Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Mandarin Chinese name for the Nanjing Massacre is the Nánjīng Dàtúshā, which means the same thing. (Part-by-part, dàtúshā could mean "a big butchering and killing" but, taken all together, it is just the Chinese word for "massacre".) It is written  in traditional Chinese writing and  in the easier Chinese writing now used by mainland China and Singapore. 

The Japanese can use similar names but often prefer to call it the Nankin Jiken, which just means "The Thing that Happened in Nanjing". It is written  in Japanese writing.

The massacre 
The Nanjing Massacre lasted over six weeks. During this time, soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army 
 murdered Chinese civilians;
 murdered Chinese soldiers who had given up their weapons;
 stole and looted whatever they wanted;
 set buildings on fire to destroy them; and
 raped and tortured children and adults.

Mass murder of civilians
During the six weeks of the Nanjing massacre, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) massacred between 40,000 and 300,000 people.  It is difficult to know exactly how many people were killed in this mass murder, because the IJA burnt many bodies, buried others in mass graves, and dumped others in the Yangtze River.  Because of this, scholars and historians do not agree on exactly how many civilians were killed.p. 1015

However, historians agree that the Imperial Japanese Army began massacring Chinese civilians the day they entered Nanjing.  On that day, John Rabe, a German businessman, wrote in his diary: "We come across corpses every 100 to 200 yards. The bodies of civilians that I examined had bullet holes in their backs. These people had ... been [running away] and were shot from behind."p. 67
In another massacre, Japanese soldiers shot thousands of Chinese people with machine guns.  They left their bodies in a trench they named the "Ten-Thousand-Corpse Ditch."  Most historians think that more than 12,000 people were killed in this massacre.  The IJA also massacred about 100 Hui people (a minority group in China who are mostly Muslim).

Torture of civilians

For the entire six weeks of the Massacre, the Imperial Japanese Army kept killing Chinese civilians.  They killed in cruel, brutal ways and often tortured their victims before killing them.

For example, in 1984, ex-IJA soldier Kozo Tadokoro admitted: 

Another ex-soldier named Nagatoni admitted that Japanese soldiers tortured people to death by doing things like:
 Throwing them into pots of boiling water
 Burying them while they were still alive so they would suffocate
 Burying them with only their heads above ground so they would starve
 Throwing infants into the air and catching them on bayonets
In 2010, a Japanese woman named Tamaki Matsuoka made a documentary film about the Nanjing Massacre.  In the film, former IJA soldiers admit that they often raped Chinese women and massacred Chinese civilians.  However, out of the 250 former soldiers that Matsuoka interviewed, only three felt bad about what they had done.  One former solder, Sho Mitani, said:

Rape

During the Massacre, the Japanese soldiers raped about 20,000 women  including children and the elderly.p. 1012  Soldiers would go from door to door, searching for girls. When they found one, they would take her and rape her as a group.  If anyone tried to stop the soldiers, the soldiers would shoot them.p. 77

Right after they raped the women, the Japanese soldiers would often kill them, sometimes by mutilating their sex organs.
One survivor of the massacre said that sons were forced to rape their mothers, and fathers were forced to rape their daughters.  One group of soldiers gang-raped a pregnant woman, who gave birth only a few hours later (the baby did not seem to be hurt).  Japanese soldiers also raped Buddhist nuns and forced monks to rape women.

Witnesses' stories

On 19 December 1937, the Reverend James M. McCallum wrote in his diary:

Another witness to the rapes in Nanjing was Robert O. Wilson.  He was a surgeon at an American hospital in Nanjing.  On December 15 and 18, 1937, he wrote to his family:

Killing of prisoners of war
Starting in 1931, an international law called the Third Geneva Convention said it was illegal to treat prisoners of war in certain ways.  It said these prisoners had rights  for example, the right to have a trial before being executed.  However, in August 1937, Hirohito, the Emperor of Japan, had decided that neither he nor the army would follow any international laws about how Chinese prisoners of war had to be treated.

Right after the IJA took over Nanjing, they started searching for ex-Chinese soldiers.  They took thousands of young men as prisoners.  Some of these men were never soldiers; the IJA just assumed they were.  Without any trials, the IJA took many of these young men to the Yangtze River and killed them with machine guns.
According to confessions made by former IJA soldiers, on December 13 and 14, 1937, a unit of IJA soldiers had taken 14,777 Chinese prisoners of war.  In the next few days, they took another 2,0003,000 prisoners.  In two days, the IJA massacred every one of these prisoners of warover 15,000 people.  In their confessions, the former IJA soldiers said their military leaders had ordered them to do this.

Over the six weeks of the massacre, the IJA killed a total of about 30,000 Chinese prisoners of war.p. 1015

Theft and arson
The Japanese Army left most of the buildings in Nanjing destroyed by looting and arson.  They destroyed newly built government buildings as well as many civilians'  homes.  Soldiers also stole whatever they wanted.  Because the Imperial Japanese Army was so much stronger than the Chinese soldiers and civilians in Nanjing, the Chinese could not fight back.  This meant the Japanese could take all of the city's valuable things for themselves.
End of the massacre
In January 1938, the Imperial Japanese Army announced that Nanjing was in "order" again.  In the first week of February, it created a government that would obey all of Japan's needs.  After that, the IJA left.  The massacre was over.

Trial and punishment
On September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allied Powers.  This ended World War II.

Soon after this, the Allied Powers began creating international military courts. To try Japan's leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity, they created the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE).

International Military Tribunal for the Far East
Three of the Japanese Imperial Army's leaders in Nanjing were put on trial at the IMTFE:
 General  Iwane Matsui, who was in charge of all of the Japanese soldiers at Nanjing
 General Akira Muto, who led soldiers during the worst part of the massacre
 Kōki Hirota, who was the Foreign Minister during the massacre.  He was accused of helping plan the massacre, and not doing anything to stop it

All three of these men were found guilty of "Class A" war crimes.  This meant they had been found guilty of planning and being in charge of the war.  All three were sentenced to death and were executed.

The Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal

In 1946, the Chinese government created the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal.  This court tried General Matsui's lieutenant, Tani Hisao, for his part in the Nanjing Massacre.  It found him guilty and sentenced him to death.

Denial
Denial

The Nanjing Massacre is still very controversial in Japan.  Only a small number of Japanese writers say the Massacre never happened at all.  Most of the argument over the massacre has to do with how many Chinese people died.  Some scholars say that many fewer Chinese people died than most historians say.  For example, Japanese writer Tanaka Masaaki says that only a few hundred civilians died in Nanjing.

As of 2014, Japan still honored fourteen "Class A" war criminalsincluding the three who were in charge of the Nanjing Massacreat a national shrine.

Evidence
Evidence

There is a lot of proof that the Nanjing Massacre happened the way most historians and survivors say it did.  This proof includes:
 The memories of people who survived the massacre.
 The diaries and confessions of Japanese soldiers who took part in the massacre.
 Letters, diaries, and memories from people, like doctors and missionaries, who stayed to try to help.
 Photographs  and movies.
 For example, American missionary John Magee stayed in Nanjing so he could record what was happening on film and with photographs.
 Mass graves of people who were all killed in the same way.

Photo gallery

During the massacre

Trial and punishment

Memorials: The Nanjing Massacre Museum

Related pages 
 World War II
 Second Sino-Japanese War
 Empire of Japan
 Imperial Japanese Army
 War crimes
 Crimes against humanity

Notes

References 

1937
1938 in Asia
20th-century crimes
Crimes against humanity
Second Sino-Japanese War
War crimes
Massacre
Genocides in Asia
Human rights abuses in Asia
Neoliberalism is a term for different social and economic ideas. Originally the term was used by a group of liberals who helped shape social market economy in the mid 20th century. Classic liberalism is characterized by free market trade, deregulation of financial markets, mercantilism and the shift away from state welfare provision.

Alexander Rustow was the first economist to develop this concept, looking after a Social Democracy system rather than a Laissez Faire Capitalist Society.

Characteristics of Neoliberalism 

In the application of neoliberal ideals, the state might also intervene and regulate, for example, to prevent exploitation, or to ensure social fairness and equality.

Neoliberalism is antithetical to the protection of group - rather than individual - interests, for example, that might be achieved through lobbying of groups, or state interventions that protect national interests via tariffs or subsidies.

Neoliberalism has moved away from a centrally governed economy.
Contemporary use 
Since the 1990s the term has been consistently used in academia to imply the move from welfare state to laissez faire economic management, particularly associated with the promotion of free market ideals in the late 1980s by Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the US.

Examples of neoliberal regimes of Government 

 Chile under Augusto Pinochet
 Argentina under Mauricio Macri
 Great Britain under Margaret Thatcher
 New Zealand under David Lange
 The United States of America under Ronald Reagan attempted to establish this but never did.
 Australia under Bob Hawke and Paul Keating
 Brazil under Jair Bolsonaro
 Japan under Shinzō Abe

References 

Liberalism
Economic theories
Besides the sellers' cartel just described, buyers may also form cartels to suppress the price of a purchased input. Another type of cartel is the bidding ring. In bid rigging potential suppliers form an agreement as to which of them will win a supply contract at a price above the competitive price and, if one of them wins, then agree to a rule for sharing the extra profits among themselves. Bid rigging is most common among construction firms trying to get a government building project.

Overview 
People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices.
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776
In general, cartel agreements are difficult to negotiate because potential members typically have different ideal collusive prices. Once formed, cartels tend to be economically unstable, primarily because there is a profit incentive for members to cheat by selling at below the agreed price or selling more than the production quotas set by the cartel (see also game theory). Cheating on prices is difficult for cartel members to observe, so more successful cartels often agree to fix their market quotas, share verifiable information about those shares, and agree in advance on some mechanism to punish members that exceed their quotas. This has caused many cartels that attempt to set product prices to be unsuccessful in the long term. Empirical studies of 20th century cartels have determined that the mean duration of discovered cartels is from 5 to 8 years. However, once a cartel is broken, the incentives to form the cartel return and the cartel may be re-formed
. Publicly-known cartels that do not follow this cycle include the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
Price fixing is often practiced internationally. When the agreement to control price is sanctioned by a multilateral treaty or protected by national sovereignty, no antitrust actions may be initiated. Examples of such price fixing include oil whose price is partly controlled by the supply by OPEC countries. Also international airline tickets have prices fixed by agreement with the IATA, a practice for which there is a specific exception in antitrust law.

International price fixing by private entities can be prosecuted under the antitrust laws of more than 100 countries. Examples of prosecuted international cartels are lysine, citric acid, graphite electrodes and bulk vitamins.

Other websites 
 International Cartel History Site 
The Food and Global Agricultural Cartels of the 1990s 
Price-Fixing Overcharges
References 
John M. Connor, Global Price Fixing: 2nd edition: Studies in Industrial Organization No. 24. Heidelberg: Springer (2007).
Stocking, George W. and Myron W. Watkins. Cartels in Action. New York: Twentieth Century Fund (1946).
Levenstein, Margaret C. and Valerie Y. Suslow. What Determines Cartel Success? Journal of Economic Literature 64 (March 2006): 43-95.
Market failure
In economics, an oligopoly is a market form in which the market or industry is controlled by a small number of sellers. Usually, the market has high barriers to entry, which prevents new firms from entering the market or even be able to have a significant market share. 

As there are only a few sellers in the market, each seller would take note of the actions made by one another, and thinks about how the other sellers will respond when making decisions  As such, there is a possibility in which an oligopoly can come together to make a common decision that allows them to have less competition and charge higher prices for consumers.

Examples
In many countries, some country-held companies were privatized. Very often, this privatization lead to oligopolies. In many countries, there are only a handful of companies providing networks for mobile phones. They control the prices for accessing the network. That is why using a mobile phone is often much more expensive than using a land line one.
Trains run by private sectors are much costlier than those run by a government. As a government gives rights to private sectors to get a hold of some other sectors, they take advantage of it.

Related pages 
Oligarchy
Plutocracy

Other websites 
 Microeconomics by Elmer G. Wiens: Online Interactive Models of Oligopoly, Differentiated Oligopoly, and Monopolistic Competition
 Vives, X. (1999). Oligopoly pricing, MIT Press, Cambridge MA. (A comprehensive work on oligopoly theory)
In economics, market structure (also known as market form) describes the state of a market with respect to competition.

Most market forms given below talk about a homogeneous product.  This simply means that they all make the same thing. They simply want to get the cheapest one, since all kinds of sugars (or soaps) look the same anyway. 

The major market forms are:
Perfect competition: there are many numbers of buyers as well as many numbers of sellers, all the producers sell the homogeneous product and price remains unchanged
 Monopolistic competition, also called competitive market: there are a large number of  independent firms. Each firm has  a very small proportion of the market share.
 Oligopoly: A market is dominated by a small number of firms which own more than 40% of the market share.
 Oligopsony: A  market dominated by many sellers and a few buyers.
 Monopoly: There is only one seller and many number of buyers.
 Natural monopoly: A monopoly in which economies of scale cause efficiency to increase continuously with the size of the firm.
 Monopsony: There is only one buyer in the  market.

The imperfectly competitive structure is quite identical to the realistic market conditions where some monopolistic competitors, monopolists, oligopolists, and duopolists exist and dominate the market conditions.
These somewhat abstract concerns usually determine some but not all details of a specific concrete market system where buyers and sellers actually meet and commit to trade.

The correct sequence of the market structure from most to least competitive is perfect competition, imperfect competition, oligopoly, and pure monopoly.

The main criteria by which one can distinguish between different market structures are: the number and size of producers and consumers in the market, the type of goods and services being traded, and the degree to which information can flow freely.

Related pages
 Economics
 Constitutional economics
 Political economy
 Microeconomics
 Macroeconomics
 Industrial organization

Other websites 
 Microeconomics  by Elmer G. Wiens: Online Interactive Models of Oligopoly, Differentiated Oligopoly, and Monopolistic Competition

Market forms
Characteristics 
Generally, a perfectly competitive market exists when every firm in the market are price takers and no one is able to charge a different price without losing business. Specific characteristics of perfect competition includes:
 Large number of buyers and sellers: There are many buyers who are willing to buy the product at a certain price and there are many sellers who are willing to sell the product at a certain price.
 No barriers to entry and exit: There are no barriers to entry and exit for firms and firms are able to enter or leave the market without any issues.
 Perfect information: All buyers are assumed to know the price of the product set by all sellers and sellers are assumed to know the production methods of their competitors.
In the short run, a perfectly competitive firm is not productively efficient as the output will not be at where the marginal cost equals to the average cost (MC = AC). However, a perfectly competitive firm will be allocatively efficient as the firm will be producing at the profit-maximising output where MC = MR, which is coincidentally the allocatively efficient point. In the long run, a perfectly competitive firm will be both allocatively and productively efficient.

Model 

A model can be used to show the perfectly competitive firm's price and output level for a given product. In the diagram shown, the cost curves of a perfectly competitive market is shown in its long run equilibrium.
For a perfectly competitive firm, the marginal cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the MC curve (in blue) whereas the average total cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the ATC curve (in red). As stated above, a perfectly competitive market has a large number of buyers and sellers and the demand does not change with output. Hence, the demand curve, the average revenue and marginal revenue curves are horizontal (in green). The point in which the demand curve intersects the vertical axis is the price of the product sold by the firm.

As firms are assumed to be profit-maximising, the firm will thus produce at the output level where the marginal cost equals to the marginal revenue (MC = MR). Hence, the firm will be producing an output of Q in the diagram. As the average total cost curve also meets at this point, the firm is thus earning normal profits in the long run.
Criticism 
A market where there's perfect competition is difficult to find in the real world, mainly because of the restrictions.
 The model totally neglects dynamic effects in a market
 In reality, there are many barriers to enter a market. These barriers may be that some companies have technologies that are more advanced.
 There is perfect information. There's no pioneering advantage, there's also no reason for innovation
 There's no transaction cost.
 Because of the large number of market players, a bigger company has no benefits over a smaller one.
 In the real world, buyers do not want products that are all the same. They want small differences, so that choosing one product over another actually has some sense.

Market forms
Monopolistic competition is a market form. Like with Perfect competition, there are many buyers and sellers. But the market is not perfect. This is because the products are not homogeneous, or because the buyers have explicit or implicit preferences.

This market form is quite common. As an example, take a bakery. There are many bakeries in the town, but one of those bakeries can demand a slightly higher price for bread, because it is the only one in a certain part of the town.

Monopolistically competitive firms are able to gain a greater degree of market share and as a result, increase prices. If a particular bakery is known for selling the best pies and pasties in town, they can increase their prices for pies and pasties as they know consumers will pay slightly more for a superior product. This is known as establishing a brand name and brand loyalty.

Related pages
Constitutional economics
Political economy
Supply and demand is a model of microeconomics. It describes how a price is formed in a market economy. There are two determining factors on such a market, the number of things made available, called supply, and the number of things consumers want, called demand. Supply and demand shows how producers and consumers interact with each other. This relationship will fix the price for a certain type of good.  In perfect competition, the quantity demanded (demand) and the quantity supplied will be equal.  This happens at the equilibrium market price.
For normal goods, and a normal market, there are four basic laws that determine the change in the market, if either supply or demand changes:
If the demand increases, and the supply remains the same, there will be a shortage, and the price will increase.
If the demand decreases, and the supply remains the same, there will be a surplus, and the price will go down.
If the supply increases, and the demand remains the same, there will be a surplus, and the price will go down.
If the supply decreases, and the demand remains the same, there will be a shortage, and the price will increase.

When there is more supply, this will cause prices to fall because people will not want to pay more for items that can be found easily. When there is more demand, prices will go up because many people want to buy the same item but there is not enough supply for it.
When demands for new goods and services go up, new markets come into being. The greater the demand, the faster this happens. This greater number of providers makes the supply go up, which forces the price down toward the cost of production and distribution.

History 

One of the first to see this was Adam Smith. In his book The Wealth of Nations (1776), he says that the demand was dependent on the price of a good. He did not see the inverse, that the demand also influences the price. David Ricardo published the book Principles of Political Economy and Taxation in 1817, where he explained market equilibrium as it is explained above. Others who are known for this model are Alfred Marshall and Léon Walras.
Goods and markets where the rules are different 
There are certain goods which violate the model above
A Giffen good is one where people consume more, if the price for a better good rises.
There are certain goods which people buy to display their wealth or spending power. These goods are called luxury goods, and the effect is known as conspicuous consumption. In economics, the goods are known as Veblen goods. 
It is possible to classify consumers by the amount of money they have available; there are also certain kinds of goods where the demand for a certain good by people of a higher income level is inversely related to the demand for the good by individuals of a lower income level. This is known as the snob effect.
The rules above are only valid for a perfect competition market: In such a market, there are many buyers and sellers, and no single buyer or seller can directly influence the price. If either the buyers or the sellers can influence this price, the market will react differently. Sometimes there is only one supplier (a monopoly).  When this happens, the supplier chooses the price and the demand only determines how much is bought.  The supplier will probably raise the price very high as long as people are still willing to buy at that price. If there is only one buyer, the market is called monopsony, and that buyer is able to fix the price.
Other websites 
Marshallian cross diagrams and their uses before Alfred Marshall: the origins of supply and demand geometry  by Thomas Humphrey (via the Richmond Fed)
Supply and demand  by Hubert D. Henderson at Project Gutenberg.
Price theory and applications by Steven E. Landsburg 
An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, Adam Smith, 1776  
By what is the price of a commodity determined?, a brief statement of Karl Marx's rival account 
 Supply and demand -Citizendium

Microeconomics
In economics, people talk about elasticity of an economic variable, usually supply or demand, in relation to another economic variable such as income or price. The elasticity of a variable is a measure of how much the variable changes in response to a change in a second variable.

If the price for a good with a price-elastic demand goes up, the demand for it will go down. For example, people will buy fewer DVDs if DVDs get more expensive − DVDs have a price-elastic demand.

If a good has a completely price-inelastic demand, the demand for it will not be affected by the price of it. For example, if the price of salt increases, people will not buy less of it. They need their daily salt intake. The demand of salt is therefore price-inelastic.

Elasticity is often measured in percents. If a 2% increase in price causes people to buy 1% fewer of a product, it has a price elasticity of demand of -0.5.

Related pages
Price elasticity of demand

Microeconomics
Worcestershire (ˈwʊs.təˌʃə; abbreviated Worcs) is a county in the West Midlands region of central England. From 1974 to 1998 it was part of Hereford and Worcester. The city of Worcester, where the sauce named after Worcestershire was invented, is within this county.

The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, and Gloucestershire.

Physical geography 
Worcestershire is a fairly rural county. The Malvern Hills, which run from the south of the county into Herefordshire, are made up mainly of volcanic rock, some of which date from before 1200 million years ago. For more on the geology of the Malvern Hills, see the other websites section below.
Places of interest 
Avoncroft Museum of Historic Buildings
Walton Hill and the Clent Hills
Malvern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural beauty
Severn Valley Railway
Worcester Cathedral
Great Malvern Priory
Leigh Court Tithe Barn
Claines Church
River Teme and valley
Tenbury Wells with its unique Pump Rooms.
River Severn at Worcester, River Avon at Pershore or Evesham
Witley Court at Great Witley. A burnt out shell of a large English stately home, famous for its gigantic fountain, now restored to working order. Currently owned by English Heritage.
West Midlands Safari Park
Hanbury Hall
Forge Mill Needle Museum at Redditch, the only remaining working needle mill in the world.

Local groups 
Worcestershire Conservative Future 
Herefordshire and Worcestershire Earth Heritage Trust

Related pages 
 Worcestershire sauce

Other websites 
Worcestershire County Council main site
Official Worcestershire County Council eHub 

 
Ceremonial counties of England
Zlín (from 1949 to 1990 Gottwaldov) is a town in the Czech Republic. It is on the Dřevnice River. The Bata Shoes company has developed this city. It is now famous for urbanism.

Towns in the Czech Republic
Metamorphosis in biology means the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages. Good examples are insects and amphibians. Life for most insects begins as a larva or nymph then progresses to the pupa stage and ends as an adult.

Animals that metamorphose include tadpoles into frogs, caterpillars into butterflys, and generally insect larva into adult insects.

Insects 

There are two main types of metamorphosis in insects:
simple metamorphosis or hemimetabolism, and complete metamorphosis or holometabolism.
Simple metamorphosis or hemimetabolism 
Insects who go through simple (or incomplete) metamorphosis have three life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are usually very small. When the egg hatches, a larva or nymph comes out. Nymphs are just baby insects. Most of the time, the nymph looks similar to the adult, but it is smaller, may have different colouration, and does not have wings. The nymph grows through stages called instars, shedding its 'skin' (epicuticle) at each stage (ecdysis). Finally, it changes into a mature adult with wings.

Some insect nymphs are aquatic, which means they live in water. These nymphs usually have gills and look very different from the adults they will turn into. Nymphs that live in water are called naiads.

Some insects that have a life cycle of egg-nymph-adult are:
 cockroaches
 dragonflies
 grasshoppers
 true bugs
Complete metamorphosis or holometabolism 
Insects that have complete metamorphosis have four life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are very small. The egg hatches and a larva comes out. The larva looks like a worm and eats and eats so that it can grow much bigger. When the larva has grown it changes into a pupa. The pupa usually can not move or eat. The pupa is a special time when the insect is changing into an adult that will look very different from the larva or the pupa. Moth pupae (plural of pupa) are inside cocoons. When the pupa opens, the adult insect comes out.

Many insects have a life cycle of egg-larva-pupa-adult. Some of these insects are:
 Coleoptera: beetles
 Hymenoptera: bees, wasps, ants, sawflies
 Lepidoptera: butterflies, moths
 Diptera: the flies
The monarch butterfly 
The monarch butterfly goes through four stages of development. Life for a monarch butterfly begins as an egg hatched from an adult. This egg then develops into a worm-like larva caterpillar. In the pupa or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar spins a silk pad on a twig or leaves and hangs from this pad by its last pair of prolegs. It hangs upside down in the shape of a "J" and then molts leaving it encased in a green exoskeleton. The mature butterfly emerges after about two weeks and feeds on a variety of flowers including milkweed flowers, red clover and goldenrod.

Amphibian metamorphosis 

In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads, and newts all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Afterwards, newt larvae start a predatory lifestyle, while tadpoles mostly scrape food off surfaces with their horny tooth ridges.
Marine organisms 
Many marine species have evolved a system where they release their eggs and sperm into the water at the same time, and fertilisation takes place in the sea over one or two days. This increases their chance of reproductive success.

Then, larvae join the other plankton, eating and growing before metamorphosing into adults. Most marine invertebrates and many fish have a life cycle with pelagic larvae or even pelagic eggs. These have the capacity to be transported long distances, and so spread the species around to other places.
Need for metamorphosis 
The need for metamorphosis is clear when the relative size of eggs and adults is understood. A mature Atlantic cod can reach two metres long, and weigh over 200 pounds (96 kg). The female will produce over 100,000 eggs in a single spawning, and the resulting larvae are quite tiny. There is no way they could live like the adults, which are more or less top predators. The larvae cannot even swim against the current. Therefore, they must live a different kind of life before they can live as the adults do.

Their development is packaged into stages, and each stage has adaptations to life at its stage. The sharp distinction between stages (best seen in insects) is presumably because a longer transition would leave the juvenile less fit, either at its younger or older ways of life.

References

 Davies, R.G. Outlines of Entomology. Chapman and Hall: chapter 3
Other websites 
 Description of metamorphosis and its different forms
 Info on butterflies and butterfly metamorphosis
 Info on insect hormones 

Developmental biology
Animal anatomy
Resilience generally means the ability to recover from some shock or disturbance.  

There are different meanings for,
resilience in psychology: the mental ability to recover quickly from depression, illness or misfortune
resilience of a material: the physical property of material that can resume its shape after being stretched or deformed (elasticity)
resilience of a system: the ability of a system to recover from difficulties;toughness

Psychology
Resilience is a term used in psychology to describe the capacity of people to cope with stress and catastrophe. It is also used to indicate a characteristic of resistance to future negative events. This psychological meaning of resilience is often contrasted with "risk factors".
Materials
In physics and engineering, resilience is defined as the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered. In other words, it is the maximum energy per volume that can be elastically stored. It is represented by the area under the curve in the elastic region in the Stress-Strain diagram.

Modulus of Resilience, , can be calculated using the following formula: , where  is yield stress, E is Young's modulus, and  is strain.

An example of a biomaterial which has a high resilience is articular cartilage, the substance lining the ends of bones in articulating joints such as the knee and hip.

Systems

Ecology
In ecology, resilience has been defined in two competing fashions that emphasize two different aspects of stability.
One definition is the rate at which a system returns to a single steady or cyclic state following a perturbation. This definition of resilience assumes that behavior of a system remains within the stable domain that contains this steady state.

When a system can reorganize, that is shift from one stability domain to another, a more relevant measure of ecosystem dynamics is ecological resilience. It is a measure of the amount of change or disruption that is required to transform a system from being maintained by one set of mutually reinforcing processes and structures to a different set of processes and structures.
The second definition emphasizes conditions far from any steady-states, where instabilities can flip a system into another regime of behavior - i.e. to another stability domain. In this case resilience is measured by the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its structure by changing the variables and processes that control behavior. This type of resilience has been defined as ecological resilience.

Economic and business
Economic resilence is the ability of a local economy to retain function, employment and prosperity in the face of the perturbation caused by the shock of the loss of a particular type of local industry or employer.
Industrial and organisational safety
Within the broad domain of industrial safety, the term resilience has come into use to emphasise that safety must be proactive as well as reactive. Whereas conventional risk management approaches emphasise calculation of failure probabilities, resilience engineering looks for ways to strengthen the ability of organisations to create processes that are robust yet flexible.

Network
Resilience is the ability of the network to provide and maintain an acceptable level of service in the face of various faults and challenges to normal operation.
Resilient networks aim to provide acceptable service to applications:
 ability for users and applications to access information when needed, e.g.:
 Web browsing
 distributed database access
 All this is Not True
 situational awareness
 maintenance of end-to-end communication association, e.g.:
 computer-supported cooperative work
 video conference
 teleconference (including VoIP calls)
 operation of distributed processing and networked storage, e.g.:
 ability for distributed processes to communicate with one another
 ability for processes to read and write networked storage
References
Robert B. Cairns and Beverley D. Cairns. 1995. Lifelines and Risks: Pathways of Youth in Our Time. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 
Ray Hilborn and Carl J. Walters. 1992. Quantitative Fisheries Stock Assessment: Choice, Dynamics and Uncertainty . London: Chapman and Hall. .  pp. 63–64.
Gunderson, L. & CS Holling, editors. 2002. Panarchy: understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Hollnagel, E., Woods, D. D. & Leveson, N. G. 2006. Resilience engineering: Concepts and precepts. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.

Other websites 
Psychology
A simulation to teach about cumulative risk and resilience in adolescent development
The Resiliency Center A website that focuses on real-life situations of resiliency and how resiliency can affect individual development
Homepage of the New Zealand Resilience Trust  - an NGO in New Zealand dedicated to promoting healthy communities
Ecology
The Resilience Alliance is a research network that focuses on social-ecological resilience
"Resilience," a short (encyclopedic) article coauthored by Holling in pdf format or html conversion format.

Engineering
 The Resilience Engineering Network  is an open organisation of people and places that focus on safety in complex systems.

Psychology
Ecology
Engineering
St Andrews is a town, that has its name from Saint Andrew the Apostle and is a former royal burgh on the east coast of Fife, Scotland, and an important home of golf. It has a population of about 18 000, and stands on the North Sea coast between Edinburgh and Dundee. It is home to Scotland's oldest university, the University of St Andrews.

The town is called "home of golf" for two reasons. First, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club, founded in 1754,has authority over the game worldwide except in the USA and Mexico. Second, the beautiful links (acquired by the town in 1894) is the most frequent venue for The Open Championship, the oldest of the Men's major golf championships.

Visitors travel to St Andrews in great numbers for several courses ranked amongst the finest in the world, as well as for the sandy beaches.

Buildings

Cathedral
Cathedral 

The Cathedral of St Andrew was at one time Scotland's largest building. It was founded by Bishop Robert (1122 - 1159). It was not completed and consecrated until 1318 in the reign of Robert the Bruce (1306-29).

St Rule's Tower 

St Rule's tower stands in the Cathedral grounds but is older than the cathedral. Probably it was part of the Cathedral up to the early 12th century.

Castle 

The ruins of St Andrews Castle stand on a rock at the sea. It is said that Bishop Roger erected the first stone castle on the site about the beginning of the 13th century as an episcopal residence.

The University of St Andrews 
The University of St Andrews owed its origin to a society formed in 1410 by Lawrence of Lindores, abbot of Scone and a few others.

The university library, which now includes the older college libraries, was founded about the middle of the 17th century, rebuilt in 1764, and improved in 1829 and 1889 - 1890.
The modern buildings, in the Jacobean style, were erected between 1827 and 1847. University College, Dundee, became in 1890 affiliated to the University of St Andrews.

Other websites 

 Royal Burgh of St Andrews Community Council 
 The Official Tourist Portal for St Andrews 
 
 St Andrews Links

References 
 

Towns in Fife
The element St Andrew, St. Andrews or St. Andrew's is found in the names of many places and institutions.  All of them are named after Saint Andrew, a Christian saint and one of the New Testament Apostles.

Saint Andrew
Other saints who share this name include:
Saint Andrew Corsini (San Andrea Corsini)
Saint Andrew of Crete
Saint Andrew Fool of Christ, who lived in Byzantium in the 10th century and is venerated by the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Saint Andrew the Scot
Andrew of Lampsacus
Andrew Avellino
British Isles and Europe
 The Saint Andrew's Cross (or saltire) is the national Flag of Scotland or the current Russian naval ensign.
 The Royal Burgh of St Andrews is a coastal town in Fife, Scotland.
The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews, a world-famous golf club based in the above town.
 The University of St Andrews is a university in Fife, Scotland.
 Saint Andrew's High School, is a Catholic high school outside Glasgow, Scotland
 St Andrews is a suburb of Bristol, England.
 St Andrews is a parish in Guernsey in the Channel Islands.
 St Andrews is the home stadium of Birmingham City football club.
 St. Andrew's College (Dublin) is a private international secondary school in Dublin, Ireland 
St. Andrews Major - a village parish in the Vale of Glamorgan, south Wales
North America
 St. Andrews, South Carolina is a city in South Carolina, United States
 St. Andrews-by-the-Sea is a town in New Brunswick, Canada.
 St Andrews is a town in Manitoba, Canada.
 St. Andrew's Society of Charleston, South Carolina is the first known immigrant Scottish society.
 St. Andrew is an electoral district in Ontario, Canada.
 St. Andrew's School is a boarding school in Middletown, Delaware.
 St. Andrew's College is an all-boys independent boarding school in Aurora, Ontario, Canada.
 St. Andrew's Episcopal School is an Episcopal school in Jackson, Mississippi.
 St. Andrew's Episcopal School is an Episcopal school in Potomac, Maryland.
 Saint Andrew Parish is the name of several parishes of the Caribbean.
 St. A's, short for St. Andrew's, is the name of a fraternity at Columbia and Yale Universities in the U.S.
Australia, New Zealand, Japan
 St Andrews is a suburb of Sydney, Australia.
 St Andrews is a suburb of Melbourne, Australia.
 St Andrews is a town in South Canterbury, New Zealand.
 St. Andrew's University is a university in Izumi, Japan.

Egypt
 St. Andrew's United Church in Cairo is a church serving mainly Western and African people in Egypt.

Israel
 St Andrew's Church, Jerusalem

Malta
 St. Andrew's is an informal district in St. Julian's, Malta.

Morocco
 Church of Saint Andrew, Tangier

Other uses
 A Saint Andrew's cross is also a kind of bondage furniture.

See also
 Disambiguation page: San Andreas
The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is one of the most famous editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica.  Some of its articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time. The articles are still of value and interest to modern scholars as examples for the knowledge of the 19th and early 20th centuries. They contain, however, a number of problematic areas for the modern scholar using them as a source. The eleventh edition is no longer restricted by copyright and is available online, both in its original text and in part in other online encyclopaedias and works.

Background
The 1911 eleventh edition was assembled under the leadership of American publisher Horace Everett Hooper, and edited by Hugh Chisholm. American marketing methods assisted sales. Some 11% of the contributors were American, and a New York office was established to run that side of the enterprise.
Some articles were written by the best-known scholars of the day, such as Edmund Gosse, J. B. Bury, Algernon Charles Swinburne, John Muir, Prince Peter Kropotkin, T. H. Huxley, G. K. Chesterton, Edmund Husserl and William Michael Rossetti, and others well known to that era.

The eleventh edition introduced a number of changes to the format of the Britannica. It was the first to be published complete, instead of the previous method of volumes being released as they were ready. The content of the encyclopaedia was made up as follows:

The eleventh edition has become a commonly quoted source because of the reputation of the Britannica at that time and because it is now in the public domain and has been made available on the Internet. The Encyclopædia Britannica of 1911 has been used as a source for many modern projects, such as Wikipedia and the Gutenberg Encyclopedia.
Gutenberg Encyclopedia
The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia is actually the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, renamed to address Britannica's trademark concerns.

Other websites

Free, public-domain resources
 Full-page scans in tiff format, at Tim Starling's Wikisource page.  Probably requires the AlternaTiff plugin.  In particular, see:
 In Volume 1, the "Prefatory Note" and "Editorial Introduction," which discuss the history and objectives of the edition. (These, and the different Prefatory Note from the Handy Volume edition of 1915, are also included in the Wikisource 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.)
The article on Encyclopaedia
Project Gutenberg Volume I
The Project Gutenberg Volume II
Articles about the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition
 'Information ... Slightly Coloured by Prejudice', by Lawrence Biemiller, The Chronicle of Higher Education, Notes From Academe, Volume 52, Issue 47, Page A40. (No longer available on-line).
"Music and art in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica" by Charles T. Downey (Ionarts, 25 August 2006)

Encyclopædia Britannica
Free encyclopedias
Pontiac was an automobile manufacturer, owned by General Motors. Pontiac was known for making affordable performance cars. It was established in 1926. In 2009, General Motors announced that it would shut down Pontiac.

Pontiac is named for Pontiac (Ottawa leader), an 18th-century war chief, and for the town of Pontiac, Illinois.

Models

Final models 
 Pontiac G3
 Pontiac G6
 G8 (coming in 2008)
 Solstice
 Pontiac Torrent
 Vibe a rebadged version of Toyota Voltz.

Older models 
 Pontiac Aztek
 Pontiac G2/Matiz
 Pontiac Bonneville
 Pontiac Grand Am
 Pontiac Grand Prix
 Pontiac Le Mans
 Pontiac Firefly
 Pontiac Sunbird
 Pontiac Sunburst
 Pontiac Sunfire
 Pontiac Sunrunner
 Pontiac GTO
 Pontiac Montana

Other websites 
 Pontiac web site
 Canadian Pontiac web site 
 Forever Pontiac web site

General Motors
Buick is an automobile maker, owned by General Motors. It is known for making near-luxury cars with excellent performance and value. After the discontinuation of the Saturn brand GM announced Buick's styling would be based off the German Opel's.

Production models

Current

China
 Enclave (2020–present)
 Encore (2013–present)
 Encore GX (2020–present)
 Envision (2015–present)
 Excelle (2003–present)
 Excelle GT (2010–present)
 Excelle GX (2018–present)
 GL6 (2018–present)
 GL8 (2000–present)
 LaCrosse (2006–present)
 Regal (1999–present)
 Velite 6 (2019–present)
 Verano (2012–present)

North America
 Enclave (2008–present)
 Encore (2013–present)
 Encore GX (2020–present)
 Envision (2016–present)
 Regal (1973–2004, 2011–present)

Past
Model B (1904)
 Model C (1905)
 Model F & G (1906–1910)
 Model 10 (1908–1910)
 Model 14 & 14B (1910–1911)
 Model 28, 29, 34, 36 & 43 (1912)
 Model 24, 25, 30, 31 & 40 (1913)
 Series B (1914)
 Series C (1915)
 Series D (1916–1917)
 Series E (1918)
 Series H (1919)
 Series K (1920)
 Series 21 (1921)
 Series 22 (1922)
 Series 23 (1923)
 Series 24 (1924)
 Master Series (1925–1928)
 Standard Series (1925–1928)
 Series 116, 121 & 129 (1929)
 Series 40 (1930–1935)
 Series 50 (1930–1935)
 Series 60 (1930–1935)
 Special (1936–1958, 1961–1969)
 Roadmaster (1936–1958, 1991–1996)
 Century (1936–1942, 1954–1958, 1973–2005)
 Super (1939–1958)
 Skylark (1953–1954, 1961–1972, 1975–1998)
 Invicta (1959–1963)
 Electra (1959–1990)
 LeSabre (1959–2005)
 Wildcat (1963–1970)
 Riviera (1963–1993, 1995–1999)
 Estate (1970–1979, 1990)
 Centurion (1971–1973)
 Apollo (1973–1975)
 Skyhawk (1975–1980, 1982–1989)
 Opel (1976–1979)
 Somerset (1985–1987)
 Reatta (1988–1991)
 Park Avenue (1991–2005, 2007–2012)
 Sail (2001–2004)
Sail (2001–2004)
 Rendezvous (2001–2007)
 Rainier (2004–2007)
 Royaum (2005–2006)
 Terraza (2005–2007)
 Lucerne (2006–2011)
 Excelle XT (2010–2015)
 Cascada (2016–2019)
 Velite 5 (2017–2019)
References

Other websites 
 Buick Homepage
 Buick in Canada 
 Buick in China (English and Chinese)
 Buick in Israel  (Hebrew)
 Buick in Taiwan (Chinese)
 History and Picture Buick in Russian 

General Motors