 Reducing alcohol: alcohol can either raise or lower blood sugar, and makes it difficult to monitor your own blood sugar levels. Drinking less alcohol can reduce these risks.
Insulin injections 
Type 1 diabetes occurs due to the bodies inability to produce its own insulin. To counter this, insulin can be injected into the blood manually. When diabetes is first diagnosed, a plan should be made for insulin treatment in order to not under or overdose, which can lead to serious complications. A diabetic should monitor their own blood sugar levels continuously to know whether they need a dose of insulin to lower their blood sugar.

There are different kinds of insulin that can be taken: 
 Rapid-acting insulin and short-acting insulin get insulin into the bloodstream very quickly. They are typically taken before a meal to prepare for the rise in blood sugar that follows eating food.
 Long acting insulin provides insulin in the system for up to 24 hours. It is generally taken once a day

References 

Diabetes mellitus
Autoimmune diseases
Eagle Mountain is the highest point in Minnesota, at 2,301 feet (701 m). It is located in northern Cook County. It is a Minnesota State Historic Site.

References

Geography of Minnesota
Mountains of the United States
Alan Stuart "Al" Franken (born May 21, 1951) is a former United States Senator from Minnesota. He is a member of the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party, which affiliates with the national  Democratic Party.  Before he was a Senator, Franken was a writer and actor on Saturday Night Live.

Franken was also a left-wing pundit and has written several books on politics. His second cousin was actor Steven Franken.

On December 7, 2017, Franken announced in an address before the Senate that he would be resigning from his office following sexual harassment claims.

References

Other websites 

 Office of Senator Al Franken 
 Official campaign website
 Campaign contributions  at OpenSecrets.org
 Al Franken topic page at The New York Times
  in 2002
  in 2003
  in 2004
 Al Franken profile in Moment Magazine in 2005
Comedians from New York City
American movie actors
American screenwriters
American television actors
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Emmy Award winners
Grammy Award winners
Harvard University alumni
Actors from Minnesota
United States senators from Minnesota
Politicians from New York City
Politicians from Minneapolis
Actors from New York City
Writers from New York City
Writers from Minneapolis
1951 births
Living people
Comedians from Minneapolis
Minneapolis-Saint Paul is the most populous urban area in the state of Minnesota, United States, and is made up of 186 cities and townships. Built around the Mississippi, Minnesota and St. Croix rivers, the area is also nicknamed the Twin Cities for its two largest cities, Minneapolis and Saint Paul.

Related pages
 Minneapolis, Minnesota
 Saint Paul, Minnesota

References

Other websites 
 Flyby video courtesy NASA/Goddard Scientific Visualization Studio
 Fact sheet about Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area Comparison 
 History of the National Weather Service in Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota
 Twin Cities Daily Photograph — One photograph a day of the Twin Cities Metro Area
 GIS-based Demographic Guide to Twin Cities Region 

Cities in Minnesota
Saint Paul, Minnesota
Minneapolis
Metropolitan areas of the United States
The Arrowhead Region is in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Minnesota. It got its name from its pointed shape.  The mainly rural region is 27,575.19 km² (10,635.26 sq mi) of land area and comprises Carlton, Cook, Lake and St. Louis Counties. At the 2000 census 248,425 people lived there.

References
Counties of the Arrowhead Region, Minnesota  United States Census Bureau

Other websites
Northland Connection Local website

Geography of Minnesota
The Misquah Hills are a range of large hills or small mountains in northeastern Minnesota, in the United States.  They are located in or near the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness within Superior National Forest. They contain Eagle Mountain, the highest point in Minnesota at .

References

Geography of Minnesota
Wilderness Areas of the United States
Landforms of the United States
The Sawtooth Mountains are low ridges on the North Shore of Lake Superior in the U.S. state of Minnesota. They extend about 30 miles (50 km) from Carlton Peak near Tofte on the west, to Grand Marais on the east.

References

Geography of Minnesota
Mountain ranges of the United States
The Leaf Hills Moraines, sometimes called the Leaf Mountains, are a range of hills in west-central Minnesota.  The lands typically rises to a height of  to  above the surrounding farmland throughout the duration of its range, occasionally reaching higher than .

Geography of Minnesota
Hills of the United States
The Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL) is a major political party in the U.S. state of Minnesota. It was created on April 15, 1944, when the Minnesota Democratic Party and the Farmer–Labor Party merged. Hubert Humphrey was a major part in this merger. The party is affiliated with the national Democratic Party. Both members of the party and non-members in Minnesota often use "DFLer" instead of "Democrat".

Candidates endorsed in 2010

Challengers
 Margaret Anderson Kelliher for Minnesota Governor
 Dan Powers for US Representative (2nd District )
 Jim Meffert for US Representative (3rd District )
 Tarryl Clark for US Representative (6th District )
Incumbents
 Mark Ritchie for Minnesota Secretary of State
 Rebecca Otto for Minnesota State Auditor
 Lori Swanson for Minnesota Attorney General
 Tim Walz for US Representative (1st District )
 Betty McCollum for US Representative (4th District )
 Keith Ellison for US Representative (5th District )
 Collin Peterson for US Representative (7th District )
 Jim Oberstar for US Representative (8th District )

Current elected officials

Constitutional officers
 Attorney General Lori Swanson
 Auditor Rebecca Otto
 Secretary of State Mark Ritchie

State legislative leaders
 President of the Senate James Metzen
 Speaker of the Minnesota House of Representatives Margaret Anderson Kelliher
 Minnesota Senate Majority Leader Larry Pogemiller
 Minnesota Senate Asst. Majority Leader Tarryl Clark
 Minnesota House of Representatives Majority Leader Tony Sertich