Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Criticisms of IQ tests 
There are a number of problems with intelligence quotients. They relate to different fields of the subject. The problems can be grouped:
 There is no general agreement on what intelligence really is. So, it is problematic to claim that the intelligence quotient is a measure of intelligence. However, psychologists do not claim that the tests measure intelligence directly. They claim the tests are an index of intelligence, since higher scorers usually can do more difficult tasks.
 Some think it is problematic that different aspects of intelligence can be combined into one "measurement".
 The first tests were done on children in school, to determine which children would likely need more attention. Some think this is different from measuring "intelligence". A child that needs more help in school may not be less intelligent; they might simply come from a different background.
Some tests favor those tested from a certain cultural background. People of another culture will test less well, but without a definition, there is no way to determine whether that means they are less intelligent.
Test does not measure intelligence 
Alfred Binet, a French psychologist (who designed one of the first tests in 1905) had this opinion. He used the test to see which pupils would need special help with the school curriculum because of intellectual disability. He believed that the test scales were not able to measure intelligence:

He argued that with good education programs, most students could catch up and perform quite well in school. This was independent of the background of the pupil. He did not believe that intelligence was a measurable fixed entity.

Some dispute psychometrics entirely. Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence tests were based on faulty assumptions and showed their history of being used as the basis for scientific racism. In his opinion, the general intelligence factor g (which these tests measure), is simply a mathematical artifact.
However, as explained above, IQ tests were highly successful in assessing recruits during wartime. Therefore, it must be true that they are measuring a relevant mental capability. Therefore, IQs are not simply a mathematical fiction: they relate to the ability of individuals to perform certain functions. Even if experts do not agree on a definition of intelligence, that does not disprove the usefulness (or otherwise) of the tests. In every day life people do notice the relative intelligence of others. The issue is central to human nature and evolutionary psychology, because humans evolved the characteristics which helped them survive and reproduce.

Tests are biased 
The American Psychological Association's report Intelligence: knowns and unknowns states that IQ tests as predictors of social achievement are not biased against people of African descent. They predict future performance, such as school achievement, similarly to the way they predict future performance for European descent.
Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the feudal system and unequal treatment of women. In contrast, others claim that the refusal of "high-IQ elites" to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral.

American Psychological Association 
The American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force in 1995 to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion. The full text of the report is available through several websites.

In this paper the representatives of the association regret that IQ-related works are frequently written with a view to their political consequences: "research findings were often assessed not so much on their merits or their scientific standing as on their supposed political implications".
The task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They found that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics. Both genes and environment, in complex interplay, are essential to the development of intellectual competence.

They state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition. The task force agrees that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction. The task force suggests that explanations based on social status and cultural differences are possible, and that environmental factors have raised mean test scores in many populations.
The APA journal that published the statement, American Psychologist, later published responses in January 1997. Several of these argued that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations.

References 

Intelligence
Giftedness
Psychometrics
Dead Calm is an American novel that was written in 1963. A 1989 Australian movie was made from it. The movie stars Sam Neill, Nicole Kidman, and Billy Zane.

What happened 

In it, a honeymoon couple rescue a young man from a sinking boat who claims to have lost his companions to food poisoning, but the real story is much less innocent.

In this movie, Kidman and Neill plays good guys and Zane plays a bad guy.  This movie was Kidman's first well-known movie, and it helped make her famous. In this movie, Zane's character rapes Kidman's character.

Other websites 
 

1963 books
Crime fiction books
20th-century American novels
Event Horizon is a 1997 Anglo-American science fiction horror movie.
It was directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. It stars Laurence Fishburne, Sam Neill, Kathleen Quinlan and Joely Richardson.

Synopsis 
This movie is set in 2047. A spaceship is stuck near Neptune. Sam Neill's character (Dr. William Weir) is very sad because his wife has died. When they go to the space ship, they find that everyone has killed themselves. It all looks very scary. Then they find out that the ship has been to another dimension. It is like hell and everyone sees their worst nightmares.

Sam Neill sees his wife in his dream. She tells him to pull his eyes out. Neill then walks around without any eyes and starts to kill people. They send him out to space, but he does not die. People get very scared. Even after they kill Neill, they still see him.

Other websites
Other websites 
 

1997 horror movies
1997 science fiction movies
1990s science fiction horror movies
1990s supernatural movies
American science fiction horror movies
American supernatural movies
British horror movies
British science fiction movies
English-language movies
Movies set in the future
Movies directed by Paul W.S. Anderson‏‎
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which this substance goes from the solid  state to the liquid one, at a normal pressure. For water, this is 0° Celsius (32 Fahrenheit, 273,15 Kelvin). The chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten. Some chemical compounds have a higher melting point. 

When looking at when a liquid substance becomes solid, most people call this the freezing point. For most substances, like water, this is the same as the melting point. There are substances, where this is not the case (they melt at one temperature, and freeze at another). Agar seems to melt at 85° Celsius, but freeze at between 35°C and 40°C.  This phenomenon is a kind of hysteresis. 

Adding certain substances or impurities will change the melting point of the resulting mixture. For example, sugar or salt will lower the melting point, and alcohol will raise it. 

Thermodynamics
Chemistry
Michael Hayden (born March 17, 1945) is an American politician, writer and military personnel. He was the head of the CIA from 2006 to 2009.  On 24 May 2006, he was voted as the new head of the CIA by the United States Senate.  He was the director of the NSA from 1999 to 2005.  The NSA and CIA are both spy agencies.  He has worked as a spy since 1970.

On November 23, 2018, Hayden was hospitalized after suffering a stroke.

References

Other websites 
Michael Hayden biography from the NSA 

1945 births
Living people
American generals
American political writers
Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency
Directors of the National Security Agency
Politicians from Pittsburgh
Writers from Pittsburgh
Military people from Pennsylvania
Wittenberg ( , ; Low Saxon: Wittenbarg; meaning White Mountain; officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg (traditional English: Luther City Wittenberg, Low Saxon: Lutherstadt Wittenbarg)) is a town in Germany. It lies in the eastern part of Saxony-Anhalt. Wittenberg became one of the most important German towns of political, cultural, historical, and artistic advances in the 16th century. The famous reformation places in the old town, and the buildings developed in different epochs, make up the architecture of the town.
Many people travel to Wittenberg because of its past, and its connection to Martin Luther who worked there.

Wittenberg has about 46,000 inhabitants. Its geographical coordinates are 51° 52’ N, 12° 39’ E.

Notes

References

States of the Holy Roman Empire
Wittenberg (district)
Martin Luther
Cyberstalking is the use of the Internet or other electronic means to stalk or harass an individual, group, or organization.It may include false accusations, defamation, slander and libel. It may also include monitoring, identity theft, threats, vandalism, solicitation for sex, doxing, or blackmail.

Stalking 
Stalking is following someone around in a way that makes them feel hunted or not safe in some other way. It is not just one event but an ongoing process that threatens or makes that person feel scared. Someone who does this is called a stalker. The stalker may do this because they want to be involved in that person's life or because they want to have power over that person's life. The stalker can hurt that person's feelings by making them scared. They may feel they do not have the power to stop the stalker. Psychologists say stalking is a way of hurting someone's mind with serious effects. Sometimes a stalker may go on to hurt that person's body by assaulting, raping or murdering that person.
Cyberstalking 
Cyberstalking is when the stalker uses the Internet to contact or follow that person. The stalker may make direct contact with that person, they may send nasty messages to that person or spread lies about them to others. Sometimes stalkers use the Internet to learn more about the other person. They might find their address, phone number, workplace or photograph. Then they might use this information to do more stalking or find other ways to hurt that person on the Internet or hurt their body.

The person who is stalked on the Internet may feel they have more power if they can simply delete emails or turn their computer connection off. Or they may feel they have less power if they do not know who the stalker is.

References

Internet
Types of crime
Current could mean:

Electric current
Current (fluid)
Ocean current
Air current
Current (mathematics)
Present (time), e.g. current events

Basic English 850 words
Voltage is what makes electric charges move.  It is the 'push' that causes charges to move in a wire or other electrical conductor.  It can be thought of as the force that pushes the charges, but it is not a force. Voltage can cause charges to move, and since moving charges is a current, voltage can cause a current.
Electric Potential Difference is the true scientific term but is commonly called Voltage. Informally, voltage or electric potential difference is sometimes called "Potential Difference". Voltage is also called, in certain circumstances, electromotive force (EMF).
 
Voltage is an electrical potential difference, the difference in electric potential between two places.  The unit for electrical potential difference, or voltage, is the volt. The volt is named in memory of Alessandro Volta. One volt equals one joule per coulomb.  The symbol for the unit volt is written with an uppercase V as in (9V).  According to the rules of the International System of Units, the symbol for a unit with a name derived from the proper name of a person is uppercase.
Please note that the volt and voltage are two different things. The volt is a unit by which we measure something. Both electric potential and voltage are things we measure and the volt is the unit of measure for both. The symbol for the unit volt is written with a V (9 volts or 9 V). When voltage is used in a formula, it can be typeset in italics, e.g., , or written in cursive. If there is only a single letter symbol to go by, a lowercase v may be used, e.g.,  or . Electrical engineers use the symbol  for voltage, e.g., , to make the difference between voltage and volts very clear.
Technically, the voltage is the difference in electric potential between two points and is always measured between two points.  e.g. between the positive and negative ends of a battery, between a wire and the ground, or between a wire or a point of a circuit and a point in another part of the circuit.  In everyday use with household electricity in the U.S. the voltage is most often 120V. This voltage is measured from the electric wire to the ground.

Note that there must be both voltage and current to transfer power (energy). For example, a wire can have a high voltage on it, but unless it is connected, nothing will happen. Birds can land on high voltage lines such as 12kV and 16kV without dying, because the current does not flow through the bird.
There are two types of voltage, DC voltage and AC voltage. The DC voltage (direct current voltage) always has the same polarity (positive or negative), such as in a battery. The AC voltage (alternating current voltage) alternates between positive and negative. For example, the voltage from the wall socket changes polarity 60 times per second (in America) or 50 times per second (UK and Europe). The DC is typically used for electronics and the AC for motors.

Definition 
Voltage is the change in Electric Potential between two places 
or the change in Electric Potential Energy per coulomb between two places.
 
Where V=Voltage, EPE=Electric Potential Energy, q=charge, ∆=difference in.
Voltage is always measured between two points, and one of them is often called the "ground", or the zero volt (0V) point. In most AC electrical installations there is a connection to the earth. A connection is made to the real ground through a water pipe, a ground rod buried or driven into the earth, or a convenient metallic conductor (not a gas pipe) buried underground.  This connection is made at the point of entry of the electric system into a building, at every pole where there is a transformer at the street (often on an electric pole), and other places in the system. The whole planet Earth is used as a reference point for measuring voltage. In a building this ground is carried to each electrical device on two wires. One is the 'grounding conductor' (the green or bare wire) and is used as a safety ground to connect metal parts of equipment to the earth.  The other is used as one of the electric conductors in the circuits of the system and is called the 'neutral conductor'
. This wire which is at the ground potential completes all the circuits by carrying the current from any electric equipment back to the systems entry point into the buildings and then to the transformer usually at the street.  In many places outside the buildings it becomes unnecessary to have a wire to complete the circuits and carry the current from the buildings to the generators.  The return path that carries all the current back is the earth itself.
In DC circuits, the negative end of a generator or battery is often called the "ground" or zero volt (0V) point, even though there may or may not be a connection to the earth. There can be several grounds on the same printed circuit board (PCB), for example with sensitive analog circuits, that part of the circuit can use an "analog ground", and the digital part, have a " digital ground". 

In electrical equipment the 0 volt point can be the metal chassis called a chassis ground or a connection to the actual ground called an earth ground, each with their own symbol used in electrical schematic drawings (circuit drawings).

Measuring tools 
Some of the tools for measuring the voltage are the voltmeter and the oscilloscope.

The voltmeter measures the voltage between two points and can be set to the DC mode or the AC mode. The voltmeter can measure the DC voltage of a battery for example (typically 1.5V or 9V), or the AC voltage from the power socket on the wall (typically 120V).
For more complex signals, an oscilloscope can be used the measured the DC and/or AC voltage, for example to measure the voltage across a speaker.

Potential difference 
The voltage, or potential difference from point a to point b is the amount of energy in joules (as a result of electric field) required to move 1 coulomb of positive charge from point a to point b. A negative voltage between points a and b is one in which 1 coulomb of energy is required to move a negative charge from point a to b. If there is a uniform electric field about a charged object, negatively charged objects will be pulled towards higher voltages, and positively charged objects will be pulled towards lower voltages. The potential difference/Voltage between two points is independent of the path taken to get from point a to b. Thus, the voltage from a to b + the voltage from b to c will always equal the voltage from a to c.

Energy
Electricity
A stopwatch is a tool used to measure the amount of time something takes. For example, to learn how soon a car can reach 60 miles per hour, or how much time it takes a runner to run 40 yards. These days, stopwatches are even installed in digital watches. You press a button to start the time and press it again to stop the time. A stopwatch can tell you the time in seconds, hundredths of a second, or thousandths of a second.

Clocks
Measuring tools
The départements (or departments) are administrative parts of France and many French colonies, similar to English counties.  Départements are a kind of local government.

The 101 French départements are now grouped into 13 metropolitan and five overseas régions. Their capitals are called préfectures.

French régions and préfecture
Macro-sociology is a way of looking at the world of people in a broad way. It studies mass of many peoples.  It is about "concerned with human societies".  Macrosociology is considered one of the main foundations of sociology (contrast with micro-sociology).

In sociology there are different levels of analysis. Macro-sociology is the analysis of either large collectivities (the city, the church) or, more abstractly, of social systems and social structures. (Dictionary of Sociology, 2000)

With the perspective of macro-sociology, it is possible to better understand societies, culture, groups and organizations.
Important representatives of macro-sociological theories are:
 Karl Marx; who analyzed society from the perspective of class conflict between workers and owners, micro sociology
 Max Weber; who viewed society as rapidly modernizing and looked at the effects of this process, such as bureaucratization, macro sociology
 Emile Durkheim; who viewed individual issues as reflective of greater social patterns, completing the first sociological study (which linked suicide to societal trends), macro sociology

References 
 

Subfields of sociology
Banja Luka is one of seven regions in Republika Srpska. In the center of this region is the city of Banja Luka. There are about 709,000 people in Banja Luka Region.

Regions of Republika Srpska
Doboj Region is one of seven regions in Republika Srpska. In the center of this region is town of Doboj. Doboj Region is located in the north of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Regions of Republika Srpska
Bijeljina Region is one of seven regions in the Republika Srpska entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The capital city of this region is Bijeljina.

Bijeljina Region is located in the northeast of the country.

Regions of Republika Srpska
The flag of Poland is a rectangular, divided into two stripes: white above red. It was created in its modern form in 1921. The colors white and red were earlier declared the official national colors in 1831 by the Polish Parliament in 1831.

For many centuries the Polish flag was a white eagle on a red background.

Details 

The ratio of height to width is 5 to 8. The two horizontal stripes are of equal height.

There is a second version which has a coat of arms in the upper (white) half. The use of this flag is legally restricted.

If the flag is shown hanging vertically, the white should be on the left.

Polish flag day is May 2.

The Color White 

The exact color of the white was not clearly stated until 1980.

The Color Red
The Color Red 

The exact color of the red was not clearly stated originally, and has changed through the years. In 1919 the official act did not clearly define the red. In 1921 the Polish Ministry of Military Affairs used crimson as the shade of red in publications. In 1928 the president of Poland said the red should be vermilion. That was used until 1980, when people needed to specify the red more scientifically.

Similar flags in other places 

The same flag design is used in the German region Thuringia and the Spanish region Cantabria.

Both Indonesia and Monaco have flags that are the same colors, but upside-down.

Related pages
 Poland

References 

Poland, Flag of
National symbols of Poland
The Transrapid is a high speed train developed in Germany. It uses magnetic levitation. It can go very fast, up to 500km/h. Since now it is only used in Shanghai. 
It is developed by the company TRANSRAPID INTERNATIONAL GmbH & Co. KG, a company of the Siemens AG and the ThyssenKrupp AG. 

High-speed trains
Transport in the People's Republic of China
Shanghai
In physics, torque is the tendency of a force to turn or twist. If a force is used to begin to spin an object, or to stop an object from spinning, a torque is made.

The force applied to a lever, multiplied by the distance from the lever's fulcrum, multiplied again by the sine of the angle created, is described as torque. This is also known as "r cross f," or "force times fulcrum distance times sine theta."

Fulcrum 
Fulcrum is the axis of rotation or point of support on which a lever turns in raising or moving something.

Equation 
The equation for torque is:

where F is the net force vector and r is the vector from the axis of rotation to the point where the force is acting. The Greek letter Tau is used to represent torque. 

The units of torque are force multiplied by distance. The SI unit of torque is the newton-metre.  The most common English unit is the foot-pound.

References
References

Other websites 
"Horsepower and Torque"  An article showing how power, torque, and gearing affect a vehicle's performance.
a discussion of torque and angular momentum in an online textbook 
Torque and Angular Momentum in Circular Motion  on Project PHYSNET.
An interactive simulation of torque

Basic physics ideas
Physical quantity
Mechanics
Engineering
Warm is the opposite of cool.

When objects get warm, more energy is stored in them. When an object is heated, its molecules move faster. Heat always goes from a warmer object to a colder object; it never goes in the opposite way. A person usually feels good when they are warm, but they do not like to be too warm, because this may become uncomfortable.

Basic English 850 words
Thermodynamics
The University of Leeds (sometimes called Leeds University) is a university in Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK.  It first started in 1831 with the opening of a school to teach medicine which was one of the first outside of London, Oxford, and Cambridge.

Today one of the UK's leading universities. It is a member of the Russell Group. The university is one of two in the city, the other being Leeds Metropolitan University.  The main campus is in the Woodhouse area of Leeds, close to Leeds City Centre.

Campus
The main campus is in the Woodhouse area of Leeds, which is about half a mile from the city centre.  The campus has many older Victorial buildings such as the Great Hall, as well as some mid-twentieth century buildings such as the Parkinson Building.  There are also many brutalist building on campus such as the Roger Stevens Building and the Edward Boyle Library.  Recently, newer buildings have been added such as the Marjorie and Arnold Ziff Building.

References
References

Other websites
University of Leeds website
Leeds University Union
Leeds Student newspaper 
Leeds Student news on Flisolo 
Leeds University Union Dance Band 

Leeds
1831 establishments in Europe
1830s establishments in England
Leeds is a city in Yorkshire and just under 1 million people live here. Leeds has four universities: University of Leeds, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds Trinity University and the University of Law. Leeds is on the River Aire. The city's football team is Leeds United AFC.

History 
In Roman times, Leeds was called 'Loidis' which means 'People of the flowing river'.

Leeds grew into a large city, mainly during Victorian times, when many factories were built in the city, making cloth as well as other products. Most of these factories have now closed.

With the building of many of the factories and mills in Leeds, many canals and railways were built in the city as well.  

Leeds used to have a tram system, but this was removed in 1959. There have been plans to bring it back. Trolleybuses have also been thought of.

Marks and Spencers started with a market stall in Leeds Market, and they now have shops throughout the city, with their largest one being on Briggate.
Much of Leeds was rebuilt in the 1960s and 1970s because the old Victorian buildings were mostly run down and unsuitable for modern use. Many new council houses and flats were built around the city.

In the 1970s, the council used the motto 'Motorway City of the 1970s' to try to promote the city. This is because the Leeds Inner Ring Road is a motorway and the M1 motorway, which starts in London, ended in central Leeds.

Today 

Today Leeds still has many factories and offices for large companies. The City Centre has attracted many shops, offices, pubs, restaurants and bars. Leeds now has some skyscrapers such as Bridgewater Place. Leeds and Manchester are the most important cities for business in the North of England. Many banks have their offices in Leeds.
Many flats have also been built in the city centre. Leeds has some expensive areas to live like Chapel Allerton, Headingley, Kirkstall, Horsforth, Roundhay and Alwoodley, but it also has some cheap places to live where crime is high like Harehills, Chapeltown, Seacroft and Beeston. There have been riots in Harehills and Chapeltown before.

Tetley's Bitter is made at a brewery in Leeds.  This is sold in many pubs and shops in Britain.  Tetley's also used to have many pubs in Yorkshire but have sold many, although Tetley's Bitter is still sold there.

ASDA is Britain's second biggest supermarket. It started in Leeds, and it still has its headquarters in the city.

Transport
Transport 

Leeds has a large railway station in the City Centre as well as many smaller ones in suburbs.  It also has an airport called Leeds Bradford International Airport. There are many motorways in and around the city as well.  Leeds has a bus station with 26 stands, and more stands for National Express services going to other cities. However, it is too small to cope with internal buses, so they stop at bus stops along the streets.  Leeds has an outer ring road and an inner ring road. The inner ring road is a motorway.

Sport 
Leeds is famous for its sports, too. It has a Rugby league team called Leeds Rhinos and a Rugby union team called Yorkshire Carnegie. It also has a football team called Leeds United.  Yorkshire Cricket play in Leeds too.  The fourth test of the 2009 Ashes was hosted at the Headingley Stadium in Leeds.
Council 
Leeds City Council are the council for Leeds as well as other nearby towns that are part of the City of Leeds borough such as Wetherby, Otley, Yeadon, Garforth and Rothwell. This is in addition to the City's 32 Parish & Town Councils alongside a significant unparished area.

Media 
The Yorkshire Evening Post is the local newspaper for Leeds and is published every evening.  BBC Yorkshire, ITV Yorkshire and Leeds Television all have their studios in Leeds.  The Yorkshire Television studios are currently in the process of being downsized as ITV looks to reduce costs.

Areas of Leeds 
See Also
 Burley
 Headingley
 Roundhay
 Seacroft
 Wetherby
 Yeadon

Pictures

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Leeds travel information at Wikivoyage
 Leeds City Council Leeds City (Metropolitan) Council
 Leeds City Guide A Leeds City Guide
 'Leeds, Live it, Love it' Official city website, for visitors, business, students and residents
 'Leeds Television, A vision for the community'  Leeds city TV, for visitors, business, students and residents
The strong interaction or strong nuclear force is one of the four fundamental forces in physics.

The other fundamental forces are electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and gravitation. They are called fundamental because there is no simpler way for physicists to understand what the forces do or how they do it.

The strong nuclear force is what holds most ordinary matter together. It does this in two ways: it holds subatomic particles, like neutrons and protons, together, and then it holds the atomic nucleus together.

It is the strongest fundamental force—many times stronger than gravity (1038 times stronger: that's 1 followed by 38 zeros). But it works only over very short distances of a few femtometres (fm). A femtometre is 10−15 (0.00000 00000 00001) metres.
Scientists often think about the two ways the strong interaction works as separate forces: the color force and the nuclear force. At distances of 0.8 fm and less, the color force holds subatomic particles like protons and neutrons together. At distances of 1 to 3 fm, the residual (leftover) strong force is what keeps protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus, so it is called the nuclear force. (This is like thinking of electricity and magnetism as separate forces, when the fundamental force is electromagnetism.)

The strong interaction is often thought to be the action of gluons, which 'glue' quarks together. Gluons can be exchanged (moved) between quarks, antiquarks and other gluons. All of those particles are said to carry a color charge, something that some elementary particles have which is like electric charge. Particles with color charge exchange gluons, like particles with electric charge exchange photons.
The theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) says that the strong force acts between quarks and gluons. Quantum chromodynamics is the theory that explains different colors . The strong force is the basic force controlled by gluons: affecting quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves.

The strong force affects only quarks directly (as the color force). Between hadrons (like protons and neutrons), made up of quarks, the effect of the strong force is known as the nuclear force (which is not fundamental). 

The strength of the strong force is the reason why we cannot detect free quarks (that is, quarks that are by themselves). The theory is that so much energy would be needed (to separate a quark) that new hadrons would be created instead. This is called color confinement and it is seen to happen in particle accelerators.
Color strong force
The color strong force is the strong interaction between the three quarks that a proton or neutron is made of. It is called the color strong force because, like the electromagnetic force, the strong force has charges. The electromagnetic force has only one type of charge, which can be either positive or negative (magnetic charges are just slow-moving electric charges), but the strong force has three types. These three types of charges are named after colors: red, green, and blue. They also have anti-colors: anti-red, anti-green and anti-blue. Like the electromagnetic force's positive and negative charges, different colors attract, and the same colors repel. Some particles that have color charge are quarks and antiquarks. The type of quark is not related to that quark's color charge at all. Quarks are one of the smallest particles currently known. They take up no space because they are points, and they are the only particles that we have not been able to break apart from other particles yet
. This is because the nature of the strong force between particles is that it becomes stronger the further away the particles are. The force carrier of the strong force is called the gluon. Gluons also have color charge. Both quarks and gluons have properties that make them unique from other particles, as described in the Standard Model.
Nuclear force 
The nuclear force, or residual strong force (the force left over after holding the quarks together to make hadrons) is the (leftover) strong force acting between hadrons (particles made of quarks, like protons and neutrons). It is what holds the nucleus of an atom together.

Related pages 
Standard Model
Particle physics
Nuclear physics
Isotope

References 
David J. Griffiths, 1987. Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. 
 
Richard Morris, 2003. The Last Sorcerers: The Path from Alchemy to the Periodic Table. Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press.

Other websites 
MISN-0-280: The Strong Interaction (PDF file) by J.R. Christman for Project PHYSNET.
The theory of longitudinal and transversal rotational momentum A mathematical theory that unifies all physical forces and eliminates the wave/particle duality.

Force
Nuclear physics
Basic physics ideas
Neuwied is a German town in Rhineland-Palatinate. It is on the north/west side of the Rhine River, about  northwest from Koblenz. About 70,000 people live there.

Geography
The 86.5 square kilometres of area are divided in the districts of:
 Altwied
 Block
 Engers
 Feldkirchen
 Gladbach
 Heimbach-Weis
 Irlich
 Niederbieber
 Oberbieber
 Rodenbach
 Segendorf
 Torney

Infrastructure
Neuwied is connected to the German network of Bundesstraßen (national routes) (here: B9, B42 and B256). The Autobahnen (motorways) A3, A48 and A61 are quickly reachable from Neuwied. Using the Koblenz main station, all rhine railways and the Intercity network of Germany are available.

Industry
There is a lot of industry in Neuwied, for example the production of building materials, metals and big-sized machines.

References

Other websites

Municipalities in Rhineland-Palatinate
Towns in Rhineland-Palatinate
Brittany (French: Bretagne, Breton: Breizh) is a region in Northwest France. The adjective for Brittany is Breton.

Today the official administrative region has 4 departments:
Côtes-d'Armor
Finistère
Ille-et-Vilaine
Morbihan
Before 1941, a fifth département was part of Brittany: Loire-Atlantique, which includes Nantes. The five departments form the cultural region of Brittany, also known as "historical Brittany".

Brittany is in the western France and its coastline points out into the Atlantic. Warmed by the Gulf Stream, Brittany has a mild and temperate climate with warm summers and wet winters.

Three languages are traditionally spoken in Brittany:
 Breton language in the West part, a Celtic mix similar to Cornish;
 Gallo (a Romance language) in the East part;
 And everywhere, French.

The capital of Brittany is Rennes in the Ille-et-Vilaine department.
The name of Brittany is related to Great Britain (in French, Grand Bretagne). The region has also been called Lesser Britain or Little Britain in the past. After the Anglo-Saxons started arriving in Great Britain in the 5th century, many of the Ancient Britons (Celts) moved to this region. The region may have already had strong ties with the Ancient Britons even before that. These tribes gave Brittany its name, the Breton language, the local place names and many parts of its culture. Brittany was a separate country from the 9th century until it was united with France in 1532. It was a province of France until the French Revolution, when its land was divided in departments. Brittany regained a regional government in the 1980s.

Brittany is the home of the world's largest collection of standing stones in one place, the Carnac stones.

Brittany's main industry is agriculture, in particular: pork farming, chicken farming and the production of maize (for cattle feed). Brittany is also the name of a dog breed.
The Standard Model (SM) of physics is a theory of the elementary particles, which are either fermions or bosons. It also explains three of the four basic forces of nature. The four fundamental forces are: gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force, and the strong force. Gravity is the one the model does not explain.

The model uses the parts of physics called quantum mechanics and special relativity, and the ideas of physical field and symmetry breaking. Some of the mathematics of the SM is group theory, and also as equations which have biggest and smallest points, called Lagrangians and Hamiltonians.
Fermions
Fermions are particles that join together to make up all "matter" we see. Examples of groups of fermions are the proton and the neutron. Fermions have properties, such as charge and mass, which can be seen in everyday life. They also have other properties, such as spin, weak charge, hypercharge, and color charge, whose effects do not usually appear in everyday life. These properties are given numbers called quantum numbers. 

Fermions are particles whose spin numbers equal an odd, positive number times one half: 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc. We say that fermions have "half integer spin."

An important fact about fermions is that they follow a rule called the Pauli exclusion principle. This rule says that no two fermions can be in the same "place" at the same time, because no two fermions in an atom can have the same quantum numbers at the same time. Fermions also obey a theory called Fermi-Dirac statistics. The word "fermion" honors the physicist Enrico Fermi.
There are 12 different types of fermions. Each type is called a "flavor." Their names are:

 Quarks — up, down, strange, charm, top, bottom
 Leptons — electron, muon, tau, electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino. The electron is the best known lepton.

Quarks are grouped into three pairs. Each pair is called a "generation." The first quark in each pair has charge 2/3, and the second quark has charge -1/3. The three kinds of neutrino have a charge of 0. The electron, muon, and tau have charge -1.

Matter is made of atoms, and atoms are made of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are made of up and down quarks.  You can find one lepton by itself, but you can never find quarks alone. This is because quarks are held together by the color force.
Bosons 
Bosons are the second type of elementary particle in the standard model. All bosons have an integer spin (1, 2, 3, etc..) so many of them can be in the same place at the same time. There are two types of elementary bosons: gauge bosons and the Higgs boson. Gauge bosons are what make the fundamental forces of nature possible. (We are not yet sure if gravity works through a gauge boson.) Every force that acts on fermions happens because gauge bosons are moving between the fermions, carrying the force. Bosons follow a theory called Bose-Einstein statistics. The word "boson" honors the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose.
The standard model says that there are:
 12 fermions, each with its own antiparticle;
 12 gauge bosons: 8 kinds of gluons, the photon, W+, W−, and Z;
These particles have all been seen either in nature or in the laboratory. The model also predicts that there is a Higgs boson. The model says that fermions have mass (they are not just pure energy) because Higgs bosons travel back and forth between them. The Higgs boson is believed to have been discovered on July 4th, 2012. It is the particle that gives mass to other particles.
Fundamental forces 
There are four basic known forces of nature. Three of these forces affect fermions, and are carried by bosons traveling between those fermions. The standard model explains these three forces.
 Strong force: This force holds quarks together to make hadrons such as protons and neutrons. The strong force is carried by gluons. The theory of quarks, the strong force, and gluons is called quantum chromodynamics (QCD).
 The residual strong force holds protons and neutrons together to make the nucleus of every atom. This force is carried by mesons, which are made up of two quarks. It is not fundamental.
 Weak force: This force can change the flavor of a fermion and causes beta decay. The weak force is carried by three gauge bosons: W+, W-, and the Z boson.
Electromagnetic force: This force explains electricity, magnetism, and other electromagnetic waves including light. This force is carried by the photon. The combined theory of the electron, photon, and electromagnetism is called quantum electrodynamics (QED).
The other force affects all particles (fermions and bosons) and is not known to have an associated boson.
Gravity: This is the only fundamental force that is not explained by the standard model. It may be carried by a particle called the graviton. Physicists are looking for the graviton, but they have not found it yet.
The strong and weak forces are only seen inside the nucleus of an atom. They only work over very tiny distances: distances that are about as far as a proton is wide. The electromagnetic force and gravity work over any distance, but the strength of these forces goes down as the affected objects get farther apart. The force goes down with the square of the distance between the affected objects: for example, if two objects become twice as far away from each other, the force of gravity between them goes down to a quarter (22=4).

Limitations 
The standard model falls short of being a theory of everything. 

 It does not include the full theory of gravitation as described by general relativity.
 it does not explain the accelerating expansion of the universe (as possibly described by dark energy). 
 The model does not contain any dark matter particle that has all the properties observed in observational cosmology.
The standard model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent. It has demonstrated huge and continued successes in experimental predictions, but it does leave some things unexplained.

References

Other websites 
 A school site: Explaining the Standard Model 
 Standard model Citizendium

Basic physics ideas
Relativity
Matter
Nuclear physics
Moldovan () is the official language of Moldova. It is almost the same as Romanian. The main difference is that Moldovan was written in the Cyrillic alphabet because Moldova was part of the Soviet Union until 1989. In 1989, Moldova became its own country and started to use the Latin alphabet, which is used in Romania. On 5 December 2013,  the Moldovan government chose Romanian as the official language.

In the unrecognized state of Transnistria, one of the official languages is still Moldovan and is still written with the Cyrillic alphabet. The other official languages are Russian and Ukrainian.

Romance languages
Moldova
Languages of Romania
Languages of Europe
In international law a political entity needs to fulfill different criteria to become a state: One of these criteria is that other states must recognize it as a state. If more states recognize it, becoming a  de jure sovereign state will be easier. 

Many of the territories listed below broke off (separated themselves) from their original parent state, and so they are often referred to as "break-away" states. They may have some military protection and informal diplomatic representation abroad. Another state may help them avoid forced reincorporation into its original state.

UN member states not recognized by at least 1 UN member state 
  The Republic of Armenia was independent since 1991 after the Dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Republic of Armenia is not recognized by one UN member state, Pakistan, which has a position of supporting Azerbaijan since the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.
The Republic of Cyprus is not recognized by one UN member state, Turkey and one non-UN member state, Northern Cyprus, due to the ongoing civil dispute over the island. Northern Cyprus claims the northeastern half of the island.
The People's Republic of China is the more widely recognized of the two claimant governments of China, the other being the Republic of China (ROC, also known as Taiwan). The United Nations recognized the ROC as the sole representative of China until 1971 when it decided to give this recognition to the PRC instead (see United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758). The PRC and the ROC do not recognize each other's statehood, and each enforces its own version of the One-China policy meaning that no state can recognize both of them at the same time. The states that recognize the ROC (14 UN members and the Holy See as of 20 September 2019) regard it as the sole legitimate government of China and therefore do not recognize the PRC. Bhutan is the only UN member state that has never explicitly recognized either the PRC or the ROC
. The Republic of China considers itself to be the sole legitimate government of China (including Taiwan), and therefore claims exclusive sovereignty over all territory controlled by the PRC.
The State of Israel is not recognized by 28 UN members. The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) which enjoys majority international recognition as the sole representative of the Palestinian people, recognized Israel in 1993. In January 2018, the Palestinian Central Council voted to suspend recognition of Israel, but the decision has yet to be acted upon. The State of Palestine considers itself to be the legitimate government of the West Bank, much of which is under de facto occupation. The Syrian Arab Republic considers itself to be the legitimate government of the Golan Heights, a territory which Israel claims with limited recognition.

  The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is not recognized by three UN members: France, Japan and South Korea; and one non-UN member, Taiwan. South Korea considers itself to be the sole legitimate government of Korea, and claims all territory controlled by North Korea.
The Republic of Korea is not recognized by one UN member, North Korea.  North Korea considers itself to be the sole legitimate government of Korea and claims all territory controlled by South Korea
The State of Palestine is a de jure sovereign state in Western Asia officially governed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and claiming the West Bank and Gaza Strip with Jerusalem as the designated capital; in practice, however, only partial administrative control is held over the 167 "islands" in the West Bank, and Gaza is ruled by a rival government (Hamas). Israel regards the area claimed by Palestine as 'disputed' territory (that is, territory not legally belonging to any state). Israel gained control of the Palestinian territories as a result of the Six-Day War in 1967 but has never formally annexed them. The State of Palestine (commonly known as Palestine) was declared in 1988 by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which is recognized by a majority of UN member states and the UN itself as the sole representative of the Palestinian people
. Since the end of the first Palestinian Intifada against Israel, the Israeli government has gradually moved its armed forces and settlers out of certain parts of Palestine's claimed territory, while still maintaining varying degrees of control over most of it. The Palestinian National Authority (PNA), which performs limited internal government functions over certain areas of Palestine, was established in 1994. In 2007, the split between the Fatah and Hamas political parties resulted in competing governments claiming to represent the PNA and Palestine, with Fatah exercising authority exclusively over the West Bank and enjoying majority recognition from UN member states, and a separate Hamas leadership exercising authority exclusively over the Gaza area (except for a short period from 2014 to 2016). Palestine is currently officially recognized as a state by 138 UN member states, the Holy See, and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic