Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The experiment 
In their experiment, Luria and Delbrück grew bacteria in tubes. After a period of growth, they split up the bacteria into separate cultures and put them onto agar containing phage (virus). If virus resistance were not due to random gene mutations, then each plate should contain roughly the same number of resistant colonies. This, however was not what Delbrück and Luria found. Instead, the number of resistant colonies on each plate varied to a great extent.

Luria and Delbrück proposed that these results could be explained by the occurrence of a constant rate of random mutations in each generation of bacteria growing in the initial culture tubes.

References

Other websites
 On Mutation lab 

Microbiology
Genetics experiments
Polydactyly is a birth defect which may affects the hands, feet, or both. It causes one or more extra fingers or toes. It can affect people, and other mammals such as dogs, and cats.

References

Limbs and extremities
Developmental disorders
The Guild was founded in 1933 in an effort to end exploitation of actors in Hollywood who were being forced into oppressive multi-year contracts with the major movie studios that did not include restrictions on work hours or minimum rest periods, and often had clauses that automatically renewed at the studios' discretion.  These contracts were notorious for allowing the studios to dictate the public and private lives of the performers who signed them, and most did not have provisions to allow the performer to end the deal.

In addition to its main offices in Hollywood, SAG also maintains local branches in several major US cities, including:  Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Honolulu, Houston, Las Vegas, Miami, Nashville, New York City, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Portland, Salt Lake City, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington DC.

Since 1995, the guild has annually awarded the Screen Actors Guild Awards, which are considered an indicator of success at the Academy Awards.
The membership of the Screen Actors Guild voted to merge with the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists on March 30, 2012. It was later renamed as SAG-AFTRA.

SAG Presidents 

 1933-1933 Ralph Morgan
 1933-1935 Eddie Cantor
 1935-1938 Robert Montgomery
 1938-1940 Ralph Morgan
 1940-1942 Edward Arnold
 1942-1944 James Cagney
 1944-1946 George Murphy
 1946-1947 Robert Montgomery
 1947-1952 Ronald Reagan

 1952-1957 Walter Pidgeon
 1957-1958 Leon Ames
 1958-1959 Howard Keel
 1959-1960 Ronald Reagan
 1960-1963 George Chandler
 1963-1965 Dana Andrews
 1965-1971 Charlton Heston
 1971-1973 John Gavin
 1973-1975 Dennis Weaver

 1975-1979 Kathleen Nolan
 1979-1981 William Schallert
 1981-1985 Edward Asner
 1985-1988 Patty Duke
 1988-1995 Barry Gordon
 1995-1999 Richard Masur
 1999-2001 William Daniels
 2001-2005 Melissa Gilbert
 2005-2009 Alan Rosenberg
 2009–2012 Ken Howard
Later merged as SAG-AFTRA

References
References

Other websites 
 Screen Actors Guild official site
 Screen Actors Guild Foundation official site
 Actor Rates 2005-2007
 SAGIndie, the Independent Producers Outreach Program of the Screen Actors Guild
 Screen Actors Guild Awards website
 Hollywood Is a Union Town, published in The Nation, April 2, 1938
 SCREEN ACTORS GUILD ANNOUNCES REFERENDUM BALLOT DATES
 SAG background actors pay calculator 

1933 establishments in the United States
2012 disestablishments in the United States
Trade unions in the United States
Los Angeles
1930s establishments in California
A Screen Actors Guild Award is an award given by the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) to recognize outstanding performances by its members. The statuette given, a nude male figure holding both a mask of comedy and a mask of tragedy, is called "The Actor". It is 16 inches tall, weighs over 12 pounds, cast in solid bronze, and produced by the American Fine Arts Foundry in Burbank, California.

SAG Awards have been one of the major awards events in Hollywood since 1995. Nominations for the awards come from 4200 randomly selected members of the union, with the full membership (120,000 as of 2007) available to vote for the winners.  The awards have been televised for the past several years on TNT, but now also airs on TBS.

The first SAG Awards aired live on February 25, 1995 from Stage 12, Universal Studios. The second SAG awards aired live from the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium, while later awards have been held at the Shrine Exposition Center. Bob Hope was given the first award.

Awards
Awards

Film awards 
 Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture
 Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role

Television awards 
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries
 Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series
 Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series
 Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series
Life Achievement Awards 
 Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award

References

Other websites 
SAG Awards official site

1995 establishments
Entertainment awards
Movie awards
Machair or machar is a Gàidhlig (Scottish Gaelic) word used to describe a fertile low-lying grassy plain found on some of the north-west coastlines of Ireland and Scotland, in particular the Outer Hebrides. There are machairs in the Isle of Skye, The Isle of Barra, the Isle of Harris and all throughout the west coast and islands.

References 
 Angus, S. (1997). ''The Outer Hebrides: the Shaping of the Islands". The White Horse Press. 

Grasslands
Geography of Ireland
Geography of Scotland
Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück (September 4, 1906 – March 9, 1981) was a German-American biophysicist and Nobel laureate.

Delbrück was one of the most influential people in the movement of physical scientists into biology during the 20th century.

Delbrück's big idea was to explore genetics by means of the bacteriophage viruses which infect bacteria. This was important in the early development of molecular biology.

Biography
Delbrück was born in Berlin, German Empire. Trained as a physicist, he got his Ph.D. in 1930. he traveled through England, Denmark, and Switzerland. He met Wolfgang Pauli and Niels Bohr, who got him interested in biology.

In 1937, he moved to the United States to pursue his interests in biology, taking up research in the Biology Division at Caltech on genetics of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.  While at Caltech Delbrück became acquainted with bacteria and their viruses (bacteriophage or 'phage').
Delbrück remained in the US during World War II, teaching physics at Vanderbilt University in Nashville while pursuing his genetic research.  In 1942, he and Salvador Luria of Indiana University demonstrated that bacterial resistance to virus infection is caused by random mutation and not adaptive change. This research, known as the Luria-Delbrück experiment, was also significant for its use of mathematics to make quantitative predictions for the results to be expected from alternative models. For that work, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, sharing it with Alfred Hershey.

During the 1940s Delbrück developed a course in bacteriophage genetics at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory to encourage interest in the field. In 1947, Delbrück returned to Caltech as a professor of biology where he remained until 1977.

References
References 

1906 births
1981 deaths
American molecular biologists
American Nobel Prize winners
American biophysicists
California Institute of Technology faculty
German biologists
German Nobel Prize winners
German physicists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Scientists from Berlin
Educators from California
Scientists from California
Salvador Edward Luria (Turin, Italy, August 13, 1912 – Lexington, Massachusetts, February 6, 1991) was an Italian microbiologist.

He won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his pioneering work with Max Delbrück and Alfred Hershey on phages in molecular biology.

Biography
Luria was born Salvatore Edoardo Luria in Turin, Italy to an influential Italian Sephardic Jewish family. He attended the medical school at the  University of Turin. There, he met two other future Nobel laureates: Rita Levi-Montalcini and Renato Dulbecco.

In Rome, he was introduced to Max Delbrück's theories on the gene as a molecule and began to formulate methods for testing genetic theory with bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect bacteria.

In 1938, he received a fellowship to study in the United States, where he intended to work with Delbrück. Soon after Luria received the award Benito Mussolini's fascist regime banned Jews from academic research fellowships.
Without funding sources for work in the U.S. or Italy, Luria left his home country for Paris, France in 1938. As the Nazi German armies invaded France in 1940, Luria fled on bicycle to Marseilles where he received an immigration visa to the United States.

Phage research
Luria arrived in New York City on September 12, 1940 and soon changed his first and middle names. With the help of physicist Enrico Fermi, whom he knew from his time at the University of Rome, Luria received a fellowship at Columbia University. He soon met Delbrück and Hershey, and they collaborated on experiments at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and in Delbrück's lab at Vanderbilt University.
His famous experiment with Delbrück in 1943, known as the Luria-Delbrück experiment, demonstrated that inheritance in bacteria follows Darwinian rather than Lamarckian principles and that mutant genes occurring randomly can still give viral resistance without the virus being present. The idea that natural selection affects bacteria has profound consequences, for example, it explains how bacteria develop antibiotic resistance.

From 1943 to 1950, he worked at Indiana University, Bloomington. His first graduate student was James D. Watson, who went on to discover the structure of DNA with Francis Crick. In January 1947, Luria became a naturalized citizen of the United States.
In 1950, Luria moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. While investigating how a culture of E. coli was able to stop the production of phages, Luria discovered that specific bacterial strains produce enzymes that cut DNA at certain sequences. These enzymes became known as restriction enzymes and developed into one of the main molecular tools in molecular biology.

References 

1912 births
1991 deaths
American activists
American biologists
American Nobel Prize winners
Italian Jews
Italian biologists
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Microbiologists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners
People from Turin
Italian Nobel Prize winners
The Maya calendar is a system of calendars and almanacs used in the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and in some modern Maya communities in highland Guatemala.

It shares many aspects with calendars employed by other earlier Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Zapotec and Olmec, and contemporary or later ones such as the Mixtec and Aztec calendars. Although the Mesoamerican calendar did not originate with the Maya, their subsequent extensions and refinements of it were the most sophisticated. Along with those of the Aztecs, the Maya calendars are the best-documented and most completely understood.

Types 
There are three main Maya calendars: the 260 day ritual calendar called Tzolk'in, the 365 day Haab''', and the Long Count''. Approximately 52 years pass before the Haab and Tzolkin calendars converge and are back in the same alignment. This is called the Calendar round. The Tzolk'in is still in use today by the Ixil, Kek'chi and Quiche peoples of the Guatemalan highlands.
Here is an example of a Maya calendar date: 12.18.16.2.6, 3 Cimi 4 Zotz. The “12.18.16.2.6” is the Long Count. Going from right to left, the units are: kin (1 day), uinal (20 kin = 20 days), tun (18 uinal = 360 days), katun (20 tun = approximately 20 years), baktun (20 katun  =394 years). The Long Count was used to track periods of time longer than the 52 years of the Calendar Round. The mythical starting date of the current creation was August 11, 3114 BCE (Gregorian). “3 Cimi” is the Tzolkin date. The Tzolkin date is a combination of thirteen days numbered one-thirteen and twenty day-names. “4 Zotz” is the Haab' date. The Haab' year contains 18 months (each named) with 20 days each. The number before the word is the day of that month. The Maya then added five days to the calendar after the last month, Cumku, ends, in order to make the year 365 days long. Those five days, called "Uayeb," were considered to be unlucky.
A common conspiracy theory myth about the Maya calendar was that it predicted that the world would end on December 21, 2012. This belief was mistaken. According to the Maya, there were three previous worlds. The first began with “the creation of the Earth, and it had upon it vegetation and living beings. Unfortunately, because they lacked speech, the birds and animals were unable to pay homage to the gods and were destroyed. In the second and third Ages the gods created humans of mud and then wood, but these also failed to please and were wiped out. The "zero date" 13.0.0.0.0 on the Long Count was when, according to the Maya, the third world ended and the fourth one, the current world, began. Another 13.0.0.0.0 would occur on December 21, 2012. There is no evidence that the Long Count would end on 13.0.0.0.0 or that the Maya believed that this would be the date of the apocalypse
. Still, a variety of popular books and movies have contributed to the publicity surrounding the Maya calendar's supposed prediction of the end of the world in 2012. Some believershave taken advantage of this publicity to sell guides to surviving the apocalypse.
References

Other websites 

 Maya Cycles of Time  at Convergence 
 Maya Calendar and Links on diagnosis2012.co.uk
 Interactive Maya Calendars 
  1897 text by Cyrus Thomas
 Maya Calendar, Date conversions, contemporary year version, Tzolkin and Haab day in Calendar Rounds 
 Daily Aztec Calendar Also does Maya long count dates.

Astronomy
Astrology
 
Calendars
In the early 14th century, the Mexica people were a wandering tribe  looking for a permanent settlement in modern day central Mexico. They survived by hunting and gathering and were often hired to fight as mercenaries for the city-states scattered throughout the region. According to legend, their god, Huitzilopochtli, told them to establish a city of their own at a site where they would find an eagle eating a snake on top of a cactus. The legend relates that the people saw the eagle on a small, swampy island in the middle of the shallow Texcoco lake. The Mexica invented a resourceful system of gardening, called chinampas, which allowed them to grow small gardens, eventually drying out the lake. In 1325, they completed construction of a city there. That city, which they called Tenochtitlan, became the capital of the Aztec Empire, which dominated central Mexico until its destruction by Spanish Conquistadores led by Hernando Cortes.
After winning its independence from Spain in 1810, the newly created nation of Mexico–whose capital was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan–adopted the symbol of the eagle and the snake to commemorate its Aztec heritage. The symbol can be found at the center of the Mexican flag.

References

 http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/45177.html
 http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/articles/article/Mexico/Mexican-Flag-Symbol/1074 
National symbols of Mexico
National coats of arms
San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan started out as an agricultural and population center for the Olmec civilization, which inhabited a region of what is today southeastern Mexico. The Olmecs emerged as early as 1500 BC as the earliest complex society in the Americas. San Lorenzo is best known as the first city established in the Americas.

The main reason San Lorenzo flourished at such an early period is its location within the Coatzacoalcos flood plain, which provided fertile land for farming. Thus, the settlement of San Lorenzo follows the pattern of settlement of the world’s very first urban centers, which emerged in the fertile river valleys of Mesopotamia. Because of the high farming value of the surrounding land, San Lorenzo ranked as the Olmecs’ most populous settlement from 1200-900 BC. During that period, San Lorenzo had the biggest trade market in all of the Olmec Heartland.
For unknown reasons, many people migrated out of San Lorenzo in 800 BC to the nearby city of La Venta. However, San Lorenzo was repopulated in 600 BC, when it became a center for Olmec ritual sacrifices until the population faded away in 400 BC along with the Olmec civilization. Today, San Lorenzo remains a significant archaeological site because the artifacts found there–including the famous Colossal Heads and jade masks–shed some light on Olmec culture and its profound influence on later Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Aztec and Maya.

Settlements in Mexico
Terrace farming (also called step farming) is a method of farming that consists of different "steps" or terraces that were developed in various places around the world. The rice terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras are an example and are considered a World Heritage Site.

This method of farming uses "steps" that are built into the side of a mountain or hill. On each level, various crops are planted. When it rains, instead of washing away all of the nutrients in the soil, the nutrients are carried down to the next level. These steps prevent water from washing away the soil and plants. This system also allowed them to build aqueducts, which carried water to each level.

The idea was also independently developed by the Inca people. The Incas built their aqueduct system so well that it is still used today.

References 

Terrace Farming: A unique agricultural solution. Social Studies for Kids. Web. 11 Apr. 2011.

Other websites

Terrace Fields around the World

Agriculture
Sapa Inca was the  Inca emperor.  means "The Great Inca" or "The Only Inca" in Quechua, the Inca language. According to legend, the first Sapa Inca, Manco Cápac (c. 1200 CE- 1230) was the son of the sun god, Inti. Manco Cápac became Sapa Inca by founding the city of Cuzco after he was sent on a quest by a god to find a good location for a city and build one. He also united the tribes around Cuzco.

The position of Sapa Inca was hereditary, which means that it passed from father to son. The Sapa Inca was the sole and absolute ruler over the Incas. His word was law, and he was the supreme commander of the military. The Sapa Inca lived in great luxury with many wives, slaves, and riches. Another privilege that he had was that he was allowed to (and usually was prohibited for common people. When the Sapa Inca died he would be mummified.
The Inca Empire reached its height under Huayna Capac (1493–1527) when it stretched from modern-day Argentina to Ecuador, although Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471-1493) was responsible for expanding much of the empire to those borders. Tupac Yupanqui conquered the Kingdom of Chimor, the biggest rival to the Inca. He expanded the empire into modern-day Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Atahualpa was the last pre-conquest Sapa Inca. He was killed by the invading Spaniards in 1533 and after that, there were several Sapa Inca who was installed by the Spanish. The last person to hold the title was Tupac Amaru who was killed by the Spanish in 1572.

References
STS-1 was the first flight of the space shuttle. It launched on April 12, 1981 and landed on April 14. It was launched 20 years after the first manned space flight. The space shuttle used was Columbia. Space Shuttle Columbia orbited the Earth 37 times in this mission.

External tank

STS-1 was the first of two missions with a painted external tank. The paint was put to protect the external tank from ultraviolet light when it was standing on the launch pad. After STS-2, the paint was removed

Space Shuttle flights
1981 in the United States
April events
Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir (; born  1944) is the former President of Sudan. He came into power in 1989 and resigned in 2019 following massive anti-protests and a coup. In October 2004, Omar's government negotiated an end to the second Sudanese civil war, one of the longest-running and deadliest wars of the 20th century. However, there has been a violent conflict in Darfur that has resulted in a death toll between 200,000 and 400,000. During his presidency, there have been several violent struggles between the rebel groups such as the Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) in the form of warfare in the Darfur region. The civil war has resulted in over 2.5 million people being displaced, and the relations between Sudan and Chad are at a crisis.

References

Other websites

1944 births
Living people
Presidents of Sudan
Former dictators
Regression is a word used in psychology on defense mechanism. It means the act of reversing the ego into an earlier state which allows one to avoid dealing with impulses in a mature manner.

A common example of regression is “curling up into a ball” (also known as the fetal position) when stressed, ill, or wounded.

Psychology
Displacement is a word used in Freudian psychology for is an unconscious defence mechanism. Example: the mind redirects thoughts, emotions, desires from an object or person felt to be dangerous or unacceptable to an object or person felt to be safe or acceptable.

More generally, the substitute of one response by another, when the original response is blocked: displaced aggression.

References 

Psychology
Ego depletion is the idea that people get tired of making decisions because it is a neuro-chemical process that requires energy.

References 

Psychology
The central dogma of molecular biology is a phrase by Francis Crick, who proposed the double helix structure of DNA.
It means that information passes from DNA to proteins via RNA, but proteins cannot pass the information back to DNA.

Crick first wrote it in 1958, and repeated it in 1970.

The dogma is a framework for understanding the transfer of sequence information. 

There are 3 major classes of such biopolymers: DNA and RNA (both nucleic acids), and protein. There are 3×3 = 9 conceivable direct transfers of information that can occur between these. The dogma classes these into 3 groups of 3: 
3 general transfers (believed to occur normally in most cells), 
3 special transfers (known to occur, but only under specific conditions in case of some viruses or in a laboratory), and 
3 unknown transfers (believed never to occur).
The general transfers describe the normal flow of biological information: DNA can be copied to DNA (DNA replication),  DNA information can be copied into mRNA, (transcription), and proteins can be synthesized using the information in mRNA as a template (translation).
 
The dogma is a modern version of the Weismann barrier (after August Weismann). This is the principle that hereditary information moves only from genes to body cells, and never in reverse. Hereditary information moves only from germline cells to somatic cells.

References 

Molecular biology
Ubar is a ruined city in Oman. English adventurer Ranulph Fiennes discovered the city in 1992. According to Nicolas Clapp, this probably is the lost city Iram of the Pillars the Qu'ran talks about. 

Today, ruins are left, which can be reached in a four-wheel drive. Part of the area forms the ceiling to underground vaults, which have collapsed. These vaults hold water supplies for a nearby settlement, which houses a small museum.
Geography of Oman
Wavves (pronounced "waves") is an American noise pop band based out of San Diego, California. They formed in 2008, and are currently signed to Fat Possum Records.

Discography

Albums
Wavves (Woodsist, 2008)
Wavvves (Fat Possum, Bella Union, 2009)
King of the Beach (Fat Possum, August 2010)  US #168

Musical groups from San Diego, California
Daniel Catán Porteny (3 April 1949 in Mexico City - 9 April 2011 in Austin, Texas) was a Mexican opera composer of Jewish descent. He is best known for turning the Italian movie, Il Postino, into an opera. He was working at the University of Texas at Austin on a new opera based on the Frank Capra movie, Meet John Doe.

References

Other websites
Official Website of Daniel Catán
Official Facebook Page of Daniel Catán
G. Schirmer Inc. Daniel Catán's Music Publisher

1949 births
2011 deaths
20th-century composers
21st-century composers
Jewish musicians
Mexican entertainers
Mexican Jews
Musicians from Mexico City
James Richard "Rick" Perry (born March 4, 1950) is an American former politician. He was the 14th United States Secretary of Energy from March 2, 2017 through December 1, 2019. He was the Governor of Texas from 2000 to 2015. He is a Republican.  He became governor when George W. Bush became President, and has been elected three more times. Perry was the longest governor in the United States for 14 years.  

On December 13, 2016, then-President-elect Donald Trump nominated Perry to serve as United States Secretary of Energy during his administration. He was confirmed by the United States senate on March 2, 2017.

Early life
Perry was born in Haskell, Texas. His parents were Joseph Perry and Amelia Holt. He grew up in West Texas and studied at Texas A&M University. During his early years, he was a farmer and a pilot.
Early career
In 1984, Perry was elected to the Texas House of Representatives as a Democrat from district 64, which included his home county of Haskell. He served on the House Appropriations and Calendars committees during his three two-year terms in office. 

In 1990, as a newly Republican, Perry challenged Jim Hightower, the incumbent Democratic Agriculture Commissioner. Karl Rove was Perry’s campaign manager. Perry won the election.

In April 1993, Perry, while serving as Texas agriculture commissioner, expressed support for the effort to reform the nation's health care, describing it as "most commendable".

In 1994, Perry was reelected Agriculture Commissioner by a large margin.

In 1998, Perry chose not to seek a third term as Agriculture Commissioner, running instead for Lieutenant Governor to succeed the retiring Democrat Bob Bullock. He won the election.
Governor of Texas (2000-2015)
Perry assumed the office of governor on December 21, 2000, following the resignation of George W. Bush – who was preparing to become President of the United States. In the 2001 legislative session, Perry set a record for his use of the veto, rejecting 82 acts, more than
any other governor in any single legislative session in the history of the state since Reconstruction.
 He was elected again in 2002. In 2002, Perry described the Texas same-sex anti-sodomy law as "appropriate".

Perry's campaigns for lieutenant governor and governor focused on a tough stance on crime. He has supported block grants for crime programs. In 2007, Perry signed a law ending automatic arrest for cannabis possession.

Perry supports the death penalty. In June 2002, he vetoed a ban on the execution of mentally retarded inmates. As of September 18, 2014, there have been 278 executions since Perry first took office in December 2000.
Perry was re-elected in 2006 and in 2010. In 2014, Perry announced that he would not run for a fourth term.

Indictment
On August 15, 2014, Perry was indicted by a grand jury on felony charges for abuse of power. He was accused of threatening a Democratic District Attorney who had been convicted of drunk driving to resign by threatening to veto funding for state public corruption prosecutors. The indictment received some support and also wide criticism from all sides of the political parties, and editorial criticism from major US newspapers.

Presidential runs

2012 presidential campaign
Perry also ran for President of the United States in the 2012 Republican primaries.  He was one of the last candidates to enter the race.  He was a frontrunner for the nomination during the first month of his campaign, but he did not do well in many of the debates. On January 19, 2012, Perry withdrew his campaign and endorsed Newt Gingrich.

2016 presidential campaign
2018 Texas United States senate race
Perry has been mentioned as a possible challenger to U.S. Senator and fellow 2016 Republican presidential candidate Ted Cruz in 2018. Speculation about Cruz being challenged in the Republican primary arose during the 2016 Republican National Convention, when Cruz refused to endorse Donald Trump, the eventual Republican presidential nominee, whom Perry had endorsed after Cruz suspended his campaign. In a poll conducted from August 12 to 14 of that year by Public Policy Polling, Perry had a 46%-37% lead over Cruz. In November 2016, Perry declined to enter the senate race and endorsed Cruz in the elections.

United States Secretary of Energy (2017–2019)
On December 12, 2016, multiple sources reported that Perry is to be nominated by President-elect of the United States Trump to serve as Secretary of the United States Department of Energy. His nomination was approved by a 16-7 vote from the United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources on January 31, 2017.
On March 2, 2017, Perry was confirmed by the United States Senate in a 62-37 vote.

On October 17, 2019, Perry told Trump he would resign by the end of the year. He officially stepped down on December 1, 2019.

Trump–Ukraine controversy

A July 25, 2019 telephone call between Trump and Ukraine president Volodymyr Zelensky led in September to a whistleblower complaint and an impeachment inquiry against Trump. Two weeks after the inquiry was launched, Trump claimed in a conference call with Congressional Republican leaders that he had only made the telephone call at Perry's urging. Perry denied ever mentioning Joe Biden in his discussions with Trump or Ukrainian officials.

Personal life
Although Perry is a Methodist, he now attends an Evangelical "megachurch". He is also an Eagle Scout. Perry married Anita Thigpen in 1982. Together, they have two children.
Dancing with the Stars
On August 30, 2016, Perry was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 23 of Dancing with the Stars. He was partnered with professional dancer Emma Slater. Perry and Slater were eliminated on the third week of competition and finished in 12th place.

References

Other websites

 Official Website 
 2014 felony grand jury indictment 
 The Perry Trap at The Austin Chronicle
 Collected news and commentary at The Economist
 Collected news and commentary at Fox News
 Collected news and commentary  at the Houston Chronicle
 Collected news and commentary  at the Texas Monthly
 Collected news and commentary at The Texas Observer
 Collected news and commentary at The Texas Tribune
 The Perry Watch at The Dallas Morning News
 Rick Perry 2012  at the Fort Worth Star-Telegram
1950 births
Living people
American Evangelicals
American Methodists
Governors of Texas
2012 United States presidential candidates
2016 United States presidential candidates
United States Secretaries of Energy
Republican Party (United States) politicians
Lieutenant Governors of Texas
Jerral "Jerry" Wayne Jones (born October 13, 1942 in Los Angeles, California) is the owner and general manager of the Dallas Cowboys in the NFL.  He has owned the team since 1989.

1942 births
Living people
American billionaires
Sportspeople from Arkansas
Sportspeople from Los Angeles
Texas Motor Speedway is a racetrack in Fort Worth, Texas. It hosts two races a year in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. It first opened in 1996. Its layout is similar to the track layout of Atlanta Motor Speedway and Charlotte Motor Speedway (which used to be known as Lowe's Motor Speedway).

NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Statistics

NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Records
(As of 11/7/10)

* from minimum 10 starts.

NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Race Winners
An asterisk (*) indicates that the race was extended beyond the scheduled distance due to the green-white-checker finish rule

Other websites
Texas Motor Speedway Official Site
Texas Motor Speedway Page  on NASCAR.com

NASCAR tracks
Fort Worth, Texas
1996 establishments in the United States
1990s establishments in Texas
IndyCar Series tracks
Little Caesars is a pizza company in the United States. It is the 4th biggest pizza company in the United States. It was founded on May 8, 1959 in Garden City, Michigan by Mike Ilitch. It is a subsidiary of Ilitch Holdings, Inc.

References

Other websites
Official website

American restaurants
Companies based in Detroit
1959 establishments in the United States
1950s establishments in Michigan
Whataburger is a fast food restaurant that specifically makes hamburgers. It was founded in 1950 in the city of Corpus Christi, Texas. The restaurant chain was completely on portable stands until the first permanent store was built in 1961. Most Whataburger locations are open for all 24 hours in the day.

References

Other websites 

Official website

1950 establishments in the United States
American fast food restaurants
Companies based in Texas
Corpus Christi, Texas
1950s establishments in Texas
ESPN Monday Night Football is a television show about the NFL which is broadcast on the channel ESPN and is on every Monday during the NFL season. Monday Night Football's first run was on September 21, 1970. It is currently airing.

References 

1970s American television series
1980s American television series
1990s American television series
2000s American television series
2010s American television series
English-language television programs
The Human League is a British pop music band from Sheffield. The Human League has 3 members: Philip Oakey, Joanne Catherall, and Susan Ann Sulley. The band originally had 6 members. The other 3 members were Ian Burden, Jo Callis, and Philip Adrian Wright. They all left The Human League in the late 1980s.

The Human League started in 1977 and they had their greatest success during the 1980s. They continue to make new music today. Philip Oakey, the band's singer, is the only Human League member that has been with the band since it started. The other 2 members, Joanne Catherall and Susan Ann Sulley, joined The Human League in 1980.

The Human League has made 10 albums. Their newest album is called "Credo" and it was released in March 2011. Some of The Human League's hit songs are "Don't You Want Me", "Keep Feeling Fascination", "The Lebanon" and "Human".

Albums
Albums

Below is a list of all the albums by The Human League.
 Reproduction (1979)
 Travelogue (1980)
 Dare (1981)
 Fascination (1983)
 Hysteria (1984)
 Crash (1986)
 Romantic (1990)
 Octopus (1995)
 Secrets (2001)
 Credo (2011)

1977 establishments in the United Kingdom
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
Electronic music bands
English pop music groups
English rock bands
Musical groups established in 1977
Musical groups from Sheffield
New wave bands
20/20 is a television newsmagazine on ABC. It has been on ABC since June 6, 1978 and is currently airing. 20/20 is recently hosted by Chris Cuomo and Elizabeth Vargas, currently hosted by David Muir and Amy Robach.

Anchors
 Harold Hayes (1978)
 Robert Hughes (1978)
 Hugh Downs (1978–1999)
 Barbara Walters (1979–2004)
 Diane Sawyer (1998–2000)
 Charles Gibson (1998–2000)
 Sam Donaldson (1998–2000)
 Connie Chung (1998–2002)
 Jack Ford (2000–2001)
 John Miller (2002–2003)
 John Stossel (2003–2009)
 Elizabeth Vargas (2004–2018)
 Chris Cuomo (2009–2013)
 David Muir (since 2013)
 Amy Robach (since 2018)

Other websites
 Official ABC News website
 
 
 

2000s American television series
2010s American television series
English-language television programs
ABC network series
The Mesoamerican ball game is a sport that people in Mesoamerica have played since about 1,400 B.C.E.  It was the first team sport in history, as far as historians know.

The Olmecs, who lived from 1,200 B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E., played the Mesoamerican ballgame.  They may have created the game.  The ancient Mayans played the game; they called it pitz in Classical Maya.  Later, the Aztecs played it; in their language, Nahuatl, they called the game ōllamaliztli.

In some parts of Mexico, indigenous people still play a more modern version of the game, called ulama.  This means that people have played the Mesoamerican ballgame for over 3,400 years  longer than any other sport in history.  The Mesoamerican ballgame was also the first sport in history ever to use a rubber ball.
Rules 
The game's goal was to shoot a ball through a stone hoop about  wide. The ball, called an ulli, was made out of rubber.  It weighed about , about as much as a brick. The court, called a tlachtili, was around  long.  It had a wall on each side.  The stone hoops hung on these walls.

The court was usually in the shape of an “I,” although the shape was sometimes different.  A line ran down the center of the court.  From that line, the floor sloped to meet the walls.

The players were only allowed to use their heads, elbows, legs, and hips to hit the ball.  The ball was not allowed to touch the ground, so the players often dove to avoid losing points.  If one of the teams got the ball through the stone hoop, the game was over and that team won.  However, this was very hard to do, since the stone hoops could be as high as  off the ground. Since getting the ball through the hoop was uncommon, a team could also score points by hitting one of six markers alongside the edges of the court.
Gambling 
Gambling played a large part in the culture surrounding the ballgame.  People could bet nearly anything on which team would win the game.  Some ancient people bet things like beautiful feathers. Others bet children or even their own lives. The losers sometimes sold themselves into slavery just so they could pay off their debt.

Sometimes, city-states would play the game instead of going to war with each other.  The city-state whose team won the game would rule over the losing city-state.  Winning or losing a game could turn into an excuse to start an attack or try an assassination.p. 97

Religious importance 
The Mesoamerican ballgame also held a very important religious meaning. In Aztec culture, for example, the game was meant to represent the combat that happened every day on the "ball court" in the underworld, where the sun fought with the night to get across.p. 173
The game's religious meaning was linked to the Mayan and Aztec practices of human sacrifice.  Sometimes, the Mayans would make prisoners of war play the game, and would sacrifice them if they lost.  However, Mayan art suggests that Mayan ballplayers, maybe team captains, were sacrificed too.

The Aztecs also sacrificed losing teams (or, according to some historians, winning teams) after some games.  The ancient Aztecs believed that without human sacrifice, the sun would stop and the earth would be plunged into darkness.  Sometimes, ancient Aztecs would decorate the ball court with the skulls of people who had been sacrificed.  The ball itself was a symbol of a sacrificed person's head.  Sometimes, the actual head or skull of a sacrificed person was used as a ball in the game.

Modern version 
In modern times, the Aztec ballgame changed into ulama.  People still play this game in a few communities in the Mexican state of Sinaloa.
Ulama uses temporary courts, made by drawing thick lines in the dirt. There are three different ways to play ulama. In the different versions of the game, players may use their hips, forearms, or paddles to hit the ball.

References

Games
Mesoamerica
Sport in Mexico
"Hit the Road Jack" is a rhythm and blues song from the 1960s.

History
Percy Mayfield wrote and sang "Hit the Road, Jack" in 1960. 

Ray Charles made the song famous. Ray Charles's song was number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in fall of 1961. 

The song is ranked #377 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.

Lyrics
The chorus of the song is:
Hit the road, Jack, and don't you come back no more, no more, no more, no more.
Hit the road, Jack, and don't you come back no more.

The words of this song are not standard English. In standard English, the words could be "Hit the road, Jack, and don't come back again" or "Hit the road, Jack, and don't come back anymore"

In this context, "hit the road" is an idiom meaning "get lost," as the following words indicate.
Recording Details
For the most popular recording
 Title: "Hit the Road Jack"
 Artist: Single by Ray Charles
 B-side: "The Danger Zone"
 Released: September 1961
 Format: 7", 45rpm
 Genre: R&B
 Length: 2:00
 Label: ABC
 Writer(s): Percy Mayfield

1961 songs
R&B songs
Olaf Scholz (; born ) is a German politician, and has been Chancellor of Germany since 8 December 2021. He was First Mayor of Hamburg from 7 March 2011 to 13 March 2018. From 2018 until 2021, Scholz was the Vice Chancellor of Germany and Federal Minister of Finance during the Angela Merkel cabinet.

Early life
Scholz was born on June 14, 1958, in Osnabrück, Lower Saxony, but grew up Hamburg's Rahlstedt district. He began studying law at the University of Hamburg in 1978 as part of a one-stage legal training course.

Hamburg and national politics
From May to October 2001, he was Minister of the Interior (Innensenator) of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg and from 2002 to 2004 he was general secretary of the SPD.

In 2005 Scholz was elected a member of the sixteenth Bundestag, and succeeded Franz Müntefering as Minister of Labour and Social Affairs, when the latter left office in 2007.

In 2010, Scholz took part in the annual Bilderberg Meeting in Sitges, Catalonia, Spain.
On 20 February 2011, the Social Democrats led by Scholz won the Hamburg state election, 2011 with 48.3% of the votes, resulting in 62 out of 121 seats in the Hamburg Parliament.  Scholz resigned as a member of the seventeenth Bundestag on 11 March 2011 shortly after his election as First Mayor.

Merkel cabinet
After the 2017 federal election, the CDU, CSU and SPD agreed to continue a coalition, Scholz was accepted by all parties as Federal Minister of Finance. Scholz was sworn in alongside the rest of the Government on 14 March 2018. He also took the role of Vice-Chancellor of Germany under Angela Merkel. Within his first months in office, Scholz became one of Germany's most popular politicians, reaching an approval rating of 50 percent.

Chancellor of Germany

2021 federal election
On August 10, 2020, the SPD party executive nominated him as its chancellor candidate for the 2021 federal election in Germany. Scholz led the SPD to a narrow victory in the election, winning 25.8% of the vote and 206 seats in the Bundestag.

On 8 December 2021, Scholz was elected and sworn-in as Chancellor by the Bundestag with 395 votes in favour and 303 against. At  of age, Scholz is the oldest person to become Chancellor of Germany since Ludwig Erhard who was  old when he assumed office on 17 October 1963.

Tenure
During his campaign in the 2021 election, Scholz was against forcing a COVID-19 vaccine mandate. However, since the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant began to rise in late November 2021, he supported a vaccine mandate, including closure of non-essential retail stores to unvaccinated adults and a vaccine mandate for adults.

Personal life
Scholz is married to SPD politician Britta Ernst since 1998. The couple live in Potsdam since 2018.

References
References

1958 births
Living people
members of the German Bundestag
Government ministers of Germany
Mayors of Hamburg
Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany
Vice Chancellors of Germany
Chancellors of Germany
Current national leaders
Ian Fraser "Lemmy" Kilmister (24 December 1945 – 28 December 2015), commonly known by Lemmy, was a British musician, singer-songwriter and actor. He was best known as the bassist of the heavy metal band Motörhead.

Early years 
Lemmy was born in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, England. He went to school at Ysgol Syr Thomas Jones in Amlwch, Wales. At age 16 he attended a concert by The Beatles in the Cavern Club. Lemmy liked the sarcastic attitude of the Beatles, especially John Lennon. Around that time he began playing guitar in small local bands like The Sundowners.
In mid-1960, he played guitar in bands like The Rainmakers, then The Motown Sect, playing clubs in the north. In 1965, he joined the band The Rockin 'Vickers, and signed a contract with CBS. The band released three single albums and toured Europe. In 1967, he moved to London and got a job as a roadie on The Jimi Hendrix Experience. In 1968, he recorded an album titled Escalator with the band Sam Gopal. After that, Lemmy met Simon King in a shopping center in Chelsea and then joined the band Opal Butterfly for a short period.

Lemmy joined the Ladbroke Grove rock band Hawkwind as a bassist and vocalist. He gained experience as a bassist, because until then he had only worked as a guitarist. Lemmy was also lead vocals on several songs for the band.
Motörhead 
In 1975, Lemmy founded a new band called Bastard with guitarist Larry Wallis and Lucas Fox on drums. Later, Lemmy changed the name of the band to Motörhead. Wallis and Fox left the band and were replaced by the guitarist Eddie Clarke and drummer Phil "Philthy Animal" Taylor. This new formation would begin Motörhead's success in live performances. In 1977, the band recorded their first album, Motörhead, released 24 September 1977. The second album, titled Overkill, contained two songs that would become Motörhead classics: "Louie Louie" and "Overkill". The peak of the band was 1980 and 1981 with a series of chart hits in the UK, including the classic single "Ace of Spades", one of the biggest hits of the band. 

Motörhead's members changed throughout the band's career, but Lemmy remained on bass and vocals from their start 1975 until his death in December 2015.
Acting career 
Lemmy's career as an actor began by playing small roles in low-budget UK films Eat the Rich (1988) and Hardware (1990). His credits include Terror Firmer (1998), Frezno Smooth (1999), and Citizen Toxie: The Toxic Avenger IV (2000).

Death 
On 28 December 2015, Lemmy died of prostate cancer, cardiac arrhythmia and congestive heart failure at his home in Los Angeles, California at the age of 70.

References

Other websites 

 Motörhead official website
 Lemmy: The Movie Official website 
 
Interview with Lemmy Kilmister in REVOLUTIONART Magazine 22
 The Rockin' Vickers 
 Myspace profile for Lemmy's new band The Head Cat
 Lemmy interview with BIZARRE magazine 
 Gallery of Lemmy with Motorhead 
Lemmy Interview  in SPIN
 Lemmy Interview  on the Jekyll and Hyde Show, 106FM Jerusalem
1945 births
2015 deaths
British bass guitarists
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles
Deaths from congestive heart failure
Deaths from cardiac arrhythmia
Deaths from prostate cancer
English rock guitarists
English singer-songwriters
Musicians from Stoke-on-Trent
Carl-Friedrich Arp Ole Freiherr von Beust, generally called Ole von Beust, born 13 April 1955, in Hamburg, Germany, was Ole von Beust First Mayor of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg () from 31 October 2001 to 25 August 2010, serving as President of the Bundesrat from 1 November 2007 on for one year. He was followed as mayor by Christoph Ahlhaus.

Life and work
He is the son of Achim Helge Freiherr von Beust and Hanna, née Wolff, who was considered half Jewish in Nazi Germany. Through his father he is a descendant of Saxon and Austrian statesman Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust.