Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The architecture of macOS incorporates a layered design:
the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks. Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Swift. For the Apple–Intel transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines. First and third-party applications can be controlled programatically using the AppleScript framework, retained from the classic Mac OS, or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge.

References

Related pages 
 Macintosh

Other websites 
 Apple Inc.
 macOS

 
Unix
BSD
Rendsburg () is a town in Schleswig-Holstein with 30,000 people.

References

Other websites

Cities in Schleswig-Holstein
Geography of Schleswig-Holstein
Municipalities in Schleswig-Holstein
Towns in Schleswig-Holstein
Jacques René Chirac (29 November 1932 – 26 September 2019) was a French politician who served as President of the French Republic and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra from 1995 to 2007. He was re-elected in 2002. Before that, he was Prime Minister of France twice, and Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995.

Assassination attempt
On 14 July 2002, during Bastille Day celebrations, a man tried to shoot Chirac. A lone gunman with a rifle hidden in a guitar case, the would-be assassin fired a shot toward the presidential motorcade. He was then overpowered by bystanders. The gunman, Maxime Brunerie, had psychiatric testing.

After Presidency
On 15 December 2011, Chirac was found guilty for corruption. He was allowed to serve his 2-year sentence without prison time.

As a former president, Chirac had a lifetime pension. He was a member for life of France's Constitutional Council.
Personal life
In 1956, he married Bernadette Chodron de Courcel.  They had two daughters: Laurence (1958–2016) and Claude (born 1962). Claude is a public relations assistant and personal adviser. Laurence, who had anorexia nervosa in her youth, did not participate in the political activities of her father.

Health
In 2005, Chirac suffered a stroke. He had been suffering from memory loss and was in ill health. On 10 December 2015, Chirac was hospitalized in Paris for undisclosed reasons, and although his state of health did not "give any cause for concern", he would remain under the intensive care unit.

Death
Chirac died at his home in Paris on 26 September 2019 at the age of 86.

References

Other websites

1932 births
2019 deaths
French criminals
Prime Ministers of France
French Roman Catholics
Mayors of Paris
Presidents of France
Princes of Andorra
Recipients of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Mario Jeckle (25 August 1974 – 11 June 2004) was a German computer scientist.

From 1997 to 2003, Jeckle attended the University of Applied Science in Augsburg.  In 1998, he received his computer science degree for his thesis (paper) "Prozeßkettenmodellierung am Beispiel der Gießwerkzeugentwicklung und prototypische Implementierung auf Basis des EDM/PDM - Systems Metaphase" (An example of process chain modelling in  casting tool development and prototype implementation on basis of the EDM/PDM - Systems Metaphase). At Augsburg, he taught Java, Java Threads, XML and software engineering.

In 2003, Jeckle became a professor at the University of Applied Sciences in Furtwangen.  He taught about XML, databases, software engineering, and "eBusiness" (electronic business).
Jeckle was also a W3C and OMG representative of DaimlerChrysler Research and developed technical standards for XML, UML 2.0, and others.  At the beginning of 2004, he was a member of the Technical Architecture Group of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Jeckle was also an writer of books and a well-known speaker at conferences and seminars (information groups).

Jeckle was a member of the International Red Cross.  On 11 June 2004, he died while giving aid to others who had a car accident on a German highway. While helping, another driver lost control and hit Jeckle and another man.
Memberships 
 Associate Editor of International Journal of Web Services Research
 Associate Editor of International Journal on Web Services
 Chairman of the mailinglist of GOOAL.net
 Editor of W3C-Dokuments Composite Capability/Preference Profiles (CC/PP): Processing and Protocol Requirements 1.0
 Executive Committee Member of the IEEE Technical Community for Services Computing
 DaimlerChrysler Research member of the Advisory Committee des World Wide Web Consortiums (W3C)
 Headleader of the Masters of System Architekture in Furtwangen.
 Member of the Device Independence Working Group (W3C)
 Member of the Technical Architecture Group (W3C)
 Member of the Web Service Architecture Working Group (W3C)
 Member of the Editorial Boards des International Journal of Grid and Utility Computing
 Member of the Advisory Board des International Journal on Cases on Electronic Commerce
 Member of the Editorial Board des International Journal for Infonomics
Member of the Editorial Board des International Journal of IT Standards & Standardization Research
 Member of the Fachbeirat the lecture "Java Spektrum"
 Member of the German Architect Board of ASQF
 Member of the IBM Developer Works Research Panel
 Member of the Java Community Process
 Member of the Technical Advisory Board der Gentleware AG
Other websites 
 private Homepage of Mario Jeckle (in German)
 Informatikpreis 1998  (in German)
  Tim Berners-Lee to the death of Mario Jeckle (W3C) 
  In Memoriam: Mario Jeckle (W3C)

German computer scientists
1974 births
2004 deaths
The Eighty Years' War, also called Dutch Revolt, was a war between the Netherlands and Spain. It lasted from 1568 to 1648 but was interrupted by a truce between 1609 and 1621. The Peace of Westphalia ended the war. The Netherlands achieved independence in the Eighty Years' War.

 
Wars involving England
Wars involving France
Wars involving the Netherlands
Wars involving Spain
1568
16th century in Europe
1648
17th century in Europe
16th-century conflicts
17th-century conflicts
In mathematics, an exponent indicates how many copies of a number (known as the base) is multiplied together. 

For example, in the number , 5 is the base and 4 is the exponent. This can be read as "5 to the power of 4". Therefore, in this example, four copies of 5 are multiplied together, which means that .

In general, given two numbers  and , the number  can be read as " raised to the power of " or " to the th power", where  is the exponent.

Bases raised to the power of two, , can be read the base "squared", because the area of a square with a side length of x is .

Similarly, bases raised to the power of three, , can be called the base "cubed", because the area of a cube with a side length of x is .

Exponents are used in algebra. Exponentiation is a way of shortening the process/equation of repeatedly multiplying many copies of a number.
An exponent is a number or symbol, placed above and to the right of the expression to which it applies, that indicates the number of times the expression is used as a factor. For example. the exponent x in  indicates x copies of  are multiplied together.

There are some basic rules used in exponentiation

1. Product Rule:

Proof - When multiplying a base term by two different exponents , there are m number of a's and n number of a's.

Since exponentiation is simply repeated multiplication of a base term, we get that: 

therefore  .

For example, . This is true because at first, we had 2 threes times 4 threes which, when multiplied together, gives us 3 multiplied by itself 6 times, or 4+2 times.   

2. Quotient Rule:

Proof (when m > n) - 

By grouping the corresponding a’s, we get:

Since corresponding a’s become 1, we are then left with

therefore, .

For example, . Notice that , which confirms the proof.
In fact, this property holds when m < n as well, but in that case, we get negative exponents instead. When m < n, the format of the problem becomes . 

For more information on negative exponents, see § Negative exponents below.

3. Zero Rule:

Proof: we showed in #1 that  .

This equation holds true for  as well, so 

If this statement is true where , then  must equal one. That is:

Negative exponents 
A negative exponent is the reciprocal of a number with a positive exponent which can be mathematically represented as  In the same way that regular exponents are considered repeated multiplication, negative exponents can be considered repeated division. 

Negative exponents can also be different from -1.  In this case the negative exponent can be separated from the positive exponent,  so
The formula for a negative exponent in terms of a whole number exponent is  There are more than one ways to prove this. The first proof involves a pattern form. It is not always a good idea to use patterns because in cases like exponents they may not be complete patterns for every case, but the proof still holds. 

Proof #1: Why is   ?

   ***(see zero rule for proof of this!)

divide both sides by 

 

The second proof proves exactly the same thing but dives further into matching equalities 

Proof #2: 

everything in the next row is proved by the rules in the exponent section

therefore 

If we also have a multiplication, like in , it would be written as

Complex exponentiation 
A complex number can also be taken to the power of another complex number. The relationship between imaginary numbers and trigonometry, which produces the multiplication formula

This formula basically states that the multiplication of complex numbers is related to addition of angles.
There are some relationships between functions and “infinite degree polynomials”, that are called series representations of the functions. The important series representations that we will focus on are:

From these representations, you should notice that the terms of the sine and cosine series combine, along with some sign changes, to make the exponential series over factorial. By introducing the number i into the equation, we get

This result is often used as the beginning of the definition for complex number exponents.

There are some cases where we are raising other numbers to the power i. For example, we can use the following relationship . Here using base 2 and exponent i, we get

When using base i and exponent i, we get

Now we can look at a general formula.

We can rewrite the  in the trigonometric form .

By the relationship we found between trigonometry and complex exponent, we can rewrite the equation in complex exponential form, .
Substituting this equation in the exponent in our original equation, we get 

This can be simplified to be 

The real and imaginary parts of the exponent can be simplified separately to obtain to result 

Because there are many ways to describe the angle P, this formula can give many answers. If we allow the variable P to vary by multiples of , we get the final result

Related pages 

 Exponentiation by squaring
 Logarithm

References 

Mathematics
Rise
At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 many borders and countries changed. One of the borders was the one between the new United Kingdom of the Netherlands and Prussia. For the most part Prussia and the Netherlands agreed on the border, because it was mostly the same as the old border. Around Moresnet there was a problem. Between the villages of Moresnet and Neu-Moresnet was the zinc mine of Vieille Montagne (in French) / Altenberg (in German). Both countries wanted to have this mine. In 1816 it was decided that the village of Moresnet itself would become part of the Netherlands, Neu-Moresnet would become part of Prussia and the mine and the village of Kelmis around it would become neutral territory where both countries shared the power.
Neutral Moresnet was shaped more or less like a triangle. The southern border was the road between Aix-la-Chapelle and Liège. The mine was just to the north of this road. The most northerly point of the country was the Vaalserberg. When Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830, the land on the Dutch side became Belgian. So from 1830 Belgium and Prussia were in power in Moresnet. At first Moresnet was governed by two royal commissioners, one from each neighbour. Later Moresnet got its own rulers: a mayor and a council of ten members were installed. The mayor was the Head of State, he was appointed by the council.

Most people in Moresnet worked in the zinc mine. Many people from the neighbouring countries also worked in the zinc mine. Because Moresnet was neutral, there were very low taxes and there were no import-tariffs (like in Andorra now). The people from Moresnet were allowed to choose in which army they wanted to serve, but they were not allowed to have their own army.
Fall
The mine was exhausted by 1885, so people from Moresnet had to find a new way to find money. Some wanted to start a casino, or issue their own stamps. Dr. Wilhelm Molly, wanted to change Moresnet into a country where everyone would speak Esperanto. He wanted to name the country Amikejo ("place of friendship"). None of these plans succeeded. Belgium and Prussia (which became a part of Germany in 1871) both wanted to take over the territory. In 1914, in the First World War, Germany invaded Belgium and occupied Moresnet. In 1915 they officially annexed it, so Neutral Moresnet did not exist any more.

In 1919, after the war, in the Treaty of Versailles it was decided that Moresnet would become part of Belgium. From 1940 to 1944, during World War II, Moresnet was occupied by Germany again, but since 1944 it has been part of Belgium again.

References
References 

1816 establishments in Europe
1920 disestablishments in Europe
19th century in Germany
Former countries in Europe
German Empire
History of Belgium
Liège (province)
States and territories disestablished in the 20th century
States and territories established in the 19th century
Wallonia
Weimar Republic
MacGyver was an American television series.  It was first shown in September 1985 on the television network, ABC. The main character, Angus MacGyver (played by Richard Dean Anderson), often prevented inevitable defeats, saved lives, distracted enemies, made weapons, and even performed everyday tasks usually using very few objects that seemed irrelevant or abnormal to use in such situations. His use of duct tape has led some parts of the world to call it "MacGyver tape."

The term "MacGyver" now means someone who is able to perform amazing feats with the use of very few and often irrelevant objects.

1980s American television series
1985 American television series debuts
1990s American television series
1992 American television series endings
Action television series
Spy television series
English-language television programs
Up to 1900 
 69 - Roman Emperor Vitellius is captured and murdered at the Gemonian Stairs in Rome.
 401 - Pope Innocent I is elected.
 856 - An earthquake, near Donghan, Persia, kills an estimated 200,000 people.
 880 - China: Luoyang, eastern capital of the Tang Dynasty, is captured by rebel leader Huang Chao during the reign of Emperor Xizong of Tang.
 1135 - Stephen of Blois becomes King of England.
 1603 – Mehmed III Sultan of the Ottoman Empire dies and is succeeded by his son Ahmed I.
 1622 - The city of Bucaramanga in present-day Colombia is founded.
 1647 - A hurricane strikes the Canary Islands, with Fuerteventura being hit particularly hard.
 1711 - Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor is crowned.
 1769 - The Sino-Burmese War of 1765-1769 ends with an uneasy truce.
 1789 - Revolutionary France is divided into departments.
 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Alexander Suvorov and his Russian armies.
1807 – The Embargo Act, forbidding trade with all foreign countries, is passed by the United States Congress, at the urging of President Thomas Jefferson.
 1809 – The Non-Intercourse Act, lifting the Embargo Act except for the United Kingdom and France, passes the United States Congress.
 1849 – The execution of Fyodor Dostoevsky is canceled at the last second.
 1851 – The first freight train is operated in Roorkee in India.
 1857 - Mountaineering: The Alpine Club is founded in London.
 1864 – Savannah, Georgia falls to General William Tecumseh Sherman during the American Civil War.
 1885 – Ito Hirobumi, a samurai, becomes the first Prime Minister of Japan.
 1891 - Asteroid 323 Brucia becomes the first asteroid discovered by the use of photography
 1894 – The Dreyfus affair begins, in France, when Alfred Dreyfus is wrongly convicted of treason, on antisemitic grounds.
 1894 - The United States Golf Association is founded.
1901  2000 
 1910 – Chicago Union Stock Yards Fire, 21 firemen were killed.
 1937 – The Lincoln Tunnel opens to traffic in New York City.
 1939 - Worst day in history of German train travel: Two separate accidents kill 287 people in total.
 1942 - World War II: Adolf Hitler orders the development of the V-2 rocket as a weapon.
 1944 – World War II: German troops demand the surrender of United States troops at Bastogne, Belgium. See Battle of the Bulge
 1944 – World War II: Vietnam People's Army is formed to resist Japanese occupation of Vietnam.
 1947 - The Constituent Assembly of Italy approves the country's new constitution.
 1956 - Colo, the first gorilla to be bred in captivity, is born at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium in Ohio.
 1963 – Cruise ship Lakonia burns 180 miles north of Madeira with the loss of 128 lives.
 1964 – Comedian Lenny Bruce is convicted of obscenity.
 1965 – A 65 miles per hour speed limit is introduced on country roads and motorways in the United Kingdom.
1968 - Cultural Revolution: People's Daily posted the instructions of Mao Zedong that it is "The intellectual youth must go to the country, and will be educated from living in rural poverty."(Down to the Countryside Movement)
 1974 – Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli vote to become the independent nation of Comoros. Mayotte remains under French administration.
 1974 - The house of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Edward Heath is attacked by members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army.
 1979 - Catalonia is given autonomy within Spain.
 1984 – Subway vigilante Bernhard Hugo Goetz shoots four African-American youths on an express train in The Bronx borough of New York City.
 1988 – Chico Mendes, a Brazilian rubber tapper, unionist and environmental activist, is assassinated.
 1988 – Yitzhak Shamir present his 3rd government in front of the Israeli Parliament
 1989 – After a week of bloody demonstrations, Ion Iliescu takes over as president of Romania, ending Nicolae Ceauşescu's Communist dictatorship.
1989 – Berlin's Brandenburg Gate re-opens after nearly 30 years, effectively ending the division of East and West Germany.
 1989 – Two Tourist coaches collide on the Pacific Highway north of Kempsey NSW (Kempsey Bus Crash).
 1990 – The Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia become independent after the end of their trusteeship.
 1990 – Lech Wałęsa is sworn in as President of Poland.
 1991 - Armed opposition groups launch a military coup against President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia.
 1992 – An MiG23 and a Boeing 727 of Libyan Arab Airlines collide near Tripoli, killing 157 people.
 1997 – Acteal massacre: Attendees at a prayer meeting of Roman Catholic activists for indigenous causes in the small village of Acteal in the Mexican state of Chiapas were massacred by paramilitary forces.
 1999 – The Spanish Civil Guard finds near Calatayud (Zaragoza) another van loaded by ETA with 750 kg of explosives (see related event on December 21 1999).
 1999 – Tandja Mamadou becomes President of Niger.
From 2001 
 2001 – Burhanuddin Rabbani, political leader of the Afghan Northern Alliance, handed over power in Afghanistan to the interim government headed by Hamid Karzai.
 2001 – Richard Reid attempts to destroy a passenger airliner by igniting explosives hidden in his shoes aboard American Airlines Flight 63.
 2001 – CC the cat, the first cloned pet, is born.
 2002 - Janez Drnovsek becomes President of Slovenia.
 2005 - Astronomers announce the discovery of two more rings around the planet Uranus.
 2008 – President of Guinea Lansana Conté dies. Following his death, Moussa Dadis Camara takes power in a coup.
 2010 – The end of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell policy regarding Homosexuals in the United States Military is signed into law by Barack Obama.
 2011 – Baghdad is struck by a series of bomb explosions.
 2015 - SpaceX lands a first stage Falcon 9 rocket on ground after reaching low-Earth orbit, for the first time in history.
2016 - A study finds the VSV-EBOV vaccine against the Ebola virus between 70 and 100% effective, and therefore making it the first proven vaccine against the disease.
 2017 - A typhoon hits the southern Philippines, killing almost 200 people.
 2017 - The United Nations Security Council votes 15-0 in favour of additional sanctions (punishments) against North Korea.
Up to 1900 
 244 – Diocletian, Roman Emperor (d. 311)
 1095 – King Roger II of Sicily (d. 1154)
 1178 – Emperor Antoku of Japan (d. 1185)
 1183 - Chagatai Khan, Mongol ruler (d. 1242)
 1546 - Kuroda Yoshitaka, Japanese daimyo (d. 1604)
 1550 - Cesare Cremonini, Italian philosopher (d. 1631)
 1639 – Jean Racine, French dramatist (d. 1699)
 1666 – Gobind Singh, Sikh guru (d. 1708)
 1694 – Hermann Samuel Reimarus, German writer and philosopher (d. 1768)
 1696 – James Oglethorpe, English general, founder of the State of Georgia (d. 1785)
 1723 – Carl Friedrich Abel, German composer (d. 1787)
 1765 – Johann Friedrich Pfaff, German mathematician (d. 1825)
 1798 - George W. Crawford, American politician, Governor of Georgia (d. 1872)
 1805 - John Obadiah Westwood, English entomologist and archaeologist (d. 1893)
 1807 – Johann Christian Welhaven, Norwegian poet (d. 1873)
 1819 – Franz Abt, German composer (d. 1870)
 1819 – Pierre Ossian Bonnet, French mathematician (d. 1892)
1848 – Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, German classical philologist (d. 1931)
 1850 - Victoriano Huerta, President of Mexico (d. 1916)
 1853 - Yevgraf Fyodorov, Russian mathematician (d. 1919)
 1856 – Frank B. Kellogg, American lawyer and diplomat, 45th United States Secretary of State (d. 1937)
 1858 – Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer (d. 1924)
 1862 - Connie Mack, American baseball player, manager and team owner (d. 1956)
 1865 - Charles Sands, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1945)
 1869 - Dmitri Egorov, Russian mathematician (d. 1931)
 1869 - Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet (d. 1935)
 1876 – Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Italian poet and editor (d. 1944)
 1883 – Edgard Varèse, French-American composer (d. 1965)
 1887 – Srinivasa Ramanujan, Indian mathematician (d. 1920)
 1888 - J. Arthur Rank, 1st Baron Rank, British movie producer (d. 1972)
 1892 - Lawrence Sperry, American pilot (d. 1923)
 1899 – Gustaf Gründgens, German actor (d. 1963)
1900 – Marc Allégret, French movie director and screenwriter (d. 1973)
 1900 - John C. Slater, American chemist and physicist (d. 1976)
1901  1950 
 1901 - Andre Kostelanetz, American popular music orchestra leader and arranger (d. 1980)
 1903 – Haldan Keffer Hartline, American physiologist (d. 1983)
 1905 – Pierre Brasseur, French actor (d. 1972)
 1907 – Peggy Ashcroft, British actress (d. 1991)
 1907 - Fred M. Wilcox, American film director (d. 1964)
 1909 - Patricia Hayes, British actress (d. 1998)
 1912 – Lady Bird Johnson, First Lady of the United States (d. 2007)
 1914 - Colin Hannah, Australian air force commander and 19th Governor of Queensland (d. 1978)
 1915 – Barbara Billingsley, American actress (d. 2010)
 1917 - Gene Rayburn, American game show host (d. 1999)
 1922 - Ruth Roman, American actress (d. 1999)
 1922 - Jim Wright, American politician (d. 2015)
 1924 - Lefter Küçükandonyadis, Turkish footballer (d. 2012)
 1926 - Alcides Ghiggia, Uruguayan footballer (d. 2015)
 1928 - Fredrik Barth, Norwegian ethnologist (d. 2016)
 1931 - Gisela Birkemeyer, German athlete
 1933 - Abel Pacheco, former President of Costa Rica
1935 - Paulo Rocha, Portuguese director and screenwriter (d. 2012)
 1936 – Héctor Elizondo, American actor
 1936 - Wojciech Frykowski, Polish actor (d. 1969)
 1937 – Eduard Uspensky, Russian writer
 1938 - Lucien Bouchard, 27th Premier of Quebec
 1940 – Luis Francisco Cuéllar, Colombian politician (d. 2009)
 1942 - Yasuyuki Kuwahara, Japanese footballer (d. 2017)
 1943 – Paul Wolfowitz, former World Bank President
 1944 - Barry Jenkins, English drummer (The Animals)
 1945 - Diane Sawyer, American journalist and television presenter
 1948 - Rick Nielsen, rock musician
 1948 – Noel Edmonds, British television presenter
 1948 – Lynne Thigpen, American actress (d. 2003)
 1949 – Maurice Gibb, British singer and musician (Bee Gees) (d. 2003)
 1949 – Robin Gibb, British singer and musician (Bee Gees) (d. 2012)
1951  1975 
 1951 - Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster. British businessman (d. 2016)
 1952 - Sandra Kalniete, Latvian politician
 1955 - Thomas C. Südhof, German-American biochemist, 2013 Nobel Prize winner
 1956 - Colo, American-bred Western gorilla (d. 2017)
 1958 - Frank Gambale, Australian guitarist, songwriter and musician
 1958 - Masaaki Kato, Japanese footballer
 1959 – Bernd Schuster, German footballer
 1960 - Jean-Michel Basquiat, American artist (d. 1988)
 1961 - Yuri Malenchenko, Russian colonel, pilot and astronaut
 1962 
 Andres Cantor, Argentine/American sportscaster
 Ralph Fiennes, English actor
 1963 – Giuseppe Bergomi, Italian footballer
 1963 - Bryan Gunn, British footballer
 1967 – Dan Petrescu, Romanian footballer
 1967 – Richey James Edwards, Welsh musician (Manic Street Preachers) (disappeared in 1995)
 1968 - Luis Hernandez, Mexican footballer
 1968 - Lauralee Bell, American actress, director, producer and screenwriter
 1969 - Myriam Bédard, Canadian biathlete
1970 - Gary Anderson, Scottish darts player
 1970 - Ted Cruz, American lawyer and politician
 1972 – Vanessa Paradis, French actress and singer
 1972 - Franck Cammas, French sailor
 1972 - Steffi Jones, German footballer
 1973 - Traci Dinwiddie, American actress
 1973 - Heather Donahue, American actress
 1975 – Dmitri Khokhlov, Russian footballer
 1975 – Stanislav Neckar, Czech ice hockey player
From 1976 
 1978 - Joy Ali, Fijian boxer (d. 2015)
 1978 – Emmanuel Olisadebe, Nigerian-Polish footballer
 1978 - Mia Tyler, American model
 1979 - Naotake Hanyu, Japanese footballer
 1979 – Jamie Langfield, Scottish footballer
 1980 - Chris Carmack, American actor, singer and model
 1982 - Teko Modise, South African footballer
 1982 - Agbani Darego, Nigerian model
 1982 - Alinne Moraes, Brazilian actress
 1983 - Jennifer Hawkins, Australian model
 1984 – Basshunter, Swedish DJ and singer
 1985 - Edurne, Spanish singer, actress, model and presenter
 1986 – Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, Nigerian Islamist militant
 1987 - Lisa Andreas, English-Cypriot singer
 1987 - Eder, Portuguese footballer
 1988 – Leigh Halfpenny, Welsh rugby player
 1989 – Jordin Sparks, American singer
 1989 - Logan Huffman, American actor
 1990 – Jean-Baptiste Maunier, French singer and actor
 1990 - Josef Newgarden, American racing driver
 1992 - Anis Amri, Tunisian suspected terrorist (2016 Berlin attack) (d. 2016)
1993 - Ali Lohan, American actress and singer
 1993 - Meghan Trainor, American singer
 1995 - Imam-ul-Haq, Pakistani cricketer
 1998 - Genevieve Hannelius, American actress and musician
 2001 - CC, first cloned pet
Up to 1950 
 69 – Vitellius, Roman Emperor (b. 15)
 1100 - Bretislaus II, Duke of Bohemia (b. 1060)
 1603 – Mehmed III, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1566)
 1646 - Peter Mogila, Moldovan religious figure (b. 1596)
 1708 - Hedvig Sophia of Sweden (b. 1681)
 1767 - John Newbery, English children's writer (b. 1713)
 1788 – Percival Pott, English physician and surgeon (b. 1714)
 1828 - William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (b. 1766)
 1867 – Jean-Victor Poncelet, French mathematician (b. 1788)
 1880 – George Eliot, English writer (b. 1819)
 1899 - Dwight E. Moody, American evangelist and publisher (b. 1837)
 1902 – Richard von Krafft-Ebing, German psychiatrist (b. 1840)
 1917 – St. Francesca Xavier Cabrini, American Catholic saint (b. 1850)
 1918 - Aristeidis Moraitinis, Greek aviator (b. 1891)
 1925 - Amelie Beese, German aviatrix (b. 1886)
 1939 – Ma Rainey, American singer (b. 1886)
 1940 – Nathanael West, American writer (b. 1903)
 1943 – Beatrix Potter, British writer (b. 1866)
From 1951 
 1959 – Gilda Gray, Polish-American singer (b. 1901)
 1961 - Elia Dalla Costa, Archbishop of Florence (b. 1872)
 1965 – Richard Dimbleby, British broadcaster (b. 1913)
 1974 - Sterling North, American author (b. 1906)
 1979 – Darryl F. Zanuck, American producer (b. 1902)
 1988 – Chico Mendes, Brazilian activist (b. 1944)
 1989 – Samuel Beckett, Irish playwright (b. 1906)
 1995 – Butterfly McQueen, American actress (b. 1911)
 1995 – James Meade, British economist (b. 1907)
 2002 – Joe Strummer, British musician (b. 1952)
 2002 – Desmond Hoyte, Guyanese politician (b. 1929)
 2007 - Julien Gracq, French writer (b. 1910)
 2008 – Lansana Conté, President of Guinea (b. 1934)
 2009 – Luis Francisco Cuéllar, Colombian politician (b. 1940)
 2012 - Cliff Osmond, American actor (b. 1937)
 2013 - Diomedes Diaz, Colombian singer-songwriter (b. 1956)
 2014 - Joe Cocker, English singer (b. 1944)
 2014 - Abd El Aziz Muhammad Hegazi, former Prime Minister of Egypt (b. 1923)
2014 - Joseph Sargent, American movie director, producer and actor (b. 1925)
 2014 - Fritz Sdunek, German boxing trainer (b. 1947)
 2014 - Christine Cavanaugh, American actress (b. 1963)
 2015 - George Clayton Johnson, American science fiction writer (b. 1929)
 2015 - Rolf Bossi, German lawyer (b. 1923)
 2015 - Freda Meissner-Blau, Austrian politician (b. 1927)
 2015 - Peter Lundblad, Swedish singer (b. 1950)
 2016 - Yevgeny Dzhugashvili, Russian-Georgian activist and politician (b. 1936)
 2016 - Franca Sozzani, Italian journalist, editor of Vogue Italia (b. 1950)
 2016 - Miruts Yifter, Ethiopian long-distance runner (b. 1944)
 2017 - Jason Lowndes, Australian racing cyclist (b. 1994)
 2017 - Gerald B. Greenberg, American film editor (b. 1936)
Observances
 Winter solstice (Northern Hemisphere), sometimes occurs on December 21
 Summer solstice (Southern Hemisphere), sometimes occurs on December 21
 Mother's Day (Indonesia)
 Unity Day (Zimbabwe)
 Dongzhi Festival (East Asia)
 National Mathematics Day (India)
 Armed Forces Day (Vietnam)

Days of the year
Events

Up to 1900 
 563 - Second inauguration of the Hagia Sophia, then a cathedral.
 640 - Pope John IV is elected.
 759 - China: Tang Dynasty poet Du Fu leaves for Chengdu, where he is hosted by fellow poet Pei Di.
 1294 - Pope Boniface VIII is elected, after the resignation of Pope Celestine V.
 1717 - A North Sea Christmas flood kills 11,500 people.
 1726 – Montevideo, the present-day capital city of Uruguay, is founded.
 1777 – James Cook reaches the island of Kiritimati, in present-day Kiribati.
 1811 - HMS Defence and HMS St. George sink in a storm off Denmark.
 1814 - The Treaty of Ghent ends the War of 1812.
 1818 – The famous Christmas carol Stille Nacht, Heilige Nacht (Silent Night, Holy Night), is performed for the first time in Austria.
 1851 - The US Library of Congress burns.
 1865 – The Ku Klux Klan is founded by Confederate veterans.
 1871 - The Opera Aida is first performed in Cairo.
1901  2000 
 1906 - Reginald Fessenden transmits the first radio broadcast, consisting of a poetry reading, a violin solo, and a speech.
 1912 - A mining explosion in Hokkaido, Japan, kills 245 miners.
 1913 - In Calumet, Michigan, 73 Christmas party goers die in a stampede after "fire" was falsely yelled.
 1914 – World War I: The Christmas Truce begins.
 1924 – Albania becomes a Republic.
 1929 - An assassination attempt is made on President of Argentina Hipolito Yrigoyen.
 1939 - Pope Pius XII makes a Christmas appeal for peace, after the start of World War II.
 1942 - World War II: French monarchist Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle assassinates Vichy admiral Francois Darlan in Algiers, French Algeria.
 1943 - World War II: Dwight D. Eisenhower becomes Supreme Allied Commander.
 1951 – Libya becomes independent, with Idris I as king.
1953 – Tangiwai Disaster: After a volcanic eruption (of Mt. Ruapehu) on New Zealand's North Island, a train plunges into the Whangeahu river following a bridge collapse caused by the eruption, killing 153 people.
 1954 – Laos is officially declared independent.
 1964 - Flooding kills thousands of people in Southern India and Sri Lanka.
 1968 – Apollo 8, with Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William Anders on board, orbits the moon, and take a spectacular photograph of the Earth.
 1971 - A Lockheed L-188 Electra crashes in the Peruvian rainforest, killing 91 people. The only survivor is then-17-year-old German Juliane Koepcke, who lost both her parents in the crash.
 1972 - Japan Airlines Flight 472, a Douglas DC-8, lands at Juhu Aerodrome, overshooting the runway, instead of landing at nearby Bombay Santa Cruz Airport.
 1973 - The District of Columbia Home Rule Act passes, allowing Washington, DC residents to elect their government.
1974 – Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia, killing 71 people.
 1979 – The first European-made rocket Ariane is launched from French Guiana.
 1994 - Air France Flight 8969 is hijacked by terrorists on the ground; Over the course of three days, three passengers and four terrorists are killed.
 1997 - The Sid El-Antri massacre in Algeria kills between 50 and 100 people.
 2000 - The Texas Seven hold up a sports store in Irving, Texas.
From 2001 
 2003 – Spanish police stop an attempt by ETA to detonate 50 kilogrammes of explosives at Madrid's Chamartin Station.
 2005 – Chad declares that it is in a state of war with Sudan, though denies that it has declared war.
 2008 – The Lord's Resistance Army, a Ugandan rebel group, begins a series of attacks on the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
 2013 - Queen Elizabeth II issues an official pardon to the mathematician Alan Turing (who had died in 1954). Turing was convicted of homosexuality at a time when it was illegal in the UK.
 2017 - Alberto Fujimori, former President of Peru, is pardoned for reasons relating to his ill health.
 2017 - Guatemala announces that, like the United States, it plans to move its Embassy in Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.

Births
Up to 1800 
 3 BC – Galba, Roman Emperor (d. 69)
 1166 – King John of England (d. 1216)
 1389 – John VI, Duke of Brittany (d. 1442)
 1475 - Thomas Murner, German poet and translator (d. 1537)
 1508 - Pietro Carnesecchi, Italian humanist (d. 1567)
 1588 – Constance of Austria, Queen of Poland (d. 1631)
 1597 - Honoré II, Prince of Monaco (d. 1662)
 1625 - Johann Rudolf Ahle, German composer, organist and theorist (d. 1673)
 1635 - Mariana of Austria (d. 1696)
 1679 - Domenico Sarro, Italian composer (d. 1744)
 1698 - William Warburton, English bishop (d. 1779)
 1724 - Johann Conrad Ammann, Swiss physician (d. 1811)
 1737 - Silas Deane, American politician (d. 1789)
 1745 – Benjamin Rush, American physician and founding father (d. 1813)
 1754 – George Crabbe, British poet and naturalist (d. 1832)
 1761 - Jean-Louis Pons, French astronomer (d. 1831)
 1762 – Selim III, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1808)
 1784 - Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna of Russia (d. 1803)
1786 - Gregor MacGregor, Scottish soldier, adventurer and trickster (d. 1845)
 1787 - Prince William of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1867)
 1796 - Fernan Caballero, Spanish writer (d. 1877)
 1798 – Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet (d. 1855)
1801  1900 
 1809 – Kit Carson, American frontiersman (d. 1868)
 1810 – Wilhelm Marstrand, Danish painter (d. 1873)
 1818 – James Prescott Joule, British physicist (d. 1889)
 1819 - Antonio de Trueba, Spanish writer (d. 1889)
 1821 - Gabriel Garcia Moreno, President of Ecuador (d. 1875)
 1837 – Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria (d. 1898)
 1837 - Cosima Wagner, wife of Richard Wagner (d. 1930)
 1843 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet (d. 1886)
 1845 – King George I of Greece (d. 1913)
 1854 - Jose Maria Reina Barrios, President of Guatemala (d. 1898)
 1863 - Enrique Fernandez Arbos, Spanish composer (d. 1959)
 1867 - Suzuki Kantaro, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1948)
 1868 – Emanuel Lasker, German chess player (d. 1941)
 1886 - Richard Teichmann, German chess player (d. 1925)
 1869 - Henriette Roland-Holst, Dutch poet (d. 1952)
 1872 - Adam Gunn, American athlete (d. 1935)
 1872 - Frederick Semple, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1927)
 1879 – Queen Alexandrine of Denmark (d. 1952)
1881 – Juan Ramon Jimenez, Spanish writer (d. 1958)
 1882 - Hans Rebane, Estonian politician, diplomat and journalist (d. 1961)
 1887 - Louis Jouvet, French actor and producer (d. 1951)
 1888 - Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American movie director (d. 1962)
 1892 - Ruth Chatterton, American actress, novelist and writer (d. 1961)
 1893 - Harry Warren, American composer and lyricist (d. 1981)
 1894 - Georges Guynemer, French pilot (d. 1917)
 1896 – Jens Oliver Lisberg, Faroese law student and designer of the flag of the Faroe Islands (d. 1920)
 1897 - Koto Okubo, Japanese supercentenarian (d. 2013)
 1898 – Héctor Scarone, Uruguayan footballer (d. 1967)
 1900 - Joey Smallwood, 1st Premier of Newfoundland (d. 1991)
1901  1950 
 1903 – Joseph Cornell, American artist and filmmaker (d. 1972)
 1904 – Joseph M. Juran, Romanian-born American engineer (d. 2008)
 1905 – Howard Hughes, American movie producer and inventor (d. 1976)
 1906 – Joseph Höffner, German cardinal (d. 1987)
 1907 – I. F. Stone, American journalist (d. 1989)
 1907 – John Cody, American cardinal and Archbishop of Chicago (d. 1983)
 1910 – Max Miedinger, Swiss typeface designer (d. 1980)
 1914 – Ralph Marterie, Italian-American trumpeter and bandleader (d. 1978)
 1914 – Herbert Reinecker, German writer (d. 2007)
 1917 – Kim Jong-suk, North Korean figure, mother of Kim Jong-Il (d. 1949)
 1919 – Pierre Soulages, French artist
 1920 – Franco Lucentini, Italian writer and screenwriter (d. 2002)
 1922 – Ava Gardner, American actress (d. 1990)
 1923 – George Patton IV, American general (d. 2004)
 1924 – Mohammed Rafi, Indian playback singer (d. 1980)
 1924 – Lee Dorsey, American singer (d. 1986)
1924 – Abdirizak Haji Hussein, 4th Prime Minister of Somalia (d. 2014)
 1926 - Ronald Draper, South African cricketer
 1927 – Mary Higgins Clark, American writer (d. 2020)
 1928 – Manfred Rommel, German politician (d. 2013)
 1929 – Lennart Skoglund, Swedish footballer (d. 1975)
 1931 – Walter Abish, American writer
 1931 – Lech Trzeciakowski, Polish historian (d. 2017)
 1931 – Mauricio Kagel, Argentine composer (d. 2008)
 1934 – Stjepan Mesic, former President of Croatia
 1937 – Félix Miéli Venerando, Brazilian footballer (d. 2012)
 1940 – Anthony Fauci, American Physician and Director of NIAID
 1941 – Hans Eichel, German politician
 1941 – Andrzej Suski, Polish Roman Catholic bishop
 1943 – Tarja Halonen, former President of Finland
 1944 – Woody Shaw, American jazz trumpeter (d. 1989)
 1944 – Daniel Johnson, Jr., 25th Premier of Quebec
 1945 – Lemmy, British singer and musician (Motorhead) (d. 2015)
 1946 – Jeff Sessions, American politician, 84th United States Attorney General
1948 – Frank Oliver, New Zealand rugby player
 1948 – Edwige Fenech, Italian actress
 1949 – Randy Neugebauer, American politician
1951  1975 
 1954 - Gregory S. Paul, American writer, illustrator and paleontologist
 1954 - Jose Maria Figueres, former President of Costa Rica
 1955 - Grand L. Bush, American actor
 1956 - Irene Khan, Bangladeshi lawyer (Amnesty International)
 1957 – Hamid Karzai, former President of Afghanistan
 1958 - Lyse Doucet, Canadian journalist and BBC News correspondent
 1958 - Philippa Whitford, Scottish politician
 1959 – Anil Kapoor, Indian actor
 1959 - Keith Deller, English darts player
 1960 - Glenn McQueen, Canadian-American animator (d. 2002)
 1960 - Carol Vorderman, English television host
 1961 – Ilham Aliyev, President of Azerbaijan
 1961 - Wade Williams, American actor
 1962 - David Cobb, American lawyer and politician
 1962 - Darren Wharton, English musician
 1963 - Caroline Aherne, English comedienne and actress (d. 2016)
 1963 - Mary Ramsey, American singer-songwriter
 1966 - Diedrich Bader, American actor
 1967 - Mikhail Shchennikov, Russian race walker
1967 - Pernilla Wahlgren, Swedish singer and actress
 1968 - Choi Jin-sil, South Korean actress (d. 2008)
 1969 – Ed Miliband, British politician
 1969 - Mark Millar, British historian
 1970 - Amaury Nolasco, Puerto Rican actor
 1971 – Ricky Martin, Puerto Rican singer
 1972 - Richard Dutruel, French footballer
 1973 - Matt Passmore, Australian actor
 1973 – Stephenie Meyer, American writer
 1973 – Eddie Pope, American footballer
 1974 – Marcelo Salas, Chilean footballer
 1974 – Ryan Seacrest, American television host
 1974 - Thure Lindhardt, Danish actor
From 1976 
 1978 – Yildiray Basturk, Turkish footballer
 1978 - Souleymane Diawara, Senegalese footballer
 1979 - Svetlana Pospelova, Russian athlete
 1979 – Chris Hero, American professional wrestler
 1980 – Stephen Appiah, Ghanaian footballer
 1981 – Dima Bilan, Russian singer
 1981 – Nneka, Nigerian singer
 1982 – Aiba Masaki, Japanese singer and actor
 1982 - Robert Schwartzman, American singer
 1984 - Austin Stowell, American actor
 1985 - Christina Schwanitz, German shot putter
 1986 - Ana Brenda Contreras, Mexican-American actress and singer
 1986 - Theodor Gebre Selassie, Czech footballer
 1986 - Kyrylo Fesenko, Ukrainian basketball player
 1986 - Riyo Mori, Japanese model
 1986 - Satomi Ishihara, Japanese actress
 1987 - Jane Summersett, American ice dancer
 1988 - Simon Zenke, Nigerian footballer
 1991 - Louis Tomlinson, English singer (One Direction)
 1992 – Melissa Suffield, English actress
 1993 - Mariya Nishiuchi, Japanese model, actress and singer
 1993 - Yuya Kubo, Japanese footballer
Deaths

Up to 1900 
 1257 - John I, Count of Hainault (b. 1218)
 1524 – Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer (b. 1469)
 1660 – Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange (b. 1631)
 1813 – Empress Go-Sakuramachi of Japan (b. 1740)
 1863 – William Makepeace Thackeray, British writer (b. 1811)
 1865 - Charles Lock Eastlake, English painter (b. 1793)
 1868 - Adolphe d'Archiac, French paleontologist and geologist (b. 1802)
 1869 - Edwin M. Stanton, American politician (b. 1815)
 1872 - William John Macquorn Rankine, Scottish physician and engineer (b. 1820)
 1873 – Johns Hopkins, American philanthropist and benefactor (b. 1795)
 1889 - Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate, Dutch clergyman and poet (b. 1819)
 1893 - Robert Bentley, British botanist (b. 1821)
 1898 - Charbel Makhluf, Lebanese monk and priest (b. 1828)
1901  2000 
 1914 – John Muir, Scottish-American naturalist and conservationist (b. 1838)
 1920 - Stephen Mosher Wood, American politician (b. 1832)
 1926 - Wesley Coe, American athlete (b. 1879)
 1930 - Eduard David, German politician (b. 1863)
 1934 - George W. P. Hunt, American politician, 1st Governor of Arizona (b. 1859)
 1935 - Alban Berg, Austrian composer (b. 1885)
 1938 - Bruno Taut, German architect (b. 1880)
 1941 - Siegfried Alkan, German composer (b. 1858)
 1942 - François Darlan, Prime Minister of France (b. 1881)
 1947 - Charles Gondouin, French rugby player (b. 1875)
 1957 – Norma Talmadge, American actress (b. 1894)
 1962 - Wilhelm Ackermann, German mathematician (b. 1896)
 1967 - Burt Baskin, American businessman (b. 1913)
 1971 - Maria Koepcke, German-Peruvian ornithologist (b. 1924)
 1973 – Periyar E. V. Ramasamy, Indian businessman, social activist, and politician (b. 1973) 
 1977 - Juan Velasco Alvarado, Peruvian politician and military (b. 1910)
1979 – Rudi Dutschke, German sociologist and student leader (b. 1940)
 1980 – Karl Dönitz, German admiral (b. 1890)
 1980 - Siggie Nordstrom, American actress and singer (b. 1893)
 1982 - Louis Aragon, French writer (b. 1897)
 1984 – Peter Lawford, British actor (b. 1923)
 1985 - Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, American lawyer (b. 1904)
 1987 - M. G. Ramachandran, Indian actor, producer and writer (b. 1917)
 1987 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch politician (b. 1919)
 1990 - Thorbjorn Egner, Norwegian writer (b. 1922)
 1992 – Peyo, Belgian comic writer (b. 1928)
 1994 - Rossano Brazzi, Italian actor, singer, director and screenwriter (b. 1916)
 1997 - Toshiro Mifune, Japanese actor (b. 1920)
 1999 - Maurice Couve de Murville, Prime Minister of France (b. 1907)
 1999 – Joao Figueiredo, President of Brazil (b. 1918)
 2000 - Nick Massi, American singer and musician (b. 1935)
From 2001 
 2002 - Kjell Aukrust, Norwegian writer (b. 1920)
 2008 – Harold Pinter, British playwright (b. 1930)
 2008 - Samuel P. Huntington, American politician (b. 1927)
 2009 – Rafael Caldera, President of Venezuela (b. 1916)
 2010 – Elisabeth Beresford, British writer (b. 1926)
 2010 – Roy Neuberger, American banker (b. 1903)
 2010 – Eino Tamberg, Estonian composer (b. 1930)
 2011 – Johannes Heesters, Dutch-born entertainer, actor and singer (b. 1903)
 2012 - Richard Rodney Bennett, British composer (b. 1936)
 2012 - Charles Durning, American actor (b. 1923)
 2012 - Jack Klugman, American actor (b. 1922)
 2013 - Allan McKeown, English-American screenwriter and producer (b. 1946)
 2014 - Krzysztof Krauze, Polish movie director and screenwriter (b. 1953)
 2014 - Buddy DeFranco, American jazz clarinetist (b. 1923)
 2014 - Edward Greenspan, Canadian lawyer (b. 1944)
 2015 - Ron Jacobs, American basketball coach (b. 1942)
 2016 - Liz Smith, English actress (b. 1921)
2016 - Richard Adams, English writer (b. 1920)
 2016 - Rick Parfitt, English musician (Status Quo) (b. 1948)
 2016 - Edwin Reinecke, American politician (b. 1924)
 2017 - Jerry Kindall, American baseball player (b. 1935)
 2017 - Heather Menzies, Canadian-American actress and model (b. 1949)
 2017 - Andrey Zaliznyak, Russian linguist (b. 1935)
Observances 
 Christmas Eve (Western Christianity)
 Independence Day (Libya)

Days of the year
A quark is an elementary particle which makes up hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons. Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons. It was once thought that all three of those were fundamental particles, which cannot be broken up into anything smaller, but after the invention of the particle accelerator, it was discovered that electrons are fundamental particles, but neutrons and protons are not. Neutrons and protons are made up of quarks, which are held together by gluons.

There are six types of quarks. The types are called flavours. The flavours are up (u), down (d), strange (s), charm (c), top (t), and bottom (b). Up, charm and top quarks have a charge of +, while down, strange and bottom quarks have a charge of -. Each quark has a matching antiquark. Antiquarks have a charge opposite to that of their quarks; meaning that up, charm and top antiquarks have a charge of - and down, strange and bottom antiquarks have a charge of +.
Only up and down quarks are found inside of atoms of normal matter. Two up quarks and one down make a proton ( +  -  = +1 charge) while two down quarks and one up make a neutron ( -  -  = 0 charge). The other four flavours are not seen naturally on Earth, but they can be made in particle accelerators. Some of them may also exist inside of stars.

When two or more quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, the particle formed is called a hadron. Quarks that make the quantum number of hadrons are named 'valence quarks'. The two families of hadrons are baryons (made of three valence quarks) and mesons (which are made from a quark and an antiquark). Some examples of baryons are protons and neutrons, and examples of mesons are pions and kaons.