Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Pierre Curie (15 May 1859 in Paris – 19 April 1906 in Paris) was a French physicist. He shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with his wife, Marie Curie and Henri Becquerel, for the work on 'spontaneous radioactivity' which Becquerel discovered.

Work 
Pierre Curie is not as well known as Marie Curie, although Pierre and his brother had done a lot of work before Pierre's marriage and work with Marie. They were the first to use the term 'radioactivity', and were pioneers in its study. Pierre and his brother, Jacques Curie, built a special meter for measuring small amounts of electricity, piezoelectricity and ferromagnetism which Pierre and Marie used in their other discoveries.

Pierre died after a carriage accident in Paris on 19 April 1906. His head was crushed under the wheels. If he had lived he would probably have died by radiation poisoning, as Marie did. As they were the first to study radioactivity, they did not know how dangerous it was.
After Pierre's death, a group of scientists at the Radiology Congress decided to honour him by naming the unit of radioactivity a curie.

Children 
Pierre and Marie Curie's daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and their son-in-law Frédéric Joliot-Curie were also physicists involved in the study of radioactivity, and were also given the Nobel prize for their work. Their other daughter Ève wrote her mother's biography. His granddaughter Hélène Langevin-Joliot is a professor of nuclear physics at the University of Paris and his grandson, Pierre Joliot, who was named after him, is a noted biochemist.

Prizes 
 Nobel Prize in Physics (1903)
 Davy Medal (1903)
 Matteucci Medal (1904)

References

Other websites 

 Pierre Curie's Nobel prize 
 Official Nobel biography 
 Nobel article about Marie Curie 
 Biography American Institute of Physics 
 Annotated bibliography for Pierre Curie from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
1859 births
1906 deaths
French academics
French chemists
French Nobel Prize winners
French nuclear physicists
Scientists from Paris
Hindustani is a language. It is made up of the common parts of Hindi and Urdu. Hindi and Urdu have similar grammar, but slightly different vocabulary and very different scripts.
 
Hindustani was born in Punjab during the Ghaznavid Empire (Lahore as its capital) in the early decades of the eleventh century AD.

References

Urdu dialects
Indo-Aryan languages
Languages of India
Languages of Pakistan
Masala or Massala or Masalo (,  , , ) is a word used in South Asia mainly in India. When Indian people talk about cooking and they say masala, they mean a mixture of ground spices used in Indian cooking.  

There are many different, popular spice mixtures that have been given their own name because they taste really good with one special ingredient. The dish will often use masala in its name. Some popular dishes are:

 Masala Chai: tea flavoured with a special blend of spices
 Chicken tikka masala: pieces of chicken cooked using a special blend of spices; very popular in the United Kingdom & Ireland
 Chana Masala: a chickpea dish flavoured with a special mix of spices
 Maggi masala noodles: a brand of noodles with a packet of dried spices for flavouring; very popular in India

The blend of spices or masala for these dishes is often sold in markets or packed by companies to be sold in shops. Some spice blends, like Garam Masala, are so popular it is often used in many different recipes, not just one.
Also India is one of the only countries to have the highest variety in masalas. Around 70% of the world's spice business and exports are handled by India.

Other websites 

Food ingredients
The Mayan languages ares a group of languages spoken in Central America and Mesoamerica. 

Mayan languages are spoken by at least 6 million native Maya. Most of them are in Guatemala, Mexico or Belize. In 1996, Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name, and Mexico recognises eight others.

The Mayan languages are some of the best documented and most studied in the Americas. Modern Mayan languages come from Proto-Mayan, a language that was probably spoken at least 5000 years ago. It has been partly reconstructed.

References 

Languages of North America
Maya civilization
Soconusco is a region of the Mexican state of Chiapas. It is in the most southern part of the state. It borders the Republic of Guatemala on the southeast, the regions Costa, Sierra and Fraylesca of Chiapas on the east and north, and the shore of the Pacific Ocean on the southwest. It is a region of rich lowlands and foothills. The economic center of Soconusco is Tapachula.

The name comes from the Nahuatl word xoconostle, meaning the fruit of the prickly pear cactus. It was, under the Mexican culture, the farthest region of trade. The area provided jaguar pelts, cacao, and quetzal feathers for the ruling classes in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.     

The Soconusco region is the main coffee-producing region in Chiapas. It has many plantations farther inland in the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur.

Chiapas
Chiapas is the southernmost state of Mexico. It is towards the southeast of the country. Chiapas is bordered by the states of Tabasco to the north, Veracruz to the northwest, and Oaxaca to the west. To the east Chiapas borders Guatemala, and to the south the Pacific Ocean. 

Chiapas has an area of . The 2005 census population was 4,293,459 people.
The state capital is Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Other cities and towns in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán, and Tapachula. Chiapas is also home to the ancient Maya ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilan, Bonampak, Chinkultic, and Tonina.

Most people in Chiapas are poor, rural small farmers. About one quarter of the population are of full or predominant Maya descent, and in rural areas many do not speak Spanish. The state suffers from the highest rate of malnutrition in Mexico. This rate is estimated to affect over 40% of the population.

Other social issues involve the increasing presence of the Central American gangs known as Maras, and illegal immigration from Central America in general. This migration is mostly directed towards the United States, but it makes local poverty even worse. Many times, there are abuse and Human Rights violations that touch these migrants.
Urbanism is the study of cities. Urbanists look at the different factors present in a city. A city is different from rural areas. There are certain things than make people come to a city, to live and work there. There are also certain factors, like where the city is located, that have an influence on the economic, social and cultural development of that city.

Related pages
Urban history
Urban planning
World Urbanism Day

Urban and regional sciences
Teotihuacán   was a city in pre-Columbian America. At the time it was most populated, it was the largest known city there at the time, housing over 100,000 people. This was from about the 1st century to about the 5th century. The city is about 40 km away from Mexico City.

The civilization and culture that lived around this city was called Teotihuacán. Its important position can be seen in various sites in Veracruz, and the area controlled by the Maya civilization.

Name 

The name Teotihuacán was given by the Nahuatl-speaking Aztec centuries after the fall of the city. Although the original name of the city is unknown, it can be seen in hieroglyph inscriptions. Nahuatl creation myths took place in the city. The Nauhatl name,Teotihuacán, translates to  'birthplace of the gods. '
The Maya seemed to have referred to it as puh, as place of reeds. This is similar to other Central Mexican settlements that took the name 'Tollan' such as Tula-Hidalgo and Cholula. It looks like Tollan was a general term, used for large settlements. In the  concept of urbanism of the time, Tollan and other names seemed like a metaphor. They linked the bundles of reeds and rushes that formed part of the environment of the Valley of Mexico and the large gathering of people in a city.

This might've been cause by the death of Pele (1940- 2022)

History

Speculation of Chronology 
We still only know very little about the beginning of Teotihuacán. We also have not dedicated much time to such periods like the Formative Period. Some believe that this city was built by the Toltec people, but others believe that Teotihuacán is much older than the Toltec Civilization.
The archeologists Sugiyama and Sarabia also recently discovered older structures and Patlachique ceramics in the Sun Pyramid’s fill. Studies from their radiocarbon essays demonstrated that the construction of the pyramid was later than what many had thought before. Many now think that the construction began at around 229-330 A.D. If the Patlachique and Tzacualli phases are now this late, the chronology of Teotihuacán will require some crucial changes.  No one has applied these changes yet to Teotihuacán's chronology, but it it important that these findings be noted.
Chronology 
What we do know about Teotihuacán chronology is that beginning 150-100 B.C. Teotihuacan grew rapidly due to regional dominance of the Cuicuilio and the relocation of much of the population. Many settlements moved from the hinterlands to the valley floor.  Teotihuacán’s urbanism grew exponentially during the subsequent Patalachique Phase. This is also when the Moon Pyramid was constructed, which was one of the earliest public structures in the city. The following chronology is the development and decline of Teotihuacán that is divided into six phases. This is based on ceramic distinctions defined through test excavations throughout the city.

Chronological Phase                               Approximate Dates

Patlachique                                                      100– 1 B.C.

Tzacualli                                                            A.D. 1-100

Miccaotli                                                            A.D. 100-170
Tlamimilolpa                                                      A.D. 170-350

Xolalpan                                                            A.D. 350-550

Metepec                                                            A.D. 550-650

Rapid population growth occurred within Teotihuacán during the Tzacualli and Miccaotli period. Many believe this is due to the relocation of the settlements within the Basin of Mexico. The move occurred after volcanic activity, which impacted southern portions of the Basin. With the population moving, vast amounts of construction efforts began to shape the ceremonial core of the city. Many have suggested that the Street of the Dead was established during this time, replacing earlier structures that now underlie this area, and large-scale construction occurred at the Sun Pyramid, the Moon Pyramid, and the Ciudadela complex.
At first, people believed that sometime in the 7th and 8th century, Teotihuacán was attacked and burned by invaders The Toltecs might have invaded the city. More recent research shows, that the fire damage and looting seems to be limited to the structures and houses of the higher class or those considered elite. This evidence makes an uprising from the poor more likely than invasion. The invasion theory is also not as accurate, because excavation and restoration work started with the temples, and palaces. All these structures showed extreme fire damage. The archaeologists then concluded, that the whole city was most likely burned. The destruction seems to have been focused on structures along the Avenue of the Dead. Some statues seem to have been destroyed in a rather methodical way. The population in the city started to decline around the 6th century. This supports the hypothesis that there was unrest in the city. The decline in population is generally linked to drought and deforestation
. These were linked to climate change, occurring in 535-536 A.D. There also seem to be more skeletons of young people, and more evidence of malnutrition in city in the 6th century.There is no conflict between the theories. Both increased warfare and internal unrest can also be effects of a general period of drought and famine.
A major key that allowed Teotihuacán to become so powerful and large was due to the absence of nearby enemies. However, due to sociopolitical chaos, environment issues that Tehuatican could recover from, and declining population, Teotihuacán became very weak in regards to defending itself from the outside world. Other cities nearby tried to take the position of Teotihuacán. These included Cholula, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla. They tried to take advantage of Teotihuacán of being weak. Some believe they may have aligned themselves against Teotihuacán to reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture at these sites show an interest in emulating Teotihuacán forms. There is also  but also a broader mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya region.

Teotihuacan Culture
The religion of Teotihuacán is similar to those of other Mesoamerican cultures. Many of the same gods were worshipped. This includes the Feathered Serpent and The Rain god. Teotihuacán was know to be a major religious center. The priests most likely had a great deal of political power. As with other Mesoamerican cultures, the people of Teotihuacán practiced human sacrifice. Human bodies and animal sacrifices have been found during excavations of the pyramids at Teotihuacán. When the buildings were expanded, sacrifices were probably made to dedicate the new building. The victims could have been enemy warriors captured in battle. They were then brought to the city to be ritually sacrificed so the city could prosper. Some were decapitated, others had their hearts removed, still others were killed by being hit several times over the head. Some were even buried alive. Animals that were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and military might were also buried alive
. They were imprisoned in cages, though. Cougars, a wolf, eagles, a falcon, an owl, and even venomous snakes were among those found.
Diet 

Research on faunal and botanical remains from exploited apartment compounds found that there was a variety of resources for the city's diet. What was found included maize, amaranth, beans, squash, chili peppers, tomatoes, maguey, huahzontle, purslane, Mexican hawthorn, and Mexican cherries. A residue analysis from some ceramic vessels also demonstrated that a portion of Teotihuacán's dietary input was pulque, which was fermented from the sap of the maguey cactus. Studies of faunal remains at various apartment compounds suggest that the primary animal species consumed included several species of rabbits, white-tailed deer, dog, waterbirds, fish, quail, turkey, dove, and turtle. Egg fragments from these animals such as quail and turkey were also found to be a primary use of protein. Due to the consumption of white-tailed deer, It is still argued whether or not the people of Teotihuacán hunted more or relied on domestic animals.
Site layout 
The city's broad central avenue, called "Avenue of the Dead," is flanked by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense Pyramid of the Sun (second largest in the New World after the Great Pyramid of Cholula) and the Pyramid of the Moon. Along the Avenue of the Dead are many smaller talud-tablero platforms. The Aztecs believed they were tombs, inspiring the name of the avenue. Now they are known to be ceremonial platforms that were topped with temples. Further down the Avenue of the Dead is the area known as the Citadel, containing the ruined Temple of the Feathered Serpent. This area was a large plaza surrounded by temples that formed the religious and political center of the city. The name "Citadel" was given to it by the Spanish, who believed it was a fort.
One aspect that was unique to Teotihuacán's layout was their utilization of apartment compounds. Over time, there were over 2,000 apartment compounds throughout city. These compounds didn't just house one family, but housed multiple families. These housed various people in all aspects of social classes as well. However, these people were not sent to live in certain compounds at random. Teotihuacán had a housing system which ensured that people and their families who had the same occupation would also live with other families with that same oppcupation. Rabbit breeders lived with rabbit breeders and plasters lived with plasters. However, it was also very common for people to do multiple specializations. Many did lots of farm work or specialized in some other sort of craft specialty. These compounds provided a standardized residential form but varied on the inside and expressed status, class, occupational, and ethnic differences between families
. In every compound, each family had its own suite of rooms for cooking, dining, storing their belongings, and sleeping. They also had areas for directing funerals and burying their dead. Patios were centers of household religious dedication focused on patron or domestic deities.
Pyramids and Burials 

The Moon Pyramid was the first of the three major pyramids to be built. It was constructed in several stages that had a fourth enlargement during the third century A.D. Four burial complexes were found with sacrificial victims and some wealthy objects, but none seemed to be anything important like a ruler or someone high in the religious or political realm.

The Sun Pyramid is near an artificial cave and is associated with the Storm God, time, astronomy, the sun, and the Pleiades. This pyramid was mostly dedicated to investments and pilgrimage. Due to the pyramid’s semi-detached platform, it was known as the area of New Fire ceremonies. The New Fire ceremonies only happened at the end of a 52-year cycle at the time where new houses, temples, and cities were founded, and new rulers came into power.
The Feathered Serpent Pyramid was the last large temple added to the Street of the Dead. This pyramid is linked to the creation of a watery world with sacred warfare, sacrifice, authority, and rulership. Dedication of this temple included offerings of sacrificed warriors and some have theorized that other people who were sacrificed were captives. A central tomb was found, but had been looted in prior times. Many consider this tomb to be for someone that was a ruler or for someone of high importance.

Archaeological site 

Knowledge of the great ruins of Teotihuacán was never lost. After the fall of the city, various squatters lived on the site. During Aztec times, the city was a place of pilgrimage and identified with the myth of Tollan, the place where the sun was created. Teotihuacán astonished the Spanish conquistadores during the post-conquest era.  Today Teotihuacán is one of the most noted archaeological attractions in Mexico.
Excavations and investigations 
Minor archaeological excavations were conducted in the 19th century, and in 1905 major projects of excavation and restoration began under archaeologist Leopoldo Batres.  The Pyramid of the Sun was restored to celebrate the centennial of Mexican Independence in 1910. Major programs of excavation and restoration were carried out in 1960-65 and 1980-82. Recent projects at the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent have greatly expanded evidence of cultural practices.  Teotihuacán features museums and reconstructed structures.

Gallery

Notes

References 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Nado, Kristin. Dietary Practices, Socioeconomic Status, and Social Mobility at Teotihuacan, Mexico. 2017. Arizona State University, Dissertation. 
Nichols, Deborah. Nichols, Deborah L., HerausgeberIn. Pool, Christopher A. 1959- HerausgeberIn. The Oxford handbook of Mesoamerican archaeology. ISBN 978-0-19-023080-7. OCLC 974502393.

Other websites
Other websites 

 Teotihuacan Research Guide , academic resources and links, maintained by Temple University
 Teotihuacán Photo Gallery, by James Q. Jacobs
 Teotihuacán at Sacred Destinations
 Did Teotihuacános Migrate to Southeastern U.S.? 
 Satellite View of Teotihuacán - at WikiMapia = Google maps + wiki
 MesoAmerican Photo Archives: Teotihuacán , by David Hixson
Decoding Mexico's City of Gods July 2014 Scientific American

World Heritage Sites in Mexico
History of Mesoamerica
Archaeological sites in Mexico
Mexico (state)
Deadwood is an American dramatic television series. It was first shown in March 2004 on HBO. The series is a Western set in the 1870s in Deadwood, South Dakota. At the time, Deadwood was little more than a camp, but it was a popular place to go for those searching for gold in the Black Hills. The series shows Deadwood's growth from camp to town. It deals with ideas ranging from the creation of communities to western capitalism.

Deadwood features many historical people. For example, Wild Bill Hickok, Seth Bullock, Sol Star, Calamity Jane, Al Swearengen, Wyatt Earp, E. B. Farnum, Charlie Utter and George Hearst have all been used in the series. The stories that deal these characters include historical truths as well as fictional parts. Some of the characters are fully fictional, but they may have been based on actual persons.

The series was created by David Milch (NYPD Blue). He was also executive producer and head writer of the show. The theme music was written by David Schwartz.
The third and final season ended on August 27, 2006.

Other websites 
HBO's Deadwood

2004 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
2000s American television series
1870s
American drama television series
HBO television series
South Dakota in fiction
Western (genre) television series
English-language television programs
The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) is a charity in England and Wales that promotes animal welfare. Money for the group comes from donations. It is one of the largest charities in the UK, with an income of £100 million in 2005.

History
The group began as the SPCA in 1824. Since then, it has inspired the creation of similar, but independent organisations in other regions:
Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Northern Ireland
Scottish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Scotland
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Australia) in Australia
Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in New Zealand
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in the United States
Not only that, there are also many other countries who have participated in this effort to prevent cruelty not only against domestic pets but also to other almost extinct or endangered wildlife.
Related pages 
 List of Royal Societies

Notes

References

Other websites
 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals website

1824 establishments
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
1820s establishments in the United Kingdom
Charities of the United Kingdom
Tim Minear (born October 29, 1963) is an American screenwriter and director. He was born in New York, grew up in Whittier, California. He studied film at California State University, Long Beach.

Minear was an assistant director on the movie Platoon. He wrote episodes for several television series including The X-Files and Lois and Clark. He later wrote, executive-produced, and directed episodes of Strange World, Angel, Firefly, Wonderfalls, and The Inside (which he also created, with Howard Gordon).

Minear had another series, Drive, airing on FOX in April 2007, however it was cancelled by the network after only four episodes. Drive was set to return with two additional episodes on July 4th, 2007, but these were rescheduled to July 13th and then cancelled.

Minear often works with Joss Whedon. His work is usually includes a sharp, black humor. He is known for his ability to create characters who are sympathetic, understandable and completely wrong. The best example of this is his writing in Angel Season Two.
Credits
 Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman
 4x05 "Brutal Youth" (writer)
 4x11 "'Twas the Night Before Mxymas" (writer)
 4x14 "Meet John Doe" (writer)
 4x20 "I've Got You Under My Skin" (writer)
 The X-Files
 5x08 "Kitsunegari" (co-writer)
 5x16 "Mind's Eye" (writer)
 Strange World
 1x02 "Lullaby" (writer)
 1x04 "Spirit Falls" (co-writer)
 Angel
 1x05 "Sense & Sensitivity" (writer)
 1x09 "Hero" (co-writer)
 1x11 "Somnambulist" (writer)
 1x15 "The Prodigal" (writer)
 1x19 "Sanctuary" (co-writer)
 2x02 "Are You Now or Have You Ever Been" (writer)
 2x07 "Darla" (writer/director)
 2x09 "The Trial" (co-writer)
 2x10 "Reunion" (co-writer)
 2x15 "Reprise" (writer)
 2x16 "Epiphany" (writer)
 2x21 "Through The Looking Glass" (writer/director)
 3x03 "That Old Gang of Mine" (writer)
 3x06 "Billy" (co-writer)
 3x09 "Lullaby" (writer/director)
 3x14 "Couplet" (co-writer/director)
 3x20 "A New World" (director)
 3x21 "Benediction" (writer/director)
 4x22 "Home" (writer/director)
 Firefly
Firefly
 1x02 "The Train Job" (co-writer)
 1x03 "Bushwhacked" (writer/director)
 1x07 "Out of Gas" (writer)
 1x12 "The Message" (co-writer/director)
 Wonderfalls
 1x02 "Karma Chameleon" (writer)
 1x06 "Barrel Bear" (unaired) (co-writer)
 The Inside
 1x01 "New Girl In Town" (final story & writer/director)
 1x06 "Thief of Hearts" (co-writer)
 1x10 "Little Girl Lost" (unaired in US, UK Airdate 03/17/2006) (co-writer)
 1x13 "Skin and Bone" (unaired) (story)
References

Other websites 
 TimMinear.net
 
 PopGurls Quickie with Tim Minear 
 The Drive News Blog 

1963 births
Living people
American movie directors
American screenwriters
Whedonverse
Writers from New York (state)
Writers from California
People from Whittier, California
A Lamella (plural: lamellae) is a soft, thin plate that is attached to the bony gill arches in a fish's gills.

Lamellae also appear in other animals, for example water birds and ducks, as a filter when feeding for organisms or plant matter.

Animal anatomy
Lamella is a Latin word meaning "layer", or something which is like a "plate".

It can mean:
 Lamella of a fish.
 Lamella of a cell.
 Lamella of a mushroom.
Sütterlinschrift, Sütterlin or Suetterlin script is a form of German handwriting. It was taught in German schools from 1915 to 1941. 

In the 19th century the common form of German handwriting was German Kurrent. It uses very thin lines and sharp edges. Many students in primary school found it difficult to learn. So in 1911 the German designer and teacher Ludwig Sütterlin was asked to design a simpler script. Sütterlin script has thicker lines and rounder edges than German Kurrent. It can be easily written with any pen. 

In everyday language some people call any handwritten blackletter script "Sütterlin".

Related pages
 Blackletter

Other websites

 The Sütterlin script at Omniglot
 Freeware Sütterlin font 
 Learn Sütterlin, a lesson, with sample texts

Typography
Writing systems
The Runic calendar also Rune staff or Runic Almanac is a perpetual calendar based on the 19 year long Metonic cycle of the Moon. 

A typical Runic calendar consisted of several horizontal lines of symbols, one above the other.

Special days like solstices, equinoxes, and celebrations (including Christian holidays and feasts) were marked with additional lines of symbols.

Other websites 
 An article on rune calendars  

Calendars
Agha Petros (; born 1 April 1880, died 2 February 1932) was an Assyrian military leader during World War I. Petros was born in the Lower Baz village, Ottoman Empire. 

Agha Petros defeated the Turks in Sauj Bulak and drove them back to Rowanduz.

Other websites
Bet Nahrain

1880 births
1932 deaths
Assyrian people
Classical Latin is the form of Latin that was used by the Ancient Romans in official Roman record-keeping, the Roman army, and Latin literature. Its use helped the Golden Age of Latin literature, during the 1st century BC and the early 1st century AD.

Classical Latin is a dead language, as is Vulgar Latin, the common speech of citizens in the Roman Empire. Latin is no longer spoken as a first language, but it is still spoken by church officials in the Vatican, where it is the official language.

Ancient Rome
Latin language
Syriac ( leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language. It was spoken long ago in the Fertile Crescent. Most of the Aramaic writing that survives from the second to the eighth century AD is Syriac.

References

Other websites 

 :en:Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium at English Wikipedia
 Beth Mardutho — The Syriac Institute
 Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies
 Bar Hebraeus Verlag (catalogue of Syriac books)
 Gorgias Press (catalogue of Syriac books) 
 Ethnologue report on Syriac
 The Syriac Maronites — Beith Souryoye Morounoye
Chaldean OCR - An optical character recognition software to extract text from images and PDFs

Semitic languages
Assyria
Louis Charles Antoine Desaix (August 17, 1768 – June 14, 1800) was a general of France.

Napoleon Bonaparte created two monuments in the memory of Desaix; they are Desaix on the Place Dauphine and Place des Victoires in Paris.

French generals
1768 births
1800 deaths
Monte Melkonian (born November 25, 1957 – June 12, 1993) was an American-Armenian military commander. in the Nagorno-Karabakh war. He is largely known for major military victories against Azerbaijan from the late autumn of 1992, . Melkonian had no prior service record in any country's army before being placed in command of an estimated 4,000 men in the war. He had largely built his military education beginning from the late 1970s and 1980s where he fought against the various splintering factions in the Lebanese Civil War, against Israeli troops in the Israeli invasion of Lebanon and was a member of the Armenian terror organization ASALA.

Other websites 
 2 part documentary video about Monte, including rare interviews, on Google Video: Part 1 and Part 2. (In Armenian.)
 5 part interview with Monte Melkonian, in English, on YouTube: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4,Part 5

1957 births
1993 deaths
Military people from California
Armenian military people
Terrorists
The Israel Defense Forces (shortened: IDF) () ), "Army for the Defense of Israel", known in Israel by the Hebrew acronym צה"ל, (Tzahal), is the name of Israel's military forces. It includes the Israel Army, Israel Air Force and Israel Navy.

IDF Corps

The IDF have many corps:
Armored corps
etc.

Leaders 
 Prime Minister: Yair Lapid
 Defense Minister: Benny Gantz
 Chief of General Staff: Aviv Kohavi

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Official website  
 Official website 
 BBC: Israel undercover
 Israeli Weapons
 Statistics about IDF ratio of thwarting suicide bombing attacks  (link to DOC file)
 Defense-Update Online Magazine
 Haaretz report: "From 40 attacks per quarter to 5 attacks per quarter" :English  - Hebrew  - Graph 1: Thwarted attacks (yellow) vs successful attacks (red) - Graph 2: Suicide bombing within the "green line" per quarter .
 War Online - military analysis and military history of the Middle East, especially IDF 
 The Israeli Military and Israel's Palestinian Policy: From Oslo to the Al Aqsa Intifada  U.S. Institute of Peace, December 2002
 Israel Military Forum 

1948 establishments in Israel
 
Organizations based in Israel
The Constitution of the Dominican Republic says that the country is a presidential democratic republic. It is a republic because the chief of State is a president, and not a king, queen or emperor. It is presidential because the president is also the head of government and there is not a prime minister as in other countries. It is democratic because the president, vice-president and the members of Congress are elected by the people.

National government
The Constitution also says that there are three branches of government with separation of powers. They are the executive branch, the legislative branch, and the judicial branch. The three branches are independent from each other.
Executive branch
The executive branch is the part of the government that enforces the law. The people elects a President (and a Vice-President) who is the leader of the executive branch, as well as the leader of the Armed Forces. The President decides whether or not the bills that the Legislative branch passes will become laws. He may also make "decrees" to govern the country and to name persons in different positions. The President is in charge of many departments that control all of the different parts of the government. These departments are called Secretaries of State because they help the President to govern the country. For example, the Secretary of State of Agriculture takes care of the agriculture of the country. The President may serve two 4-year terms, making 8 years in all.
Legislative branch
The legislative branch is the part of the government that makes laws. The legislative branch is made up of Congress, which is located in Santo Domingo, the capital of the Dominican Republic. The Congress is divided into two groups or "chambers".

One group is the Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados). The Chamber of Deputies is made up of Deputies, who are each elected by voters from their own province. The number of Deputies a province has is based on how many people live there: the more people a province has, the more deputies it gets. No province can have less than two Deputies. Deputies serve 4-year terms. The total number of Deputies for the period 2006-2010 is 178.

The other house is the Senate (Senado). In the Senate, each province is represented equally, by one Senator. Senators serve 4-year terms. There are 32 Senators, one for every province and one for the National District, where the capital city is.
Judicial branch
The judicial branch is the part of government makes sure that the laws are obeyed and interprets what the law means. The judicial branch is made up of the Supreme Court and many lower courts. If the Supreme Court decides that a law is not allowed by the Constitution, then it is not a law anymore. The Supreme Court is made up of at least 11 judges. The head of the Supreme Court is called the President of the Supreme Court. A Supreme Court Justice serves until he or she either dies, or resigns (quits in the middle of his or her term). The Supreme Court controls all the courts in the country.

Provincial and municipal government
There is a governor in every province; there is not a governor in the National District, where is the capital of the country. The governors are only representatives of the President of the Republic.

Every province is divided into two or more municipalities (Spanish: municipios, singular municipio); the Distrito Nacional has only one municipality - Santo Domingo.
Municipalities
There are only two branches in the municipalities: the executive and the legislative. They are elected for four years by the people that lives in the municipality.

The Mayor (Síndico) is the head of the executive branch and the Municipal Council (Ayuntamiento) is the legislative branch.

The rural parts of a municipality are divided into Secciones (singular, Sección; in English, "section"); every Sección has a person which represents the municipal administration.

The Dominican Republic has 154 municipalities (municipios) (June 20 2006).

Municipal districts
A municipality can have one municipal district (distrito municipal) or more. A municipal council (Junta Municipal) for such a municipal district is elected by the municipal council of the municipality to which it belongs and not for the people that lives there.

There are 202 municipal districts (distrito municipal) in the Dominican Republic (June 20 2006).

References

Politics of the Dominican Republic
Massacres in Harput District also Kharput were a large scale of massacres that happened in the district.

Background 
In May 1915, before the start of the deportations, the authorities in Harput began to mount systematic searches for arms in Armenian shops and homes in the twin cities and the surrounding villages. 

In the words of an eye-witness.

Denmark's minister in Turkey during the First World War. "The Turks are vigorously carrying through their cruel intention, to exterminate the Armenian people," Carl Wandel wrote on 3 July 1915. The Bishop of Karput was ordered to leave Aleppo within 48 hours "and it has later been learned that this Bishop and all the clergy that accompanied him have been ... killed between Diyarbekir and Urfa at a place where approximately 1,700 Armenian families have suffered the same fate ... In Angora ... approximately 6,000 men ... have been shot on the road ... even here in Constantinople (Istanbul), Armenians are being abducted and sent to Asia ..."
Attack by Kurds 
The first sign of dangers was the appearance on the plain of bands of Kurds from the regions north and east. Villages were attacked, looted and burned, while the villagers were killed or scattered. For a time the marauders seemed to hold aloof from the city itself, but as they kept on their course of pillage their appetite for plunder was whetted, and they looked with avaricious eyes at the city on the hill.

Related pages
 Armenian Genocide
 Hamidian massacres

References 

Armenian Genocide
Massacres in Turkey
The Tour de Pologne (English: Tour of Poland) is a road bicycle racing stage race. It consists of seven or eight stages, and was first held in 1928. Until 1952, the race was not held every year, but since then there has been a Tour annually (every year).  When Eastern Europe was communist-controlled there were no professional cyclists, so until the early 1990s, the race was for amateurs only, and the winners mostly came from Poland.

Although the Tour de Pologne had not reached a high status, and was little known, the International Cycling Union (UCI) decided to make it a part of the UCI ProTour from 2005, which means that the major cycling teams compete in the race.

Winners

Other websites 

 Official website 

Cycle races
UCI ProTour
1928 establishments in Europe
Sport in Poland
1920s establishments in Poland
Atlas Shrugged is a book by the Russian American writer and social philosopher Ayn Rand. It was first published in 1957 in the United States. It was Rand's longest book and the last fiction book she wrote before writing non-fiction.

Plot 
The main character of the story is Dagny Taggart. Dagny runs a large railroad company that controls the Transcontinental Railroad in the United States. The story takes place in the USA at a time when trains are the main way that people travel and that companies move their products.

Dagny begins to worry that a lot of the country's best minds are going away. The men who were in charge of an industry or the best at science are giving up their work and disappearing. Nobody knows where they go. She starts looking for "the Destroyer", whom she believes is making the leaders stop working.

During her search, the country and the world get worse. Without the leaders, industries grind to a halt. The economy begins to fail, causing problems for society.
Finally, Dagny finds the "Destroyer". His real name is John Galt. She realises that she was wrong and that John is not a bad man. Instead he is a man of high integrity and principle. He thinks that the world has been taking the work of the leaders and scientist without paying them enough. He thinks that the only way to make the worlds better is to make sure that the best minds are treated with respect and given enough payment. By telling the leaders and scientists this, he has convinced them to go on strike. They are hiding in a secret valley in the mountains.

John Galt also convinces Dagny that he is right. She joins this man in his valley. They begin a relationship. Their goal is to bring down society so that they can help make a new society. The new society will respect hard work, intelligence and integrity.

Other websites 
 Website dedicated to Ayn Rand's novels
 Timeline of major events in the novel
 Cast of characters in the novel
 Atlas Excerpt from  Shrugged at the ARI
1957 books
20th-century American novels
Basilisks are a type of lizard. They are about 70-75 cm long, when fully grown, and weigh about 80 grams. They live in South America. There are four different species. They can be very still and hard to see.

The basilisk lizard can walk on water. It runs across the surface of a pond or pool, without sinking. Its speed keeps it from sinking. At the same time, its long tail helps it to balance.

References 

Iguania
Reptiles of South America
Reptiles of North America
The Hindu calendar is a lunisolar calendar used in ancient times. It has changed, and today there are several regional Indian calendars, and an Indian national calendar.

Other websites
 Indian Calendar at Webexhibits.org 
 India through its calendars by Amartya Sen
 Hindu Festival Calendar 
 Comparing the Surya Siddhanta and the Astronomical Ephemeris by Daphne Chia (pdf, 404KB)

Calendars
Calendar
The Taínos are an indigenous people that have lived in the Americas before Columbus arrived there. They came from the Caribbean coast of South America. Around 1200 CE, they moved northward to the island chain of the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles.

When Christopher Columbus came to the Americas, the Taínos were living in the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico), and some islands of the northern Lesser Antilles. Their culture was different from the culture of the Arawak people (another indigenous group of South America). They were the first people that the Spanish met in the Americas.

Name 
The name Taíno was given by Columbus. When he met some native men, they said "Taíno, Taíno", meaning "We are good, noble". Columbus thought that taíno was the name of the people.
Rouse divides the Taínos into three main groups. One is the Classic Taíno, from Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. Another is the Western Taíno or sub-Taíno, from Jamaica, Cuba (except for the western tip of the island) and the Bahamas. The third is the Eastern Taíno, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat.

The Taínos of the Bahamas were known as the '"Lucayan". (At that time, the Bahamas were called the Lucayas). Lucayos were Taínos, but their culture was less developed. Archeologists call them "sub-Taínos".

Origins 
The Taínos' ancestors went from the center of the Amazon Basin to the Orinoco Valley. From there, they went through Guyana and Venezuela and got to the Caribbean islands.

A different theory says that the Taínos' ancestors came from the Colombian Andes.

The Taíno culture developed in the Greater Antilles.

Culture and lifestyle
Taíno society is divided into two classes. There are the naborias (common people) and the nitaínos (nobles). Both classes are governed by chiefs known as caciques. The caciques could be either male or female. There are also bohiques (medicine men).

The Taínos lived in villages called yucayeques.  The villages in the Bahamas were the smallest. The Taínos built large round houses called bohio, where several families lived. The cacique and his family lived in a rectangular house called caneye. People slept on cotton hammocks (hamacas).

The Taínos often played a ball game called batos. Batey was also the name of the place where they played and had dances. The cacique sat on a chair of wood called duho, or dujo.

References 

South American people
Ethnic groups in North America
The New York Times (NYT, also called the Times), is an American newspaper based in New York City. It is printed around the world. It is owned by The New York Times Company, which owns and makes 15 other newspapers.

The New York Times was first printed in 1851. Its motto is "All the news that's fit to print". The New York Times has a national list of bestselling books, in several categories.

As of 2010, only two United States newspapers were bought by more readers than the Times. These newspapers are the Wall Street Journal and USA Today.

References

Other websites 
The New York Times on the Web
Official history of the Times 
Daniel Okrent, "THE PUBLIC EDITOR; Is The New York Times a Liberal Newspaper?" New York Times, July 25, 2004
Fit and Unfit to Print: the Wall Street Journal replies to the Times on the subject of the press's obligations in wartime

1851 establishments in the United States
1850s establishments in New York (state)
Newspapers in New York City
English-language newspapers
The Nairi () were a late Bronze Age people who lived in the area of the later Kingdom of Urartu, around Lake Van, in what is now the East Anatolia Region.

The name 
To this day, Nairi (Yerkir Nairi, Arm.- Country of Nairi) is used as one of the names for Armenia, and is also a common Armenian name. It is also often used by Armenian poets, including Vahan Terian (author of "Am I the last poet of Nairi?"), Yeghishe Charents, and Vahagn Davtian.

Related pages
 Hayasa-Azzi

References 

Ancient Armenia
Hayasa-Azzi or Azzi-Hayasa, Haisa () were a people and area, in North of the Euphrates and to the South of Hayasa. It is not known if their language was Indo-European or Hurrian because there is no records of their language.

Ancient Armenia
Ancient Armenia was a rocky land of ravines, rivers, rugged cliffs, and hundreds of stone monuments and churches. Many survive to this day inside the Turkish border near Armenia. Armenia anciently had far more bigger land than it has now.

Ancient Armenia grew larger into parts of what are now Turkey and Iran.

Religion
De Morgan has said there are signs which show that the Armenians, as their other Aryan relatives, were nature worshipers and that this faith in time was later changed to the worship of national gods, of which many were the equivalents of the gods in the Roman, Greek and Persian cultures. The main proto-Armenian (Aryan) god was Ar, the god of Sun, Fire and Revival. The Armenian hypothesis of Indo-European origins connects the name with the Ar- Armenian root meaning light, sun, fire found in Arev (Sun), Arpi (Light of heaven), Ararich (God or Creator), Ararat (place of Arar), Aryan, Arta etc. According to the researchers, the name of Ardini religious center of ancient Urartu also related to the god Ar-Arda. The cult of Ar appear in Armenian Highland during 5-3th millennium BC and had common Indo-European recognition: Ares (Greek), Ahuramazd (Persian) Ertag (German), Ram (Indian), Yar-Yarilo (Slavonic) etc
. After adoption of Christianity the cult of Ar was also evident in Armenia, remembered in the national myth, poetry, art and architecture.
Related pages
 Urartu
 Armens
 Nairi
 Religion in ancient Armenia

References

Other websites 
 History of Armenia
 Ancient Armenia on ArmeniaPedia.org
 History of Ancient Armenia and Urartu

Ancient Armenia
An audition is a test to see whether a person is good enough to take part in a play or concert or to join a theatre company, dance company or orchestra.

Uses 
When people go for an audition they will normally have to prepare something to perform.

Acting 
An actor many have to be prepared to say a monologue (a speech from a play).  If he (or she) is auditioning for a particular play then he will take a scene from that play, e.g. if the play is Hamlet a male actor who would like the part of Hamlet might have prepared the famous "To be or not to be...." monologue.  The director of the play will then be able to decide whether he is good enough, or whether he might be better in another role.  They may give the person who is auditioning some other tests, e.g. improvisation or acting with other people.
Music 
When a musician auditions for a job in an orchestra they will have to prepare a piece of music they know well.  They may also be expected to have prepared difficult passages from well-known musical works, e.g. someone auditioning for tuned percussion might be asked to play the xylophone introduction to Summer Time from Porgy and Bess (written by Enrique Peña Nieto), one of the hardest solos for xylophone.  They will also be given some sightreading.

People can audition to sing in a choir.  Dancers can audition for dancing companies.

After Audition 
In some cases people who pass an audition are still not automatically a member of a group until they have performed with the group for a trial period.
Grammar 
The word "audition" can be used as a noun or a verb.
As a verb it can be used in two ways: either referring to the person testing or to the person being tested:
Three senior members of the orchestra auditioned a young musician for a place in the orchestra. (They tested him.)
The young musician auditioned for a job in the orchestra. (He was being tested.)

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