Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
was an old province of Japan in the area of Ehime Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. The province was sometimes called .  

Iyo had borders  with Awa, Sanuki, and Tosa Provinces. 

The ancient capital city of the province was near modern Imabari.

History

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Iyo Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Shrines and Temples
Ōyamazumi jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Iyo.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Ehime Prefecture
Much Ado about Nothing is a comedy by William Shakespeare. It is set in Messina, Sicily (which is in Italy) and is a comedy/love story about two pairs of lovers, Hero and Claudio and Benedick and Beatrice. This story is one of William Shakespeare's more popular plays. 

The villain in this story is called Don John and he convinces Claudio that Hero is cheating on him and then he refuses to marry her whilst Benedick and Beatrice are tricked into confessing their true love for each other.  In the end the Constable accidentally sorts everything out and everyone celebrates both marriages.

Don John (the villain) can't bear anyone else to be happy.  He is an illegitimate child meaning his upbringing has been rocky and he is insecure, leading to his selfish behaviour getting the better of him throughout the play.  

Plays by William Shakespeare
1590s plays
, or , was an old province of Japan in the area of Wakayama Prefecture and Mie Prefecture on the island of Honshū. 

Kii had borders with Ise, Izumi, Kawachi, Shima, and Yamato Provinces.

History

During the Edo period, the Kii branch of the Tokugawa clan held the castle at Wakayama.

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Kii Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Shrines and Temples
Hinokuma-Kunikakasu jinjū was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Kii.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Mie Prefecture
Wakayama Prefecture
AWA may be an acronym for:
 Amalgamated Wireless Australasia Limited (AWA), Australian manufacturer of radio and communications equipment
 AWA Tower, Sydney, Australia
 America West Airlines

Awa may mean:
 Awa, Tokushima, a town in Japan
 Awa District, Chiba, a modern geographical and administrative area in Japan
 Awa District, Tokushima, a modern geographical and administrative area in Japan
 Awa Province (Chiba), an historical geographical and administrative area in Japan
 Awa Province (Tokushima), an historical geographical and administrative area in Japan
Justus Liebig (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and worked on the organization of organic chemistry. 

Liebig was one of the greatest chemistry teachers of all time. 
At 21 he was appointed professor of chemistry at Giessen, recommended by Alexander von Humboldt. There he established the world's first major school of chemistry. He invented the chemical laboratory, and used it for teaching. He founded and edited the Annalen der Chemie, the leading German-language journal of chemistry.
Liebig invented new methods for the analysis of organic materials. He showed that, to grow, plants need (as well as water and sunlight) carbon dioxide, minerals and nitrogen compounds. He discovered that nitrogen was an essential plant nutrient, and invented the first nitrogen-based fertiliser. His Law of the Minimum stated that a plant's development is limited by the one essential mineral that is in the shortest supply. He described the effect of individual nutrients on crops. 

Where others thought that organic chemicals were entirely separate fron inorganic ones, Liebig thought diffferently:
"...the production of all organic substances no longer belongs just to the organism. It must be viewed as not only probable but as certain that we shall produce them in our laboratories. Sugar, salicin (aspirin), and morphine will be artificially produced". Liebig's textbooks were the standard for many years.

In 1835 he invented a process of silvering that greatly improved the quality of mirrors.
Liebig also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef cube.

Liebig's work was closely followed in Britain, and he was awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1840. His own country made him a Baron in 1845.

Related pages
List of science books#19th century

1803 births
1873 deaths
German academics
German biochemists
Scientists from Darmstadt
was an old province of Japan in the area of Chiba Prefecture on the island of Honshū.  It is also known as  or . 

The province was on the tip of the Boso Peninsula (房総半島).

History

Awa Province was created during the reign of Empress Genshō. 

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Awa Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Shrines and Temples
Awa jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Awa.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Chiba Prefecture
Spaceflight is when an object (or spacecraft) made by man flies into outer space. A spaceflight can occur with or without humans on board. 

The Russian Soyuz program, the American Space Shuttle and the International Space Station are examples of manned missions. (Manned means the spacecraft has humans on board.) On the other hand, examples of unmanned flights are space probes which fly into deeper space, and satellites which travel around and orbit the Earth or other planets. (Unmanned means the spacecraft does not have any people on board.) Space probes and satellites are both machines that work either by radio control from Earth or are fully automatic.
Spaceflight is used for space exploration such as manned missions to the Earth's moon or unmanned missions to other planets in the solar system. Spaceflight can also be used for tourism and satellite telecommunications. A spaceflight begins with a rocket launch, which provides enough energy to get out of Earth's atmosphere and to orbit the Earth. Once the rocket is in space, the activity of the rocket is watched and studied by scientists back on Earth. Some rockets may remain in space forever, some break apart when they re-enter Earth's atmosphere. Some spacecraft are made to land on other planets, and most manned spacecraft are made to land back on Earth, most of the time using a parachute to land safely. 
   
On October 3, 1942, a German V-2 missile crossed the Kármán line ( above the Earth) on October 3, 1942. This was the first spaceflight. The first man-made satellite to travel around Earth was the Russian Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957.
Some examples of manned spacecraft are Soyuz, Starship, Starliner, Gemini, Apollo, Crew Dragon, Mercury (It is both the name of a spacecraft and a planet), the Space Shuttle, and Orion. 

Unmanned spacecraft include communications satellites, space telescopes, space probes and planet rovers.
was an old province of Japan in the area of Kagawa Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. It was sometimes called .

The province had borders with Awa and Iyo Provinces.

History
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Sanuki Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Geography 
Sanuki faced the Seto Inland Sea.

Shrines and Temples
Tamura jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Sanuki.

Gallery

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Kagawa Prefecture
was an old province of Japan in the area of Kōchi Prefecture on the island of Shikoku.  It was sometimes called  .

The province had borders with Iyo and Awa Provinces.
 
The ancient capital city of the province was near modern Nankoku.

History
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Tosa Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Geography
Tosa faced the Pacific Ocean.

Shrines and Temples

Tosa jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Tosa.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Kōchi Prefecture
The NE555 is a common IC (or integrated circuit) introduced in 1972. It is used in timers. It is popular among hobbyists and can be found in many electronics stores that sell bare components, such as RadioShack.

Electronic components
Electronic circuits
A VGA connector is a type of computer plug. It is used to send analog video signal to an output device like a television screen or a computer monitor. Most VGA connectors have 15 pins; 3 rows of 5 pins. Some of them are a bit different, and have 18 pins; 3 rows of 6 pins.

21st century equipment more often uses digital plugs, mainly by High-Definition Multimedia Interface.

Electrical connectors
Computer hardware
A microbial cyst is a resting or dormant stage of a microorganism, usually a bacterium or a protist or rarely an invertebrate animal, that helps the organism to survive in unfavorable environmental conditions. It can be thought of as a state of suspended animation in which the metabolic processes of the cell are slowed down and the cell ceases all activities like feeding and locomotion. Encystment also helps the microbe to spread easily, from one host to another or to a better environment. When the encysted microbe reaches an environment good for its growth and survival, the cyst wall breaks down by a process known as excystation.

Unfavorable environmental conditions  trigger the making of a cyst. These include the lack of nutrients or oxygen, extreme temperatures, lack of moisture and presence of toxic chemicals, which are not good for the growth of the microbe.
Composition of the cyst wall
Different organisms have cyst walls made of different things. The cyst walls of bacteria are formed by the thickening of the normal cell wall with added peptidoglycan layers. The walls of protozoan cysts are made of chitin, a type of glycoprotein. Nematode cyst walls are made of chitin reinforced by collagen.

References

Microbiology
Content delivery describes the delivery of media content such as audio, video, computer software and video games over a delivery medium such as broadcasting or the Internet.

Content delivery has two parts:
 Delivery of finished content for online distribution, with its accompanying metadata
 Delivery of the end product to the consumer

Specialist networks known as content delivery networks have distribute digital content on the Internet. Alternative technologies for content delivery include peer-to-peer file sharing technologies. Content can only be delivered if it exists. If it does not exist, several techniques and methods can be used for content creation or content regeneration. Alternatively, content delivery platforms create and syndicate content remotely, acting like hosted content management systems.

Media

en:Content delivery
, also called Kitano Tenjin-jinja and Kitano Temmangū, is a Shinto shrine in Kamigyō-ku, Kyoto, Japan.

History
The shrine was built in 947, to appease the angry spirit of Sugawara no Michizane.  He had been wrongly sent into exile.

The shrine became the object of Imperial patronage during the early Heian period.  

The current buildings date from the early 17th century.

Timeline
 965 (Kōhō 2): Emperor Murakami ordered that Imperial messengers be sent to report important events to the guardian kami of Japan. These messenger, called heihaku, were initially presented to 16 shrines; 
 986 (Kanna 2):  Michizane was given the posthumous title of Tenjin (Heavenly Deity)
 991 (Shōryaku 2): Emperor Ichijō added three more shrines to Murakami's list — including Kitano.
 1444 (Bun'an 1, 4th month): Kitano Tenman-gū and much of western Kyoto was destroyed by fire.
From 1871 through 1946, the Kitano Tenman-gū was officially designated one of the , meaning that it stood in the second rank of government supported shrines.

References

Other websites 

 Kitano Tenman-gū Official web page  (In English)
 Kyoto Shimbun: Open-Air Tea Ceremony...  (in English)

10th-century establishments in Japan
947 establishments
Kanpei-chūsha
Kokushi Genzaisha
Twenty-Two Shrines
Tenjin faith
Shinto shrines in Kyoto
Tommy "Hurricane" Jackson (1931-1982) was an American boxer. He fought from 1951 until 1961. He had a total of 44 fights. His statistics were 34 wins (16 by knockout), 9 losses and 1 draw. He fought Floyd Patterson in June 1956 to see who would be the heavyweight champion after Rocky Marciano retired and gave up the title. Jackson lost in a 12-round split decision. He fought Patterson again in July 1957, when Patterson was the champion. Patterson beat him in 10 rounds when the referee ended the match.

Other websites
Photo 1 of Bob Baker vs Hurricane Jackson close fight
Photo 2 of Bob Baker vs Hurricane Jackson close fight
Story on Hurricane Jackson 

American boxers
1931 births
1982 deaths
Sportspeople from Georgia (U.S. state)
The Pentium F00F bug is a hardware bug (design flaw) found in most original Pentium computer processors (but not in Pentium II, III, or 4). The bug allows a malicious program running as an unprivileged (non-root) user to crash the computer by running the instructions (in hexadecimal) F00FC7C8. In assembly language, this represents "lock cmpxchg8b eax". If the system has crashed because of this bug, the only way to fix it is to reboot the computer, usually by unplugging it and plugging it back in. It does no permanent damage to the computer, but it may cause data loss. The bug was discovered in November 1997. Many operating systems made since 1997 have protection against this bug.

References

Computers
A locker is a small compartment that is used to store things such as books, coats, etc. They are commonly found in schools. They are usually locked with a padlock or a built-in lock. Usually there is an array of lockers. Each user has his/her own key (or combination) and can not open other people's lockers. There is sometimes a master key used only by the manager which can open all of the lockers. The typical maximum padlock shackle thickness is 5/16 inch (8 mm), and the typical door thickness is 0.8 mm. High-security lockers typically have a 10 mm or more maximum shackle thickness and a 1.2 mm door thickness.

Containers
Locks
A skeleton key (also master key or pass key) is a key that can open all of the locks in a set. 

For example, in an office building, each employee would have a key that only opens his/her office, and the manager or owner would have a key that opens all of the offices in that building. 

More complicated setups are also possible. For example, if there are cleaners in the office building, and each cleaner only cleans one floor, the cleaner for a each floor could have a sub-master key that opens only the offices on that floor, while each employee still has a key that opens only his/her office and the manager still has a key that opens all of the doors. The exterior doors might also be configured so that they can be opened by any employee key, cleaner key, or the manager's master key. The more complicated the setup, the more important it is to use locks that have a large number of key possibilities. Disc-detainer locks are especially suitable for master keying due to their large number of key possibilities.
A patent attorney is an attorney who has the specialized skills and training necessary for representing clients in obtaining patents and acting in all matters and procedures relating to patent law and practice. For example, the patent attorney can not only file an application for a new patent but he can also try to stop the patent office from giving the patent to somebody else. The term is used differently in different countries, and thus may or may not require the same legal qualifications as a general legal practitioner (i.e., a lawyer).

The titles patent agent and patent lawyer are also used in some jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions the terms are interchangeable. In other countries, a patent lawyer must also be qualified as a lawyer.

Regulation 
Each patent office regulates the people who make filings. Patent attorneys can do this, but the patent office will not accept filings from other attorneys.  Each patent office has its own rules about what a person has to do to become a patent attorney.
In Europe, requirements for practicing as patent attorney before national patent offices differ from those needed for practicing before the European Patent Office (EPO). On the national level, the requirements are not harmonized across the European Union, except that the EU makes sure that respective professional qualifications are mutually recognized to some degree.  In the United States, the patent attorney must pass a special examination to test his knowledge of patent office procedures. Some countries allow lawyers who are not citizens to practice.  Some countries will allow lawyers from a second country to make filings if the second country will do the same for lawyers from that first country.  Many times, a patent attorney from a foreign country will work with a local attorney to make sure that the patent application for that country is filed correctly and quickly.
Other websites
 Australia
 Patent & Trade Mark Attorneys  on IP Australia, the Australian Patent Office
 Australian Patent Attorney Directory , developed and maintained by the IDC (Industry Development Centre (Hunter) Ltd), a not-for-profit organisation established by the Australian Government
 Australian Patent Attorney Directory, free directory of patent attorney firms in Australia by capital city

 Europe
Institute of Professional Representatives before the European Patent Office or "European Patent Institute (epi)"
The Chartered Institute of Patent Attorneys (CIPA) - United Kingdom
Deutsche Patentanwaltskammer - German Chamber of Patent Attorneys, in German
APTMA - Irish Association of Patent & Trade Mark Attorneys
 Institut national de la propriété industrielle in French
 Compagnie nationale des Conseils en Propriété Industrielle in French
 Centre d'Études Internationales de la Propriété Industrielle in French
North America
USPTO database of patent attorneys and agents
USPTO Office of Enrollment and Discipline 

 New Zealand
 New Zealand patent office 
New Zealand patents 
New Zealand patent attorneys 

 Singapore
Intellectual Property Office of Singapore
Singapore Register of Patents 

 India
List of Registered Patent Agents in India as of April 2010 

Law occupations
was an old province of Japan in the area of Ōita Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū.  Along with Buzen Province, it was sometimes called . 

Bungo had borders with Buzen, Hyūga, Higo, Chikugo, and Chikuzen Provinces.

History
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  Maps of Japan and Bungo Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Shrines and temples

Sasamuta-jinja and Yusuhara Hachiman-gū were the chief Shinto shrines (ichinomiya) of Bungo.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan
 Bungo Seamount

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Ōita Prefecture
Aberystwyth (Mouth of the River Ystwyth) is a historic market town, administrative centre and holiday resort. It is in the area of Ceredigion in West of Wales. Locals call the area 'Aber'.

The people who live there mostly speak English, though many are also fluent in the Welsh language. It is a university town. The small town of over 13,000 grows by another 10,000 in term time when the students are there. The nearby suburb of Llanbadarn Fawr has another 3,400 people.

Transport
Aberystwyth has a train station at the western end of the Cambrian Line from Shrewsbury.

Sister cities
Aberystwyth is twinned with :
   Kronberg im Taunus, Germany, since 1997
   Saint-Brieuc, France, since 1973
   Esquel, Argentine Patagonia

Towns in Ceredigion
Transition Minimized Differential Signaling (or TMDS) is a standard that is used to transport uncompressed data to a digital device. The data transmitted is digital. By using a digital signal instead of an analogue signal, the impact of Electromagnetic interference on the signal is reduced. This mode of transmission is mainly used for audio and visual data.

TMDS uses 8b/10b encoding. The code set is different from the original, developed by IBM. Encoding is a two-stage process that uses XOR and XNOR gates.  Whether to use XOR or XNOR operation is selected, so that the number ofsignal transitions is minimal; this is where the name is from.

S/PDIF is a similar standard, used in consumer audio equipment.

Signalling
Hazel is a genus of trees and shrubs, in the birch family. There are 50 to 80 species, in four genera. They are native to the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.

References

Betulaceae
Trees
Shrubs
A maxi single is a CD single that contains more than two tracks. The first maxi-single was released during the 1970s. There are also cassette maxi singles that began in the 1990s.

References 

Music technology
A electric piano is a piano that makes sounds mechanically. The sounds are turned into electrical signals by pick ups. Electric pianos are usually seen in live performances in popular music.

Keyboard instruments
A refrain is a verse or group of verses that is repeated at intervals in a piece of music or poetry. In song, it is often called the chorus. The refrain is often very different to the verse in melody, rhythm and harmonics. It usually has a higher level of dynamics and activity, often with added instrumentation.

In music, a refrain has two parts: the lyrics of the song, and the melody. Sometimes refrains use slightly different words as they are repeated. Such lines are still able to be recognised as part of the refrain by the fact that it is always has the same tune or melody. The rhymes, if present, are also kept even if the words are sometimes different. In popular music, the chorus contrasts with the verse, which leads into it, while the bridge contrasts with and leads into both. Many popular songs from the middle of the 20th century consist only of a chorus.

The word comes from Vulgar Latin word refringere, and later from Old French refraindre, both of which mean "to repeat".

Related pages
Related pages 

 Repetition
 Verse-chorus form

References 

Song forms
Musical terminology
Willimantic, Connecticut is a census-designated place and former city. It is in the town of Windham, Windham County. About 18,149 people lived there at the 2020 census. Eastern Connecticut State University and the Windham Textile and History Museum are in Willimantic.

References

Census-designated places in Connecticut
County seats in Connecticut
Windham is a town in Windham County, Connecticut, United States. It contains the city of Willimantic and the villages of Windham Center,  North Windham, and South Windham. The city of Willimantic was made part of the town in 1983. The population was 24,428 at the 2020 census.

References

Towns in Connecticut
County seats in Connecticut
1692 establishments
17th-century establishments in Connecticut
1690s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Eastern Connecticut State University (ECSU) is a public liberal arts university. It is located in Willimantic, Connecticut. Eastern Connecticut State University is ranked in the top 100 regional universities in the North (of the United States) in the 2011 edition of the U.S. News and World Report list of Best Colleges. There are 5,671 students attending Eastern. The campus is suburban. The school's athletic department are called the "Warriors".

Colleges and universities in Connecticut
Windham County is a county in the northwest of the US state Connecticut.

Towns 

Windham
North Windham
South Windham
Willimantic
Ashford
Brooklyn
East Brooklyn
Canterbury
Chaplin
Eastford
Hampton
Killingly
Danielson
Plainfield
Central Village

Moosup
Plainfield Village
Wauregan
Pomfret
Putnam
Putnam District
Scotland
Sterling
Oneco
Thompson
North Grosvenordale
Quinebaug
Woodstock
South Woodstock

Connecticut counties
Ashford is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. The town had a population of 4,191 at the 2020 census. Ashford was founded in 1714. Eastford was a part of Ashford until 1848 or 1847. Eastford split into its own town. Ashford has the largest Boy scout camps in the US state of Connecticut.

References

Towns in Connecticut
1714 establishments
1710s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
18th-century establishments in Connecticut
The Jadeite Cabbage (), or Jadeite Cabbage with Insects, is a Chinese sculpture. It is a piece of jadeite carved into the shape of a Chinese cabbage head. It also has a locust and a katydid hiding in the leaves.

The work is part of the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan.

Description
The Jadeite Cabbage is a small sculpture. It measures only . It is  think. It is "hardly larger than a human hand".

Jade is translucent: it  lets light pass through the sculpture.  The combination of several colors in the jade  gives the leaves the various colors of a real cabbage.  The sculpture was made from one piece of half-white, half-green jadeite. The piece of jade has many imperfections. These include cracks and patches of different colors. These were used as the veins in the cabbage's stalks and leaves.

The sculpture is seen as a symbol of female virtue. The white stalk is a symbol of purity, the leaves show fertility and  the locust and katydid symbolize children.
History
The sculptor of the Jadeite Cabbage is not known.  It was first shown in the Forbidden City's Yonghe Palace. This is the home of the Qing Empire's Guangxu Emperor's Consort Jin. She likely got the sculpture as part of her dowry for her wedding to Guangxu in 1889. After the end of the Qing Empire in the Chinese Revolution of 1911, the sculpture became part of the collection of the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City.  The piece survived the Second Sino-Japanese War (World War II) and the Chinese Civil War. It was finally made a part of Taiwan's National Palace Museum.
Notability
The Jadeite Cabbage has been called the "most famous masterpiece" of the entire National Palace Museum. It is said the be one of the "Three Treasures of the National Palace Museum". The other two are the Meat-shaped Stone and the Mao Gong Ding. It was picked by the public as the most important item in the museum's entire collection.  people thought it was a bad thing in 2009 when it was learned that souvenir copies of the sculpture were being made in China and not in Taiwan. These copies were being sold at the museum.

References

Other websites
Jadeite Cabbage with Insects  at the National Palace Museum website
Leslie Hook. "The Jade Cabbage" Wall Street Journal. 27 July 2007.

Sculptures
Taiwan
19th-century works
Brooklyn is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. The population was 8,450 at the 2020 census. East Brooklyn is listed as a census-designated place and is located on the east side of Brooklyn. The town was founded in 1786.

References

Towns in Connecticut
County seats in Connecticut
1780s establishments in Connecticut
1786 establishments in the United States
East Brooklyn is a census-designated place in Windham County, Connecticut. The population was 2,205 at the 2020 census. East Brooklyn is next to Danielson. East Brooklyn is the urban side of Brooklyn. The racial makeup of the city was 85.49% White, 1.36% African American, 0.18% Native American, 2.31% Asian, 2.40% from other races, and 8.25% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.71% of the population.

References

Census-designated places in Connecticut
Canterbury is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. The population was 5,045 at the 2020 census. The racial makeup of the town was 89.45% White, 1.27% African American, 0.36% Native American, 0.54% Asian, 1.47% from other races, and 6.92% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.16% of the population.

History 
The town was founded in the 1680s as Peagscomsuck until 1703. In 1832, Prudence Crandall, a school teacher, opened the first school for African American girls. The "Black Law" did not allow the education of black people. However, Crandall taught until she was sent to prison in 1832 for a short time. Angry mobs forced the school to close in 1834. Crandall later married and moved out of the state. Connecticut ended the "Black Law" in 1838. They also gave Crandall a small pension in 1886, four years before her death. The school is now the Prudence Crandall Museum.

References
References 

Towns in Connecticut
1680s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
17th-century establishments in Connecticut
Chaplin is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. Chaplin was named after Deacon Benjamin Chaplin, an early settler. The Chaplin Museum, Chaplin Historic District and the Witter House are located in Chaplin.

Towns in Connecticut
Surface tension is an effect where the surface of a liquid is strong. The surface can hold up a weight, and the surface of a water droplet holds the droplet together, in a ball shape. Some small things can float on a surface because of surface tension, even though they normally could not float. Some insects (e.g. water striders) can run on the surface of water because of this. This property is caused by the molecules in the liquid being attracted to each other (cohesion), and is responsible for many of the behaviors of liquids.

Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent—but when referring to energy per unit of area, people use the term surface energy—which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids and not just liquids.

In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy.

Causes
Causes

The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules cause surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.

Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be perfectly spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary "wall tension" of the surface layer according to Laplace's law.
Another way to view it is in terms of energy. A molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone (not in contact with a neighbor). The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, but the boundary molecules are missing neighbors (compared to interior molecules). So, the boundary molecules have a higher energy. For the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized quantity of boundary molecules results in a minimized surface area.

As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can. Any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area and a higher energy. So, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy.

Effects in everyday life

Water
Studying water shows several effects of surface tension:
A. Rain water forms beads on the surface of a waxy surface, such as a leaf. Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops. Surface tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio.

B. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched. The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer bind it to the faucet. It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere. If a stream of water were running from the faucet, the stream would break up into drops during its fall. Gravity stretches the stream, then surface tension pinches it into spheres.
C. Objects denser than water still float when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension. For example, water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond. The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in the water's surface, increasing its surface area.

D. Separation of oil and water (in this case, water and liquid wax) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids. This type of surface tension is called "interface tension", but its physics are the same.

E. Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage. Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol. It is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water.
Surfactants
Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:

 Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Notice that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.
 Emulsions are a type of solution in which surface tension plays a role. Tiny fragments of oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger masses. But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension, which permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water (or vice versa).

Basic physics

Two definitions
Two definitions

Surface tension, represented by the symbol γ is defined as the force along a line of unit length, where the force is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the line. One way to picture this is to imagine a flat soap film bounded on one side by a taut thread of length, L. The thread will be pulled toward the interior of the film by a force equal to 2L (the factor of 2 is because the soap film has two sides, hence two surfaces). Surface tension is therefore measured in forces per unit length. Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per cm is also used. One dyn/cm corresponds to 0.001 N/m.
An equivalent definition, one that is useful in thermodynamics, is work done per unit area. As such, in order to increase the surface area of a mass of liquid by an amount, δA, a quantity of work, δA, is needed. This work is stored as potential energy. Consequently surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm2. Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given volume.

The equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be proven by dimensional analysis.

Surface curvature and pressure
If no force acts normal to a tensioned surface, the surface must remain flat. But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side, the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force. In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure, the surface must be curved. The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch. When all the forces are balanced, the resulting equation is known as the Young–Laplace equation:

where:
Δp is the pressure difference.
 is surface tension.
Rx and Ry are radii of curvature in each of the axes that are parallel to the surface.

The quantity in parentheses on the right hand side is in fact (twice) the mean curvature of the surface (depending on normalization).
Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops, puddles, menisci, soap bubbles, and all other shapes determined by surface tension. (Another example is the shape of the impressions that a water strider's feet make on the surface of a pond).

The table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius. For not very small drops the effect is subtle, but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size. (In the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless.)

Liquid surface

It is hard to find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using just mathematics. Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap-solution, a locally minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap-film within seconds.
The reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature, as seen in the Young-Laplace equation. For an open soap film, the pressure difference is zero, hence the mean curvature is zero, and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature.

Contact angles

The surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium. The top surface of a pond, for example, is an interface between the pond water and the air. Surface tension, then, is not a property of the liquid alone, but a property of the liquid's interface with another medium. If a liquid is in a container, then besides the liquid/air interface at its top surface, there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container. The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different (greater than) its surface tension with the walls of a container. Where the two surfaces meet, the geometry will balance all forces.
Where the two surfaces meet, they form a contact angle, , which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface. The diagram to the right shows two examples. Tension forces are shown for the liquid-air interface, the liquid-solid interface, and the solid-air interface. The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, , is less than the liquid-air surface tension, , but is still positive, that is

In the diagram, both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point, known as equilibrium. The horizontal component of  is canceled by the adhesive force, .

The more important balance of forces, though, is in the vertical direction. The vertical component of  must exactly cancel the force, .

Since the forces are in direct proportion to their respective surface tensions, we also have:
where
 is the liquid-solid surface tension,
  is the liquid-air surface tension,
  is the solid-air surface tension,
  is the contact angle, where a concave meniscus has contact angle less than 90° and a convex meniscus has contact angle of greater than 90°.

This means that although the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, , is difficult to measure directly, it can be inferred from the liquid-air surface tension, , and the equilibrium contact angle, , which is a function of the easily measurable advancing and receding contact angles (see main article contact angle).

This same relationship exists in the diagram on the right. But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90°, the liquid-solid/solid-air surface tension difference must be negative:

Special contact angles
Observe that in the special case of a water-silver interface where the contact angle is equal to 90°, the liquid-solid/solid-air surface tension difference is exactly zero.
Another special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180°. Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this. Contact angle of 180° occurs when the liquid-solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid-air surface tension.

Methods of measurement

Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects, it offers a number of paths to its measurement. Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured, the conditions under which its tension is to be measured, and the stability of its surface when it is deformed.
Du Noüy Ring method: The traditional method used to measure surface or interfacial tension. Wetting properties of the surface or interface have little influence on this measuring technique. Maximum pull exerted on the ring by the surface is measured.
 Du Noüy-Padday method: A minimized version of Du Noüy method uses a small diameter metal needle instead of a ring, in combination with a high sensitivity microbalance to record maximum pull. The advantage of this method is that very small sample volumes (down to few tens of microliters) can be measured with very high precision, without the need to correct for buoyancy (for a needle or rather, rod, with proper geometry). Further, the measurement can be performed very quickly, minimally in about 20 seconds. First commercial multichannel tensiometers [CMCeeker] were recently built based on this principle.
Wilhelmy plate method: A universal method especially suited to check surface tension over long time intervals. A vertical plate of known perimeter is attached to a balance, and the force due to wetting is measured.
 Spinning drop method: This technique is ideal for measuring low interfacial tensions. The diameter of a drop within a heavy phase is measured while both are rotated.
 Pendant drop method: Surface and interfacial tension can be measured by this technique, even at elevated temperatures and pressures. Geometry of a drop is analyzed optically. For details, see Drop.
 Bubble pressure method (Jaeger's method): A measurement technique for determining surface tension at short surface ages. Maximum pressure of each bubble is measured.
 Drop volume method: A method for determining interfacial tension as a function of interface age. Liquid of one density is pumped into a second liquid of a different density and time between drops produced is measured.
Capillary rise method: The end of a capillary is immersed into the solution. The height at which the solution reaches inside the capillary is related to the surface tension by the equation discussed below.
 Stalagmometric method: A method of weighting and reading a drop of liquid.
 Sessile drop method: A method for determining surface tension and density by placing a drop on a substrate and measuring the contact angle (see Sessile drop technique).
 Vibrational frequency of levitated drops: The surface tension of superfluid 4He has been measured by studying the natural frequency of vibrational oscillations of drops held in the air by magnetics. This value is estimated to be 0.375 dyn/cm at T = 0° K.
Effects

Liquid in a vertical tube

An old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1 cm in diameter partially filled with mercury, and with a vacuum (called Torricelli's vacuum) in the unfilled volume (see diagram to the right). Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges, making the upper surface of the mercury dome-shaped. The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire crossection of the tube. But the dome-shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury. Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy. Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus.
We consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury, including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass, because mercury does not adhere at all to glass. So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area, including where it is in contact with the glass. If instead of glass, the tube were made out of copper, the situation would be very different. Mercury aggressively adheres to copper. So in a copper tube, the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges (that is, it would be a concave meniscus). In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container, we consider the part of the fluid's surface area that is in contact with the container to have negative surface tension. The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area. So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy
. That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container.
If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action. The height the column is lifted to is given by:

where

  is the height the liquid is lifted,
  is the liquid-air surface tension,
  is the density of the liquid,
  is the radius of the capillary,
  is the acceleration due to gravity,
  is the angle of contact described above. If  is greater than 90°, as with mercury in a glass container, the liquid will be depressed rather than lifted.

Puddles on a surface
Pouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness. The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimeter thick, and no thinner. Again this is due to the action of mercury's strong surface tension. The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible, but the surface tension, at the same time, is acting to reduce the total surface area. The result is the compromise of a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness.

The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water, lime water or even saline, but only if the liquid does not adhere to the flat surface material. Wax is such a substance. Water poured onto a smooth, flat, horizontal wax surface, say a waxed sheet of glass, will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass.

The thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180° is given by:

where
where

{|
|  is the depth of the puddle in centimeters or meters.
|-
|  is the surface tension of the liquid in dynes per centimeter or newtons per meter.
|-
|  is the acceleration due to gravity and is equal to 980 cm/s2 or 9.8 m/s2
|-
|  is the density of the liquid in grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter
|}

In reality, the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180° with any liquid. When the contact angle is less than 180°, the thickness is given by:

For mercury on glass, γHg = 487 dyn/cm, ρHg = 13.5 g/cm3 and θ = 140°, which gives hHg = 0.36 cm. For water on paraffin at 25 °C, γ = 72 dyn/cm, ρ = 1.0 g/cm3, and θ = 107° which gives hH2O = 0.44 cm.

The formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0°, the liquid will spread out into a micro-thin layer over the surface. Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid.

The breakup of streams into drops