Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Emperor of Japan is the head of state of Japan, The monarch is the symbol of the Japanese nation and the unity of its people. 

In the Japanese constitutional monarchy, the emperor does not have any political power. In world politics, he is the only current emperor.

The current emperor is his Majesty emperor Naruhito. He has been on the Chrysanthemum Throne since his father Akihito abdicated in 2019.

The amount of power belonging to the emperor of Japan has changed a lot throughout Japanese history. The Emperor of Japan has sometimes been a cleric with mostly symbolic powers and sometimes an actual ruler. Some believe that the emperor is descended from gods. 

Since the mid-1800s, the Imperial Palace has been located on the former site of Edo Castle （江戸城）in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier emperors lived in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries.

Origin

The earliest monarch listed as an emperor who is believed by historians to have existed in history was Emperor Ojin.
The imperial dynasty that rules Japan today began as a local kingship in Central Japan in the 500s. It slowly increased its power over its neighbors. This led to a more centralized state made up of almost all of the central areas of what is now Japan. The remote areas were outside its borders.

Current role of Emperor
The emperor's role is defined in Chapter I of the 1947 Constitution of Japan.  
Article 1 defines the emperor as the symbol of state and the unity of the Japanese people
Article 3 says the Emperor must have the  approval of the cabinet in matters of state.
Article 4 states that the emperor shall not have powers related to government.
Article 6 gives the emperor the power to appoint the prime minister and the chief judge of the supreme court.
Article 7 gives the emperor power to do things common of a head of state.

The emperor of Japan has no reserve powers.
While the emperor does serve as head of state, many people question if the emperor is a true monarch in a political sense. Efforts in the 1950s by conservative powers to change the constitution to actually name the emperor as head of state were rejected.  Regardless, the emperor does do all the diplomatic functions of a head of state and is recognized as one by foreign powers.

Succession of Emperor

Succession is now controlled by laws passed by the Japanese Diet. The current law does not let females take the throne. A change to this law was considered until Princess Kiko gave birth to a son.
Until the birth of a son to Prince Akishino on September 6, 2006, there was a potential succession problem. No male child had been born into the imperial family since Prince Akishino in 1965. Following the birth of Princess Aiko, some felt they needed to change the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne. In January 2005 Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi created a group of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study the problem.

On October 25, 2005 they recommended changing the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne. On January 20, 2006, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi made an announcement that they would change the law to allow women to ascend the throne. However, after finding out  that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi decided to wait. Her son, Prince Hisahito, is the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession.
Addressing and Naming
Naming the emperors of Japan is difficult because of differences between Japan and the Western world. The Japanese use "{name} tennō" (for the past emperors) or "Kinjō Heika" (今上陛下） for the current one). Problems occur because emperors are named "{name} tennō" after their death.

Some Japanese once thought it was rude to call a person of noble rank by their given names. This belief is not commonly followed today, but still used for the imperial family. The current emperor on the throne is almost always referred to simply as Tennō Heika (天皇陛下, lit. "His Majesty the Emperor") or formally as Kinjō Heika (今上陛下).

In English, the recent emperors are called by their personal names.
For example, the previous emperor is usually called Hirohito in English, but after his death he was renamed Shōwa Tennō and is now only called by this name in Japanese. However, when he was in power, he was never called Hirohito or Shōwa Tennō in Japanese. Rather, he was simply called Tennō Heika (meaning "His Majesty the Emperor").

Related pages
 History of Japan
 Japanese Imperial family tree

References

Other websites 
 The Imperial Household Agency
 List of the Emperors, accompanied with the regents and shoguns during their reign and a genealogical tree of the imperial family
 The Emperor of Japan, explanation of the title of emperor in the context of western terminology
A pipe is a tool that people use to smoke tobacco and other drugs. Pipe smokers do not usually breathe in the smoke. They let it go into their mouths and then exhale it. Pipe smoking is not a healthy alternative to cigarette smoking.

Types of pipes 
Tobacco pipes are used to smoke tobacco. In some Middle Eastern countries, people smoke tobacco with water pipes, which cool the smoke in water. Different types of pipes are also used to smoke marijuana, hashish, and crack cocaine. Some people who smoke marijuana or hashish use a special water pipe called a bong.

Native American tobacco pipes had two parts: a stone bowl and a wooden stem. Japanese "kiseru" pipes have a metal bowl and mouth piece with a wooden stem. Arabian "midwakh" pipes may be made from different materials. European tobacco pipes have been made from clay, tree root wood, meerschaum stone or even maize cobs.
Pipes to smoke opium may have clay or metal bowls with a wooden stem. Pipes for marijuana or hashish may be metal, wood or glass. Pipes to smoke other drugs may also be made of glass.

History 
Pipes were first used by Native Americans in religious ceremonies. When the English came to North America, they tried pipe smoking and liked it. They sent tobacco back to England.

Drug paraphernalia
Smoking
Thomas Tallis (born c.1505; died Greenwich November 23 1585) was the most important English composer of his generation.

We know very little about Tallis’s youth.  He may have started his career as organist at Dover and then Waltham Abbey.  After the Dissolution of the monasteries he had a job at Canterbury Cathedral for a short time. He was soon made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He had a job in the royal household until his death. He worked for four monarchs: Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I.

Tallis was an organist and composer.  He had to write music for the royal chapels.  He was given the lease of a big house in Kent and a salary of £91 12s a year (12s is 60p in modern money). That was a very good salary in those days.  In 1575, Queen Elizabeth I gave Tallis and William Byrd a licence which meant they were the only people allowed to print and publish music in England (music printing was a very new invention at the time). Tallis owned a house in Greenwich where he died in 1585.
In the early 16th century church music was often very polyphonic. Voices imitated one another and sang different things at the same time. Tallis wrote church music which was much simpler. In a lot of his music the choir sing homophonic music instead of using the older polyphony.  For a short time, during the reign of the Catholic Mary Tudor, polyphonic music was in fashion again.  This was the time when Tallis wrote an antiphon “Gaude gloriosa Dei mater” and a mass musical setting|mass “Puer natus est nobis”.  These two works are once more very complicated polyphonic works.  After that his works become simpler once more, but he was always keen to try out new ideas from the continent of Europe.  He wrote some very fine anthems.  Many of his works are settings of Latin words, but he also made settings of English texts.
One of his works is called Spem in Alium.  The choir divide into forty parts i.e. the choir need at least 40 people to sing it, and each person sings a different line.  It is possible that he wrote it for Queen Elizabeth I’s 40th birthday in 1573, but we cannot be sure.

His Diliges Dominum is a collection of contrapuntal exercises which includes a very famous canon often simply called “Tallis’s canon”.

English composers
Renaissance composers
English organists
1505 births
1585 deaths
Gentlemen of the Chapel Royal
Homophony means music in which the voices or instruments sing or play chords (chords are when two or more notes are played together.)  In homophonic music all the choir (sopranos, altos, tenors and basses) are singing the same words at the same time.  There is a tune on top and the lower parts are the accompaniment.  This is what happens in hymn singing. The opposite is polyphony.  Polyphonic writing is more complicated: the choir sing different melodic lines at the same time (see counterpoint).  The terms "homophony" (literally: "one sound")  and "polyphony" (literally: "many sounds") are mostly used for choir music.
In homophonic music it is easy to hear the words that are being sung.  In polyphonic music it is much harder for the listener to understand the words.  Composers often used polyphony when writing music for the mass because everyone knew the words anyway.  Homophonic music became more important when composers started to write operas and madrigals where a story is being told and the words must be heard clearly. 

Music theory
Technetium is a radioactive chemical element that has the chemical symbol Tc and has the atomic number 43. It is the lightest synthetic element.

Chemistry of Technetium 
The color of technetium is silvery-grey and is a crystaline metal. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. The chemistry of technetium is similar to rhenium and manganese.

The isotope 99mTc is used in nuclear medicine. It is used for many diagnostic tests. It has a short half-life. 99Tc is used as a source of beta particles without emitting gamma rays. The ion that has oxygen and technetium bonded together (TcO4-) is named the pertechnetate ion. The pertechnetate ion could be used as to prevent anodic corrosion in steel.
History 
Before the element was found, many of the properties of element 43 were predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Mendeleev noticed a gap in his periodic table and named the element in the gap eka-manganese. In 1937 the technetium isotope 97Tc was the first element to be artificially produced. This was the reason why he named it Technetium as in Greek, τεχνητος means "artificial". Most technetium made on Earth is a by-product of fission of uranium-235 in nuclear reactors. It is extracted from nuclear fuel rods. On earth, technetium occurs naturally only in uranium ores as a product of spontaneous fission. The amount of technetium in the ore is very small but has been measured. The longest half-life of Technetium is 4.2 million years (98Tc). This means that its detection in red giants in 1952 helped support the theory that stars can produce heavier elements.

Transition metals
Synthetic elements
Monasteries are places where monks live. Although the word "monastery" is sometimes used for a place where nuns live, nuns usually live in a convent or nunnery.  The word abbey (from the Syriac/Aramaic word : father) is also used for a Christian monastery or convent.  The monk in charge of an abbey is called an abbot; the nun in charge of an abbey is an abbess.

Several religions have a system of monasteries. Christian monasteries have a chapel for the monks to worship. Monks are not allowed to marry (celibacy). They are also not allowed to own anything. Everything they use, including their clothes, belongs to the monastery. During the Middle Ages after the Roman Empire was defeated, monasteries were some of the few places where knowledge still existed.
Some monasteries were built in places far away from where other people lived. The monks who live there live very isolated lives, growing their own food and looking after one another.  Other monasteries were in or near towns. Monks do a lot of work in the community, including as teaching, medical care or telling people about God. Few monks live isolated lives nowadays.

References

Other websites
Windows Neptune is a version of Microsoft Windows that was being made during 1999 and January 2000. Windows 2000 was released as an operating system for businesses and people that know how to use computers well. Windows Neptune was going to be a version of Windows 2000 that was easier for home users to use. Nobody knows if Microsoft was ever going to release Windows Neptune.  After Microsoft stopped developing it, some of its features were merged with Windows 2000's and a new project, "Whistler", was formed.  "Whistler" was later released as Windows XP.

Only one known confirmed version of Windows Neptune exists. which is Windows Neptune Build 5111.1. Windows Neptune Build 5111.1 exists on the Internet as an ISO image. It used to be hard to find, but now it can easily be found.

Other websites 
 Neptune: The Windows that wasn't  on Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows.

Microsoft operating systems
Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (born 30 August 1954) is the President of the country of Belarus. He has been its leader since 1994. He was the first leader of the country to be chosen by Belarus citizens. 

Before becoming the leader, he belonged to the law making section of the government. He was also in the military of the Soviet Union and ran a factory that made things to help farming.

He has been called "Europe's last dictator".

His re-election in 2020 was seen as controversial with many saying it was rigged and unfair. His re-election caused many to protest against the election results. After the contested election, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Canada, Ukraine and the United States do not recognize him as the legitimate president of Belarus.

In July 2020, he said that he had COVID-19 after telling people that to avoid the disease they should drink vodka and go to a sauna.
Alexander Lukashenko is under the sanctions of the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand

References

1954 births
Living people
Current national leaders
Presidents of Belarus
Dictators
Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List
A shelf is a piece of furniture that is used for storing items.

It could also mean:
 Shelf (computing), a user interface feature in the NeXTSTEP operating system
 Shelf, West Yorkshire, a village in West Yorkshire, England
 Continental shelf, the extended perimeter of a continent, usually covered by shallow seas
 Ice shelf, a thick platform of ice floating on the ocean surface
 Light shelf A reflective element placed outside of a window to enhance room illumination by natural light
 Sulphur shelf, an edible mushroom
 Shelf cloud, a type of cloud associated with a thunderstorm gust front or cold front
 Shelf life, the length of time that perishable items are considered suitable for sale or consumption
 Shelf registration, a registration arrangement for the sale of securities

Basic English 850 words

de:Bauholz#Brett
The throat is a part of the body. The throat is connected to the mouth at the top and to the stomach at the bottom. The throat is where food travels after being eaten and chewed by the teeth. Fluid drinks, such as water, also travel through the throat to the stomach and on to the rest of the body.

Neck
The word safe has more than one meaning. 
Safe is the state a person or object is in when they are not in danger.
In the sport of baseball, a player is safe after he gets to a base without being touched by another player with the baseball. 
A safe is a place where people put important things to protect them from fire, theft, or both. A safe is usually a box-shaped container with a lock (although safes designed to protect from fire only sometimes don't have a lock). It is usually heavy and made of a strong substance such as steel. It is designed to resist attack from crowbars, hammers, drills, and other tools.

Basic English 850 words
Locks
This article is for the dessert, Jelly. See jam for the condiment.
Jelly or Gelatin desert is a dessert item. It comes in different taste choices, or flavors, depending on what fruit or artificial flavor has been added. Jelly is a cold and solid food that is normally made from hot water and powder. The powder is made from gelatin and various additives.

Jelly can be added to foods like a peanut butter and jelly sandwich.

Naming and Spelling
Depending on where you live, gelatin may be called different things. In the United States and Canada, jelly is often called 'Jell-O'.  Jell-O is a brand of gelatin that has become a generic, or typical, name for gelatin desert.  In Commonwealth Nations like the United Kingdom and New Zealand, almost all gelatin is called jelly. Also, it is spelled gelatine.
'Jell-O Shots'
Sometimes, alcohol is added to jelly. You can make jello shots with almost any type of alcohol. Jello shots can be served in small glasses and can be any color depending on the other ingredients put into the Jell-O shot. The jello shot is also known as the poison rainbow.

Basic English 850 words
Desserts
Biogeography is the study of how species are distributed. It notes where organisms live, and why they are (or are not) found in a certain geographical area.

Biogeography teaches how animals and plants are adapted to the places they live in, and how similar places often have quite different animals and plants.

Between about 1800 to 1855, natural historians made lists of species in various regions of the world. These lists were published as tables in their books. Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published the idea of evolution by natural selection. They travelled to tropical countries, and wrote about the life in those countries. They said that evolution was the key to understanding geographical distribution.
New species are usually formed by speciation  an earlier species splitting into two. These species may travel to new places. but they may be stopped from travelling by mountains and seas, and by climate. This means that two places with similar climate often have different kinds of animals and plants. For example marsupials, which live in Australia, are very different from the fauna in South America. The species on islands (Hawaii, Galapagos) may be very different to species on mainland continents.

"The more distant countries are, the more dissimilar are their animals and plants; and the nearer they are, the more similar are their animals and plants". This is true, but only up to a point. There are many examples of species with huge ranges.

History
History 

The scientific theory of biogeography grows out of the work of  Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Hewett Cottrell Watson (1804–1881), Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913), and other biologists and explorers.

Wallace studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the Amazon Basin and the Malay Archipelago in the mid-19th century. Wallace and Sclater saw biogeography as a source of support for the theory of evolution. Key findings, such as the sharp difference in fauna either side of the Wallace Line, can only be understood in this light. Otherwise, the field of biogeography would be a purely descriptive one.
Both Darwin and Wallace gave a great deal of attention to oceanic islands as offering examples of evolution, especially speciation. Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands and studied its fauna. Wallace spent years on the islands of S.E. Asia. This interest was revived by The theory of island biogeography by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson in 1967. They showed that the variation in species in a single area could be predicted if one knew the habitat area, immigration rate, and extinction rate.

It was realised that habitat fragments are like islands. They can be investigated by the same methods. This spurred the development of conservation biology.

Genome analysis allows scientists to test theories about the origin and dispersal of populations, such as island species. It allows biologists to test theories about where the species come from.

Books 
Cox C.B. and Moore P.D. 2010. Biogeography: an ecological and evolutionary approach. 8th ed, Wiley.  (standard text)
Related pages 
Cosmopolitan distribution
Speciation#Geographical isolation
Great American Interchange
Ecology
Ecozone

References 

Branches of biology
Branches of geography
Biophysics is a science where the laws of physics are used to study biology, the science on life and living things. Unlike biochemistry and molecular biology, sciences where macromolecules or "large" groups of molecules are studied, biophysicists study single or small groups of molecules.

Related pages 
Bionics
Database of Molecular Motions
Nanotechnology

Branches of biology
Subfields of physics
A macromolecule is a molecule with a large number of atoms. The word is usually used only when describing polymers, molecules which are made up of smaller molecules called monomers. All organic monomers are based on carbon, usually with hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. There are inorganic macromolecules based on other monomers.

Examples
 Proteins, composed of amino acids.
 Nucleic acids.
 DNA, composed of nucleotides.
 RNA, similarly composed, differently structured
 Carbohydrates, composed of monosaccharide sugars.
 Lipids or fats  composed of fatty acids and triglycerides.
 Nylon, composed of polyamides.
 Polythiazyl, composed of polymeric sulphur nitride (SN)x.
Dendrology is the science of trees and other woody plants such as shrubs or lianas. The word "dendrology" comes from Greek words δένδρον meaning "tree" and λόγος meaning "study".

Trees
Branches of botany
Entomology is the science of insects. People who study insects are called entomologists. Insects have been studied since prehistoric times, but it was not until as early as the 16th century that insects were scientifically studied.

Some entomologists study how insects are related to each other. Others study how insects live and reproduce because we do not know very much about some kinds of insects. Other entomologists study ways to keep insects away from crops that people use for food. There are billions of unknown species throughout the world and taxonomists categorize the newly found.

Entomologists meet to talk about their study of insects and to share ideas, just as all scientists do.

Related pages 
 Arachnology

Branches of zoology
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour (U.S. behavior), and a sub-topic of zoology. Ethology overlaps, to some extent, with psychology. Psychology is a social science which studies human behaviour, but many psychologists have done experiments on learning in animals. Ethology studies animal behaviour, but many ethologists have been interested in human behaviour.

Historical development
An American specialist on ants, William Morton Wheeler, first used the term 'ethology' in English in 1902.
The study of animal behaviour, which had been going on in an anecdotal way since Aristotle, had its roots in natural history. It became more scientific during the 19th century. The French zoologist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire was the founder of ethology in Europe, and his son Isidore produced a three-volume encyclopaedia Histoire Naturelle Générale. In the third volume he talked about animal behaviour in almost modern terms. The entomologist J.-H Fabre (1823–1915) was a remarkable observer of natural life. His popular writing on natural history kept ethology alive in Europe.

Douglas Spalding (1841–1877) was a British biologist who was the first to notice the effect called imprinting. Instinct and imprinting were the first scientific concepts in ethology.
He was able to prove that the behaviour of chicks after hatching from the egg happened even when they had no experience, practice or even information from the senses. Therefore, the capacity was inherited.
Studies by Charles Otis Whitman, Oskar Heinroth and Julian Huxley set the tone in the 20th century. This work was mostly on bird behaviour, especially mating behaviour. The behaviour of birds played a big part in early ethology, but there was a start to studying our nearest relatives. Wolfgang Köhler's Mentality of Apes was a landmark in the study of primates. In 2020, Dr. Tobias Starzak and Professor Albert Newen from the Institute of Philosophy II at the Ruhr University Bochum proposed that animals may have beliefs despite these being more difficult to determine than humans.

Nobel prizewinners 
The next generation began during the 1930s with the work of Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, and the Dutch biologist Niko Tinbergen. The three men were joint winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1973.
Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to certain other disciplines—e.g., neuroanatomy, ecology, evolution. Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group and often study one type of behaviour (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

Tinbergen's four questions 
In the 1960s Nico Tinbergen set out a framework for research on behaviour. It involved four questions and their answers.
Function (adaptation) 
 Function—How does the behaviour affect the animal's chances of survival and reproduction? Why does the animal respond that way instead of some other way?
The only scientific explanation for an animal’s behaviour is that it is well adapted for survival and reproduction in its environment. A trait is the result of its past contribution to survival. In practice, this is simple. For instance, birds fly south in the winter to find food and warmth, and mammalian mothers nurture their young, thereby having more surviving offspring.

Causation 
 Causation—What are the stimuli that trigger the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning?
Evolutionary history 
 Evolutionary history—How does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have begun through the process of phylogeny?
Phylogeny explains why some adaptation is less than perfect. From where it is, there are always some possibilities which a particular species can never get to. This is because all stages in evolution must be viable, else extinction occurs.

Another reason is that not all traits of a species can be maximised at the same time. Increase in armour, for example, is bound to slow down movement. Teeth which are best for vegetation are much less good for meat. The final result is a set of traits, most of which are sub-optimal.
Earlier phylogenetic stages and (pre-) conditions which persist often determine the form of more modern characteristics. For instance, the vertebrate eye (including the human eye) has a blind spot, whereas octopus eyes do not. Once the vertebrate eye had evolved, the only way it could improve was to minimise the effect of the blind spot. We don't notice it ordinarily, because with binocular vision what one eye misses, the other fills in.

Development (ontogeny) 
 Development—How does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be displayed?
All instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels. For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation). Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development). It is easy to confuse such questions – for example to argue that people eat because they're hungry and not to acquire nutrients – without realizing that the reason people experience hunger (causation) is because it causes them to acquire nutrients (function).

Sources 
 Alcock, John 2013. Animal behavior. 10th ed, Sinauer. ISBN 0-87893-966-0. Any edition of this standard text can be used.
 Alcock, John 2003. The triumph of sociobiology. Oxford University Press.

References
Henry III (1 October 1207 — 16 November 1272) also known as Henry of Winchester and nicknamed the Pious, the Wise and later the Saint was the King of England from 1216 until his death in 1272. He was considered one of England's best kings. His long and mostly successful 56-year reign was the longest in medival English history.
Throughout his reign, England would experience peace, stability, and prosperity. Henry was extremely helpful, pious, and religious. He helped the poor people in England. He upgraded Westminster Abbey and re-isssued the Magna Carta. However in 1258, Henry became unpopular as the barons forced him to give up some of his power to them. In 1263, a baron whi was Henry's brother-in-law as he married one of Henry's sisters, Simeon de Montfort, defeated, imprisoned him and became the disputed ruler of the country. However, with the help of his son, Crown Prince Edward, Henry managed to escape captivity and killed de Montfort. Henry regained his powers from the barons. This made Henry popular again. However, in 1264, the barons rebelled against him starting the Second Barons' War. However, Heney defeated the barons in 1267.
Henry continued to be helpful, pious, and religious by continuing to help the poor people. He continues continued to rebuild Westminster Abbey and continue to improve life and health care in England. The people of England would once again experience peace, stability, and prosperity. In early 1272, Henry's health started to decline and on November of the same year, he died at the age of 65 and was buried at Westminster Abbey. Because Henry was a religious person, he was canonized two months after his death on 26 February 1273 by Pope Gregory X. Many historians view Henry as a weak but great king.

1207 births
1272 deaths
House of Plantagenet
Kings and Queens of England
Dukes and Duchesses of Aquitaine
13th century in England
Edward I (17 June 1239–7 July 1307), also Longshanks (meaning 'long legs') and the Hammer of the Scots, was a Plantagenet King of England. He became king on 21 November 1272, until his death in 1307. His mother was Queen Eleanor of Provence and his father was King Henry III of England. As a younger man, Edward fought against Simon de Montfort in defence of his father's crown. He went on a Crusade, and his father died as Edward was on his way back. As a ruler, he improved the laws and made Parliament regular, and more important. He conquered Wales, and subdued the Welsh by brutal policies. He was determined to control Scotland through puppet kings and just managed to do it during his lifetime. He expelled the Jewish people from England.
Young Edward 
Edward was born at Westminster in June 1239 to the English King Henry III and his wife, the French noblewoman and English Queen Eleanor of Provence. The baby Edward and was named after an earlier king, Edward the Confessor, who happened to be a personal hero of his father King Henry The boy Edward would have a good education, being taught in Latin and French which were the most used languages in Europe at the time. 

In 1254, English fears of a Castilian invasion of the English province of Gascony induced Edward's father to arrange a marriage between his 15-year-old son and the 13 year-old Eleanor, the half-sister of King Alfonso X of Castile.
Civil war
The years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War, in which baronial forces led by Simon de Montfort fought against those who remained loyal to the king. The first scene of battle was the city of Gloucester, which Edward, now a young man who could participate in battles, managed to retake from the enemy. When Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby, came to the assistance of the rebels, Edward negotiated a truce with the earl, the terms of which he later broke. Edward then captured Northampton from de Montfort's son, also Simon. The baronial and royalist forces finally met at the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May 1264. Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of de Montfort's forces. Unwisely, however, he followed the scattered enemy in pursuit, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated. By the agreement known as the Mise of Lewes, Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as prisoners to de Montfort.
Edward remained in captivity until March, and even after his release he was kept under strict surveillance. Meanwhile, de Montfort used his victory to set up a de facto government. He even summoned the Parliament of 1265, known as de Montfort's Parliament.

Then, on 28 May 1265, Edward managed to escape his custodians and joined up with the Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the king's side. Montfort's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook Worcester and Gloucester with relatively little effort. Meanwhile, Montfort had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son Simon.

Edward managed to make a surprise attack at Kenilworth Castle, before moving on to cut off the earl of Leicester.

The two forces then met at the second great encounter of the Barons' War the Battle of Evesham, on 4 August 1265. Montfort stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and mutilated on the field.
The war did not end with Montfort's death, and Edward continued campaigning. At Christmas, he came to terms with the younger Simon de Montfort and his associates at the Isle of Axholme in Lincolnshire. In March he led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports. A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth. In April it seemed as if Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came an agreement. Edward, however, was little involved in the settlement negotiations following the wars; at this point his main focus was on planning his upcoming crusade.

Crusade and accession
Edward took the crusader's cross in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June 1268, with his brother Edmund and cousin Henry of Almain. Among others who committed themselves to the Ninth Crusade were some of Edward's former adversaries. There was great difficulty raising funds for the expedition.

Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre, but before they could do this, several disasters happened to the French. The French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25 August, took the life of King Louis himself in 1270 By the time Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed a treaty with the emir, and there was little else to do but return to Sicily. The crusade was postponed until next spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded Charles of Anjou and Louis's successor Philip III from any further campaigning.
Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9 May 1271 he finally landed at Acre. By then, the situation in the Holy Land was a precarious one. Jerusalem had fallen in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the Christian area. The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars, and were now threatening Acre itself. An embassy to the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in the north, which helped to distract Baibar's forces. 

In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun, which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but both the Mongol invasion and the attack on Qaqun failed. Things now seemed increasingly desperate. Finally, an attack by a Muslim assassin in June forced him to abandon any further campaigning. Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a dagger feared to be poisoned, and became severely weakened over the following months.
It was not until 24 September that Edward left Acre. Arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16 November. Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made a leisurely journey northwards. The political situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king at his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary. In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell. The new king embarked on an overland journey through Italy and France, where among other things he visited the pope in Rome and suppressed a rebellion in Gascony. Only on 2 August 1274 did he return to England, and was crowned on 19 August.

King Edward 
Edward's reign had two main phases. The first phase was administration of a now peaceful country. The second phase was warfare against Wales and Scotland.

Administration
Administration 

His first concern was to restore order and re-establish royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father. To do this, he changed the administrators. He appointed Robert Burnell as chancellor, who held the post until his death in 1292. Edward then replaced most local officials, such as the sheriffs. This was done to prepare for an inquiry which would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers. Laws were made to define rights about ownership of land, recovery of debts, trade and local peacekeeping.
Parliament 
Edward reformed English Parliament and made it a source for generating revenue. Edward held Parliament regularly in his reign. In 1295 a significant change occurred. For this Parliament, in addition to the  lords, two knights from each county and two representatives from each borough were summoned. Before, the commons had been expected simply to assent (say 'yes') to decisions already made by the rulers. Now they would meet with the full authority (plena potestas) of their communities, to give assent to decisions made in Parliament. The king now had full backing for collecting 'lay subsidies' from the entire population. Lay subsidies were taxes collected at a certain fraction of the moveable property of all laymen. Historians have called this the "Model Parliament".
War in Wales 
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd  was the main Welsh leader. He refused to do homage to Edward, and married Eleanor, the daughter of Simon de Montfort. In November 1276, war was declared. Initial operations were launched under the command of Mortimer, Edmund Crouchback (Edward's brother) and the Earl of Warwick.  Support for Llywelyn was weak amongst the Welsh. 

In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500 of whom 9,000 were Welshmen. The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn soon realised he had no choice but to surrender. By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd, but he was allowed to keep the title of Prince of Wales.
Further rebellions occurred in 1287–8 and in 1294. In both cases the rebellions were put down. By the 1284 law called the Statute of Rhuddlan, Wales was incorporated into England and was given an governing system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs. 

English law was introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own laws in some cases of property disputes. After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a full-scale project of English settlement of Wales. He created new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth, and Rhuddlan. 

Edward started a big program of building castles, to keep the Welsh under control. His castles started the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences. Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentric castle, and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design.
In 1284, King Edward's son Edward the later Edward II was born at Caernarfon Castle. In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested with the title of Prince of Wales.

Wars with Scotland 
Scotland and England were at peace in the 1280s. Alexander III of Scotland and Edward had an understanding whereby Alexander held land in England. This gave him the excuse to acknowledge Edward as his lord, and left ambiguous whether or not this applied to Scotland as well.

The heir to the throne was his infant granddaughter Margaret. Unfortunately, Alexander died in 1286, followed by Margaret in 1290. This left Scotland without a king, which started all the problems.

Struggle for the crown of Scotland 
There were fourteen claimants; John Balliol and Robert de Brus (the grandfather of the famous Robert the Bruce) had the best cases. The competitors agreed to hand over the realm to Edward until a decision was made. John Balliol was chosen in 1292.
Edward continued to push his claim as overlord of Scotland. He interferred in some of the legal affairs of Scotland, and insisted the Scots provided military service in his army. This caused the Scots to make an alliance with France. They then attacked Carlisle. 

Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick in a particularly bloody attack. At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed. Edward confiscated the Stone of Destiny – the Scottish coronation stone– and brought it to Westminster, deposed Balliol and placed him in the Tower of London, and installed Englishmen to govern the country. The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would only be temporary.
William Wallace 
Although the Scottish conflict seemed settled in 1296, it was started again by William Wallace, who came from one of the notable families. Wallace was a warlord rather than a politician, and soon started a rebellion. He defeated a large English force at Stirling Bridge in 1297 while Edward was in Flanders. In 1298 Edward defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk. After that the Scots avoided open battle in favour of raiding England with small groups.

Edward's next move was political: in 1303 a peace agreement was made between England and France, breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance. Robert de Brus and most of the other nobles pledged allegiance to Edward. Wallace was betrayed and handed to the English. He was publicly executed.
The situation changed again, in 1306, when de Brus murdered his rival John Comyn and had himself crowned King of Scotland by Isobel, sister of the Earl of Buchan. Edward, in ill health, sent armies north under other commanders. Brus was beaten at the Battle of Methven in June 1306. After the battle, Edward followed with brutal suppression of the allies of de Brus. In response this fueled more rebellions. This conflict was still in progress in 1307 when Edward, now an elderly man, led his final campaign into Scotland before dying at the border city of Burgh-by-sands at age 68, leading to the succession of the Prince of Wales as Edward II of England.

Issue
Issue 

Eleanor of Castile died on 28 November 1290. Unusual for arranged marriages, the couple actually loved each other. Edward was deeply affected by her death. He erected twelve Eleanor crosses, one at each place where her funeral cortège (procession) stopped for the night. As part of the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry the French princess Margaret. The marriage took place in 1299.

Edward and Eleanor had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen. Of these, five daughters survived into adulthood, but only one boy did the same– his son and heir Edward, Prince of Wales.

Edward was concerned with his son's failure to live up to expectations, and at one point exiled the prince's favourite Piers Gaveston. Edward may have known his son was bisexual but he did not throw Gaveston from the castle battlements as shown in Braveheart.

Notes

References

Other websites
1239 births
1307 deaths
House of Plantagenet
13th century in England
14th century in England
The cell nucleus (plural: cell nuclei) contains the cell's genes and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It has a double layered nuclear membrane round it. The nucleus is usually the most prominent organelle in a cell. The nucleus is small and round, and works as the cell's control center. It contains chromosomes which house the DNA. The human body contains billions of cells, most of which have a nucleus. 

All eukaryote organisms have nuclei in their cells, even the many eukaryotes that are single-celled. Bacteria and Archaea, which are prokaryotes, are single-celled organisms of a different type and do not have nuclei. Cell nuclei were first found by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century.
The nucleus has a membrane around it but the things inside it do not. Inside it are many proteins, RNA molecules, chromosomes and the nucleolus. In the nucleolus ribosomes are put together. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA into proteins.

When a cell is dividing or preparing to divide, the chromosomes become visible with a light microscope. At other times when the chromosomes are not visible, the nucleolus will be visible.

Nuclear membrane 
Large molecules cannot get through the double-layer nuclear membrane. However, nuclear pores exist. They control the movement of molecules across the membrane. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel. The larger molecules are actively transported by carrier proteins, and there is free movement of small molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes.
Nucleolus 
Within the nucleus is a structure called a nucleolus. It is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR). This is a chromosomal region around which the nucleolus forms. Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made. These are exported through the nuclear pore complexes to the cytoplasm. There they  work to build proteins. They become attached to the endoplasmic reticulum if they are making membrane proteins.

References 

 
Cell biology
Organelles
Scotland Yard (officially New Scotland Yard) is the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police in London.

Duties
This police force is responsible for the security in Greater London. They are not responsible for the square mile of the City of London, which is covered by the City of London Police. Also, they are not responsible for the London Underground and National Rail networks, which are the responsibility of the British Transport Police. 

The name "New Scotland Yard" comes from the original Metropolitan Police headquarters at 4 Whitehall Place. This had a rear entrance on a street called Great Scotland Yard. The Scotland Yard entrance became the public entrance to the police station, and over time the street and the Metropolitan Police became synonymous. 

The New York Times wrote that, just as Wall Street gave its name to New York's financial district, Scotland Yard became the name for police activity in London.
Buildings
The force moved from Great Scotland Yard in 1890 to a newly completed building on the Victoria Embankment right next to the Ministry of Defence. The name "New Scotland Yard" was adopted for the new headquarters. An adjacent building was completed in 1906. A third building was added in 1940. 

In 1967, the Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) moved its headquarters from the three-building complex to a tall, newly constructed building on Broadway in Victoria. In summer 2013, it was announced that the force would move to a building on New Scotland Yard's previous site (1890–1967). The headquarters were renamed as 'Scotland Yard.' In November 2016, MPS moved to its new headquarters. 
The words "New Scotland Yard" (in tall letters) can be seen in a photograph of the front of the building.

History