Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
An appendage is a part of animals attached the main body. Many arthropods have appendages on each, or most, of their segments. Millipedes, for example, have many segments, and almost all carry two legs. Insects have exactly six legs, two on each segment of the thorax. Antennae (feelers) attached to their heads are another type of appendage.

Wings, parts of the tail, legs, some mouthparts, external sex organs can all be described as appendages.

Appendages may be uniramous, as in insects and centipedes, where each appendage comprises a single series of segments, or it may be biramous, as in many crustaceans, where each appendage branches into two sections. 

All arthropod appendages are variations of the same basic structure (homologous). Which structure is produced is controlled by homeobox genes. Changes to these genes have allowed scientists to produce animals (such as Drosophila melanogaster) with modified appendages, such as legs instead of antennae.

Animal anatomy
Developmental biology
The United Kingdom Ministry of Defence is a Britsh government department headed by the Secretary of State for Defence in the Cabinet.  It controls the administration of the British Armed Forces.

The present Ministry is a post-World War II creation, joining the Admiralty, the War Office, the Air Ministry and part of the Ministry of Aviation.  Ministers of State supervise each of the three armed services, and a Joint Chiefs of Staff committee is led by the professional heads of the three services.

Departments of the United Kingdom Government
Terraria is an action-adventure/RPG indie game released by independent game studio Re-Logic on May 16, 2011. It was originally available on Microsoft Windows, but different ports are available on the Xbox Live, Playstation, Android, iOS, Windows Phone, and 3DS. It is a 2D side-scrolling format, similar to Mario or Mega Man.

Gameplay 
It is a wide-open sandbox style game; players may edit the terrain and go anywhere they want to.

There are a wide variety of materials (Called blocks or tiles) that players can use, such as Dirt Blocks, Stone Blocks, Copper Ore, Wood, and many more. Players need the right tools to mine any block.
The game begins with the player creating a custom character, and then is placed in a computer-generated world. The players begins with only a few Copper tools, which are used to gather wood, mine blocks, and attack monsters. From these basic Copper tools, the player moves up to stronger armor and weapons. There are many bosses in Terraria that the player must defeat. Although Terraria might seem similar to Minecraft, it is two dimensional and includes many more items and bosses.

Soundtrack 
In Terraria, the music changes depending on which biome/area the player is in. It can also change if the player is fighting a boss, like the Eye of Cthulhu for example.

References

Notes

Role-playing video games
2011 video games
This is a list of political parties in Azerbaijan.

Azerbaijan is a one-party dominant state, meaning that is a system of majority rule where one political party, in this case the ruling New Azerbaijan Party, has successively won election victories by a very large majority and is therefore the dominant ruling party, which does not have to form coalitions (alliances) with other smaller political parties as a result. The one party dominant state differs from a one-party state, because opposition parties against the New Azerbaijan Party are allowed, but are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power.

Major parties
New Azerbaijan Party (Yeni Azərbaycan Partiyası)
Equality Party (Müsavat Partiyası)
Azerbaijan Popular Front Party (Azərbaycan Xalq Cəbhəsi Partiyası)
Azerbaijan Democratic Party (Azərbaycan Demokrat Partiyası)
Motherland Party (Ana Vatan)
Civic Solidarity Party (Vətəndaş Həmrəyliyi Partiyası)
Other parties
Alliance Party for the Sake of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Naminə Alyans Partiyası)
Azerbaijan Communist Party (Azərbaycan Kommunist Partiyası)
Azerbaijan Communist Party (on Platform of Marxism-Leninism) (Azərbaycan Kommunist Partiyası (Marksizm-Leninizm Platformasında))
Azerbaijan Democratic Party (Azərbaycan Demokrat Firqəsı)
Azerbaijan Democratic Party (Azərbaycan Demokrat Partiyası)
Azerbaijan Greens' Party (Azərbaycan Yaşıllar Partiyası) www.azerbaijangreens.org
Azerbaijan Hope Party (Azərbaycan Ümid Partiyasi)
Azerbaijan Liberal Party (Azərbaycan Liberal Partiyası)
Azerbaijan National Democrat Party (Azerbaycan Milli Demokrat Partiyası)
Azerbaijan Social Democratic Party (Azerbaycan Sosial-Demokrat Partiyası)
Azerbaijan Social Prosperity Party (Azərbaycan Sosial Rifah Partiyası)
Civil Union Party (Vətəndas Birliyi Partiyasi)
Compatriot Party (Yurddaş Partiyası)
Democratic Azerbaijan's World (Demokratik Azərbaycan Dünyası)
Great Order Party (Böyük Qurulus Partiyasi)
Azerbaijan National Independence Party (Azərbaycan Milli İstiqlal Partiyası)
Azerbaijan Political Party of Democratic Reforms (Azərbaycan Demokratik Islahatlar Siyasi Partiyasi)
Justice Party (Ədalət Partiyası)
Modern Equality Party (Müasir Müsavat Partiyası)
National Unity (Milli Birlik)
Reformist Communist Party of Azerbaijan (Azerbaycan Islahatçi Kommunist Partiyasi)
United Communist Party of Azerbaijan (Azerbaycan Vahid Kommunist Partiyasi)
Virtue Party (Fəzilət Partiyası)
Whole Azerbaijan Popular Front Party (Bütöv Azərbaycan Xalq Cəbhəsi Partiyasi)
Related pages
 National Assembly of Azerbaijan
 President of Azerbaijan
 Prime Minister of Azerbaijan

References
"List of Azerbaijani political parties (2020)" Central Election Commission of Azerbaijan (in Azerbaijani)
 Political Parties of Azerbaijan at Eurasianet 

Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan politics-related lists
The one-party dominant state is a system of majority rule where one political party has successively won election victories by a very large majority and is, therefore, the dominant ruling party, which does not have to form coalitions (alliances) with other smaller political parties as a result. 

The one-party dominant state differs from a one-party state, because opposition parties against the dominant ruling party are allowed, but have no real chance of gaining power. 

Many one-party dominant states are dictatorships where only one party can by law be in control, but some one-party dominant states are real democracies, where there are no limits by law against other parties.

A case of this was Mexico, where Presidential candidates (the person running for this governmental office) of the Institutional Revolutionary Party were popularly elected for more than 70 years. In Sweden and Japan, the ruling party lost at least one election but soon won another and returned to power.
Another example is South Africa, where the African National Congress has been the ruling party of post-apartheid South Africa since the democratization of the country with the election of Nelson Mandela in the 1994, winning every election since then. During the apartheid era, the National Party of South Africa ruled from 1948 to 1994 and imposed apartheid. 

In one-party dominant states that are dictatorships, the ruling party often stays in power through electoral fraud and gerrymandering, and also by suppressing the opposition who don't accept this for moral reasons, which totally undermines the political legitimacy of the ruling party and the system.

Political systems
Dictatorship
was a  after Eiroku and before Tenshō.  This period started in April 1570 and ended in July 1573. During this time, the emperor was .

Events of the Genki era

 1570 (Genki 1, 6th month): At the Battle of Anegawa, the forces of Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu won a victory.

 1571 (Genki 2, 9th month): Nobunaga ordered the destruction of temples on Mount Hiei.

 1573 (Genki 4): Oda Nobunaga causes the Ashikaga Yoshiaki, the last Muromachi shogun, to flee Kyoto

Related pages 
 Muromachi period

References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

Japanese eras
O. Henry was the pen name of the American writer William Sydney Porter (September 11, 1862 – June 5, 1910). O. Henry's short stories are well known for their  clever twist endings.

His whose tales romanticized the commonplace—in particular the life of ordinary people in New York City. His stories expressed the effect of coincidence on character through humour, grim or ironic, and often had surprise endings, a device that became identified with his name and cost him critical favour when its vogue had passed.

Among his most famous stories are:
 "The Gift of the Magi" 
 "The Ransom of Red Chief"
 "A Retrieved Reformation

Other websites

 
 
 
 O. Henry Museum
 Biography and stories 
 Wall Street Journal article on O. Henry
 
 O. Henry Items on the Portal to Texas History

Writers from North Carolina
Deaths from diabetes
1862 births
1910 deaths
Pen names
Kenneth Geddes Wilson (June 8, 1936 – June 15, 2013) was an American theoretical physicist and Nobel Prize winner.

Education
As an undergraduate at Harvard, he was a Putnam Fellow.  He earned his PhD from Caltech in 1961, studying under Murray Gell-Mann.
Works
He became a junior faculty member in Cornell University Physics Department in 1963. He became a full professor in 1970.  In 1974, he became the James A. Weeks Professor of Physics at Cornell. He was a co-winner of the Wolf Prize in physics in 1980, together with Michael E. Fisher and Leo Kadanoff.  He got the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physics for combining quantum field theory and the statistical theory of critical phenomena of second-order phase transitions. In other words the prize was for his constructive theory of the renormalization group. In this theory he gave not only important, and even numerical, insights to the field of critical statics and dynamics in statistical physics, but indirectly also basic answers to the question: "What is quantum field theory?" and "What does renormalization mean?". He also gave a constructive answer to another important  "renormalization" problem from solid-state physics, the Kondo effect.
He advocated that the federal government should buy supercomputers for science research. In 1985, he was appointed as Cornell's Director of the Center for Theory and Simulation in Science and Engineering (known now as the Cornell Theory Center, one of five national supercomputer center created by the National Science Foundation.  Since 1988, Dr. Wilson has been a faculty member at The Ohio State University.  His current research interests include physics education research.

Some of his PhD students include Roman Jackiw, Steve Shenker, and Michael Peskin.

Wilson's father was the prominent chemist E. Bright Wilson, and his brother David is also a Professor at Cornell in the department of Molecular Biology and Genetics.

Wilson died on June 19, 2013 from lymphoma in Saco, Maine, aged 77.
Awards
Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics, 1973
Boltzmann Medal, 1975
Wolf Prize, 1980
Harvard University, D.Sc (Hon.), 1981
Caltech, Distinguished Alumni Award,  1981
Franklin Medal, 1982
Nobel Prize for Physics, 1982
A.C. Eringen Medal, 1984
Aneesur Rahman Prize, 1993
Literature
Wilson, K. G.    "Broken Scale Invariance and Anomalous Dimensions", Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC,)Stanford University, Laboratory of Nuclear Studies, Cornell University, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (May 1970).
Gupta, R.; Wilson, K. G.; & C. Umrigar.   "Improved Monte Carlo Renormalization Group Method", Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), Cornell University, United States Department of Energy, (1985).
Wilson, K. G.:Problems in physics with many scales of length, Scientific American, August 1979
the same:The Renormalization group (RG) and critical phenomena 1, Physical Review B, volume 4, 1971, p. 3174
the same: The renormalization group: critical phenomena and the Kondo problem, Reviews of modern physics, 47, 1975, p. 773-839
the same, and M. Fisher: Critical exponents in 3.99 dimensions, Physical Review Letters, 28, 1972, p. 240
the same: Non-lagrangian models in current algebra Physical Review,  179, 1969, p. 1499-1512 (operator product expansion)
the same: Model of coupling constant renormalisation, Physical Review D,  2, 1970, p. 1438–1472
the same: Operator product expansions and anomalous dimensions in Thirring model, ibid., p. 1473–77
the same: Anomalous dimensions and breakdown of scale invariance in perturbation theory, ibid. p. 1478–93
the same: RG and strong interactions Physical Review D,  3, 1971, p. 1818–46
the same: Confinement of quarks, Physical Review D,  10, 1974, p. 2445–59
References

Other websites
 Photograph, Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy
 Kenneth G. Wilson
 Kenneth G. Wilson's Homepage (on Archive, the original at Ohio State University no longer exists)
 Kenneth G. Wilson's brief CV, from Ohio State University (PDF file)
  Publications on ArXiv
 Nobel Lecture
 Interview with Ken Wilson in 2002

1936 births
2013 deaths
Cornell University faculty
American Nobel Prize winners
Harvard University alumni
Scientists from Massachusetts
American theoretical physicists
Wolf Prize winners
Ohio State University
was a  after Genki and before Bunroku.  This period started in July 1573 and ended in December 1592.  During this time, the emperors were   and .

The nengō Tenshō means "Heavenly Virtue".

Events of the Tenshō era

Oda Nobunaga suggested that a new era should begin in 1573.  The general meaning of Tenshō was "heavenly righteousness".
1573 (Tenshō 1, 7th month): Shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki became a Buddhist priest.
 1576 (Tenshō 3, 5th month): Battle of Nagashino.
 1576 (Tenshō 4): Takeda Katuyori ordered the rebuilding of the Asama Shrine at the base of Mount Fuji in Suruga province.
 1582 (Tenshō 10): Oda Nobunaga orders the destroyed of structures built by Takeda at the Asama Shrine.
 1582 (Tenshō 10, 3rd month):  Battle of Temmokuzan.
 20 February 1582 (Tenshō 10, 28th day of the 10th month):A Jesuit missionary and four Japanese Catholic boys went to Rome to see Pope Gregory XIII. This is sometimes called the "Tenshō Embassy". or the "Boys' Mission of the Tenshō Period" (Tenshō Shōnen Shisetsu).
 1583 (Tenshō 11, 4th month): Battle of Shizugatake.
 1583 (Tenshō 12, 4th month): Battle of Komaki and Nagakute.
 1584 (Tenshō 13, 7th month): Toyotomi Hideyoshi is named kampaku by Emperor Ōgimachi.
17 December 1586 (Tenshō 14, 7th day of the 11th month):  Emperor Ogimachi abdicated; and his grandson received the succession (senso). Soon after, Emperor Go-Yōzei's role as monarch was confirmed (sokui).
 1586 (Tenshō 14, 12th month): A marriage is arranged between the youngest sister of Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu.
 1586 (Tenshō 14, 12th month): The kampaku, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was nominated to be Daijō-daijin.
 1587 (Tenshō 15): Gold or silver coins called Tenshō-tsūhō were minted.  The gold coins (Tenshō-ōban) were oval shaped.
In 1589-1590 (in the 23rd year of the reign of King Seonjo of Joseon), a diplomatic mission led by Hwang Yun-gil was sent to Japan.  The Joseon ambassador was received by Hideyoshi.

In popular culture 

The fictional plot of the classic Akira Kurosawa film The Seven Samurai takes place in the 15th year of Tenshō.

Related pages
 Tenshō (Heian period)

References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

Japanese eras
1573 establishments
16th-century establishments in Japan
1592 disestablishments
16th-century disestablishments in Japan
Tensho may mean:
 Tenshō (Heian period) (天承), a Japanese era from 1131-1132
 Tenshō (Momoyama period) (天正), a Japanese era from 1573-1592
was a  after Tenshō and before Keichō.  This period started in December 1592 and ended in 1596.  During this time, the emperor was .

The nengō Bunroku means "Enlightened Benevolence".

Events of the Bunroku era

 1592 (Bunroku 1): Toyotomi Hideyoshi invaded Korea (Bunroku no Eki), also known as Bunroku-Keichō no Eki.
 1592 (Bunroku 1):  Ogasawara Sadayori discovered the Bonin Islands; and the territory was granted to him as a fief by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
 1592 (Bunroku 1): Silver coins called Bunroku-tsūhō were minted . Copper coins were issued at the same time, but none are known to have survived.
 1593 (Bunroku 3): Former-Emperor Ōgimachi died.
 1593 (Bunroku 3): Toyotomi Hideyori is born to Hideyoshi's mistress Yodo-Dono.
 1595 (Bunroku 4): Toyotomi Hidetsugu loses his position and power.

Land reform and a general census of the population and a national survey are undertaken in 1589-1595.

References
References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

Japanese eras
1592 establishments
16th-century establishments in Japan
1596 disestablishments
16th-century disestablishments in Japan
Fray Marcos de Niza (– March 25, 1558) was a Franciscan friar. He was born in Nice (de Niza means of Nice in Spanish), which was at that time under the control of the Italian House of Savoy. He went to America in 1531, and explored the area above Sonora.

1490s births
1558 deaths
Explorers
Franciscans
People from Nice
Religious workers
In written Latin, the apex (plural: "apices") is a diacritic. It is close to the shape of an acute accent ( ´ ). The apex is used to show that a vowel is long and not short. That means that the vowel is pronounced for longer.

The shape and length of the apex can be different. It can even sometimes be different within the same writing. While pretty much all apices are made up of a line sloping up to the right, the line can be more or less curved, and is different in length from less than half the height of a letter to more than the height of a letter. Sometimes, it is put at the top with a hook, pointing out to the left. Rather than being centered over the vowel it changes, the apex is often drawn to the right.

Later, it developed into the acute accent, which is still used in some languages to mark vowel length. In particular, Czech and Slovak, Hungarian, Irish, and (a long time ago) Icelandic.

Details
Details 

Although not really known by some modern Latinists, the sign was actually used a lot during classical and postclassical times. The reason why it is not usually noticed is probably because of its smallish size and the fact that it is usually quite thin. People who look carefully will soon start to notice apices in the exhibits of any museum, not only in many of the more formal  epigraphic writings, but also in handwritten  palaeographic things.
Forgetting the apex, modern Latin spelling has recently started marking long vowels by using the macron. The macron is a sign that had always been used, and still is, to mark metrically long syllables (more recently called heavy syllables). This has caused confusion between syllable and vowel length in Latin, and most western dictionaries still cannot describe the nature of Latin vowels properly because of this. To make even more confusion, the acute accent is sometimes used in Latin to mark stressed syllables, just like in Spanish, when the macron is not used.

Identification with the sicilicus 

The apex is often thought to be the opposite of another ancient Latin diacritic, the sicilicus, which is said to have been used above consonants to show that they should be pronounced as doubles. However, in his article Apex and Sicilicus, Revilo P. Oliver says that they are the same sign, a geminationis nota. This was used over any letter to show that the letter should be read twice.
If Revilo P. Oliver is right, the apex as a sign showing vowel length would have been made in the time when long vowels were written double. Then, when long vowels were not regularly written twice. 

However, Oliver's view that the two marks were the same has recently been challenged.

Related pages 
 Acute accent

References 

Alphabetic diacritics
Latin language
Acute can mean:

Acute angle
Acute accent
Acute (medicine)
Acute toxicity
Differential geometry is a field of mathematics. It uses differential and integral calculus as well as linear algebra to study problems of geometry. The theory of the plane, as well as curves and surfaces in Euclidean space are the basis of this study. Big discoveries were made in the 18th and 19th century. In geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees. Carl Friedrich Gauß wondered whether triangle bearings of ships really has a sum of angles of exactly 180 degrees; with this question he was among the pioneers of modern differential geometry.

A long time ago, differential geometry was used for map projections. Today, it is used for fields as diverse as general relativity theory, or satellite navigation. Grigori Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture uses differential geometry.
The New Azerbaijan Party (Yeni Azərbaycan Partiyası, YAP) is the ruling political party in Azerbaijan since 1993.

It was formed on 18 December 1992 by the former President of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev, who led it until his retirement and death in 2003. It is now led by his son, Ilham Aliyev, who succeeded his father as the party leader and as President of Azerbaijan since 31 October 2003. The founder of the party, Heydar Aliyev, was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union until July 1991 before the collapse of the Soviet Union and the independence of Azerbaijan later that year. The headquarters of the party is in the capital city Baku.

The party's stated ideologies are lawfulness, secularism, and Azerbaijani nationalism. It wants to build a "social-oriented" economy, meaning a middle path between socialism and "laissez-faire" capitalism (a mixed economy), and lists civil solidarity and social justice as the basis of its ideology.
Current and historical representation in the National Assembly of Azerbaijan
 5 November, 2000  Members of Parliament
 6 November, 2005  Members of Parliament
 7 November, 2010  Members of Parliament

Related pages
 List of political parties in Azerbaijan
 National Assembly of Azerbaijan
 President of Azerbaijan
 Prime Minister of Azerbaijan

References

Other websites
 Official website 

Political parties in Azerbaijan
Nationalist organizations in Azerbaijan
Conservative parties
Tonga has been in seven Olympic Summer Games. They have never been in the Winter Games. 

Tonga was the smallest independent nation to win an Olympic medal.   Super Heavyweight Boxer Paea Wolfgram won a silver medal in the 1996 Summer Olympics.

Tonga wanted to enter a delegation for the 2010 Winter Olympics.  The Tonga Amateur Sports Association (TASA) said they had one athlete to compete in the luge event. In December 2008, two male athletes were selected to travel to Germany for training, but only one of them would be at the Olympics.   Bruno Banani was selected as Tonga's candidate.  He failed to qualify by crashing in the final round of qualifications.

Medalists

Silver 
 Paea Wolfgramm — Boxing, Men's Super Heavyweight (>91 kg), 1996

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites
  Tonga profile at London2012.com 
 

Nations at the Olympics
Tonga
Forgery is producing a fake document, signature, banknote, or work of art in order to deceive. It is illegal, as it is fraud. Forging money and certain other items is called counterfeiting. 

Financial crimes
Crazyracing Kartrider () is an online computer racing game. Nexon opened a beta version of this game in 2004. There are various kinds of karts and items that you can use in this game. The game has three major modes. In item mode, players can use items such as  missiles, water balls, shields, bananas, and devils. In a speed mode, players use a booster. In flag mode, players try to bring back a flag to your team zone.

It is easy to play. Only arrow keys and Ctrl, Alt keys are needed to control your kart. Decorating and changing your character and kart is another interesting part of this game. Lucci is game money. You can get it by racing. You need Lucci to buy a kart, or character accessories.

Recently Nexon launched Kartrider Rush to Apple App store. Kartrider Rush is minimized version of Crazyracing Kartrider.
Computer System requirements
OS: Windows 98/2000/ME/XP and above
CPU: Pentium IIII 2.0GHz (Above 3.0GHz is recommended)
RAM: 1GB (2GB and above is recommended)
Video Card-NVidia: Geforce4 MX and above(Geforce 6200 and above is recommended) 
-ATI: Radeon 8500 and above(Radeon 9500 and above is recommended)
DirectX: DirextX 9.0 and later

References
http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20110311005839/en/Nexons-KartRider-Rush-Races-iOS

Online games
A hanok is a type of house. It is built in a traditional Korean style of architecture.

Features 
The main feature of a hanok is that it has combination of ondol, the Korean under-floor heating system, and wooden floor for heating and cooling. This style is mainly used in Korea because of problems caused by the area having both a continental climate and an oceanic climate.

Shape

Regional differences 
Hanoks have different shapes in different parts of Korea. In the northern part of the Korean peninsula, hanoks have the structure of a house with several wings. The wings are often built in either a square or the letter L. This helps keep the wind out of the house in the colder northern places and helps keep the house warm. These kind of house also has low roofs. In the warmer southern Korean peninsula, hanoks have a single wing and a wooden floor. This helps let the air in and out.
Class differences
The hanoks is also different based on the class of the people who live it.  Hanok of upper class people usually have tiled roofs (called giwa) while lower class houses have roofs made of rice-straw (called choga). Hanok for the upper-class people are built not only to be homes, but also to be very ornamental.

Buildings and structures in Korea
Houses
A cappella music is music where people sing without instruments.

In a choir, there are up to 5 parts: soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, and bass. A cappella can also have those 5 parts. A difference is with percussion. With musical instruments, percussion is done with musical instruments that you hit, such as drums. In an a cappella performance, a person makes the percussion sound. For a beatbox performance, performers make sounds like electric drums, synthesizer and electric guitar. Another part of percussion in a cappella performance is making classical drum sounds for tapping the beat.

The word a cappella is Italian for "in the manner of the church" or "in the manner of the chapel".  It was first used in religious music.  Gregorian chant is an example of a cappella singing.

History 
For the first 1000 years of Christianity, all hymns in the church were sung without instrumental accompaniment. This style of singing came to be known as a cappella, meaning "of the church" or "in the style of the church".
Genres 
There are several kinds of music in a cappella, such as barbershop, classical, contemporary, gospel, doo-wop, jazz, and world.

A barbershop group has 4 people. The name of this genre came from the tradition that when many men gathered in a barbershop they would sing with no musical instruments. A barbershop quartet has four male voices or four female voices.  Mixed barbershop quartets are also possible, usually with two male and two female voices.  The voices parts are called bass, baritone, lead, and tenor. In music in the barbershop style, the melody (the "tune") is sung by the lead part.

In classical a cappella, people perform classical music such as 'a Turkish march', 'Overture William Tell', madrigal, etc.
Contemporary is the most popular kind of a cappella these days. For this kind, the "bass" line should be stronger, and the "chorus" (all the singers except for bass, percussion, and solo) should have variety. The percussion should make their sound more like drums. This genre is similar to 'doo-wop' but the "chorus" part is more complex and has a variety of sound effects.

Doo-wop is also getting more popular because of its simple style. Even though it has simple moto (Italian for "progression of music"), it can be interesting with great vocal and chorus.

References 

CASA Homepage
KACS Homepage 
Kissing - Korean A Cappella Club
blog.me

Other websites
Club for five 
The Real Group
The Idea of North 
Suade 
Naturally 7
CASA - The Contemporary A Cappella Society
CASHM 
KACS - Korea A Cappella Society 

Singing
Boxer briefs are men's underwear.  They are tight like briefs but still have long legs like boxer shorts. They are popular and are worn by lots of teenagers and young men. They are sometimes called retropants, retros or retro shorts. They are are fashionable men's underwear that, unlike boxer shorts, are not cut wide, but rather fit snugly on the skin. That keeps the penis and testicles from moving and bouncing a lot, which some men find uncomfortable. The name retros is used because the cut or style comes from underwear styles from the 1950s or even earlier. Boxer briefs reversed the trend from the 1960s through the 1980s in which the popular cuts (styles) of underwear and swimwear became smaller and smaller, especially for teenagers and younger men.
Some looser styles of boxer briefs offer a compromise or middle option between very snug boxer briefs and lightweight, loose-fitting boxer shorts.

Image gallery

References

Underwear
Bottoms (clothing)
was a  coming after Keichō and before Kan'ei.  This period started in July 1615 and ended in February 1624. During this time, the emperor was .

The nengō Genna means "Commencement of Concord".

Events of the Genna era

 1615 (Genna 1): Tokugawa forces burned Osaka Castle.
 1 September 1615 (Genna 1, 9th day of the 7th month): Tokugawa Ieyasu pulled down Hōkoku-jinja.
 1616 (Genna 2): Kida Kōan publishes Genna kokaisho, which is a book on ocean navigation.
 1 June 1616 (Genna 2, 17th day of the 4th month): Ieyasu died at Suruga Castle.
 26 September 1617 (Genna 3, 26th day of the 8th month): Former-Emperor Go-Yōzei died. He was buried at Nikkō.
 1618 (Genna 4, 8th month): A comet appeared in the sky.
 5 July 1620 (Genna 6, 6th day of the 6th month): The emperor married Tokugawa Kazuko who was the daughter of the shogun.
 1620 (Genna 6): There were destructive fires in Kyoto in the 2nd and 3rd month.

Related pages 
 Edo period

References
References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

Japanese eras
1615 establishments
17th-century establishments in Japan
1624 disestablishments
17th-century disestablishments in Japan
Spanking is hitting the buttocks of another person to cause them pain. Spanking usually means hitting the buttocks of another person with an open hand. Parents in some countries spank children and teenagers to punish them.  

In some other countries this is no longer allowed. Parents often hope that spanking will make the children obey them. From the past up to the present day, adults have spanked boys more than they have spanked girls.

When a parent spanks their child, they usually strike the child's buttocks with their open hand.  Sometimes they  use other objects such as a belt or a wooden spoon.  At times the child's buttocks may be clothed.  At other times they may be bare.  Often the parent makes the child lie across their lap.  At other times, a parent might tell a child or teenager to bend over or lie face down across a bed.
When children are asked how they feel when their parents spank them, many say that it makes them feel sad, angry, and afraid.  Some young children in the United Kingdom whose parents spanked them said things like, “it feels like someone banged you with a hammer” and “it hurts and it’s painful inside – it’s like breaking your bones”. 

The American Academy of Pediatrics is a group of medical doctors who work with children.  They say that spanking is not a good way to help children learn how to behave. They say that it can easily injure a small child. They say that spanking can lead to child abuse.  They say that parents should never spank a child with an object.
Some groups of people have said that spanking is violent and goes against human rights.  They are people like lawyers, social workers, and politicians.  Spanking a person under the age of 18 is now against the law in more than 40 countries.  Some of those countries are Brazil, Germany, Israel, Argentina, Sweden, Netherlands, Spain, Poland, New Zealand, Kenya, and Costa Rica.
Dr. Elizabeth T. Gershoff is a scientist who studies spanking.  She says that research done over many years shows that spanking does not work.  She says that spanking does not teach children good behavior or to obey their parents.  She says that children who are spanked obey their parents less as time goes on.  Dr. Gershoff said that spanking is "violent" and should be stopped.  In 2012, a group of Canadian  scientists also looked at many years of research and found that spanking does not work.  They said that over time, spanked children become more aggressive.  Murray Straus is another scientist studying spanking of children.  He has said that there is new research showing that spanked children commit more crimes when they grow up.  He said that this was so even if their parents were "loving" to them.
A small number of scientists have claimed that ordinary spanking does no harm.   Other scientists say that "over 100" studies have shown that spanking can harm children.  They say that spanking harms children's mental growth.  They also say that children who are spanked grow up to have more mental illnesses.  They say that no study has shown any good to come from spanking.   Scientists at the University of Manitoba in Canada found that children who were hit even "sometimes" suffered more mental illnesses when they grew up.  They could have different kinds of mental illnesses: long-lasting sad or discouraged feelings and a loss of pleasure and interest in life (depression), a lot of fear and worry (anxiety), racing thoughts that are hard to control and acting without thinking (mania), or a need to take drugs or alcohol to feel well (drug and alcohol abuse).  Other scientists have discovered that spanking children often can make their brains grow less than they should
.  These children end up less able to think clearly.  They also try to hurt others more.
Children were always allowed more freedom in some countries, and that includes freedom from physical punishment. This goes with views as to the nature of children. In general, children from some Mediterranean countries such as Italy got more freedom than they did in northern countries.

References

Punishments
Ragunan Zoo is a 140-hectare (350-acre) zoo in Pasar Minggu, South Jakarta, Indonesia. It was founded in 1864. The zoo has over 295 species of animals, 171 species of flora and 3,122 animal specimens including birds.

Ragunan Zoo is a combination of a zoo and park, so it is also known as Ragunan Zoological Park. It holds a lot of Indonesian species such as komodo dragon, orangutan, tapir, anoa, sumatran tiger, Javan Hawk-eagle and various colored birds like the southern cassowary. Other popular animals are sumatran elephant, kangaroo, giraffe, and zebra.

References

Other websites 

Zoos
Organizations based in Indonesia
Green chemistry (or sustainable chemistry) is a type of chemical research and engineering. It supports the design of products and processes that use as little dangerous substances as they can. 

Environmental chemistry is the chemistry of the natural environment and of pollutant chemicals in nature. But green chemistry wants to reduce and prevent pollution at its source. In 1990, the Pollution Prevention Act was passed in the United States. This law sought original and new ways to handle pollution. It aims to avoid problems before they happen.

Green chemistry applies organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, analytical chemistry and even physical chemistry.  While green chemistry seems to focus on just industrial applications, it does apply to any chemistry choice. Green chemists reduce the hazards and increase the efficiency of any chemical choice. It is distinct from environmental chemistry which focuses on chemical phenomena in the environment.

The 12 principles of green chemistry
1. Prevent waste

Create products without or with minimal wastes so that the wastes do not need to be taken care of afterwards.

2. Design safer chemicals and products

Design chemicals to have little or no toxicity, without affecting effectiveness.

3. Design less hazardous chemical synthesis

Design a way of synthesising products without it being toxic to humans or the environment.

4. Use renewable raw materials

Use renewable raw materials, like plant materials, other than depleting ones, such as Fossil fuels.

5. Use catalysts, not stoichiometric reagents

Use of catalysts because of their ability to be able to be reused and that they are less harmful than reagents.

6. Avoid chemical derivatives

Chemical derivatives generate wastes that can be avoided.

7. Maximize atom economy

Make sure that a greater percentage of the atoms present in the reactants of a chemical reaction are used in the products that are also usable.

8. Use safer solvents and reaction conditions
Avoid using harsh solvents, but if that cannot be avoided, then use benign chemicals.

9. Increase energy efficiency

Use the normal ambient temperature and pressure wherever possible.

10. Design for degradation

Design materials to breakdown into benign substances by bacterial or other environmentally sound ways.

11. Analyse in real time to prevent pollution

Monitor and control the formation of by-products during a reaction.

12. Minimize the potential for accidents

Design chemicals to minimize the potential for accidents.

References
References

Other websites
EPA Green Chemistry Program Website
Introduction to Green Chemistry and Recent Literature
American Chemical Society Green Chemistry Institute
California Department of Toxic Substances Control, Green Chemistry Initiative 
University of California, Berkeley, Program in Green Chemistry and Chemicals Policy 
Center for Green Chemistry and Green Engineering at Yale University
Green Chemistry Centre of Excellence at the University of York, UK 
Center for Sustainable and Green Chemistry at the Technical University of Denmark 
Mediterranean Countries Green Chemistry Network 
Next Generation Environmental Technologies Published by RAND
Green Chemistry at Tel Aviv University 
Green Chemistry, Journal of the Royal Society of Chemistry
Green Chemistry Book Series published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews, Taylor & Francis

Environmental chemistry
Toastmasters International is a global educational organization which helps to improve English speaking skills and communication. In each club, members are led by the Toastmasters Manual to speak in front of an audience fluently, to think quickly and to react confidently.

History

The first Toastmasters club opened on October 22, 1924, at Santa Ana, California, United States by Ralph C. Smedley. It was called Smedley Club Number 1. Today there are over 13,000 clubs in 116 countries.

Clubs, meetings and membership

A typical Toastmasters club is made up of 20 - 30 people who gather weekly throughout the year. The club meetings last for about two hours and there are many roles. The meetings generally consist of the following:
An introduction circle at the beginning of the meeting gives the members, visitors and newcomers a chance to get to know each other and briefly and express his/her opinion on a certain question presented by a Chairman
Word of the Day is an unknown or interesting word, sentence, expression that is supposed to be used during the introduction circle or during the following meeting.
Invocation is a thoughtful thanks or idea to motivate members to do our best. It is a short prepared speech.
Toast of the Day is a short prepared speech, dedicated to something or somebody the speaker considers worthy to be admired or respected.
Table Topics gives members the opportunity to participate in impromptu speech situations
Prepared speeches are based on projects from the Communication and Leadership Program Manuals
Evaluation is a part of the meeting, during which each speaker is provided with valuable feedback
Closing Thought can be a thoughtful idea or a joke to close the meeting.
Roles:
Chairman opens the meeting, leads the first part of the meeting, prepares a simple question for the introduction circle, welcomes other speakers, leads the business minutes.
Word Master introduces and explains the Word of the Day
Toastmaster guides the rest of the meeting, introduces the speakers, gives short information about the speakers, schedule or events.
Table Topics Master prepares a topic for impromptu (unprepared) speeches, usually several questions related to the chosen topic. He asks speakers to give a 2-minute speech with a structure - an opening, a body and a conclusion.
Table Topics Evaluator evaluates the chosen topic, the Table Topics Master and the speakers’ presentations. He initiates voting for the best Table Topics Speaker.
Speaker presents a prepared speech, usually according to the Toastmasters Manual, usually two or three speakers are introduced.
General Evaluator leads the evaluation meeting - calls Evaluators, Timer and Grammarian. He/she also evaluates other roles and the meeting as a whole.
Evaluator evaluates the Speaker, according to the Toastmasters Manual; there is one Evaluator for each speech.
Timer measures time limits of both prepared and unprepared speeches, uses a special light device to show the time limits (green, yellow, red).
Grammarian follows mistakes made during the whole meeting, reports and corrects them, and explains grammatical rules.
Quiz Master prepares questions concerning the meeting activities and asks participants to answer the questions.
Competent Communication Manual

The Competent Communication Manual is a basic manual for Toastmasters. Members follow it to present ten speeches. Each of the ten topics is dedicated to improving one of the speaker’s basic skills. The skills are:

The Ice Breaker
Organize Your Speech
Get to the Point
How to Say It
Your Body Speaks
Vocal Variety
Research Your Topic
Get Comfortable with Visual Aids
Persuade with Power
Inspire Your Audience

After completing all ten speeches the member gets a globally recognized certificate and he/she can continue strengthening his/her skills with the Advanced Communication Manuals.

International organizations
Public speaking
Santa Ana, California
A memristor, or memory resistor, is described as one of the basic elements (resistor, capacitor, inductor) of electronic circuits, because it can’t be replaced by any combination of these elements. This element can change its resistivity according to the voltage, but even after disconnection it remembers resistivity for unlimited time. It can work like analog memory or a resistive switch, which can have an infinite number of states.

History
Professor Leon Chua mathematically described this element in 1971.
In 2008 scientists from HP labs described a material that appeared to be a good candidate to construct the hypothetical memristor.
How it works
The fourth element can change its conductivity by the voltage, and after power interruption the amount of the resistivity stays the same. No combination of the other three circuit elements can replace a memristor. Only the memristor allows reconfiguring properties so it allows changing a whole electronic circuit. Analogy behaviour is similar to synapses in the brain.

Future usage
Memristors have great potential for use in computers. For example, computers today have to boot from hard drives because the data is erased from operating memory immediately after shutting down the computer. The process of booting takes much time and energy. Memristors could be used for loading data quicker because it remembers data even after power interruption. Therefore, Memristors could be used to speed the booting process.

The first products using Memristor technology are expected to become available in 2013.

References
References

Further reading
 YAN Kun(2011). Nonlinstor-An electronic circuit element based on the form of the nonlinear differential equation (Brief annotation of the connection equation(R)), Xi'an: Xi'an Modern Nonlinear Science Applying Institute.

Electronic components
A geostationary orbit (or Geostationary Earth Orbit - GEO) is a type of geosynchronous orbit directly above the Earth's equator (0° latitude).  Like all geosynchronous orbits, it has a period (time for one orbit) that is 24 hours.  This means it goes around the Earth as fast as the Earth spins, and so it appears to stay above the same spot all the time.  A person watching from Earth sees a satellite in a geostationary orbit as not moving, at a steady place in the sky.

Satellites in geostationary orbit
Communications satellites and weather satellites often use these orbits, so that the satellite antennas that communicate with them do not have to move to track them. The ground atennas can be pointed permanently at a fixed position in the sky.  This is cheaper and easier than having a satellite dish that is always moving to track a satellite. Each one stays above the equator at a set longitude (distance east or west).
The idea of a geosynchronous satellite for communication was first published in 1928 (but not widely so) by Herman Potočnik. The idea of a geostationary orbit became well known first in a 1945 paper called "Extra-Terrestrial Relays — Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?" by the British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke, published in Wireless World magazine. The orbit, which Clarke first described as good for broadcast and relay communications satellites, is sometimes called the Clarke Orbit. Named after the author, the Clarke Belt is this part of space above the Earth - about  above sea level, over the equator, where near-geostationary orbits may be implemented. The Clarke Orbit (another name for a geostationary orbit) is about  around.

Details of the orbit 
The satellite orbits in the direction of the Earth's rotation, producing an orbital period equal to the Earth's period of rotation, known as the sidereal day (very nearly 24 hours).
The orbit needs to be above the equator.  Since all orbits are around the center of the Earth, if it was tipped above the equator (so that the satellite was straight above New York City, for example) it would need to swing an equal distance to the south pole on each orbit.  It needs to spend an equal amount of time on each side of the equator.  So if it is directly above the equator, it doesn't move north or south at all. (Geosynchronous orbits are like geostationary orbits, but also include those that go above and below the equator).
The height of the orbit is an exact distance, because the speed of the orbit depends on how far it is from the center of the Earth.  An orbit is a balance between centripetal force against the Earth's gravity.  Objects closer to Earth feel more gravity.  This is why objects in low orbit (like the International Space Station orbit the Earth very quickly, about 90 minutes or so for each orbit.  Objects farther away take longer for each orbit.  The moon for instance, takes about 29 days for each orbit.

Because this orbit is so high, it takes radio (and light) waves about 1/4 second to go up to the satellite and back to Earth.  This means that a broadcast interview taking place between the television station and a distant reporter can have a gap of a half second (1/4 second to go from the studio to the reporter, and a 1/4 second back to the studio, where the signal is then sent to viewer).  This half second delay can be noticed in many news broadcasts.
When satellites reach the end of their life, it would be too expensive to bring them all the way back down to Earth to burn up in the atmosphere.  It is much cheaper to put them a little higher (300 km) in a 'graveyard' orbit, where they will stay essentially forever.

References

Other websites
 Graphical derivation of the geostationary orbit radius for the Earth 
 Orbital Mechanics (Rocket and Space Technology)
 List of satellites in geostationary orbit
 Clarke Belt Snapshot Calculator 
 3D Real Time Satellite Tracking 
 Geostationary satellite orbit overview 

Satellites
Astrophysics

de:Geosynchrone Umlaufbahn#Geostationäre Umlaufbahn