Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Wayside Inn is an inn in Sudbury, Massachusetts, United States. It is the setting for Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn. The inn was founded in 1716 by David Howe. It was called Howe's Tavern. It is thought to be the oldest inn in the United States. Howe's granddaughter, Lydia Howe, was born in the inn. The inn is still open. It has a restaurant and guest rooms.

Other websites 
 Official Wayside Inn Web Page
 Official Sterling, Massachusetts Web Page 

Buildings and structures in Massachusetts
Taverns
1716 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
"Paul Revere's Ride" is a poem written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. It was published in 1860 in the magazine The Atlantic Monthly. It was published again in Longfellow's book Tales of a Wayside Inn. The poem is about Paul Revere's midnight ride through the Massachusetts countryside. He wanted to warn the patriots that the British were on their way to fight them. Longfellow was inspired to write the poem after visiting the Old North Church in Boston.

Other websites 
Original text of "Paul Revere's Ride" by The Atlantic Online
Discussion of "Paul Revere's Ride" by the Maine Historical Society
"Paul Revere's Ride" lesson plan  by the National Endowment for the Humanities
The True Story of Paul Revere – The Midnight Ride 
Wall Street Journal on "Paul Revere's Ride"
150 Years of "Paul Revere's Ride": About the Poem

Poems by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
19th-century American poems

1860 books
Bundaberg is a city in Queensland, Australia. It is famous for Bundaberg Rum, which is made there. Bundaberg was affected by the 2010–2011 Queensland floods.

References

Cities in Queensland
Old North Church (officially, Christ Church in the City of Boston) is a church in Boston, Massachusetts at 193 Salem Street. It was built in 1723. Its design was inspired by the works of Christopher Wren. The church is a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts. It is the oldest standing church building in Boston. Inside the church is a bust of George Washington that the Marquis de Lafayette thought the best likeness of Washington he had ever seen.

The church is known to most Americans because it was here that a lantern signal was sent by sexton Robert Newman from the church steeple on the evening of April 18, 1775 to warn American patriots that British soldiers were approaching Lexington and Concord by sea and not by land. "Paul Revere's Ride", a poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, remembers this event.
The church steeple was damaged by storms in 1804 and 1954. It was rebuilt. It is now 175 feet (53 m) tall. The original weathervane is on top. There are 1100 bodies buried in the basement. Many of these are patriots who were killed at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Old North Church is a National Historic Landmark. Queen Elizabeth II visited the church in 1976 and was given a silver chalice (a cup) modelled on one made by Paul Revere.

Gallery

References

Other websites
 Old North Church
 Mayo family history 
 Boston National Historical Park Official Website
Listing and photographs at the Historic American Buildings Survey
Old North Church (Christ Church) at Find a Grave

Churches in the United States
Buildings and structures in Boston
1720s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
1723 establishments
18th-century establishments in Massachusetts
Pitjantjatjara ( or ) is one of the Western Desert languages of Australia. It is often considered a dialect. It is spoken by the Pitjantjatjara people of central Australia. It is mutually intelligible with other languages of the Western Desert and is very closely related to the Yankunytjatjara language.

The name of the people comes from their word for coming/going: .

References

Other websites

Ethnologue
Languages and dialects associated with Uluru 

Languages
Language
Anangu, Aṉaŋu or Arnangu (), is a word used to refer to Aboriginal people in Australia. It is found in some dialects of the Western Desert Language (WDL) of western and central Australia.

Before European people arrived in central Australia, the word probably meant 'human being', or 'person'. But now it is used to mean 'Aboriginal person' only. Because other Aboriginal languages have their own words for '(Aboriginal) person' the word anangu is mostly used in English to refer to the WDL-speaking people. Used in this way, it is not used to refer to any traditional grouping (or tribe), but to the WDL people as a whole. The correct term for "black person" in Pitjantjatjara is , literally "dark/black person".
Equivalents in other languages and dialects 
Other Western Desert Language dialects have different words with a similar meaning and many uses. In the far west of the WDL (i.e. amongst Manyjilyjarra, Kartujarra, Putijarra and Warnman) the word martu is used, and in the central Western Desert (i.e. amongst the western Pintupi) the word purntu, although this seems to be rarely used now.

There are a number of other names from Australian Aboriginal languages commonly used to identify groups based on geography:
Koori (or Koorie) in New South Wales and Victoria
Murri in southern Queensland
Nyoongar in southern Western Australia and South Australia
Nunga in southern South Australia
Palawah (or Pallawah) in Tasmania

References
References 

Goddard, Cliff. (1992). Pitjantjatjara/Yankunytjatjara to English Dictionary. IAD Press, Alice Springs Australia. ()
Glass, Amee and Dorothy Hackett. (2003). Ngaanyatjarra & Ngaatjatjarra to English Dictionary. IAD Press, Alice Springs Australia. ()
Goddard, Cliff. (1985). A Grammar of Yankunytjatjara. IAD Press, Alice Springs Australia.
Eckert, Paul and Joyce Hudson. (1988). Wangka Wiru: A handbook for the Pitjantjatjara language learner. SACAE, Underdale SA. ()
Hansen, KC & LE Hansen. (1992). Pintupi/Luritja Dictionary 3rd Edition. IAD Press, Alice Springs, Australia. ()
 Valiquette, Hilaire (ed.). (1993). A Basic Kukatja to English Dictionary. Luurnpa Catholic School, Balgo WA. ()

Other websites 
Web portal for Anangu Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara and Ngaanyatjarra peoples, communities and organisations 
Description of Tjukurpa - the foundation of Anangu life at Department of Environment and Heritage

Indigenous peoples of Australia
The House of the Seven Gables (also known as the Turner House or Turner-Ingersoll Mansion) is a historic house in Salem, Massachusetts. It was built for Captain John Turner. It remained in the Turner family for three generations. The earliest section of the house was built in 1668. It faced south towards Salem Harbor. It was a two-room, 2 1⁄2-story house. It had cross-gables and a huge central chimney. This portion now forms the middle of the house. The house was remodelled over the years. It was eventually acquired by the Ingersoll family. Nathaniel Hawthorne often visited his cousin Susannah at the house. He wrote a novel called The House of the Seven Gables. The book uses the house as background. The house was restored between 1908 and 1910. A "cent-shop" and a secret staircase were added. This was done to please visitors who expected the house to resemble the one in Hawthorne's book.  The House of the Seven Gables is the oldest surviving mansion house in continental North America
. It has 17 rooms and over 8,000 square feet. The house is now a non-profit museum.
Other websites 
 House of the Seven Gables
 Listing and photographs at the Historic American Buildings Survey

Buildings and structures in Massachusetts
1668 establishments
1660s establishments in Massachusetts
17th-century buildings and structures
Colossus was the world's first programmable electronic digital computer.  British code breakers used Colossus for cryptanalysis during World War II.

These messages were sent between the German High Command, and  army field commanders.  Reading these messages helped the Allies to win the war.

Codebreaker Max Newman worked at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park. His problem was how to get a machine that would help turn German coded radio teleprinter messages into ordinary language. A group of Post Office telephone engineers led by Tommy Flowers worked out how to do this. Their design, which was called "Colossus" used many vacuum tubes (valves).  The first machine, Mark 1, worked in December 1943 and solved its first problem in February 1944.  Colossus Mark 2 was even better.  It first worked on 1 June 1944, just before the Normandy Landings on D-Day.  Ten Colossus computers were in use at the end of the war.
British codebreakers called the teleprinter messages "Fish". The messages had been coded by an unknown German machine.  They called the machine and its coded messages "Tunny".  Colossus imitated the machine and read the coded message from a punched tape. It tried various possibilities of how two of the wheels had been set up. When Colossus found likely settings for two wheels, the codebreaker designed further programs for Colossus until likely settings of other wheels were found. Colossus did not perform all of the decoding process. It just found likely settings of the machine. The output from Colossus was then worked on by people who had a very good knowledge of the German language.
After the war the British codebreakers found out that the code machine was the Lorenz SZ42.  All the secret Colossus computers were taken to pieces, so that no one would find out about them.  The designs were destroyed.  For thirty years no one knew who made them.  Between the early 1990s and 2007, a working copy of a Colossus computer was built.  This can be seen at The National Museum of Computing at Bletchley Park in England.
Purpose and origins 
Regular radio transmissions of "Tunny" messages started in June 1941. The British codebreakers saw that it used a five-unit code like a teleprinter system. Their research also showed that the coding was being done by a rotor cipher machine with 12 wheels (rotors). For each new message sent, the wheels had first to be turned to new positions.  The start position for the message was chosen by the operator who was sending the message.  He told the operator who was receiving the message what the start positions were with 12 letters that were not coded. The total number of possible start positions of the 12 wheels was very large indeed.
The coding machine added together the plaintext (the un-coded version of the message) and a stream of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation) called the keystream (a stream of seemingly random characters) that it generated to make the ciphertext (the coded version of the message). The ciphertext, which made no sense, was transmitted by radio. At the receiving end an identical machine removed the keystream to produce the plaintext of the message.

If the German operators always worked correctly, no two messages would have the same start position of the wheels. However, mistakes were made. They helped the British codebreakers. On 30 August 1941 two versions of the same message, which was nearly 4,000 characters long, were sent with the same wheel start positions.  This mistake was very useful to the research codebreakers. A codebreaker called John Tiltman was able to get the keystream from these messages.
The codebreakers tried to work out the details of the machine from this information, but at first they failed. They were then joined by a young codebreaker called Bill Tutte who was given the job. After a lot of work he succeeded, and produced a logical description of the unseen machine.  This work has been described as "the greatest intellectual achievement of world war II". Tutte worked out that the machine made each keystream character by combining the effects of two sets of five wheels.  He used Greek letters to name the wheels.  He called one set of five the χ ("chi") wheels, and the other set of five the ψ ("psi") wheels. He worked out that the χ wheels moved on one position for each new character coded. The ψ wheels, however, did not move regularly. They only moved on some of the time. Whether or not the ψ wheels moved on was controlled by two wheels that he called two the μ ("mu") or "motor wheels".
Building Colossus
Tommy Flowers worked at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill in north-west London. He was asked to look at the Heath Robinson machine. He thought it was a weak machine. He designed an electronic machine to do the same job. It would make the patterns of the coding machine by electronics so that only one paper tape was needed. In February 1943 he showed Max Newman this design. The design needed 1,500 thermionic valves (vacuum tubes). Few people thought that so many valves could work without a lot failing. More Heath Robinson machines were ordered. Flowers, however, kept with the idea of an electronic machine.  He got support from Gordon Radley, his boss at the Post Office Research Station.  Tommy Flowers and his team started work on Colossus in February 1943.
The tape with the message on it had to be read rapidly.  Tommy Flowers tested the tape reader up to 9,700 letters/second () before the tape broke.  He selected 5,000 characters per second as a good speed for regular work.  This meant that the paper tape moved at  or .  The electronic circuits were driven by a signal made from reading the sprocket holes of the punched tape.

The first Colossus worked at Dollis Hill in December 1943. Then they took Colossus apart and moved it to Bletchley Park. It got there on 18 January 1944. Harry Fensom and Don Horwood put it back together. Colossus read its first message on the 5th of February. After the first Colossus (Mark 1) there were nine Mark 2 machines. These each had 2,400 valves. They were easier to use. They could be programmed to work at five times the speed of the Mark 1. A Mark 2 Colossus first worked on 1 June 1944.
At first Colossus was only used to find the starting wheel places used for a message (called wheel setting). Codebreakers worked out how to use the Mark 2 to help find the patterns of the cams on the wheels (wheel breaking). At the end of the war there were ten Colossus computers working at Bletchley Park. This meant that very many messages were decoded.

Design and use 
Colossus used parts that were new back then. It used vacuum tubes, thyratrons and photomultipliers. It read from paper with light. It then did a special thing for every letter; the special thing could be changed. It counted how often this special thing was "true". Machines with many vacuum tubes were known to break a lot.  They break most when turning on, so the Colossus machines were only turned off when a part broke.
Colossus was the first of the electronic digital machines that could have a program. It could not change as much as later machines: 
 it had no program inside itself. A person used plugs, wires and switches to change the program. This is how it was set it up for a new thing to do.
 Colossus was not a general-purpose machine. It was made for only one kind of code-breaking: counting and Boolean operations.

It was not a Turing-complete computer, even though Alan Turing was at Bletchley Park. This idea had not yet been thought of, and most of the other early modern computing machines were not Turing-complete (like: the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, the Harvard Mark I electro-mechanical relay machine, the Bell Labs relay machines by George Stibitz and others, or the first plans of Konrad Zuse). It took a long time for computers be used for many uses, instead of just a calculator only for working out one hard problem.
Influence and fate
What the Colossus computers were used for was very secret. The Colossus itself was highly secret even for many years after the War. This is why Colossus could not be included in the history of computing hardware for a long time. Nobody knew how important that Flowers and the other people who helped make it were.

Not many people knew about this secret computer, so it had little direct effect on the new design of later computers; EDVAC was the early  design which had the most effect on later computer design.

Once Colossus was made, some people now knew that high-speed electronic (no moving parts like electrical relays) digital computing devices could be made and they did not break too much. Just this knowledge was enough to have a big effect on the designs of early computers in Britain and probably in the US. People that knew about Colossus were important in the early computer field in Britain. In  1972, Herman Goldstine wrote that:
In writing that, Goldstine did not know of Colossus.  He did not know what it left to projects of people who knew about it.  People such as  Alan Turing (with the Pilot ACE and ACE), and Max Newman and I. J. Good (with the Manchester Mark 1 and  other early Manchester computers). Brian Randell later wrote that:
Colossus plans and machinery were secret from the when they were made. They stayed so after the War, when Winston Churchill ordered the destruction of most of the Colossus machines into "parts no bigger than a man's hand"; Tommy Flowers himself burned  the designs in a fireplace at Dollis Hill. Some parts, changed to look innocent, were taken to Newman's Royal Society Computing Machine Laboratory at Manchester University. The Colossus  Mark 1 was taken apart and the parts were sent back to the Post Office. Two Colossus computers, along with two copied Tunny machines, were  kept.  They were moved to GCHQ's new head office at Eastcote in April 1946. They moved again with GCHQ to Cheltenham between 1952  and 1954. One of the computers, known as Colossus Blue, was taken apart in  1959; the other in 1960. In their later years, the computers were used for training. Before that, there had been  attempts to change them (sometimes well) for other purposes
. Jack Good was the first to use it after the war, getting  NSA to use Colossus to do something for which they were planning to build a special purpose machine. Colossus  was also used to perform letter counts on one-time pad tape to test for non-randomness.
At this time the Colossus was still secret, long after any of its technical details were of any importance. This was due to the UK's intelligence agencies use of Enigma-like machines which they got other governments to buy. The agencies then broke the codes using  different ways. Had the knowledge of the codebreaking machines been widely known, no one would have accepted these machines; rather, they  would have developed their own methods for encryption, methods that the UK services might not have been able to break. The need for such  secrets slowly went away as communications moved to digital transmission and all-digital encryption systems became common in the 1960s.

Colonel Winterbotham's book The Ultra Secret came out in 1975.  This broke the secrecy around the Colossus. After that, details about the  computer began to become public in the late 1970s.
A 500-page technical report on the Tunny cipher and its code breaking – entitled General Report on Tunny – was given by GCHQ to the national Public Record Office in October 2000; the complete technical report is online.

Making it again

A team led by Tony Sale built a working copy of a Colossus Mark 2.  The plans and machines had been destroyed, but a surprising amount of other material was not destroyed.  It was mostly in engineers' notebooks, much of it in the U.S.  The optical tape reader might have been the biggest problem, but Dr. Arnold Lynch, its designer, was able to redesign it from his own first writings.  The rebuilt Colossus is on show at The National Museum of Computing, in H Block Bletchley Park in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire.  This is where the Colossus No. 9 was used in the war.
In November 2007, to mark both the end of the work and the start of fundraising (asking for money) they ran a competition. The money would help The National Museum of Computing with a Cipher Competition where the rebuilt Colossus competed with radio amateurs all around the world. The first to hear and decode three messages enciphered would win.  They would be enciphered using the Lorenz SZ42 and transmitted from the radio station in the Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum  computer museum in Germany. The competition was easily won by radio amateur Joachim Schüth.  Schüth had gotten ready for the event. He made his own signal processing and code-breaking program using Ada. The Colossus team lost because they wanted to use World War II radios,. They were a day late because of bad radio conditions. The winner's 1.4 GHz laptop, running his own program, took less than a minute to find the settings for all 12 wheels. The German codebreaker said: "My laptop worked on ciphertext at a speed of 1
.2 million letters per second—240x faster than Colossus. If you compare the two computers, you could say Colossus had a speed of 5.8 MHz. That is very fast for a computer built in 1944."
Related pages
 ENIAC
 Supercomputer
 Enigma (machine)
 Lorenz Cipher

References
Jack Copeland, Colossus: Its Origins and Originators (IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 26(4), October–December 2004, pp. 38–45).
 Jack Copeland, Colossus and the Dawning of the Computer Age, in Action This Day, 2001, .
 
  That version is a facsimile copy, but there is a transcript of much of this document in '.pdf' format at: , and a web transcript of Part 1 at: 
 I. J. Good, Early Work on Computers at Bletchley (IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 1 (No. 1), 1979, pp. 38–48)
 I. J. Good, Pioneering Work on Computers at Bletchley (in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, Gian-Carlo Rota, (editors), A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century, Academic Press, New York, 1980)
 T. H. Flowers, The Design of Colossus (Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 5 (No. 3), 1983, pp. 239–252)
 D C Horwood, A technical description of COLOSSUS I, August 1973, PRO HW 25/24.
Brian Randell, Colossus: Godfather of the Computer, 1977 (reprinted in The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1982)
 Brian Randell, The COLOSSUS  (in A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century)
 
 Albert W. Small, The Special Fish Report (December, 1944) describe the operation of Colossus to break Tunny messages
Further reading
 Harvey G. Cragon, From Fish to Colossus: How the German Lorenz Cipher was Broken at Bletchley Park (Cragon Books, Dallas, 2003; ) – A detailed description of the cryptanalysis of Tunny, and some details of Colossus (contains some minor errors)
 Ted Enever, Britain's Best Kept Secret: Ultra's Base at Bletchley Park (Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire, 1999; ) – A guided tour of the history and geography of the Park, written by one of the founder members of the Bletchley Park Trust
 Tony Sale, The Colossus Computer 1943–1996: How It Helped to Break the German Lorenz Cipher in WWII (M.&M. Baldwin, Kidderminster, 2004; ) – A slender (20 page) booklet, containing the same material as Tony Sale's website (see below)
 Michael Smith, Station X, 1998. .
 
 Jack Copeland: Colossus. The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers. Oxford University Press 2006.
R. Rojas, U. Hashagen (eds.): The First Computers: History and Architectures. MIT Press 2000. . – Comparison of the first computers, with a chapter about Colossus and its reconstruction by Tony Sale.
Other websites

 The National Museum of Computing
 Tony Sale's Codes and Ciphers Contains a great deal of information, including:
 Colossus, the revolution in code breaking
 Lorenz Cipher and the Colossus
 The machine age comes to Fish codebreaking
 The Colossus Rebuild Project
 The Colossus Rebuild Project: Evolving to the Colossus Mk 2
 Walk around Colossus A detailed tour of the replica Colossus – make sure to click on the "More Text" links on each image to see the informative detailed text about that part of Colossus
 IEEE lecture – Transcript of a lecture Tony Sale gave describing the reconstruction project
 BBC news article reporting on the replica Colossus
 BBC news article: "Colossus cracks codes once more"
 BBC news article: BBC news article: "Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus" with video interviews 2010-02-02
Website on Copeland's 2006 book with much information and links to recently declassified information
 Was the Manchester Baby conceived at Bletchley Park?
Historical computers‎
World War II
Communic is a Norwegian progressive metal band from Kristiansand, Norway. Communic has three members in the band; the current band members are Oddleif Stensland, Erik Mortensen and Tor Atle Andersen. The band formed in March 2003 as a side project for the band, Scariot. They are currently signed to Nuclear Blast Records and have released 4 albums and a demo.

Band members 
Current
 Oddleif Stensland - vocals & guitars
 Erik Mortensen - bass
 Tor Atle Andersen - drums

Discography

Albums
Communic has released 5 albums:
 Conspiracy in Mind (demo) (2004)
 Conspiracy in Mind (2005)
 Waves of Visual Decay (2006)
 Payment of Existence (2008)
 The Bottom Deep (2011)
 Where Echoes Gather (2017)
 Hiding from the World (2020)

References

Other websites 
 Official website

Norwegian heavy metal bands
Power metal bands
Musical groups established in 2003
Musical trios
Progressive metal bands
Thrash metal bands
In philosophy, the term sublime refers to something that is great. This greatness can be physical, moral, intellectual, metaphysical, aesthetic, spiritual or artistic. Very often, the term refers to something that is so great that it cannot be calculated, measured or imitated. Special skills are often needed to fully perceive or understand the sublime. 

As a category in aesthetics, the main property is that its beauty is bigger than something that is merely beautiful. Sometimes, the sublime may be sacred and causes awe.
It is only western philosophy that makes a distinction between the beautiful and the sublime; there is no such distinction in eastern philosophy.The first known work in philosophy treating the sublime is called On the Sublime, and was written by an otherwise unknown writer who lived in the first or third century. This writer is often called Longinus. Longinus was a teacher of rhetoric, and used the sublime to describe great language in this context. According to Longinus, the sublime inspires awe and veneration, with greater persuasive powers. Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux translated this work into French, in the 16th century; in the 18th century the text was translated into English as well.

Philosophers who wrote about the sublime include Edmund Burke, Immanuel Kant, Arthur Schopenhauer, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Theodor W. Adorno, and Jean-François Lyotard. Writers include Friedrich Schiller and Victor Hugo.

Philosophy
This article is about a region of Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. For the former town in Chiba Prefecture, see Shōnan, Chiba.

 is the name of a local Japanese region along the coast of Sagami Bay which is about 50 kilometres southwest of Tokyo.  

Shōnan is centered on Enoshima, which is a small island near the coast.

Related pages
 Shonan Bellmare

References

Other websites
  JR Shonan Shinjuku Line
 Michelin,   Shonan region 

Kanagawa Prefecture
Renata Scotto (February 24, 1934 – August 16, 2023) was an Italian operatic soprano who enjoyed a long and distinguished international career.

Life and Career

Born in Savona, Italy, she studied at the Milan Conservatory of Music, under Ghirardini and Merlini, and later in Rome with Mercedes Llopart. She made her stage debut in her hometown on Christmas Eve 1952, as Violetta in La traviata. After winning first place in a singing competition, she was invited to sing Violetta at the Teatro Nuovo in Milan on July 2, 1953, which led to her debut at La Scala, the following December, as Walter in Catalani's La Wally, opposite Renata Tebaldi and Mario Del Monaco. She quickly appeared in several other cities throughout Italy.
She sang in Cairo in 1956 and at The Stoll Theatre in London in 1957. That same year, she replaced Maria Callas in La sonnambula at the Edimburg Festival to considerable acclaim. This was the start of long and distinguished international career, with appearances in Chicago, San Francisco, Buenos Aires, Barcelona, Moscow, Tokyo, etc. She made her debut at the Metropolitan Opera in New York, on October 13, 1965, as Cio-Cio-San in Madama Butterfly and sang there regularly until 1987.

Scotto was mostly known for the Italian repertoire of which she sang a wide range of roles from bel canto to verismo. Although essentially a lyric soprano, as the years went on she tackled more dramatic roles in operas such as Norma, Macbeth, La Gioconda, Tosca, etc. 

After retiring from the stage, she turned to teaching, coaching and stage directing. She married violinist Lorenzo Anselmi in 1960 and had two children.

Scotto died in her home town of Savona, Italy on August 16, 2023, at the age of 89.

Notable Recordings
La traviata - (DG, 1962)
 Rigoletto - (DG, 1964)
 Turandot - (EMI, 1965) 
 Madama Butterfly - (EMI, 1966)
 Andrea Chenier - (RCA, 1976)
 Otello - (RCA, 1978)

References

 Guide de l'opéra, Roland Mancini and Jean-Jacques Rouveroux, Fayard, 1987. 

1934 births
sopranos
2023 deaths
Italian opera singers
People from Savona
Madama Butterfly is an Italian opera in three acts with music by Giacomo Puccini. The libretto was written by Giuseppe Giacosa and Luigi Illica. It was based on a play by David Belasco. The opera was first performed in Milan, Italy, on February 17, 1904. Its revised version was performed in Brescia, on May 28, 1904. Although a fiasco at its premiere, it soon established itself in its revised version as one of the most beloved of operas.

Principal characters
 Cio-Cio-San - soprano
 Pinkerton - tenor
 Suzuki - mezzo-soprano
 Sharpless - baritone

Sources
 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1989.

Compositions by Giacomo Puccini
1904 works
1900s operas
La Gioconda is an Italian opera in four acts, music by Amilcare Ponchielli and libretto by Arrigo Boito, after Victor Hugo's play Angelo, Tyran de Padoue. It was first performed in Milan, on April 8, 1876. By far Ponchielli's most successful work and his only opera still regularly performed.

Principal characters

 Gioconda - soprano
 La cieca - contralto
 Enzo - tenor
 Barnaba - baritone
 Laura - mezzo-soprano
 Alvise - bass
Discography
 1931: Giannina Arangi-Lombardi (Gioconda), Camilla Rota (La cieca), Alessandro Granda (Enzo), Gaetano Viviani (Barnaba), Ebe Stignani (Laura), Corrado Zambelli (Alvise); Coro e Orchestra del Teatro alla Scala, Lorenzo Molajoli - (EMI Classics)
 1952: Maria Callas (Gioconda), Maria Amadini (La cieca), Gianni Poggi (Enzo), Paolo Silveri (Barnaba), Fedora Barbieri (Laura), Giulio Neri (Alvise); Coro e Orchestra della RAI Torino, Antonino Votto - (Cetra)
 1957: Anita Cerquetti (Gioconda), Franca Sacchi (La cieca), Mario del Monaco (Enzo), Ettore Bastianini (Barnaba), Giulietta Simionato (Laura), Cesare Siepi (Alvise); Coro e Orchestra della Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, Gianandrea Gavazzeni - (Decca)
 1957: Zinka Milanov (Gioconda), Belen Amparan (La cieca), Giuseppe di Stefano (Enzo), Leonard Warren (Barnaba), Rosalind Elias (Laura), Plinio Clabassi (Alvise); Coro e Orchestra dell'Accademia di Santa Cecilia, Fernando Previtali - (RCA Victor, later Decca/London)
1959: Maria Callas (Gioconda), Irene Companeez (La cieca), Pier Miranda Ferraro (Enzo), Piero Cappuccilli (Barnaba), Fiorenza Cossotto (Laura), Ivo Vinco (Alvise); Coro e Orchestra del Teatro alla Scala, Antonino Votto - (EMI Classics)
 1967: Renata Tebaldi (Gioconda), Oralia Dominguez (La cieca), Carlo Bergonzi (Enzo), Robert Merrill (Barnaba), Marilyn Horne (Laura), Nicola Ghiuselev (Alvise); Coro e Orchestra dell'Accademia di Santa Cecilia, Lamberto Gardelli - (Decca)
 1980: Montserrat Caballé (Gioconda), Alfreda Hodgson (La cieca), Luciano Pavarotti (Enzo), Sherrill Milnes (Barnaba), Agnes Baltsa (Laura), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Alvise); London Opera Chorus, National Philharmonic Orchestra, Bruno Bartoletti - (Decca)
Sources

 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993. 

1870s operas
Europa is a figure from Greek mythology. She is the daughter of Phoenician king Agenor and of Telephassa. Zeus falls in love with her. Because of his wife Hera, he has to take the shape of a bull. Hermes makes the herd of cattle with the bull Zeus graze near the beach near Sidon, where Europa is playing. That way, Zeus is able to abduct Europa on his back. He swims to Matala on Crete where he shows himself. The children of Europa and Zeus are Minos, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon. Because of a prophecy of Aphrodite, the new continent Europe is named after Europa.

The oldest telling of the story can be found in the Illiad by Homer. There, she is the daughter of Phoinix. Other ancient tellings include "Europa" by Moschos, and the Metamorphoses by Ovid.

Agenor sent his sons to search for Europa, but they could not find her. Cadmus asks the Oracle at Delphi and is told to give up the search, and found Thebes in Boetia instead.
According to other sources, Europa remained on Crete, were she married Asterion, and became queen. Asterion did not have any children, so he adopted her sons.

The oldest known paintings which clearly show Europa date from the 7th century BC.

References

People in Greek mythology
National personifications
National symbols of Greece
A marot jar is a special kind of syphon or siphon device invented some time during the 1700s. The device is filled up water and lets it out in a special way so that the speed and amount of water that comes out is always the same, even if the jar is completely full or almost empty.

In the diagram (see right), an air-tight jar contains some water (blue) and some air (yellow). The green pipe is started as a siphon so that water starts flowing out of the pipe. Because the pipe lets out water, the pressure on the inside of the jar is less than the pressure outside, so it causes air to be sucked in through the orange pipe. Because the pressure is going to tend to being the same inside and outside of the jar, the water is going to flow out of the pipe at the same speed and amount.

Containers
Fluid mechanics
Story 
A young boy living in a polluted world visits a strange creature called the "Once-Ler". The boy asks about the poor state of the world. The Once-ler explains that the world was once beautiful. He made an invention that required him to chop down Trufulla trees. He says that everyone needed his invention. He made a profit from cutting down Trufulla trees. A small orange creature called the Lorax urged him to stop cutting down so many trees. He said that this was harming the environment. The Once-Ler ignored him. Eventually the supply of trees ran out. The land was left polluted. The animals left the forest. The Once-Ler finishes his story. He gives the boy "the last [Truffula seed] of all." He tells him to plant the seed and it will grow into a forest.  

1971 books
Books by Dr. Seuss
English-language picture books
Andrew Nicholas Castle (born 15 November 1963) is a retired British tennis player. He became a television presenter. He was born in Epsom, Surrey. He retired from tennis in 1992.

He was a contestant on the 2008 series of Strictly Come Dancing and on the 2010 series of 71 Degrees North.

Other websites 
Official Website 
ATP Tennis Player Profile

sports-reference 

1963 births
British male tennis players
English television presenters
Living people
Reality television participants
Sportspeople from Surrey
Strictly Come Dancing participants
Television personalities from Surrey
The Cat in the Hat is a children's book written by Dr. Seuss and was first published in 1957. Seuss wrote the book after being challenged to write a story beginning readers would love. He was given a list of 438 words beginning readers were expected to know. He was told these were the only words he could use. He used 223 words on the list.  The Cat would appear in other Dr. Seuss books. More than 11 million copies of the book have been printed. It has been translated into more than 12 different languages including Latin and Yiddish. The story has been made into a television special and a 2003 movie. The Cat appears in a Broadway musical called Seussical. He also is the host of the educational children's shows The Wubbulous World of Dr. Seuss and The Cat in the Hat Knows a Lot About That. In 1958, a sequel to the book was released, which was called The Cat in the Hat Comes Back!. In 1998, a spin-off book series of both of the books was made, which was called The Cat in the Hat's Learning Library
. The series has a total of 54 books. In 2003, a film based on The Cat in the Hat book was made.
Story 
Two children, Sally and Conrad, are left at home alone on a rainy day. They are visited by a cat wearing a red and white striped hat and a red bowtie. He performs all sorts of tricks. He balances a cup, a cake, an umbrella, and other things while standing on a ball. The Cat gets a box from outside. Inside are two creatures named Thing One and Thing Two. The Things begin to fly kites in the house. The children catch the Things with a net. The house is a mess. The Cat cleans it up. He leaves just before the mother comes home.

1957 books
English-language picture books
Books by Dr. Seuss
Les contes d'Hoffmann (The Tales of Hoffmann) is a French opera. It has a prologue, three acts and an epilogue. The music was written by Jacques Offenbach. The libretto was written by Jules Berbier and Michel Carré. It is based on E.T.A Hoffmann's Dr Sandmann, Geschichte von Verloreren Spiegelbilde. The opera was first performed in Paris, on 10 February 1881. 

The opera was the last and perhaps greatest work of Offenbach. It was not quite finished when he died. The final score was completed by Ernest Guiraud. Guiraud also wrote the recitatives, though at first it was meant to have spoken-dialogue. The work was an immediate success and has remained so since its creation.

Principal characters
 Hoffmann - tenor
 Olympia - soprano
 Antonia - soprano
 Giuletta - soprano
 Stella -  soprano
 Dr Miracle - bass
 Dapertutto - bass
 Coppélius - bass
 Lindorf - bass
 Nicklaus - mezzo-soprano
 Spalanzani - tenor
Ideally, the four soprano roles should be sung by the same singer as well as the four bass roles as they represent different aspects of two characters.

Sources

 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993. 

1880s operas
The Song of Hiawatha is an epic poem written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. It was first published in 1855. The poem was loosely based on the legends of Native American peoples. In 1857, Longfellow estimated that the work had sold 50,000 copies. 

The Song is about Hiawatha and his beloved Minnehaha. It is set along the south shore of Lake Superior. The poem was very popular, but critics did not like it. 

Composers and painters were inspired to create works based on the poem. A 2005 television movie was based on the poem.

Story  
Hiawatha's birth is foretold by a "mighty" peace-bringing leader named Gitche Manito. A woman named Nokomis falls from the moon. Nokomis gives birth to Wenonah. She grows to be a beautiful young woman. Nokomis warns her not to be seduced by the West Wind. She does not listen to her mother, and Hiawatha is born.
Hiawatha has childhood adventures, falls in love with Minnehaha, slays the evil magician Pearl-Feather, invents written language, discovers corn, and other episodes. The poem closes with the approach of a canoe to Hiawatha's village. It contains "the Priest of Prayer, the Pale-face." Hiawatha welcomes him with joy. 

The "Black-Robe chief" brings word of Jesus Christ. Hiawatha and the chiefs accept the Christian message. Hiawatha says good-bye to Nokomis, the warriors, and the young men. He says, "But my guests I leave behind me / Listen to their words of wisdom, / Listen to the truth they tell you." He endorses the Christian missionaries. He launches his canoe for the last time westward toward the sunset. Then he departs forever.

Gallery
Gallery

Other websites
The Song of Hiawatha
Unabridged audiobook at LibriVox
2 short radio segments of Linen's writing from California Legacy Project Radio Anthology (scripts and audio) including San Francisco (in imitation of Hiawatha). 
Rena N. Coen, “Longfellow, Hiawatha and some 19th century painters”, Papers Presented at the Longfellow Commemorative Conference, April 1-3 1982, National Park Service, Longfellow National Historical Site

19th-century American poems
Poems by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Epic poems

1855 books
Edward Vincent "Ed" Sullivan (September 28, 1901 – October 13, 1974) was an American entertainment writer and television host. He was best known as the presenter of the television variety show The Ed Sullivan Show.  The program was shown on television from 1948 to 1971 (twenty-three years). It was one of the longest-running variety shows in United States history.

In 1996, Ed Sullivan was #50 on TV Guide'''s "50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time".

Early life
Sullivan was born in New York City, New York. His mother was Elizabeth F. Sullivan (née Smith) and his father was Peter Arthur Sullivan. He was of Irish descent. Sullivan used to be a boxer. He began his media work as a sportswriter for The New York Evening Graphic.

Personal life
Sullivan was engaged to swimmer Sybil Bauer, but she died of cancer in 1927 at the age of 23. He married Sylvia Weinstein on April 28, 1930. She died on March 16, 1973. They had a daughter, Betty Sullivan. Betty married the Ed Sullivan Show's producer, Bob Precht.
Sullivan reportedly called Sylvia after every program to hear what she thought about it.

Sullivan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6101 Hollywood Boulevard.

Death
In September 1974, Sullivan had x-rays done. They showed that Sullivan had esophageal cancer.  Only his family was told about it. Because the doctors did not give Sullivan a lot of time, the family chose not to tell him about it.  Sullivan thought that his illness was because of  ulcers. He died five weeks later, on October 13, 1974, at New York's Lenox Hill Hospital. 3,000 people went to his funeral. It was held at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York.

 References
References 

 More reading 
 Leonard, John, The Ed Sullivan Age , American Heritage, May/June 1997, Volume 48, Issue 3
 Nachman, Gerald, Ed Sullivan , December 18, 2006.
 Maguire, James, Impresario: The Life and Times of Ed Sullivan, Billboard Books, 2006
 Bowles, Jerry,  A Thousand Sundays: The Story of the Ed Sullivan Show, Putnam, 1980
 Barthelme, Donald, "And Now Let's Hear It for the Ed Sullivan Show!" in Guilty Pleasures'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974

Other websites 
 
 The Official Ed Sullivan Show Website
 About Ed Sullivan's life 

1901 births
1974 deaths
American screenwriters
American television presenters
American television producers
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Writers from New York City
In psychology, nativism is a theory that says that most basic skills are hard-wired in the brain at birth. This theory is the opposite of the theory called the blank slate, or tabula rasa. Blank slate theories said that humans have almost no skills or abilities at birth: they learn these skills over the course of their life. People who believe in nativism (within certain limits) include Jerry Fodor, Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker. These psychologists believe that humans are born with a set of abilities that help them learn other skills, such as speech.
Some mammals do seem to inherit emotional reactions. Monkeys fearing snakes is an example. Most of the behaviour of insects, reptiles and birds is inherited in some detail. Mammals, however, show a greater ability for learning than other kinds of animals.
 
Charles Darwin, in The expression of emotions in man and animals (1872), showed that the way most emotions were shown was common between human cultures. He said this was inherited and had been the result of evolution. Behaviorism says that man's behaviour is affected by its results (operant conditioning). Behaviourists denied the importance of inherited behaviours, instincts, or an inherited tendency to behave. People who believe in evolutionary psychology think this is wrong. They think human behaviour has deep roots in our evolutionary past.

References

Related pages 
Evolutionary psychology
Unconscious mind#Adaptive unconscious
Human nature
Blank slate

Psychology
The syphon must touch the liquid in the (upper) reservoir (the source, where the liquid comes from) in order for it to work. This allows atmospheric pressure to push the liquid up the tube. The top of the tube is where the lowest pressure is, so the liquid will move towards that area in the same way as a barometer. The top of a syphon is the same as the height of a barometer, because they work in the same way. The lower pressure is caused by the liquid falling on the downhill side. A syphon can raise water to a height of 25 feet above the source elevation. New discoveries in Syphon Pump Metering allows for dispensing liquid above the source. United States Patent #5,358,000 was the first to teach this method.
A siphon can be used for irrigation purposes.
References

Fluid mechanics
Tools
The DSM lists every condition that is officially called a mental illness by the APA. The DSM organizes these conditions into different categories. Each condition is given a code, made up of numbers or a combination of numbers and letters. Along with the condition's name and code, the DSM also gives other information, like:
Symptoms of the condition.
Diagnostic criteria: The requirements that need to be met before the condition is diagnosed.
Differential diagnosis: Other conditions that have some of the same symptoms. These conditions should be ruled out before a diagnosis is made.
Diagnostic considerations: This section gives more details about the condition. For example, it may talk about who is more or less likely to get the condition. It may also talk about what causes the condition.
The conditions that are listed in the DSM have changed over time. In each new version of the DSM, the APA adds conditions that it has accepted as mental illnesses since the last version was published. It may also take out conditions that are no longer thought of as mental illnesses. (For example, homosexuality was listed as a mental illness in the earlier DSMs, but was then taken out.) The APA may also change the way it describes certain conditions.

Multi-axial system
When a person gets a DSM diagnosis, there are five different "axes", or categories of information that need to be included.

Axis I: This is where most mental health conditions are listed. Both the name of the condition and its assigned code need to be listed. For example, types of ADHD, depression, anxiety disorders would be listed here. A person can have just one Axis I diagnosis, or more than one.

Axis II: If the person has mental retardation (intellectual disability), autism or a personality disorder, it is listed here.
Axis III: If the person has medical conditions, they are listed here.

Axis IV: This axis records whether the person has certain kinds of "psychosocial stressors." There are few set categories of psychosocial stressors: Primary support problems (for example, family conflict); social environment problems (for example, the person has poor social skills and few friends); economic problems (like poverty or job loss); housing problems (like poor housing or homelessness); educational problems (like school failure); problems with access to healthcare services; and "other" stressors.

Axis V: For this axis, a mental health professional will pick a number that sums up how much the person is affected by his mental health problems, and how well he is functioning in his life. The professional uses a scale called the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF), which explains what different numbers mean. A person's score is called his "GAF score."
There are a few benefits to the DSM's multi-axial system. The five axes sum up all of the information that is most important to mental health professionals when they are treating a person. They give a snapshot of the most important things that affect a person's mental health. A full DSM diagnosis is also like a common language to mental health professionals. Even if there are different professionals, who come from different specialties or even speak different languages, they will all understand the DSM diagnosis.

Organization

The conditions in the DSM are organized into categories. These categories are:

(1) Disorders Usually Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence. For example: types of ADHD; mental retardation; autism spectrum disorders; and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD).

(2) Delirium, Dementia, Amnestic, and Other Cognitive Disorders. These disorders cause problems with thinking and memory.