Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Second Great Awakening led to two movements in reform, that is, changing laws and behaviors to make society better.  One of these was the Temperance Movement, which believed that drinking alcohol was not good for society.  The other was abolitionism, which wanted to end slavery. People such as Harriet Beecher Stowe and William Lloyd Garrison wrote books and newspapers about how slavery should stop. They formed political movements, including the Liberty Party, the Free Soil Party and the Republican Party (United States).

References

19th century in the United States
Christianity in the United States
The Black Hawk War was a war between the Indians under command of Chief Black Hawk and American settlers on the frontier in 1832. It took place mostly in Illinois and Wisconsin. Several small battles were fought, including the Battle of Stillman's Run and the Battle of Bad Axe. During the War, dozens of Americans and hundreds of Indians were killed. Many more Americans died of cholera and other diseases than died in battle. After the War, the Sac, Fox and Kickapoo Indians lost most of their land in Illinois and Wisconsin. Both future Union President Abraham Lincoln and future Confederate President Jefferson Davis fought in the Black Hawk War, both on the side of the Union.

1832
1830s in the United States
19th century in Illinois
19th century in Wisconsin
Wars involving the United States
19th-century conflicts
The Populist Movement, also known as the People's Party was a movement in late-19th century America.  It grew out of groups such as the Grange Movement.  It was largely a movement of farmers, who were poor and felt big businesses, such as railroads, were to blame.  Its leaders included Thomas Watson and William Jennings Bryan.  The populists had a series of demands known as the Omaha Platform.  Here are some of the things the Omaha Platform wanted:
  
 An income tax
 Direct election of United States Senators
 Free coinage of silver (at a rate of 16 ozs. of silver to one ounce of gold) to encourage inflation
 Government ownership of railroads and other large businesses

Though the Populists never and only controlled a few state governments for a few years, many of the demands of the Omaha Platform, such as the income tax and direct election of Senators, were later done as part of the Progressive Movement

19th century in the United States
Fauvism (French for The Wild Beasts) was the name of a modern art movement in the early 20th century, led by the painters Henri Matisse and André Derain. The Fauves were a group of French painters who were influenced by the bright colours used by the Post-Impressionists Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin.

The bright colourful style of painting that they used began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910, but the group was only together for three years, 1905–1907. In that time they had three exhibitions together. Their influence has continued  until the present day, and was adopted or influenced many artists who are not usually thought of as fauvists. Aristarkh Lentulov is one good example.

Gallery

References

Related pages 
 Impressionism
 Post-Impressionists
 Pointillism
 Cubism
 Expressionism

Art movements
The American crocodile is a species of crocodile that lives in the Americas. They usually move from the southern United States to the northern South America. Its scientific name, Crocodylus acutus, means "Pointy-snouted crocodile". It is because of the shape of its snout.

Characteristics

The American crocodile is a species of a crocodile with a high adult survival rate. The American crocodiles can live for a long time. Like all crocodiles, the American crocodile has four short legs; a long, powerful tail; and scaly skin.

The nostrils, eyes, and ears are on the top of its head, so the rest of the body can be hidden underwater for surprise attacks  Camouflage also helps it catch food. The snout is longer and narrower than that of the American alligator. American crocodiles are paler and more grayish than the dark-hued American alligator. The American crocodile crawls on its belly. It can also "high walk". Big ones can run as fast as nearly 16 km/h (10 mph). They can swim at as fast as 32 km/h (20 mph).
The average length for adult in the continental rivers can be 2.9 to 4 m (9 ft 6 in to 13 ft 1 in) long. Males weigh up to 382 kg (842 lb). Females can be 2.5 to 3 m (8 ft 2 in to 9 ft 10 in) and weigh up to 173 kg (381 lb).

Biology and behavior
American crocodiles are more vulnerable to cold weather than American alligators. While an American crocodile cannot survive in water temperatures of 7.2 °C (45.0 °F) and below. American crocodiles will lose consciousness and drown due to hypothermia in that temperature. American crocodiles have a faster growth rate than alligators.

Feeding
American crocodiles feed mostly on fish, but big ones may prey on bigger animals, such as deer.

American crocodiles are a somewhat aggressive crocodile species and have been known to attack humans. Attacks on humans are rare, but happen more often in Mexico.
Distribution
The American crocodile's range in southern Florida overlaps with that of the closely related American alligator. However, while the American alligator's range stretches as far north as Virginia, the American crocodile's range in the United States is confined to southern Florida.  

This is because alligators are much better at tolerating cold weather than crocodiles. The body temperature of alligators has been known to drop to 38 degrees Fahrenheit without any harm at all to the alligator. However, the American crocodile is better at tolerating saltwater than the alligator. American crocodiles have regularly been sighted 140 miles away from shore in the Caribbean Sea.

References 

Crocodilians of North America
Reptiles of South America
Bagaceratops (meaning "small horned face") was a plant-eating dinosaur that had a bony ridge along the back of its skull. This ceratopsian dinosaur lived during the late Cretaceous period, roughly 84 to 71 million years ago. Bagaceratops fossils have been found in Mongolia.

Description 
Bagaceratops had a large head, a bulky body, a parrot-like beak, cheek teeth, triangular cheek protuberances, a short snout horn, and a small frill on its head. This ornithischian (bird-hipped) dinosaur was about 3 feet (1 m) long. Bagaceratops walked on four short legs (it was a quadruped).

Bagaceratops could eat tough plants; it had powerful jaws and cheek teeth that could chew the food.

Ceratopsids
Nodosaurus (meaning "knobbed lizard") was a large, armored, quadrupedal (it walked on four legs), tank-like dinosaur. It lived in the first part of the Upper Cretaceous about 113–98 million years ago. Three very incomplete Nodosaurus fossils have been found in Wyoming and Kansas; no skulls have been found yet. It was named by paleontologist Othniel C. Marsh in 1889.

Nodosaurus was about 13 to 20 ft (4-6 m) long. It was an ornithischian (bird-hipped) dinosaur with bony dermal plates covering the top of its body. It had four short legs, five-toed feet, a short neck, and a long, clubless tail. The nodosaurids had no tail club; it is not known how they defended themselves.

Ankylosauria
The Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001, also known as the USA Patriot Act is an anti-terrorism law. It was proposed by the Bush Administration soon after the September 11 attacks.  At that time, President Bush had very high approval ratings and it was clear that most Americans wanted him to do something to stop more terrorism.  The bill passed quickly in Congress, mostly before it had even been fully read.  The act made it much easier to control money terrorists had in bank accounts.  It also made it easier for the government to access people's library and phone records.  The act was criticized by many organizations, particularly the American Civil Liberties Union, for being a threat to Americans' civil liberties and rights.

References

United States federal legislation
The Aztec Empire was a large empire in Central America.  It existed between about 1345 AD and 1521 AD.  When the Empire was largest, it spread across most of Mesoamerica. 

During that time, the Aztecs built one of the world's most advanced societies.   The Aztec Empire was also very powerful.  Its warriors took over many nearby states and helped spread Aztec culture and religion across Mesoamerica.   

However, in 1519, Spanish conquistadors came to the Aztec Empire.  With help from the Aztecs' enemies, the Spanish fought the Aztecs for control of their empire.  On August 13, 1521, the Aztec Empire fell apart and the Spanish took over.  They made the area a Spanish colony and renamed it New Spain. Aztec was 2 feet tall.
History
Before the Aztec Empire existed, the indigenous (native) people in central Mesoamerica lived in many separate city-states.  These were small cities with farmland around them.  Each state had its own ruler.  Around 1100 AD, these city-states started to fight each other for power and control of the area's land.

By about 1400, two city-states had grown into small empires.  In 1428, these two empires fought the Tepanec War for control of the area.  The Texcoco empire made an alliance with some other powerful city-states, including Tenochtitlan, and won the war.  These allies were supposed to share power equally as they started to gain control of more land.  However, by 1430, Tenochtitlan became the most powerful member of the alliance.  It became the capital city of the Aztec Empire, and its ruler became the 'high king' of the entire Empire.

Growth
Growth

From 1430 onward, the Aztec Empire grew.  Its military took over most of what is now northern Mexico.  At this point, the Aztec Empire controlled 135,000 square kilometres (almost 84,000 square miles) of Mesoamerica.p.453

When the Aztecs took over a state, they would take prisoners for ritual human sacrifice in Tenochtitlan.  The state would also have to pay the Aztec Empire "tributes" (almost like taxes).  As the Aztecs took over more and more states, these tributes made them very rich.

Sometimes, when the Aztecs took over a state, they would bring that state and its people into the Aztec Empire.  However, if a state was on the edge of the Empire, the Aztecs might let it stay its own state.  They did this so they would have other states around the Empire, protecting them from an invasion by other powerful states.

Tenochtitlan
Tenochtitlan

The Aztecs had built their capital city right on a lake called Lake Texcoco.  As the Empire grew, so did Tenochtitlan.  By the early 1500s, at least 200,000 people lived in the city.  This made Tenochtitlan the largest city in the Americas before Christopher Columbus arrived.

Tenochtitlan was the center of the Aztec government and religion.  It was also a very big trading center.  When the Spanish arrived in 1519, they guessed that 60,000 people came to the market in Tenochtitlan every day.  People bought and sold many things there, including slaves (prisoners of war from states the Aztecs had taken over).  The city had a huge pyramid called the Templo Mayor (Great Temple).  The entire city was decorated with art, architecture, and stone sculptures.
The Aztecs had created canals all across the city.  By bringing water to Aztec crops, these canals made it possible for the Aztecs to grow much more food than they normally could have.  The Aztecs had also made levees to protect the city from flooding, and reservoirs for fresh water.

Society
At its most powerful, the Aztec Empire controlled about 11,000,000 people.  Among these people, there were different social classes with different social statuses.  The most important people were the rulers.  Next were nobles.  These were the Empire's powerful members of the government; great warriors; judges; and priests.  These people enjoyed a high social status.

The next social class was the commoners (common people).  These were the Empire's everyday workers.  Most of them farmed, ran stores, or traded.  Commoners were allowed to own land as a group or a family.  However, a single person was not allowed to own land.
The lowest social classes in Aztec society were serfs and then slaves.  Slaves had no rights at all.  However, if they had the money, they could buy their own freedom and become commoners.

For most of the Aztec Empire's existence, it was very difficult to move between social classes.  Usually, if a person was born in a social class, they would stay in that class for the rest of their life.

Education
By age 15, all children in the Aztec Empire had to go to school, no matter what social class they were in.  This was very unusual for the time.  In other places, like Europe, only boys were allowed to go to school, and only rich people could pay to send their children to school.

Until they were 15, children were taught by their parents.  Once they turned 15, all children had to go to school.  For most boys, the most important part of going to school was to make them the best possible warriors for the Empire.
Children of commoners went to schools called telpochcalli ('youth houses').  Boys got military training, while girls were taught how to do religious ceremonies.  Both boys and girls were also taught about Aztec religion, morals, and history.  They also learned singing, dancing, and public speaking.

The nobles' children went to a school called a calmecac.  Its goal was to get the children ready for jobs as the Empire's leaders.  These included jobs as military or government leaders; priests; scholars; teachers; and healers.  These schools taught about things like astronomy, geometry, mathematics, debate, law, music, poetry, architecture, agriculture, and war.  Boys had to eat and sleep at their schools.  They usually started at age 15 and left around age 20 to get married.  Girls could become priestesses or work in medicine, helping other women give birth.
Marriage
When a young person was ready to get married, their education would end.  This usually happened in their late teenage years or early twenties.  Especially with nobles, marriages were arranged.  This meant children's parents, or possibly other older people in the community, would choose who a person married.  Many marriages among noble youth were arranged as a power strategy (for example, to unite an Aztec with a family from a state that was recently taken over).  Marriage ceremonies lasted four days.

Aztec men were allowed to have other wives as well as concubines.  However, they were also expected to raise their sons, which was unusual for ancient societies (where women usually did all of the child-raising).

Aztec society also gave women rights that few other societies gave at the time.  Even after marrying, an Aztec woman's property and money were still her own; they did not go to her husband.  Women were also allowed to work in medicine, education, religion, and trade.
Morals
The Aztecs had strict rules and punishments for people who broke Aztec morals.  For example, things like disorderly conduct (causing trouble in public), drunkenness, could be punished by execution.

Military
All adult men in the Empire had to be in the Aztec military.  Men from states that had alliances with the Aztecs also fought in the Aztec military.  So did some men from states that the Aztecs had taken over.  Because of this, the Aztec military was large and powerful.  

At this time, most battles were fought in big cities.  If an army took over one of a state's biggest cities, it was then allowed to take control over all the land around those cities.

Aztec warriors protected themselves with thick cotton armour.  They also had shields made of wood or reeds, and covered in dried animal skins.
For weapons, warriors had a few choices:
 Macuahuitl: A very sharp sword, with a point made of obsidian, which can be sharpened like glass.  This sword could also be used as a club
 Atlatl: A weapon used to throw spears or darts
 Bows and arrows

Religion

The Aztecs were pantheistic, meaning they believed in many different gods.  Two of the most important gods they worshipped were Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun, and Tlaloc, the rain god.  The Aztecs set up temples specifically to honor these gods at the top of the pyramid in Technochtitlan.  However, they also worshipped hundreds of other gods.  Each one controlled some part of human life (like Quetzalcoatl, the god of learning and civilization), or some part of nature (like Zipe Totec, the god of springtime and regrowth).
In the Aztecs' religion, the sun was very important.  The Aztecs believed that the world went through five stages, and each had its own sun.  At the end of each stage, the gods would destroy the world and create a new one  but only four times.  They thought they were living in the fifth and last stage, and that the gods could decide to destroy the world at any minute.

Keeping the gods happy
The Aztecs did many things to try to honor the gods and keep them happy.  For example, they threw festivals, had banquets, made statues, and buried valuable items, all as offerings to the gods.  They did penance, like cutting themselves and letting blood run out, to try to get the gods to forgive them for whatever they might have done wrong.  They did ritual sacrifice of animals (killing the animals as part of a religious ritual).

Like many other ancient civilizations, the Aztecs also sacrificed human beings to the gods.

As Mesoamerican scholar Mark Cartwright explains:
The Aztecs sacrificed people in three different ways:
 Taking out their heart
 Cutting off their head
 Making them fight against many of the Aztecs' best warriors until they were killed

Culture
Some historians say the Aztecs had a "culture of war."  This means that everything focuses on making people into good warriors and people who support war.  One textbook says:

However, there were many parts to the Aztec culture.  They studied astrology and used the movements of the planets and the stars to create different calendars.  They understood and taught things like mathematics and poetry.  They had a complex view of religion, the universe, and many other things.

Art and architecture
Aztec culture respected and appreciated art.  They collected pieces of art from all over their Empire to decorate Tenochtitlan.  They also formed guilds of artisans  people who specialized in making certain kinds of art.  They made paintings, pottery, carvings, and many other things.  They used all sorts of materials, including gold, silver, amethyst, wood, and stone.  Huge stone sculptures were a popular type of art.  Aztec artists made their pyramid and other stone buildings into art too, by carving into them.

The Aztecs used symbolism in their art.  They even used art as propaganda.  For example, when they took over a state, they would build temples and statues with Aztec symbols on them.  They also used paintings that showed Aztec rulers as being close to the gods, doing what the gods wanted them to do.  This art spread Aztec religion and culture, and also reminded states that had been taken over just how powerful the Aztec Empire was.

End of the Empire
End of the Empire

From 1519-1521, Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés, defeated the Aztec Empire.  They made the Empire into a Spanish colony which they called New Spain.

Originally, things between the Spanish and the Aztecs were friendly.

However, soon, while Cortés was away, Spanish soldiers attacked and killed many Aztecs during a festival.  The Aztecs fought back, and they killed two out of every three Spanish soldiers.  The conquistadors left Tenochtitlan.

Ten months later, Cortés came back to Tenochtitlan with more soldiers.  They started a siege of Tenochtitlan, so that no food or supplies could get in.  After 91 days, without any food, and with disease throughout the city, the new emperor Cuauhtemoc finally surrendered to the Spanish on August 13, 1521.  The Spanish destroyed Tenochtitlan.  The Aztec Empire had ended.

Notes

References
Notes

References

14th-century establishments in North America
1521 disestablishments
Aztec
History of Mexico
Former empires
1345 establishments
Former monarchies of North America
Elf was an American rock band that was active between 1967 and 1975. The band was previously called the Electric Elves. They released their first album, Elf, in 1972. The album was co-produced by Ian Paice and Roger Glover, who would later work with Elf's lead singer Ronnie James Dio in the band Rainbow.

Discography
 Elf (1972)
 Carolina County Ball (1974)
 Trying To Burn The Sun (1975)
 The Gargantuan (1978)
 The Elf Albums (1991)

References

American hard rock bands
American heavy metal bands
Blues bands
Jazz bands
Country bands
Jason Matthew Jaspers (born April 8, 1981 in Thunder Bay, Ontario), is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre who is currently playing for Kölner Haie (the Cologne Sharks) of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga.

Playin career
Jaspers was drafted 71st overall by the Phoenix Coyotes in the 1999 NHL Entry Draft. He was drafted from the Sudbury Wolves of the Ontario Hockey League.  Jaspers made his professional start in the 2001–02 season with the Coyotes affiliate the Springfield Falcons of the American Hockey League. Jaspers made his National Hockey League (NHL) start in the same season, after he received his first NHL assignment on January 20, 2002.

Jaspers then spent the next four years primarily with the Falcons of the American Hockey League. Unable to make the NHL regularly he was traded by the Coyotes to the Tampa Bay Lightning for Jarrod Skalde on July 25, 2005. Jason however, never played a game with the Lightning, playing for their affiliate coincidentally still the Springfield Falcons.
Jaspers finally left the Falcons, ranking second in all-time appearances, in the 2006–07 season when he signed with German team Adler Mannheim, on July 6, 2006. After three years with Adler Mannheim signed on 6 April 2009 with Kölner Haie.

Personal life 
In July 2008 Jason married his highschool sweetheart, Morgan McKee. Morgan is from Sudbury, Ontario where Jason played junior hockey for the Sudbury Wolves. Currently they have no children and live in Germany.

Awards and achievements
1999–00 OHL  Plus/minus Award
1999–00 OHL  Second All-Star Team

Career statistics

References

Other websites

1981 births
Canadian ice hockey centres
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
Phoenix Coyotes players
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
Springfield Falcons players
Utah Grizzlies (AHL) players
Ontario Hockey League players
Sir Jacob Epstein KBE (10 November 1880 – 19 August 1959) was an American-born British sculptor, a pioneer of modern sculpture. He was born in the United States, and moved to Europe in 1902, becoming a British citizen in 1911. He often produced controversial works which challenged taboos on what was appropriate subject matter. His portrait heads were traditional, but much of his other work was modernist. He also made paintings and drawings, and often exhibited his work.

The sculptures Ecce Homo (Old Coventry Cathedral) and Rock Drill (1913–1914, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), are famous and important, but we have no images of them. On view in the Strand, London near Trafalgar Square, are his sculptures for Zimbabwe House. There are a number of his busts (sculptures of heads) in the National Portrait Gallery, also near Trafalgar Square.

References
References 

 Gilboa, Raquel 2009. ...And there was sculpture; Epstein's formative years (1880-1930), Lonodn, 2009
 Silber, Evelyn 1984. The sculpture of Epstein, London, 1984

1880 births
1959 deaths
British sculptors
American Jews
Galvanizing is the coating of a metal with a more reactive metal to stop corrosion. Normally zinc is used to coat iron. The zinc coating corrodes instead of the iron, stopping the iron from corroding. Even if the zinc is scratched, it does not corrode. Metal corrodes after the paint is scratched. The zinc eventually corrodes all the way and then the iron starts corroding.

Galvanizing can happen in two ways. There is hot dip galvanising, where the object is dipped in a pool of liquid zinc. This makes a thicker coating that lasts a long time. It does not have a shiny clean surface, though, so some people would not like it as much.

There is also electro-galvanizing. This is the electroplating of zinc onto an object. It is shiny but thinner, so it does not last as long.

Note

Related pages

Electrolysis

Physical chemistry
Metallurgy
Brookhaven National Laboratory is a laboratory in the United States at Long Island, New York. It is on the former location of Camp Upton, a US army camp. It was opened in 1947. It is in the greater area of the town of Brookhaven.  Its motto is "Passion for discovery". The Laboratory was originally owned by the Atomic Energy Commission. It is now owned by the US Department of Energy. There are about 3000 people working there. Several people there have won Nobel Prize awards.

Buildings and structures in New York (state)
1947 establishments in the United States
1940s establishments in New York (state)
Scientific organizations based in the United States
The National Institutes of Health is part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. It is their agency for research. There are 27 separate institutes and offices. Each of them are for separate areas of health which they research. Most of them are in Bethesda, Maryland. The NIH made vaccines against hepatitis, Haemophilus influenzae (HIB) and human papillomavirus. The current Director of the NIH is Francis Collins since 2009.

history
In 1887, a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established within the Marine Hospital Service, which at the time was expanding its functions beyond the system of Marine Hospitals into quarantine and research programs. It was initially located at the New York Marine Hospital on Staten Island.[7][8][9] In 1891, it moved to the top floor of the Butler Building in Washington, D.C. In 1904, it moved again to a new campus at the Old Naval Observatory, which grew to include five major buildings.[10]
In 1901, the Division of Scientific Research was formed, which included the Hygienic Laboratory as well as other research offices of the Marine Hospital Service.[11] In 1912, the Marine Hospital Service became the Public Health Service (PHS).[9] In 1922, PHS established a Special Cancer Investigations laboratory at Harvard Medical School. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities.[9]

In 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act, and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings at the Old Naval Observatory campus.[9] In 1937, NIH absorbed the rest of the Division of Scientific Research, of which it was formerly part.[11][12]
In 1938, NIH moved to its current campus in Bethesda, Maryland.[9] Over the next few decades, Congress would markedly increase funding of the NIH, and various institutes and centers within the NIH were created for specific research programs.[9] In 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and the National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the name changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health.

Later historyEdit
Later historyEdit

In the 1960s, virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital.[13]: 130  When three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, the experiment gained considerable media attention.[13]: 133  The NIH was a major source of funding for Southam's research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation.[13]: 135  Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions, the NIH discovered that the majority of them did not protect the rights of human subjects. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research proposals involving human experimentation with review boards.[13]: 135
Funding for the NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving as a proxy for the political currents of the time. In 1992, the NIH encompassed nearly 1 percent of the federal government's operating budget and controlled more than 50 percent of all funding for health research, and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities.[15] While government funding for research in other disciplines has been increasing at a rate similar to inflation since the 1970s, research funding for the NIH nearly tripled through the 1990s and early 2000s, but has remained relatively stagnant since then.[16]

By the 1990s, the NIH committee focus had shifted to DNA research and launched the Human Genome Project.[17]

Other websites
Official website

United States Department of Health and Human Services
Medical and health organizations in the United States
1930 establishments in the United States
Research organizations in the United States
The Los Angeles Times is a newspaper. It is the second largest newspaper in the United States. It is published in Los Angeles, California. It is the fourth most popular newspaper in the United States. It was created in 1881.

1881 establishments in the United States
1880s establishments in California
Companies based in Los Angeles
Newspapers in California
The bugle is a very simple brass instrument. It has no valves or other mechanisms, the only way the player has to control the pitch is changing the shape of his lips. This means that only notes from the harmonic series can be played.

History

The bugle comes from instruments made from animal horns. The earliest bugles were shaped in a loop – usually a double loop, but sometimes triple or single – similar to the modern French horn, and were usually used to send messages during hunts. Predecessors and relatives of the developing bugle included the post horn, the Pless horn, and the bugle horn.
The first use of a brass horn as a military signal was the Halbmondblaser, meaning "half-moon blower", used in Hanover in 1758. It was U-shaped (this is where its name comes from) and easily carried with a shoulder strap. It first arrived in England in 1764 where it was slowly it became used often by foot soldiers. Cavalry did not normally use a proper bugle, but instead used an early trumpet that made a sound which was easier to hear from nearby, but travelled less far.

Uses

The bugle is used mainly in the military where the bugle call is used to make announcements. A long time ago, the bugle was used in the cavalry to pass instructions from officers to soldiers during battle. In the Bible, bugles are found in the time of Moses, when God commanded Moses to 'make two bugles of hammered silver' in Numbers 10:1-3. They were used to assemble the leaders and to give marching orders to the camps.
In the drum and bugle corps the bugle has changed from its military origins, and now has valves. In American drum and bugle corps, G is considered the traditional key for bugles to be pitched in.  However, current rules in both Drum Corps International and Drum Corps Associates define a bugle as a brass instrument in any key, with 0 to 4 valves, and bell front.

Civilian drum corps were made using instruments sold off by the military in the early 1900s, and the last official change made to the military bugle (before it stopped being used because of the invention of the radio) was to make them all use the key of G. Bugles in other parts of the world used to be in B flat or E flat.

The bugle is also used in the Boy Scouts. They use some of the same calls as the military, but not all.

Variations

The cornet is sometimes wrongly considered to be the "valved version" of the bugle, although it comes from the French cornet de poste (post horn).
19th century versions based on the original bugle included keys and valves. Keyed bugles were invented in England in the early 19th century, with a patent for one design, the Royal Kent bugle, taken out by Joseph Halliday in 1811. This bugle was highly popular and widely in use until around 1850 – for example, in works by Richard Willis, later bandmaster of the United States Military Academy Band at West Point. This version of the bugle stopped being used when the valved cornet was invented.

Modern instruments considered bugles often have valves.

Pitches of bugles

Soprano bugle (high pitch)
Alto bugle (medium pitch)
Baritone bugle (tenor pitch)
Contrabass bugle (bass pitch)

References

Notes

Bibliography
Ralph T. Dudgeon, The Keyed Bugle, Scarecrow Press, 2004, 
Janet Chiefari, Introducing the Drum and Bugle Corps, Olympic Marketing Corp, 1982,

Other websites

Evolution of the Bugle
Bugle in C by Thomas Key and William Trayls, London, 1811 at The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Brass instruments
Trevor Daniel Johansen (born March 30, 1957 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a retired professional ice hockey player who played 286 games in the National Hockey League. Johanssen was drafted with the 12th overall pick in the 1977 NHL Entry Draft by the Toronto Maple Leafs. In addition the Maple Leafs he also spent time with the Colorado Rockies, and Los Angeles Kings.

Other websites 

1957 births
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Colorado Rockies (NHL) players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
Los Angeles Kings players
New Brunswick Hawks players
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
Springfield Indians players
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Ontario Hockey League players
James "Jim, Bud" Jarvis (December 7, 1907 – May 7, 1983) was a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who played three seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL). His time in the NHL included playing for the Pittsburgh Pirates, Philadelphia Quakers and Toronto Maple Leafs. He was born in Fort William, Ontario.

Other websites

1907 births
1983 deaths
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
Philadelphia Quakers (NHL) players
Pittsburgh Pirates (NHL) players
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Henry Spencer Moore OM CH FBA (30 July 1898 – 31 August 1986) was an English sculptor and artist in the modern art genre. He was best known for his abstract monumental sculptures, which are public works of art in many places around the world.

His forms are usually abstractions of the human figure, typically mother-and-child or reclining figures. Moore's works usually suggest the female body, apart from a phase in the 1950s when he did family groups. His forms are generally pierced or have hollow spaces. Some think the undulating form of his reclining figures reflect the landscape and hills of his birthplace, Yorkshire.

Moore was born in Castleford, the son of a mining engineer. He became known for his larger-scale abstract cast bronze and carved marble sculptures. His large-scale commissions made him exceptionally rich. Yet he lived carefully and most of the money he earned went towards endowing the Henry Moore Foundation. This supports education and promotion of the arts.
He did some work in architecture. in 1955 Moore did his only work in carved brick, "Wall Relief" at the Bouwcentrum in Rotterdam. The brick relief was sculpted with 16,000 bricks by two Dutch bricklayers under Moore's supervision.

Gallery

References 

1898 births
1986 deaths
British sculptors
People from West Yorkshire
Order of Merit
Companions of Honour
Schloss Esterhazy is a palace in Eisenstadt, Austria.

It was built in the end of 13th century and belonged to  Esterházy family.

Palaces in Austria
13th-century buildings and structures
Flotation is a process where gas bubbles are injected at the bottom of a tank containing a mixture of a liquid and solid particles to separate the solid particles from the liquid. When the gas bubbles move along the liquid mixture, the solids particles stick to the surface of the bubbles. The bubbles form a foam at the surface of the liquid: this foam contains the solid particles, so after the flotation process the solids can be removed just cleaning the liquid from this foam.

Uses 

Flotation is used to separate sulfide ores from the impurities in the ore (gangue). A detergent is added to the mixture and it is stirred. The sulfide minerals float, while the gangue sinks to the bottom and is removed. This is used in making zinc, where zinc sulfide (sphalerite) is a major zinc ore.

Minerals
Chemistry
Gangue is the worthless substance that is left behind when minerals are processed. 

When minerals are collected, the ore that is wanted is found only in small amounts. Flotation is used to concentrate the ore. The ore floats while the gangue sinks to the bottom. Sometimes minerals thought of as gangue are later recovered and used.

Minerals
The arctic willow (salix arctica) is a kind of willow plant. It grows to less than 6 inches tall. The leaves are pale green with white hairs on top.

Other websites 

Jepson Manual – Salix arctica

Malpighiales
Hesperornithoides is a troodontid theropod dinosaur from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of western North America.

Discovery
The fossil was found in Wyoming, as the site was carefully documented by the collectors.

Classification
A phylogenetic analysis was presented in an abstract in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology in 2005. The analysis decided the specimen was a close relative of Sinornithoides.

Significance
This dinosaur is very significant because it is the oldest known troodontid from North America. Until the discovery of Lori, troodontids were believed to have first originated and evolved in Asia and then migrated to North America. Most troodontids were discovered in Asia, and the previously oldest known troodontids, from the Lower Cretaceous, lived there.

References 

Theropods
Fossils
Jurassic dinosaurs
is a prefecture in the Chūbu region of Japan on the island of Honshū. The capital city is Niigata.

History 
Until after the Meiji Restoration, the area that is now Niigata Prefecture was divided into Echigo Province and Sado Province.

Geography 
Niigata is next to Yamagata Prefecture, Toyama Prefecture, Nagano Prefecture, Gunma Prefecture and Fukushima prefecture. 

Niigata is the fifth largest prefecture in Japan by area. 

In winter, it snows a lot in Niigata, and winter sports are popular.

National Parks
National Parks are established in about 25% of the total land area of the prefecture. including 
 Bandai-Asahi National Park

Shrines and Temples
Yahiko-jinja, Kota-jinja, Amatsu-jinja and Watatsu-jinja are the chief Shinto shrines (ichinomiya) in the prefecture.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan
 Albirex Niigata

References

Other websites 

 Niigata Prefecture website
Panoplosaurus was an armored tank-like dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous, living about 76–73 million years ago. 

Panoplosaurus was a herbivore (a plant-eater). It ate low-lying plants, like ferns and cycads. This nodosaurid ankylosaur (with no tail club) was about 23 ft (7 m) long and weighed about 3.5 tons. It had a bulky body, four short legs, a short neck, and a stiff tail.

Ankylosauria
Polacanthus was an armoured, spiked, plant-eating dinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous, about 132 to 100 million years ago. Polacanthus means "many spines."

Some paleontologists think that Polacanthus is the same genus as Hylaeosaurus. Fossils of this ankylosaurid have been found in England.

Description 
Polacanthus was about 12 feet (4 m) long and about 4.8 feet (1.5 m) tall. It was a bulky quadruped that relied on its many rows of bony spikes for protection. No head is known for this genus.

Ankylosauria
Earl Warren (March 19, 1891 – July 9, 1974)  was an American lawyer, judge and politician. He served as Governor of California from 1943 to 1953. Warren ran for Vice-President in 1948 as a Republican, but lost to Alben W. Barkley in a close election.

Warren was born in Los Angeles and grew up in Bakersfield before moving to Oakland. He served in World War I. 

In 1925, he became District Attorney of Alameda County, and later Attorney General of California. In 1953, he became Chief Justice of the United States.  

He was Chief Justice when the Supreme Court issued Brown v. Board of Education and Miranda vs. Arizona. These two cases were very important civil rights cases in the United States.  Warren was also in control of the Warren Commission. It looked into a possible conspiracy in the killing of President Kennedy.  Warren retired from the Court in 1969, and died in Washington, D.C., in 1974.

References
References

1891 births
1974 deaths
American military personnel of World War I
District attorneys
Chief justices of the United States
Governors of California
People from Bakersfield, California
Politicians from Los Angeles
United States Supreme Court justices
Lawyers from Los Angeles
Military people from California
Abstract art is modern art which does not represent images of our everyday world. It has colour, lines and shapes (form), but they are not intended to represent objects or living things. Often the artists were influenced by ideas and philosophies of abstraction.

Abstract art is found in painting and in sculpture. There are also many works of art which are partly abstract, and partly representational. Many artists worked in abstract and other types of modern art.

Purely abstract art is a 20th-century invention. It grew out of the earlier forms of modern art, but it is perhaps the one movement which is absolutely modern. It has no roots in earlier art (as we use the term today).
Early years 
One of the first to achieve complete abstract paintings was Kazimir Malevich, who presented a completely black square in 1913. He was a Suprematist, an art movement based on simple geometrical shapes. Art based on geometry is a kind of geometric abstraction. Wassily Kandinsky painted a famous work Composition VII in 1913, which was completely abstract and very complex.

The case of Manierre Dawson, an American from Chicago, is very interesting. During a tour of Europe in 1910, he started painting true abstract works. Back in the United States, he became convinced that he could not earn a living at art, and became a farmer. He was forgotten until a rediscovery in 1963. He may have been the first person to paint a completely abstract work.

There are many hundreds of other artists who painted abstracts. Piet Mondrian and the sculptor Henry Moore deserve mention for their wide influence on other artists.
Abstract expressionism 
After World War II, abstract art became a dominant form of art in the United States, with some outstanding exponents. Immigrants such as Mondrian, Max Ernst and Mark Rothko, and native-born Americans such as Barnett Newman and Jackson Pollock became almost household names.

Abstract expressionism is the name given to the American post-World War II art movement. It was the first specifically American movement to achieve worldwide influence and put New York City at the center of the western art world, a role formerly filled by Paris. The term was used in 1919, but is more widely used for American work of the 1940s to 1960s. Of the previous generation of painters, Kandinsky is most clearly an abstract expressionist.
Technically, an important predecessor was surrealism, with its Freudian emphasis on dreams, and on spontaneous, automatic or unconscious creation. Jackson Pollock's dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a method of using spontaneity. It was novel, and brought into play several factors. Action: movements, how the artist worked. Automatism and the unconscious: the work was planned, but details were not.

"At a certain moment the canvas began to appear to one American painter after another as an arena in which to act. What was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event". Harold Rosenberg
Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics. The artists use large canvases, sometimes very large. There is an "all-over" approach: the whole canvas is treated with equal importance, as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges. The canvas as the arena became a credo of Action painting, while the integrity of the picture plane became a credo of the Color field painters.

Five things to know 
According to the Royal Academy, there are five things we should know about abstract expressionism:
"It was the product of an extraordinary time": a common experience of artists living in 1940s New York
"It took scale to new levels": the artworks were very large.
"It made the viewer part of the art". This one is not everyone's experience.
"It resisted traditional confines". For example, an all-over composition instead of a central focal point.
"Its artists were close but independent". Each had their own unique style.
Action painting 
Paintings such as those of Jackson Pollock which express the actions and movements of the painter.

Colour field painting 
Paintings mainly of coloured shapes of a geometric or bulbous kind. Examples: Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, Josef Albers.

Related pages 
Abstract photography

References 

Art movements
William Odd "Red" Johansen (July 27, 1928 – March 21, 2001) was a Canadian professional ice hockey centre. The high point of his career was one game played in the National Hockey League for the Toronto Maple Leafs. He was born in Oslo, Norway, and he grew up in Port Arthur, Ontario.

Other websites

1928 births
2001 deaths
Canadian ice hockey centres
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Norwegian ice hockey players
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
Sportspeople from Oslo
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Eastern Hockey League players
John Robert "Battleship" Kelly (born June 6, 1946) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player who played 425 games in the National Hockey League. He played for the St. Louis Blues, Pittsburgh Penguins, and Chicago Black Hawks. Although official NHL records call him Bob Kelly he was commonly known during his NHL playing career as J. Bob Kelly, in an effort to differentiate himself from the Bob Kelly who played primarily with the Philadelphia Flyers at that time.

Career statistics

References

Other websites 

1946 births
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Chicago Blackhawks players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
Pittsburgh Penguins players
St. Louis Blues players
Myelin is a substance that forms the coating of axons in the brain and the rest of the central nervous system. This coating is also known as the myelin sheath. It is a substance made of about 80% lipid and 20% protein. Its main function is to speed the relay of electricity messages in the nervous system. It is milky white and slippery in appearance and texture, giving rise to the term white matter in the brain.

Myelin is an important part of proper neural function. In later life, a process called demyelination can occur, causing poor neural function. Demyelination may be a cause of Alzheimer's disease. Multiple sclerosis happens when myelin is damaged.

Anatomy of the nervous system
Dick Kotanen  (born Eino Richard Erwin Kotanen; November 18, 1925 – September 11, 2011) was a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who played in one National Hockey League game for the New York Rangers during the 1950–51 NHL season. Kotanen died on November 9th 2011.

References

Other websites

1925 births
2011 deaths
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Eastern Hockey League players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
New York Rangers players
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
Scott Glenndale Martin King (born June 25, 1967 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey goaltender. He played in only two National Hockey League games for the Detroit Red Wings. He was drafted 10th (190th overall) in the 1986 NHL Entry Draft.

Awards   
Named to BCJHL Coastal Division First All-Star Team: 1985
Named to Hockey East First All-Star Team: 1988, 1990
Named to Hockey East Second All-Star Team: 1989
Named to ECHL Second All-Star Team: 1993
Riley Cup Champion: (Toledo Storm - 1993)

Career statistics

Regular season

Post season

Notes

Other websites

King's Bio on Detroit Red Wings.com 

1967 births
Canadian ice hockey goaltenders
Detroit Red Wings players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay