Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
After news about the Boston Massacre spread throughout the Thirteen Colonies, people became angrier at the British.  The Boston Massacre made more people want to fight the British for independence.

Faneuil Hall
A rich merchant named Peter Faneuil built Faneuil Hall in 1741.  He meant Faneuil Hall to be a place for trade and business.  However, it became an important meeting place for people who wanted to fight against British rule.  The Sons of Liberty met there and announced that they would fight back against the British.  Leaders like Samuel Adams gave speeches there encouraging independence.

America's first town meeting was held at Faneuil Hall.  Americans first met there in 1764 to protest the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act.  Later, they would meet there to protest the Tea Act, the Townshend Duties, and the British occupation of Boston.
On top of Faneuil Hall, there is a famous weathervane (which tells which way the wind is blowing).  It is shaped like a golden grasshopper.  Legend says that Bostonians used this weathervane during the War of 1812 to find spies.  If a person did not know the answer to the question "What is on top of Faneuil Hall?", they were suspected of being a spy.

In the 19th century, abolitionists like Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison, and Lucy Stone spoke against slavery at Faneuil Hall.

Paul Revere's House

The Paul Revere house is the oldest building in downtown Boston that is still standing.  It was built around 1680.  Revere bought it in 1770.  He lived here when he made his famous "Midnight Ride".

Old North Church

The Old North Church is the oldest church in Boston that is still standing.  This Episcopal church opened in 1723.  The first bells ever brought to America were put in its steeple.
Because the steeple was the tallest in Boston at the time, it played an important role just before the American Revolution started.  Just before the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the first battles of the Revolution, the British had two choices for how they could get to Lexington and Concord.  They could walk, or they could row across the Charles River.  The Sons of Liberty hung two lanterns in the church's steeple to signal that British soldiers were crossing the Charles River.  This helped the Americans figure out the best way to defend against the British.
Copp's Hill Burying Ground
Copp's Hill Burying Ground was the largest cemetery in colonial Boston.  It was created in 1659.  Famous people who are buried here include:
 Cotton Mather and Increase Mather, two Puritan preachers who were involved with the Salem Witch Trials
 Robert Newman, the man who hung the lanterns in the Old North Church on the night of Paul Revere's "Midnight Ride"
 Edmund Hartt, who built the USS Constitution
 Prince Hall, a free African-American man who started the first Black Masonic Lodge, and tried to end slavery in Massachusetts

British soldiers put their cannons at Copp's Hill Burying Ground during the Battle of Bunker Hill.

The Bunker Hill Monument

The Bunker Hill Monument honors the Battle of Bunker Hill.  This was the first major battle of the American Revolution.  Though the British won this battle, it was so difficult for them to win that the battle proved the Americans would not be easy to beat.

The USS Constitution
Until May 2015, the USS Constitution was the oldest warship in the world that still floated.  It was first put into the water in 1797.  The Constitution became famous during the War of 1812.  The ship got the nickname "Old Ironsides" because cannonballs would bounce off the wooden sides of the ship like they were made of iron.

The Constitution is still a United States Navy warship.

Photo gallery

Related pages
 American Revolutionary War

References

Other websites

 The Freedom Trail Foundation (The Freedom Trail's official website)
 The Black Heritage Trail 

Buildings and structures in Boston
20th century in Massachusetts
National Historic Landmarks of the United States
Pat Conroy (October 26, 1945 – March 4, 2016) was an American author. He has written several famous novels and memoirs. Two of his novels, The Prince of Tides and The Great Santini, were made into movies that were nominated for Academy Awards. He was known as a leading writer of late-20th century Southern literature.

Conroy died on March 4, 2016 from pancreatic cancer in Beaufort, South Carolina. He was aged 70.

References

1945 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
American novelists
Writers from Atlanta
Alastair "Ali" Brownlee (1959 – 14 February 2016) was a English radio broadcaster. He was born in Middlesbrough, North Riding of Yorkshire. He was best known for his coverage of Middlesbrough Football Club on BBC Tees from 1982 onwards. His connection to the club earned him the honorific "Voice of the Boro".

Brownlee was a bank manager before becoming a sports commentator.

Brownlee died on 14 February 2016 at a hospital in Linthorpe, Middlesbrough, North Yorkshire. He had suffered from bowel cancer for three months. He was aged 56.

References

Other websites
 End of an era for radio duo

1959 births
2016 deaths
British bankers
BBC radio presenters
Cancer deaths in England
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Disease-related deaths in Yorkshire
English radio personalities
People from Middlesbrough
English sports commentators
Sportspeople from Yorkshire
Fighton Simukonda (2 February 1958 – 15 February 2016) was a Zambian football player and coach. He was part of the Nkana Red Devils team during the 1980s. He won five league titles. He was also captain of Zambia's national team. As a coach, he has won several Zambian Premier League titles. He became the first coach to lead a Zambian club to the group phase of the CAF Champions' League.

Simukonda died on 15 February 2016 from complications of diabetes. He was aged 58.

References

1958 births
2016 deaths
Zambian footballers
Football managers
Slobodan Santrač (Serbian Cyrillic: Слободан Сантрач; 1 July 1946 – 13 February 2016) was a Yugoslav and Serbian football manager and player. He was the all-time top scorer of the Yugoslav First League with a total of 218 goals. He was also the top scorer in the history of OFK Beograd. 

After finishing his playing career, Santrač was manager of numerous clubs and national teams. He reached the knockout stage with FR Yugoslavia at the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France.

On 13 February 2016, Santrač died of a heart attack in Belgrade. He was aged 69.

References

1946 births
2016 deaths

Serbian football managers
Serbian footballers
Yugoslavian footballers
Kirill or Cyril (, secular name Vladimir Mikhailovich Gundyayev, ; born 20 November 1946) is a Russian Orthodox bishop. He became Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus' and Primate of the Russian Orthodox Church on 1 February 2009.

Before becoming Patriarch, Kirill was Archbishop (later Metropolitan) of Smolensk and Kaliningrad from 26 December 1984. He was also Chairman of the Russian Orthodox Church's Department for External Church Relations and a permanent member of the Holy Synod beginning in 1989.

Other websites

 Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad
 Patriarch Kirill in the social network VKontakte (official profile)

1946 births
Living people
Patriarchs of Moscow
The Burr–Hamilton duel was a duel fought between two well-known American politicians. It was between the former secretary of the treasury Alexander Hamilton and sitting vice president Aaron Burr. It took place on July 11, 1804. The duel was caused by a long and bitter rivalry between the two men. At Weehawken, in New Jersey, Burr shot and wounded Hamilton. Hamilton was carried to the home of William Bayard on the Manhattan shore, where he died the next day. The duel ended Burr's political career.

References

1804 in the United States
Violence
History of New Jersey
July events
Girls is an American comedy-drama television series. The show began on HBO on April 15, 2012. It was created by Lena Dunham, who plays Hannah.

The show is about the lives of four young women living in Brooklyn, New York City.

Awards won

References

2012 American television series debuts
2017 American television series endings
2010s American drama television series
2010s American sitcoms
2010s comedy-drama television series
2010s LGBT television series
American comedy-drama television series
American LGBT television programs
BAFTA Award winning programmes
Brooklyn in fiction
Emmy Award winning programs
Golden Globe Award winning programs
HBO television series
LGBT comedy television series
LGBT drama television series
Television series about friendship
Television series set in New York City
Works about cousins
English-language television programs
The brachial plexus is a group of nerves. It runs from the vertebral column to the arm.

Structure
The brachial plexus is divided into five roots, three trunks, six divisions, three cords, and five branches.

Roots
The five roots come out of the spinal cord. They are each named after the part of the spinal cord they come out of: C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1.

Trunks
These roots join to form three trunks:
 "upper" (C5-C6)
 "middle" (C7)
 "lower" (C8-T1)

Divisions
Each trunk then splits into two divisions:
 anterior (front) divisions of the upper, middle, and lower trunks
 posterior (back) divisions of the upper, middle, and lower trunks

Cords
These six divisions join up again to become the three cords. 
 The posterior cord is formed from the three posterior divisions of the trunks (C5-C8,T1)
 The lateral cord is formed from the anterior divisions of the upper and middle trunks (C5-C7)
 The medial cord is simply a continuation of the anterior division of the lower trunk (C8,T1)

Diagram
Diagram

Nerves
The nerves that come out of the brachial plexus include:
 Radial nerve
 Axillary nerve
 Musculocutaneous nerve
 Median nerve
 Ulnar nerve

Related pages 
Brachial artery

Nervous system
Triangle Marsh is a wetland in the San Francisco Bay area. It is at the base of Ring Mountain at the north end of the Tiburon Peninsula in Marin County, California.

References

Other websites
 C. Michael Hogan (2008) Ring Mountain, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham
 Marin Audubon Society Restoration Page 

Marin County, California
Geography of California
Wetlands
University of Tromsø (UiT, "The arctic university of Norway") is a university in Norway. The main campus is in Tromsø. It also has campuses in Alta, Hammerfest, Harstad and Narvik. The main campus is located north on the Tromsø island in Troms county.

The university was founded in 1971 by the Norwegian government. It has had four mergers since then:
 with Tromsø University College in 2009
 with Finnmark University College in 2013 
 with Harstad University College in 2016
 with Narvik University College in 2016

When UiT merged with Tromsø University College it became the oldest school in Norway. Tromsø University College was founded on 7 February 1826. It was then called Trondenes seminar.

References

Education in Norway
Tromsø
Tromso
Buildings and structures in Troms og Finnmark
Juramaia is the earliest known eutherian mammal. It is a small shrew-like mammal of body length about 70100 mm. It is an extinct genus  from the Upper Jurassic deposits of western Liaoning, China. 

A nearly complete skeleton, with an incomplete skull with full dentition was found. It was collected in the Daxigou site, Jianchang, from the Tiaojishan Formation. It is dated at about 160 million years ago.

The discovery of Juramaia provides new insight into the evolution of eutherian mammals. It shows their lineage diverged from that of the marsupials 35 million years earlier than previously thought.  Furthermore, its discovery fills gaps in the fossil record and helps to calibrate modern, DNA-based methods of dating the evolution. 

The forelimb bones have climbing adaptations, so it is suggested  that the basal stock of Eutheria was arboreal.

Related pages 
 Eomaia
 Sinodelphys

References 

Mammals
Fossils
Jurassic
Nishagandhi Puraskaram () is an award given out by the government of Kerala in India. It is given out every year by the Tourism department. It is awarded to artists in the fields of dance and music.

The award comes with 1,50,000 rupees, a citation and a statuette. It is awarded as  part of the Nishagandhi Dance and Music Festival, which is held in January every year. This is a cultural annual programme of the Tourism department of Kerala. The award ceremony takes place at the Nishagandhi theatre in the Kanakakkunnu Palace ground in Trivandrum, the capital city of Kerala. The award was introduced to make the festival more popular on a national and international level. 

The Nishagandhi Puraskaram was first awarded to the classical dancer Mrinalini Sarabhai in 2013. Hindustani musician Lalith J Rao and Bharata Natyam artist Padma Subrahmanyam won the awards in the next years (2014 and 2015).  The most recent recipient of the award in 2016 is the music director Ilayaraja.

Laureates

References
References 

Art awards
Kerala
Exsanguination is losing enough blood to cause death.  A person does not have to lose all of their blood to exsanguinate.  People can die from losing half to two-thirds of their blood.

The average adult has about 4 to 6 liters of blood (9 to 12 US pints) in their body. The average man has more blood than the average woman, and people who weigh more or are taller than others have more blood.  This means a person can die from losing 2 1/2 to 4 liters of blood.  To compare, this is five to eight times as much blood as people usually give in a blood donation.

Children and babies have much less blood than adults, and can exsanguinate by losing much less blood than adults.

Exsanguination is often called bleeding to death or bleeding out.  It is a medical emergency.

Definition
Doctors define exsanguination this way:
 The patient has lost over 40% of their blood (2 to 2.4 liters in an average adult)
 The patient is still losing blood
 The bleeding is so bad that if it is not stopped quickly, the patient will die
Types of bleeding

Bleeding can be external or internal.

"External" means "outside the body."  External bleeding is visible - it can be seen outside the body.  For example, a person who cuts their hand and has blood on their hand is having external bleeding.

"Internal" means "inside the body."  Internal bleeding cannot be seen, because it is inside the body.  For example, a person who is bleeding into their brain because of a stroke is having internal bleeding.

Sometimes, bleeding can be both internal and external.  A person can exsanguinate from internal bleeding, external bleeding, or both.

Causes
Exsanguination is usually caused by major blood vessels getting injured or breaking open.  Smaller blood vessels bleed less, and bleed slower, so it is harder to exsanguinate if they are injured.

Injuries

Exsanguination can be caused by trauma (injuries).  Out of all people who die from injuries, 30-40% die from exsanguination.  Up to half of these people (33-56%) die before they even get to the hospital.
Penetrating trauma (an injury where something breaks the skin) is one of the most common causes of exsanguination.  This is especially true for gunshot wounds to places like the heart, chest, or head, which all have major blood vessels in them.

Other injuries that can cause exsanguination include:
 Injuries which cut major arteries, like the aorta, carotid artery (in the neck), or femoral artery (in the groin and legs)
 Motor vehicle accidents
 Amputation of an arm or leg

A person can exsanguinate from internal bleeding if:
 They are bleeding into their chest or abdomen (for example, because of blunt force trauma)
 They break their pelvis
 They break both of their femurs (thigh bones)

Exsanguination is one of the most common causes of death in soldiers at war.  It is usually caused by gunshot wounds, motor vehicle accidents, or explosions.

Medical problems
Medical problems

Some medical problems can make a person exsanguinate by bleeding internally.  These problems include:
 An aneurysm in the aorta that breaks.  This can cause a person to exsanguinate in just a few minutes.
 Sepsis, which can cause the infection to eat away at the walls of the blood vessels.  Eventually the walls break and the blood vessels start to bleed.
 Bleeding after childbirth.  Around the world, one woman dies every two minutes from exsanguination after childbirth.  Most of these deaths happen in developing countries.
 Bleeding from the spleen, liver, or intestines
 A very bad peptic ulcer
 A tumor that eats into a major blood vessel, like a tumor in the neck that eats into the carotid artery and makes it start bleeding

Effects
Effects

If a person is losing blood very quickly (for example, from a broken aortic aneurysm), they will only be conscious for 20 seconds to a few minutes.  If blood loss is slower, and the person does not get medical treatment, they may be conscious for a few hours.  However, they will get more and more confused and tired as they lose more blood.  Eventually the person will go into a coma because there is not enough blood left in their body to bring oxygen to their brain.  Finally their heart will stop and they will die.

Exsanguination is a syndrome
Doctors call exsanguination a syndrome (a group of symptoms), because it causes so many problems in the body.

Hypothermia
Blood helps keep us warm.  Because of this, losing a lot of blood causes hypothermia.
Coagulopathy
Coagulopathy means that the blood no longer clots normally.  When a person loses blood, they also lose the platelets and blood-clotting proteins the blood carried.  These platelets and proteins make the blood clot.  If a person loses too much blood, they will not have enough platelets or proteins left to make the blood clot.

Acidosis
Acidosis means that the body makes too much acid.  Usually, the body makes energy out of oxygen carried in the blood and glucose (sugar); this is called aerobic respiration. If a person loses a lot of blood, there will not be enough oxygen in the blood that is left to make energy this way. The body switches to anaerobic respiration and makes energy out of glucose without needing oxygen. However, this creates many acidic waste products (chemicals that the body does not need, which are left over after the body does chemical reactions). Eventually, these waste products can build up so much that they poison the body. This is called acidosis.
Arrhythmia
When the heart does not get enough blood, it can start beating in ways that are not normal.  When this happens because of exsanguination, it usually means that the patient is close to dying.

Shock
If a person loses enough blood, they will go into shock.  This means the body's most important organs are not getting the blood, oxygen, and nutrients they need to survive.  It also means that the body is not able to get rid of waste products, like acids.  If shock gets bad enough, it will kill the person.

Treatment

First aid
First aid

First aid is an important first step in treating exsanguination.  Things that regular people can do to help include:
 Calling 9-1-1 or another local emergency telephone number immediately
 Trying to stop the bleeding by:
 Pressing against the place that is bleeding
 If the person is bleeding from an arm or leg, lifting the arm or leg above the level of the person's heart
 Making a tourniquet and wrapping it tightly above where the person is bleeding
 Laying the person down and raising their legs, if possible
 If the person is coughing or vomiting blood, turning them on their side so they do not choke
 Keeping the person warm
 Trying to help the person stay calm

If possible, a person giving first aid should wear gloves any time they touch another person's blood. The sick or injured person may have an infection that can be spread through blood, like HIV or hepatitis. Wearing gloves will protect the person giving first aid from getting these infections.
First aid saved many lives during the Boston Marathon bombings, when ordinary people used belts for tourniquets or used their own hands to press against bleeding wounds.  The three people who died in the bombings died right away. There were many other people who were hurt badly enough that they could have exsanguinated. For example, some people's legs were blown off by the bombs. However, because of the help of ordinary people giving first aid (and because of emergency medical services), everyone who did not die right away survived.

Emergency medical treatments
Emergency medical treatments for exsanguination include:
 Tests, like ultrasounds or CT scans, to find the cause of bleeding if it is internal
 Surgery to fix the cause of the bleeding
 Treatments to warm the body up
 Blood transfusions
 Giving fluids, like saline, through a needle into a vein to add to the amount of fluid that is in the person's body
 Giving medications to decrease acidosis

Risk factors
Risk factors

Risk factors for exsanguination
There are some risk factors which make a person more likely to exsanguinate.  A few examples are:
 Being on anticoagulants (blood-thinning medications).  These can make even a small wound bleed dangerously.
 Having a blood clotting disorder, like hemophilia
 Alcoholism.  Drinking too much alcohol can damage the liver.  If the liver is damaged, it cannot make blood-clotting proteins (like fibrinogen) as well as a healthy liver does.  This makes alcoholics more likely to bleed dangerously if they get hurt.  Liver damage can also lead to a problem called esophageal varices, which can cause a person to exsanguinate by throwing up blood.
 Advanced cancer.  Of everyone who has advanced cancer and is not getting treated for their cancer, up to one in 10 people have dangerous bleeding.
Risk factors for death from exsanguination
When a person is exsanguinating, they are more likely to die if:
 They do not get into surgery quickly enough
 They have hypothermia, with a temperature under 34° C (93.2° F)
 Their blood is more acidic because of acidosis
 They needed to be given more than 4 liters of blood, or over 10 liters of fluids, to replace the blood they lost
 They lost more than 15 mL of blood per minute (losing blood this fast, the person would exsanguinate in less than 30–40 minutes)
 They have lower numbers of platelets when they first get to the hospital
 They are elderly

Related pages
 Blood
 Bleeding
 Arterial bleeding (one of the most dangerous kinds of bleeding)
 Blood clotting (also called "coagulation")
 Blood vessels
 Blunt force trauma
 Aneurysm
 Platelets
 Fibrinogen (a blood-clotting protein made in the liver)

References

Blood disorders
Medical emergencies
Denise Katrina Matthews, also known as Vanity (January 4, 1959 – February 15, 2016), was a Canadian-American singer, songwriter, actress, dancer and model. She was the lead singer of the female trio Vanity 6 between 1981 until it disbanded in 1983. The group was well known for their 1982 hit song "Nasty Girl".

Vanity also had a successful acting career, starring in movies, including Action Jackson and The Last Dragon. 

In 1994, Vanity converted to Christianity.

Vanity was born in Niagara Falls, Ontario. She died of complications from peritoneal dialysis in a Fremont, California hospital. She was 57.

References

Other websites

1959 births
2016 deaths
Actors from Ontario
Canadian movie actors
R&B singers
Canadian singer-songwriters
Canadian television actors
Deaths from renal failure
Disease-related deaths in California
Singers from Ontario
The prohibition of overturning a jury's verdict applies to federal cases, state cases involving federal law, and to review of state cases by federal courts. United States v. Wonson (1812) established the "historical test", which interpreted the amendment as relying on English common law to determine whether a jury trial was necessary in a civil lawsuit. The amendment thus does not guarantee trial by jury in cases under maritime law, in lawsuits against the government itself, and for many parts of patent claims. In all other cases, the jury can be waived by consent of the parties. The amendment also guarantees a minimum of six members for a jury in a civil trial.

Text
The 7th Amendment was ratified on December 15, 1791 as one of ten amendments in the Bill of Rights. But the background for its passing began in England during the 12th century. At the time juries were made up of 12 men who gave their opinions in a trial. The 12-man jury originally included the accusers against the defendant, a supposed enemy of the king. Eventually this led to a system where the jury made a verdict based on evidence. The practice followed English colonists to the American colonies. But juries became a tool used to express American discontent with British rule. A series of Navigation Acts prohibited the American colonies from trading directly with the Netherlands, Spain, France, and their colonies. As more and more trade restriction were imposed, the American colonists turned to smuggling. When smugglers were caught, they were brought before juries made up of other colonists. These sympathetic juries often acquitted their fellow colonists
. The king, angered at these lawbreakers going free, created new courts that did not allow juries. This was a breach of common law practice and infringed on their rights as British citizens. After the American Revolutionary War, the Seventh Amendment was written to expressly limit the powers of the executive and the Judicial branches of the new federal government.
Notes

References 

07
Edward Thomas "Ed" Barry (October 12, 1919 – February 12, 2016) was an American professional ice hockey player. Barry also played for the Boston Olympics of the Eastern Hockey League and the Boston Bruins, and later became the coach at Boston State College. He has been a member of the Northeastern University athletics Hall of Fame since 1976, and a member of the UMass Boston Hall of Fame since 2003.

Barry died on February 12, 2016 from complications of Alzheimer's disease. He was under hospice care in Needham, Massachusetts at the time. He was aged 96.

References

1919 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Disease-related deaths in Massachusetts
Boston Bruins players
Sportspeople from Massachusetts
Sir Erik Christopher Zeeman FRS (4 February 1925 – 13 February 2016), was a British mathematician. He was known for his work in geometric topology and singularity theory. Zeeman's main contributions to mathematics were in topology, particularly in knot theory, the piecewise linear category, and dynamical systems.

Other websites
 
 Interview in CIM Bulletin 2001 
 Three references for further reading 
 Bibliography 
 Zeeman's Catastrophe Machine
 Zeeman's Catastrophe Machine in Flash 
 AMS — The Catastrophe Machine
 Doctor Zeeman's Original Catastrophe Machine
 "The Cusp of Catastrophe: René Thom, Christopher Zeeman and Denis Postle" in Maps of the Mind Charles Hampden-Turner.  Collier Books, 1981. 
 Mathematics into Pictures , Christopher Zeeman's 1978 Royal Institution Christmas Lectures

1925 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from respiratory failure
Japanese scientists
British geometers
People from Oxfordshire
Topologists
Arnold Rüütel OIH () (born May 10, 1928) is an Estonian politician. 

He served as the last Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR from April 8, 1983 to March 29, 1990, Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR (from May 8, 1990: Supreme Council of the Republic of Estonia) from March 29, 1990 to October 6, 1992 and was the third President of the Republic of Estonia from October 8, 2001 to October 9, 2006. 

He was the second President since Estonia regained independence in 1991. Rüütel also served as one of fifteen Deputy Chairmen of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

Other websites

 About Arnold Rüütel in The President of the Republic of Estonia homepage
 Biography of Arnold Rüütel 

1928 births
Living people
Presidents of Estonia
Zhu Rongji (; born 1 October 1928) is a Chinese politician. He served as Mayor and Party chief in Shanghai between 1987 and 1991. He then served as Vice Premier and then fifth Premier of the People's Republic of China from March 1998 to March 2003.

References

Other websites
Profile  at China Vitae

1928 births
Living people
Premiers of the People's Republic of China
Vice Premiers of the People's Republic of China
Bill Dana (October 5, 1924 – June 15, 2017) was an American comedian, actor and screenwriter. He often appeared on television shows such as The Ed Sullivan Show. He was known for appearing as a heavily accented Bolivian character named José Jiménez.  Dana often portrayed the Jiménez character as an astronaut.

Dana died at his home in Nashville, Tennessee on June 15, 2017 at the age of 92.

References

1924 births
2017 deaths
American movie actors
American television actors
American screenwriters
Actors from Massachusetts
Comedians from Massachusetts
Writers from Massachusetts
People from Quincy, Massachusetts
Anna Margaret "Annie" Glenn, (née Castor; February 17, 1920 – May 19, 2020) was an American activist and philanthropist. She was the widow of former astronaut and Senator John Glenn. She was added into the National Stuttering Association Hall of Fame.

She was known for her works to raise awareness of children and adults with disabilities such as stuttering. She suffered from it during her early years until it went away when she was in her 50s.

Glenn was born in Columbus, Ohio. She studied at Muskingum College. Glenn married John Glenn in 1943. Together, they had two children. Glenn died at a nursing home in St. Paul, Minnesota on May 19, 2020 at the age of 100. The cause of death was COVID-19.

References

1920 births
2020 deaths
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States
American civil rights activists
American centenarians
Philanthropists from Ohio
People from Columbus, Ohio
Li Peng (20 October 1928 – 22 July 2019) was a Chinese politician. He served as the fourth Premier of the People's Republic of China, between 1987 and 1998. He also served as the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, China's top legislative body from 1998 to 2003.

For much of the 1990s, Li was ranked second in the Communist Party of China (CPC) hierarchy behind then General Secretary Jiang Zemin. He retained his seat on the CPC Politburo Standing Committee until 2002.

Li died on 22 July 2019 at the age of 90 from an illness at a hospital in Beijing.

References

Other websites
Li Peng human rights lawsuit 
Li Peng biography @ China Vitae, the web's largest online database of China VIPs 

1928 births
2019 deaths
Premiers of the People's Republic of China
Chinese communist politicians
Vice Premiers of the People's Republic of China
Intravenous injection or intravenous therapy means putting liquid into a vein, using a needle.  Many illegal drugs and medications can be given intravenously.

Benefits of intravenous injection
Drugs and medications work very fast when given intravenously, because they go right into the bloodstream.  They reach the brain and start working in a minute or less.  Also, when a drug is given intravenously, 100% of the drug gets into the bloodstream.

When medications are given in other ways, they do not work as fast.  Also, not all of the drug reaches the bloodstream.

However, medications given by IV do not last as long as medicines given by mouth  As soon as the drug reaches the bloodstream, the body begins to break it down so the body can get rid of it.

Types of intravenous injections
There are two types of intravenous injections.

Single injection
Sometimes, people inject just one drug into a vein with a needle.  Then they take the needle out.
When people use illegal drugs like heroin intravenously, they use a single injection.  They shoot the drug into their veins, and then take the needle out.

Intravenous line

The second type of IV injection is called an "intravenous (IV) line."  This is usually what medical professionals mean when they say a patient is getting an IV.

To do an IV line, a medical professional will:
 Put a needle into the vein 
 Slide a hollow plastic tube called a catheter over the needle, and into the person's vein  
 Attach the catheter to longer tubes outside the patient's body
 When a patient needs fluids or medications, the medical professional will put the liquid in a bag (called an IV bag) and attach the longer tubes.  The liquid then drips through the longer tubes, through the catheter, and into the person's vein
 When a medication needs to be given very quickly, a medical professional can also inject the medication right into the IV line, all at once.  This is called an "IV push."
An IV line allows medical professionals to give different liquids at different times, without having to put a needle into a vein every time.  They can also give many medications at the same time.

Medical uses
Intravenous lines are often used in emergency medicine.  Many things can be given through an IV line.

Volume expanders
Volume expanders are special fluids that are used when a person has lost some of the fluids in their body.  For example, a person might lose fluids because of dehydration or bleeding.  Volume expanders are used to replace these lost fluids.  They are called "volume expanders" because they expand (increase) the volume of liquid in the bloodstream.
Losing too much fluid is dangerous.  People need liquid in their bloodstream to carry blood cells, glucose (sugar), electrolytes (salts), and many other important things.  Usually, the blood plasma (the liquid part of blood) does this job.  However, people can lose plasma for several reasons.  For example:
 If a person has heavy bleeding, they will lose a lot of their plasma, along with the things it carries
 If a person gets dehydrated, they will lose some of the water in their plasma.  (Normal plasma is 92% water.)

Volume expanders add to the amount of liquid in the bloodstream.  They help plasma do its job.
Common volume expanders
There are a few common volume expanders.  They are mixtures of liquids and other things the body loses when a person loses fluid:
 Saline: Saline is the most common volume expander.  It is a mixture of water and sodium.
 Ringer's Lactate: A mixture of water and five important electrolytes: sodium, chloride, potassium, lactate, and calcium
 D5W: D5W stands for "5% dextrose in water."  Dextrose is another name for glucose (sugar).  The body needs glucose to make energy.  D5W replaces the fluids the person has lost, and also gives them more sugar so they can make energy.
 D5W can also be mixed with saline or Ringer's Lactate to give a person extra electrolytes

Medications
Many medications can be given by IV.  They can be given by themselves, or mixed into volume expanders.
Examples of medications that can be given by IV include:
 Some opiate painkillers, like morphine
 Some anti-nausea medications (used when a person is vomiting and cannot swallow medications)
 Some anti-anxiety and antipsychotic medications, like lorazepam and haloperidol (used when people are very anxious, or are psychotic)
 Medications used to put a person to sleep before surgery, like propofol

Blood

Blood transfusions are usually given through an IV line.  A blood transfusion can give a person regular blood, or only parts of the blood, like:
 Plasma
 Red blood cells (these are often given alone when a person is very anemic)
 White blood cells (these may be given when chemotherapy kills white blood cells)
 Platelets and/or blood-clotting proteins (given when a person's blood is not clotting well)

Nutrition
If a person cannot eat for a short time, nutrition can be given through an IV line.  IV nutrition mixtures include water, electrolytes, glucose, amino acids, lipids (fats), and vitamins.
Intravenous drug use
Intravenous drug use means injecting illegal drugs into a vein.  Illegal drugs that can be injected intravenously include:
 Amphetamines
 Barbiturates
 Cocaine and crack cocaine
 Methamphetamine
 Heroin

Sometimes, people also dissolve prescription medications in water and inject them intravenously.  For example, some people dissolve oxycodone or benzodiazepines and inject them.

People use drugs intravenously because it is one of the fastest ways to get the effects of the drug.  When a person uses drugs intravenously, the drugs start working within 15 to 30 seconds.

Dangers
Using drugs intravenously can cause many problems.

Infections
Infections

If a person uses a needle that is not clean to inject drugs, they can get an infection.  Common infections caused by IV drug use include:
 Skin infections and abscesses
 Bone infections
 Infection with Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, which can cause: 
 Endocarditis (an infection in the heart)
 Bacteremia (infection in the blood)
 MRSA (which is very difficult to treat because many antibiotics do not kill it)

An IV drug user can also get some infectious diseases by using the same needles as people who have those diseases.  HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and many other infections can be spread by sharing needles.

In the world, 40-60% of IV drug users have hepatitis B, and 60-70% have hepatitis C.
Overdose
People are more likely to overdose when they use drugs intravenously.  There are a few reasons for this:
 IV drug users will usually inject the entire amount of drugs they want, all at once.  This makes it harder to guess how much of the drug they need to get the effects they want.  They cannot slowly increase the amount of drugs they use until they get the effects they want.  If they accidentally inject too much of the drug, they can overdose.
 Because IV drugs start working so quickly, overdose can happen very quickly.

Problems with veins
When an IV drug user injects drugs into their veins over and over again, they can damage their veins.  The veins can get scarred and eventually collapse.  This leaves marks over the scarred veins that are called "track marks."

Related pages
 Other ways to give medications
 Central venous catheter (a type of IV put into a large vein in the neck, chest, or groin)

References

Medical equipment
Medical procedures
Drug delivery devices
The Selfish Gene is a book on evolution by Richard Dawkins, published in 1976. It builds upon the work of George C. Williams's  book: Adaptation and Natural Selection, and helped popularize W.D. Hamilton's work. 

Dawkins used the term "selfish gene" as a way of expressing the "gene-centred view of evolution". From the gene-centred view, it follows that the more two individuals are genetically related, the more sense (at the level of the genes) it makes for them to behave selflessly with each other. 

An organism evolves to maximise its inclusive fitness—the number of copies of its genes passed on globally (rather than by a particular individual).
Dawkins proposes the idea of the "replicator":
"[About] the central role in natural selection... One way of sorting this whole matter out is to use the terms ‘replicator’ and ‘vehicle’. The fundamental units of natural selection, the basic things that survive or fail to survive, that form lineages of identical copies with occasional random mutations, are called replicators. DNA molecules are replicators. They generally, for reasons that we shall come to, gang together into large communal survival machines or ‘vehicles’."
— Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, p. 253 (Anniversary Edition)

The book also coins the term meme for a unit of human cultural evolution analogous to the gene.

References 

Biology books
Evolutionary biology
1976 books
Miss Israel is a beauty contest in Israel. It has been held every year since 1950. The winner competes in the Miss Universe contest and the second place competes in the Miss World contest.

Beauty pageants
Israeli culture
Panzerchrist is a Danish blackened death metal band. It was formed in 1993–1994 by Michael Enevoldsen (after he left Illdisposed) and Danish artist Lasse Hoile.

History 
Panzerchrist recorded a few demos and was signed by Serious entertainment. Six Seconds Kill was released by Serious Entertainment in 1996, and in 1998 they released Outpost Fort Europa. In 2000, Panzerchrist was joined by drummer Reno Killerich (ex-Exmortem, Vile, etc.) and Bo Summer (also of Illdisposed). They recorded Soul Collector, which focused on World War II and had German lyrics. Soul Collector was released by Mighty Music in 2000.
In 2002, the band was joined by Frederik O'Carroll and Rasmus Henriksen. They began work on the violent Room Service. It featured compositions that were very loud and fast, including a cover of the Metal Church classic "Metal Church". Room Service was recorded at Tue Madsen's "Antfarm Studios" (The Haunted, Illdisposed, Mnemic etc.) and was released by Mighty Music in 2003. The name of each song on the album Room Service are the first word(s) to be sung on each song. Each song on the album Room Service ends with the words "Death, forever panzer" – except the song "Metal Church", since it is a cover.

In 2006, Panzerchrist drummer Killerich and Karina Bundgaard, now on keyboards, rejoined for the recording of Battalion Beast. This was released by Neurotic Records in 2006. This album features the words "Christ, thy name is panzer" at the end of each song.

References

Danish musicians
Death metal bands
A whip is a long strand of leather with a hard handle, used for directing or hitting animals or people.

Whip may also refer to:

 Chain whip, a martial arts weapon
 Flogging, punishment using a whip
 Whip (dance), a popular dance move
 Whip (instrument), a percussion instrument
 Whip (politics), a political party's discipline official
The Native American flute is a flute that is held in front of the person playing it, has open holes for the player's fingers, and has two separate parts:
one for the breath of the person playing the flute and another that makes the sound of the flute.

The player breathes into one end of the flute.
A block on the outside of the flute
directs the player's breath from the first part to the second part,
causing air to vibrate in the second part.
The vibration causes a steady resonance of air in the second part that creates sound.

Native American flutes are made in many different designs, sizes, and variations —
far more other woodwind instruments.

Names 

The Native American flute has many other names.:
American Indian courting flute,
courting flute, 
Grandfather's flute,
Indian flute,
love flute, 
Native American courting flute,
Native American love flute,
Native American style flute (see the Indian Arts And Crafts Act),
North American flute,
Plains flute,
and Plains Indian courting flute.
The correct way to spell the name of the instrument is "Native American flute" using capital letters for "N" and "A" and lower-case letters for the "f" in "flute".

A person who plays Native American flutes is called a "flutist". The word "flautist" is used, but much less often.

History 

There are many stories about how different Native American peoples invented the Native American flute.
In one story, a woodpecker pecked holes in the branch of a tree while searching for termites.
When the wind blew along the holes, people heard music.
It is not well known how the design of the Native American flute developed before 1823.
Some of the influences may have been:
 Branches of trees or stalks of plants with holes drilled by insects that created sounds when the wind blew.
 The atlatl.
 Musical instruments made of clay made in Mesoamerica.
 The Anasazi flute, a type of flute developed by early Native American peoples.
 The parts of the organ that make the sound of the instrument. Native Americans were taught to make these parts of the organ as early as 1524.
 The recorder — a musical instrument that came from Europe.
It is also possible that instruments were carried from other cultures during migrations.

The oldest Native American flute made of wood is from 1823. It is now in a museum in Bergamo, Italy.

Parts 

The Native American flute has two parts:
the slow air chamber and the sound chamber.
A plug inside the instrument separates the slow air chamber from the sound chamber.
The parts of the Native American flute can have many alternate names.
The plug is sometimes called the internal wall.
The slow air chamber is also called the "SAC", the compression chamber, or the mouth chamber.
The sound chamber is also called the pipe body,
the playing chamber, the resonating chamber, the tone chamber, or the variable tube.

The block on the outside of the instrument is a separate part that can be removed.
The block is also called the bird, the fetish, the saddle, or the totem.
The block is tied by a strap onto the nest of the flute.
The block moves air through a flue from the slow air chamber to the sound chamber.
The block is often in the shape of a bird.

The slow air chamber has a mouthpiece and breath hole for the player's breath.
Air flows through the slow air chamber and up the exit hole into the flue.
The sound chamber contains the sound hole, which creates the vibration of air that causes sound when the airflow
reaches the splitting edge.
The sound hole can also be called the whistle hole, the window, or the true sound hole ("TSH").
The splitting edge can also be called the cutting edge, the fipple edge, the labium, or the sound edge.

The sound chamber also has finger holes that allows the player to change the
frequency of the vibrating air.
Changing the frequency of the vibration changes the pitch of the sound produced.

The finger holes on a Native American flute are open, meaning that fingers of the player cover the finger hole
(rather than metal levers or pads such as those on a clarinet).
This means that the player must be able to reach all the finger holes on the instrument with their fingers.
The finger holes can also be called the note holes, the playing holes, the tone holes, or the stops.
The foot end of the flute — the end far away from the player's mouth — can have direction holes.
These holes affect the pitch of the flute when all the finger holes are covered.
They also relate to the "Four Directions" of
East, South, West, and North found in many Native American stories.
The direction holes can also be called the tuning holes or wind holes.

The picture shown above
– Parts of the Native American flute with
English-language labels –
can also be seen with labels in
Cherokee,
Dutch,
Esperanto,
French,
German,
Japanese,
Korean,
Polish,
Russian,
and
Spanish.

Spacer Plate 

Another way to build Native American flutes uses a spacer plate to create the flue.
The spacer plate sits between the nest area on the body of the flute and the block.
The spacer player is usually held in place by the same strap that holds the block onto the instrument.
The splitting edge can also be part of the spacer plate.

The spacer plate is often made of metal, but spacer plates can be made of wood, bark, and ceramic.
Dimensions 

Many old Native American flutes were made using measurements of the body.
The length of the flute was the distance from inside of the elbow to tip of the index finger.
The length of the slow air chamber was the width of the fist.
The distance between the sound hole and first finger hole was the width of the fist.
The distance between finger holes would be the width of a thumb.
The distance from the last finger hole to the end of the flute was the width of the fist.

Currently, makers of Native American flutes use many methods to design the dimensions of their flutes.
This is very important for the location of the finger holes, since they control the pitch of the different notes of the instrument.
Flute makers may use calculators to design their instruments,
or use dimensions provided by other flute makers.

Materials 

Many Native American flutes are made from river cane, bamboo, wood,
or even plastic. Some makers of Native American flutes use ceramic or glass.

Music