Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
GC-MS can find all of the compounds mixed together in a sample object. The operator dissolves the sample in a liquid. The operator then injects the liquid into a stream of gas. (Helium, Hydrogen or Nitrogen gas are used most often.) The gas flows through a tube with a special coating.  Because each compound in the sample sticks to the coating in a different way, each compound comes out of the tube at a different time.  So the coating is used to separate each compound that was mixed together in the sample.  As each compound comes out at the end of the tube, it is ionized and gets an electric charge.  Most compounds break apart when they are ionized.  The different pieces fly under a magnet which separates the pieces based on their weight and charge.  A computer then measures all of the pieces of each compound. By comparing the measurements against a computer library of known compounds, the computer makes a list of the names of all of the compounds in the sample
.  The computer can also tell how much of each compound was in the sample.
Instrumentation

The GC-MS is made up of two major building blocks: the gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer. The gas chromatograph uses a capillary column which depends on the column's dimensions (length, diameter, film thickness) as well as the phase properties (e.g. 5% phenyl polysiloxane).  The difference in the chemical properties between different molecules in a mixture will separate the molecules as the sample travels the length of the column. The molecules take different amounts of time (called the retention time) to come out of (elute from) the gas chromatograph. This allows the mass spectrometer downstream to capture, ionize, accelerate, deflect, and detect the ionized molecules separately. The mass spectrometer does this by breaking each molecule into ionized fragments and detecting these fragments using their mass to charge ratio.
These two machines, used together, allow a much finer precision of substance identification than either unit used separately. It is not possible to make an accurate identification of a particular molecule by gas chromatography or mass spectrometry alone. The mass spectrometry process normally requires a very pure sample. In the past, gas chromatography use other detectors such as a Flame Ionization Detector.  These detectors cannot separate different molecules that happen to take the same amount of time to travel through the column. (When two different molecules have the same retention time they are said to "co-elute".) The co-eluting molecules will confuse the computer programs that are reading a single mass spectrum for both molecules.
Types of mass spectrometer detectors
The most common type of MS associated with a GC is the quadrupole mass spectrometer. Hewlett-Packard (now Agilent) markets it under trade name "Mass Selective Detector" (MSD).  Another relatively common detector is the ion trap mass spectrometer.  Additionally one may find a magnetic sector mass spectrometer. However these particular instruments are expensive and bulky and not typically found in high-throughput service laboratories.  Other detectors are used such as time of flight (TOF), tandem quadrupoles (MS-MS) (see below), or in the case of an ion trap MSn. The n indicates the number mass spectrometry stages.

Analysis

A mass spectrometer is typically used in one of two ways: Full Scan or Selective Ion Monitoring (SIM).  The typical GC-MS can work either way alone, or both at the same time.
Full scan MS
When collecting data in the full scan mode, a target range of mass fragments is selected and put into the instrument's method.  An example of a typical broad range of mass fragments to monitor would be m/z 50 to m/z 400.  The determination of what range to use is largely set by what one expects being in the sample while being aware of the solvent and other possible interferences.  If an MS looks for mass fragments with a very low m/z, it may detect air or other possible interferring factors.  Using a large scan range decreases the sensitivity of the instrument. The machine will perform fewer scans per second because each scan will take more time to detect a wider range of mass fragments.
Full scan is useful in determining unknown compounds in a sample.  It provides more information than SIM when it comes to confirming or resolving compounds in a sample.  Most instruments are controlled by a computer which operates a computer program called an "instrument method."  The instrument method controls the temperature in the GC, the MS scan rate and the range of fragment sizes being detected. When a chemist is developing an instrument method, the chemist sends test solutions through the GS-MS in full scan mode.  This checks the GC retention time and the mass fragment fingerprint before moving to a SIM instrument method. Specialized GC-MS instruments, such as explosive detectors, have an instrument method pre-loaded at the factory.
Selected ion monitoring
In selected ion monitoring (SIM), the instrument method focuses on certain ion fragments. Only those mass fragments are detected by the mass spectrometer.  The advantages of SIM are that the detection limit is lower since the instrument is only looking at a small number of fragments (e.g. three fragments) during each scan.  More scans can take place each second.  Since only a few mass fragments of interest are being monitored, matrix interferences are typically lower.  To improve the chances of reading a positive result correctly, the ion ratios of the various mass fragments are comparable to a known reference standard.
Types of ionization
After the molecules travel the length of the column, pass through the transfer line and enter into the mass spectrometer they are ionized by various methods. Typically only one ionization method being used at any given time.  Once the sample is fragmented it will then be detected, usually by an electron multiplier diode. The diode treats the ionized mass fragment like an electrical signal that is then detected.

Chemists select an ionization technique separately from choosing Full Scan or SIM monitoring.
The most common type of ionization is electron ionization (EI).  The molecules enter into the MS (the source is a quadrupole or the ion trap itself in an ion trap MS) where they are hit with free electrons emitted from a filament. This is like the filament one would find in a standard incandescent light bulb.  The electrons hit the molecules, causing the molecule to fragment in a characteristic way that can be repeated.  This "hard ionization" technique results in the creation of more fragments of low mass to charge ratio (m/z). EI has few, if any, fragments having a mass that is near the mass of the original molecule.  Chemists consider hard ionization to be shooting electrons into the sample molecules.  In contrast, "soft ionization" is placing a charge on the sample molecule by hitting it with an introduced gas.  The molecular fragmentation pattern depends on the electron energy applied to the system, typically 70 eV (electron Volts)
.  The use of 70 eV helps to compare the spectra generated from the test sample against known library spectra. (The library spectra can come from manufacturer-supplied software or software developed by the National Institute of Standards (NIST-USA)). The software searches the library spectra using a matching algorithm such as Probability Based Matching or dot-product matching.  Many method standardization agencies now control these algorithms and methods to assure their objectivity.
Chemical ionization
In chemical ionization (CI), a reagent gas, typically methane or ammonia is put into the mass spectrometer. There are two types of CI: positive CI or negative CI.  Either way, the reagent gas will interact with the electrons and analyte and cause a 'soft' ionization of the molecule of interest.  A softer ionization fragments the molecule to a lower degree than the hard ionization of EI.  Chemists prefer CI over EI. This is because CI produces at least one mass fragment with a weight, that is nearly the same as the molecular weight of the analyte of interest.

Positive Chemical Ionization
In Positive Chemical Ionization (PCI) the reagent gas interacts with the target molecule, most often with a proton exchange.  This produces the ion species in relatively high amounts.
Negative Chemical Ionization
In Negative Chemical Ionization (NCI) the reagent gas decreases the impact of the free electrons on the target analyte.  This decreased energy typically leaves the fragment in great supply. (The fragments do not break up further.)

Interpretation
The primary goal of instrument analysis is to measure an amount of substance. This is done by comparing the relative concentrations among the atomic masses in the generated mass spectrum. Two kinds of analysis are possible, comparative and original. Comparative analysis essentially compares the given spectrum to a spectrum library to see if its characteristics are present for some known sample in the library. This is best performed by a computer because there are many visual distortions that can take place due to variations in scale. Computers can also correlate more data (such as the retention times identified by the GC), to more accurately relate certain data.
Another method of analysis measures the peaks in relation to one another.  In this method, the tallest peak is set at 100%. The other peaks given a value equal to the ratio of the peak height to the tallest peak height.  All values above 3% are assigned. The total mass of the unknown compound is normally indicated by the parent peak. The value of this parent peak can be used to fit with a chemical formula containing the various elements which are believed to be in the compound. The isotope pattern in the spectrum  is unique for elements that have many isotopes. So, it can also be used to identify the various elements present. This tells the overall chemical formula of the unknown molecule. Because a molecule's structure and bonds break apart in characteristic ways, they can be identified from the difference in peak masses. The identified molecule structure must be consistent with the characteristics recorded by GC-MS
. Typically, this identification is done automatically by computer programs which come with the instrument. Those programs match the spectra against a library of known compounds that have same list of elements which could be present in the sample.
GC-tandem MS
When a second phase of mass fragmentation is added, for example using a second quadrupole in a quadrupole instrument, it is called tandem MS (MS/MS). MS/MS are good at measuring low levels of target compounds in a sample with a matrix of background compounds that are not of interest.
The first quadrupole (Q1) is connected with a collision cell (q2) and another quadrupole (Q3). Both quadrupoles can be used in scanning or static mode, depending on the type of MS/MS analysis used. Types of analysis include product ion scan, precursor ion scan, Selected Reaction Monitoring (SRM) and Neutral Loss Scan. For example: When Q1 is in static mode (looking at one mass only as in SIM), and Q3 is in scanning mode, one obtains a so-called product ion spectrum (also called "daughter spectrum"). From this spectrum, one can select a prominent product ion which can be the product ion for the chosen precursor ion. The pair is called a "transition" and forms the basis for SRM.  SRM is highly specific and almost completely eliminates matrix background.

Applications
Applications

Environmental monitoring and cleanup
Many chemists believe that GC-MS is the best tool for monitoring organic pollutants in the environment. The cost of GC-MS equipment has decreased a lot. The reliability of GC-MS has increased at the same time. Both improvements have increased use in environmental studies. Some compounds, such as certain pesticides and herbicides, cannot be identified by GS-MS. They are too similar to other related compounds. But for most organic analysis of environmental samples, including many major classes of pesticides, GC-MS is very sensitive and effective.

Criminal forensics
GC-MS can analyze the particles from a human body in order to help link a criminal to a crime. The law accepts using GC-MS to analyze fire debris. In fact, the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has a standard for fire debris analysis. GCMS/MS is especially useful here as samples often contain very complex matrices and results, used in court, need to be highly accurate.
Law enforcement
GC-MS is used for detection of illegal narcotics, and may eventually replace drug-sniffing dogs. It is also commonly used in forensic toxicology. It helps to find drugs and/or poisons in biological specimens taken from suspects, victims, or a dead body.

Security
After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, explosive detection systems have become a part of all US airports. These systems run on a host of technologies, many of them based on GC-MS. There are only three manufacturers certified by the FAA to provide these systems. The first is Thermo Detection (formerly Thermedics), which produces the EGIS, a GC-MS-based line of explosives detectors. The second is Barringer Technologies, which is now owned by Smith's Detection Systems. The third is Ion Track Instruments (part of General Electric Infrastructure Security Systems).
Food, beverage and perfume analysis
Foods and beverages contain a lot of aromatic compounds, some naturally present in the raw materials and some forming during processing. GC-MS is extensively used for the analysis of these compounds which include esters, fatty acids, alcohols, aldehydes, terpenes, etc. It is also used to detect and measure contaminants from spoilage or adulteration which may be harmful. The contaminants are often controlled by governmental agencies, for example pesticides.

Astrochemistry
Several GC-MS have left earth. Two went to Mars in the Viking program. Venera 11 and 12 and Pioneer Venus analysed the atmosphere of Venus with GC-MS. The Huygens probe of the Cassini-Huygens mission landed one GC-MS on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. The material in the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko will be analysed by the Rosetta mission with a chiral GC-MS in 2014.
Medicine
GC-MS are used in newborn screening tests. These tests can find dozens of congenital metabolic diseases (also known as Inborn error of metabolism). GC-MS can determine compounds in urine even in very small amounts. These compounds are normally not present but appear in individuals suffering with metabolic disorders. This is becoming a common way to diagnose IEM for earlier diagnosis and beginning of treatment. This eventually leads to a better outcome. It is now possible to test a newborn for over 100 genetic metabolic disorders by a urine test at birth based on GC-MS.

In combination with isotopic labeling of metabolic compounds, the GC-MS is used for determining metabolic activity. Most applications are based on the use of 13C as the labeling and the measurement of 13C-12C ratios with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS). A IRMS is an mass spectrometer with a detector designed to measure a few select ions and return values as ratios.

Notes

References

Bibliography
Bibliography

 Eiceman, G.A. (2000). Gas Chromatography. In R.A. Meyers (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry: Applications, Theory, and Instrumentation, pp. 10627. Chichester: Wiley. 
 Giannelli, Paul C. and Imwinkelried, Edward J. (1999). Drug Identification: Gas Chromatography. In Scientific Evidence 2, pp. 362. Charlottesville: Lexis Law Publishing. .

Other websites
 GCMS - How does it work?
 
 GCMS Tutorial
 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy Background
 Introduction to Mass Spectrometry 

Mass spectrometry
Laboratory techniques
Lacey Elizabeth Brown  (born August 13, 1985) is an American singer-songwriter, record producer, violinist, painter, model and fashion designer. She is from Amarillo, Texas. She was the twelfth place finalist on the ninth season of American Idol.

Early life
Born on August 13, 1985, Brown is the daughter of the pastors of Victory Church, a local Christian Church, in Amarillo. There, she served as Venue (Victory's college-aged group) director and taught civics and Christian values to Victory's internship students. During her childhood, she learned how to play the violin. She also spent time in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where she had Bible schooling. Her education includes studying art. Her musical influences include folk and country, as well as rock music, such as Lady Antebellum, Kings of Leon, Coldplay, and U2, apart from Patsy Cline, Joni Mitchell, Dolly Parton, and Pete Yorn.
American Idol
Brown first auditioned for the eighth season of American Idol, where she made it into the Top 54 of the Hollywood rounds. Brown later auditioned in Orlando, Florida with the song "Over the Rainbow", from The Wizard of Oz, by Judy Garland. The judges all loved her performance, including guest judge Kristin Chenoweth, and she made it through to the next round. During Hollywood week, her performance of "What a Wonderful World" was featured as a montage for contestants who made it to the Top 24. She performed "Landslide" on the first night of the semi-finals but did not impress the judges. The judges did not like her performance of "Kiss Me" by Sixpence None the Richer during the second week. Despite this, it was well received by the band's lead singer, Leigh Nash. Her cover of Brandi Carlile's "The Story", on the final night before the finals, was considered to be better. Brown eventually made it to the Top 12.
Brown thanked her fans for their support and plans to return to her hometown, after doing interviews in New York. She says she will try acting (from a criticism to her by Simon Cowell) as well as a career in music. In her final moments on the show, she said she might try country music although her MySpace page lists "pop" and "folk" as her genres. A notable line of Brown in the show was: "You've got to take no's and turn them into yes'es"

Performances/results
Career after Idol
After leaving Idol, Brown gave several media interviews with Entertainment Weekly, USA Today, The Los Angeles Times, People, several Fox affiliates, MTV, E!, with Ryan Seacrest on his radio show (On Air with Ryan Seacrest), with Ellen DeGeneres on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, along with several in New York, including the Wendy Williams Show and The Late Show with David Letterman, where she performed "What a Wonderful World". Among the finalists, her closest friends are Paige Miles and Lee DeWyze although she is friends with all of them including Siobhan Magnus and Katie Stevens. She said in these interviews that she is planning to continue her career in music but she is also open to any offers that may come to her. She now lives in Nashville, Tennessee. She released an EP entitled Let It Go on May 31, 2011. In 2011, Brown signed a management contract with Tracy Lawrence and she will be touring at the CMA Fest in Nashville in June 2011.

Discography

Let It Go (2011)
Let It Go (2011)

The alternative country EP Let It Go, with five songs on it, was released on May 31, 2011 through the independent (self-owned) record label LEB Records. Brown's voice was described as a mix "...of sweet, yet haunting tones with a hint of Brenda Lee". Her writing style was described as "...pop lyrics resting on a bed of American Bluegrass."

Track listing
The official track listing released through the iTunes Store and Amazon.com on 31 May 2011.

References

Other websites
Lacey Brown  at American Idol
Lacey Brown at FOX News Radio

1985 births
American Christians
Models from Texas
American painters
Singer-songwriters from Texas
Living people
American Idol contestants
People from Amarillo, Texas
A napkin, or face towel (also in Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia: serviette) is a rectangle of cloth used at the table for wiping the mouth while eating.  It is usually small and folded.

Food and drink
Chun Kuk Do (, commonly abbreviated as CKD) is a martial art (or type of fighting style) that Chuck Norris created. It is said to be based upon Tang Soo Do, another martial art.

Martial arts
Nevers is a commune in the Nièvre department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in central France. It is the préfecture (capital) of the department.

It is the main city of the department and one of the largest city of the region, after Dijon and Chalon-sur-Saône.

History
The name of the city comes from the name of the Nièvre river. Julius Caesar named the town as Noviodunum but later was named as Nebirnum, after the name of the river.

Nevers was the capital of the old province of Nivernais and became the capital of Nièvres on 4 March 1790 with the creation of the departments in France.

Geography
Nevers is at about  to the southeast of Paris, on the confluence of the Loire and the Nièvre rivers.

It has an area of , and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

Nevers is surrounded by the communes Varennes-Vauzelles, Coulanges-lès-Nevers, Saint-Éloi, Sermoise-sur-Loire, Challuy and Marzy.
Climate
The Köppen climate classification type for Nevers is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype Cfb.

The average temperature for the year in Nevers is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month, on average is January, with an average temperature of .

The average amount of precipitation for the year in Nevers is . The month with the most precipitation on average is May with  of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

Population
The inhabitants of Nevers are known, in French, as Nivernais (women: Nivernaises) but they are also known as Neversois (women: Neversoises), leaving Nivernais for the people of the department.

With a population of 34,485, Nevers has a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

Evolution of the population in Nevers
Nevers forms, together with other 6 communes, the urban area of Nevers with a population of 59,444 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Nevers, formed by 57 communes, with a population of 100,768 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .

Administration
Nevers is the prefecture of the Nièvre department, the capital of the arrondissement of Nevers and the administrative centre () of four cantons:
 Nevers-1 formed by the commune Coulanges-lès-Nevers and part of Nevers, with 11,738 inhabitants (2014).
 Nevers-2 formed by 3 communes and part of Nevers, with 11,570 inhabitants (2014).
 Nevers-3 formed by 3 communes and part of Nevers, with 11,874 inhabitants (2014).
 Nevers-4 formed by a part of Nevers, with 10,448 inhabitants (2014).

It is part of the intercommunality Nevers Agglomération ().

Twin towns 
Nevers is twinned with:
Mantua, Italy
  Charleville-Mézières, France
  Koblenz, Germany
  Lund, Sweden
  Minsk, Belarus
  Neubrandenburg, Germany
  St Albans, United Kingdom
  Hammamet, Tunisia
  Curtea de Argeș, Romania
  Siedlce, Poland
  Erzsébetváros, Budapest, Hungary

Places of interest
Some interesting places in Nevers are:
 The Nevers Cathedral (Cathédrale Saint-Cyr-et-Sainte-Julitte) is a Roman Catholic cathedral, dedicated to Saints Cyricus and Julitta.
 The Palais Ducal ("Ducal Palace", now occupied by the courts of justice and an important ceramic museum) was built in the 15th and 16th centuries.
 The Porte du Croux, a square tower dating from the end of the 14th century.

Education 
 Institut supérieur de l'automobile et des transports

Gallery

References

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Nièvre department
 Communes of the Nièvre department

Other websites

 Ville de Nevers - official website 
 Nevers Office of Tourism 

Departmental capitals in France
Communes in Nièvre
Beauvais is a commune. It is in the Oise department in the north of France. In 2012, 54,289 people lived there.

International relations

Twin towns – Sister cities
Beauvais is twinned with:
  Maidstone, United Kingdom, since 1961
  Witten, Germany, since 1975
  Setúbal, Portugal, since 1982.

Partnerships
There are also partnerships with:
  Dej, Romania, since 2003
  Tczew, Poland, since 2003
Alençon is a commune. It is found in the Orne department in the north western of France.

Sister cities
Alençon is twinned with:
 Basingstoke, United Kingdom, since 1968
 Quakenbrück, Germany, since 1969
 Koutiala, Mali, since 1970

Communes in Orne
Departmental capitals in France
Andrea Moda Formula, commonly referred to as Andrea Moda, was a Formula One team which raced in the 1992 Formula One season. It was founded by Andrea Sassetti, who owned a shoe maker in Italy. In 1991 Sassetti bought the old Coloni F1 team which had failed to get through pre-qualifying.

The team was excluded from the opening race in South Africa after not paying the required $100,000 entry fee for new teams. Sassetti argued that the team was a continuation of the Coloni team. Even still, the car was not ready, as the team did not participate in the next race in Mexico. Even though the team was entered in the next race, in Brazil, with drivers Roberto Moreno and Perry McCarthy, the cars were still not ready. At the fifth race in San Marino the car was finally ready but McCarthy did not receive his Super License, which is required to race a F1 car. However, Moreno finally qualified his car in Monaco, only to retire during the race due to an engine problem.
In Canada, the team did not have engines because Sassetti did not pay the engine supplier, Judd, the money. The team also missed France due to their car being stuck in a blockade by French truck drivers.

In August of 1992, the FIA warned the team that they might be excluded (disqualified, does not count) from the championship. It was a known fact that McCarthy was barely given a chance, since the team could not afford to properly run two cars, so they mainly worked on Moreno's car while McCarthy was only there to meet the rules of having two cars in the race.

Finally, at the Belgian Grand Prix, Sassetti was arrested for forging invoices  . The team was not allowed in the paddock at the Italian Grand Prix, because the FIA banned the team brought Formula One into disrepute.

Complete Formula One results
(key) (results in bold indicate pole position) 

Formula One constructors
A typical column used in SEC has two substances called phases that interact with the mixture and these substances help force the separation of the mixture. The mobile phase is a solvent which helps carry the mixture down the column, and the stationary phase which does not move. Unlike other chromatography methods, the stationary phase used in SEC does not exploit the polarity of each component.  It is worth noting there is no chemical interaction between the stationary phase and a component.  A column could be packed with two types of stationary phase material.  First the stationary phase could be a porous solid. A common porous solid is silica which has a diameter of 5-10µm and a pore sizes ranging from 100-1000Å. Silica provides excellent rigidity and will not move throughout the column. Porous solids are also stable at high pressures and temperatures which allows for the use of a vast variety of solvents
. Unfortunately silica particles have a tendency to allow absorb soluble components and they have the capacity to break down components into atoms. For these reasons columns could also be packed with porous gels.  The structure of gel is vastly different from a porous solid because gel’s have a polymer-like (a repeating structure of the same substance) structure.  Gels have been shown to be more effective than porous solids at allowing components through its pores. Gels have pore sizes ranging from 100-100000Å. So how is it that larger molecules exit the column before smaller molecules?
The porous material will not allow larger molecules to pass so these molecules go to the next pore and again they cannot pass. They eventually get to the bottom of the column and exit the column.  Remember there is volume inside the column that is not inhabited by the stationary phase which allows for the flow of both the mobile phase and the sample. These larger molecules then find themselves at the bottom of the column whereas smaller molecules have a longer path to travel.  Smaller molecules can pass through a pore and then pass through another one. The smaller a molecule is, the greater the chance is that it can fit into a pore which means the longer it spends inside the column.
Reading a Chromatogram
Notice the graph is logarithmic not linear. There at two distinct positions on the curve the exclusion limit and the permeation limit. The exclusion limit defines the maximum molecular weight that can enter a pore, while the permeation limit signifies the minimum molecular weight to enter a pore. The curve itself is called the permeation region and this provides a range of molecular weights which could be found in the experiment. Retention time, how long the component spends in the column, is plotted against molecular weight. The peaks located in Figures 1 and 2 are similar to peaks liquid or gas chromatography readout. Normally peaks found in liquid or gas chromatography indicates how many components are in a mixture if the number of components is unknown and the relative amount of each component in the mixture within a given range. In the case of SEC these peaks indicate the relative amount of each component (based on molecular weight) within the permeation region.
Advantages/Disadvantages

SEC has several advantages and disadvantages. First in SEC the time it takes the mixture to exit the column can be controlled. Depending on the chemical characteristics of the mixture and its components the process could be quick or slow. Second the peaks are well-defined, sharp, and narrow. All characteristics indicate SCE provides good sensitivity. Next there is low mass loss since the sample theoretically is not supposed to come interact with the stationary phase. Last the stability of the stationary phase allows close packing to provide greater separation of components in the sample.
A clear disadvantage to SEC is with short retention times the peaks overlap and little information could be extracted from such data. Resolution (how well two peaks can two peaks be distinguished between) must be sacrificed if the process is to be shorter in time. SEC does not provide data to distinguish between components of similar molecular mass. For example if component A has molecular mass equal to 900 g/mol and component B has molecular mass equal to 950 g/mol, SEC will show one peak in this region and both components will be represented by the same peak.  To have statistically different peaks there should be a 10% difference between molecular weight. Also lumped into this category are enantiomers and diastereomers which are molecules of the same molecular weight but have slightly different structures. Last SEC fails to take into account for a component’s viscosity or resistance to flow.

References
References

Principles of Instrumental Analysis, pp 847.
Principles of Instrumental Analysis, pp 847-8.
J.  Klein.  “Thalidomide – Contergan.” Web.  2008.  
P.  Kline; D.  McInnes.  “Summary of Stereoisomerism.”  College of Sana Monica.  Web.  2000.

Laboratory techniques
The following is a list of the 470 communes of the Puy-de-Dôme département, in France.

(CAC) Communauté d'agglomération Clermont Communauté, created in 2000.
(CCHL) Communauté de communes of Haut-Livradois.

Puy-de-Dome
The following is a list of the 693 communes of the Oise département, in France.

(CAB) Communauté d'agglomération of Beauvaisis, created in 2004.

Oise
The following is a list of the 652 communes of the Nord département, in France.

(CUDL) Communauté urbaine de Lille Métropole, created in 1966.
(CUD) Communauté urbaine de Dunkerque Grand Littoral, created in 1968.
(CAC) Communauté d'agglomération de Cambrai, created in 2000.
(CAD) Communauté d'agglomération du Douaisis, created in 2002.
(CAM) Communauté d'agglomération Maubeuge Val de la Sambre, created in 2001.
(CAS) Communauté d'agglomération de la Porte du Hainaut, created in 2001.
(CAV) Communauté d'agglomération de Valenciennes Métropole, created in 2001.

Communes from A to K

Communes from L to W 

Nord
The following is a list of the 312 communes of the Nièvre département, in France.

(CAN) Communauté d'agglomération (unitary authority) of Val de Loire - Val de Nièvre, created in 2003.

Nievre
Thin layer chromatography (or TLC) is a method by which mixtures are separated into their individual components. 

TLC is performed on a TLC plate.  These plates consist of a layer of silica and are usually backed by a thin piece of glass, although other materials like plastic may be used.  The silica coating on the front of the TLC plate is called the stationary phase.

Performing TLC
The process of running a TLC experiment starts with placing a small droplet of liquid analyte near the bottom of the TLC plate.  This is called “spotting” the TLC plate.  Very thin glass tubes are commonly used as spotters.
Once a plate has been spotted, it is placed into a glass container with a small amount of solvent.  This solvent is called the mobile phase.  It is important that the height of the solvent is below the height that the compound was spotted on the plate.  As the solvent moves up the TLC plate by capillary action, the compound will also move.  The compound will be separated into its components based upon each component’s attraction for the stationary phase versus the mobile phase.  Components that are attracted to the mobile phase more than they are attracted to the stationary phase will move further up the column.  Attractive forces are based on polarity differences.
The TLC plate should be removed before the solvent reaches the top of the plate.  Separated compounds will sometimes be colored, but further work is often required for analysis.  Many compounds will be illuminated when the TLC plate is placed under an ultraviolet lamp.  TLC plates are also commonly dipped in stains (such as anisaldehyde, potassium permanganate, or iodine) to force a compound to appear on the plate.

Application 
TLC is commonly used by organic chemists to monitor the progress of reactions.  The presence of starting material and products may be monitored using a single TLC plate.

Based on the results of a TLC experiment, a larger volume of mixture may be separated by another technique (like column chromatography) using a similar solvent system.  Or, a TLC experiment may be repeated using a different solvent.  Mixtures of solvents may also be used.  Use of different solvents will affect how well individual components are separated on the TLC plate.

Laboratory techniques
The Reichshofstadion is a football stadium in Vorarlbergs city Lustenau. It is the largest stadium in this federal state of Austria. The stadium is the homeground of SC Austria Lustenau. From 2007 till 2014 it was also used by FC Lustenau 07, the second club from Lustenau. The stadium is no called Planet Pure Stadium named after a sponsor of Austria Lustenau.

History
The stadium was built from 1952 till 1953 and was in the beginning a multipurpose stadium with a running track. During the construction of new stands the track was used so today the stadium is de facto a pure football stadium. It is the homeground of both Lustenau clubs in Austrias First league. Originally it was the homeground of Austria Lustenau, but after the promotion of FC Lustenau to the first league their stadium was not good enough for the league. The stadium offers 8 800 places, 2.126 roofed seats, 2.390 roofed and 4.284 unroofed  standing room.
On 3 August 2007 the chapel of the stadium was consecrate, where fans of Austria Lustenau can merry. It is named after Hugo Kleinbrod, who cared after the 2. World War for children and orphans.

In May 2011 supporters of FC Lustenau coloured the main stand and a cash desk in their club colour blue, although they were originally green, which is Austrias colour.

References

Football stadiums in Austria
Vorarlberg
1950s establishments in Austria
Billiard Congress of America (BCA) is a group that organizes for cue sports in the United States. It started in 1948 as a non-profit trade organization The BCA headquarters is in Broomfield, Colorado.  The voting members of the organization are mostly equipment manufacturers.

References

Billiards and Snooker organizations
Sports organizations of the United States
1948 establishments in the United States
The Commonwealth of the Philippines (, ) was the name of the Philippines from 1935 to 1946 when it was still controlled by the United States. The Philippine Commonwealth had been created by the Tydings-McDuffie Act, which was approved by the U.S. Congress in 1934. When Manuel L. Quezon became president in 1935, he was the first Filipino to head an elected government in the Philippines.

The President of the Philippine Commonwealth had strong control of the islands and was guided by a Supreme Court. The National Assembly or law-making part of the government, members mostly come from the Nacionalista Party, was at first only one, but later became two, a lower part and a higher part. In 1937, the government chose Tagalog, the language of Manila, as the national language.
Women were allowed to vote, and the economy was strong.
The Philippine Commonwealth government was forced out of the country from 1942–1945, when the Philippines was under Japanese control. In 1946, the Philippine Commonwealth ended when the Third Philippines Republic began.

Names
The Philippine Commonwealth was also known as the Commonwealth of the Philippines, or simply as the Commonwealth. It had official names in Malasariling Pamahalan ng Pilipinas (pɪlɪˈpinɐs) and Mancomunidad Filipina (fɪlɪˈpinɐ). The 1935 constitution specifies Philippines as the country's short form name and uses Philippine Islands only to refer to pre-1935 status and institutions. Under the previous regime, known most formally as the Territory of the Philippine Islands, both terms had official status.
Structure
The Philippine Commonwealth had its own constitution, which remained effective until 1973, and was self-governing although foreign policy and military affairs would be under the responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required the approval of the American President.

It featured a very strong President, a single National Assembly, and a Supreme Court, all composed entirely of Filipinos, as well as an elected Resident Commissioner to the United States House of Representatives (as Puerto Rico does today). An American High Commissioner and an American Military Advisor, were also present in the government while a Field Marshall was in charge of the Philippine Army.

In 1939-40, after an amendment in the Constitution, an upper and lower Congress, consisting of a Philippine Senate, and of a House of Representatives, was restored replacing the National Assembly.

History

Start
History

Start

The pre-1935 U.S. territorial administration, or Insular Government, was headed by a governor general who was appointed by the president of the U.S. In December 1932, the U.S. Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act (First Philippine Independence Act) with the premise of granting Filipinos independence. Provisions of the bill included reserving several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. It was vetoed by President Herbert Hoover but the American Congress overrode his veto in 1933 and passed the bill. The bill, however, was opposed by the then Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon and was also rejected by the Philippine Senate.
This led to the creation and passing of a new bill known as Tydings-McDuffie Act, or Philippine Independence Act, which allowed the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with a 10-year period of peaceful transition to full independence. The Commonwealth was officially inaugurated on November 15, 1935. 

A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23, 1935 and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935.

In October 1935, Philippine presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the Philippine Independent Church leader Gregorio Aglipay, and others. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively.
The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the Old Congress Building in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people.

Before World War II
The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic and political independence. These included national defense (such as the National Defense Act of 1935, which organized a conscription for service in the country), greater control over the economy, the perfection of democratic institutions, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the promotion of local capital, industrialization, and the colonization of Mindanao.
However, uncertainties, especially in the diplomatic and military situation in Southeast Asia, in the level of U.S. commitment to the future Republic of the Philippines, and in the economy due to the Great Depression, proved to be major problems. The situation was further complicated by the presence of agrarian unrest, and of power struggles between Osmeña and Quezon, especially after Quezon was permitted to be re-elected after one six-year term.

A proper evaluation of the policies' effectiveness or failure is difficult due to Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II.
World War II
Japan launched a surprise attack on the Philippines on December 8, 1941. The Philippine Commonwealth government drafted the Philippine Army into the U.S. Army Forces Far East, which would resist Japanese occupation. Manila was declared an open city to prevent its destruction, and it was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. Meanwhile, battles against the Japanese continued on the Bataan Peninsula, Corregidor, and Leyte, until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on May 1942.

Quezon and Osmeña were escorted by troops from Manila to Corregidor, and later they left for Australia and then the U.S. There they set up a government in exile, which participated in the Pacific War Council as well as the Declaration by United Nations. During this exile, Quezon became ill with tuberculosis, and later he died of it. Osmeña replaced him as the president.
Meanwhile, the Japanese military organized a new government in the Philippines known as the Second Philippine Republic, which was headed by president José P. Laurel. This government ended up being very unpopular.

The resistance to the Japanese occupation continued in the Philippines. This included the Hukbalahap ("People's Army Against the Japanese"), which consisted of 30,000 armed people and controlled much of Central Luzon. Remnants of the Philippine Army also fought the Japanese through guerrilla warfare, and it was successful, since all but 12 of the 48 provinces were liberated.
The American General Douglas MacArthur's army landed on Leyte on 20 October 1944, and they were all welcomed as liberators, along with Philippine Commonwealth troops when other amphibious landings soon followed. Fighting continued in remote corners of the Philippines, until Japan's  surrender in August 1945, which was signed on 2 September in Tokyo Bay. Estimates for Filipino casualties reached one million, and Manila was extensively damaged when certain Japanese forces refused to vacate the city (against their orders from the Japanese High Command).

After the War in the Philippines, the Philippine Commonwealth was restored, and a one-year transitional period in preparation for independence began. Elections followed in April 1946 with Manuel Roxas winning as the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines and Elpidio Quirino winning as vice-president. In spite of the years of Japanese occupation, the Philippines became independent exactly as scheduled a decade before, on July 4, 1946.
Independence
The Commonwealth ended when the U.S. recognized Philippine independence on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. However, the economy remained dependent to the U.S. This was due to the Bell Trade Act, otherwise known as the Philippine Trade Act, which was a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the United States.

Policies

Uprisings and agrarian reform
At the time, tenant farmers held grievances often rooted to debt caused by the sharecropping system, as well as by the dramatic increase in population, which added economic pressure to the tenant farmers' families. As a result, an agrarian reform program was initiated by the Commonwealth. However, success of the program was hampered by ongoing clashes between tenants and landowners.
An example of these clashes includes one initiated by Benigno Ramos through his Sakdalista movement, which advocated tax reductions, land reforms, the breakup of the large estates or haciendas, and the severing of American ties. The uprising, which occurred in Central Luzon in May 1935, claimed about a hundred lives.

National language
Due to the diverse number of Philippine languages, a program for the "development and adoption of a common national language based on the existing native dialects" was drafted in the 1935 Philippine constitution. The Commonwealth created a Surian ng Wikang Pambansa (National Language Institute), which was composed of Quezon and six other members from various ethnic groups. A deliberation was held, and the Tagalog (due to its extensive literary tradition) was selected as the basis for the "national language" to be called "Philipino".
In 1940, the Commonwealth authorized the creation of a dictionary and grammar book for the language. On the same year, Commonwealth Act 570 was passed, allowing Pilipino to become an official language upon independence.

Economy
The economy of the Commonwealth was mostly based on farming, as agriculture-based. Farmers grew abaca, coconuts and coconut oil, sugar, and timber trees. Other foreign income came from money spent at the American army, navy, and air bases in the Philippines, such as the naval base at Subic Bay and Clark Air Base. The economy was good until World War II stopped growth.

Demographics
In 1941, the estimated population of the Philippines reached 17,000,000 while Manila's population was 684,000. The number of Chinese people rose to 117,000. There were also 30,000 Japanese people, with 20,000 living in Davao, and 9,000 U.S.-Mexicans. English was spoken by 27% of the population. Spanish was spoken by only 3%.
The following is the estimated number of speakers of the dominant languages:
Cebuano: 4,620,685
Tagalog: 3,068,565
Ilocano: 2,353,518
Hiligaynon: 1,951,005
Waray-Waray: 920,009
Kapampangan: 621,455
Pangasinan: 573,752

List of presidents

The colors indicate the political party or party groups of each President at Election Day.

1 Died of tuberculosis at Saranac Lake, New York.
² End of Commonwealth government, independent Republic began.

Notes

References

Other websites 
The Present Government of the Philippines  Book written by Maximo Kalaw detailing the functions of the different branches of the Philippine Commonwealth
Parallel and Divergent Aspects of British Rule in the Raj, French Rule in Indochina, Dutch Rule in the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), and American Rule in the Philippines
Philippines: Polity Style: 1897-2009

Philippine Commonwealth
1935 establishments in Asia
20th century in the Philippines
1946 disestablishments
1940s disestablishments in Asia