Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Naming very large numbers is relatively easy. There are two main ways of naming a number: scientific notation and naming by grouping. For example, the number 500,000,000,000,000,000,000 can be called 5 × 1020 in scientific notation since there are 20 zeros behind the 5. If the number is named by grouping, it is five hundred quintillion (American) or 500 trillion (European).

When large numbers have many different decimals in them, such as 642 500 000 000, naming them with scientific notation is about the same, but with one difference. Still counting the number of numbers after the first number (in this case, after the 6 there are 11 numbers) you need to include the ones that are not zero in the formula, but after a decimal point. So 642 500 000 000 will be 6.425 × 1011. When naming by grouping, each group is the name of the group. With the same number, it would be said to be 642 billion, 500 million (US) or 642 milliard, 500 million (Eur).

Some examples
Some examples

Forms of numbering 
The American way or "Short form" for naming large numbers is different from the European way or "Long form" of naming large numbers. This is mainly because of American finance. Short form numbering is based on thousands and Long form is based on millions. Because of this, in Short form a billion is one thousand millions (109) while in Long form it is one million millions (1012). The change in the United Kingdom to Short form numbering happened in 1974. Today, Short form is most commonly used in most English speaking countries.

Names for large numbers
There is also the number googol, which is a 1 with 100 zeros behind it (10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000), and the number googolplex, which is a 1 with a googol of zeros behind it, (1010,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) (1010100). And also the number googolplexian, 1 with a googolplex number of zeros behind it. Googolplexianplex, or googolplexianplexian are still theoretical numbers, but they might have some use in real life.

The name centillion was devised in the 19th century for the 100th "illion", being 10303 in short form and 10600 in long form.

million

billion

trillion

quadrillion

quintillion

sextillion

septillion

octillion

nonillion

decillion

undecillion

duodecillion

tredecillion

quattuordecillion

quindecillion

sexdecillion

septendecillion 

octodecillion

novemdecillion

vigintillion
vigintillion

unvigintillion

duovigintillion

trevigintillionth

quattuorvigintillion

quinvigintillion

sexvigintillion

septenvigintillion

octovigintillion

novemvigintillion

trigintillion

googol

quadragintillion

quinquagintillion

sexagintillion

septuagintillion

octogintillion

nonagintillion

centillion

thɑt's so big 

ducentillion

trucentillion

quingentillion

octingentillion

millinillion

dumillinillion

quinmillinillion

decimillinillion / myrillion

centimillinillion

micrillion

nanillion

picillion

femtillion

attillion

zeptillion

yoctillion

xonillion

vecillion

mecillion

duecillion

trecillion

tetrecillion

pentecillion

hexecillion

heptecillion

octecillion

ennecillikon

icosillion

meicosillion

doeicosillion

trioicosillion

tetreicosillion

penteicosillion

hexeicosillion

hepteicosillion

octeicosillion

enneicosillion

triacontillion

googolplex

tetracontillion

pentacontillion

hexacontillion

heptacontillion

octacontillion

ennacontillion

hectillion

killinillion
killinillion

megillion

gigillion

terillion

petillion

exillion

zettillion

yottillion

xennillion

dakillion

hendillion

dokillion

tradakillion

tedakillion

pedakillion

exdakillion

zedakillion

yodakillion

nedakillion

ikillion

ikenillion

icodillion

ictrillion

icterillion

icpetillion

ikectillion

iczetillion

icyotillion

ixentillion

trakillion

googolduplex / googolplexian

tekillion

pekillion

exakillion

zakillion

yokillion

nekillion

hotillion

botillion

trotillion

totillion

potillion

exotillion

zottillion

yottillion

notillion

kalillion

dalillion

tralillion

talillion

palillion

exalillion

zalillion

yalillion

nalillion

dakalillion

hotalillion

mejillion

gijillion

astillion

lunillion

fermillion

jovillion

solillion

betillion

glocillion

gaxillion

supillion

versillion

multillion

the end

Related pages
Order of magnitude
Lakh
Crore

Other websites 
Big numbers 
Counting Really,REALLY,REALLY High
Numbers
Naming Large Numbers
Acetylene is a hydrocarbon, belonging to the alkyne group. It is the simplest type of alkyne, as it has only two hydrogen atoms and two carbon atoms. Acetylene is an unsaturated organic compound because its four atoms are triple bonded through a covalent bond. It was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy. The chemical symbol is C2H2.

80% of all acetylene produced yearly in the United States is used for chemical synthesis. It is a toxic chemical; breathing the substance causes dizziness, headache and nausea.

Hydrocarbons
Ralf Schumacher (born 30 June 1975) is a retired German Formula one driver. He was born in Hürth, North Rhine-Westphalia and is the younger brother of Michael Schumacher. He drove for Jordan, Williams and Toyota.

Racing record

Career summary

Complete Formula Nippon results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)

† Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.

Complete Formula One non-championship results

Complete DTM results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

1975 births
Living people
German Formula One drivers
Sportspeople from North Rhine-Westphalia
Auto racing (also known as automobile racing, autosport or motorsport) is a sport involving racing cars. Auto racing began in France in 1895 and is now one of the world's most popular spectator sports.

Types of auto racing 
Formula One is the top level racing championship worldwide. Formula One cars have no fenders or quarter panels like regular passenger cars. At the front and back of each car there is a spoiler, or wing, which uses air to push the car onto the ground and give it more grip to go faster. Each Formula One race takes place in a different country. These races are called Grands Prix (French for "grand prize"). 

Indy Cars look very similar to Formula One cars, but race on oval tracks that have only banked left-hand turns, and more complex road courses which have both left and right hand turns.
Endurance races are a type of race involving heavily modified cars called touring cars and purpose-built race cars called sports prototypes. Each race team has more than one driver because endurance races last for several hours, so drivers take turns. The world's most famous endurance race is the 24 Hours of Le Mans in France.

NASCAR is an American organization that runs races on oval tracks with many cars or pickup trucks. The cars, called stock cars, look like passenger cars, but have plenty of racing upgrades.

Related pages

Motor sports
Lascelles Abercrombie (January 9, 1881 – October 27, 1938) was a British poet and critic of Literature, and he was a member of a group of famous poets called "Dymock poets".  He was born in Ashton upon Mersey and studied at the University of Manchester.  

Before the First World War, he lived for a time at Dymock in Gloucestershire.  In 1922, they gave him the job of Professor of English at the University of Leeds.  In 1929 he moved on to the University of London, and in 1935 to the University of Oxford.  He wrote many poems, that were  put together in a book called 'Poems' (1930). In the same year he wrote his most important poem, The Sale of Saint Thomas in six Acts.  He was the brother of the architect Patrick Abercrombie, and his son was the scientist Michael Abercrombie.

Sources

Other websites

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Lascelles Abercrombie

English poets
1881 births
1938 deaths
Academics of the University of London
Academics of the University of Oxford
Academics of the University of Leeds
Elizabeth "Eliza" Acton (17 April 1799 – 13 February 1859) was an English poet and cook. She was born in Battle, Sussex and raised in Suffolk. She wrote one the first cookbooks for cooking at home, not for professional cook or chef, Modern Cookery for Private Families. In this book she started the use of listing the ingredients and suggested cooking times with each recipe, like all the world does now. Modern Cookery was sold for a long time after her death, until 1914 and can still be found at many libraries. Her recipes are still very famous.

Other websites 

Biography at foodreference.com
Poems by Eliza Acton 

1799 births
1859 deaths
British chefs
English poets
Writers from Suffolk
Writers from Sussex
Ralph Fiennes (born 22 December 1962) is an English actor. He has won several awards including the Tony Award and was nominated for the Academy Award for his work in Steven Spielberg's movie Schindler's List, and the Genie Award. 

Fiennes is also well-known for portraying Lord Voldemort in four of the eight Harry Potter movies.

Family 
His parents were Jennifer Lash and Mark Fiennes. His brothers and sisters are Joseph Fiennes, Sophie Fiennes, Martha Fiennes, Magnus Fiennes and Jacob Fiennes. He was born in Ipswich, Suffolk.

References

Other websites 
 

1962 births
Living people
Actors from Suffolk
Actors who played M
BAFTA Award winners
Drama Desk Award winners
English movie actors
English movie directors
English movie producers
English stage actors
English television actors
English voice actors
People from Ipswich
Tony Award winning actors
Vi Kyuin Wellington Koo (Chinese: 顾维钧；Pinyin: Gù Wéijūn; Wade-Giles: Ku Wei-chün) (January 29, 1887 - November 14, 1985) was a Chinese diplomat. He was a representative at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. His wife was Chinese-American diplomat Juliana Koo.

Born in Shanghai in 1887, he went to the United States in 1904 and studied Western culture in order to help China with the problem of imperialism. He spoke perfect fluent English, and came to be interested in China's position in international society.

Other websites 

 Biography from Columbia University

Koo, Wellington
1887 births
1985 deaths
Wade–Giles (), sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system for the Chinese language. It is based on the form of Mandarin used in Beijing. The system was produced by Thomas Wade in the mid-19th century. It was fully developed in Herbert Giles's 1892 Chinese-English dictionary.

Wade-Giles was the main system of transliteration in the English-speaking world for much of the 20th century. It is used in several standard reference books. It is also used in all books about China published before 1979. It replaced the Nanjing-based romanization systems that was common until the late 19th century. Wade-Giles has been replaced by the Pinyin system today. It still remains in use in Taiwan (Republic of China).
One well-known feature of Wade-Giles is that it uses the apostrophe to mark aspirated consonants, or breathy consonants. For example, ping in Pinyin would be written as p'ing in Wade-Giles, but bing in Pinyin would be written as ping. Sounds are written this way because Chinese does not have voiced stop consonants, fricatives, or affricates like in English. Chinese only distinguishes between aspirated and unaspirated sounds. Therefore, an apostrophe is used instead of using a different letter.

However, the apostrophe was not well understood by people who do not know the Wade-Giles spelling, so many people who read the apostrophe ignored the apostrophe when reading or copying Chinese words down. This had lead many non-Chinese to say Chinese words incorrectly, including Tao, tai chi, and kung fu. Wade-Giles spellings where the apostrophe is completely ignored are called bastardized Wade-Giles.

Comparison chart
Comparison chart

Sample sentences of Wade-Giles 
Below are examples of sentences written in Chinese characters, Pinyin, and Wade-Giles with English translations.

References

Other websites 
 Chinese Romanization Converter - Convert between Hanyu Pinyin, Wade-Giles, Gwoyeu Romatzyh and other known or (un-)common Romanization systems.
 Wade-Giles → Zhuyin → Pinyin conversion table 
 Pinyin → Wade-Giles → Zhuyin conversion table 
 Wade-Giles → Zhuyin → Pinyin → Word list 
 A conversion table of Chinese provinces and cities from Wade-Giles to Pinyin
 Pinyin4j: Java library supporting Chinese to Wade-Giles
 Pronunciation Guide

Wade-Giles
A prince is a member of the highest aristocracy

Prince may refer to:

The Prince, a book written by Niccolò Machiavelli in the 16th century
The Little Prince, a novel by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
PRINCE2, a project management method
Prince (album), the second album by Prince
The Prince (song), the first single by Madness
Prince (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes
Prince Sports, Inc., a maker of sporting goods
Prince Motor Company, a maker of automobiles in Japan from 1952 until they joined with Nissan in 1966
Prince XML, a software product from YesLogic
The Prince (Pournelle), a book by Jerry Pournelle and S.M. Stirling.
 Prince, a South Devon Railway 2-4-0ST steam locomotive
Princes (company), a food manufacturing company based in the United Kingdom
The Prince, song by Dimond Head, made famous by Metallica

People
People 

Prince (musician), stage name of pop music artist Prince Rogers Nelson, known from 1993 to 2000 as  (or informally, "The Artist Formerly Known as Prince") 
"Prince" Naseem Hamed, British boxer
Bonnie Prince Geoffie the reluctant, the McGillicuddy Serious Party's pretender to the throne of New Zealand
Oldest son of Michael Jackson
Prince Johnson, Liberian politician
Mahesh Babu, a popular Indian movie actor from Tollywood who was given the title "Prince" by his fans after his first film
Prince Polley a Ghanaian footballer

Fictional characters 
The Prince from Prince of Persia
The Prince, Katamari Damacy'''s main character
Eileen Prince, mother of Severus Snape in the Harry Potter series
Short name for "Demon Prince" for Beelzebub (Sand Land) in Sand LandIsambard Prince from LEXX''

Related pages 
 Princess (disambiguation)
Natalia Oreiro (born May 18, 1977 in Montevideo,Uruguay) is a Latin Grammy-nominated Uruguayan singer and actress.  She has been in both soap operas and movies.  She is best known for her participation in the soap opera, Muñeca Brava (1998-1999), which was an every-afternoon-smash-hit during its run in Argentina. Her most recent soap opera, Sos mi vida (2006), was shown in more than 40 countries.

Life 
Natalia Oreiro was born in Montevideo, Uruguay on May 19, 1977. She is daughter of Carlos Oreiro Poggio and the painter Mabel Iglesias Bourié. She studied drama when she was eight years old than she appeared in advertisements at twelve years old such as Coca-Cola, Pepsi and Johnson & Johnson.
When she was fifteen years old, she joined Latin America's show El Show de Xuxa and won the competition. At the age of 16 she moved to Argentina to work there. She worked as an MTV VJ and in 1995, she landed a role in the soap opera Dulce Ana. After that she st in the TV series 90-60-90 modelos (1996) and Ricos y famosos (1997). In Ricos y famosos, Oreiro played fictional character Valeria.

In 1998, Natalia Oreiro starred in her first movie  Un Argentino en New York with Guillermo Francella. Un Argentino en New York was watched by 1.634.702 people in Argentina. After the movie, she released three studio albums (Natalia Oreiro, Tu Veneno, Turmalina) and she starred many TV series and movies.

Music

Natalia Oreiro
In 1998, Natalia Oreiro released single "Que Sí, Que Sí" from Un Argentino en New York. Than she launched her first studio album Natalia Oreiro (1998). "Cambio Dolor" was first single from her debut album and became the opening theme for the prime time show Muñeca Brava (1998-1999).
Album was ranked eighty-first in list of "Worldbeat Global Album Chart" and sold over 140,000 copies therefore received a double platinum disc in Argentina and gold disc in countries like Greece, Slovenia and Israel.

Tu Veneno
In 2000, her second studio album, Tu Veneno (Your Poison) was released and was presentation in "Gala de la Hispanidad", "Gala de Murcia" (both in Spain) and "Festival de la Calle 8" in Miami. She was nominated for Latin Grammy Awards,  but lost to Christina Aguilera's Mi Reflejo. Oreiro was first Uruguayan nominated for a Grammy. She was crowned Queen of that event at Viña del Mar Festival 2000 in Chile. 3rd music video of album "Cómo Te Olvido" (2001) was directed by Tudor Giurgiu in Dracula's Castle, Romania.
Turmalina
Oreiro's next and last album, Turmalina, was released in 2002 and centered around a superhero character named Turmalina who is created by  Oreiro. Turmalina was produced by Latin maker Kike Santander. The album was recorded in USA. "Que Digan Lo Que Quieran" (Should they say whatever they want) was first single from Turmalina. "Cuesta Arriba, Cuesta Abajo" became the opening theme for soap opera Kahorra. Natalia made contributions with singer/songwriter Jaime Roos and Falta y Resto for the official Uruguayan 2002 FIFA World Cup song "Pasión Celeste".

Discography 
 1998: Natalia Oreiro
 2000: Tu Veneno
 2002: Turmalina

Artistic career
Artistic career

Soap operas 
 Inconquistable corazón (Canal 9, 1994-1995) as Victoria
 Dulce Ana (Canal 9, 1995) as Verónica Iturbe-Montalbán
 90-60-90 modelos (Canal 9, 1996-1997) as Lucía Peralta
 Ricos y famosos (Canal 9, 1997-1998) as Valeria García Méndez de Salerno
 Muñeca brava (Telefe, 1998-1998) as Milagros 'Mili' Esposito-Di Carlo de Miranda (Cholito/Carlitos)/young Rosario
 Kachorra (Telefe, 2002) as Antonia Guerrero (Kachorra) alias Rosario Achával/Piojo
 El deseo (Telefe, 2004) as Carmen
 Sos mi vida (Canal 13, 2006)as Esperanza Muñoz - La Monita

Filmography 
 Un Argentino en New York (1998) as Verónica 'Vero' De Ricci
 Cleopatra (movie) (2003) as Sandra
 La guerra de los gimnasios (2004)
 Las vidas posibles (2005) as Marcia
 La Peli (2006) - (2007) as journalist
 Rambleras (2007)

References

Other websites 

 Official website

1977 births
Living people
Actors from Montevideo
Latin singers
Musicians from Montevideo
The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; abbreviated to  or ; Pinyin: Mínjìndǎng) is a major political party in the  Republic of China (Taiwan). The party has been linked with the pan-green coalition and de jure Taiwan independence movement. The DPP is a member of Liberal International and a founding member of the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats. The DPP represented Taiwan in the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation.

List of Chairpersons 
 Chiang Peng-chian (1986–1987)
 Yao Chia-wen (1987–1988)
 Huang Shin-cheih (1988–1992)
 Hsu Hsin-liang (1992–1994, 1996–1998)
 Shih Ming-teh (1994–1996)
 Lin Yi-hsiung (1998–2000)
 Frank Hsieh (2000)
 Chen Shui-bian (2000–2008)
 Tsai Ing-wen (since 2008)

References

Other websites 
 Official website

Political parties in Taiwan
Liberal parties
Social democratic parties in Asia
Nationalist organizations in Taiwan
1986 establishments in Asia
1980s establishments in Taiwan
The President of the Republic of China is the head of state and Commander-in-Chief of the democratic country known officially as the  Republic of China. The Republic of China government has controlled Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other islands after the Nationalist lost the war and moved the government from mainland China in 1949. 

The presidential office was created in 1948 under the 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China.

In the previous Kuomintang administration, the title of "President of the Republic of China" was used (). The current Democratic Progressive Party administration refers to the President as the "President of the Republic of China (Taiwan)" ().

List of Presidents

Presidents of the Republic of China, 1912-1928

Presidents of the Republic of China (Taiwan), 1948-present

References

Politics of China
Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan (, Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan; ;  – 21 October 1978) was an Armenian Old Bolshevik and Soviet statesman during the Stalin and Khrushchev years.

It was told that, during Khrushchev time, he was the second most powerful man in the Soviet Union.

1895 births
1978 deaths
Armenian politicians
Communists
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Mitanni was a Hurrian kingdom in northern Mesopotamia from ca. 1500 BC.

Mitanni is often associated with Armenian nobility.

Other websites 
The Hurrian Culture
Vyacheslav Ivanov
Vahan Kurkjian, "History of Armenia," Michigan, 1968
Dutch excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad 
Excerpts from the text of the Shuppililiuma-Shattiwazza treaty
Mitanni  Simple article.
Armenian Highland

Assyria
Mesopotamia
16th century BC
There may be many as 300,000 Russians in the United Kingdom. About half of these were born in Russia. Some of the others are citizens of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). Since they joined the EU in 2004, they are free to live in other EU countries, including the UK. There are many Russian language schools in London and the South East. These schools were founded by immigrants from Russia to the United Kingdom. They send their children to the schools so the children can learn about their parents' culture.

Other websites 
Russian shops in the United Kingdom 
British Russian Society  
Понаехали тут! (Ponaehali tut!) Forum 
http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2007/02/12/russians_feature.shtml 
http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,2763,1190191,00.html
Russian London
Gazeta.UK 

Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom
Larry Griffin (September 23, 1954 - June 21, 1995) -  was a man accused of killing 19-year-old Quintin Moss. The alleged crime happened in Saint Louis, Missouri, on June 26, 1980. On June 21, 1995, the State of Missouri executed Griffin by lethal injection. He is one of the few people who were put to death partly based on the testimony of a witness who had been at the crime scene. There were others including Garay Graham who was executed on June 22 2000 when Texas Governor George Bush & the Texas appeals board refused to give him life in prison instead.  He maintained his innocence until he was executed for the crime. There are groups to this day trying to reopen his case, prove him innocent.

Other websites
 Article from NY Times
 Another article from NY Times

American criminals
People from Missouri
1954 births
1991 deaths
Nassau County is a suburban county in the New York Metropolitan area east of New York City and west of Suffolk County, in the U.S. state of New York. In 2018, 1,358,343 people lived there. It lies in western Long Island, and is bordered by Suffolk County to the east and by the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens to the west. About 1,525,000 people lived there. Until 1899, Nassau County was part of Queens County. The county seat is Mineola. Along with Suffolk, it was named the safest county in the United States in 2005 by Forbes.

Hamlets in Nassau County include Manhasset, New York.

New York (state) counties
1899 establishments in the United States
1890s establishments in New York (state)
In February 1988, the war finally started, during the course of which both Armenia and Azerbaijan had utilized the legislatures to legitimize themselves while both caused pogroms as well as massacres against each other, with territorial loss of both sides alternated. Furthermore, the Soviet Union, before its collapse in 1991, and Russia had been involved with this Nagorno-Karabakh War, which had an impact on the fate of the war. The estimated death toll of the entire war is more than 30,000 on both sides.

Not only Moscow but also European countries, the neighboring countries of both Armenia and Azerbaijan, the United Nations, as well as the United States, had made a variety of efforts to make a ceasefire come true. However, there were conflicting interests among them and Nagorno-Karabakh itself therefore was not the most urgent matter for them.

In the end, the war ended with a Russian-brokered ceasefire that had been in effect since midnight on 11 and 12 May 1994 until April 2 2016.
Before the War Erupted 
In 1918, after the World War I as well as the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Armenia and Azerbaijan became independent, both of which claimed Nagorno-Karabakh. Consequently, the region was admitted as territory of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic of 1918-1920 at the Versailles Peace Conference. In the early 1920s, the South Caucasus countries got annexed by the Soviet Union, whose Caucasus Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party of the Bolsheviks made Nagorno-Karabakh remain under the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1923, the region was accorded the autonomous status as the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast.
Then the Azerbaijan SSR as well as the Soviet Union condemned this decision. According to Erick Melander's "The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict Revisited: Was the War Inevitable?” (2001), the Soviet Union was concerned that similar desires would emerge and resultant disruptions would prevail in other parts within the state. With regard to this, Thomas de Waal reveals in "Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War" (2013) that the Soviet Union had nineteen potential territorial disputes and Mikhail Gorbachev did not want to make concession to any of those since it would provide a precedent to energize such territorial conflicts. Gorbachev decided to intervene the affairs of Nagorno-Karabakh and sent a large delegation to the region. The Moscow delegation replaced Kevorkov with his deputy, Genrikh Pogosian, who, however, started to support the unification with Armenia because of greater respect he enjoyed from the Armenians living in the region.
Armenian Unification Efforts 
Long before 1988 but especially in the late 1980s, the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic had tried to put Nagorno-Karabakh under its sovereignty. Armenians sent letters and petitions to Moscow to make the unification come true, no matter when a political change happened there. According to Thomas de Waal's book "Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War" (2013), on 3 March 1988, Gorbachev pointed out that the Politburo had failed to acknowledge such Armenian efforts as possible threats, saying "The Central Committee received five hundred letters in the last three years on the question of Nagorno-Karabakh. Who paid any attention to this?"
Muradian also worked as a subversive. He got in touch with members of the Dashnaktsutiun Party (the Dashnaks) in underground cells that they have in Yerevan and abroad. The illegal Armenian nationalist party helped the unification activists to obtain small arms from abroad and form paramilitary groups in Nagorno-Karabakh.

In order to legitimize their campaign, those activists adopted what they called a referendum on unification, as well. They visited farms and factories across Nagorno-Karabakh to gather signatures for it. In August 1987, this work culminated in a huge petition with more than seventy five thousand signatures from the people in the region as well as Armenia. It was sent to Moscow; then the Karabakh Armenians dispatched two delegations to the Soviet capital and appealed to the Central Committee.
There were other Armenians who lobbied abroad. For instance, on 16 November 1987, Abel Aganbekian, who was a Gorbachev's main economic adviser, stated in front of French Armenians in Paris that Nagorno-Karabakh had "greater links with Armenia than with Azerbaijan." Then L'Humanité, the French Communist Party's newspaper which was accessible in the Soviet Union, reported on his views and because of his position as a Gorbachev's adviser and Armenian nationality, many Azerbaijanis thought that Gorbachev was supporting Armenians.

Those Azerbaijanis, however, were wrong since Gorbachev did not back Aganbekian and after all, the Armenian lobbying efforts in Moscow could not change the Politburo's mind.
Counter-measures by Azerbaijanis 
Azerbaijanis did not overlook those Armenian efforts, though Azerbaijani nationalist movement had not been well-organized until even later. Seven days after the Armenian political rally that started on 13 February 1988, they formed their first political protest. Students, workers, and intellectuals marched down to the Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan SSR with placards showing that Nagorno-Karabakh was a part of Azerbaijan. For Azerbaijanis, Armenians were trying to destroy their own republic as well as national identity.

Azerbaijani historians were also among the first to take a counter-measure. Bakhtiar Vahabzade, who was a poet, and Suleiman Aliarov, who was a historian, claimed in the journal Azerbaijan that Nagorno-Karabakh was historically a part of Azerbaijan, that Armenian unification efforts were based on an irredentist tradition and that Azerbaijani people were the victims. This counterargument, however, did not reach Moscow.

Onset of the War
Onset of the War

First Casualties 
On 22 February, two days after the Regional Soviet of Nagorno-Karabakh issued the resolution, protests happened in Aghdam, from where angry protestors headed to Stepanakert. On the way they clashed policemen as well as Armenian villagers in the Armenian village, Askeran. As a consequence, two Azerbaijanis were killed, who were the first casualties in the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan, with both sides wounded.

This killing upset residents of Aghdam and they armed themselves with stones, crossbows, staves, etc. and started to march toward Stepanakert. However, a female resident of the city, Khuraman Abasova, stopped the protestors from getting intensified by taking off her head scarf on the roof of a car in front of the crowd. For women to take off their head scarf in public is a signal that men must not go further according to the Azerbaijani custom.
Sumgait Pogroms 
The protest in Sumgait finally turned into pogroms. The rioters were roaming and looking for Armenians to attack while they destroyed windows and things, stole expensive things from houses, put automobiles on fire and even tortured and killed Armenians. Several victims were amputated so terribly that the bodies did not show who they were; those gangs stripped women naked and burned them alive, while some women were raped again and again.

Most of the rioters did not arm themselves well; they overwhelmed the victims in numbers. Some Armenians battled back against those attackers and this may be why six Azerbaijanis were included in the number of casualties.
However, there were not many differences between Soviet Armenians and Azerbaijanis; in Sumgait, both of the peoples basically had conversation in an almost identical Russian while many Armenians in the city spoke Azeri well, which means that it was difficult for the rioters to find whom they were going to attack. In order to catch Armenians, they asked people to pronounce the Azerbaijani word fundukh, whose pronunciation is hazelnut and Armenians were said to have difficulty in pronouncing the f, and with regard to this, Thomas de Waal states that Sumgait pogroms brought about dissolution of 'a "Soviet" identity.'
The situation in Sumgait started to calm down on 29 February thanks to a military regiment and a curfew deployed by the Soviet Union. Consequently, by the end of the day, the official number of casualties reached thirty two, twenty six Armenians and six Azerbaijanis, and over four hundred men were arrested. Furthermore, almost all the Armenians who lived in the city, 14,000, left while thousands of Armenians living across Azerbaijan left their places, as well.

Escalating War 
Gorbachev and the Politburo had made efforts for both the Armenian SSR and the Azerbaijan SSR to arrive at compromise over Nagorno-Karabakh, all of which, however, failed in the end. In May 1988, Pogosian rejected the compromise plan that gives the region the status of Autonomous Republic with some privileges such as its own government and constitution, while it remains under the Azerbaijani sovereignty.
On-site in Nagorno-Karabakh 
Armenians living in the region accounted for approximately 75% of the total population; they protested against the Azerbaijanis by sheer force of numbers. The Armenians attacked buses and trucks that brought goods to Shusha, while in Stepanakert, Azerbaijani workers were fired. They even prevented Azerbaijani shepherds from bringing back a flock of sheep from their summer pastures. According to Thomas de Waal, when hearing of this incident, Arkady Volsky, who had worked in the region as the representative of the Politburo, said "Sheep have no national ambitions."

On the other hand, the Azerbaijanis took advantage of the enclave's location, which was within the Azerbaijani territory. The transportation of goods to Spepanakert, for instance, was disrupted by them.
In September 1988, around Khojaly, a convoy of Soviet Union's soldiers and Armenian civilians were transporting goods to Stepanakert. Azerbaijani people attacked them, which made some angry armed Armenians storm the village and its Azerbaijani residents; two of the Soviet soldiers were confirmed dead. As a consequence, a minority of Armenians in Shusha all left while in Stepanakert, the Azerbaijani residents were deported.

In the summer of 1989, Azerbaijanis went further; while almost ninety percent of railways in Armenia came from Azerbaijan, they blocked all the railways to Armenia. Because of this blockade, petrol and food were lacking in Armenia.
In January the same year, Volsky-led Committee of Special Administration for Nagorny Karabakh banned political activities and installed military troops to maintain order in the region. However, on 16 August, the Armenians there formed a National Council that consisted of seventy nine members and it declared that it was controlling Nagorno-Karabakh. The Armenian Supreme Soviet, together with the National Council, adopted a resolution which confirmed the region's unification and gave the residents citizenship of the Armenian SSR.

Black January 
In this way, contrary to the rejection by the Azerbaijan SSR and the Soviet Union, the Armenian SSR started to establish their own political structures in Nagorno-Karabakh. On 9 January 1990, the Armenian parliament decided to control the region under its budget system, which angered Azerbaijanis and both sides fought each other in the villages in Khanlar and Shaumian regions; consequently, four Russian soldiers dispatched by Soviet Union died.
On 13 January, violence against Armenians happened in Baku; as a result, some ninety Armenians died during the Baku pogroms and thousands of surviving Armenians escaped from the city. Facing the chaos there, Gorbachev finally ordered to send the army to the city on the night of 19 and 20 January, when a massacre of the Bakuvians, known as Black January, happened.

Internationalized War 
On 19 August 1991, a coup d'état happened in Moscow and Gorbachev was removed from power, but temporarily. Three days later, he restored power while the betrayers were put in jail. However, this political chaos in Moscow demoralized the Soviet Union army deployed in Nagorno-Karabakh, which now became leaderless.

The chaos also helped the two Union Republics, the Armenian SSR and the Azerbaijan SSR, go further toward independence from the Soviet Union. On 30 August 1991, Azerbaijani independence was declared while on 21 September, a referendum was held in Armenia, where 95% of the citizens supported its independence.
As the situation was escalating, the neighboring countries mediated a peace agreement between Republic of Armenia and Republic of Azerbaijan; Boris Yeltsin visited Stepanakert in September 1991 with the then Kazakh President, Nursultan Nazarbayev, and what is called Zheleznovodsk declaration was adopted. However, on 20 November in Martuni, Vagif Jafarov, who was the head of Shusha, as well as Russian and Kazakh officials who were in charge of the implementation of the peace agreement, were killed in a helicopter crash that was caused by Armenian fighters. In response, the Azerbaijani National Council declared on 26 November that Nagorno-Karabakh was under the Azerbaijani sovereignty and that Stepanakert was now Khankendi, although Armenians in the region held a referendum on 10 December with support from Armenia; 108,615 people voted for the region's independence, while there were no Azerbaijanis voting.

War Reaching its Climax
Khojaly Massacre 
Since the beginning of 1992, Karabakh Armenians had stormed the Azerbaijani villages around Stepanakert and deported the remaining residents. Among those Azerbaijani villages, Khojaly was the focal point since it was the center of a wide-scale Azerbaijani resettlement program. The Armenians cut off access by road to Khojaly in October 1991; consequently, the town was just there without electricity, oil and running water. Finally on the night of 25 and 26 February 1992, when was the forth anniversary of the Sumgait pogroms, the Armenians surrounded the town and attacked the Azerbaijani residents, which is known as Khojaly Massacre, the most brutal part of the war.

The Khojaly Massacre enraged Azerbaijanis; they accused the government of not protecting the town and hundreds of them chose to fight voluntarily.
Alongside of the massacre, from mid-February, Azerbaijan had conducted artillery bombardments against Stepanakert, from Shusha. Karabakh Azerbaijanis were forced to leave their villages and now, they gathered in Shusha as well as a few villages around it, from where they could defeat the Armenians. However, eventually in the morning of 9 May, Shusha fell into the Armenian hands and Stepanakert, now almost a ruins, was relieved.

Furthermore, on 18 May, Karabakh Armenians took control of Lachin and finally opened a road to Armenia. The transportation of goods to the region was reestablished and Armenians could enter it freely for reinforcements; the Azerbaijanis who still remained there all were deported.
Russian Presence as the War Escalated 
On 12 June 1992, Azerbaijan launched an offensive and overran the northern area of Nagorno-Karabakh; they took control of Shaumian and Martakert regions. The Azerbaijanis used approximately 150 armored cars and tanks that they obtained from a division of the Soviet 4th Army deployed in Ganje. Consequently, thousands of refugees fled into the south and the Russian military, which was asked to intervene, sent helicopters and conducted bombardments from the air to stop the Azerbaijani offensive.

In August, however, Azerbaijani forces that placed about half of Nagorno-Karabakh under their control conducted air strikes in Stepanakert. To counter, the then Armenian President Ter-Petrosian and his allies in the region decided to conscript all the Karabakh Armanian males who were between eighteen and forty five years old into a new army.
This situation, however, had reversed in late 1992, when the Russian military started to leave Azerbaijan and shut down its bases there while in Armenia, the Gyumri-based Soviet 7th Army chose did not leave and now worked as a Russian force. Tracing back to September 1992, when Pavel Grachev, who was the Russian Defense Minister, tried to dispatch fifty six Russian observers to the combat zone in Nagorno-Karabakh, Iskender Hamidov, the Azerbaijani Interior Minister, condemned the Russian intervention and this incident helped the Russian Defense Ministry to become pro-Armenian.

Chaos on the Azerbaijani side 
Azerbaijan's political and military turmoil was also responsible. In February 1993, for example, Rahim Gaziev, who was the Azerbaijani Defense Minister, was forced to step down; before the resignation, he was leaving the soldiers alone that were deployed in Haterk and surrounded by Armenian forces.
Loss of Kelbajar 
Armenia started an offensive against Kelbajar on 27 March 1993 and it was captured on 3 April. With the fall of Kelbajar, Armenia established another land route that helped them to easily access Nagorno-Karabakh.

However, because Armenia seized an Azerbaijani region outside the region, international society started to take action. On 30 April 1933, the United Nations Security Council adopted a resolution on the territorial dispute for the first time; the resolution called on both Armenia and Azerbaijan to stop the war, while it demanded that Armenia immediately withdraw its forces from Kelbajar. Furthermore, Turkey decided not to open the bilateral diplomatic relations in 1992 and later, closed its border with Armenia.

Consequently, Ter-Petrosian and Karabakh Armenians agreed to a ceasefire plan, stating that the Armenian forces would retreat from Kelbajar on the condition of security guarantees in Nagorno-Karabakh.
Seeing political and military chaos happening in Azerbaijan, however, Armenia took back control of Martakert as well as most of the northern area of Nagorno-Karabakh on 27 June. Almost a month later on 23 July, they put Aghdam under their control. As a result, Azerbaijan lost five regions and the northern part of Nagorno-Karabakh that equal to nearly five thousand square kilometers in total.

Toward a Ceasefire
Toward a Ceasefire

The CSCE 
Back in January 1992, the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe allowed many former Soviet republics including Armenia and Azerbaijan to join the organization at a meeting that was held in Prague, where the British delegation stated that now the CSCE should take action on Nagorno-Karabakh. The CSCE held another meeting in Helsinki on 24 March and there the foreign ministers decided to have a peace conference on the territorial matter. The Minsk Conference, named after the host country, Belarus, was supposed to take place with Armenia, Azerbaijan, nine other CSCE members as well as both Armenian and Azerbaijani representatives of Nagorno-Karabakh, but it never came true due to the on-going and escalated war. Instead, the Minsk Group of the CSCE was launched the same year; Mario Rafaelli, who was a former Deputy Foreign Minister of Italy, served as its first chairperson and the first negotiations took place in Rome.
For both Armenia and Azerbaijan, the OSCE and the Minsk Group did not work enough. Vafa Guluzade described ambassadors from France as well as other countries as "completely incompetent" while Ter-Petrosian once stated that for them, Nagorno-Karabakh was not the first priority.

Competition between Washington and Moscow 
The international involvement was also a risk, since the two giants would compete each other for increasing their influence over the Caucasus, rather than a ceasefire. Yeltsin issued the statement where he suggested that Russia should be able to act, with acknowledgement from reliable international organizations such as the UN, in order to maintain peace and stability in the region, a part of a former Soviet republic. For Russia, if their troops are deployed in the region for a ceasefire, they could keep their influence there.
On the other hand, John Maresca, who was the U.S. representative to the Minsk Group, revealed that the Western countries had not seen the Nagorno-Karabakh War as very important. The United States hoped that Azerbaijan as well as Georgia were more independent from Russia, which was a condition where U.S. oil companies could start to invest in Azerbaijan.

Ultimately, on 30 November 1993, the Minsk Group decided that direct dialogues with Armenian and Azerbaijani representatives in the region should be necessary; more visits to the region were organized.

Last Phase of the War 
In August 1993, Serzh Sarkisian, who was from Nagorno-Karabakh, became the Defense Minister of Armenia, which mobilized Armenian soldiers from not only the region alone but also Armenia. On the other hand, Azerbaijan gathered almost twenty five hundred Afghan mujahadin fighters.
Then in December, the war was re-intensified. The consequence of the winter between late 1993 and early 1994, however, was an estimated number of those who were killed, four thousand on the Azerbaijani side and two thousand on the Armenian side, with only small pieces of Azerbaijani territory in the north and south of Nagorno-Karabakh regained.

Ceasefire Agreed 
On 4 and 5 May 1994, parliamentary delegations from the CIS countries including Armenia and Azerbaijan, held a meeting in Bishkek where Karen Baburian, who was the representative of the parliament in Nagorno-Karabakh, was also invited. There what is called the Bishkek Protocol, which urged all the parties in the region to implement a ceasefire from midnight on 8 and 9 May, was signed by Vladimir Kazimirov, the Russian envoy, and the Armenians. However, the Azerbaijani delegation did not since they had not yet obtained the approval of Aliev, who was the then President of Azerbaijan.
In the end, on 9 May, Mamedrafi Mamedov, who was the Azerbaijani Defense Minister, signed; the next day, his Armenian counterpart Sarkisian did in Yerevan, as well. On 11, Samvel Babayan, who was the Karabakh Armenian commander, gave consent in Stepanakert and finally at midnight on 11 and 12, the ceasefire was put into effect.

References

Other websites 
 Military Analysis of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
 A 2005 report on the status of undetonated land mines in Nagorno-Karabakh

1988 in Asia
1990 in Asia
1991 in Azerbaijan
1992 in Azerbaijan
1994 in Asia
Anti-Armenianism
Anti-Azerbaijanism
1990s in Armenia
Nagorno-Karabakh
Republic of Artsakh
1989 in Europe
1990 in Europe
1993 in Europe
1994 in Europe
1980s in Armenia
Wars involving Azerbaijan
Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, also known as Trentino-South Tyrol (Italian: Trentino-Alto Adige, German: Trentino-Südtirol, Southern Bavarian: Trentino-Sidtiroul, 1972. Trentino-Tirouler Etschlond, Ladin: Trentin-Südtirol) is a region of northern Italy. The two main cities are Bolzano (Bozen) and Trento.

Data

The region is divided into two provinces: 
 Province of Bolzano-Bozen (in the north, with the city of Bolzano as the capital)
 Province of Trento (in the south, with the city of Trento as capital).

The province of Bozen wanted more autonomy, because the main German-speaking community of Italy lives there.
In the province of Trient, the people speak Italian. It has 339 official towns.

The most important cities are:
 Province of Trento (Trentino): Trento and Rovereto
 Province of Bozen (Alto Adige/Südtirol): Bolzano (de: Bozen) and Merano (de: Meran)
Trentino has an area of 6,207 km2, most of it mountainous land (20% is over  and 70% over 1,000 m) and covered by vast forests (50% of the territory). The climate is various through the province, from an alpine climate to subcontinental one, with warm and variable summers and cold and quite sowy winters. The region has always been a favourite destination for tourists, both in winter for skiing in the high mountains and in summer to visit the wide valleys and many lakes (the largest being Lake Garda).
Alto Adige/South Tyrol has an area of , all of it mountainous land and covered by vast forests. The climate is of the continental type, owing to the influence of the many mountain ranges which stand at well over  above sea level and the wide valleys through which flow the main river, the Adige, from north to south and its numerous tributaries. In the city of Bolzano, capital of the province, the average air temperature stands at  and the average rainfall at . The lowest pass across the Alps, the Brenner Pass, is located at tinatheirth of the region on the border with Austria.
In Trentino the majority language is Italian, although there are Cimbrian minorities in the municipality of Luserna and four Mòcheno municipalities in the Mòcheni Valley. There are also Ladin-speaking minorities living in the Fassa Valley and in Non Valley (3.5% of the population). While in Fassa Valley Ladin already enjoys official status, in Non Valley it still does not, in spite of the fact that the number of speakers outnumbers those in Fassa Valley. Sole Valley also historically belongs to the Ladin area.

The majority of people in Alto Adige/Südtirol speaks German. However more Italian speakers than Germans live in the capital of Bolzano.