Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Marsot, Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid. Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
 Pollard, Lisa. Nurturing the Nation: The Family Politics of Modernizing, Colonizing, and Liberating Egypt, 1805–1923. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2005.
 Rivlin, Helen Anne B. The Agricultural Policy of Muhammad ‘Alī in Egypt. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1961.
 Vatikiotis, P.J. 1991. The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. . online free to borrow
 Finkel, Caroline, Osman's Dream, (Basic Books, 2005), 57; "Istanbul was only adopted as the city's official name in 1930..".
Attribution

Further reading
Aharoni, Reuven. The Pasha's Bedouin: tribes and state in the Egypt of Mehemet Ali, 1805–1848 (Routledge, 2014)
 
 
 Fahmy, K.Fahmy, Khaled. All the Pasha's men: Mehmed Ali, his army and the making of modern Egypt (Cambridge University Press, 1997)
 
 Kelly, J. B. "Mehemet ‘Ali's expedition to the Persian Gulf 1837–1840, part I." Middle Eastern Studies (1965) 1#4 pp: 350–381.
 Panza, Laura, and J. G. Williamson. "Did Muhammad Ali foster industrialization in early nineteenth‐century Egypt?." The Economic History Review (2014). online
 Sayyid-Marsot, A.L., 1984, Egypt in the reign of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge University Press)
 Silvera, Alain. "Edme‐Framçois Jomard and Egyptian reforms in 1839." Middle Eastern Studies (1971) 7#3 pp: 301–316.
 Stewart, Desmond. "Mohammed Ali: Pasha of Egypt" History Today (May 1958) 8#5 pp 321-327.
 Toledano, E.R. (1985) "Mehmet Ali Paşa or Muhammad Ali Basha? A historiographic appraisal in the wake of a recent book." Middle Eastern Studies 21#4 pp: 141–159.
Other websites 

 Al Ahram special on Muhammad Ali
 Biographic Sketch of Mohammad Ali, Pacha of Egypt, Syria, and Arabia

Ottoman people
1769 births
1849 deaths
is a Japanese athlete.  He is best known as a  Paralympian Track and field competitor.  He competes in category long distance events.

Marathon
In 2011, he won the wheelchair division of the New York City Marathon.  He completed the course in 1 hour 31 minutes 41 seconds (1:31:41).  He dedicated his race to the children in Japan, who were affected by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and the Fukushima nuclear disaster.

Soejima won the wheelchair division of the Boston Marathon in 2011.

Paralympics
Masazumi has competed in the marathon in both the 2004 and 2008 Summer Paralympics, 10000m in 2004, 5000m and 1500m in 2008. 

In the 4x400m relay in 2004, he won a bronze medal.

References

1970 births
Living people
Japanese sportspeople
Paralympic competitors‎
Bayesian probability figures out the likelihood that something will happen based on available evidence. This is different from frequency probability which determines the likelihood something will happen based on how often it occurred in the past.

You might use Bayesian probability if you don't have information on how often the event happened in the past.

Example
As an example, say you want to classify an email as "spam" or "not spam".  One thing you know about this email is that it has an emoji in the subject line.  Say it's the year 2017, and 80% of the emails you got with emoji in them were spam.  So you can look at an email with emoji in the subject and say it's 80% likely to be spam.

But if only 1% of your emails were spam and 80% of the emojis were spam, that's different than if half your emails are spam and 80% of emoji emails were spam.

Then you can use Bayes's Theorem to determine one probability of whether this email is spam:
p (is_spam | contains_emoji) = [ p(contains_emoji | is_spam) * p(is_spam) ] / p(contains_emoji)

P(xy) = P(xy) * Px / Py

Philosophy of science
Probability theory
Statistics
Dani Rodrik (born August 14, 1957 in Istanbul, Turkey) is a Turkish economist in the fields of international economics, economic development and political economy.
He is a professor of economics at John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, where he teaches economics to university students.

Life and work
Dani Rodrik was born in Istanbul, Turkey to a Sephardic Jewish (Jews who come from Spain) family. 
He studied at the high schools, Robert College in Istanbul and École Normale Supérieure in Paris and then at the universities, Harvard University and Princeton University in the United States of America learning economics. He graduated from Harvard University and got his Ph.D. and Professorship from Princeton University.
Dani Rodrik is one of the most important Turkish economists and has made several important contributions to economics. He looks at international economics, economic development and political economy,  and has published many articles about them. The main questions of his research are: what makes a good economic policy and why some governments are better than others in adopting it.

He does not like globalization, because he feels it only helps rich people get richer by making poor people poorer and that people lose their jobs. He also thinks that international organizations like the World Bank and the IMF have made it harder for poorer countries to get richer, or even do not allow them to get richer. He writes critical articles against globalization.

Other websites 
Dani Rodrik's home page
Who is Dani Rodrik 

1957 births
Living people
Turkish economists
European Jews
Harvard University alumni
Jewish academics
People from Istanbul
Princeton University alumni
Tiffani Thiessen (born January 23, 1974) is an American sitcom and television actress. She was born in Long Beach, California. She played Valerie Malone in Beverly Hills, 90210.

Other websites 

Actors from Long Beach, California
American television actors
1974 births
Living people
Saved by the Bell is an American sitcom. It aired on NBC on Saturday mornings from August 1989 to May 1993. The show performed extremely well, although many TV critics did not like it. The show is set in Los Angeles at a fictional high school.

1989 American television series debuts
1993 American television series endings
1980s American sitcoms

1990s American sitcoms
1990s teen television series
American teen comedy television series
High school television series
NBC network shows
Television series about friendship
Television series set in Los Angeles
English-language television programs
Pope Benedict VIII (;   –died April 9, 1024), born Teofillato or Theophylactus, was an Italian cleric of the Roman Catholic Church and the 144th Pope from 1012 to 1024.

Early life
Teofillato was the son of Gregory, Count of Tusculum.  He was the brother of Pope John XIX.  He was related to Pope Sergius IV and the Conti family.

Pope
Teofillato was a layman before he was elected pope in 1012.

Benedict was supported by King Henry II of Saxony.  Benedict crowned Henry Holy Roman Emperor in 1014.

Related pages
 List of popes
 List of popes from the Tusculum family

References

Other websites

 
  Catholic Hierarchy, Popes in sequence
  Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Benedict VIII

Italian popes
10th-century births
1024 deaths
The Knights of St. Patrick is a British order of chivalry associated with Ireland.  Founded by King George III of Great Britain and Ireland in 1783. Irish-born British General Herbert Kitchener was a Knight of St. Patrick

References

Orders of knighthood
King George III (born George William Frederick, 4 June 1738  29 January 1820) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 25 October 1760 to 1 January 1801, when he became King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. He was also Elector of Hanover, which made him a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire.

During George's reign, he lost control of the United States of America however the British Empire made major gains in South Asia. His two kingdoms, Great Britain and Ireland, were merged into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Also during his reign, the British were at war with republican and Napoleon I's France. The Electorate of Hanover eventually became a Kingdom.

George suffered from periodic bouts of mental illness. One of them caused a crisis in 1788, and attempts were made to nominate his son George IV as regent. The king quickly recovered and prevented that from happening.
George signed the Quebec Act of 1774, which abolished William III's anti-Catholic laws in the American colonies. Also during his reign, George III signed legislation abolishing some of the anti-Catholic Laws in Great Britain and Ireland. For example, the Catholic Relief Acts of 1772 and 1774 allowed Roman Catholics to have land leases in Great Britain. In 1793, Hogart's Act allowed Roman Catholics to vote in Irish elections, but George blocked a proposal in 1800 to allow Catholics to sit in the British Parliament.

In the later part of his life, George suffered from recurrent mental illness, which was eventually permanent. Although it has since been suggested that he suffered from a genetic blood disease, porphyria, the cause of his illness is not certain. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, and George's eldest son, George, Prince of Wales, ruled as Prince Regent. On George III's death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV.
Because of "his plain, homely, thrifty manners and tastes", George III has had the nickname of Farmer George.

Titles and styles
 4 June 1738 – 31 March 1751: His Royal Highness Prince George
 31 March 1751 – 20 April 1751: His Royal Highness The Duke of Edinburgh
 20 April 1751 – 25 October 1760: His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales
 25 October 1760 – 29 January 1820: His Majesty The King

Ancestors

References

Other websites

1738 births
1820 deaths
Kings and Queens of the United Kingdom
Kings and Queens of Hanover
People Buried in St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle
Kings and Queens of Great Britain
The Script are an Irish pop rock group from Dublin. They formed in 2001. They are currently based out of London. They are signed to the Sony Label Group. Their music has been featured in video games and popular TV programs.

The Script have made four albums:
The Script (2008)
Science & Faith (2010)
#3 (2012)
No Sound Without Silence (2014)
These have all gone to the top of the Irish charts. They also did really well in the UK charts, with the first two albums reaching number 1 and #3 reaching the second position. Their 2012 single Hall of Fame, made with will.i.am, was a worldwide success.

References

Other websites 
Official website 

Musical groups established in 2001
2000s Irish music groups
2010s Irish music groups
Irish pop music groups
Irish rock bands
Musical groups from Dublin
The Abercrombie River is a river in New South Wales, Australia. It flows west from Mount Werong to the Wyangala Dam near Cowra. The river is a tributary of the Lachlan, which it joins at Wyangala lake.

The Abercrombie River is  in length, and passes through the Abercrombie River National Park. It provides habitat for platypus and rakali. The Goulburn-Oberon Road crosses the Abercrombie River in the steep-sided Abercrombie Gorge.
The first people to live alongside the river were Aborigines of the Wiradjuri and Gundungara tribes. They may have used the river as a trading route. The first European to visit the river was explorer Charles Throsby on 5 May 1819, during an expedition from Sydney to the Central West of New South Wales. Alluvial gold was discovered in and along the river in 1851. This started a small gold rush. It was difficult to find gold because of the rough terrain, and changing water levels in the river. Early miners found up to  of gold a day along the river. By 1862 about 45 mining parties were working at Milburne Creek, a minor tributary of the Abercrombie. 
It is the furthest east of the inland flowing rivers.

References 

Rivers of New South Wales
Pope Benedict XII (; died April 25, 1342), born Jacques Fournier, was a French priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 198th Pope from 1334 to 1342.

He was the third of the seven popes who lived in Avignon in France.

Early life
Jacques Fournier is believed to have been born in Saverdun in the Comté de Foix near Toulouse. 

He became a Cistercian monk; and he studied at the University of Paris. 

In 1311, he was made Abbot of Fontfroide Abbey.

Bishop
In 1317, Fourier was made bishop of Pamiers.  

In 1327, he became Bishop of Mirepoix in the Ariège.

Cardinal
Pope John XXIII made Fourier a cardinal  in 1327.

Pope
Cardinal Fourier was elected pope in 1335; and he chose to be called Benedict XII.

Pope Benedict was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

Benedict XII ordered the construction of the Palais des Papes in Avignon.

Related pages 
 List of popes
 Avignon Papacy

References

Other websites
Other websites

 
  Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Benedict XII
 Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church,  Cardinal Fourier

1280s births
1342 deaths
French popes
La Toya Jackson (born May 29, 1956, near Gary, Indiana) is an American singer, songwriter, writer, actress, television personality and a former model. She was the fifth of ten offspring born to Joseph and Katherine Jackson. She wanted to be an attorney but her father insisted that she work in show business like her siblings. She sang background vocals with The Jackson Five, her brothers' band. She had many musical hits during the 1980s and 1990s and returned in 2004. In 1989 Jackson was on the cover of Playboy magazine.

Early life and careers

1950s 
Jackson was born at St Mary's Mercy Hospital in Gary, Indiana, She was fifth children and ten child of Joe Jackson and Katherine Jackson
1980s
In 1980 Jackson's first album La Toya Jackson was released. Jackson wanted the album to be called "La Toya" but her dad would not let her. Her second single "Night Time Lover" was produced by La Toya's brother Michael. Jackson's third album was released in 1984. She sung backing vocals on Michael's single ""P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing)". In 1985 Jackson sung on "We Are the World" as part of USA for Africa. It sold over 20 million copies.

1990s
In 1991 Jackson's first book La Toya, Growing Up In The Jackson Family was published.
Jackson released her ninth album From Nashville to You in 1994.

2000s
In July 2009 Jackson released the single "Home" in dedication to her brother Michael Jackson, who died on June 25 2009. All of the money from people buying the single went to AIDS_Project Los Angeles, which was one of Michael's favourite charities.
2010s
She released a new EP for 2011, Starting Over. In the same year a best-selling memoir written by Jackson of the same name was released. In 2010 she released Dream Cream, a hand cream for Alessandro International.

On April 13, 2013 a reality series about Jackson's life called Life with La Toya started on the Oprah Winfrey Network.

Jackson's newest single “Feels Like Love” was played for the first time on December 14 at a West Hollywood nightclub.

Personal life
Jackson did not move out of the Jackson family home until she was 31 years old. In 1989 she married her manager Jack Gordon. She did not want to. In 1993 Gordon beat Jackson with a chair many times. She had to have 12 stitches in her mouth. In 1996 Jackson escaped from Gordon with the help of her brother Randy. She sued Gordon under the Violence Against Women Act.
It was reported that on December 9, 2013 Jackson married Jeffrey Phillips in Los Angeles.
However Jackson said this is not true.

References

Other websites
Official website
1956 births
Living people
Singers from Indiana
American television actors
Actors from Gary, Indiana
Jackson family
American models
Writers from Indiana
Musicians from Gary, Indiana
American television personalities
Abercrombie River National Park is a national park in New South Wales, Australia. It is  west of Sydney. The Abercrombie and Retreat Rivers flow through the park. The park protects a large area of open forest, the largest area in this part of New South Wales. There are large trees, Casuarina cunninghamia, growing along the river. The river is normally a series of deep waterholes. In the park there are platypuses, rakalis, wallaroos, red-necked wallabies, swamp wallabies and Eastern Grey Kangaroos.

References

Other websites

 UNEP-WCMC WDPA Site Sheet 
 List of all animals found in the park 

National parks in Australia
Protected areas of New South Wales
IUCN Category II
The rakali (Hydromys chrysogaster), also known as the water-rat, is an Australian native rodent. The species lives in burrows on the banks of rivers, lakes and estuaries. It feeds on aquatic insects, fish, crustaceans, mussels, snails, frogs, birds' eggs and water birds. Rakali are  in length with a thick tail measuring around . They weigh . They have webbed hind legs, waterproof fur, a flattened head, a long blunt nose, many whiskers and small ears and eyes. They are black to brown in colour with an orange to white belly, and dark tail with a white tip.

Common names
Until the 1980s, this species was commonly known as water-rat. During the 1990s there was a push for English common names to be replaced with indigenous names. In 1995 the Australian Nature Conservation Agency recommended that the name rakali be used as the common name. The Australian Department of Environment and Heritage has taken up this suggestion and both common names are now used.

References

Other websites

Australian Museum Factsheet
Old World rats and mice
Mammals of Australia
The Gila River Arena is a sports arena in Glendale, Arizona. The arena opened on December 26, 2003, and is the current home to the Arizona Coyotes of the National Hockey League (NHL). The arena was originally known as Glendale Arena until online company Jobing.com acquired naming rights in late 2006 for 10 years, which cost a reported $30 million. The building became Jobing.com Arena on January 1, 2007. In 2014, the team ended the contract with Jobing.com and reached a new deal with the Gila River Casinos, owned by a local tribe of Native Americans. The new arena name became official on September 10, 2014.  

The arena currently seats 17,125 people (17,534 with standing room). The Arizona Sting of the National Lacrosse League (NLL) also played in the arena from 2003 to 2007.

Other websites
Official website

References

Sports buildings in the United States
Arizona Coyotes
Buildings and structures in Arizona
2003 establishments in Arizona
The Stockholm Bloodbath () or Swedish Massacre (8–9 November 1520) was the mass killing of Swedish nobility by the Danish King Christian II (1481–1559). Denmark, Norway and Sweden were part of the Kalmar Union. There had been conflict in Sweden between those who supported the union, and those who wanted independence. In 1520 Christian II had invaded Sweden. The regent of Sweden, Sten Sture the Younger, was killed in battle. Christian II besieged Stockholm for four months. When the city gave in, he made himself king and beheaded 82 leading Swedes, including two bishops for heresy. The reason for heresy was the people of Stockholm had replaced Archbishop Gustav Trolle; this was said to be a crime against the Church. Sture the Younger's body was dug up and burned at the stake. The killings made people so angry that he became known as "Christian the Tyrant". He was chased out of Sweden in 1523.

References

History of Stockholm
1520
1520s in Europe
November events
Maureen Reillette "Rebbie" Jackson (born May 29, 1950 in Gary, Indiana) is an American singer. She is the eldest of the Jackson siblings.

Life and Career
Maureen was born at 2300 Jackson Street in Gary, Indiana, She began performing on stage in 1974 and later appeared in the television program  The Jacksons. In 1984 Rebbie released her debut album Centipede, her most successful album. The single "Centipede" reached number 4 in the US R&B chart. It has backing vocals from siblings La Toya and Michael Jackson and The Weather Girls. In 1976 she was in the TV series The Jacksons. It was the first TV show starring an African-American family. She then released two more albums in the 1980s and then went on hiatus, returning in 1998 with Yours Faithfully. She has not had an album released since 1998.

Personal life
She married Nathaniel Brown in 1968. He died in 2013 of cancer. They have three children, Austin, Stacee (who has Jackson's only grandchild, London), and Yashi Brown.

References
References

African-American singers
Singers from Indiana
1950 births
Living people
Jackson family
Musicians from Gary, Indiana
The Battle of White Mountain happened in 1620 and was the first battle of the Thirty Years' War. It had Duke Maximilian I of Bavaria defeat the forces of Frederick V, Elector of Palantine, King of Bohemia and Moravia.  

The cause of the battle was a revolt by a group of Czech lords who threw two governors and a secretary out of the windows of Prague Castle. The incident is known as the Defenestration of Prague. The rebels quickly built up an army of 30,000 to make an independent Protestant country. The Czechs were defeated by a well-trained Imperial army after a battle lasting less than one hour. Emperor Ferdinand II replaced Frederick as King of Bohemia and then killed many who had opposed him. Others were given a choice to convert to Catholicism or to leave the country.

White Mountain is now in the city of Prague. There is an open space and monument.

References

Czechoslovakia
White Mountain
Thirty Years' War
1620
1620s in Europe
Lana Turner (February 8, 1921 - June 29, 1995) was an American actress. She was born in Wallace, Idaho. She was first discovered and signed into movie contract by MGM when she was 16. She played mainly feature roles and was one of Hollywood's first scream queens. She would become very popular in the 1940s and 1950s. Turner appeared in the television series Falcon Crest during 1982 and 1983. The actress died from throat cancer in 1995 in Century City, Los Angeles.

Other websites 

1921 births
1995 deaths
Actors from Idaho
American movie actors
American television actors
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles
Deaths from throat cancer
Gansus is a genus of  aquatic birds that lived during the Lower Cretaceous period, between 115 to 105 million years ago (mya). It was found in what is now Gansu province, western China. It is the oldest-known of the Ornithurae, the group which includes modern birds (Neornithes) and extinct related groups, such as Confuciusornis, Ichthyornis and Hesperornis.

Description
The genus Gansus contains a single species, G. yumenensis, which was about the size of a pigeon and similar in appearance to loons and diving ducks.
 It had many features common among modern birds, and also retained some primitive traits such as its clawed wings.
Gansus was discovered in the form of a single fossil foot in 1981. Five more well-preserved fossils were found in 2003–2004 in mudstone at the site of an ancient lake at Changma, Gansu; the geological stratum in which the fossils were found is the Xiagou Formation.  Their bodies had settled in anoxic mud and were soon covered with further extremely fine silty sediments. Without oxygen, their remains resisted decay: these specimens preserved remains of flight feathers and traces of the webbing between their toes.

References 

Cretaceous birds
Gansu
Marumo no Okite is a Japanese television drama starring Sadao Abe and Mana Ashida. Eleven episodes were broadcast by Fuji Television between April 24 and July 3, 2011.

Japanese television series
"This City" is the first solo mainstream radio single released by American pop singer-songwriter Patrick Stump off the debut album Soul Punk under Island Def Jam Records on July 26, 2011 on his blog. The song features American rapper and songwriter and producer Lupe Fiasco. The original track does not feature Fiasco's addition to the rap versus in the single. In January 2010, Stump announced that he was producing his debut solo album, titled Soul Punk. This came after Fall Out Boy (his main band)'s hiatus in late 2009. His album is a complete solo effort as he is doing everything: performing, composing all music, penning all lyrics, playing over ten instruments and producing, with the album's recording is funded by his own Fall Out Boy earnings. Its musical direction is generally pop/R&B orientated and has been described by Stump as "soul punk" and "smart pop," drawing influence from a wide scope of artists including Prince, Michael Jackson and David Bowie
. According to Stump, the song changed the entire course of Soul Punk. "I had written a while draft of the album and then at the 11th hour came up with "This City," I really loved the song but felt like, conceptually, it didn't fit on the album. I had to go back and make an album for that song because I loved it so much. So one of the holdups on [the album] was re-writing the record around [it]." With Soul Punk originally due in February 2011, Stump delayed it to October 18 and rebuilt the album with the song, releasing Truant Wave EP in the meanwhile for its delay in February 2011. "I had this feeling that the album was disjointed, and right before I was mastering, I played "This City" for my manager — I really liked it, but I was unsure about it, although I thought it was what I wanted to say — and he was like, 'Put it on, it's great! Then I thought, 'Well, if I'm going to put that on the record, then I really need to go back to the drawing board
.' Basically I took "This City", "Everybody Wants Somebody", "Allie", and a song called "Dance Miserable", and rebuilt the album around those four songs."
Music video
A music video for the remix has been released, directed by Ken Koller. On September 13, Patrick Stump announced that the music video for "This City" (remix) would premiere on September 20 on Vevo with a teaser on Idolitor. Prior to that he Tweeted about the video in the making Twitter and a behind-the-scenes clip was reported by MTV on their website. The video features Stump dancing and performing the song in a room with flashing lights, projections and heavy use of special effects, alternating with brief grayscale flashes of a city. Despite not being available at first, Lupe Fiasco appears for one scene by himself. Stump and Koller made the video simplistic to let the music do the talking rather than the video.
"There's not really a plot, there's not really a story to it. The song's called 'This City,' and it describes a lot of these images in a city, and I feel like those images are already there; it would be kind of redundant to take a camera into a city; it's almost like the colors and the lights and the images that are going to be around this are going to be representing the life in a city. One thing that Ken and I were talking about is that a city is so complicated, so ... we wanted to do something a bit different with it, and a bit more abstract [...] the treatment was really funny to look at; it was literally one sentence, like 'Patrick stands in a room and sings and we project all these images and lights on the walls.'"—Stump, reported by MTV.

Charts

Weekly charts

2011 songs
Ornithurae (meaning 'bird tails' in Greek) is the name of a natural group which includes all modern birds as well as their extinct relatives with plough-shaped pygostyles (†Ichthyornis, †Hesperornithes, †Limenavis). This is a bone at the end of the tail which allows the tail feathers to fan and retract. Gansus, from the Lower Cretaceous of China is the earliest known at 110 million years ago.

Simple classification:
Birds
Ornithurae
Neornithes: modern birds: the most recent common ancestor of all living birds (class Aves) and all its descendants.
Palaeognathae (tinamous and flightless ratites)
Neognathae (all other modern birds)

Birds
Taxonomy
Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener KG, KP, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, ADC, PC (24 June 1850 – 4 June 1916) was an Irish born British Field Marshal.

Kitchener was Sirdar (British Commander in Chief) of the Egyptian Army. He defeated the Mahdist rebels against Egyptian rule in 1898 and conquered the Sudan for Britain and (nominally) Egypt.

He was Chief of Staff during the Boer War of 1899-1902. From 1899-1900 he was also Commander-in-Chief of the forces in southern Africa. He was given many orders of chivalry, both British and foreign, including Knight of St. Patrick and Knight of the Garter.

At the start of the First World War, the Prime Minister, Asquith, quickly appointed Lord Kitchener Secretary of State for War. A massive recruitment campaign began, featuring his image in a famous advertisement. Kitchener was drowned in 1916 when the HMS Hampshire sunk near the Orkney Islands after hitting a German mine.

References
References

1850 births
1916 deaths
British Army people
Deaths by drowning
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights of Justice of the Order of St John
Knights of the Garter
Order of Merit
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Military people killed in World War I
People from the Republic of Ireland
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was the name of the Sudan when it was a colony of the United Kingdom and Egypt. It was officially under the joint rule of both countries, but the British controlled the government from the beginning. Every Governor was British, and all decisions about the country were made by the British, but many of the administrators of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan were Egyptians. The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was created in 1899 when the Egyptian Army under Herbert Kitchener recaptured the Sudan, which was before an Egyptian colony, from the Mahdists, a group of Islamic rebels against Egypt.

Sudan Conquest 
Before focusing on the Anglo-Egyptian condominium in Sudan, it is essential to know that Sudan was already a part of Egypt since 1820. Egypt was then part of the Ottoman empire.
Muhammad Ali came to power in Egypt in 1805 to defeat the Mamluks by 1812. The Mamluks were invited to the inauguration of Ahmad Pasha as commander. After the event at the Citadel of Cairo, the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali commanded his army to kill all the Mamluks. The ones that survived the massacre fled southwards to a village in Sudan called Dongola, where they formed a community.

Reasons for the conquest 
This Mamluk settlement was the main reason for Ali to invade Sudan; he feared that they were preparing to come back to Egypt soon and topple the ruler. But this was certainly not the only reason for Muhammad Ali to take over their neighboring country. He was also highly interested in the enslaved Sudanese people. Ali decided to modernize Egypt when he took control of it in 1805, this included building a big army, but he had not enough human resources to achieve this.
The conquest 
After years of exploration by Egyptian officials in Upper Egypt and Sudan, the invasion began in 1820. The conquest can be divided into two different parts. The first one was led by the son of Muhammad Ali, Isma'ili Kamal Pasha, and had the aim to take control of the Nile Bassin and Sennar. Muhammad Bay Khusawr Al Dafardaar conducted the second conquest that began a year later; he was also related to Mohammed Ali because he married the daughter of Mohammed Ali's wife. His goal was to conquer the Darfur region which is the southwestern part of Sudan.

Result 
Ali’s goal of creating an army consisting of enslaved people was not achieved. But with his invasion, he dismantled possible opponents. The situation in Sudan was calm after their uprising was suppressed. The next big rebellion was the Mahdist revolt.
Mahdist state 
In 1881, the Mahdist Revolt broke out in the Sudan. This revolt was similar in nature to the ‘Urabi revolt in lower Egypt, however experienced by the British as more fanatical. It was centered around the Sufi scholar Muhammad Ahmad who assumed Mahdiship and started a revolution from Kordofan against Egypt. From Kordofan he conquered most of modern-day Sudan and South Sudan.

After the Mahdist takeover, the Sudanese economy was destroyed first by the war and later by famine and oppression. The Mahdi declared that anyone that criticized his mahdiship as unfaithful was considered an unbeliever (kāfir). The Mahdist state also continued to fight a jihad against Egypt and opposition within his state.
Anglo-Egyptian Condominium 
The reconquest of Sudan was achieved with Egyptian military and finance; this was on demand of Great Britain. Other European powers, like France, Italy, and Belgium that were active in the region, were also interested in annexing or acquiring Sudanese territory. The most famous example is the Fashoda Incident, the French Captain Marchand occupied the military post of Fashoda in southern Sudan on 10 July 1898. Kitchener, who was the governor-general, was furious and immediately sent out the army to defeat the French.

The military problem had now been solved; the political issue awaited a solution. At first, it was unclear which form of government was to be applied to the Sudan.  Because the country had to be sufficiently Egyptian to meet the political requirements and enough British to avoid any administration problems.
The Agreement 
In 1898 a solution was found. On 19 January and 10 July of that year, the Condominium Agreement was signed by Lord Cromer on the British side and Boutros Pasha Ghali on the Egyptian side, he was the Egyptian Minister of Foreign Affairs at the time. A condominium means that a territory is held by two powers, in this case Egypt and Great Britain. For Sudan, it meant that it became an independent state, but with the rights of the two powers, Great Britain and Egypt merged into it. 

The agreement intends to guarantee the predominance of Great Britain in Sudan in the interests of the Sudanese, Egypt, and herself. The main points in the deal were as follows; Firstly, the flags of the two sovereign powers were to be hoisted next to each other.
The second key point is about the British control of the administrative structure given in Articles III and IV of the agreement. Article III says that the Governor-General of Sudan, who is appointed by the Khedive, is responsible for the civil and military command of the country. The other one, Article IV, gives the same Governor-General complete control over legislative powers, which means that he can make or change laws. Kitchener was, as aforementioned, the first governor-general; later, in 1899, Sir Reginald Wingate was appointed. 

Lastly, the appointment of Consuls in the Sudan must be made in consultation with Britain.
Egypt's interest 
Egypt’s interest in Sudan is twofold. The first one is security; by controlling Sudan in a condominium with Great Britain, they remove threats coming from the south. The second and biggest reason for their interest is the Nile. Lord Cromer and his administration wanted to secure the Upper Nile, one reason for this was to have enough water for their important cotton production in Egypt.

British Policies

Before WWI 
When the British reclaimed Sudan, they implemented several changes in their religious and political policies. 

They were to focus on three main goals. The first of which was the separation of religion and state, as was the norm in other colonies. Another was the expulsion of the remaining Mahdist forces. This was, partially, done through condemnation of Sufism. Nevertheless, revolts did break out, which were gradually put down over time. A third goal was to gain more control over southern tribal areas, which had been under loose control in the past.
The differentiated British policies for missionary activities from those in the south. In the north, orthodox Islam was encouraged, and therefore missionary activity would be mostly prohibited. In southern tribal territories, however, it would be allowed, as they were perceived to be pagans by the British.

WWI 
When Britain and the Ottoman Empire assumed opposing sides in the first world war, Britain declared Egypt as a protectorate. This was done because Egypt was, although very autonomous, still technically a province of the Ottoman Empire. Sudan was now the most British it had been.

Wingate managed to get the support of many Sudanese people. He did this by allowing more Sufism and using lingering hate against the Ottomans in Sudan to get the support of the remaining Mahdi sympathizers. Which, in turn, meant that the previous efforts to prioritize traditional Islam had failed.
Interbellum 
After the first world war, Egyptian nationalism greatly increased. There was a fear that if the Egyptians were to gain independence, they would also claim Sudan. Therefore, the British tried to gain Sudanese support by speaking to local leaders and prominent figures. One son of the Mahdi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, was becoming increasingly pro-British after the first world war and would pledge his sword to the British crown in 1919. The British now had generally better relations with the Sudanese religious elite given the Mahdist threat was mostly on their side now.

However, Egyptian nationalism had mainly affected the educated middle-class Sudanese-Egyptian people. These nationalists were led by ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Latif, who started several political movements demanding sovereignty for Sudan. This led to protests and his arrest in 1922 and 1924. After his second arrest, more violent protests would take place, this led to the expulsion of Egyptian troops from Sudan.
In the 1930s, British influence appeared to be diminishing, partially because the Anglo-Egyptian treaty had been signed in 1936, making the relations between the two states more consolable. However, there was not much agreed upon about the territory of Sudan and who would rule it, with many of the same disputes still existing in the background. Nationalism had also started to grow in recent years, and in 1938 the first Sudanese representation came into being with the establishment of the Graduates’ General Congress.

Independence 
The Sudanese independence was a consequence of the coup by the Free Officers in Egypt in 1952. This coup, led by Mohammad Naguib and general Gamal Abdel Nasser, overthrew the Egyptian Monarchy.
Rise of Nationalism 
In the Sudan, the voice of nationalists had risen since a few years already. Different political parties were formed, some aimed to be fully independent and other to unite with Egypt. One of the parties that strived for independence was the Umma Nation Party, created in 1945. Britain and Egypt were aware of this rise of nationalism. Britain set up an advisory council in the northern part of the country, giving the Umma party the lead over it. 

Mohammad Naguib, half Sudanese, met the Sudanese political leader to suggest self-governance and later self-determination. On 10 January 1953, the agreement giving the Sudan ‘self-government statute’ was signed by both countries. 

This was seen as a transitional period that was limited to a maximum of 3 years; after this, it was decided whether Sudan was to be linked to Egypt in any form or become independent.
The second option was chosen, and the parliament was the country's first self-governing institution. In 1954 elections were held, and Ismail Azhari won. He was the leader of the National Unionist Party; he wanted to get rid of the British control in Sudan. Azhari was for the unity of Egypt and Sudan, but this changed once he was elected as prime minister.

On 19 December 1955, the House of Representatives passed a resolution for the country's independence. On 1 January 1956, Sudan was officially independent, the Egyptian and British flags were lowered, and the new Sudanese flag was hoisted. This was the end of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.

References 

Former colonies in Africa
1899 establishments
19th-century establishments in Africa
History of Sudan
Condominium means a colony ruled jointly by two or more countries. Examples include the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, which was in name under the joint rule of the United Kingdom and Egypt, although in fact a British colony with all political decisions up to the British despite having many Egyptians involved in administering the country, and New Hebrides, which was under the joint rule of the UK and France. 

Colonialism
International law
Dependent territories
Pope Urban may mean:

Pope Urban I (c. 222–230), a saint of the Roman Catholic Church
Pope Urban II (1088–1099)
Pope Urban III (1185–1187)
Pope Urban IV (1261–1264)
Pope Urban V (1362–1370)
Pope Urban VI (1378–1389)
Pope Urban VII (1590), the shortest papacy
Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644)

Urban
Neornithes are the most recent common ancestor of all living birds and all their descendants. There are about 9,000 to 10,000 known living species in the world.

Taxonomy
Modern birds are divided into two superorders; the Palaeognathae (tinamous and flightless ratites), and the Neognathae, containing all other birds.

It is generally agreed that the Neornithes evolved in the Cretaceous and that the split between the Palaeognathae and Neognathae, and then the split between fowl and the other Neognathae, occurred before the K/T extinction event. The earliest fossil remains of the Neornithes might be about ten million years after the start of the Cretaceous. Gallornis may be the first fossil, but its remains are only a worn partial femur and a fragment of the humerus.
There are different opinions about whether the radiation of the remaining neognathes occurred before or after the extinction of the other dinosaurs. Molecular dating suggests a Cretaceous radiation, while fossil evidence suggest an early Tertiary radiation. Attempts made to bring together the molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial.

The classification of modern birds is difficult. Sibley & Ahlquist's Phylogeny and classification of birds (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds, though it is often debated and revised. Most evidence suggests that the modern bird orders are accurate taxa. More recently, new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders.

References 

Birds
Taxonomy
Antipope is a term of the Roman Catholic Church in the context of its official list of popes.  An antipope is not included in the list of popes in the Vatican's annual directory, Annuario Pontificio

An antipope is a pretender who falsely claims to be pope or who wrongly opposes the legitimate and recognized pope.

The existence or claims of an antipope produces a schism in the Roman Catholic Church.  A conflict is caused by those who are opposing the authority of the pope.

List of antipopes 

 Hippolytus 2nd century
 Novatian (251)
 Felix II (355-365)
 Anastasius (855)
 Pope Leo VIII (956-963)
 Boniface VII (974)
 John XVI (10th century)
 Gregory VI (1012)
 Benedict X (1058)
 Honorius II (1061-72)
 Clement III (1080-1100)
 Gregory VIII (1118)
 Anacletus II (1130-38)
 Victor IV (1159-64)
 Pascal III (1164-68)
 Clement VII (1378-1394)
 Felix V (1439-1449)

References

Other websites 

Popes
Lists of popes
Neognathae are birds in the subclass Neornithes. The Neognathae include almost all living birds: their sister taxon Palaeognathae has just the tinamou and the flightless ratites.

There are nearly 10,000 species of neognaths. Since the Cretaceous they have undergone an adaptive radiation. This has produced the variety of form, function, and behavior which we see today. The Passeriformes (perching birds) are the largest order of land vertebrates. They are some 60% of living birds.

The neognaths have fused hand bones, an elongate third finger, and 13 or fewer vertebrae. They differ from the Palaeognathae in features like the structure of their jawbones. "Neognathae" means "new jaws" but, ironically, paleognath jaws are one of the few derived) features of that group.

Birds
Pope Benedict XIII (; 2 February 1649 – 21 February 1730), born Pietro Francesco Orsini, later Friar Vincenzo Maria Orsini, O.P., was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 246th Pope from 1724 until his death in 1730.  He was the third and last member of the Orsini family to be a pope.

Early life
He was born in Gravina in Puglia near Naples.  He was the son of Ferdinando III Orsini, Duke of Gravina.

In 1667, Orsini entered the Dominican Order.  As a monk, his name was Vincent Maria.

Cardinal
Pope Clement X raised the monk to the rank of Cardinal of San Sisto on 22 February 1672.

In 1675, he was made Bishop of Manfredonia.

In 1686, he was made Archbishop of Benevento.

Pope
Cardinal Orsini was elected pope on May 28, 1724;  and he chose to be called Benedict XIII.

Pope Benedict was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

In 1727, he ordered construction of the famous Spanish Steps in Rome.
In 1729, the pope helped bring about the Treaty of Seville between Great Britain, France, and Spain.

After his death
Benedict was buried in a tomb in Santa Maria sopra Minerva completed by Pietro Bracci and others.

Related pages 
 List of popes
 List of popes from the Orsini family

References

Other websites

 
  Catholic Hierarchy,   Pope Benedict XIII
  Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church,  Cardinal Orsini 

Italian popes
1649 births
1730 deaths
Báthory was the name of an aristocratic family in Europe in the Middle Ages. Members included Stephen Báthory, King of Poland, Erzsébet Báthory, a countess and wife of General Francis Nadasdy and alleged serial murderer, and Andreas Bathory, a Roman Catholic bishop and prince.

Hungarian nobility
Noble families
Armenia first took part in the Olympic Games in 1994. They have taken part in all summer and winter Olympics since then.

Before Armenia became independent, they competed in the Olympics as a part of the Soviet Union team. After the Soviet Union collapsed, Armenia got their own team.

The Armenian athletes have won twelve medals altogether. They won these medals in wrestling, weightlifting and boxing.

Medallists

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 Armenia profile at London2012.com 

Nations at the Olympics
Sport in Armenia
Pope Benedict XIV (; 31 March 1675 – 3 May 1758), born Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 248th Pope from 1740 until his death in 1758.

Early life
Lambertini was born in Bologna.

Bishop
In 1725, Lambertini was made Bishop of Theodosia. He became the Bishop of Ancona in 1727.  He was made Bishop of Bologna in 1731.

Cardinal
lambertini was raised to the rank of cardinal in 1728.

Pope
He was elected Pope in 1740; and he chose to be called Benedict XIV.

Benedict confirms the title of King of Prussia, which was taken in 1701 by the Elector of Brandenburg. 

The pope remained neutral in the War of the Spanish Succession.

Benedict ordered the construction of the Fountains of Trevi.

During Benedict's reign, the creation of a Vatican Library catalogue was begun.

Related pages 
 List of popes

References

Other websites
Other websites

 

  Catholic Hierarchy,  Pope Benedict XIV
 Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church,  Cardinal Lambertini
Pope Benedict XIV portrait in the Vatican Museum

Italian popes
1675 births
1758 deaths
The Treaty of Northampton signed in 1328 was an agreement between England and Scotland that recognised Scotland as an independent country and Robert the Bruce as its king. Edward I of England and his son Edward II had been fighting wars against Robert the Bruce for more than 20 years. Edward II believed that he was the rightful King of Scotland. In 1327, Edward II was forced from his throne by his wife, Isabella of France and her lover, Roger Mortimer. Edward's young son, Edward III became King of England at the age of 15. Robert the Bruce saw a chance in the confusion in England and immediately sent James Douglas to attack the north of England. The English, scared that they would lose, wanted a peace treaty. The Treaty of Northampton secured peace between the two countries. As part of the treaty, Edward II's six year old daughter, Joan of the Tower was married to Robert's four year old son, David II.

References

14th century in Scotland
Northampton
1328
14th century in England