Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
History

Development: 1989–2000 
In 1989, HP thought Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) architectures were stuck at one instruction per cycle. HP researchers tried to create a new type of processor architecture, later called Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing (EPIC), that allows the processor to use many instructions in each clock cycle. EPIC uses a form of very long instruction word (VLIW) architecture, in which 1 instruction word had many instructions. With EPIC, the compiler checks which instructions can be used at the same time, so the processor can run the instructions without needing complicated methods to see which instructions to use at the same time.
The goal of this idea is to allow better inspection of the code at the time of compile to check for additional opportunities for multiple executions at once, and to simplify processor design and save electricity by removing the need for runtime scheduling instructions.
HP thought that it was not good for individual enterprise system companies like HP to make proprietary processors, so HP worked with Intel in 1994 to create the IA-64 architecture, made with EPIC's ideas. Intel wanted to make a large effort in creating IA-64 in the expectation that the resulting processor would be used by most enterprise systems. HP and Intel had a large design effort to make the first Itanium product, Merced, in 1998.

During creation, Intel, HP, and other industry analysts thought that IA-64 would be very popular in servers, workstations, and desktops, and one day replace RISC and Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) architectures for multi-purpose applications.
Compaq and Silicon Graphics stopped working on their Alpha and MIPS architectures to move to the Itanium architecture.
Many groups created operating systems for Itanium, including Microsoft Windows, OpenVMS, Linux, and UNIX types such as HP-UX, Solaris,
Tru64 UNIX, and Monterey/64
(the last three were never finished work with running on Itanium). By 1997, many found that the Itanium architecture and the compiler were more difficult to use than they thought.
Technology issues such as the very high transistor counts needed for the large instruction words and the large caches. There were also problems with the project, as the two parts of the team used different methods and had slightly different priorities. Because Merced was the first EPIC processor, its creation had more problems than the team had thought. In addition, the EPIC concept requires different compiler abilities that had never been created before, so more research was needed.
Intel announced the name of the processor, Itanium, on October 4, 1999.
In only a few hours, the name Itanic had been used as a joke, (a reference to Titanic, the "unsinkable" ship that sank in 1912 ("Itanium + Titanic = Itanic")).
"Itanic" has also been used by The Register,
and others,
to say the multi-billion-dollar investment in Itanium, and the early demand with it, would mean nothing because they thought Itanium was going to fail.

Itanium (Merced): 2001
By the time Itanium was released in June 2001, its performance was not superior to competing RISC and CISC processors.
Itanium competed with low-power systems (primarily 4-CPU and small systems) with servers based on x86 processors, and with high-power such as with IBM's POWER architecture and Sun Microsystems' SPARC architecture. Intel shifted Itanium to working with the high-power business and HPC computing, trying to copy x86's successful market (i.e., 1 architecture, many system vendors). The success of the 1st processor version was only with replacing PA-RISC in HP systems, Alpha in Compaq systems and MIPS in SGI systems, but IBM also made a supercomputer based on this architecture.
POWER and SPARC were strong, and the x86 architecture grew more into the enterprise space, because of easier scaling and very large install base.
Only a few thousand systems using the 1st Itanium processor, Merced, were sold, because of poorer performance, high cost and less Itanium-made software.
Intel saw that Itanium required more native software to work well, so Intel made thousands of systems for independent software vendors to help them make Itanium software. HP and Intel brought the 2nd Itanium processor, Itanium 2, to market a year later.

Itanium 2: 2002–2010 

The Itanium 2 processor was released in 2002, for enterprise servers and not all of high-power computing. The 1st version of Itanium 2, code-named McKinley, was created by HP and Intel. It fixed many of the problems of the 1st Itanium processor, which were mostly caused by a bad memory subsystem. McKinley had 221 million transistors (25 million of them were for logic), and was 19.5 mm by 21.6 mm (421 mm2) and was created with a 180 nm design process, and a CMOS process with 6 layers of aluminium.
In 2003, AMD released the Opteron, which implemented the first x86-64 architecture (called AMD64 at the time). Opteron was much more successful because it was an easy upgrade from x86. Intel implemented x86-64 in its Xeon processors in 2004.

Intel released a new Itanium 2 processor, code-named Madison, in 2003. Madison used a 130 nm process and was the foundation of all new Itanium processors until June 2006.

In March 2005, Intel announced that it was working on a new Itanium processor, code-named Tukwila, to be released in 2007. Tukwila would have 4 processor cores and would replace the Itanium bus with a new Common System Interface, which would also be used by a new Xeon processor.
Later in that year, Intel changed Tukwila's release date to late 2008.
In November 2005, the largest Itanium server makers worked with Intel and many software vendors to create the Itanium Solutions Alliance, to promote the architecture and speed up software porting.
The Alliance says that its members would invest $10 billion in Itanium solutions by the end of the decade.

In 2006, Intel delivered Montecito (marketed as the Itanium 2 9000 series), a 2-core processor that had approximately 2x performance and 20% less energy usage.

Intel released the Itanium 2 9100 series, codenamed Montvale, in November 2007.
In May 2009, the release for Tukwila, Montvale's successor, was changed again, with release to OEMs planned for the first quarter of 2010.

Itanium 9300 (Tukwila): 2010 

The Itanium 9300 series processor, code-named Tukwila, was released on February 8, 2010, with greater performance and memory amount.
Tukwila uses a 65 nm process, has between two and four cores, up to 24 MB CPU cache, Hyper-Threading technology and new memory controllers. It also has double-device data correction, which helps to fix memory issues. Tukwila also has Intel QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) to replace the Itanium bus architecture. It has a maximum inner-processor bandwidth of 96 GB/s and a maximum memory bandwidth of 34 GB/s. With QuickPath, the processor has built-in memory controllers, which controls the memory using QPI interfaces to communicate with other processors and I/O hubs. QuickPath is also used with Intel processors using the Nehalem architecture, so that Tukwila and Nehalem might be able to use the same chipsets.
Tukwila incorporates four memory controllers, each of which supports multiple DDR3 DIMMs via a separate memory controller,
similar to the Nehalem Xeon processor code-named Beckton.

Itanium 9500 (Poulson): 2012
The Itanium 9500 series processor, code-named Poulson, is the follow-on processor to Tukwila and was released on November 8, 2012.
Intel says it skips the 45 nm process technology and uses the 32 nm process technology instead; it features 8 cores, has a 12-wide issue architecture, multi-threading additions, and new instructions for parallelism, including virtualization.
The Poulson L3 cache size is 32 MB. L2 cache size is 6 MB, 512 I KB, 256 D KB per core. Poulson's size is 544 mm², less than Tukwila's size (698.75 mm²).
At ISSCC 2011, Intel presented a paper called, "A 32nm 3.1 Billion Transistor 12-Wide-Issue Itanium Processor for Mission Critical Servers."
Given Intel's history of sharing details about Itanium microprocessors at ISSCC, this paper most likely refers to Poulson. Analyst David Kanter speculates that Poulson will use a new architecture, with a more advanced form of multi-threading that uses as many as two threads, to improve performance for single threaded and multi-threaded work.
New information was released at Hot Chips conference.

The new information claims improvements in multithreading, reliability improvements (Instruction Replay RAS) and some new instructions (thread priority, integer instruction, cache pre-fetching, data access hints).
In Intel's Product Change Notification (PCN) 111456–01, it listed 4 models of Itanium 9500 series CPU, which were removed in a revised version of the document. The parts were later listed in Intel's Material Declaration Data Sheets (MDDS) database. Intel later posted Itanium 9500 reference manual.

The models are:

Market share 
In comparison with its Xeon server processors, Itanium has never been a large product for Intel. Intel does not release production numbers. One industry analyst estimated that the production rate was 200,000 processors per year in 2007.
According to Gartner Inc., the total number of Itanium servers (not processors) sold by all vendors in 2007, was about 55,000. (It is unclear whether clustered servers counted as a single server or not.) This compares with 417,000 RISC servers (spread across all RISC vendors) and 8.4 million x86 servers. IDC reports that a total of 184,000 Itanium-based systems were sold from 2001 through 2007. For the combined POWER/SPARC/Itanium systems market, IDC reports that POWER captured 42% of revenue and SPARC captured 32%, while Itanium-based system revenue reached 26% in the second quarter of 2008.
According to an IDC analyst, in 2007, HP had about 80% of Itanium system revenue.
According to Gartner, in 2008, HP had 95% of Itanium sales. HP's Itanium system sales were at $4.4 Billion at the end of 2008, and $3.5 Billion by the end of 2009,
compared to a 35% decline in UNIX system revenue for Sun and an 11% drop for IBM, with an x86-64 server revenue increase of 14% during this period.
In December 2012, IDC released a research report stating that Itanium server shipments would remain flat through 2016, with annual shipment of 26,000 systems (a decline of over 50% compared to shipments in 2008).

Hardware support

Systems 

, only a few providers have Itanium systems, such as HP, Bull, NEC, Inspur and Huawei. Intel offers a chassis that can be used by system integrators to build Itanium systems.
HP, the only one of the industry's top 4 server manufacturers to sell Itanium systems today, creating at least 80% of all Itanium systems. HP sold 7,200 systems in the first quarter of 2006.
Most Itanium systems sold are enterprise servers and machines for large-scale technical computing, with each system costing about US $200,000. A typical system uses eight or more Itanium processors.
Chipsets 
The Itanium bus communicates with the rest of the system. Enterprise server makers differentiate their systems by making their own chipsets that interface the processor to memory, interconnections, and peripheral controllers. The chipset is the heart of the system-level architecture for each system design. Creation of a chipset costs tens of millions of dollars and represents a major commitment to the use of the Itanium. IBM created a chipset in 2003, and Intel in 2002, but neither of them has developed chipsets to support technologies such as DDR2 or PCI Express.
Currently, modern chipsets for Itanium supporting such technologies are manufactured by HP, Fujitsu, SGI, NEC, and Hitachi.
Software support 
Itanium is or was supported (i.e. Windows version can no longer be bought) by the following operating systems:
 HP-UX 11i; an Intel 64 (x86-64) port was proposed, but later canceled.
 Windows family 
 Windows XP 64-Bit Edition (Unsupported; first Windows edition to support)
 Windows Server 2003 (Unsupported)
 Windows Server 2008 (Extended support until January 14, 2020. Extended support will only receive bug fixes and no new features, including support for future CPUs. This is the last version of Windows still with support for Itanium. Windows Server 2008 and Server 2008 R2 got a security update in middle of 2018.)
 Windows Server 2008 R2 (This is the last version of Windows to support Itanium.)
 Linux distributions
 
 Gentoo
 SUSE's SLES (unsupported as of SLES 12; supported by SLES 11 SP4)
 
 TurboLinux (was the first Linux to support with version 7 in 2001)
 FreeBSD (unsupported; was supported in 10.4 (to October 2018 EOL) as: "Tier 2 through FreeBSD 10. Unsupported after.")
NetBSD (development branch only, but "no formal release is available".)
 OpenVMS I64 (to 2020); an Intel 64 (x86-64) port is being developed.
 NonStop OS; an Intel 64 (x86-64) port was developed
 Bull GCOS 8
 NEC ACOS-4 (in late September 2012, NEC announced a return from IA-64 to the previous NOAH line of proprietary mainframe processors for ACOS-4.)
Likewise, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 (first released in March 2007) was the last Itanium edition of Red Hat Enterprise Linux
and Debian no longer supports Itanium officially (last release with official support was Debian 7 / Wheezy, and was not covered by Long Term Support (LTS), but unofficial support for newer Debian is still available in limited form via Debian Ports; last available kernel in wheezy-backports is Linux 3.14.0, which was released on March 30, 2014, but it is possible to manually update to latest 3.14.x version, or more recent kernel versions, like 4.17.17 as of September 2018) and in addition Canonical Ltd. chose to not support Itanium for Ubuntu 10.04 LTS (released in April 2010, now discontinued).
HP will not be supporting or certifying Linux on Itanium 9300 (Tukwila) servers.

In late September 2012, NEC announced a return from IA-64 to the previous NOAH line of proprietary mainframe processors, now produced in a quad-core variant on 40 nm, called NOAH-6.
HP sells a virtualization technology for Itanium called Integrity Virtual Machines.

To allow more software to run on the Itanium, Intel supported the development of compilers optimized for the platform, especially its own suite of compilers.
Starting in November 2010, with the introduction of new product suites, the Intel Itanium Compilers were no longer bundled with the Intel x86 compilers in a single product. Intel offers Itanium tools and Intel x86 tools, including compilers, independently in different product bundles.
GCC,
Open64 and Microsoft Visual Studio 2005 (and later)
are also able to produce machine code for Itanium. According to the Itanium Solutions Alliance over 13,000 applications were available for Itanium-based systems in early 2008,
though Sun has contested Itanium application counts in the past.
The ISA also supported Gelato, an Itanium HPC user group and developer community that ported and supported open-source software for Itanium.
Emulation 
Emulation is a technique that allows a computer to execute binary code that was compiled for a different type of computer. Before IBM's acquisition of QuickTransit in 2009, application binary software for IRIX/MIPS and Solaris/SPARC could run via type of emulation called "dynamic binary translation" on Linux/Itanium. Similarly, HP implemented a method to execute PA-RISC/HP-UX on the Itanium/HP-UX via emulation, to simplify migration of its PA-RISC customers to the radically different Itanium instruction set. Itanium processors can also run the mainframe environment GCOS from Groupe Bull and several x86 operating systems via instruction set simulators.
Competition 
Itanium is aimed at the enterprise server and high-performance computing (HPC) markets. Other enterprise- and HPC-focused processor lines include Oracle Corporation's SPARC M7, Fujitsu's SPARC64 X+ and IBM's POWER8. Measured by quantity sold, Itanium's most serious competition comes from x86-64 processors including Intel's own Xeon line and AMD's Opteron line. Since 2009, most servers were being shipped with x86-64 processors.

In 2005, Itanium systems accounted for about 14% of HPC systems revenue, but the percentage has declined as the industry shifts to x86-64 clusters for this application.

An October 2008 paper by Gartner, on the Tukwila processor stated that "...the future roadmap for Itanium looks as strong as that of any RISC peer like Power or SPARC."

Supercomputers and high-performance computing
An Itanium-based computer first appeared on the list of the TOP500 supercomputers in November 2001. The best position ever achieved by an Itanium 2 based system in the list was #2, achieved in June 2004, when Thunder (LLNL) entered the list with an Rmax of 19.94 Teraflops. In November 2004, Columbia entered the list at #2 with 51.8 Teraflops, and there was at least one Itanium-based computer in the top 10 from then until June 2007. The peak number of Itanium-based machines on the list occurred in the November 2004 list, at 84 systems (16.8%); by June 2012, this had dropped to one system (0.2%), and no Itanium system remained on the list in November 2012.

Processors
Processors

Released processors 
The Itanium processors show a progression in capability. Merced was a proof of concept. McKinley dramatically improved the memory hierarchy and allowed Itanium to become reasonably competitive. Madison, with the shift to a 130 nm process, allowed for enough cache space to overcome the major performance bottlenecks. Montecito, with a 90 nm process, allowed for a dual-core implementation and a major improvement in performance per watt. Montvale added three new features: core-level lockstep, demand-based switching and front-side bus frequency of up to 667 MHz.
Future processors 
During the HP vs. Oracle support lawsuit, court documents unsealed by Santa Clara County Court judge revealed in 2008, Hewlett-Packard had paid Intel Corp. around $440 million to keep producing and updating Itanium microprocessors from 2009 to 2014. In 2010, the two companies signed another $250 million deal, which obliged Intel to continue making Itanium central processing units for HP's machines until 2017. Under the terms of the agreements, HP has to pay for chips it gets from Intel, while Intel launches Tukwila, Poulson, Kittson and Kittson+ chips in a bid to gradually boost performance of the platform.

Kittson 
Kittson is planned to follow Poulson in 2015. Kittson, like Poulson, will be manufactured using Intel's 32 nm process. Few other details are known beyond the existence of the codename and the binary and socket compatibility with Poulson and Tukwila, though moving to a common socket with x86 Xeon "will be evaluated for future implementation opportunities" after Kittson.
Timeline 
 1989:
 HP begins investigating EPIC.
 1994:
 June: HP and Intel announce partnership.
 1995:
 September: HP, Novell, and SCO announce plans for a "high volume UNIX operating system" to deliver "64-bit networked computing on the HP/Intel architecture".
 1996:
 October: Compaq announces it will use IA-64.
 1997:
 June: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $38bn/yr by 2001.
 October: Dell announces it will use IA-64.
 December: Intel and Sun announce joint effort to port Solaris to IA-64.
 1998:
 March: SCO admits HP/SCO Unix alliance is now dead.
 June: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $30bn/yr by 2001.
 June: Intel announces Merced will be delayed, from second half of 1999 to first half of 2000.
 September: IBM announces it will build Merced-based machines.
 October: Project Monterey is formed to create a common UNIX for IA-64.
 1999:
 February: Project Trillian is formed to port Linux to IA-64.
 August: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $25bn/yr by 2002.
October: Intel announces the Itanium name.
 October: the term Itanic is first used in The Register.
 2000:
 February: Project Trillian delivers source code.
 June: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $25bn/yr by 2003.
 July: Sun and Intel drop Solaris-on-Itanium plans.
 August: AMD releases specification for x86-64, a set of 64-bit extensions to Intel's own x86 architecture intended to compete with IA-64. It will eventually market this under the name "AMD64".
 2001:
 June: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $15bn/yr by 2004.
 June: Project Monterey dies.
 July: Itanium is released.
 October: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $12bn/yr by the end of 2004.
 November: IBM's 320-processor Titan NOW Cluster at National Center for Supercomputing Applications is listed on the TOP500 list at position #34.
 November: Compaq delays Itanium Product release due to problems with processor.
 December: Gelato is formed.
 2002:
2002:
 March: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $5bn/yr by end 2004.
 June: Itanium 2 is released.
 2003:
 April: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $9bn/yr by end 2007.
 April: AMD releases Opteron, the first processor with x86-64 extensions.
 June: Intel releases the "Madison" Itanium 2.
 2004:
 February: Intel announces it has been working on its own x86-64 implementation (which it will eventually market under the name "Intel 64").
 June: Intel releases its first processor with x86-64 extensions, a Xeon processor codenamed "Nocona".
 June: Thunder, a system at LLNL with 4096 Itanium 2 processors, is listed on the TOP500 list at position #2.
 November: Columbia, an SGI Altix 3700 with 10160 Itanium 2 processors at NASA Ames Research Center, is listed on the TOP500 list at position #2.
 December: Itanium system sales for 2004 reach $1.4bn.
 2005:
 January: HP ports OpenVMS to Itanium
 February: IBM server design drops Itanium support.
June: An Itanium 2 sets a record SPECfp2000 result of 2,801 in a Hitachi, Ltd. Computing blade.
 September: Itanium Solutions Alliance is formed.
 September: Dell exits the Itanium business.
 October: Itanium server sales reach $619M/quarter in the third quarter.
 October: Intel announces one-year delays for Montecito, Montvale, and Tukwila.
 2006:
 January: Itanium Solutions Alliance announces a $10bn collective investment in Itanium by 2010.
 February: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $6.6bn/yr by 2009.
 June: Intel releases the dual-core "Montecito" Itanium 2 9000 series.
 2007:
 April: CentOS (RHEL-clone) places Itanium support on hold for the 5.0 release.
 October: Intel releases the "Montvale" Itanium 2 9100 series.
 November: Intel renames the family from Itanium 2 back to Itanium.
 2009:
 December: Red Hat announces that it is dropping support for Itanium in the next release of its enterprise OS, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6.
 2010:
2010:
 February: Intel announces the "Tukwila" Itanium 9300 series.
 April: Microsoft announces phase-out of support for Itanium.
 October: Intel announces new releases of Intel C++ Compiler and Intel Fortran Compiler for x86/x64, while Itanium support is only available in older versions.
 2011:
 March: Oracle Corporation announces that it will stop developing application software, middleware, and Oracle Linux for the Itanium.
 March: Intel and HP reiterate their support of Itanium.
 April: Huawei and Inspur announce that they will develop Itanium servers.
 2012:
 February: Court papers were released from a case between HP and Oracle Corporation that gave insight to the fact that HP was paying Intel $690 million to keep Itanium on life support.
 SAP discontinues support for Business Objects on Itanium.
 September: In response to a court ruling, Oracle reinstitutes support for Oracle software on Itanium hardware.
 2013:
2013:
 January: Intel cancels Kittson as a 22 nm shrink of Poulson, moving it instead to its 32 nm process.
 November: HP announces that its NonStop servers will start using Intel 64 (x86-64) chips.
 2014:
 December: HP announces that their next generation of Superdome X and Nonstop X servers would be equipped with Intel Xeon processors, and not Itanium. While HP continues to sell and offer support for the Itanium-based Integrity portfolio, the introduction of a model based entirely on Xeon chips marks the end of an era.
References

Other websites 

 Intel Itanium Home Page
 HP Integrity Servers Home Page 
 Intel Itanium Specifications
 Some undocumented Itanium 2 microarchitectural information 
 
 Itanium Docs at HP
 Historical background for EPIC instruction set architectures

Electronic components
Erika Mitchell (born 7 March 1963), known by her pen name as E. L. James is an English author. James was born in London. She was raised in Buckinghamshire. She studied History at the University of Kent. James wrote: Fifty Shades of Grey, Grey: Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian, Fifty Shades Freed, and Fifty Shades Darker.

Other websites
Official author website
Official Twitter

References

1963 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Kent
English novelists
Writers from Buckinghamshire
Writers from London
Ko Chun-hsiung (; 15 January 1945 – 7 December 2015) was a Taiwanese actor, director, producer and politician. His career began in the 1960s and had appeared in over 120 movies.

During his career he has won the Golden Horse Awards, two Asia Pacific Film Festival for Best Actor Awards, a Panama International Film Festival for Best Actor Award. In 2005, Chinese Film Association of Performance Art named Ko on the list of 100 Outstanding Artists in Chinese Film (1905 - 2004).

Chun-hsiung died of lung cancer in Kaohsiung, Taiwan at the age of 70.

References

Other websites
 
 

1945 births
2015 deaths
Deaths from lung cancer

Taiwanese movie actors
Movie directors
Movie producers
Taiwanese politicians
Taiwanese television actors
Holly Woodlawn (Haroldo Santiago Franceschi Rodriguez Danhakl; October 26, 1946 – December 6, 2015) was a transgender Puerto Rican actress and Warhol superstar. She was known for her roles in Trash (1970) and Women in Revolt (1972).

Woodlawn died in Los Angeles, California from brain cancer and liver cancer at the age of 69.

References

1946 births
2015 deaths
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles
Deaths from brain cancer
Deaths from liver cancer
Puerto Rican movie actors
Transgender people
Uxbridge is a town in west London which became a municipal borough in 1955. It has been part of the London Borough of Hillingdon since 1965. About 53,000 people live in Uxbridge. Its postcode is UB8.

London Borough of Hillingdon
Towns in London
Tolworth is a suburban area of southwest London. Its postcodes are KT5 and KT6.

Areas of London
Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames
Fremington is a village in North Devon.

North Devon
Villages in Devon
Kehelland () is a hamlet in the northwest of Cornwall, England.

There is a small primary school and a horticultural centre called Kehelland Trust. Kehelland Trust supports adults with learning difficulties.

Hamlets in England
Hamlets in Cornwall
West Tisbury is a civil parish in southwest Wiltshire, England. The nearest city is Salisbury, which is about 13 miles away.

In West Tisbury there are five hamlets:

East Hatch
West Hatch
Newtown
Tuckingmill
Kinghay

Civil parishes in England
Settlements in Wiltshire
In Norse mythology, the einherjar (lone-fighters) are warriors who have died in battle and are brought to Valhalla by valkyries. In Valhalla, the einherjar eat meat from the boar called Sæhrímnir. Every day he is boiled and every night he becomes whole again. They drink mead provided by a goat named Heiðrún. Every day they dress for battle and go out and fight each other. This is to prepare for the events of Ragnarök (the end of the world).

The einherjar are written about in the Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson. Also in the poem written in the 13th century Hákonarmál, by Eyvindr skáldaspillir.

References 

Norse mythology
The African Plate is a major tectonic plate. It includes much of the continent of Africa, as well as the oceanic crust which lies between the continent and various surrounding ocean ridges. Since the continent of Africa includes the African Plate and the smaller plates to its right, some literature refers to the African Plate as the Nubian Plate to distinguish it from the continent as a whole.

Between 60 million years ago (mya) and 10 mya, the Somali Plate began rifting from the African Plate along the East African Rift.

One hypothesis suggests a mantle plume beneath the Afar region. Another hypothesis suggests the rifting is just a zone of weakness as the  plates to its east move northwards.

The African Plate's speed is about  per year. It has been moving over the past 100 million years or so in a general northeast direction. This is drawing it closer to the Eurasian Plate. There is subduction where oceanic crust meets continental crust (in parts of the central and eastern Mediterranean).
Along its northeast margin, the African Plate is bounded by the Red Sea rift where the Arabian Plate is moving away from the African Plate.

The African, Somali and Arabian Plates were once all part of the great southern supercontinent Gondwana, as was the Indian subcontinent.

References 

Tectonic plates

Geography of Africa
OpenStep was an operating system by NeXT. It is an x86 version of the NeXTStep operating system, which was also by NeXT.

Operating systems
Rhapsody was the name given to Apple Computer's next-generation operating system. Apple got the Rhapsody operating system when they bought NeXT Inc. from Steve Jobs for $425 million. The same year Apple released Rhapsody to software developers so they could create versions of their software for the next release of the Apple operating system. But a key software vendor, Adobe Systems, did not like Apple's plan for the new OS. Without Adobe supporting them Apple decided not to go ahead with Rhapsody. Rhapsody was replaced by OS X, scheduled for 1999.

References 

Apple software
The palmchat (Dulus dominicus) is a small passerine bird. It is the national bird of the Dominican Republic.

References

Other websites

Birds of Central America
Passeri

National symbols of the Dominican Republic
The Arabian bustard (Ardeotis arabs) is a bird native to North Africa and the Middle East. It lives in the Sahel region (Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Sudan), South Sudan, Kenya, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

As in all bustards, the male Arabian bustard is much larger than the female. Males have been found to weigh , while females weigh . The record-sized male Arabian bustard weighed . These birds stand from  tall in females to  tall in males.

References 

Birds of Africa
Birds of Asia
Bustards
History 
In 1885, the National Brewing Company created National Bohemian beer. The first factory was in Baltimore, Maryland. The brewing stopped from 1920 to 1933 due to Prohibition. This was the period when nobody could drink alcohol in the US. In 1933 under the ownership of Jerold Hoffberger the factory of Natty Boh opened again. During the 1940s the factory of National Bohemian was the first in the US to adopt the six pack. In the 1970s, the Hoffberger family sold the brand name. During the next three decades, the brand of this beer was bought and sold by different companies. The copyright of the beer was purchased first by Stroh, then by G. Heileman Brewing, and then by Pabst, in 1999. Since the Hoffberger family sold the beer it has been brewed in North Carolina.  From 1996 until 2011, National Bohemian wasn’t available directly from the bar, but only by cans or bottles.  In 2014, an American citizen born in Russia, Eugene Kashper, bought the entire Pabst Company, so also National Bohemian.
Relationship with Baltimore 
Under the ownership of Jerold Hoffberger, Natty Boh was first associated with the city of Baltimore. In 1953, Jerold Hoffberger helped to bring the St. Louis Browns to Baltimore where they became the Baltimore Orioles. He made National Bohemian the main sponsor of the baseball team. About twelve years later Hoffberger bought the team. Under the ownership of Jerold Hoffberger the Orioles won two World Series and four American League pennants. Nattty Boh was served at the stadium. This was the period when National Bohemian became the beer of Baltimore because people identified the Orioles’ wins with the beer. Although the beer is not brewed in Maryland anymore, 95% of sales are still in Baltimore. This is why is it called the beer of Maryland.
Mr. Boh 
In 1933, the logo of this beer, Mr. Boh, was introduced. Mr. Boh is a one-eyed man with a black mustache. Thanks to the popularity achieved by National Bohemian with the Orioles, Mr. Boh became a symbol of Baltimore. His big face is still visible at the top of the old building where it was once brewed. Through the years, people started collecting gadgets with the logo of National Bohemian. Around Baltimore, several pubs serve Natty Boh as the main beer. These pubs are decorated with different gadgets of Mr. Boh.

References

Other websites 
 Website of Nationla Bohemian

Beer
Service animals are animals that have been trained to do things to help people with disabilities.  Service animals may also be called assistance animals, assist animals, support animals, or helper animals, depending on the country and what the animal does.

Types 
There are three basic types of assistance animals:
 Guide animals, like guide dogs, who guide (lead) people who are blind
 Hearing animals, like hearing dogs, who help the deaf by signaling when they hear important sounds
 Service animals, who do work for people with disabilities who are not blind or deaf
Dogs
Dogs can be trained to do many different things to help owners with physical disabilities.  For example, some dogs can be trained to:
 Sense that their owner is going to have a seizure, and help them in different ways (see seizure response dog)
 Sense that their owner's blood sugar is getting low, and alert them to check their blood sugar
 Go get help from a certain person, set off an alarm, or call 911 with a special phone if their owner has an emergency
 Do things for owners in wheelchairs, like press buttons (see the picture at the top of the page), open a refrigerator, carry bags, open the door, and many other tasks
 Help people who have trouble walking keep steady and walk safely
Dogs can also be trained to help owners with psychiatric (mental health) disabilities.  For example, some dogs can be trained to:
 Bring medicine to a person who is having a panic attack
 Bring a portable phone, or call 911 or a suicide hotline on a special phone if their owner is feeling suicidal (wants to kill himself or herself)
 Wake up a person with PTSD who is having a night terror
 Realize when their owner is getting angry or anxious, signaling them and trying to distract them (for example, by nudging them or licking their face)

These are just examples of some of the things service dogs can do.  Service dogs can also be trained to do many, many more things for people with all kinds of disabilities.
Miniature horses
Miniature horses are horses that are usually less than three feet tall.  They can be trained to:
 Guide a blind owner, just like a guide dog would
 Pull a wheelchair
 Help support an owner with Parkinson's disease, which can make it hard to walk and easy to fall.  By bracing against the horse, the owner can walk more easily and safely.

An owner might choose a miniature horse as a service animal because they are allergic to dogs, or because their religion says that dogs are unclean.  Miniature horses can also live and work for about 30 years, much longer than a service dog.

Capuchin monkeys
Are not allowed in buildings with a "no animal" policy. They may be used at home or outside where any animal is allowed,  but under the 2011 ADA revision, only canines and in some cases miniature horses, are legally recognized as public access service animals.
Capuchin monkeys can be trained to do things with their hands, like:  
 Picking things up 
 Opening doorknobs
 Turning on light switches
 Turning the pages of a book
 Microwaving food and opening drink bottles
 Washing their owner's face

Helper monkeys can be helpful to people who have trouble with using their hands and arms, like people with quadriplegia, very bad spinal cord injuries, very bad injuries to their hands and arms, and multiple sclerosis.

Helper monkeys are usually raised in a human home as infants.  Then they get years of training, usually in schools by private organizations.  On average, they take 7 years to train.  They are usually able to serve as helper monkeys for 25–30 years (two to three times longer than a service dog).

Not everyone agrees that monkeys should be service animals.  Debbie Leahy, manager of captive wildlife protection for the Humane Society of the United States, says that monkeys are not real service animals and that sometimes they are abused during their training.
In the United States, helper monkeys are also not counted as service animals under most laws.

Animals which cannot be service animals 

If an animal has not been trained to do a job or task that will help a person with a disability, it cannot be a service animal.

Some people with mental health problems, like anxiety or PTSD, use different kinds of animals to give them comfort (make them feel better) when they are upset.  These animals are called "comfort animals" (or "Emotional Support Animals").

Some people use unusual comfort animals, like snakes, tarantulas, guinea pigs, turtles, and rats.  Even if having the animal makes the owner feel better, these animals cannot be service animals because it is impossible to train them to do something to help a person with a disability.
Even if a comfort animal is a dog or a miniature horse, being a comfort animal is not the same as being a service animal.  Comfort animals make their owners feel better just by being there.  A service animal is trained to recognize that there is a problem and do the job they were trained to do to help their owner.  For example, a psychiatric service dog would recognize that its owner is feeling upset and do a specific job, like get medicine, get help, or distract the person, to help them.

Laws in the United States

In the United States, service animals have some protection under the law.  Different laws set rules about service animals in different situations.  For example, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) governs the use of service animals in public places. Other laws, for example, control which service animals are allowed in housing.  But these different laws do not agree on what counts as a service animal.
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
In 1990, the United States passed the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).  Its goal was to protect the rights of people with disabilities.  At first, it mentioned only guide dogs as service animals.  Since then, it has been changed to include more protections.  It now defines a service animal as any "dog that is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for people with disabilities."
This means that only dogs count as service animals under the ADA.  However, there is a special section in the new ADA about miniature horses.  This section says that places covered by the ADA (like businesses) should allow miniature horses "where reasonable."  To decide whether allowing a miniature horse into a place is "reasonable," those places are allowed to use four questions:
 Is the miniature horse housebroken?
 Is the miniature horse under its owner's control?
 Does the place have room for the miniature horse?
 If the miniature horse is allowed in, will the place still be able to meet all of its safety rules and requirements?

If the answer to all four questions is "yes," the place needs to let the miniature horse in, and treat it like a service animal.

Other than service dogs and service miniature horses, no other type of assistance animal is protected under the ADA.

Protections for service animals
Under the ADA, it is illegal to refuse to let a service animal or its owner into:  
 Any business
 Any government agency
 Any "public accommodation" (any place where members of the public are allowed to go) - like movie theaters, museums, malls, schools, parks, and ambulances

In these places, it is also illegal to treat a person with a service animal differently than any other person.  The person with a service animal cannot be charged extra money, refused service, or kept apart from other people.  A service animal can be asked to leave one of these places only if it is out of control (for example, if it is aggressive or urinates inside).  The animal has to be on a leash, or controlled by its owner's voice or signals, all the time.
No one can ask for proof that the animal is a service animal.  Owners do not have to carry any special papers or prove that their service animal can do a special task.  If an owner and a service animal enter one of these places, workers are only allowed to ask two questions to make sure the animal is a service animal and not a pet:
 Is this a service animal that you need because of a disability?  (Nobody is allowed to ask the owner to explain what their disability is.)
 What work or task is the dog trained to do?

It is legal to train your own service animal in the United States.

Service animals do not get these same protections in most religious organizations.  Most religious organizations are exempt from the ADA's requirements, which means they do not have to obey the ADA.

Other laws
Other laws

Other laws have less strict definitions of which animals count as service animals.  For example, the Department of Transportation's Air Carrier Access Act allows "dogs and other service animals" to ride with passengers on commercial airlines.

The Fair Housing Act also requires housing providers to allow service animals (including comfort and emotional support animals).  This law does not say that only certain animals are allowed.

Laws in other countries

Mexico & South America
In most places in South America and Mexico, the place's owner or manager gets to decide whether to let a service animal in.  There are no laws that protect service animals or their owners.  In areas with many tourists, service dogs are generally welcomed without problems.
In Brazil, however, the President created a new law about service dogs in 2006.  The law says that all service dogs in Brazil must be allowed to go anywhere that the public could go. The Brasília Metro (the Brazilian public transportation system) has developed a program which trains guide dogs to ride it.

Europe
Different European countries have different laws about service animals.  Some countries have laws that govern the entire country, and sometimes different parts of the country govern themselves.

Australia
In Australia, the Disability Discrimination Act of 1992 legally protects all assistance dog handlers.

However, with current laws, owners may not always be allowed to have their service animals with them in all situations.  Each state and territory has its own laws, which mainly have to do with guide dogs. Queensland has introduced the Guide Hearing and Assistance Dog Act 2009, which protects all certified assistance dogs.
Canada
In Canada, any service animal is allowed anywhere that the general public is allowed, as long as the owner is in control of the animal.  In Alberta, there is a fine of up to $3000 for someone who refuses to let a service dog into a place where everyone else could go.

South Korea
In South Korea, the law says service dogs must be let into any areas that are open to the public.  People who break this law can be fined for up to 2 million won (about $1691 in United States dollars).

Related pages
 Seizure response dog
 Guide dog
 Hearing dog

References
The Swan of Tuonela is a tone poem by Finnish composer, Jean Sibelius.

1890s works
Symphonies
Immovable property is property that cannot be moved from one place to another. It is generally connected to the ground or land on which it sits. The term immovable property also includes the land. 

In real estate law, immovable property has certain rights of ownership that go with title (full or partial) to that property. These may include rights to buildings, rights to collect rent, inherited rights, right of ways, ferries or fisheries. It generally does not include such things as grass, crops, or standing timber.
In much of the world's civil law systems is the same as "real property"; it is land or any permanent feature or structure above or below the surface. In some countries, China for example, private ownership of land is not allowed. Individuals in China may obtain land rights for a fixed number of years for a fee. These rights may be transfered by legal means including gift or sale. They may also own houses, buildings or apartments, but not the land they sit on. In the United States immovable property is also known as real estate. In the United Kingdom it is also known as property.

References 

Property law
The Burmese calendar is a calendar where the months are based on lunar months. It is based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. It has been used in Myanmar since 640 CE. Today it is used as together with the Buddhist calendar.

Myanmar
Calendars
640s establishments
7th-century establishments in Asia
Establishments in Myanmar
In law, extortion is a criminal offense. It is obtaining money, property, or service from a person or institution, through coercion. This may be by threat to a victim, to their property or family. It may also be by false claim (such as claiming to be a public official). Another form of extortion is offering a business owner "protection"; for example, to keep the business free from vandalism or burglary. In all states of the United States extortion is a felony.

Extortion may be in person, by telephone, mail, e-mail, text message or any form of wireless communication. If the extortion involves any form of interstate commerce, it may be a federal crime. It may involve the threat of hacking.
Extortion, like robbery and blackmail, are crimes that involve obtaining property by illegal means. The most serious of the three is robbery because it usually involves violence against the victim. Blackmail is a form of extortion. The threat is usually making damaging or embarrassing information public if demands are not met. The legal definition of extortion varies from one jurisdiction to another. In some states, extortion is only charged against public officials while the same act committed by a private individual is charged as blackmail.

References 

Property crimes
Financial crimes
Sonja Henie (8 April 1912 – 12 October 1969) was a famous Norwegian ice skater and movie star who was born in Oslo. She was a three-time Olympic Champion (1928, 1932, 1936) in Ladies' Singles, a ten-time World Champion (1927–1936) and a six-time European Champion (1931–1936). In 1936 she became a professional skater. Later she decided to become a movie star. At the height of her acting career she was one of the highest paid stars in Hollywood. Henie's connections with Adolf Hitler and other high-ranking Nazi officials made her the subject of controversy before, during, and after World War II. Sonja Henie ruled the " queen of ice" in her life and she still was one of the most influential people in figure skating.

References 

 

1912 births
1969 deaths

Actors from Oslo
Figure skaters
Norwegian movie actors
Norwegian Olympic gold medalists
Marie Thérèse of France (Marie Thérèse Charlotte; 19 December 1778 – 19 October 1851), Madame Royale, was the eldest child of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. After her marriage to her cousin, Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, the eldest son of the future Charles X, she was known as the Duchess of Angoulême. She became the Dauphine of France upon the accession of her father-in-law to the throne of France in 1824. Technically she was Queen of France for twenty minutes, on 2 August 1830. This was between the time her father-in-law signed the instrument of abdication and the time her husband, reluctantly, signed the same document.

References 

French royalty
1778 births
1851 deaths
The noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala) is a small grey bird with a black head and yellow eyes. This bird is common in the gardens of eastern Australian homes, but is not seen in Western Australia or the Northern Territory. The genus puts it in a large group of honey-eating birds. The species is a Latin word meaning "black-headed."

The noisy miner is a native of Australia, and one of the few native birds that is thriving in cities and suburbs.  In  some parts of Australia the number of noisy miners has grown to the point that it is driving out smaller birds like the wrens.  It prefers gardens with open spaces and lawns. 
 
It usually eats the nectar from garden flowers, mostly on grevilleas, however it also walks around on grass picking up and eating small insects.