Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Isabella Pujols, adopted daughter of St. Louis Cardinals first baseman Albert Pujols and inspiration for the Pujols Family Foundation.

 Paula Sage, Scottish movie actress and Special Olympics netball athlete. Her role in the 2003 movie AfterLife brought her a BAFTA Scotland award for best first time performance and Best Actress in the Bratislava International Film Festival, 2004. Afterlife won the Audience Award at The Edinburgh Film Festival 2003. It also won Sage a role as Donna McCabe in  BBC Scotland's River City soap.

 Judith Scott, artist.

 Johnny Stallings, son of former University of Alabama head football coach Gene Stallings and subject of the book Another Season: A Coach's Story of Raising an Exceptional Son. ().
 Miguel Tomasin, singer with Argentinian avant-rock band Reynols.
Chris Burke, American actor who portrayed "Corky Thatcher" on the television series Life Goes On and "Taylor" on Touched By An Angel.
 Edward Barbanell, played Billy in 2005's The Ringer.
 Karen Gaffney,  Swimmer, Inclusion Activist, Motivational Speaker and President of The Karen Gaffney Foundation.

 Lauren Potter, American actor 
Labeed Mirza, Editor of Tahir Magazine

References

Bibliography

Other websites 
For comprehensive lists of Down syndrome links see
 Directory of Down Syndrome Internet Sites (US based, but contains international links)
 UK resources for Down's syndrome

Societies and Associations 
 Down Syndrome International 
By Country
 Canadian Down Syndrome Society (Canada)
 Down Syndrome Research Foundation web site (Canada)
 Down's Syndrome Association web site (UK) 
 Down's Syndrome Research Foundation (UK)
 National Down Syndrome Society web site (USA)
 National Down Syndrome Congress web site (USA)
 International Mosaic Down Syndrome Association (USA)
Conferences 
 9th World Down Syndrome Congress (2006, Vancouver) 
 Bright Beginnings Conference for Parents and Professionals (2006, London) -- Report 

Trisomies
A genetic disorder is a health problem caused by abnormalities in the genome. They are heritable, and may be passed down from the parents' genes to their children and to later generations. If a genetic disorder is present from birth, it is described as a congenital defect. Some defects only show up in later life.  

The mutation responsible can occur spontaneously before the embryo develops, or it can be inherited from parents who are carriers of a faulty gene.

There are well over 6,000 known genetic disorders, and new genetic disorders are constantly being found. More than 600 genetic disorders are treatable. Around 1 in 50 people are affected by a known single-gene disorder, while around 1 in 263 are affected by a disorder caused by their chromosomes. Parts of a chromosome may be absent, or duplicated.
About 65% of people have some kind of health problem as a result of congenital genetic mutations. About 1 in 21 people are affected by a genetic disorder classified as "rare" (less than 1 in 2,000 people). Most genetic disorders are rare in themselves. They may affect one person in every several thousands or even millions. Sometimes they are relatively frequent in a population. If they are frequent, it suggests these recessive gene disorders give an advantage in certain environments when only one copy of the gene is present. Sickle cell anaemia is an example of this.

The same disease, such as some forms of cancer, may be caused by an inherited genetic condition in some people, by new mutations in other people, and by nongenetic causes in still other people. A disease is only called a genetic disease if it can be inherited at birth. The particular defect may only show up later in life.

Related pages 
Birth defect
List of genetic disorders

References
Umberto Eco (January 5, 1932 – February 19, 2016) was an Italian writer and professor of medieval history in Bologna.

Eco was born in 1932 in northern Italy.

As a student, he studied philosophy, history, literature, and educational sciences.
He finished his studies in 1954 with a doctoral thesis about Thomas Aquinas. In 1962, he married.

His career as an author began with The Name of the Rose in 1980, after he had already written many academic papers.

Biography 
Eco was born on January 5, 1932 in Alessandria. His family had 13 sons. He studied philosophy and humanities at the University of Turin. He received a Ph.D. there.

Eco worked as a professor in different places. Starting in 1971, he held the chair of semiotics at the University of Bologna. At a university, a "chair" is the highest rank a professor can earn. He was also given honorary degrees by thirty different universities.
He had been named satrap of pataphysics for his humorous works.  One of his most important books is How to Travel with a Salmon.

He was a member of UNESCO's Council of Sages. In 2000, he received the Princess of Asturias Award for Communications and Humanities.

Eco worked in the mass media as well, creating cultural programs. His interests were the Middle Ages, languages, and the classics. He was also an expert on James Bond.

On February 19, 2016, Eco died at his home in Milan, Italy, of pancreatic cancer. He was 84.

More famous works
More famous works

Novels 
 Il nome della rosa (The Name of the Rose, 1980) - A historical novel set in the Middle Ages.  This novel made Eco famous after it was turned into a best-selling movie. 
 Il pendolo di Foucault (Foucault's Pendulum, 1988) - Three workers at a publishing house are trapped in their own fiction. 
 L'isola del giorno prima (The Island of the Day Before, 1994) - A nobleman from the 17th century gets trapped on a yacht and wonders about how time is passing.
 Baudolino (2000) - An emperor mistakes a young peasant for his own child.  This is a picaresque novel (a novel whose main character is a dishonest person or a criminal.  This person tells their story in bits and pieces). 
 La Misteriosa Fiamma della Regina Loana (The Mysterious Flame of the Queen Loana, 2004) - A man who loses his memory tries to get it back.  This novel is set in the times of Eco's youth.
Other works 
 Opera Aperta
 Minimal Diary  
 Kant and the Ornithorhynchus
 Semiotics and philosophy of the language 
 The firm
 Art and Beauty in the Medieval Aesthetic 
 The Limits of Interpretation
 Six Walks for the Narrative Forests
 Lector in fabula
 Apocalyptics and Integrates
 On Literature
 Searching the Perfect Language
 History of Beauty
 On Ugliness

References

Other websites 

 Foundation Prince of Asturias, Prince of Asturias of Communication and Humanities 2000   

1932 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
20th-century Italian people
Italian philosophers
Italian novelists
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Semioticians
Writers from Piedmont
People from Alessandria
Former Roman Catholics
A balloon is a bag that is usually filled with gas. This gas can be helium, hydrogen, or air. 

Throughout the 19th century, balloons were made out of animal bladders. Nowadays, balloons are made from a thin and stretchy material like rubber or plastic. Big balloons are made from fabric. 

Balloons are used for many purposes.

Most small balloons are made for parties or hiccup cures. These balloons are sometimes made to look like animals. 

Some balloons are very big. Big balloons are used for people to fly into the sky. Big balloons are called aircraft.  Most balloon aircraft are filled with hot air. They are called hot air balloons.

Balloons can also be filled with water. They are called "water balloons".  Water balloons are a kind of toy, best known for its use of water balloon fights.

Related pages

Balloon (aircraft)

Aircraft
Toys
1823
AM can mean:
 Ante meridiem, in the 12-hour clock
 Amplitude modulation, in radio
Einsteinium is a chemical element with the atomic number 99. It is a synthetic element, so all isotopes are radioactive.

Einsteinium is the 7th element in the actinide series. The most stable isotope of Einsteinium has 99 protons and electrons and 153 neutrons. There are 19 different (radioactive) isotopes. 
Einsteinium is named after Albert Einstein. It was found for the first time in 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and his team of scientists in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion, and identified as an element at the University of California, Berkeley.

Einsteinium isotopes have a half-life between 40 and 471 days.

Uses 
Einsteinium has been used to create the element Mendelevium for the first time in 1955, although no practical uses are known. It has been used before as a calibration marker in a chemical analysis spectrometer.

Actinides
Synthetic elements
The vulva is the part of the body of female mammals (including women) where the outside parts of the reproductive system can be seen. The parts of the vulva that can be seen are the:

Mons pubis
Labia majora
Labia minora
Clitoris
Vaginal opening
Urinary opening

The mons pubis is the area of skin and fat above the other structures. It protects the other structures below it. The labia majora are thick areas of skin and fat located to the side of the urinary and vaginal openings. Smaller and thinner labia are the labia minora. These structures are connected to the hood of the clitoris . They are close to the vagina. Many people call the vagina when they mean the vulva. The vagina is the tube connecting the internal parts (the womb) to the vulva.

Related pages
Vulvar cancer

References

Anatomy of the female reproductive system
In geometry, two figures or objects  and  are congruent (written as ) if they have the same shape and size, or if one has the same shape and size as the mirror image of the other.

More formally, two sets of  points are called congruent, if and only if one can be transformed into the other by isometry. For isometry, rigid motions are used.

This means that two geometrical figures are congruent if one object can be repositioned, rotated or reflected—but not resized—so that it coincides exactly with the other object. if one can be moved or rotated so that it fits exactly where the other one is, then the two figures are congruent. If one of the object has to change its size, then the two objects are not congruent: they are just called similar.

As an example, two distinct plane figures on a piece of paper are congruent if we can cut them out and then match them up completely (turning the paper over here is permitted).
Congruent polygons are polygons that if you fold a regular polygon in half that is a congruent polygon.

Examples 
 All squares that have the same length of their sides are congruent.
 All equilateral triangles that have the same length of their sides are congruent.

Tests for congruence

Triangles 
 Two angles and the side between them are the same on two triangles (ASA congruence)
 Two angles and a side not between them are the same on both triangles (AAS congruence)
 All three sides of both triangles are the same (SSS congruence)
 Two sides and the angle between them makes two triangles congruent (SAS congruence)

How to obtain new congruent shapes 
The following are a few rules to make new shapes congruent to the original one:
If we shift a geomentrical shape in the plane, then we get a shape which is congruent to the original one.
 If we rotate instead of shifting, then we also get a shape congruent to the original one.
 Even if we take a mirror image of the original shape, then we still get a congruent shape.
 If we combine the three activities one after the other, then we still get congruent shapes.
 There are no more congruent shapes. More specifically, if a shape is congruent to the original one, then it can be reached by the three activities described above.

The relationship, that a shape is congruent to another shape, has three famous properties:
If we leave the original shape alone at its original place, then it is congruent to itself. This property is called reflexivity.
For example, if the shift above is not a proper shift, but only a shift making a motion of length zero. Or, similarly, if the rotation above is not a proper rotation, but only a rotation of angle zero.
 If a shape is congruent to another shape, then this other shape is also congruent to the original one. This behaviour, this property is called symmetry.
For example, if we shift back, or rotate back, or mirror back the new shape to the original one, then the original shape is congruent to the new one.
 If a shape C is congruent to a shape B, and the shape B is congruent to the original shape A, then the shape C is also congruent to the original shape A. This property is called transitivity.
For example, if we apply first a shift, and then a rotation, then the resulting new shape is still congruent to the original one.
The famous three properties, reflexivity, symmetry and transitivity, together make the notion of equivalence. Hence, the property congruence is one sort of equivalence relation between shapes of a plane.

Related pages 

 Equality (mathematics)
 Similarity (geometry)

References

Geometry
Deism is the belief that a higher being (like God) exists, but that the only revelation of God is in nature and reason, not in sacred books or prophets. Deism says that people should rely on logic and reason, and not traditions of a religion that is based on a holy book. People who follow deism are called deists.

Deists believe that a Higher Power created the world. They do not believe that the creation of the universe happened because of a spontaneous event. They usually reject supernatural events like miracles, and believe that God has set up natural laws, which govern how the universe works and how people should act, and does not interfere with these laws. Most deists also see holy books, such as the Bible and Qur'an, as writings made by people, rather than the writings of God.
Famous deists from history include American political leader and inventor Benjamin Franklin, French conqueror Napoleon Bonaparte, French philosopher Voltaire, British philosopher Thomas Paine, and French revolutionary leader Maximilien de Robespierre. Many historians think Thomas Jefferson was a deist, though he didn't say so.

References

Other websites 
 English Deism - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 World Union of Deists

Theology
The Cleveland Guardians are a Major League Baseball team based in Cleveland, Ohio. They are part of the American League Central Division. Under the team's former name of Cleveland Indians, the Guardians won two World Series championships in 1920 and 1948.  Currently, they hold the longest championship drought in MLB.

The team was founded in 1894 in Grand Rapids, Michigan as the Grand Rapids Rustlers, playing in the late-1890s Western League, which became the American League in 1900. In that same year, the team moved to Cleveland, taking the name of Lake Shores. The next year, the team became the Cleveland Bluebirds, also known as Blues. Players didn't like that name, and failed in a try to change the name to "Broncos" in 1902. In that same year, the team traded for star player Nap Lajoie, who later became player-manager, and it soon became known as the "Naps" in his honor. The team was called the Cleveland Naps until Lajoie left at the end of the 1914 season.
After Lajoie left, the team looked for a new nickname and settled on "Indians" for the 1915 season, partly in honor of the Boston Braves who had won the 1914 World Series. In more modern times, their nickname was often thought to be a poor choice. It is considered offensive to name a team for a race or ethnic group. However, there was no serious effort to change the name until the 21st century. After growing criticism, the team started to move away from the nickname in 2018, retiring its controversial "Chief Wahoo" logo of a caricatured Native American. In 2020, team owner Paul Dolan announced that the "Indians" name would be retired after the 2021 season. The new nickname of Guardians was announced on July 23, 2021. The name refers to the Guardians of Traffic, statues sculpted into pylons of the Hope Memorial Bridge that crosses the Cuyahoga River near downtown Cleveland. The Cleveland Guardians name took effect on November 19, 2021.
In the 1990s, the then-Indians were in the postseason several times.  They made it to the World Series in 1995 and 1997 but lost to the Atlanta Braves and the Florida Marlins respectively.  They returned to the World Series in 2016, and again they lost, this time to the Chicago Cubs in seven games.  In 2017, they set an American League record of winning 22 straight games.  They won 102 games during the season.  However, they lost to the New York Yankees in the Division Series.

References

Other websites 
Official Website
Friuli-Venezia Giulia () is a region in the north-east of Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is Trieste. The population is 1,191,588.  FVG has a border with the Italian region of Veneto to the west, Austria to the north and Slovenia on the east.

People in this region speak the Italian, Friulian, Slovene and German languages.

Provinces 
 Trieste (capital)
 Udine
 Gorizia
 Pordenone

Geography 
Friuli  - Venezia Giulia has an area of 7,858 km² and is Italy's most north-eastern region.  It is the 5th smallest region in Italy.  The Alps lie to the north of the region, and the beaches and cliffs of the Adriatic Sea are on the south edges.

Cuisine 
Friulani, Giuliani, Austrian, Slovene and Hungarian influences over the centuries have created a wide range of food and drink typical of the region.  Some examples include:
 Jota (Istrian stew)
 Radicchio
 Goulash
 Gnocchi alla spinache

Other websites 
 Official Site (IT)
The Latin alphabet, also known as the Roman alphabet, is a collection of letters. This alphabet was originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language. Today, we use it to write the English language. 

This alphabet evolved from the Phoenician alphabet. 

Alphabets
Typography
Udine is a city in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of Italy. The population is 96,678.

 
Capital cities in Italy
Günter Wilhelm Grass (16 October 1927 in Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) – 13 April 2015 in Lübeck) was a German writer and winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature. He was known for writing the controversial, but yet classic novel The Tin Drum.

Life 
Grass was born in Danzig in 1927 and went to school there. In the World War II he had to serve in the military, afterwards he was a prisoner of war of the U.S. army. In 1945 and 1946 he worked as a stonemason. During the rise of Nazi Germany, Grass drafted into the Waffen-SS, the elite armed wing of the Nazi Party. He revealed this in 2006. He said if he had joined the armed wing when he was older, he would have faced war crimes.

From 1946 he studied arts at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf and the Berlin University of the Arts (Universität der Künste) in West Berlin. He was a member of the German group of writers known as group 47.
He has lived in North Rhine-Westphalia, Berlin and Schleswig-Holstein. He lived in Lübeck. In 1959 he published The Tin Drum (Die Blechtrommel), his most famous work. Grass was always interested in politics and helped in the election campaigns of the SPD. He was a friend of Willy Brandt. Grass was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1999.

Grass died from a lung infection at his home in Lübeck, aged 87.

Bibliography 
 Danziger Trilogie
 Die Blechtrommel (Tin Drum) (1959)
 Katz und Maus (Cat and Mouse)(1961)
 Hundejahre (Dog Years)(1963)
 Örtlich betäubt (Local Anaesthetic) (1969)
 Aus dem Tagebuch einer Schnecke (From the Diary of a Snail) (1972)
 Der Butt (1979)
 Das Treffen in Telgte (1979)
 Kopfgeburten oder Die Deutschen sterben aus (1980)
 Die Rättin (1986)
 Zunge zeigen. Ein Tagebuch in Zeichnungen (1988)
 Unkenrufe (1992)
 Ein weites Feld (1995)
 Mein Jahrhundert (1999)
 Im Krebsgang (2002)
 Letzte Tänze (2003)
English Translations 
 The Danzig Trilogy
 The Tin Drum (1959)
 Cat and Mouse (1963)
 Dog Years (1965)
 Four Plays (1967)
 Speak out! Speeches, Open Letters, Commentaries (1969)
 Local Anaesthetic (1970)
 From the Diary of a Snail (1973)
 In the Egg and Other Poems (1977)
 The Meeting at Telgte (1981)
 The Flounder (1978)
 Headbirths, or, the Germans are Dying Out (1982)
 The Rat (1987)
 Show Your Tongue (1987)
 Two States One Nation? (1990)
 The Call of the Toad (1992)
 The Plebeians Rehearse the Uprising (1996)
 My Century (1999)
 Too Far Afield (2000)
 Crabwalk (2002)

References

Other websites 
 Nobel prize biographical notes  (in English, also available in French, German, and Swedish)
 Nobel Laureate Flays Bush, June 1, 2006 

1927 births
2015 deaths
German essayists
German Nobel Prize winners
German novelists
German writers
People from former German territories
Writers from Gdańsk
German playwrights
Waffen-SS people
Occitan is known as lenga d'òc by its native speakers. 

It is a Romance language spoken in the south of France, the Occitan Valleys of Italy, the Val d'Aran of Catalonia and Monaco. The regions together called Occitania. Of course, this is an unofficial name for a region in three countries! Its justification is that it is united by a culture.

Occitan took a different path from Latin to the main official languages. It is sometimes called lenga d'òc ("language of oc", French: langue d'oc) because its word for yes is òc, as opposed to oil (oui) or sì in other languages. That is one way to classify Romance languages.

Occitan is an official language of Catalonia. Since September 2010, the Parliament of Catalonia has considered Aranese Occitan to be the officially preferred language for use in the Val d'Aran.

Dialects 

 Alpine (also named Vivaro-Alpine or Provençal Alpine)
 Auvergnat
 Gascon (including Aranese spoken in Val d'Aran, Catalonia, Spain)
 Languedocien
 Limousin
 Provençal
Some of those names (Provençal, Limousin, Gascon) were once used for the whole language.

Sources

Other websites 

 Dictionary (written in Occitan)
 Ethnologue report page for language with code OCI (Occitan)
 English-Occitan lexicon
 Orbilat.com , Overview and grammar of Occitan
 Occitanet.free.fr, a guide to the language
  Ostaldoccitania.net  The house of occitan associations of Toulouse
  Eonet.ne , "LexRomEdic", Electronic version of Lexique Roman of Rainouard (A provisional version is available).

Romance languages
Languages of Europe
Languages of France
A singer who is a bass is a man with a low singing voice. Some basses may be able to sing down to C two octaves below middle C. Even low A is sometimes needed in Russian church music.

In opera, basses often have the part of the villain, or the king, or a priest. A buffo-bass is a character role in which the bass singer needs a wide range for the comedy of the part. The part of Leporello in Mozart's Don Giovanni needs a buffo bass. The lowest kind of bass is called a basso-profondo. An example is the priest Sarastro in Mozart's Magic Flute.
Feodor Chaliapin (1873-1938) was a famous Russian bass.
Southern gospel singer J.D. Sumner held the world record for lowest bass singer for a number of years, from 1988 until he was beaten by Tim Storms in 2016
A baritone is a voice between tenor and bass in range, but some low baritones describe themselves as bass-baritones. Wotan in Der Ring des Nibelungen is a bass-baritone part. Bryn Terfel is a famous Welsh bass-baritone.
Johnny Cash is well known for his bass-baritone voice

Vocal ranges
Plankton are drifting organisms that live in the surface layers of the ocean. They live in the top layer of the ocean, called the epipelagic zone. They are not strong enough to swim against ocean currents. The term is in contrast to nekton, who can control their movements. There are three groups:
 Phytoplankton: which live at the surface of the ocean and photosynthesise (use light to make sugars and other molecules). 
 Eukaryote algae: diatoms, coccolithophores, some dinoflagellates.
 Bacteria: cyanobacteria.
 Zooplankton: small protozoans or metazoans: Ctenophores; jellyfish; rotifers; foraminifera; tiny crustacea and other animals. Some eggs and larvae of larger animals such as fish, crustaceans, and annelids. Apart from the eggs, they all feed on other plankton.
Some groups fall into both categories. Dinoflagellates can be either photosynthetic producers or heterotroph consumers; many species are mixotrophic depending upon their circumstances. It is also hard to fit viruses into this scheme; yet they are present in great numbers.
Plankton are important in the ocean's food chain. They are the main source of food for almost all fish larvae as they switch from their yolk sacs to catching prey. Basking sharks and blue whales feed on them directly; other large fish feed on them indirectly, by eating fish of smaller size, such as herrings.

The distribution of plankton is governed more by nutrients than by temperature. Large tracts of ocean are blue and sterile. The reason is that these areas lack one or more crucial nutrients for the photosynthetic plankton, upon whom all the others depend. Broadly speaking, areas near land masses get nutrients by rivers and wind. The key nutrient lacking in the Pacific ocean is iron, essential in molecules such as ferredoxins, iron-sulfur proteins which do electron transfer in a range of metabolic reactions.

References 

Biological oceanography
Wake Forest University is a university found in Winston-Salem, North Carolina . It was started in 1834 in the eastern North Carolina town of Wake Forest. The university was moved to Winston-Salem in 1956. A private school for both men and women, it has been a university since 1967.

The components of Wake Forest University are the Undergraduate College and the Wayne Calloway School of Business and Accountancy, the School of Law, Wake Forest School of Medicine, the Babcock Graduate School of Management, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, and the Divinity School.

Sports 
Wake Forest's athletics teams are called the Deamon Deacons and they have sixteen varsity teams.

Other websites

Atlantic Coast Conference
Colleges and universities in North Carolina
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
1834 establishments in the United States
1830s establishments in North Carolina
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (February 13, 1835 – May 26, 1908), was a 19th-century religious leader. He founded the Ahmadiyya movement within Islam. According to Ahmadi doctrine, he was the last prophet, as well as the Mahdi and the Messiah. He is believed by Ahmadis to be the Mujaddid of the 14th Islamic century.

Biography

Early life 
Ghulam was born in Qadian, Punjab in India in 1835 the surviving child of twins born to a rich family. He is reported to have spent a lot of time in the mosque and with the study of the Qur'an and his religion, Islam. This did not lead him to fulfill his father's wishes of his son becoming a lawyer or civil servant. He did attempt to become a lawyer but failed the test. In his course of studying religious topics, he would often interact with many Muslims, non-Muslims, and with Christian missionaries whom he would engage in debates.
Prior to his claim 
When Ghulam was thirty-five years old his father died. At this time Ghulam claimed that God had begun communicating with him, often through direct revelation. Initially, Ghulam's writings from this time were intended to counter what he perceived to be anti-Islamic writings originating from various Christian missionary groups. He also focused on countering the effects of various groups such as the Brahmo Samaj. During this period of his life he was well received by the Islamic clerics of the time.
As time progressed, his writings began to exhibit his claims of being the mujaddid or reformer of his era. These writings were compiled in one of his most well-known works: Barahin Ahmadiyya, a work consisting of 5 volumes while originally planned 50 volumes. He explained that since there is only a dot difference between 50 & 5, therefore his promise was fulfilled. In later volumes, he would essentially claim to be the messiah of Islam. This proved and continues to be very controversial, as traditional Islamic thought holds that Jesus is the Messiah, who himself will return in the flesh at the end of times. Ghulam countered this by claiming that Jesus was dead, and had in fact escaped crucifixion and died in India. According to Ghulam, the promised Mahdi was a spiritual, not military leader as is believed by most Muslims. With this proclamation, he also began to step away from the traditional idea of militant Jihad, and redefined it as a “spiritual” battle rather than a physical one
. In addition to these controversial claims, he would later claim that Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru, was in fact a Muslim.
Ghulam founded the Ahmadiyya movement in 1889. He claimed that the Ahmadiyya Movement stood in the same relation to Islam, as Christianity stood to Judaism at the time of Jesus. The mission of the movement according to Ghulam was the prorogation of what he considered to be Islam in its pristine form. Mirza Ghulam's teachings which differed from other Muslims of the time can be summarized as follows:
 That Muhammad is the last prophet to bring a new law/religion but not the last prophet altogether... and Prophethood within the Islamic dispensation is continued after him, and that he himself was a Prophet besides claimant of Imam mehdi and massiah.
 The Qur'an has no contradictions (or abrogations), and has precedence over the Hadith or traditions; i.e., that one verse of the Qur'an does not cancel another and that no Hadith can contradict a verse of the Qur'an. Hadith that appear to contradict the Qu'ran are not accepted by Ahmadi Muslims.
Jesus (called Yuz Asaf) was crucified and survived the 4 hours on the cross, then was revived from a swoon in the tomb. He died in Kashmir of old age whilst seeking the "Lost Tribes of Israel".
 That Jihad can only be used to protect against extreme religious persecution, not as a political weapon or an excuse for rulers to invade neighbouring territories.
 That the "Messiah" and "Imam Mahdi" are the same person, and that Islam will defeat the Anti-Christ or Dajjal in a period similar to the period of time it took for nascent Christianity to rise (300 years). Mainstream Muslims believe that Jesus was not crucified, but made to look as though he had been, and that he ascended to heaven from where he will return personally in the flesh to revive Islam.
Origin of name 
The Ahmadiyya movement in Islam was founded in 1889, but the name Ahmadiyya was not adopted until about a decade later. In a manifesto dated November 4, 1900, the founder explained that the name referred to Ahmad, the alternative name of the prophet Mohammed. According to him, ‘Mohammed’, which means ‘the praised one’, refers to the glorious destiny of the prophet who adopted the name from about the time of the Hegira; but ‘Ahmad’ stands for the beauty of his sermons, and for the peace that he was destined to establish in the world through his teachings. According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, these names thus refer to two aspects of Islam, and in later times it was the latter aspect that commanded greater attention. In keeping with this, he believed, his object was to establish peace in the world through the spiritual teachings of Islam. He believed that his message had special relevance for the Western world which according to him had descended into materialism.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's legacy 
One of the main sources of dispute during his lifetime and continuing since then is Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's use of the terms “Nabi” (prophet) and “Rasool” (messenger) when referring to himself. Muslims consider the Prophet Muhammad to be the last of the prophets and believe that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's use of these terms is a violation of the concept of “finality of prophet hood”. His followers fall into two camps in this regard: the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, who believe in a literal interpretation of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's prophethood (with some qualifications), and the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement, who believe in a symbolic interpretation of these two terms. This among other reasons caused a split in the movement soon after Ahmad's death.
Followers of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad have faced relentless persecution of various types over the years. In 1974, the Pakistani parliament amended the Pakistani constitution to declare Ahmadi Muslims as non-Muslims for purposes of the constitution of the Islamic Republic. In 1984, a series of changes in the Pakistan Penal Code sections relating to blasphemy that, in essence, made it illegal for Ahmadis to preach their religion openly as Islam, leading to 1000s of arrests and prosecutions.

Related pages
 Ahmadi
 Islam
 Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement
 Ahmadiyya Muslim Community

Sources and references

Other websites 
 Official Website of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community
 Official Website of the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement
 Complete List of the Works of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad

1835 births
1908 deaths
Indian Islamic religious leaders
New religious movements
Pharmacology is the study of how medicine and other things have an effect on living organisms and change how they function. Pharmacology could also be defined as the study of how medicine actually works.

The first pharmacology department in the world was set up in the University of Tartu by Rudolf Buchheim in 1847.  

Pharmacology is not exactly the same as pharmacy, and a pharmacologist is not exactly the same as a pharmacist. A pharmacologist is a scientist who studies how medicine actually works, and usually works in a science lab.  A pharmacist is a health care provider who usually works at a pharmacy.  However, there is quite a bit of overlap between these two fields. A pharmacist could be considered a type of pharmacologist. Pharmacists do take many classes in pharmacology.
If something can be used as a medicine, it is called a pharmaceutical. Pharmacology includes how drugs are made, how they interact with living organisms, what harmful effects they could have, how they can be used as medicines, and if they can be used to prevent illness. A person who works in the study of pharmacology is called a pharmacologist. Pharmacologists work in a team with biochemists, geneticists, microbiologists, toxicologists and pharmacists to run clinical tests on how drugs work.

Uses of pharmacology 
The development of drugs is very important to medicine, but it also has strong economical and political uses. To protect people and prevent abuse, some countries try to control the way in which drugs are made, sold, and administered.
Scientific background 
To study chemicals, a person needs to know a lot about what will be affected if it is ingested (taken into the body).  As more people know about cell biology and biochemistry, the field of pharmacology has changed as well. It is now possible to design chemicals that do specific things.

A chemical can have different properties. Pharmacokinetics describes the what effect the body will have on the chemical, and pharmacodynamics describes the chemical's effect on the body (desired or toxic).

When a pharmacologist is talking about pharmacokinetic properties of a chemical, they are interested in four things: ADME.
Absorption - How is the medication absorbed (through the skin, the intestine, the mouth)?
 Distribution - How does it spread through the organism?
 Metabolism - Is the medication converted chemically inside the body, and into what.  Are these new substances active?  Could they be toxic?
 Excretion - How does the organism get rid of the chemical (through the bile, urine, breath, skin)?
Medication is said to have a narrow or wide therapeutic index. This describes the ratio of desired effect to toxic effect. A medicine with a narrow therapeutic index (close to one) only does what people want it to do when the amount given is enough to put the organism in danger.  A medicine with a wide therapeutic index (greater than five) does what people want it to do and does not necessarily put the organism in danger. Medication with a narrow margin are more difficult to dose and give to a person, and may require therapeutic drug monitoring (examples are warfarin, some antiepileptics, aminoglycoside antibiotics). Most anti-cancer drugs have a narrow therapeutic margin; toxic side-effects are almost always encountered at doses needed to kill tumours.
Drugs as medicine 
Drugs that are given to people to help cure them of a medical condition or help reduce the symptoms are often licensed. They can be divided into three groups: over-the-counter, where anybody can buy the drug from a shop; prescription-only medicine, where a doctor has to say that a person is allowed to take a drug; and in some countries, pharmacy medicines, where only a registered pharmacy can sell a drug.  Most over-the-counter medication will not hurt a person if they take a bit more than they are meant to. Medications are often produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented. Drugs that are not patented, or where the patent has expired, are called generic drugs.

Market 
Early stage drug research is often done by small companies,  start-ups, that later sell out to the big pharmaceutical companies. The  patent lasts for up to 20 years. After that other companies can copy the invention.
The American market was worth more than $600 billion in 2022, almost half the global total.  Americans pay three times as much for branded drugs as the OECD average.  American research and development spending was nearly two-thirds of the OECD total. The 2022 Inflation Reduction Act lets Medicare bargain directly with drugmakers. It plans to seek cuts of 25% in some drugs.  Private health insurers  may do the same.

Related pages 
Pharmacoepidemiology
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacotheraphy

References
The Indo-European languages are the world's most spoken language family. 

Linguists believe they all come from a single language, Proto-Indo-European, which was originally spoken somewhere in Eurasia. They are now spoken all over the world.

The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major languages in Europe, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia.

Historically, the language family was also important in Anatolia and Central Asia. 

The earliest Indo-European writing is from the Bronze Age in Anatolian and Mycenaean Greek. The origin of Proto-Indo-European is after the invention of farming since some of its words have to do with farming.

Although it may have fewer languages than some other language families, it has the most native speakers, about 2.7 billion. 

Of the 20 languages with the most speakers, 12 are Indo-European: English, Spanish, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German, Sindhi, Punjabi, Marathi, French, and Urdu.
Four of the six official languages of the United Nations are Indo-European: English, Spanish, French, and Russian.

Main language groups 

These are the main Indo-European language groups:
 Albanian
 Anatolian: Luwian; Hittite
 Armenian
 Balto-Slavic 
 Baltic (Latvian and Lithuanian)
 Slavic (such as Polish, Russian, and Serbian)
 Celtic (such as Irish and Welsh)
 Germanic (such as English, German, and Swedish)
 Greek (and modern Greek)
 Indo-Iranian
 Indo-Aryan languages (Indic)
 Iranian
 Latin and the Romance languages (such as French, Italian, and Romanian)

Most Indo-European languages use the Latin script, but others use the Devanagari, Cyrillic, or Arabic scripts.

Summary

The number of speakers derived from statistics or estimates (2019) and were rounded:
History of Indo-European linguistics 
Suggestions of similarities between Indian and European languages began to be made by European visitors to India in the 16th century. In 1583, Thomas Stephens, an English Jesuit missionary in Goa, India, noticed similarities between the Indian languages and Greek and Latin and included them included in a letter to his brother, but it was not published until the 20th century.

The first account to mention Sanskrit is from Filippo Sassetti. Born in Florence, Italy, in 1540, he was a merchant who was among the first Europeans to study Sanskrit. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian such as devaḥ/dio "God", sarpaḥ/serpe "serpent", sapta/sette "seven", aṣṭa/otto "eight", nava/nove "nine"). However, neither observation led to further scholarly inquiry.
In 1647, the Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn noted the similarity among Indo-European languages and supposed that they had derived from a primitive common language. He included in his hypothesis Dutch, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, and he later added Slavic, Celtic, and Baltic languages. However, his suggestions did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research.

Gaston Coeurdoux and others had made similar observations. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship between the languages. Similarly, Mikhail Lomonosov compared different languages groups of the world, including Slavic, Baltic, Iranian, Finnish, Chinese, Hottentot and others.
The hypothesis reappeared in 1786, 20 years after Coeurdoux, when Sir William Jones lectured on the striking similarities between three of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. He later tentatively added Gothic, Celtic, and Old Persian but made some errors and omissions in his classification.

In 1813, Thomas Young was first to use the term Indo-European.<ref>In London Quarterly Review X/2 1813.; cf. Szemerényi 1999:12, footnote 6</ref> It became the standard scientific term except in Germany through Franz Bopp's Comparative Grammar''. Appearing between 1833 and 1852, it was the starting point of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline. 

Some 20th-century scholars thought Indo-European languages started in Armenia or India, but most now think that it started in Eastern Europe or Anatolia.

References

Other websites 
Indo-European languages -Citizendium
The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin or bay of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a marginal sea of North America. The United States of America, Mexico, and Cuba are the countries around it. 

The Straits of Florida connect to the rest of the Atlantic Ocean, and the Yucatán Channel connects to the Caribbean Sea. Because of its narrow connection to the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf has very small tides.

The size of the Gulf basin is about 1.6 million km2 (615,000 sq mi). Almost half of the basin is shallow continental-shelf waters. The climate is tropical, with heavy growth of plankton and sea grass. 

Petroleum is found near the north and west coast of this gulf. Many hurricanes hit this area, for example, Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita hurt many of the oil wells in 2005 in the United States. There is also a big fishing industry in the gulf. The Gulf of Mexico is one of the most important offshore petroleum-production regions in the world, making one-sixth of the United States' total production.
The Gulf was formed by plate tectonics about 300 million years ago.

References 

Mexico
Atlantic Ocean
Bodies of water of the United States
Geography of Cuba
Geography of Mexico
Zaire, officially the Republic of Zaire () was the name of a country that is now called the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It used this name from 27 November 1971 to 17 May 1997. The name "Zaire" comes from a Portuguese corruption of the Kongo word nzare, meaning "river".

References 

1971 establishments in Africa
1997 disestablishments
1990s disestablishments in Africa
History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Pneumonia is a disease of the lungs and the respiratory system. The lung contains many small bulbs, or sacs, called alveoli. These help to take out oxygen from the air. In the case of pneumonia, these bulbs become inflamed. They fill up with a fluid which is called pus, and can no longer absorb as much oxygen as before. This makes it hard for the person with pneumonia to breathe. They may feel out of breath, or like they are drowning.  They may also feel pain when they breathe.  Sometimes people die of pneumonia, even when they go to a hospital and take medicine.

Background
Pneumonia can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. It can also be caused by chemical or physical damage done to the lungs. Other illnesses, like alcohol abuse or lung cancer, can also result in pneumonia.
People with pneumonia usually have difficulty breathing. They may also cough, or have pains in the chest area. The treatment of pneumonia depends on how the illness was caused. If it was caused by bacteria, antibiotics can be used to treat it.

People of all ages can have pneumonia. The disease is dangerous. Many people die from pneumonia, especially old people, or people with a weak immune system.
According to some research in 2010, in some parts of the world where people are very poor like India, Nigeria, and Pakistan, pneumonia was the cause of death for more children under the age of five than any other disease.  Statistically, however, for every 2,000 children in the developing world who die of pneumonia, only one child in the developed world dies from the disease.  This is because of differences in health care and because of differences in rates of breastfeeding, not because of differences in children.  Breastfeeding newborn babies greatly increases their ability to survive pneumonia, but some cultures think of breastfeeding as taboo.
Treatment 
Pneumonia can be treated with medications that target the specific source of the infection. This might be an antibiotic, an antiviral, or an antifungal medication taken as either a tablet or an intravenous. Other therapies support a patient by providing comfort. These may include oxygen given by nose or mouth, inhalers to breathe in and expand the lungs, or steroids to decrease swelling.

Other types of pneumonia
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
SARS is a highly contagious and deadly type of pneumonia which first occurred in 2002 after initial outbreaks in China. SARS is caused by the SARS coronavirus, a pathogen (disease-causing organism) that was not known until then. New cases of SARS have not been seen since June 2003.
 Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia (BOOP)
BOOP is caused by inflammation (swelling or irritation) of the small airways of the lungs. It is also known as cryptogenic organizing pneumonitis (COP).
 Eosinophilic pneumonia
Eosinophilic pneumonia is invasion of the lung by eosinophils. Eosinophils are a particular kind of white blood cells. Eosinophilic pneumonia often occurs in response to infection with a parasite or after exposure to certain types of environmental factors.
 Chemical pneumonia
Chemical pneumonia
Chemical pneumonia (usually called chemical pneumonitis) is caused by chemical toxins such as pesticides, which may enter the body by inhalation (breathing in) or by skin contact. When the toxic (poisonous or harmful) substance is an oil, the pneumonia may be called lipoid pneumonia.
 Aspiration pneumonia
Aspiration pneumonia (or aspiration pneumonitis) is caused by accidentally inhaling oral (mouth) or gastric (stomach) contents into the lungs, either while eating, or after reflux or vomiting, and causing damage to the lungs.  The lung inflammation from these materials is not an infection but it can eventually cause one, since the material taken into the lungs may contain bacteria. Aspiration is a common cause of death among hospital and nursing home patients, since they sometimes cannot cough hard enough to protect their airways.
References

Other websites 
 Merck Manual: Pneumonia
 Merck Manual of Geriatrics: Pneumonia in the elderly
 British Lung Foundation 

Infectious diseases
Pulmonology
Breathing problems
Encino, California is a district of Los Angeles.

Other websites 
Maps and aerial photos of Encino

Neighborhoods of Los Angeles
Winter Olympic Games were originally considered to be linked with the nation hosting the Summer Olympic Games.  The country holding the summer games was preferred as the host for the winter games.  Since 1948, the locations of summer and winter games have developed independent of each other.
 1924 - I Olympic Winter Games - Chamonix, France
 1928 - II Olympic Winter Games - St. Moritz, Switzerland
 1932 - III Olympic Winter Games - Lake Placid, New York, United States
 1948 - V Olympic Winter Games - St. Moritz, Switzerland
 1952 - VI Olympic Winter Games - Oslo, Norway
 1956 - VII Olympic Winter Games - Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy
 1960 - VIII Olympic Winter Games - Squaw Valley, California, United States
 1964 - IX Olympic Winter Games - Innsbruck, Austria
 1968 - X Olympic Winter Games - Grenoble, France
 1972 - XI Olympic Winter Games - Sapporo, Japan
 1976 - XII Olympic Winter Games - Innsbruck, Austria
 1980 - XIII Olympic Winter Games - Lake Placid, New York, United States