Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
C-flat major (or the key of C-flat) is a major scale based on C, containing the pitches C, D, E, F, G, A, and B. Its key signature has seven flats. The B major is the same as C-Flat, B major is a key signature with five sharps.

The C-flat major scale is:

References 

Musical keys
Major scales
Rafida Bonya Ahmed, better known as Bonya Ahmed, (Bengali: রাফিদা আহমেদ বন্যা, b. 1969), is a Bangladeshi-American author, humanist activist, and blogger.

On February 26, 2015, Bonya and her husband Avijit Roy were attacked by machete wielding Islamic extremists while they were visiting Dhaka, Bangladesh, on a book signing trip. They were attacked in the middle of the street at a very crowded book fair. Avijit died after he was taken to the hospital, and Bonya was seriously injured.

Life and work

Bonya was born in Dhaka, Bangladesh. She completed her undergraduate degree in Computer Information Science at Minnesota State University in Mankato.
Bonya met Avijit through their writing on Mukto-Mona, the first online platform for Bengali speaking freethinkers, atheists, and secular bloggers and writers founded by Avijit. This group started the first celebration of Darwin Day in Bangladesh. Mukto-Mona was internationally recognized in 2015 and received The BOBS jury award.
Bonya wrote one of the first popular science books in Bangladesh about biological evolution, named Bibortoner Path Dhore ("Along the Evolutionary Path", 2007). She is one of the moderators of Mukto-Mona.

Bonya has a daughter, Trisha Ahmed, from her first marriage. Trisha wrote an article with her stepfather Avijit for the Free Inquiry magazine about imprisoned secularist bloggers. Ahmed has been diagnosed with thyroid cancer.
Bonya decided to take a leave of absence from her job as a Senior Director at a credit bureau in the US after the attack on her and Avijit. She started working with the humanist associations in Europe and the US to raise awareness about the attacks on the secular intellectuals in Bangladesh by Islamic fundamentalists. She is currently doing research work on Islamic fundamentalism as a visiting research scholar at University of Texas, Austin. A week after her husband's death, Bonya started meeting with humanist associations in Europe, and working to get other activists out of Bangladesh, before they could be killed.

In 2016, Bonya received the Freedom From Religion Foundation's "Forward" award. She is on the jury of Deutsche Welle's The BOBS Best of Online Activism Award.
Works and activism
 Bibortoner Path Dhore ("Along the Evolutionary Path"), 2007, Abosor Prakashani, Dhaka.
 "Fighting Machetes with Pens", Voltaire Lecture 2015.
 Rafida Ahmed Bonya on the UN panel "Ending Impunity for Crimes against Journalists".
 Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission Briefing on Human Rights in Bangladesh .
 Talk at Harvard Humanist Hub .
 Keynote address at Reason Rally 2016 .
 Talk at American Humanist Association Annual Conference 2016.
 Lecture in the 4th Women in Secularism Conference 2016 .

References

Other websites
 Profile on Mukto-Mona 
 Rafida Bonya Ahmed's blog
 Rafida Bonya Ahmed on Facebook

Bangladeshi bloggers
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Writers from Dhaka
Writers from Minnesota
American activists
Hayes School is a mixed secondary school in Hayes, Bromley. This school is an academy. The head teacher is Mr. Whittle, as of July 2016. This school has an Ofsted rating of "Outstanding". This school has some of the highest GCSE and A-Level results in the country. In 2016, the school was announced as one of the top 100 schools in England for its GCSE results. Hayes School has a long waiting list and is very popular.

History 
The school became independent from the local Parish school in 1956. In 1956, the only building in the school was a Victorian-style mansion named Gadsden.  Today, the Gadsden holds the main reception, the student reception, a few offices, and other things. As soon as it became independent from the Parish school, it started accepting both genders. By then, most of the school was relocated to A Block, which had 3 floors.

References

Schools in London
1956 establishments in Europe
1950s establishments in England
Petit-Val is a new municipality of the administrative district of Jura bernois in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

On 1 January 2015, the former municipalities of Châtelat, Monible, Sornetan and Souboz merged into the new municipality of Petit-Val.

References

Other websites

 Official website of the municipality of Petit-Val 

Municipalities in Jura bernois
2015 establishments in Switzerland
The administrative district of Obersimmental-Saanen in the Swiss canton of Bern has 7 municipalities in an area of 575 km².

2010 establishments in Switzerland
Spiez is a municipality in Frutigen-Niedersimmental in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

It is on the Lake Thun.

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Official Website of the city of Spiez 
 

Municipalities in Frutigen-Niedersimmental
Cities in Switzerland
Recoil or kick (sometimes incorrectly called kickback) is the tendency of a firearm to move backwards and at the same time the muzzle of the gun to rise when fired. This is a reaction to the explosive force of a bullet leaving the barrel of a firearm. A handgun shooter feels the recoil in the hands and arms. A rifle or shotgun shooter feels most of the recoil in his or her shoulder.

Physics of recoil 
Recoil is explained by Newton’s third law of motion. It is usually paraphrased as: "to every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction". In simpler terms, when a projectile and the hot gasses go forward, the firearm goes backwards. There are a number of factors that determine the amount of backward force.
Projectile mass - The bullet, shot or shell fired from any size gun has an effect on recoil. The heavier the projectile, the more the recoil.
 Gun mass - The heavier the gun, the less the recoil.
 Speed of the projectile - The faster the bullet, shot or shell, the more the recoil. Also, the recoil will happen quicker than with a low mass projectile. This is felt as a "sharper' recoil by the shooter.

For example, a .22 Long Rifle (the designation of the bullet not the gun) has very little recoil. For this reason it is a caliber recommended for beginning shooters and, because the rounds are cheap, it is good practice ammunition for more experienced shooters. It is a favorite ammunition for target shooting. By comparison, the .500 S&W Magnum handgun round has very heavy recoil. Also, the recoil from the .500 magnum round is more sharply felt since the recoil speed is much greater.
Recoil anticipation 
One of the first things new shooters want to know is if a gun will kick them. New shooters learn to hold the gun firmly to reduce and control recoil. If firing a handgun, use both hands. If firing a shotgun or rifle, press it firmly against the shoulder and press your cheek on the gunstock. But, instructors often tell new students that recoil is 80% mental and only 20% physical. In other words, no matter how well you hold the weapon, recoil anticipation can ruin every shot.
Recoil anticipation, or more commonly known as "flinching", is the unintended (not intended or planned mental and physical response to firing a gun. The shooter knows the loud noise and shock of firing the weapon is coming and at the last moment flinches. This often causes an inexperienced shooter to hit low of the intended target. Another form of recoil anticipation is when new shooters unconsciously move the gun forward while pressing the trigger. This is very difficult for instructors to see until the shooter presses the trigger on an empty chamber. Only then can the instructor see the shooter moving the gun forward. 

Another problem is jerking the trigger. Instead of smoothly pulling the trigger while concentrating on the target, an inexperienced shooter often "jerks" the trigger. If shooters are consistently hitting low and to the left (right handed shooters) they are usually jerking the trigger. Shooters probably don't understand that quickly yanking the trigger back ruins the shot.
All forms of recoil anticipation are eliminated or reduced through practice. Good instruction in safe firearms practices is also very important.

References

Other websites 
 Handguns 101 - Managing Recoil; YouTube
 Fixing Trigger Jerk: YouTube

Firearms
Lego Ninjago is a line of sets (video games, television series, and toys) produced by Lego. It is based on the sets of six Ninja: Lloyd, Kai, Jay, Nya, Zane, and Cole,  and many other characters from the television series.

Television series 

The television series is about all characters in the land of Ninjago. The television series first aired in 2011. It was a major success and airs on Cartoon Network

The animated television series is based on The Ninja (Lloyd, Kai, Jay, Zane, Nya and Cole) fighting with a number of villains with various motivations.

Toys 
There are many toys of Lego Ninjago which all are based on the characters. The toys are Lego Ninjago's first success, and have been successful since when the show first aired to when it ended in  October 2022.

Video games 
Lego Ninjago video games are usually based on the television series. Lego Ninjago games are produced by Lego System A/S. Most Lego Ninjago video games are placed in Google Play.
Related pages 
Lego Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu
Lego
Video game

Lego
Ceratonia is small genus of flowering trees in the pea family, Fabaceae, endemic to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East.  Its best known member, the carob tree, is cultivated for its fruits (called pods) and has been widely introduced to regions with similar climates.

It belongs to the subfamily Caesalpinioideae.

The genus was created by Carl Linnaeus and published in Species Plantarum 2: 1026 en 1753. The type specimen is Ceratonia siliqua.

The genus was long considered monotypic (with only one species), but a second species, Ceratonia  oreothauma, was identified in 1979 from Oman and Somalia.

Images
Some photos of Ceratonia siliqua (the carob tree):

References

Other websites 
 
 
 Ceratonia in Encyclopedia of Life
 Ceratonia L. in Global Biodiversity Information Facility

Fabaceae
The carob is a species of flowering evergreen tree  in the pea family, Fabaceae. Its  scientific name is Ceratonia siliqua L.

It is widely grown for its edible pods, and as an ornamental tree in gardens. The ripe, dried pod is often ground to carob powder, which is used to replace cocoa powder. Carob bars, an alternative to chocolate bars, are often available in health-food stores.

Names
The tree is known in English as carob tree, St John's-bread or locust bean (not to be confused with the African locust bean).

The word carob, used commonly for the fruit, comes from Middle French carobe (modern ), which borrowed it from Arabic  (kharrūb, "locust bean pod").

Common names in some other languages are:
 , caroubier
 
 
 , caroba

Ceratonia siliqua, the scientific name of the carob tree given by Carolus Linnaeus to this plant, comes from the Greek kerátiοn κεράτιον 'fruit of the carob (from keras κέρας 'horn'), and Latin siliqua "pod, carob".
The carat, a unit of mass for gemstones, and of purity for gold, takes its name, indirectly, from the Greek word for a carob seed, kerátion.

Description

The carob tree grows up to  tall. The crown (the upper part of tree)  is broad and semispherical, supported by a thick trunk with brown rough bark and solid and firm branches. Leaves are  long, alternate and compound.

Most carob trees are dioecious (with separate male an female plants) but some are hermaphrodite. The male trees do not produce fruit. The trees blossom in autumn. The flowers are small and in an inflorescence axis in racemes like catkins; the pollination is by both wind and insects.

The fruit is a legume (also known as a pod). The pods take a full year to develop and ripen. The sweet ripe pods eventually fall to the ground and are eaten by various mammals (goats, sheep, cows), and so the hard seeds are dispersed.
Where it grows
The carob tree is native to the Cyprus island, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey.

It is generally found within 30-45°N and 30-40°S and from sea level to an altitude of .

It has been introduced into regions with a similar Mediterranean climate.

Uses

Food

Carob eaten by humans is the dried (and sometimes roasted) pod. The pod have 5 to 18 hard brown seeds (10% of the pod weight) within a sweet thick pulp substance.

Carob is mildly sweet and is used in powdered, chip, or syrup form as an ingredient in cakes and cookies, and as a substitute for chocolate. Carob bars are widely available in health food stores. A traditional sweet, eaten during Lent and Good Friday, is also made from carob pods in Malta.

Carob pod meal is used as an energy-rich feed for livestock, particularly for ruminants, though its high tannin content may limit its use.
Syrup, drinks
In Cyprus, carob syrup is known as Cyprus's black gold, and is widely exported. In Malta, a syrup (ġulepp tal-ħarrub) is made out of carob pods. Carob syrup is also used in Crete as a natural sweetener, and is considered a natural source of calcium. It contains three times more calcium than milk. It is also rich in iron, phosphorus, and natural fibers (Due to its strong taste, it can be found mixed with orange or chocolate).

Carob juice drinks are traditionally drunk during the Islamic month of Ramadan. Crushed pods may be used to make a beverage; compote, liqueur, and syrup are made from carob in Turkey, Malta, Portugal, Spain, and Sicily. Several studies suggest that carob may aid in treating diarrhea in infants.

Ornamental
C. siliqua is widely planted in the horticultural as an ornamental plant for planting in Mediterranean climate and other temperate regions around the world, as in California and Hawaii. The plant can be used as a dense and large hedge.
Production
According to FAO, the top carob-producing countries are (in metric tonnes, 2012): Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
 40,000 (F)
 30,841
 23,000 (F)
 22,000 (F)
 20,500 (F)
 14,218
 5,186
 3,136
 2,300 (F)

(F) = FAO estimate

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Ceratonia in Encyclopedia of Life
 Ceratonia L. in Global Biodiversity Information Facility
 
 
 Carob recipes, Cooks.com.
 Purdue Univ: Fruits of Warm Climates: Carob treatment - horticulture and cultivars, species and native habitat treatment.

Fabaceae
Fruits
The 2014–2016 Turkish judicial purges were purges of the judicial system of Turkey that took place in January 2014 and July 2016 during the presidency of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. In January 2014, 120 judges and prosecutors were reassigned during a major corruption enquiry and on 16 July 2016, 2,745 judges were dismissed immediately following the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt.

Purges by numbers

Related pages 
 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt

References 

2016 in Turkey
The IX Araucanía Region () is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions. Its capital and largest city is Temuco.

The Auracanía means "place where the Araucanians live". Araucanian () was the name given by the Spanish to the Mapuche people that live in the region.

Geography
The Araucanía region has an area of .

It borders the Bío Bío region (Bío Bío and Arauco provinces), to the north, Argentina to the east, the Los Ríos region to the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

The two main rivers in the region are the Imperial and the Toltén rivers.

The highest mountain in the region is the Lanín volcano (), , on the border with Argentina (Neuquén Province); it is .

Population
The Auracanía had a population of 869,535 inhabitants (2002 census) and its population density was .

The largest city in the region is its capital, Temuco, with 227,086 inhabitants (2002 census). The other provincial capital, Angol had 43,801 inhabitants.
Administration
The Auracanía region is further subdivided into two provinces: Cautín and Malleco.

Related pages
Regions of Chile

References

Other websites
 
 Territorial division of Chile 
Gobierno Regional de la Araucanía Official website
The XIV Los Ríos Region (, Region of the Rivers) is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions. Its capital and largest city is Valdivia.

It began to operate as a region on 2007, having been created by subdividing the Los Lagos Region in southern Chile. It consists of two provinces: Valdivia and the new El Ranco province, that was part of the Valdivia province.

Geography
The Los Ríos region has an area of .

It borders the La Araucanía region to the north, Argentina to the east, the Los Lagos region to the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

The two main rivers in the region are the Valdivia river, in the northern part of the region, and the Bueno river, in the southern part of the region.

The highest mountain in the region is the Villarrica volcano () (),  high, near the border with Argentina.

Population
The Los Ríos had a population of 356,396 inhabitants (2002 census) and its population density was .
The largest city in the region is its capital, Valdivia, with 127,750 inhabitants (2002 census). The other provincial capital, La Unión had 25,615 inhabitants.

Administration
The Los Ríos region is further subdivided into two provinces: Valdivia and El Ranco.

Gallery

Related pages
Regions of Chile

References

Other websites
 
Gobierno Regional de Los Ríos Official website
The X Los Lagos Region () is one of the fifteen regions of Chile. It has four provinces.

The capital city of the region is Puerto Montt. Other towns are Puerto Varas, Ancud and Frutillar.

Provinces of the region 
 Province of Llanquihue: capital Puerto Montt.
 Province of Chiloé: capital Castro.
 Province of Osorno: capital Osorno.
 Province of Palena: capital Chaitén

Related pages 
 Chiloé Island
The VII Maule Region () is one of Chile's 16 first order administrative divisions. Its capital is Talca.

The region is named after its main river: the Maule river.

History
The city of Talca was founded in 1692 by General Governor Tomás Marín de Poveda. On 17 February 1742 it got the name of Villa San Agustín de Talca by Governor José Antonio Manso de Velasco. Curicó followed in 1743, Linares and Parral in 1794.

In Talca is the house where Bernardo O'Higgins signed the proclamation of the independence of Chile on 12 February 1818. It is now a museum.

Geography
The Maule region borders the Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins region to the north, Argentina to the east, the Ñuble region to the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

The two main rivers in the region are the Maule and the Mataquito rivers.

Population
, there were (estimated) 1,042,989 persons living in the region, for a population density of  inhabitants/km².

People from this region are known as Maulinos (women: Maulinas).
The largest city in the region is Talca, with 189,505 inhabitants (2002 census).

Administration
The Maule region is further subdivided into four provinces: Talca, Curicó, Linares and Cauquenes.

Related pages
Regions of Chile

References

Other websites

 Territorial division of Chile 
Gobierno Regional del Maule  Official website
Hurricane Earl was a tropical cyclone in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico in August 2016. The storm struck Belize and Mexico with wind of around 80 mph.

The storm caused 13 deaths in the Dominican Republic. More than fifty other deaths took place, mostly in Mexico. Damage totaled over $115 million.

References

August 2016 events
Earl
2010s in Mexico
21st century in the Dominican Republic
2010s in Belize
Earl
Earl
Gwangju is the sixth largest city in South Korea. It is in the southwest of Korea and is the center of Honam's economy, culture, education and government.

Cities in South Korea
Kerckhoffs's principle (axiom, or law) is an idea in cryptography. It was stated by Dutch cryptographer Auguste Kerckhoffs in the 19th century. It is:
"A cryptosystem should be secure even if everything about the system, except the key, is public knowledge".

Kerckhoffs's principle was more briefly stated by American mathematician Claude Shannon as "the enemy knows the system", that is, "one ought to design systems under the assumption that the enemy will immediately gain full familiarity with them". In that form, it is called Shannon's maxim. It is opposite to the idea of "security through obscurity".
More details 
 The system must be practically, if not mathematically, indecipherable;
 It should not require secrecy, and it should not be a problem if it falls into enemy hands;
 It must be possible to communicate and remember the key without using written notes, and correspondents must be able to change or modify it at will;
 It must be applicable to telegraph communications;
 It must be portable, and should not require several persons to handle or operate;
 Lastly, given the circumstances in which it is to be used, the system must be easy to use and should not be stressful to use or require its users to know and comply with a long list of rules.

Some are no longer relevant given the ability of computers to perform complex encryption. The second axiom, Kerckhoffs's principle, is still vitally important.

References 

Cryptography
The Charleville muskets were .69 caliber French smoothbore flintlock muskets used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Charleville was used during the American Revolutionary War by the Americans and was later copied and manufactured in the US as the Springfield Model 1795 Musket.

History 
About 1630, Frenchman Marin le Bourgeoys (c.1550–1634) created the first "true" flintlock, also called the "French lock". Bourgeoys was in the service of King Louis XIII of France for whom he created the flintlock mechanism. Throughout the 17th century, flintlock muskets were produced in a wide variety of models.
In 1717, the original "Charleville" flintlock musket was made for the French military. This became the first standard flintlock musket to be issued to all troops. While it is more correctly called a French infantry musket or a French pattern musket, these muskets later became known as "Charleville muskets". They were named after the armory in Charleville-Mézières, Ardennes, France. The standard French infantry musket was also produced at Tulle, St. Etienne, Maubeuge Arsenal, and other sites. While technically not the correct name for these muskets, the use of the name Charleville dates back to the U.S. Revolutionary War, when Americans tended to refer to all of the musket models as Charlevilles. It should be noted that the naming of these muskets is not consistent. Some references only refer to Model 1763 and later versions as Charleville  flint lock muskets, while other references refer to all models as the Charleville.
Design features 
Charleville muskets had a smoothbore barrel. Rifles were more accurate than muskets because of their rifling, but military commanders favored smoothbores on the battlefield. Both types used black powder which caused fouling. Because the bullet was a tighter fit in the barrel (weapons), Rifles became very difficult to load after a few shots. Early on, the longer range and better accuracy of the rifle was also considered to be of little value on a battlefield that was quickly obscured by black powder smoke. Like all smooth bore muskets, the Charleville flintlock musket was only accurate to about  against a column of men, or  against a single man-sized target.
The rate of fire depended on the skill of the soldier, but was typically about three shots per minute. After 1728, the Charleville's  barrel was held into place by three barrel bands making it much sturdier. In 1743 the wooden ramrod was replaced with a steel one. Additional improvements were made in the 1750s and 1760s. The 1763 model was determined to be too heavy. In 1766 it was replaced by a lighter version.

Notes

References

Other websites 

 Shooting the 1766 Charleville Musket
 Making paper cartridges (French flintlocks

Firearms
1717 establishments
1710s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Charleville-Mézières
Not to be confused with Kerckhoffs's principle.

There are several Kirchhoff's laws, all named after Gustav Kirchhoff:

 Kirchhoff's circuit laws (electrical circuits)
 Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
 Kirchhoff equations (fluid dynamics)
 Kirchhoff's three laws of spectroscopy
 Kirchhoff's law of thermochemistry
There are 5 arrondissements in the Charente-Maritime department. The French departments, and in other countries, are divided into arrondissements, which may be translated into English as districts (in some cases, as boroughs).  The capital of an arrondissement is called a subprefecture.

If the prefecture (capital) of the department is in an arrondissement, that prefecture is the capital of the arrondissement, acting both as a prefecture and as a subprefecture.

Arrondissements are further divided into communes.

The 5 arrondissements of Charente-Maritime are:
History
Since its creation, the Charente-Maritime department has had some changes:
 1790 : creation of the department, with the name Charente-Inférieure (changed in 1941 to the present Charente-Maritime), with seven districts: Marennes, Montlieu, Pons, Rochefort, La Rochelle, Saintes and Saint-Jean-d'Angély. The capital of the department Saintes alternating with La Rochelle and Saint-Jean-d'Angély but soon was changed and Saintes was kept as the only capital.
 1800 : creation of the arrondissements: Jonzac, Marennes, Rochefort, La Rochelle, Saintes and Saint-Jean-d'Angély. Montlieu and Pons were left out but Jonzac was created.
 1926 : the arrondissements of Marennes and Saint-Jean-d'Angély were eliminated.
 1943 : the Saint-Jean-d'Angély was made again an arrondissement.

References

Related pages
List of arrondissements of France

Charente-Maritime
The arrondissement of Jonzac is an arrondissement of France, in the Charente-Maritime department, Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Its capital is the city of Jonzac.

History
When the Charente-Maritime department was created on 1790, Jonzac was not one of the original districts but soon, in 1800, it was made one of the arrondissements of the department with the territories of the Monlieu and Pons districts.

Geography
The arrondissement of Jonzac has an area of , and a population of 56,973 inhabitants for a density of  inhabitants/km².

Jonzac is the southernmost arrondissement of the department. It is bordered to the north by the arrondissement of Saintes, to the east by the Charente department and to the southeast and east by the Gironde department. To the northwest of the department is the southern part the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary of France.

Composition
Composition

Cantons
After the reorganisation of the cantons in France, cantons are not subdivisions of the arrondissements so they could have communes that belong to different arrondissements.

In the arrondissement of Jonzac, there is only one canton where not all their "communes" are in the arrondissement: the Thénac canton. The following table shows the distribution of the "communes" in the cantons and arrondissements:

Communes
The arrondissement of Jonzac has 129 communes; they are (with their INSEE codes):
Agudelle (17002)
 Allas-Bocage (17005)
 Allas-Champagne (17006)
 Archiac (17016)
 Arthenac (17020)
 Avy (17027)
 La Barde (17033)
 Bedenac (17038)
 Belluire (17039)
 Biron (17047)
 Bois (17050)
 Boisredon (17052)
 Boresse-et-Martron (17054)
 Boscamnant (17055)
 Bougneau (17056)
 Bran (17061)
 Brie-sous-Archiac (17066)
 Brives-sur-Charente (17069)
 Bussac-Forêt (17074)
 Celles (17076)
 Cercoux (17077)
 Chadenac (17078)
 Chamouillac (17081)
 Champagnac (17082)
 Champagnolles (17084)
 Chartuzac (17092)
 Chatenet (17095)
 Chaunac (17096)
 Chepniers (17099)
 Chevanceaux (17104)
 Cierzac (17106)
 Clam (17108)
 Clérac (17110)
 Clion (17111)
 La Clotte (17113)
 Consac (17116)
 Corignac (17118)
 Coulonges (17122)
 Courpignac (17129)
 Coux (17130)
 Échebrune (17145)
 Expiremont (17156)
 Fléac-sur-Seugne (17159)
 Fontaines-d'Ozillac (17163)
 Le Fouilloux (17167)
 La Genétouze (17173)
 Germignac (17175)
 Givrezac (17178)
 Guitinières (17187)
 Jarnac-Champagne (17192)
 Jonzac (17197)
 Jussas (17199)
 Léoville (17204)
Léoville (17204)
 Lonzac (17209)
 Lorignac (17210)
 Lussac (17215)
 Marignac (17220)
 Mazerolles (17227)
 Mérignac (17229)
 Messac (17231)
 Meux (17233)
 Mirambeau (17236)
 Montendre (17240)
 Montguyon (17241)
 Montlieu-la-Garde (17243)
 Mortiers (17249)
 Mosnac (17250)
 Neuillac (17258)
 Neulles (17259)
 Neuvicq (17260)
 Nieul-le-Virouil (17263)
 Orignolles (17269)
 Ozillac (17270)
 Pérignac (17273)
 Le Pin (17276)
 Plassac (17279)
 Polignac (17281)
 Pommiers-Moulons (17282)
 Pons (17283)
 Pouillac (17287)
 Réaux sur Trèfle (17295)
 Rouffignac (17305)
 Saint-Aigulin (17309)
 Saint-Bonnet-sur-Gironde (17312)
 Saint-Ciers-Champagne (17316)
 Saint-Ciers-du-Taillon (17317)
 Sainte-Colombe (17319)
 Saint-Dizant-du-Bois (17324)
 Saint-Dizant-du-Gua (17325)
 Saint-Eugène (17326)
 Saint-Fort-sur-Gironde (17328)
 Saint-Genis-de-Saintonge (17331)
 Saint-Georges-Antignac (17332)
 Saint-Georges-des-Agoûts (17335)
 Saint-Germain-de-Lusignan (17339)
 Saint-Germain-de-Vibrac (17341)
 Saint-Germain-du-Seudre (17342)
Saint-Grégoire-d'Ardennes (17343)
 Saint-Hilaire-du-Bois (17345)
 Saint-Léger (17354)
 Sainte-Lheurine (17355)
 Saint-Maigrin (17357)
 Saint-Martial-de-Mirambeau (17362)
 Saint-Martial-de-Vitaterne (17363)
 Saint-Martial-sur-Né (17364)
 Saint-Martin-d'Ary (17365)
 Saint-Martin-de-Coux (17366)
 Saint-Médard (17372)
 Saint-Palais-de-Négrignac (17378)
 Saint-Palais-de-Phiolin (17379)
 Saint-Pierre-du-Palais (17386)
 Saint-Quantin-de-Rançanne (17388)
 Sainte-Ramée (17390)
 Saint-Seurin-de-Palenne (17398)
 Saint-Sigismond-de-Clermont (17402)
 Saint-Simon-de-Bordes (17403)
 Saint-Sorlin-de-Conac (17405)
 Saint-Thomas-de-Conac (17410)
 Salignac-de-Mirambeau (17417)
 Salignac-sur-Charente (17418)
 Semillac (17423)
 Semoussac (17424)
 Soubran (17430)
 Souméras (17432)
 Sousmoulins (17433)
 Tugéras-Saint-Maurice (17454)
 Vanzac (17458)
 Vibrac (17468)
 Villexavier (17476)
The communes with more inhabitants in the arrondissement are:

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Charente-Maritime department
 List of arrondissements of France

References

Jonzac
This article is about the Atacama Region; for the desert, see Atacama Desert.

The Atacama Region Region () is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions. The southern portion of the Atacama Desert is in the region; the rest of the desert is in the other regions to the north (Norte Grande natural region).

The capital of the region is the city of Copiapó; it is at  north of Santiago, the capital of country.

History
From 1843, Atacama was a province of Chile but in 1974, with the creation of the Regions of Chile, it became one of those regions.

Geography
The Atacama region borders the Tarapacá region to the north, Argentina (provinces of Catamarca, La Rioja and San Juan), on the east, the Coquimbo region on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

The highest mountains of the region are: Nevados Ojos del Salado,  high, and Nevado Tres Cruces,  high; they are in the Andes, in the border with Argentina.
Population
, there were (estimated) 312,486 persons living in the region, for a population density of  inhabitants/km².

The largest city in the region is its capital, Copiapó, with 125,983 inhabitants (2002 census).

Administration
The Atacama region is divided in three provinces: Chañaral, Copiapó and Huasco.

Related pages
Atacama Desert
Regions of Chile

References

Other websites

 Territorial division of Chile 
Gobierno Regional de Atacama Official website
The IV Coquimbo Region () is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions.

The capital of the region is the city of La Serena; it is at  north of Santiago, the capital of the country. Other important cities include the seaport Coquimbo and the agricultural centre Ovalle.

History
From 1826, Coquimbo was a province of Chile but in 1974, with the creation of the Regions of Chile, it became one of the Chilean regions.

Geography
The Coquimbo region borders the Atacama region to the north, Argentina on the east, the Valparaíso region on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

The three main rivers are Elqui, Limarí and Choapa.

Population
, there were (estimated) 771,085 persons living in the region, for a population density of  inhabitants/km².

The largest city in the region is its capital, La Serena, with 160,148 inhabitants (2002 census). The port of Coquimbo had 148,438 inhabitants.

Administration
The Coquimbo region is divided in three provinces: Choapa, Elqui and Limarí.
Related pages
Regions of Chile

References

Other websites

 Territorial division of Chile 
Gobierno Regional de Coquimbo Official website
The Valparaiso Region () is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions.

The capital of the region is the city of Valparaiso, an important Chilean seaport. Other important cities are Viña del Mar, Quillota, Quilpué and Villa Alemana.

History
Valparaíso was made a province in 1842. In January 1928, Valparaíso was made part of the new province of Aconcagua but in 1936 was made again a province. In 1974, with the creation of the Regions of Chile, Valparaíso became one of the Chilean regions.

Geography
The Valparaíso region borders the Coquimbo region to the north, Argentina and Santiago Metropolitan Region on the east, the Santiago Metropolitan Region region on the south, the O'Higgins region on the southwestern and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

The three main rivers are:
 Petorca,  long.
 La Ligua,  long.
 Aconcagua,  long.

Population
, there were (estimated) 1,825,757 persons living in the region, for a population density of  inhabitants/km².
The largest city in the region is Viña del Mar, with 286, 931 inhabitants (2002 census). The capital of the region, Valparaíso, had in 2002 263,499 inhabitants.

Administration
The Valparaíso region is divided in eight provinces:

Gallery

Related pages
Regions of Chile

References

Other websites

 Territorial division of Chile 
Gobierno Regional de Valparaíso  Official website
The arrondissement of Rochefort is an arrondissement of France, in the Charente-Maritime department, Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Its capital is the city of Rochefort.

History
When the Charente-Maritime department was created on 1790, the arrondissement of Rochefort was part of that original department.

Geography
The arrondissement of Rochefort has an area of , and a population of 187,843 inhabitants for a density of  inhabitants/km².

Rochefort is in the northern half of the department. It is bordered to the north by the arrondissement of La Rochelle, to the northeast by the Deux-Sèvres department, to the east by the arrondissements of Saint-Jean-d'Angély and Saintes. To the south is the upper part the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary of France, and the Atlantic Ocean is to the west.

Composition

Cantons
After the reorganisation of the cantons in France, cantons are not subdivisions of the arrondissements so they could have communes that belong to different arrondissements.
In the arrondissement of Rochefort, there are 12 cantons, some of them only partially. The following table shows the distribution of the "communes" in the cantons and arrondissements:

Communes
The arrondissement of Rochefort has 82 communes; they are (with their INSEE codes):
Aigrefeuille-d'Aunis (17003)
 Île-d'Aix (17004)
 Anais (17007)
 Ardillières (17018)
 Arvert (17021)
 Ballon (17032)
 Beaugeay (17036)
 Bouhet (17057)
 Bourcefranc-le-Chapus (17058)
 Breuil-la-Réorte (17063)
 Breuillet (17064)
 Breuil-Magné (17065)
 Cabariot (17075)
 Chaillevette (17079)
 Chambon (17080)
 Champagne (17083)
 Le Château-d'Oléron (17093)
 Chervettes (17103)
 Ciré-d'Aunis (17107)
 Dolus-d'Oléron (17140)
 Échillais (17146)
 L’Éguille (17151)
 Étaules (17155)
 Forges (17166)
 Fouras (17168)
 Genouillé (17174)
 La Gripperie-Saint-Symphorien (17184)
 Le Gua (17185)
 Hiers-Brouage (17189)
 Landrais (17203)
 Loire-les-Marais (17205)
 Lussant (17216)
 Marennes (17219)
 Marsais (17221)
 Les Mathes (17225)
 Meschers-sur-Gironde (17230)
 Moëze (17237)
 Moragne (17246)
 Mornac-sur-Seudre (17247)
 Muron (17253)
 Nieulle-sur-Seudre (17265)
 Péré (17272)
 Puyravault (17293)
 Rochefort (17299)
 Royan (17306)
 Saint-Agnant (17308)
 Saint-Augustin (17311)
 Saint-Coutant-le-Grand (17320)
 Saint-Crépin (17321)
Saint-Denis-d'Oléron (17323)
 Saint-Froult (17329)
 Saint-Georges-de-Didonne (17333)
 Saint-Georges-d'Oléron (17337)
 Saint-Georges-du-Bois (17338)
 Saint-Germain-de-Marencennes (17340)
 Saint-Hippolyte (17346)
 Saint-Jean-d'Angle (17348)
 Saint-Just-Luzac (17351)
 Saint-Laurent-de-la-Barrière (17352)
 Saint-Laurent-de-la-Prée (17353)
 Saint-Mard (17359)
 Saint-Nazaire-sur-Charente (17375)
 Saint-Palais-sur-Mer (17380)
 Saint-Pierre-d'Amilly (17382)
 Saint-Pierre-d'Oléron (17385)
 Saint-Saturnin-du-Bois (17394)
 Saint-Sornin (17406)
 Saint-Sulpice-de-Royan (17409)
 Saint-Trojan-les-Bains (17411)
 Soubise (17429)
 Surgères (17434)
 Le Thou (17447)
 Tonnay-Charente (17449)
 La Tremblade (17452)
 Vandré (17457)
 Vaux-sur-Mer (17461)
 Vergeroux (17463)
 Virson (17480)
 Vouhé (17482)
 Port-des-Barques (17484)
 Le Grand-Village-Plage (17485)
 La Brée-les-Bains (17486)
The communes with more inhabitants in the arrondissement are:

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Charente-Maritime department
 List of arrondissements of France

References

Rochefort
The arrondissement of La Rochelle is an arrondissement of France, in the Charente-Maritime department, Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Its capital, and the prefecture of the department, is the city of La Rochelle.

History
When the Charente-Maritime department was created on 1790, the arrondissement of La Rochelle was part of that original department.

Geography
The arrondissement of La Rochelle is the smallest of the arrondissements of the Charente-Maritime department but the one with more people living in it. It has an area of , and a population of 210,151 inhabitants for a density of  inhabitants/km².

La Rochelle is the northernmost arrondissement of the department. It is formed from the old province of Aunis, with centre in La Rochelle, its historical capital.

It is bordered to the north by the Vendée department, to the east by the Deux-Sèvres department, to the south by the arrondissement of Rochefort, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

Composition
Composition

Cantons
After the reorganisation of the cantons in France, cantons are not subdivisions of the arrondissements so they could have communes that belong to different arrondissements.

In the arrondissement of La Rochelle, there are only two cantons where not all their "communes" are in the arrondissement: the Châtelaillon-Plage and La Jarrie cantons. The following table shows the distribution of the "communes" in the cantons and arrondissements:

Communes
The arrondissement of La Rochelle has 58 communes; they are (with their INSEE codes):
Andilly (17008)
 Angliers (17009)
 Angoulins (17010)
 Ars-en-Ré (17019)
 Aytré (17028)
 Benon (17041)
 Le Bois-Plage-en-Ré (17051)
 Bourgneuf (17059)
 Charron (17091)
 Châtelaillon-Plage (17094)
 Clavette (17109)
 La Couarde-sur-Mer (17121)
 Courçon (17127)
 Cramchaban (17132)
 Croix-Chapeau (17136)
 Dompierre-sur-Mer (17142)
 Esnandes (17153)
 Ferrières (17158)
 La Flotte (17161)
 La Grève-sur-Mignon (17182)
 Le Gué-d'Alleré (17186)
 L'Houmeau (17190)
 La Jarne (17193)
 La Jarrie (17194)
 Lagord (17200)
 La Laigne (17201)
 Loix (17207)
 Longèves (17208)
 Marans (17218)
 Marsilly (17222)
 Montroy (17245)
 Nieul-sur-Mer (17264)
 Nuaillé-d'Aunis (17267)
 Périgny (17274)
 Les Portes-en-Ré (17286)
 Puilboreau (17291)
 Rivedoux-Plage (17297)
 La Rochelle (17300)
 La Ronde (17303)
 Saint-Christophe (17315)
 Saint-Clément-des-Baleines (17318)
 Saint-Cyr-du-Doret (17322)
 Saint-Jean-de-Liversay (17349)
 Sainte-Marie-de-Ré (17360)
 Saint-Martin-de-Ré (17369)
 Saint-Médard-d'Aunis (17373)
 Saint-Ouen-d'Aunis (17376)
Saint-Rogatien (17391)
 Saint-Sauveur-d'Aunis (17396)
 Sainte-Soulle (17407)
 Saint-Vivien (17413)
 Saint-Xandre (17414)
 Salles-sur-Mer (17420)
 Taugon (17439)
 Thairé (17443)
 Vérines (17466)
 Villedoux (17472)
 Yves (17483)
The communes with more inhabitants in the arrondissement are:

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Charente-Maritime department
 List of arrondissements of France

References

La Rochelle
St. Stephan is a municipality in the administrative district of Obersimmental-Saanen in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

References

Other websites

 Official Website 

Municipalities in Obersimmental-Saanen
Stettlen is a municipality in the administrative district of Bern-Mittelland in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

References

Municipalities in Bern-Mittelland
Studen is a municipality in the administrative district of Seeland in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

References

Municipalities in Seeland
Sumiswald is a municipality of the administrative district of Emmental in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Official website 

Municipalities in Emmental
Sutz-Lattrigen is a municipality in the administrative district of Biel/Bienne in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

It is on the southern shore of Lake Biel.

It is home to a number of Neolithic and Bronze Age lake shore archeological sites, including one that is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

References

Other websites

 Official website 

Municipalities in Biel/Bienne
World Heritage Sites in Switzerland
Tägertschi was a municipality of the administrative district Bern-Mittelland in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. On 1 January 2017, the former municipality of Tägertschi merged into the municipality of Münsingen.

References

Other websites

Former municipalities in Bern-Mittelland
The Richmond–Petersburg Campaign was a series of battles around Petersburg, Virginia, fought from June 9, 1864, to March 25, 1865. Fought during the American Civil War, it is more popularly known as the Siege of Petersburg. But it was not a classic military siege, in which a city is usually surrounded and all supply lines are cut off. Nor was it strictly limited to actions against Petersburg. The campaign consisted of nine months of trench warfare in which Union forces commanded by Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant assaulted Petersburg unsuccessfully. Then the Union Army constructed trench lines that eventually extended over . They ran from the eastern outskirts of Richmond, Virginia, to around the eastern and southern outskirts of Petersburg. Petersburg was critical to the supply of Confederate Lieutenant General Robert E. Lee's army and the Confederate capital of Richmond. Numerous raids were conducted and battles fought in attempts to cut off the railroad supply lines through Petersburg to Richmond
. Many of these caused the lengthening of the trench lines, overloading dwindling Confederate resources.
Lee finally gave in to the pressure and abandoned both cities on April 3, 1865. This led to Lee's final surrender at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. The trench warfare of Petersburg became common in World War I, earning it a prominent position in military history. Of the 4,000 African American troops of the 4th Division, IX Corps, who fought at the Battle of the Crater on July 30, 1864, over half were killed, wounded or captured.

Background
On March 10, 1864, Ulysses S. Grant was promoted to lieutenant general. He was given command of all Union troops. Grant planned a coordinated strategy to apply pressure on the Confederacy from many points. This was something President Abraham Lincoln had urged his generals to do from the beginning of the war. Grant put Major General William T. Sherman in immediate command of all forces in the West. He moved his own headquarters to be with the Army of the Potomac (still commanded by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade) in Virginia. Grant intended to maneuver Lee's army to a decisive battle. His secondary objective was to capture Richmond (the capital of the Confederacy). But Grant knew that the latter would happen automatically once the former was accomplished. His coordinated strategy called for Grant and Meade to attack Lee from the north, while Major General Benjamin Butler drove toward Richmond from the southeast. Major General Franz Sigel was to control the Shenandoah Valley
. Sherman was ordered to invade Georgia, break up the Confederate Army of Tennessee, and capture Atlanta. Brigadier Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in Tennessee and Virginia. Finally, Major General Nathaniel P. Banks was assigned the task of capturing Mobile, Alabama.
Grant and Meade's Army of the Potomac crossed the Rappahannock River and entered the area known as the Wilderness. On May 5, 1864, Grant was met by an undersize Confederate force of 60,000 soldiers led by Lee. At the bloody but tactically inconclusive Battle of the Wilderness (May 5–7) and Battle of Spotsylvania Court House (May 8–21), Grant failed to destroy Lee's army. But, unlike his predecessors, Grant did not retreat after the battles. He repeatedly moved his army leftward to the southeast in a campaign that kept Lee on the defensive and moved ever closer to Richmond. Grant spent the remainder of May maneuvering and fighting minor battles with the Confederate army as he attempted to turn Lee's flank and lure him into the open. Grant knew that his larger army and base of manpower in the North could sustain a war of attrition better than the Confederacy could
. This theory was tested at the Battle of Cold Harbor (May 31 – June 12) when Grant's army once again came into contact with Lee's near Mechanicsville. He chose to engage Lee's army directly, by ordering a frontal assault on the Confederate fortified positions on June 3. This attack was repulsed with heavy losses. Cold Harbor was a battle that Grant regretted more than any other and Northern newspapers thereafter frequently referred to him as a "butcher". Although Grant suffered about 45% casualties. Lee lost about 50% his forces. These were losses that Lee could not replace.
On the night of June 12, Grant again advanced by his left flank, marching to the James River. He planned to cross to the south bank of the river, bypassing Richmond, and isolate Richmond by seizing the railroad junction of Petersburg to the south. While Lee remained unaware of Grant's intentions, the Union army constructed a pontoon bridge and crossed the James River. What Lee had feared most of all was about to happen. Petersburg was the main supply base and rail depot for the entire region, including Richmond.  The taking of Petersburg by Union forces would make it impossible for Lee to continue defending Richmond.
Also called the "Battle of Old Men and Young Boys", it was fought on June 9, 1864 just outside Petersburg. The armies of Lee and Grant were deadlocked just outside of Richmond in their Cold Harbor defenses. Butler knew Grant would probably soon attack Petersburg since it was the key supply point for Richmond. By way of intelligence from slaves and Confederate deserters and a captured Confederate map, Butler realized Petersburg was not well defended. In Petersburg, Confederate generals Beauregard and Wise had only 2,200 militiamen guarding the city. One Petersburg citizen called them a collection of "greyhaired men, and beardless boys." Some were not even equipped with rifles. Butler saw an opportunity and sent a force of 3,400 infantrymen along with 1,300 cavalry to attack Petersburg before Grant could get there. The Union infantry attacked from the east while the cavalry attacked from the south using the Jerusalem Plank Road
. The infantry attack was intended as a diversion while the cavalry entered the city from the south. But the 2,500 Confederate defenders fought off both attacks. The infantry was stopped by the Dimmock Line which had been constructed to stop any such attacks. After the attacks failed, Butler withdrew.