Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Bisons are large, even-toed ungulates.  They are bovines, and are similar to cows. They are often called buffalo, but are not closely related to the African buffalo or water buffalo.  

Bison live in the northern part of the world. The American bison lives in North America where they once wandered around the prairies in huge herds. The wisent lives in Europe. Bison can also live in rugged areas.

American 
The American bison is the biggest mammals in North America.   There used to be as many as 30 million bison in the United States, but because of hunting, by 1890, only 1,000 bison were left. Through conservation efforts, there are now more American bison than there used to be, but still far fewer than there were before the 1800s.

European 
European bison (wisent) tend to live in lightly wooded to fully wooded areas and areas with increased shrubs and bushes, though they can also live on grasslands and plains.
Taxonomy 
They are classified in the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae.
 Genus Bison
 American bison (Bison bison)
 Wisent or European bison (Bison bonasus)

Life 
They live to be about 20 years old and are born without their "hump" or horns, which both males and females have. After shedding their lightly colored hair, and with their horns, they are grown at 2 to 3 years of age, but males keep growing slowly until seven years. Adult bulls are very dominant in mating season. Adult bison usually have one or two baby bison.

References 

Bovines
Mammals of North America
Mammals of Europe
A baseball cap is a type of hat worn by baseball players when they play as part of their team's uniform, but other people wear them as well.

Cap
Hats
Windows 95 was Microsoft's first operating system to support long file names. Before that, file names could only be eight characters (letters, numbers, or symbols) long, plus the file extension. Windows 95 was also Microsoft's first operating system to fully support CD-ROMs, though Windows 3.x could also access CD-ROMs.

It was popular from 1995 until 1998, when Microsoft replaced it with Windows 98. Microsoft ended mainstream support for Windows 95 on December 31, 2000 and extended support ended 95 on December 31, 2001.

Editions 
Windows 95 Retail
Windows 95 OSR 1 and SP1
Windows 95 OSR 2.0
Windows 95 OSR 2.1
Windows 95 OSR 2.5

References 

Microsoft operating systems
Prince Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg, (1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898), was an aristocrat and statesman of the 19th century in Europe. As Prime Minister of Prussia from 1862 to 1890, he was most responsible for the uniting most of the many independent German countries into the new German Empire in 1871 and became its first chancellor until 1890.

He was Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen (Count Bismarck-Schönhausen) in 1865. In 1871, he was Fürst von Bismarck (Prince Bismarck). In 1890, he became the Herzog von Lauenburg (Duke of Lauenburg). At first, he did not want to become a duke, but he accepted the title later.
Unification of Germany 
In the 1860s, he engineered a series of wars that lasted until 1871 and unified most of the German states except Austria into the new German Empire, which was led by Prussia. He "remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, [and] devoted himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers".

Bismarck conducted wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866) and France (1871) to make Prussia more powerful. The Franco-Prussian War was very significant in the long run. France lost AlsaceLorraine during the German victory, which was led by the brilliant Helmuth von Moltke. The war also made Germany the most important country in Central Europe.

After the death of Kaiser Wilhelm I and that of his son, Frederick III, who briefly replaced him in 1888, a new era began without Bismarck and Moltke, with Wilhelm II now on the throne.
Policy at home 
Bismarck was very conservative, strongly connected to the monarchy and opposed to democracy. His most important goal was to make Prussia stronger, which he did by unifying Germany. Bismarck tried to stop the rise of socialism and to reduce the power of the Catholic Church.

One way to stop socialism was to make the working class happy. Bismarck did so by introducing many social reforms like public health and accident insurance, as well as pensions for old people. His 's pension scheme was the forerunner of the modern welfare state in Germany, and many other countries started similar systems.

References 

1815 births
1898 deaths
Chancellors of the German Empire
Ambassadors of Germany
Prussian generals
Prussian nobility
Members of the Reichstag (German Empire)
Prime Ministers of Prussia
Prussian politicians
People with foods named after them
Politicians from Saxony-Anhalt
Background
Unlike a number such as 5 or 200, a variable can change its value. For example, distance and time are variables. At an Olympic running race, as the person runs, their distance from the starting line goes up. Meanwhile, a stopwatch or clock measures the time as it goes up. We can measure the average speed of the runner, if we divide the distance they travelled by the time it took. But this does not say what speed the person was running at exactly 1.5 seconds into the race. If we had the distance at 1 second and the distance at 2 seconds, we would still only have an average, although it would probably be more correct than the average for the whole race.
Until calculus was invented, the only way to work this out was to cut the time into smaller and smaller pieces, so the average speed over the smaller time would get closer and closer to the actual speed at exactly 1.5 seconds. This was a very long and hard process, and had to be done each time people wanted to work something out. Certainly it is much more difficult for a driver to figure out a car's speed by using only its odometer (distance meter) and clock—without a speedometer.

A very similar problem is to find the slope (how steep it is) at any point on a curve. The slope of a straight line is easy to work out—it is simply how much it goes up (y or vertical) divided by how much it goes across (x or horizontal). If a line is parallel to the x axis, then its slope is zero. If a straight line went through (x,y) = (2,10) and (4,18), the line goes up 8 and goes across 2, so its slope is 8 divide 2, which is 4.
What Newton and Leibniz found was a way to work out the slope (or the speed in the distance example) exactly, by using simple and logical rules. They divided the curve into an infinite number of very small pieces. They then chose points on either side of the point they were interested in and worked out tangents at each. As the points moved closer together towards the point they were interested in, the slope approached a particular value as the tangents approached the real slope of the curve. They said that this particular value it approached was the actual slope.

How it works
Let's say we have a function y = f(x). f is short for function, so this equation means "y is a function of x". This tells us that how high y is on the vertical axis depends on what x (the horizontal axis) is at that time. For example, with the equation y = x², we know that if x is 1, then y will be 1; if x is 3, then y will be 9; if x is 20, then y will be 400.
Choose a point A on the curve, and call its horizontal position x. Then choose another point B on the curve which is a little bit farther across than A, and call its horizontal position x + h. It does not matter how much h is; it is a very small number.

So when we go from point A to point B, the vertical position has gone from f(x) to f(x + h), and the horizontal position has gone from x to x + h. Now, remember that the slope is how much it goes up divided by how much it goes across. So the slope will be:

If you bring B closer and closer to A – which means h gets closer and closer to 0 – then we get closer to knowing what the slope is at the point A.

Now let's go back to y = x². The slope of this can be determined as follows:

Applying the binomial theorem which states in part that , we can reduce the expression to:
So we know without having to draw any tangent lines that at any point on the curve f(x) = x², the derivative f'(x) (marked with an apostrophe) will be 2x at any point. This process of working out a slope using limits is called differentiation, or finding the derivative.

Leibniz came to the same result, but called h "dx", which means "a tiny amount of x". He called the resulting change in f(x) "dy", which means "a tiny amount of y". Leibniz's notation is used by more books because it is easy to understand, when the equations become more complicated. In Leibniz notation:

Rules
Using the above system, mathematicians have worked out rules which work all the time, no matter which function is being looked at. (Note: here,  and  are both functions of )

Related pages 

 Derivative (mathematics)
 Differential operator
 Ordinary differential equation
 Mathematical analysis

References 

Calculus
A socialist country is a sovereign state in which everyone in society equally owns the factors of production.  

The four factors of production are labor, capital goods, natural resources and entrepreneurship. 

In a socialist country, people account for individual needs and social needs. The resources of the country go to both types of needs. Social needs include things like education, healthcare, defense, transportation and the preservation of natural resources, as well as caring for people who can't contribute to production (such as children, the elderly and the disabled).

Everyone in a socialist society receives a share of the production based on their individual needs and most things aren’t bought with money because they are distributed based on needs and not on means. If a person wishes to have more goods, they need to work more for this, but that would be more easy than in a capitalist society where most of the production don't stay in the hands of the worker.
The most socialist countries in the world include:
 China
 Cuba
 Laos
 Vietnam
 Wa State
 Transnistria

Former socialist countries include:
 Soviet Union
 Yugoslavia
 East Germany
 Democratic Kampuchea

A socialist country is vastly different from countries that practice capitalism.

The main goal of a socialist society is to end exploitation and improve the quality of life of their citizens. 

In a socialist society the logic of the profit dosen't exist so normally things will be cheaper and divided equally.

Forms of government
Hamsters are rodents belonging to the subfamily Cricetinae. The subfamily contains about 25 species in six or seven genera. They have become established as popular small house pets. They are a bit like a mouse. Wild hamsters live in the desert, but people all over the world keep domesticated hamsters as pets.

In the wild, hamsters are crepuscular and stay underground during the day. They feed on seeds, fruits, and vegetation, and occasionally eat burrowing insects. Hamsters are distinguished by their large cheek pouches, and relatively short tail. They use their long cheek pouches (extending to their shoulders) to carry food back to their burrows.

Even though the Syrian hamster or golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) was first described scientifically by George Robert Waterhouse in 1839, researchers were not able to successfully breed and domesticate hamsters until 1939.
Hamsters as pets 
There are six main types of hamsters: the Syrian hamster (the kind most people have as pets), winter whites, campbells, the Russian dwarf hamster (a hybrid of winter white and Campbell's dwarf hamsters), the Chinese hamster, and the Roborovski hamster. Unlike other species, the Chinese hamster has a long tail. All Syrian hamsters are the descendants of 12 baby hamsters found in Syria in 1930.

Pet hamsters should live in cages with wood shavings or recycled newspaper (pine or cedar shavings are toxic to hamsters). Plain toilet paper is also a cheap, safe option, but straw should only be given in small amounts. Hamsters eat mostly hamster food sold at a pet shop, but they can also eat many vegetables and fruits in small portions. Hamsters store food in natural pouches in the sides of their mouths.
Because they are rodents, hamster incisors grow constantly. They need wooden blocks and hard food to wear the teeth down and prevent them from getting too long. Most hamsters also have a wheel to run on for exercise. A 6-inch (15 cm) wheel is recommended for most dwarf hamsters, and at least an eight-inch (20 cm) wheel for Syrians. If the wheel is too small, the hamster's spine can become bent. Some people get other kinds of exercise equipment for their hamsters, like a "hamster ball" in which the hamster can roll around the floor (though these are not recommended by some animal welfare groups), or a long network of tubes with air holes for hamsters to crawl through. They should live in a tank or cage. Hamsters are not recommended for young children.

References
A watch is a small clock carried or worn by a person. It makes it easy to see the time. It is also a fashion accessory for men and women, and expensive watches are designed for this purpose. A watch may be one of the few accessories worn by a person.

A wristwatch is designed to be worn on a wrist, attached by a strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is to be carried in a pocket. There are other variations. Nurses often wear a watch attached to the front of their uniform. It hangs down from a short strap: when lifted by the user it is right side up. 

A wrist watch has the advantage of being portable in comparison to traditional watches. 

Watches evolved in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. In 1524, Peter Henlein created the first pocket watch. 
The first watches were strictly mechanical, driven by clockwork.
As technology developed, mechanical watches were largely replaced by vibrating quartz crystals, producing accurately timed electronic pulses. Some watches use radio technology to correct the time and date. The first digital electronic watch was developed in 1970.

Electronic movements, also known as quartz movements, have few or no moving parts, except a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by the piezoelectric effect. A varying electric voltage is applied to the crystal, which responds by changing its shape so it works as an oscillator. It resonates at a stable frequency, which paces a timekeeping mechanism. Most quartz movements are primarily electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the watch to give a traditional analog display of the time. Most consumers prefer this.

Some watches are smartwatches, mobile devices similar to smartphones but smaller.

References
Edward Theodore "Ed" Gein (August 27, 1906 – July 26, 1984) was an American serial killer. Gein was found guilty of only two murders. Gein is considered by many to be even more well known because of several movies that were based in part on him. He was also known as The Butcher of Plainfield, The Plainfield Butcher, The Mad Butcher and The Plainfield Ghoul.

Early years
Ed Gein and his brother Henry were raised by their mother on their 160-acre farm near Plainfield, Wisconsin. She was a very religious woman and was very protective about her boys. She kept them away from women and busy with farm work.

His alcoholic father died in 1940. A few years later his brother Henry died on May 16, 1944, officially while fighting a grass fire (though there was evidence he was murdered by Ed). Soon after that, his mother had her first stroke. In 1945 she had her second stroke and died. Ed was left alone.
Gein then closed off the upstairs and the parlour of the house as well as his mother’s bedroom. He lived in the one other bedroom, kitchen and shed of the large house. He stopped working the farm because a government program paid him a subsidy. He also made money by doing small jobs for people in the area.

The Graveyard
Ed read books on human anatomy and Nazi concentration camp experiments. He was very interested in it all, especially the female anatomy. His grave robbing began in 1947. One day he saw a newspaper article of a woman who had been buried that day. The first corpse came from a grave very near the grave of Gein’s mother.[Indeed, one report is that among the first grave robbing incidents was that of his own mother ]
Gein continued to do this for the next ten years. He would check the newspaper often for fresh bodies. He always went to the graveyard at the time of a full moon. Gein would take the whole female corpse or just the parts he wanted, put the dirt back in the grave and take home what he took from the grave.

Gein did many strange things with the dead bodies. He would build objects from the bones and skin. The organs would be put into the refrigerator to eat later. It was claimed that he also had sex with the bodies (necrophilia), a charge he denied because they "smelled too bad".

Later, Gein thought that fresher bodies would be better for his collection, and turned to murder.

The Murders
Ed Gein’s first victim was Mary Hogan, a 51-year-old divorcee and the owner of a local tavern in Pine Grove, six miles from his home. On the afternoon of December 8, 1954, he shot her in the head with his 32-caliber revolver. He put her body in his pickup truck and took her back to his shed.
A customer who dropped into the tavern found the place deserted, and a large bloodstain on the floor. A spent .32 cartridge lay near it. Bloodstains ran out the back door and into the parking lot, where they halted beside tire tracks that looked like those of a pickup truck. It looked as if Mary Hogan had been shot and taken away.

Police were not able to learn anything about what happened to her. A few weeks later, a sawmill owner named Elmo Ueeck talked to Gein about it. Gein replied, "She isn’t missing, she’s at the farm right now." Ueeck did not ask him what he meant by that.
There may have been other victims in the years that followed. Nothing is known for certain about Gein until November 16, 1957 when he shot & killed Bernice Worden in her store in Plainfield. He used a .22 rifle from a rack in the store and his own bullet which he carried with him. He then locked the store and took the body home in the store’s truck. Gein also took the cash register. He later explained that he did not take it to commit robbery. He wanted to see how it worked and planned to return it later.

Bernice Worden’s son, Frank, often worked with her in the store. That morning he had gone deer hunting. When he got back, he saw that the store was closed with the lights still on and his mother was missing. He also saw that the cash register was gone and there was blood on the floor.
Frank Worden talked to the sheriff, Art Schley and told him what he had seen. He checked the record of sales made that morning. One of them was for half a gallon of antifreeze. Worden remembered that Ed Gein had stopped by the night before at closing time. He had said that he would be back the next morning for antifreeze. Ed had also asked Worden if he was going hunting the next day.

With the cash register missing, he thought that Gein had planned a robbery once he learned Frank would not be there. Worden told this to the sheriff. The sheriff and captain Lloyd Schoephoester went to the farm, seven miles outside Plainfield.

Gein’s home
The house was dark and Ed Gein was not there when the police arrived. They drove to a store where Gein usually bought groceries where they found Gein, who was just about to leave in his truck.
The sheriff stopped him and asked him to get into the police car for questioning. Sheriff Schley had not said anything about Bernice Worden’s death before Gein said that he thought someone had tried to frame him for the death, at which point Schley arrested Gein.

Sheriff Schley & Captain Schoephoester went back to Gein's house with other officers. The doors to the house were locked, but the door to the shed behind the house was not. Inside they found a naked corpse of a woman hanging upside down from a crossbeam. The legs were spread wide apart and there was a long cut from the genitals almost to the throat. The throat and head were missing. The genitals and the anus were also missing. Bernice Worden had been cut open & dressed out like a deer.
There was no electricity in the dark house. They had to search it with oil lamps, lanterns, and flashlights. The place looked like it had not been clean in years. The few rooms that were not nailed shut were full of books, old papers, magazines, utensils, tin cans, cartons and other junk.
Searching the house, authorities found:
 Whole human bones and fragments
 Wastebasket made of human skin
 Human skin covering several chair seats
 Skulls on his bedposts
 Female skulls, some with the tops sawn off
 Bowls made from human skulls
 A corset made from a female torso skinned from shoulders to waist
 Leggings made from human leg skin
 Masks made from the skin of female heads
 Mary Hogan's face mask in a paper bag
 Mary Hogan's skull in a box
 Bernice Worden's entire head in a burlap sack
 Bernice Worden's heart "in a plastic bag in front of Gein's potbellied stove"
 Nine vulvae in a shoe box
 A young girl's dress and "the vulvas of two females judged to have been about fifteen years old"
A belt made from female human nipples
 Four noses
 A pair of lips on a window shade drawstring
 A lampshade made from the skin of a human face
 Fingernails from female fingers
These artifacts were photographed at the state crime laboratory and then destroyed.

When questioned, Gein told investigators that between 1947 and 1952, he made as many as 40 nocturnal visits to three local graveyards to exhume recently buried bodies while he was in a "daze-like" state. On about 30 of those visits, he said he came out of the daze while in the cemetery, left the grave in good order, and returned home empty-handed. On the other occasions, he dug up the graves of recently buried middle-aged women he thought resembled his mother and took the bodies home, where he tanned their skins to make his paraphernalia.
Besides the remains of Worden from the shed, the remains of Mary Hogan were the only other identified remains found in Geins House. The bodies of 15 different women had been used to create Gein’s trophies. It is also said that sometimes Gein brought gifts of fresh venison to his neighbours but Gein said he had never shot a deer in his life.

In November 1957 burned remains of at least one woman were found in an ash pit behind Gein's house; the largest bone piece was three inches long.Remains of another woman were found in a garbage pit

In 1995 on the site of the old Gein farm remains of 10 females and 1 male were found in an old well

It is not known for certain if there were other murders committed by Gein beyond the known deaths of Hogan and Worden-after his arrest a search of the house revealed newspaper clippings of murders of Wisconsin women whose killers had not been caught.
Between 1947 and 1957 there were several "disappearences" of persons at or near Plainfield, Wisconson:
 May 1, 1947 Georgia Jean Weckler age 8 of Ft Atkinson Wis "Vanished"
 November 1, 1952 Victor Travis age 42 and Ray Burgess, two locals going deer hunting near Geins farm "Vanished"
 October 24, 1953 Eveleyn Grace Hartley age 15 of La Crosse, Wisconsin apparently abducted while baby sitting. Blood stains, her shoes and her bloody clothing was found-but she "vanished"[Gein was visiting relatives in La Crosse at the time of Hartley's dissapearence; likewise they were located very near where Hartley was babysitting] Gein also made odd remarks about Hartleys disappearance-similar to Mary Hogan's "vanishment"]
 June 1954 James Walsh age 32 a neighbor of Geins "vanished"
 August 1956 Irene Keating age 30 "vanished"
A 16-year-old youth, whose parents were friends of Gein and who attended ball games and movies with him, reported that Gein kept shrunken heads in his house, which Gein had described as relics from the Philippines, sent by a cousin who had served on the islands during World War II. Upon investigation by the police, these were determined to be human facial skins, carefully peeled from corpses and used by Gein as masks.

During questioning, Waushara County sheriff Art Schley reportedly assaulted Gein by banging his head and face into a brick wall. As a result, Gein's initial confession was ruled inadmissible. Schley died of heart failure at age 43 in 1968, before Gein's trial. Many who knew Schley said he was traumatized by the horror of Gein's crimes, and this, along with the fear of having to testify (especially about assaulting Gein), caused his death. One of his friends said: "He was a victim of Ed Gein as surely as if he had butchered him."
Gein was sent to the Central State Hospital for the Criminally insane. He was proven insane. The doctors thought that he loved his mother but he hated her, so that is why he killed older women. It is said that Mary Hogan looked similar to his mother.

Gein said he was not a cannibal or necrophiliac. He did admit grave robbing.

Many people became interested because of the true nature of the crime. Thousands of people drove to Plainfield to look at the 'murder farm'. Eventually the place was burned down by person or persons unknown March 20, 1958 Plainfield citizens felt the old farmhouse was a place of evil. After the arson, an auction was held of the relics of the farm-the highest item sold was Gein's Ford "death car"
At Christmas, 1957, Gein was judged insane. In 1968, Gein was found guilty but legally insane of the murder of Worden, was committed to Waupan State Hospital for the rest of his life. Gein died of cancer in Madison, Wisconsin on July 26, 1984, at the age of 78. He was buried in Plainfield next to the graves of his family.

The movies
Because of the true nature of Gein's crimes, Hollywood had a lot of ideas to work on.

The movie Psycho was based on the Robert Bloch book and made into a Hitchcock movie. Bloch got most of the ideas for Psycho from Gein's life. With the overpowering mother and horror of the movie, it was one of the first of a kind.
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre was based in some parts on Gein. The story is about a group of teenagers who go to a horror house. The people that live in the house are a family of strange homicidal cannibals who also like grave robbing and building furniture made of bones and skulls. The lead bad guy is called ‘Leatherface’. Leatherface likes chasing teens around with his chainsaw and wearing a mask made from the faces of his victims. The 1990 episode "The Long Road Home" of the fantasy horror series "Friday the The 13th [The Series]" is in homage to this movie.

The Academy Award-winning movie The Silence of the Lambs also uses part of Gein's life. It is about an FBI agent who is tracking down a serial killer. To find him she must get the help of an intelligent cannibal, Dr. Hannibal Lecter. The serial killer she is trying to catch is called ‘Buffalo Bill’. He likes to kill women and make clothes of their skin. He also wants to be a woman and made a skin costume like that of Gein.

References

Further reading
Further reading

Other websites
 PDF summary of Gein's life
 Prairie Ghosts Ed Gein 
 Trutv.com/Library Ed Gein

American serial killers
Cancer deaths in Wisconsin
People from Wisconsin
1906 births
1984 deaths
Easter is not held on the same date every year. This is called a moveable feast. Currently all Christian churches agree on how the date is calculated. Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday following the first full moon which is on or after March 21st. This means it is celebrated in March or April. It can occur as early as March 22 and as late as April 25. Western churches, like the Roman Catholic Church, use the Gregorian calendar, while Eastern churches, like the Eastern Orthodox Church, use the Julian calendar. Because of this, the date of Easter celebrations is different for these two types of churches even though the way they calculate the date is similar. In 2015 Easter was celebrated on April 5 for both the Gregorian calendar and Julian calendar. In 2019 Easter was celebrated on the 21st of April.

Eastertime includes a period of 50 days, beginning from Easter Sunday to Pentecost Sunday. The first Sunday after Easter is celebrated the  Divine Mercy Sunday.
The word "Easter" is derived from Eastra, the name of the ancient German Goddess of Spring. Her festival occurred at the vernal equinox.  The French word for Easter, Pâcques, comes from the Greek word for Passover, which is the Jewish holiday celebrated at about the same time of the year.

Importance to Christians
Jesus died roughly 2000 years ago in a city called Jerusalem (most of Jerusalem is in the modern country of Israel). The people who killed him did so because they believed that he was causing trouble for the government and because he was claiming to be the Messiah. When they crucified him (meaning they nailed him to a cross), they even hung a sign over his head, which said, "King of the Jews." The day he was crucified is known by Christians as Good Friday.
The New Testament states that on the Sunday after Jesus was killed, his body was no longer in the tomb where he was laid. Later, Jesus is said to have appeared to over 500 people and preached to them. The New Testament teaches that the resurrection of Jesus is what Christianity is based on. The resurrection made people believe that Jesus was the powerful Son of God. It is also spoken of as proof that God will judge the world fairly. Christians believe that God has given Christians "a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead". Christians believe that through faith in God they are spiritually made alive with Jesus so that they may lead a new life.

Customs and traditions
Easter is celebrated in several ways in northern Europe and the US Most of these celebrations have nothing to do with the Christian meaning of the holiday. These celebrations are related more to the pagan festivals of ancient Germany. Children are given baskets to fill with candy. Eggs are decorated and hidden for children to find that the "Easter Bunny" supposedly laid. People wear new clothes and go to church. Greeting cards are exchanged. An Easter Egg Roll is held on the lawn of the White House on the day after Easter. Small leafless trees or branches are carried indoors and decorated with coloured eggs, paper trims, and lights. Some shopping malls offer children a chance to visit with an adult costumed as the Easter Bunny. Forced tulips, hyacinths and lilies are given as gifts. Week-long vacations are taken following Easter Day, giving families the chance to visit with distant relatives. In America, many families leave the cold of northern states to visit amusement parks or sunny beaches in the south
. Spring break for American high school and college students usually occurs about Easter time.
Related pages
 Advent
 Epiphany (holiday)
 Carnival
 Computus
 Ash Wednesday
 Lent
 Pentecost
 Trinity
 Sacred Heart

References
Agnosticism is the philosophical view that it is unknown (or even, unknowable) whether any deities (god or gods) exist or not. 

Some people who call themselves "agnostic" say that it is not possible for anyone ever to know if there are any deities or not. Other agnostics, though, say only that they themselves currently do not know if there are any deities.

Thomas Henry Huxley, the English biologist, coined the word "agnostic" in 1869. In 1889 he wrote "Agnosticism... is not a creed, but a method... the fundamental axiom of modern science...  In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable".
There are several different kinds of agnosticism:
 Absolute agnosticism (also called hard agnosticism, closed agnosticism, strict agnosticism, strong agnosticism) is the belief that it is not possible to know whether a god/gods exists or not.
 Empirical agnosticism (also called soft agnosticism, open agnosticism, weak agnosticism, temporal agnosticism) is the belief that at present there is not enough information to know whether any god/gods exists or not, but that we might find out someday.
 Apathetic agnosticism is the belief that it does not matter whether any god/gods exists or not.
People often have difficulty telling agnosticism and atheism apart. Atheists do not believe in the existence of deities, and some say that they are sure that no deity exists. Some (perhaps most) atheists, though, say that it is up to theists (people who believe in a deity) to give the evidence for a god or to show why someone should believe in a god. They say that there is not enough evidence or a strong enough argument to believe any gods exist. So they reject belief that any exist. While agnostics think we cannot know for sure whether any deities exist, some agnostics do believe at least one deity exists  These people are both agnostic and theistic—they believe at least one deity exists, but do not claim to know that to be true. Some people are both atheist and agnostic—they reject belief in any deities without claiming to know that deities do not exist. Some agnostics cannot decide whether to believe any deities exist or not.
Beliefs related to agnosticism 
 Ignosticism is the belief that the idea of god/gods does not have a good enough definition, so saying "god exists" or "god does not exist" does not mean anything. 
 Agnostic theism believes in the existence of one or more gods. They accept this is unknown or inherently unknowable. 
 Agnostic atheism is the view that a god/gods may or may not exist, but there is no good reason to believe they do.
 Post-theism is the view that religion used to be important, but is not anymore.

All these beliefs point to the lack of evidence.

Related pages
 Atheism
 Religion
 Humanism
 Irreligion
 Skepticism

References 

Secularism
Philosophical movements and positions
UMD can also mean University of Maryland.

The Universal Media Disc (UMD) is an optical disc made by Sony for their PlayStation Portable handheld console. It can hold up to 900 megabytes (single layer) or 1.8 gigabytes (double layer) of data. The disc can store games, music, and video, along with updates for the PSP. It is the first optical disc format to be used for a handheld video game system. To prevent illegal copying, Sony has not made blank discs available for sale. This disc is not used with any other devices. The UMD is very fragile and can be broken from misuse.

Uses
The primary use for UMD discs is for a storage medium for PSP games, but the format is also used for the storage of movies.

Future
Even though with the release of the PSP Go, most new games continue to be made via UMD, and, aside from those published by SCE, not all have been released on the PSN.

Optical discs
Sony
Georgia is a country in the Caucasus region of Eastern Europe. It is situated on the coast of the Black Sea. The country borders Armenia, Azerbaijan, Russia and Turkey. It is largely encircled by the Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountain ranges. During 1918–1921, and 1991–1995 its full name was the Republic of Georgia. Since 1995 it is Georgia, as written in the Constitution. It was part of the Russian Empire and later Soviet Union between 1921 and 1991, but now it is an independent republic. The capital city is Tbilisi. Almost 4 million people live there.

History
The Georgians are an ancient people. Their capital Tbilisi was founded around AD 400, by the king Vakhtang I of Iberia. Western Georgia was part of the Roman Empire before then. The Arabs captured it in 635 AD. The culture continued and flourished through trade.
In the 900s Arab influence diminished in Caucasia. In 1008 Kingdom of Georgia was formed. It was the major country in the region until the Mongol Empire invaded it in 1223. Georgia was part of the Mongol Empire for a century on and off until 1334, when King Giorgi V took over. In the 1400s Georgia dissolved into several principalities. In the 1500s the Persians invaded Eastern Georgia four times from 1541 to 1544. In 1555 the Kings of Kartli ruled through the will of the Persian Shahs.

In 1783 The treaty of Georgievsk was signed between Catherine the Great of Russia and King Heraclius II, giving Russia the power to protect Georgia. Then, in 1798 the Persians burned Tbilisi to the ground.

From 1811 to 1918 Georgia was under the Tsar of Russia. Their culture survived intact. From 1918 to 1921 Georgia was independent, and then was part of the Soviet Union.
In 1991 most people from Georgia voted to be a free nation again, and Georgia declared their independence from the Soviet Union. Newly established Republic of Georgia saw bloody Civil War resulting in downfall of first-ever president of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia. Georgia was also involved in War in Abkhazia. There was a rough patch between 1994 and 1995 when the economy was poor, although Georgia saw significant improvements in last few years. Now Georgia is applying to NATO and European Union.

In 2008 Georgia was involved in the 2008 South Ossetia war.

Geography

Georgia is next to the countries of Russia, Turkey, Armenia and Azerbaijan. It also has a coast on the Black Sea. It is at the edge of Europe and Asia.

Georgia has many mountains. Its highest point is 5,193 m above sea level. The mountains running through Georgia are called the Caucasus Mountains.
The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount Shkhara at 5,193 m. The coastline of Georgia is 310 km long. Georgia has about 25,000 rivers. The largest river is the Mtkvari.

Divisions

Georgia is divided into 9 regions, 1 city, and 2 autonomous republics. These in turn are divided into 67 districts and 12 self-governing cities.

The region of Abkhazia declared independence in 1999. South Ossetia is officially known by Georgia as the Tskinvali region. Georgia considers both regions as occupied by Russia.

Culture
About 4 million people live in Georgia. About 1.2 million live in Tbilisi. People from Georgia are called Georgians. Most of them speak Georgian as their first language, though some people also speak Azerbaijani, Armenian, Russian or other languages.

Georgians use three alphabets/scripts, Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli, with Asomtavruli being the very first Georgian Script, which was said to be invented by King Pharnavaz I of Iberia
The most famous person to have come from Georgia is Josef Stalin.

Most Georgians are Christians, but there are some Muslims and Jews as well.

The currency of Georgia is called the lari.

Related pages
 Georgia at the Olympics
 Georgia national football team
 List of rivers of Georgia (country)

References

Other websites
 Full information about (country) Georgia (English, German, Russian, Georgian)
 Friends of Georgia  (Friends of Georgia International Foundation Website, including information on History, Culture, Gastronomy, News, etc.)

 
Caucasus
1991 establishments in Asia
1991 establishments in Europe
Central Asia
Republics
Republics of the Soviet Union
A first-person shooter (FPS) is a type of video game. In a first-person shooter, a player sees through the eyes of a character. The character uses a gun to shoot objects or enemies. The character travels and shoots in a three-dimensional world.

History 
The first first-person shooters were made in the 1970s and 1980s.  In the 1970s, schools like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the University of Illinois made Maze War and Spacism. These games were not sold. In 1980, arcades got a tank game called Battlezone. In 1983, home computers got Battlezone. It was the first successful first-person shooter sold to many people.

In the 1990s, first-person shooters were very popular. Many people played the first-person shooters Wolfenstein 3D and Doom  because they were shareware. In 1998, Half-Life was made. Half-Life was different because it had a strong narrative.
First-person shooter examples:
 Battlefield (series)
 GoldenEye 007 
 Counter-Strike, Counter-Strike Source and Team Fortress 2 Unreal and Unreal Tournament Far Cry the Descent series (including Descent, Descent II and Descent 3)
 Doom Half-Life QuakeTeam Fortress 2 the Call of Duty series
 the Halo series
 Crossfire EU 
the Metroid Prime'' series

 
Types of video games
Video game genres
Random-access memory (or simply RAM) is the memory or information storage in a computer that is used to store running programs and data for the programs. Data (information) in the RAM can be read and written quickly in any order. Normally, the random access memory is in the form of computer chips. Usually, the contents of RAM are accessible faster than other types of information storage.However, RAM is volatile, which means that every time the computer is turned off, all the data in the RAM is lost. The alternative to this, Non-volatile random-access memory (NVRAM), keeps its data without using power, is more expensive but works slower, so it is used in smaller amounts. 

Since the late 20th century, RAM uses transistors, usually MOSFETs, to store data. Before that, magnetic memory was the usual kind.
Different types of RAM 
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is the majority in computers.  Modern computers use several types of DRAM. Before 2002, most computers used single data rate (SDR) RAM.  Most computers made since then use either double data rate (DDR), DDR2, DDR3, or DDR4 RAM.  The later types allow stored data to be moved and used more quickly, so that the computer's processor can keep working quickly without having to wait for data as long or as often. 

Different kinds of RAM usually will not work together in the same computer. Most computers can only use one kind of RAM. Some can use a small number of different kinds. Different kinds of RAM often have differently shaped connectors. This limits which RAM chips a particular computer model can use.
Static RAM (SRAM) needs power to keep its data, but does not need the computer to be active. Some SRAM chips are battery-backed. This type has a built-in battery to make sure no data is lost if the computer is turned off. Some computers have a little SRAM and mostly DRAM.

Other uses for RAM 
RAM is usually used to store information of running programs inside computers. RAM may also be used for different things.

Virtual Memory 
Using virtual memory, a computer can combine permanent storage with RAM to create a bigger pool of storage. This is useful when the RAM does not have enough space to store anymore information. The extra data is then placed in the permanent storage instead of the RAM. The method has a limitation which is that permanent storage is often slower than RAM, which can slow down a computer.
RAM disk  
A computer can use a part of the RAM to store permanent files. This is called a RAM disk. When the computer is turned on, files are copied to the RAM disk. This allows the files to open faster because RAM is faster than permanent storage. When the computer is turned off, the information on the RAM disk is lost, which is why the files need to exist on permanent storage as well.

Other kinds of memory 
Information that the computer always needs, that cannot be changed or deleted (unless it is EEPROM), is normally kept in read-only memory (ROM), which does not lose its contents when the computer is turned off. Such items include the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), which stores the most basic commands for the computer, telling it how it should start up. The BIOS also tells the computer how to input and output information. The BIOS can be compared to the part of your brain that tells your heart how to beat. This is an important part.

Computer memory
Read-only memory (or simply ROM) is a type of computer memory. Unlike RAM, it keeps its contents even when the computer or device is turned off. Usually, ROM cannot be written to when the computer runs normally. ROM is used for the BIOS which tells the computer how to start, or important programs like the firmware of certain devices, which usually does not need to be modified. Usually, ROM comes on computer chips.

There are different kinds of ROMs:
 Masked ROM: This kind is written once, at the factory. It cannot be changed at all later on. Its main benefit is that it is very cheap to make.
 PROM: Can be programmed once. Comes unprogrammed from the factory. Programming consists in removing connections. Invented in 1956, hit has been replaced by EPROMs
 EPROM: This kind can be erased with UV light. Invented in 1972, it became rare early in the 21st century. 
 EEPROM: This kind can be erased using an electrical signal. Today, flash memory is often used.''

References

Computer memory
Computer science
An integrated circuit (more often called an IC, microchip, silicon chip, computer chip, or chip) is a single piece of specially prepared silicon (or another semiconductor) into which an electronic circuit is etched using photolithography. Silicon chips can contain logic gates, computer processors, memory and special devices. The chip is very fragile and so is normally surrounded by a plastic package to protect it. Electrical contact with the chip is provided through tiny wires that connect the chip to larger metal pins that stick out of the package.

An IC has two main advantages over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low, because millions of transistors can be put onto one chip instead of building a circuit with single transistors. Performance is higher since the components can operate more quickly and use less power.
ICs are designed for different purposes.  For example, a chip may be designed just for a calculator, which can only work as a calculator. Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip). ICs are found in many household items such as radios, computers, and telephones, and many others.

Invention 
In 1958 and 1959, two people had the idea for an integrated circuit at almost exactly the same time. Transistors had become an everyday thing used in household devices such as radios. They affected everything from radios to phones and at the time manufacturers needed a smaller replacement for vacuum tubes. Transistors were smaller than vacuum tubes, but for some of the newest electronics, for example missile guidance, they were not small enough.
One day in July, while Jack Kilby was working at Texas Instruments, he realized that all parts of a circuit, not just the transistor, could be made out of silicon. At the time, nobody was putting capacitors and resistors into ICs. This would change the future and make it easier to produce and sell integrated circuits. Kilby's boss liked the idea, and told him to get to work. By September 12, Kilby had built a working model, and on February 6, Texas Instruments filed a patent. Their first "Solid Circuit" was the size of a fingertip.
Meanwhile, in California, another man had the same idea. In January 1959, Robert Noyce was working at the small Fairchild Semiconductor startup company. He also realized a whole circuit could be put into a single chip. While Kilby had worked out the details of making individual components, Noyce thought of a much better way to connect the parts. The design was called a "unitary circuit". All that detail paid off because on April 25, 1961, the patent office awarded the first patent for an integrated circuit to Robert Noyce while Kilby's application was still being analyzed. Today, both men are acknowledged as having independently conceived of the idea.

Generations 

※ The difference between VLSI and ULSI is not well defined.
Classification 
Integrated circuits can be packaged as DIP (Dual in-line package), PLCC (Plastic leaded chip carrier), TSOP (Thin small-outline package), PQFP (Plastic Quad Flat Pack) and other chip package types. Some small ones are packaged for surface-mount technology. The transistors inside can be bipolar type, which is rare, but which may be needed for circuits needing very high switching speeds. Most, however, are MOSFETs.

Sometime the term IC is also used for a single packaged circuit containing two or more chips -- more accurately called a hybrid IC (HIC) or Multi-chip Module.

Related pages 
 Electronic component
 Microprocessor

References 

Computer hardware
Electronic components
Electronic circuits