Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Broons is a comic strip in the Scottish newspaper The Sunday Post. It is about a Scottish family with 11 members.

The strip is written in Scots.

Family Members

Maw
Paw
Granpaw
Hen
Joe
Daphne
Maggie
Horace
The Twins
The Bairn

Comic strips
1936 establishments in Europe
Fictional families
20th-century establishments in Scotland
The Roman Republic was a phase in history of the Ancient Roman civilization. According to legend, the city of Rome was founded by Romulus in . It was a kingdom until 510 BC, when the last King, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was overthrown. Then began the Roman Republic.

The Roman Republic was a civilization that was ahead of its time and very advanced. The Roman people elected consuls, who ruled for about a year. Many of the ideas of the Roman Republic are still used today.

The Roman Republic got most of its wealth from trading and taxation. The Roman army was the strongest in Italy.  It was constantly battling the Gauls, who were later conquered by Caesar.  The Punic Wars against Carthage were fought all over the Mediterranean coasts, mainly because of disputes over Sicily and trade. The third enemy was the Germanic tribes or other barbarians (uncivilized people).
The Roman Republic suffered many disasters, including Spartacus (the leader of a slave revolt) who defeated one consul's army before he was captured. Also, Hannibal crossed the Alps and then defeated the Roman army at Cannae and many other battles, which saw Rome greatly fear being destroyed by Carthage.

The end of the Roman Republic is still a matter of dispute, and different scholars will give different dates for it. Usually, the dates of the start of either the First Triumvirate or the Second Triumvirate are given. The triumvirates were groups of three men who had much power.

The end of the Roman Republic is often said to be Gaius Julius Caesar's appointment as dictator (single ruler) by the Roman Senate. That happened after a series of civil wars lasting from about 49 BC to 44 BC.
Some people say the Roman Republic ended with the naval Battle of Actium between Marcus Antonius and Octavian. Both had been in the Second Triumvirate. The battle was fought on 2 September 31 BC in which Octavian won. Later, he was proclaimed Roman emperor. The end date could also be when Octavian was given the title of the first Augustus by the Senate, on 16 January 27 BC.

Those are modern views, however. In the view of the early emperors, the Res Publica (Republic, literally "Thing of the People") still existed but was simply "under their protection". They promised that some day that the Republic would restored to its original form. That never happened and so scholars divide the Roman Empire and the Roman Republic as two different and distinct periods in the history of Rome.

References

 
Former countries in Europe
Former republics
6th-century BC establishments
Caesar and Pompey started fighting. Caesar won at the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar became dictator in the year 44 BC.

Related pages
Second Triumvirate

Ancient Rome
60s BC
50s BC‎
The Second Triumvirate was an alliance between Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus. It was formed to punish the conspirators who assassinated Julius Caesar. 

The Triumvirate lasted from 43 BC to 33 BC. It ended the effort by Marcus Tullius Cicero to make the Senate once again the top body of the Republic. From then on Rome was ruled by an Emperor.

The Triumvirate army, led by Octavian and Mark Antony, defeated the Conspirators' army led by Cassius and Brutus.  The war ended with the Battle of Philippi in Roman Macedonia in 42 BC.  Cassius and Brutus committed suicide and the remainder of their army joined the Triumvirate forces.

References 

Roman Republic

de:Triumvirat#Das Zweite Triumvirat
ja:三頭政治#第二回三頭政治
Occam's razor (or Ockham's razor) is a principle from philosophy. Suppose an event has two possible explanations. The explanation that requires the fewest assumptions is usually correct. Another way of saying it is that the more assumptions you have to make, the more unlikely an explanation. Occam's razor applies especially in the philosophy of science, but also appears in everyday life.

History 
William of Ockham, a Franciscan friar who studied logic in the 14th century, first made this principle well known. In Latin it is sometimes called lex parsimoniae, or "the law of briefness". William of Ockham supposedly (see below) wrote it in Latin:

Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem.

This translates roughly:
More things should not be used than are necessary.
Plurality should not be posited without necessity
Further ideas 
A problem with Occam's razor is that the sentence is not really about things (entia = entities), but about explanations or hypotheses. Other thinkers have come up with other versions:
 "We consider it a good principle to explain the phenomena by the simplest hypothesis possible". Ptolemy. Not only is Ptolemy earlier than Occam, but Occam's supposed wording cannot be found in any of his existing works.
"We are to admit no more causes of natural things other than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. Therefore, to the same natural effects we must, so far as possible, assign the same causes". Isaac Newton.
"Whenever possible, substitute constructions out of known entities for inferences to unknown entities". Bertrand Russell.

In science, Occam's razor is used as an heuristic (general guiding rule or an observation) to guide scientists.
Examples 
Example: Two trees have fallen down during a windy night. Think about these two possible explanations:
 The wind has blown them down.
 Two meteorites have each taken one tree down and, after striking the trees, hit each other removing any trace of themselves.

Even though both are possible, several other unlikely things would also need to happen for the meteorites to have knocked the trees down, for example: they would have to hit each other and not leave any marks. In addition, meteorites are fairly rare. Since this second explanation needs several assumptions to all be true, it is probably the wrong answer. Occam's razor tells us the wind blew the trees down, because this is the simplest answer therefore probably the right one.
Example: A person is standing on the top of a roof and dropping a feather. In calculating how long it takes for the feather to reach the ground, to make the maths simpler, one might make an assumption: that the effect of air resistance can be ignored. This assumption makes the problem simpler, but is unlikely to lead to a good prediction as to the time it will take for the feather to fall. Thus, making the assumption that air resistance can be ignored is in this case not the "simplest" in concept, but the simplest in other respects (in this case, the maths). Not making the assumption here is the "simplest" in concept because it involves making fewer assumptions.

Occam's razor also comes up in medicine. When there are many explanations for symptoms, the simplest diagnosis is the one to test first. If a child has a runny nose, it probably has the common cold rather than a rare birth defect. Medical students are often told, "When you hear hoof beats, think horses, not zebras".
Related pages
 Common sense
 KISS (principle)
 Philosophy of science
 Rationalism
 Morgan's canon

References 

Philosophy of science
Metaphors
Rio Grande do Sul is a Brazilian state. It is in Southern Brazil. It has common borders with Uruguay to the south, and Argentina to the west. It has a very high standard of living. Its capital city is Porto Alegre. About 10 million people live in the state. The surface area of Rio Grande do Sul is about 282,000 square kilometres.

References
Turbofolk or Pop-folk is a style of music from the Balkans that was invented in the early 1990s.  It mostly comes from Greece, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, but it is also popular in other nearby countries.  It sounds like a mix of Arabic-style singing (in the Serbian language) with electronic music and rock music.

Turbofolk is sometimes associated with the recent Balkan wars and the Breakup of Yugoslavia but it is still popular.

Music genres
Bérurier Noir are a French punk band which formed in Paris in 1983. It is made up of Loran (guitar), François (vocals) and Dede (drum machine). In 1985 Masto joined, playing the saxophone. They sing about French politics and anarchism. They are one of the most famous French punk bands.

Discography
 1983: Macadam massacre
 1985: Concerto pour détraqués
 1987: Abracadaboum
 1989: Souvent fauché, toujours marteau
 1990: Viva Bertaga (Live 1989)
 1995: Carnaval des agités (Best Of/Live 1983-1989)
 1998: La bataille de Pali-Kao (Best Of 1983-1989)
 2003: Même pas mort (DVD+CD Best Of+News)
 2005: L'Opéra des Loups (DVD+CD Live 16 titles or DVD only)
 2006: Chant des Meutes (Live 13 titles)
 2006: Invisible

Other websites
  Official site
  http://www.fzm.fr/

French musical groups
Rock bands
Punk bands
Roman Britain (Britannia) was the part of Great Britain in the Roman Empire from AD 43 to 409 or 410.

History

The first invasion was led by Julius Caesar, in the days of the Roman Republic. He defeated the dominant Catuvellauni tribe in 54 BC near Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire. 

Their capital was taken over by the Romans. Trouble in Gaul (mainly modern France & Belgium) prevented Caesar from staying in Britain. The full conquest of Britain was delayed for almost a century.

In 43 AD, the Emperor Claudius sent an invasion force, led by Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator. He was given four legions, totalling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of helpers The legions were:

 Legio II Augusta
 Legio IX Hispana
 Legio XIV Gemina
 Legio XX Valeria Victrix

The II Augusta was commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. The other three legions were also led by high-ranking men.
The invasion was one of the most significant events in British history. After the revolt of Boudica there was usually peace and a process of full "romanization" started successfully in southeast Britain.

The Romans considered Britannia as a single territory and administratively they divided the huge island in five provinces: Britannia prima (capital London), Britannia secunda, Flavia Caesariensis, Maxima Caesariensis and Valentia. It seems that they have created also a sixth province -during Agricola conquest- in Caledonia, called Vespasiana.

Roman legions left in 410 AD after almost four centuries, and the administration of the country was taken over by prominent local chieftains. This was known as Sub-Roman Britain, with a Romano-British culture and the people may have used a Latin-based language. It lasted for more than two centuries but gave way to an increasingly Anglo-Saxon England by the start of the seventh century.

Technology
Technology 

Roman technology made its impact in road building and the construction of villas, forts and cities. During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads. They were used in later centuries, and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and sewage systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans.

There was no writing in Britain before the Romans. They introduced it and, when they left, writing only survived with the help of religion.

The British were skilled in the arts, and produced ornamental jewellery and pottery which was exported to Europe. They built defensive structures such as hill forts. They were proficient in warfare with spears, bows and arrows. Small round stones found in such sites indicate the use of slings or catapults.
To keep Roman control, forts and garrisons were built throughout Britain, and the existing roads improved. The local people had to maintain the  Roman roads in Britain, and got tax relief for their efforts.

Roman roads allowed for troop movements and the distribution of supplies.  The forts and garrisons needed food and other services. Vast areas produced these goods. For example, the often flooded Somerset levels was like a huge market garden that provided supplies for the garrisons at Exeter, Gloucester, Bath and the forts in between. Local fishermen supplied fresh fish, and farmers reared sheep, pigs, cattle and poultry for the garrisons.
Christianity 
Missionaries from Gaul began to introduce Christianity to the West country. Before the end of the first century AD they had a Church of Celtic Christianity. This spread such that by the mid second century much of Cornwall, Devon, Western Dorset, and South Somerset had adopted Christianity.  The spread of Christianity continued eastward and strongly northward into Wales through the next two centuries, especially after the adoption of Christianity by Rome. The Romans had built shrines and temples to their pagan gods and continued to patronize these, even after the adoption of Christianity by Rome.

References

Related pages 

 Roman Empire
 History of the United Kingdom
 Roman Wales
 Sub-Roman Britain

Places of Ancient Rome
History of the British Isles
1st-century establishments in Europe
5th-century disestablishments
990 was a common year.

Events 
 January 1 – Kievan Rus' adopts the Julian calendar.
 Construction of the Al-Hakim Mosque begins in Cairo.
 The Pax Ecclesiae, an edict by the church in southern France attempting to outlaw acts of war against non-combatants and the clergy, is promulgated.

Births 
 Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor (approximate)
 Edmund II of England, (approximate)
 Mieszko II of Poland, king of Poland from 1025 to 1031, duke from 1032 to 1034.
 Yorimichi, regent to the Japanese emperor from 1017 to 1020 and from 1020 to 1068.
Johannes Skotus, Bishop of Mecklenburg (approximate)

Deaths 
 Kaneie, regent to the Japanese emperor from 986 to 990.
 Al-Uqlidisi, Middle-East mathematician.
 Dunash ben Labrat
Events 
 April 22 – Pope Gregory VII (Cardinal Hildebrand) succeeds Pope Alexander II as the 155th pope.
 Emperor Shirakawa ascends the throne of Japan
 Rabbi Yitchaki Alfassi finishes writing the Rif, an important work of Jewish law.
 John IX bar Shushan ends term as Syrian Patriarch of Antioch
 Beginning of Sviatoslav II's reign as ruler of Kievan Rus
 Seljuk Turks conquer Ankara

Births 
 David the Builder, King of Georgia
 Margrave Leopold III of Austria

Deaths 
 April 21 – Pope Alexander II
 June 15 – Emperor Go-Sanjō of Japan (b. 1034)
 Zhou Dunyi – Neo-Confucian philosopher in Song Dynasty China

1073
Bixente Lizarazu (born 9 December 1969) is a former French football player. He is one of the most successful football players in the world. He won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and the European Football Championship in 2000. He has also won the UEFA Champions League (2001) and was champion of the Bundesliga (both with Bayern Munich) five times in a six-year period (1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005).

Lizarazu was born in Saint-Jean-de Luz, a small village in Basque region of France, in 1969. His first club was Eglantins Hendaje (1977-1989). He then went to Girondins Bordeaux (1989-1996). After playing for Bordeaux, he played for the Spanish club Athletic Bilbao (1996-1997) before he went to Bayern Munich (1997-2005). For a six months, he played for Olympique Marseille (2004). He ended his career in 2005.

Club career statistics
|-
|1988/89||rowspan="8"|Girondins Bordeaux||rowspan="8"|Division 1||16||0
|-
|1989/90||38||2
|-
|1990/91||35||2
|-
|1991/92||33||0
|-
|1992/93||35||4
|-
|1993/94||32||9
|-
|1994/95||32||2
|-
|1995/96||23||3

|-
|1996/97||Athletic Bilbao||La Liga||16||0

|-
|1997/98||rowspan="7"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="7"|Bundesliga||11||0
|-
|1998/99||18||2
|-
|1999/00||22||1
|-
|2000/01||15||0
|-
|2001/02||25||1
|-
|2002/03||26||3
|-
|2003/04||26||1

|-
|2004/05||Olympique Marseille||Ligue 1||14||0

|-
|2004/05||rowspan="2"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="2"|Bundesliga||13||0
|-
|2005/06||18||0
258||22
16||0
174||8
448||30
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1992||1||0
|-
|1993||6||0
|-
|1994||5||0
|-
|1995||5||1
|-
|1996||9||0
|-
|1997||4||0
|-
|1998||13||1
|-
|1999||6||0
|-
|2000||12||0
|-
|2001||10||0
|-
|2002||7||0
|-
|2003||12||0
|-
|2004||7||0
|-
!Total||97||2
|}

References

1969 births
Living people
Footballers from Nouvelle-Aquitaine
People from Pyrénées-Atlantiques
Shetland (or the Shetland Islands) is an archipelago, the furthest out part of Scotland in the United Kingdom.
 
The islands are between the Faroe Islands and the Orkney Islands. They are about 50 miles to the northeast of the Orkney Islands. They are about 100 islands in the group. People live on 16 of them.

The islands form part of the boundary between the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the North Sea to the east.

The largest islands of the group are Mainland, Yell, Unst, Fetlar, Whalsay, and Bressay. In general, the climate of the group is subarctic, and rather bleak. 
 
They used to be called Hjaltland or Zetland. Today, the islands are part of Scotland. The administrative centre is Lerwick.

The economy of the islands is largely based on agriculture. The sheep are known for their fine wool. Other well-known exports are the Shetland ponies and Shetland Sheepdog.

In 1969 crude oil was discovered near the islands, leading to an alternative source of income for them.

History

Scandinavian colonisation
By the end of the 9th century the Norsemen shifted from plundering to invasion, mainly due to the overpopulation of Scandinavia in comparison to resources and arable land available there.

Shetland was colonised by Norsemen in the 9th century. The fate of the native population is unknown. The colonisers established their laws and language. That language evolved into the West Nordic language Norn, which survived into the 19th century.

After Harald Finehair took control of all Norway, many of his opponents fled, some to Orkney and Shetland. From the Northern Isles they continued to raid Scotland and Norway, prompting Harald Hårfagre to raise a large fleet which he sailed to the islands. In about 875 he and his forces took control of Shetland and Orkney. Ragnvald, Earl of Møre received Orkney and Shetland as an earldom from the king as reparation for his son's being killed in battle in Scotland. Ragnvald gave the earldom to his brother Sigurd the Mighty.
Shetland was Christianised in the 10th century. In the Treaty of Perth in 1266 the Norwegian king surrendered his furthest British islands to Scotland. They included the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man. In return, the Scots recognised Norwegian sovereignty over Orkney and Shetland. The islands did not become Scottish until the 15th century, and were  ratified by an Act of Parliament in 1669.

Hanseatic League 
For three centuries the Shetlanders sold their fish (salted cod) through the German Hanseatic League, a trading organisation. This arrangement lasted from 1400 to 1700 AD.

World War II 
In WWII Shetland was active in covert operations against the Germans in Norway. The 'Shetland Bus' (fishing vessels) sailed in covert operations between Norway and Shetland. They carried intelligence agents, refugees, instructors for the resistance, and military supplies. Many people on the run from the Germans, and much important information on German activity in Norway, were brought back to the Allies this way.
Oil 
In the early 1970s, oil and gas were found off Shetland. The East Shetland Basin is one of the largest petroleum sedimentary basins in Europe. Sullom Voe terminal opened in 1978 and is the largest oil export harbour in the United Kingdom with a volume of 25 million tons per year.

Prehistory 
Firm geological evidence shows that at around 6100 BC a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit Shetland, as well as the rest of the east coast of Scotland, and may have washed over some of the Shetland Islands completely.

Shetland has been populated since at least 3400 BC. The early people subsisted on cattle-farming and agriculture. During the Bronze Age, around 2000 BC, the climate cooled and the population moved to the coast. During the Iron Age, many stone fortresses were erected, some ruins of which remain today.
Due to the practice of building in stone on the virtually tree-less islands, Shetland is extremely rich in physical remains of all these periods, though Shetland is less rich in material remains than Orkney.

The artifacts of all the eras of Shetland's past can be studied at the newly built (2007) Shetland Museum in Lerwick.

References 

 
Counties of Scotland
Scottish Council Areas
Archipelagos
A Salt evaporation pond (or saltern pond) is a man-made shallow pond. Usually it is located near the sea. The ponds can be filled with salt water. The water is then left to evaporate. The salt is left behind, and can be harvested. Such ponds also provide a habitat for several kinds of animals. Most of these animals are birds. 

The color tells how much salt there is left in the water. Green colors come from special algae. These algae are there in low to mid salinity ponds (ponds with little salt in the water). In middle to high salinity ponds, an alga called Dunaliella salina shifts the color to red. Millions of tiny brine shrimp create an orange cast in mid-salinity ponds. Other bacteria such as Stichococcus also contribute tints. These colors are especially interesting to airplane passengers or astronauts passing above due to their somewhat artistic formations of shape and color.

Other websites

NASA page on salt ponds 
Information on the San Francisco Bay salt ponds
Interactive satellite view
Geology
Ponds
Salinity is a scientific term. Scientists use it to tell how much salt there is in water. Salinity is measured by the amount of sodium chloride found in 1,000 grams of water, if there is 1 gram of sodium chloride in 1,000 grams of water solution it is 1 part per thousand. This is written as 1‰.

 Fresh water contains less than 0.1% of salt . This is the usual case for rivers and lakes.
 Brackish water contains between 0.1% and 3% of salt. This environment is usually found at estuaries where a river flows into the sea. 
 Saline water contains between 3% and 5% of salt (per volume). Usually, there is about 3.5% salt in the water of the oceans.
 Water that has more than 5% salt in it, is called brine. Some lakes and bodies of water have that much salt in them. The Dead Sea has about 15% salt (150‰) on the surface.

References 

Oceanography
Food preservation is about the ways and means which help to preserve food. Food spoils from bacteria if it is not treated.  For thousands of years, humans have used methods of preserving food, so that they can store food to eat later. The simplest methods of preserving food, such as drying strips of fish or meat in the hot sun have been used for thousands of years, and they are still used today by indigenous peoples. The other ancient method is to use salt, and often drying and salting are done together. 

Food is spoiled because microorganisms change it.  There are five basic techniques which make food last longer:
 Killing the microorganisms, or preventing them from multiplying
 Contact of microoganisms with food is prevented
 Certain additives prevent or slow the growth of microoganisms; this is often called curing
Usually several of the techniques are combined.

Methods of preserving food

Common ways of preserving food are:
Heating the food or baking it (a hard corn-flour biscuit stays edible much longer than a bowl of fresh corn)
Pasteurization: Louis Pasteur found that simply heating food kills most microorganisms and makes it last longer. Liquids such as milk are commonly pasteurized. However, the heating has to be done precisely according to a procedure
Converting the food into a longer-lasting form (for example, fresh goat's milk can be converted into cheese or yogurt, which lasts much longer than fresh milk)
Pickling: putting vegetables, meat, or fish in salty water (brine). Salting the food:  Covering it with dry salt
Putting the food in a jar with alcohol (ethanol) or vinegar, also called pickling
Putting large amounts of sugar into the food (for example, as with jam or fruit jarred in sugar and water)
Drying in the sun or in an oven
Smoking the food with the smoke from burning wood. Usually, this is done to food that was salted first.
Keeping the food cold or frozen, including freeze-drying
Multiple methods
Many common methods use several of these approaches at the same time. For example, pickles preserved in a jar are heated then put in a mixture of vinegar and brine. Fruit jams and jellies are heated and mixed with a large amount of sugar. Some preserved fruit is heated and then mixed with alcohol (for example, Brandy) and a large amount of sugar. Smoked hams are cured in brine and then exposed to the smoke from burning wood chips.
Clapham Junction railway station is a train station in Battersea in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is on St. John's Hill in the south west of Battersea.

The station

The services

All services to Waterloo and many services to Victoria and Croydon stations pass through the junction; these include South West Trains, Gatwick Express and Southern services. Services from Clapham Junction also head north along the West London line, through West Brompton and Kensington (Olympia), on to Willesden Junction and Watford Junction - services (to Willesden Junction) are operated by London Overground.
Typical off-peak service of about 110 trains (one train every 30 seconds) is:
 27 London Waterloo
 22 London Victoria
 1 Alton
 1 stopping to Basingstoke
 2 Brighton
 2 Caterham
 2 Chessington South
 1 Dorking (via Sutton)
 2 Dorking (via Wimbledon)
 1 East Croydon (via Norbury)
 2 East Grinstead
 1 Epsom Downs
 2 Epsom (via Hackbridge)
 1 Epsom (via Norbury)
 2 Guildford (via Cobham)
 2 Guildford (via Epsom)
 2 Hampton Court
 1 Haslemere
 1 Horsham
 1 Littlehampton and Eastbourne (divides at Haywards Heath)
 2 London Bridge
 2 London Waterloo (via Brentford, Hounslow and Richmond)
 2 London Waterloo (via Richmond, Hounslow and Brentford)
 2 London Waterloo (via Wimbledon, Kingston and Richmond)
 2 London Waterloo (via Richmond, Kingston and Wimbledon)
 1 Milton Keynes Central (via Kensington)
 1 Ore and Littlehampton (divides at Haywards Heath and Eastbourne)
 1 Poole
 1 Portsmouth Harbour (via Haslemere)
 1 Portsmouth Harbour and Bognor Regis (divides at Horsham)
 2 Reading
 2 Shepperton
2 Shepperton
 1 Southampton Central and Bognor Regis (divides at Horsham)
 2 Sutton (via Norbury)
 2 West Croydon (via Crystal Palace)
 2 Weybridge (via Brentford, Hounslow and Staines)
 1 Weymouth
 2 Willesden Junction
 2 Windsor & Eton Riverside
 2 stopping to Woking
 1 Yeovil Junction (some continue to Exeter and beyond)
The facilities
The station has 17 platforms, numbered 1 to 17, and arranged in two groups. Platform 1, the northernmost platform. The station's main entrance is from St. John's Hill, into a foot tunnel which is 15 ft (4.6 m) wide. It runs under the eastern end of the 17 platforms, and to a northern exit, which has restricted opening hours. The foot tunnel becomes very crowded during the morning and evening rush hours, and ticket barriers at the end of the tunnel are a particular pinch point.

A covered footbridge connects the platforms at their western end. The footbridge does not have an exit to or from the station.

The Junction
The station is named Clapham Junction because it is close to the joining point of a number of major rail lines—although the name is not shared by any junction near the station. The names of the nearby rail junctions are:
 Falcon Jn
 Ludgate GW Jn
 Latchmere Jns
 West London Jn
 Pouparts Jn

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Mirror of the Unofficial CJ Guide  (original site seems to have been removed)
 Short History of Clapham Junction  prepared by Wandsworth Council, and from which much of the information in the history section of this entry is sourced.
 BBC News report on the 1988 train collisions

London Overground stations
London Travelcard zone 2
Railway stations opened in 1863
Transport in the London Borough of Wandsworth
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a chemical. All living things make ATP to store energy and to move it to the cells that need it. 

Cells get all their energy from ATP. They break ATP molecules apart to use the stored energy. The harder a cell works, the more ATP it needs.

Use 
The ATP molecule is very versatile: it is used for many chemical reactions in the body. Energy is stored in its chemical bonds.

The energy that is stored can be used later. When ATP breaks a bond with a phosphate group and becomes ADP, energy is released. This is an exothermic reaction. 

The ATP phosphate exchange is a nearly never-ending cycle, stopping only when the cell dies.

Functions in cells 
ATP is the main energy source for most cellular functions. This includes the synthesis of macromolecules. It is used in DNA and RNA. ATP also helps macromolecules get across cell membranes.
DNA and RNA synthesis 
In all known organisms, DNA is made by the action of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) enzymes. These enzymes reduce the sugar residue from ribose to deoxyribose by removing oxygen.

ATP is one of the four nucleotides put RNA molecules by RNA polymerases. The energy driving this polymerization comes from cutting off two phosphate groups. The process is similar in DNA biosynthesis.
History 
 ATP was discovered in 1929 by Karl Lohmann and Jendrassik and, independently, by Cyrus Fiske and Yellapragada Subba Rao of Harvard Medical School. Both teams were competing against each other to find an assay (way of measuring) for phosphorus.
 ATP was proposed to be the intermediary between energy-yielding and energy-requiring reactions in cells by Fritz Albert Lipmann in 1941.
 ATP was first synthesized (created) in the laboratory by Alexander Todd in 1948.
 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997 was split, one half given to both Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the other half to Jens C. Skou for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+, K+ -ATPase.

References 

Cellular respiration
Organonitrogen compounds
Phosphates
Shrimp are crustaceans. Shrimp are mainly found in three groups: Caridea, Procarididea, and Dendrobranchiata. There are thousands of species, and usually there is a species adapted to any particular habitat. Any small crustacean which resembles a shrimp tends to be called one.

Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals that live close to the bottom. They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards. They have a high tolerance to toxins in polluted areas, and may contribute to high toxin levels in their predators. They play important roles in the food chain and are important food sources for larger animals from fish to whales.

Shrimp are related to prawns. In cooking, the criterion is often only the size of the animal (prawns are bigger). Biologically, prawns and shrimp can be told apart by the structure of their gills. In prawns, the gills are branching; in shrimp they are not.
Food 
Many shrimp species are caught to be eaten. Usually, the head and the digestive tract are removed before the shrimp is eaten. The muscular tails of shrimp can be eaten, and they are widely caught and farmed for human consumption.

Commercial shrimp species support an industry worth 50 billion dollars a year. In 2010 the total commercial production of shrimp was nearly 7 million tonnes. Shrimp farming took off during the 1980s, particularly in China, and by 2007 the harvest from shrimp farms exceeded the capture of wild shrimp. There is often pollution damage done to estuaries when they are used for shrimp farming.

References

Related pages 

 Prawn
 Krill

Decapods
Seafood
Dendrobranchiata is a suborder of decapod crustaceans, and contains shrimp and prawn.

Dendrobranchiata are commercially fished and are used for cooking. The difference between prawns and shrimp is usually that prawns are larger than shrimps. Prawns are crustaceans similar in appearance to shrimps, but they can be distinguished by the gill structure which branches out in prawns but not in shrimps. Prawns are also related to crabs and lobsters. Prawns have two pairs of antennae.

Prawns are found in calmer waters were the they can nest in water plants to lay their eggs. Like shrimps, prawns tend to prefer warmer waters in the tropics but some species of prawn are found in the Northern Hemisphere.

Prawns eat by filtering nutritious particles out of the water flowing around the prawn. Therefore, prawns are found near rocks or close to the sea floor.

Prawns are a common source of food for humans around the world, particularly in areas where the prawn exists naturally such as South-East Asia.

Decapods
Lee Redmond (born February 2, 1941) is a woman from the Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. She is famous for having the longest fingernails in the world.

She has not cut her fingernails since 1979. The combined length of her fingernails are 7 meters and 51 centimeters long (24 feet, 8 inches) . She has an active life despite of her long fingernails. Lee Redmond is in the Guinness Book of World Records in the category Longest Fingernails - Female.

On February 10, 2009, Lee was in a car crash, and was thrown out of the car. She was badly hurt and all her fingernails were broken off.

References

Other websites 
 Guinness World Records: Longest Fingernails - Female.

1941 births
Living people
People from Utah
World record holders
Martin Amis (25 August 1949 – 19 May 2023) was a Welsh novelist. His best known novels include Money (1984), London Fields (1989), Time's Arrow (1991) and The Information (1995).
 
Affected by several writers including his father Sir Kingsley Amis, Amis's style of writing has affected a generation of writers. His later work looked at moral and geopolitical issues, including The Holocaust, Communist Russia, and the September 11, 2001 attacks and Islamism.

Early life 
 
Amis was born in Swansea, South Wales. He was the middle of three children, with an older brother, Philip, and a younger sister, Sally. He went to many different schools in the 1950s and 1960s. The fame of his father's first novel Lucky Jim sent the Amises to Princeton, New Jersey, where his father lectured. Amis's parents, Hilly and Kingsley, divorced when he was twelve.
Amis graduated from Exeter College, Oxford. He graduated with a first-class degree in English. After Oxford, he got a job at The Times Literary Supplement. At age 27, he became literary editor of The New Statesman.

Early writing 

His first novel The Rachel Papers (1973) won the Somerset Maugham Award. It tells the story of a smart, self-centered teenager (which Amis says he based on himself) and his relationship with his girlfriend in the year before going to university.

Dead Babies (1975) has a typically 1960s plot. It has a house full of characters who abuse various substances. A movie version was made in 2000 which was unsuccessful.

Success (1977) told the story of two foster-brothers, Gregory Riding and Terry Service, and their good and bad luck. 

Other People: A Mystery Story (1981), about a young woman coming out of a coma.

Later career
Later career 

Money (subtitled A Suicide Note) is a first-person narrative by John Self. He was an advertising man who wanted to be a movie director. The book follows him as he flies back and forth across the Atlantic looking for success. The book was a huge success and is Amis's most highly regarded work.

London Fields is Amis's longest book. It show the encounters between three main characters in London in 1999, as a climate disaster draws near.

Time's Arrow is about a doctor who helped torture Jews during the Holocaust. It was written in the form of an autobiography. The story is unusual because time runs backwards during the entire novel.

The Experience is mainly about his relationship with his father, Kingsley Amis. He also writes about finding long-lost daughter, Delilah Seale and of how one of his cousins, 21-year-old Lucy Partington, became a victim of suspected serial killer Fred West.

He lived and wrote in London and Uruguay and was married to writer Isabel Fonseca, his second wife.
Other websites 
The Martin Amis Web 
Martin Amis - Author Page (Guardian Books)
Martin Amis interviewed by Ginny Dougary  (2006)

1949 births
2023 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
People educated at Westminster School, London 
People from Swansea
Welsh novelists
Writers from Glamorgan
Bao Xishun (also known as Xi Shun; born November 2, 1951) is in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's tallest living man. He is  tall. The last time he was measured was on January 15 of 2005. On August 7, 2007 Leonid Stadnyk was measuring and was found to be taller than him. In September 2005 he made his first trip outside of China to London to visit Guinness World Records.

Xi Shun served in the People's Republic of China army but got discharged because of rheumatism. He once saved some dolphins' lives by getting pieces of plastic from their stomachs that veterinarians could not reach. Radhouane Charbib was the tallest man by Guinness world records until Bao Xishun beat his record on 15 January 2005. That is where he was measured 2 millimetres taller in the Chifeng Hospital in China.

1951 births
Living people
People from Inner Mongolia
World record holders
Crabs are a form of decapods (having eight walking legs and two grasping claws), along with lobsters, crayfish and shrimps. Crabs form an order within the decapods, called the Brachyura. Their short body is covered by a thick exoskeleton.

They are an extremely successful group, found all over the world. They are basically heavily armored shell-breakers. Most crabs live in sea-water, but there are some who live in fresh water, and some who live on land. The smallest are the size of a pea; the largest (the Japanese spider crab) grows to a leg span of 4 metres. About 7,000 species are known.

Structure and life-style
Body 
Crabs have short tails. A crab's tail and  reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax. It is folded under its body, and may not be visible at all unless the crab is turned over. Usually they have a very hard exoskeleton. This means they are well protected against predators. Crabs are armed with a single pair of claws. Crabs can be found in all oceans. Some crabs also live in fresh water, or live completely on land.

Pincers 

The pincers (claws) of crabs are their most important weapons. They have at least three functions. The pincers' role in eating is to seize and subdue the prey. If the food is a shellfish (mollusc), then the pincers can exert force to open or break the mollusks shell. Pincers are also used in fighting between males, and for signalling to other crabs.

Food 
Crabs are omnivores, they eat almost anything they find. Often this is algae, but animal food is essential for its good health and development. They will eat molluscs, other crustaceans, worms, fungi and bacteria.
Crabs as food 
Crabs are prepared and eaten all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species just the claws and/or legs are eaten. In some regions spices improve the culinary experience. In Asia, Masala Crab and Chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the United States state of Maryland, blue crab is often eaten with Old Bay Seasoning.

For the British dish Cromer crab, the meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding a flour mix, creating a crab cake. Crabs are also used in bisque, a French soup.

Evolution 
True crabs appear in the fossil record in the Lower Jurassic. They are part of the 'Mesozoic marine revolution', in which a number of sea-floor predators evolved.
Tailpiece 
The closest relatives of the crabs are anomurans, a crustacean group which includes animals such as hermit crabs, king crabs and squat lobsters. They look a lot like crabs and many have the word 'crab' in their name, but are not true crabs. Anomurans can be told apart by the number of legs: crabs have eight legs, along with two claws or pincers, while the last pair of an anomuran's legs is hidden inside the shell, so that only six are visible.

References
Gran Colombia was a centralist country formed after New Granada declared independence in 1819, initially made up of New Granada and Venezuela. The rebels, led by Simon Bolivar, defeated the Spanish Empire but then fought among themselves. In 1831 Venezuela and Ecuador, being the eastern and southern part of the country, declared independence from Gran Colombia due to political differences. After that the remaining territory was of New Granada. Decades later, Panama also became independent from Colombia with help from the United States.

Sources

1821 establishments
1830s disestablishments
Former countries in South America
A nail is a hard part of the body at the tip of the fingers and toes, of which most people have ten. Toenails and fingernails are similar, except that toenails grow four times more slowly. Only certain mammals have nails: mostly, they are found in primates. They are made of the same kind of material (keratin) as the claws of other animals.

Like hair, nails never stop growing. They must be cut from time to time. It does not hurt when people cut their nails as they are not innervated.  The nails are made up of a protein called keratin which also makes up the main element of hair and skin. People paint their nails to make themselves look more attractive, usually females. On occasion nails can grow into the skin acting as a place of infection known as an ingrowing nail. They can hurt, so are often treated through medicine. The cutting and painting of the nails is called a manicure.

Functions 
The functions of nails are not obvious. They include:
Protecting the fingertip and the surrounding soft tissues from injuries. 
 Helping delicate movements of the fingertips by allowing counter-pressure on the pulp of the finger. The nail then acts as a counterforce when the end of the finger touches an object. This improves the sensitivity of the fingertip, even though there are no nerve endings in the nail itself. 
 The nail is a tool. For example, when a person pulls out a splinter in a finger. Also, it may be used for some cutting or scraping actions.
Fingernails are a part of the body often used for display in females.
Toenails are a part of the body often deemed ugly.

Related pages 
Nail art
Manicure
Body art
Cosmetics
Lipstick

References 

Limbs and extremities
Integumentary system
The Crustacea are a subphylum of arthropods with 67,000 described species. They are part of the phylum Arthropoda. Crustaceans include crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill and barnacles. They are relatives of insects. If the Arthropods are regarded as a superphylum, then the insects and crustacea would be phyla (see List of animal phyla). The group has an extensive fossil record, reaching back to the Cambrian.

Most crustaceans are aquatic, mostly marine. Some have moved onto land permanently. Crustaceans that live on land include some crabs, and woodlice. Crustacea range in size from a parasite 0.1mm long, to the  Japanese spider crab with a leg span of up to 14 ft (4.3 m) and a mass of 44 lb (20 kg). The North Atlantic lobster can weigh more than 40 pounds.
Most crustaceans are mobile, but some become sessile after their larval stage. Barnacles are crustacea which become attached to rocks on the sea shore. Some are parasitic, like  fish lice, and tongue worms. Crustacea usually have separate sexes, however some are hermaphroditic. Their eggs eventually hatch into larvae.

Crustaceans are a subphylum in the phylum Arthropoda, so they have a tough exoskeleton, a series of jointed appendages, and a segmented body. Crustaceans have three major body parts. They are, front to back: head, thorax, and abdomen. They have two pairs of antennae, and two eyes. The mouth has two mandibles. Most breathe with gills, although some land crabs have developed lungs. Lobsters and crabs have hard outer skeletons (exoskeleton), and tend to preserve well as fossils. As adults, they moult their shells as they grow in size.
Most large crustaceans crawl along the bottoms of streams, rivers, and the ocean, sometimes coming on land. Because they move along the ground under the water, they are called benthic creatures. Even though lobsters and shrimps can swim a bit, they usually walk along the bottom of the body of water in which they live.

More than 10 million tons of crustaceans are produced by fishery or farming for human consumption, most of it is shrimps and prawns. Krill and copepods are not as widely fished, but they have the greatest animal  biomass on the planet, and form a vital part of the food chain.
Growth and development 
All crustacea must replace their exoskeletons with new ones in order to grow.  They replace their exoskeletons by moulting. Moulting is controlled by hormones. A new exoskeleton is then secreted to replace the old one. While they wait for their new exoskeleton to harden it can be dangerous. They may be preyed on by larger predators and not be able to defend themselves. Most crustaceans moult many times between hatching and adulthood.

Respiratory pigments 
The main body cavity is an open circulatory system: blood is pumped into the haemocoel by a heart. Malacostraca have haemocyanin as the oxygen-carrying pigment, while copepods, ostracods, barnacles and branchiopods have haemoglobins. This indicates something very unusual: a phylum (or subphylum) with such a fundamental difference between the physiology of its member groups.

Larvae
Larvae 

Crustaceans have a number of larval forms. The earliest and most characteristic is the nauplius. In most groups, there are further larval stages, including the zoea (pl. zoeæ or zoeas). This name was given to it when naturalists believed it to be a separate species. It follows the nauplius stage, and often has spikes on its carapace. These may assist these small organisms in swimming. In many decapods, due to their accelerated development, the zoea is the first larval stage. In some cases, the zoea stage is followed by the mysis stage, and in others, by the megalopa stage, depending on the crustacean group involved.

References
An organism is called motile if it can move on its own. Most organisms are motile. Organisms that cannot move themselves are called sessile.

Physiology
Maria Montessori was an Italian educator and doctor. She was born on 31 August 1870 in Chiaravalle, Italy. 

Maria Montessori created the first Montessori school. It was a method of education which respected the natural development of the child. Its main feature was to allow as much independence as possible to the individual child. Another feature was to allow mixed ages in the same classroom. This was different from the formal classroom teaching used even for young children at the time. Maria Montessori started this method when she was in charge of a school for handicapped children. Maria Montessori also founded around 1907 in San Lorenzo, a slum area of Rome, the first Casa dei Bambini ("Children's House"). She died on May 6, 1952.

References 

1870 births
1952 deaths

Montessori, Maria
Italian physicians
Teachers
Jacob de Gheyn III is a famous painting.

It was painted by Rembrandt in 1632 and is the most stolen painting in the world. It has been stolen and recovered from galleries  at least four times, making it the world's most stolen painting.

Every time the painting has been recovered anonymously and as a consequence nobody was accused of the theft. This painting by Rembrandt is so well known that it would be difficult for a thief to take it again.
 
Jacob de Gheyn III, also known as Jacob III de Gheyn (1596–1641), was a Dutch Golden Age engraver, son of Jacob de Gheyn II, canon of Utrecht (city), and the subject of a 1632 oil painting by Rembrandt. The portrait is half of a pair of pendent portraits. The other piece is a portrait of de Gheyn's friend Maurits Huygens, wearing similar clothing (ruffs and black doublets) and facing the opposite direction
As legend goes, a man by the name of Marcus Smith V was found in a gallery sneaking and slowly making his way toward the painting with intent to steal it. The ghost of Jacob de Gheyn III sneaked up behind him and killed him. the legend is most likely untrue because Smith was with a lover that night and was actually poisoned the next night.

Paintings by Rembrandt van Rijn
1630s works