Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
In 1496 he got an important “commission” (he was given a paid job) from Cardinal Raffaele Riario. The Cardinal wanted Michelangelo to make a marble statue, larger than life-size,  of Bacchus, the Ancient Roman God of wine. Michelangelo worked hard at the statue. He carved Bacchus as a young man who was quite drunk and looked as if he was staggering as he raised his cup to make a toast. The cardinal did not like the drunken Bacchus and would not pay for it. A banker called Jacopo Galli bought it for his garden.
Michelangelo’s next important commission was from the French Ambassador who asked him to make a statue of the Virgin Mary mourning over the dead body of her son Jesus. This type of artwork, either a painting or a statue, is called by the Italian name “Pieta” (say: “Pe-ay-ta”). Michelangelo’s Pieta is the most famous Pieta that has ever been made. It is now in Saint Peter's Basilica and is visited by thousands of people every day. Giorgio Vasari  wrote: "It is a miracle that a shapeless block of stone could have been carved away to make something so perfect that even nature could hardly have made it better, using real human flesh."

Works

Statue of David
Statue of David 

In 1499 Michelangelo returned to Florence.  The priest Savonarola had made so many people angry that he had been put to death in 1498. Life in Florence started to return to normal. Many years earlier the Guild of Woolworkers had commissioned some artists to make statues of the heroes of the city. A sculptor called Agostino di Duccio had started carving a huge statue of  David, the hero of the Bible story of David and Goliath. For 40 years the Guild of Woolworkers owned the huge block of marble, with the statue hardly begun. In 1501 they commissioned the young Michelangelo to carve it. It took him three years to complete.
Once again Michelangelo made a statue that became world-famous. The statue shows a young man, naked in the way that statues of ancient gods were made, just pausing for a moment and looking with fierce eyes at the huge soldier Goliath that he is about to kill. The statue is 5.17 meter (17 ft) tall. It was placed in the piazza (public square) outside the Palazzo Vecchio where the town council met. After many years, the statue was put into an art gallery, the Accademia. A copy now stands in the piazza. People still go great distances to see the statue that he made.

Sistine Chapel ceiling
In 1505 Michelangelo was invited to Rome by the newly elected Pope Julius II. Pope Julius was an old man. He wanted Michelangelo to design a grand tomb. It was to stand inside a church and have many carved figures which were to include several slaves to hold up part of the tomb and Old Testament prophets to sit in niches (openings in the walls). Michelangelo started work. He made a magnificent statue of Moses  which is now in the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli (St. Peter in Chains) in Rome. Many people go to look at this statue. The slaves were only partly carved. Four of them are now in the Accademia in Florence. The rest of the great plan was unfinished.
The chapel was long and wide. Its curved ceiling was held up by twelve fan-shaped pieces of wall called "pendentives". Pope Julius told Michelangelo to paint one of the twelve apostles of Jesus on each pendentive. Michelangelo started to do this. Then he got a different idea and scraped off the work that he had done. Instead of apostles, he painted twelve prophets. Seven of them were men from the Old Testament but the other five were women and did not come from the Bible. They were five prophets from the Classical world. Like the prophets in the Bible, they had all told people about the birth of Jesus.

On the middle of the ceiling, instead of painting a starry sky, Michelangelo painted scenes from the Bible telling the story of Creation and the downfall of humanity. The most famous scene is the picture of God creating Adam.  The ceiling was so famous that many artists tried to copy the way that Michelangelo had arranged and painted the figures.
Buildings and tombs in Florence 
In 1513 Pope Julius II died. The next pope was Pope Leo X, a member of the Medici family. He gave Michelangelo several jobs in Florence, including designing the Medici Chapel to hold the tombs of his family members.  Although not all the tombs were built, Michelangelo finished seven large statues including a "Madonna and Child". His pupils later completed the chapel.

In 1527, the people of Florence became angry at the Medici for acting like princes. That was not the right way for a family to act, in a city that was a republic. The people threw the Medici out, but the Medici came back with an army and took over the city. Michelangelo was so upset at the behaviour of the Medici that he left his beloved city and never went back.

The Last Judgement
Pope Clement VII called Michelangelo back to the Sistine Chapel to paint the wall behind the altar with a huge scene of The Last Judgement.  He worked on it from 1534 to 1541. At the centre it shows Jesus, surrounded by saints, sitting in judgement over the people of the Earth. To the left, people are rising from their graves and many are welcomed into Heaven. To the right, other people are being sent to Hell where they are dragged down by demons. It is a huge painting with many figures in it.
Like Adam and Eve on the ceiling, all the figures were shown naked. Some of the cardinals in the church said that it was wicked to paint saints, including the Virgin Mary, with no clothes on. They called Michelangelo "the painter of rude bits". There was a long argument about this because some people said that God had created everyone naked, so clothes would not be needed in Heaven.  After Michelangelo's death another artist, Daniele da Volterra was called in to paint drapes on the figures. For the rest of his life, he was known as "the painter of pants".

St. Peter's Basilica
In 1546, when Michelangelo was in his seventies, he was given one of his most important jobs. The old St. Peter's Basilica had been partly demolished and a new one designed by Bramante. But many architects had worked on it and it was still just at the beginning stages. Michelangelo was made the architect. He immediately improved the plan, had important parts made much stronger, and designed a huge dome, taller than any other domes in the world. He died before it was completed, but he left drawings and models so that the next architect, Giacomo della Porta, could finish what he had started. The dome of St. Peter's Basilica still stands as one of the greatest monuments of Christianity, and as a symbol of the city of Rome.

When Michelangelo died, his body was taken back to Florence and buried in the Basilica of Santa Croce (Church of the Holy Cross). On his tomb sit three mourning figures who symbolize Architecture, Painting and Sculpture.
Related pages
 Renaissance
 List of Renaissance artists
 Italian Renaissance art
 Leonardo da Vinci
 Raphael
 St. Peter's Basilica
 Sistine Chapel
 List of Italian painters

References
Further reading 
 
 Barenboim, Peter (with Heath, Arthur). 500 years of the New Sacristy: Michelangelo in the Medici Chapel, LOOM, Moscow, 2019. 
 
 
 
 Einem, Herbert von (1973). Michelangelo. Trans. Ronald Taylor. London: Methuen.
 Gilbert, Creighton (1994). Michelangelo On and Off the Sistine Ceiling. New York: George Braziller.
 Hibbard, Howard (1974). Michelangelo. New York: Harper & Row.
 Hirst, Michael and Jill Dunkerton. (1994) The Young Michelangelo: The Artist in Rome 1496–1501. London: National Gallery Publications.
 
 Pietrangeli, Carlo, et al. (1994). The Sistine Chapel: A Glorious Restoration. New York: Harry N. Abrams
 
 Saslow, James M. (1991). The Poetry of Michelangelo: An Annotated Translation. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
 
 Seymour, Charles, Jr. (1972). Michelangelo: The Sistine Chapel Ceiling. New York: W. W. Norton.
 
 Summers, David (1981). Michelangelo and the Language of Art. Princeton University Press.
Tolnay, Charles de. (1964). The Art and Thought of Michelangelo. 5 vols. New York: Pantheon Books.
 
 Wilde, Johannes (1978). Michelangelo: Six Lectures. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Other websites 

 "The Divine Michelangelo - Timeline of Michelangelo's Life and Major Works"
 Michelangelo in the "A World History of Art" 
 Photographs of details at the Campidoglio
 
 The Digital Michelangelo Project
 The BP Special Exhibition Michelangelo Drawings — closer to the master 
 Michelangelo's Drawings: Real or Fake?  How to decide if a drawing is by Michelangelo.
 Models he used to make his sculptures and paintings
 "The Michelangelo Code" , suggesting Michelangelo's coded use of his knowledge of anatomy.
 "Michelangelo: The Man and the Myth" 

1475 births
1564 deaths
15th-century Italian painters
16th-century Italian painters
Italian architects
Italian sculptors
Italian poets
Polymaths
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519) was an Italian polymath who lived during the Renaissance.  He is famous for his paintings. He was also a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician, and writer.

Leonardo wanted to know everything about nature, and wanted to know how everything worked. He was very good at studying, as well as designing and making all sorts of inventions.

The art historian Helen Gardner said that no-one has ever been quite like him because he was interested in so many things that he seems to have had the mind of a giant, and yet what he was like as a person is still a mystery.

Leonardo was born in Vinci, a small town near Florence, Italy. He was trained to be an artist by the sculptor and painter Verrocchio. He spent most of his life working for rich Italian noblemen. In his last years, he lived in a beautiful home given to him by the King of France.
Two of his paintings are among the best-known in the world: the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. He did many drawings. His best-known drawing is Vitruvian Man. Leonardo often thought of new inventions. He kept notebooks with notes and drawings of these ideas. Most of his inventions were never made. Some of his ideas were a helicopter, a tank, a calculator, a parachute, a robot, a telephone, evolution, and solar power.

Life

Childhood, 1452–1466
Leonardo was born on 15 April 1452, in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the valley of the Arno River. His grandfather, Antonio da Vinci, wrote down the details of the birth. Leonardo's parents were not married. His father was a Notary, Ser Piero da Vinci. His mother, Caterina, was a servant. She may have been a slave from the Middle East. or from China. His father later took custody of Leonardo, and his mother remarried and had 5 more children. Leonardo's full name was "Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci", which means "Leonardo, the son of Messer (Mister) Piero da Vinci".
Leonardo spent his first five years living in a farmhouse with his mother. After that, he lived in Vinci with his father, his father's new wife Albiera, his grandparents, and uncle Francesco.  When Leonardo grew up, he only wrote down two memories from his childhood. He remembered that when he was lying outside in his cradle, a large bird flew from the sky and hovered over him. Its tail feathers brushed his face. Leonardo's other important memory was when he found a cave while exploring in the mountains. He was terrified that some great monster might be hiding there, but he was also very excited and wanted to find out what was inside.

Leonardo started painting while he was still a boy. Giorgio Vasari wrote about Leonardo's life shortly after his death. He tells many interesting stories about how clever Leonardo was. He says that Leonardo painted a round wooden shield with a picture of snakes spitting fire. Messer Piero took his son's painting to Florence and sold it to an art dealer.
Verrocchio's workshop, 1466–1476 
In 1466, when Leonardo was fourteen, his father took him to Florence, to be an apprentice to the artist Verrocchio.

Florence was an exciting place for a young person who wanted to be an artist. Many famous artists had lived in Florence, starting with Cimabue and Giotto in the 1200s. Everywhere a person looked, there were famous and beautiful artworks. The huge cathedral had an enormous new dome. The church of St John had doors that gleamed with gold and were said to be the most beautiful doors in the world. Another church had statues all around it by the most famous sculptors, including one by Leonardo's teacher Verrocchio.
If an artist was lucky, they would find a rich patron who would buy lots of their paintings. The richest family in Florence were the Medici. They had built themselves the finest palace in Florence, and liked buying paintings, statues and other beautiful things. They were also interested in the study of literature and philosophy. Many young artists hoped to get work from the Medici and their friends.

Verrocchio had a big workshop that was one of the busiest in Florence. Leonardo was learning to be an artist, so he had to learn drawing, painting, sculpting and model-making. While he was at the workshop, he learned many other useful skills: chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry.

Leonardo was not the only young painter at Verrocchio's workshop. Many other painters trained there, or often visited. Some of them later became famous: Ghirlandaio, Perugino and Botticelli. These artists were all a few years older than Leonardo.
Giorgio Vasari tells an interesting story from this time in Leonardo's life. Verrocchio was painting a large picture of the Baptism of Christ. He gave Leonardo the job of painting one of the angels holding Jesus' robe on the left side of the picture. Vasari said that Leonardo painted the angel so beautifully that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again. When the painting is examined closely, it is possible to see that many other parts of the picture, such as the rocks, the brown stream and the background may have been painted by Leonardo as well. Verrocchio made a bronze statue of David at this time. It is believed that he used Leonardo as his model.
In about 1472, when he was twenty, Leonardo joined the Guild of St Luke, an organization of artists and doctors of medicine. Even after his father set him up in his own workshop, Leonardo still enjoyed working at Verrocchio's workshop. Leonardo's earliest known work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno River valley. It has the date 5 August, 1473. It is now in the Uffizi Gallery.

Working life 1476–1499 

When Vasari writes about Leonardo, he uses words like "noble", "generous", "graceful," and "beautiful". Vasari tells us that as an adult, Leonardo was a tall handsome man. He was so strong that he could bend horseshoes with his bare hands. His voice was so beautiful that it charmed everyone that heard it. Almost everyone wanted to be his friend. He loved animals, was a vegetarian and would buy birds at the market to set free.
Very little is known about Leonardo's life and work between 1472 and 1481. He was probably busy in Florence. In 1478, he had an important commission to paint an altarpiece for the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. The painting was to be the Adoration of the Magi (The Three Wise Men). The painting was never finished because Leonardo was sent away to Milan.
Gran Cavallo 
Leonardo's most important work for Duke Ludovico was to make a huge statue of the previous ruler, Francesco Sforza, on horseback. He started with the horse. After studying horses and drawing designs, he made a huge horse of clay. It was called the "Gran Cavallo". It was going to be cast in bronze. It was going to be the biggest bronze horse made in more than a thousand years. Unfortunately, the bronze horse was never made. In 1494, Ludovico had the bronze made into cannons because the French army was invading Milan. The huge clay horse was still standing when the French army invaded again in 1499. It was used for target practice and completely destroyed.
The Virgin of the Rocks 
While Leonardo was working for Duke Ludovico, he had two important painting commissions. One was an oil painting to go in a big altarpiece for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. Leonardo did the painting twice. He left one with the monks in Milan, and took the other painting to France. It is now displayed in the Louvre Museum. Both paintings are called the Virgin of the Rocks. They show a scene of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus in a rocky mysterious landscape. Mary and Jesus are meeting with John the Baptist. There is a story (which is not in the Bible but is part of Christian tradition) about how the baby John and the baby Jesus met on the road to Egypt. In this scene John is praying and the baby Jesus raises his hand to bless John. The paintings have a strange eerie light with soft deep shadows. In the background is a lake and mountains in the mist. No paintings like this had ever been done before.

The Last Supper
The Last Supper 

Leonardo's other important painting in Milan is even more famous: The Last Supper. The painting shows the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples, before his capture and death. Leonardo chose to paint the moment when Jesus said "one of you will betray me". Leonardo tells the story of the surprise and upset that this caused to the twelve followers of Jesus. He shows this through the actions and faces of the people in the painting. Some are talking, some have stood up, and some are raising their hands in horror.
When it was finished, everyone that saw it said that the painting was a masterpiece. But Leonardo had not used proper fresco for the painting. He had used tempera over gesso, which is not usually used for wall painting. Soon the painting started to grow mold and flake off the wall. In a hundred years it was "completely ruined".
Even though in some places the paint has fallen right off the wall, the painting is so popular that it is printed and copied more that any other religious painting in the world.

Working life 1499–1513 

In 1499, Ludovico il Moro was overthrown. Leonardo left Milan with his servant Salai and a friend, Luca Pacioli, a mathematician. They went to Venice, where Leonardo worked as a military architect and engineer. Because Venice is a city on many islands, Leonardo tried to think of ways to defend the city from a naval attack.
In 1500, Leonardo went back to Florence, taking his "household" of servants and apprentices with him. The monks from the monastery of The Holy Annunciation gave Leonardo a home and a large workshop. In 2005 when some buildings which were used by the Department of Military Geography were being restored, the restorers discovered that part of the building used to be Leonardo's studio.

The Virgin and Child with St Anne and John the Baptist
Leonardo started work on a new painting. He drew a large "cartoon" (a drawing that is a plan for the painting).  The cartoon showed the Virgin Mary sitting on the knee of her mother, St Anne. Mary holds the baby Jesus in her arms. Jesus stretches out his hands to his young cousin John the Baptist. Vasari says that everyone was so amazed by the beautiful drawing that "men and women, young and old" came in large groups to see it "as if they were attending a great festival". The drawing is now in the National Gallery, London. Even though it is old, faded, and kept in a dark room, people go to the gallery to sit in front of it every day.

The Battle of Anghiari 

In 1502 and 1503, Leonardo worked for Cesare Borgia, a powerful noble who was the son of Pope Alexander VI. Leonardo travelled around Italy with Borgia as a military architect and engineer. Late in 1503, Leonardo returned to Florence. He rejoined the Guild of St Luke.
He was given a very important commission. The Signoria (Town Council) of the City of Florence wanted two large frescos painted on the walls of the most important room of the Signoria Palace. Michelangelo was to paint The Battle of Cascina and Leonardo was to paint The Battle of Anghiari.  Leonardo began the project by studying and drawing the faces of angry men and fighting horses. These drawings can still be seen in his notebooks. But unfortunately, this was to be another failure for Leonardo. When he painted the picture on the wall, instead of using fresco, he mixed the paints with oil. The paint would not dry. Leonardo lit some fires to dry it, and the painting melted. Peter Paul Rubens drew a copy of the middle part. After a time, the town council covered it up and got somebody else to paint the wall. Michelangelo did not finish his painting either, because the Pope called him to Rome.

Mona Lisa
Mona Lisa 

In about 1503 Leonardo began painting the portrait of a woman known as Mona Lisa, the most famous portrait that has ever been painted. He continued working on it for many years. It is a small picture, painted in oil on a wooden panel. It shows the face, upper body and hands of a woman. She is very plainly dressed. For a portrait, a woman would usually put on her best clothes and jewellery. Mona Lisa has a dark dress and a fine black veil over her head. Leonardo often left symbols in his paintings that give clues about the person. The unusual thing about this picture is the smile. The smile is the clue to her name: Mona Lisa Giacondo. Giacondo means "the joking one". (Mona is short for Madonna which means "My Lady".)
Working life, 1506–1516 
In 1506, Leonardo went back to Milan with his pupils, and lived in his own house in Porta Orientale. D'Oggione made several copies of the Last Supper. Luini made a copy of the Virgin of the Rocks. Boltraffio (and the others) painted many Madonna and Child pictures which can still be seen in art galleries and churches. One of pupils was a young nobleman called Count Francesco Melzi. Melzi never became a very good painter, but he loved Leonardo and stayed with him until the day he died.
In September 1513 Leonardo went to Rome and lived there until 1516. He lived in the Vatican. The three greatest painters of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael were all working in Rome at the same time. Even though their names are often said together as if they were friends, they were not. Leonardo at this time was in his sixties, Michelangelo was middle-aged. He was not friendly to either Leonardo or Raphael. Raphael was a very clever young painter who learnt a lot by looking at the pictures painted by Leonardo and Michelangelo. But neither of them was ever his teacher.

In October 1515, King Francis I of France captured Milan. On December 19, there was a meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X, in Bologna. Leonardo went to the meeting with Pope Leo.
Leonardo made an amazing toy to entertain King Francis. It was a life-sized mechanical lion that could walk. It had doors in its chest which opened, and a bunch of lilies came out. Lilies were the royal symbol of the French Kings.
Old age, 1516–1519 

In 1516, Francis I invited Leonardo to go to France with him. He gave Leonardo a beautiful house called Clos Lucé (sometimes called "Cloux"). It is near the king's palace, Chateau Amboise. Leonardo spent the last three years of his life at Clos Lucé, with his faithful friend and apprentice, Count Melzi. The king gave Leonardo a pension of 10,000 scudi. One of the last paintings that Leonardo did was a picture of John the Baptist. His model was Salai, with his beautiful long curling hair.

When Leonardo was dying, he asked for a priest to come, so that he could make his confession and receive Holy Communion.
Leonardo died at Clos Lucé, on May 2, 1519. King Francis had become a close friend. Vasari says that the King held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died. In his will, he asked that sixty beggars should follow his casket in procession. He was buried in the Chapel of the Chateau Amboise.
Leonardo had never married and had no children of his own. In his will, he left his money, his books and most of his paintings to Count Melzi. Leonardo also remembered his other pupil Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half of Leonardo's vineyards near Milan. Leonardo's left to his serving woman a black cloak with a fur edge. Salai was the owner of Leonardo's most famous oil painting, the Mona Lisa. He still owned it a few years later when he died, after fighting in a duel.

King Francis said: "There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher."

Drawings 
Leonardo did not paint very many pictures. But he drew hundreds of quick sketches, plans, maps and detailed drawings. This is how he recorded all the interesting things that he saw, studied and thought about.
Some of Leonardo's drawings are "studies" for paintings. In these drawings Leonardo planned the things he was going to paint. Some studies are plans for whole paintings. One of these paintings is the large beautiful drawing of the Madonna and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist that is now in the National Gallery, London.

Many of the studies show "details" that Leonardo wanted to get just right. One study shows a very detailed perspective drawing of the ruined buildings in the background of the painting of the Magi. Other studies show hands, faces, drapery, plants, horses and babies.
The earliest drawing by Leonardo that has a date on it, is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail.

Leonardo's notebooks
Leonardo studied things throughout his life. He did not go to university to study. He studied by observing things in the world around him, to see how they were made and how they worked. He drew things that he saw and discoveries he made into his notebooks. Many of his notebooks are now in museums. There are about 13,000 pages of notes and drawings in his notebooks, which are mostly scientific studies.

Leonardo's notebooks are hard to read because he wrote backwards in "mirror writing". Some people think that perhaps he was trying to keep his work secret. This is not true. Leonardo wrote (and sometimes drew) with his left hand. In those days pens were made from a quill (a large feather) that was cut with a pen-knife on the end. It is hard for a left-handed person to write with a quill in the ordinary way, but quite easy to write backwards.
It is likely that Leonardo planned to publish the studies in his notebooks. He organized many pages carefully, with one study taking up the front and back of each page. There is a page with drawings and writing about the human heart and a page about the womb and the fetus. One page shows drawings of the muscles of a shoulder and another page shows how an arm works.

The notebooks were not published in Leonardo's lifetime. After he died, they were divided between different people who had known him. They are nearly all in museums or libraries such as Windsor Castle, the Louvre, and the British Library. The Biblioteca Ambrosiana (a library) in Milan has the twelve-volume Codex Atlanticus.
Studies 
Some of the things that Leonardo studied are: 
 The geology of the Earth, with its mountains, valleys, rivers and rocks.
 The anatomy of the human body with its skeleton, muscles, veins and internal organs. Leonardo was given dead bodies by a hospital. He "dissected" (cut up) thirty dead bodies and carefully drew many of the parts. His drawings of bones and muscles were to help other artists to paint the human body properly.
 The anatomy of horses, cows, dogs, and bears.
 The expressions on human faces.
 The flight of birds .
 The weather and its phenomena.
 The way that water flows.
 The botany of plants.
 Light, shadows, mirrors and lenses.
 Perspective and the way to make things look near or far.
 The geometry of solid objects. He drew many careful pictures which were used by the mathematician Luca Pacioli in a book called De Divina Proportione.

Designs and inventions 
Many of the drawings and notes in Leonardo's notebooks are designs, plans and inventions.
Some of the things that Leonardo designed are: 
 Costumes for parades, carnivals and theatre. These were probably for Duke Federico's court. They include armour, and a ferocious dragon.
 War machines such as an armour-plated tank, an enormous cross bow and a horrible horse-driven leg-chopper. None of these things were ever made in Leonardo's lifetime.
 Dams and canals for rivers.
 A wooden bridge that could be carried flat on wagons and unfolded and put together at the river.
 Flying things with wings that flapped, a helicopter, a parachute and a hang glider. One of Leonardo's servants was injured, trying out the hang glider. The parachute has been made and tested in modern times, and it does work.
 Church (building) and castles. It is possible that the Castle of Locarno, in the south of Switzerland was designed by Leonardo. No other building that he designed was built.

Leonardo's studies, designs and inventions
Related pages
Salvator Mundi of Lecco (Lake Como)
 Renaissance
 Italian Renaissance art
 Lady with an Ermine
 List of Renaissance artists
 Michelangelo
 Raphael
 List of Italian painters

References

More reading 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  ISBN 0-486-22573-9. 2 volumes. A reprint of the original 1883 edition.
 
 
 
 Silvia e Luca Guagliumi, "Leonardo e l'architettura", Silvia Editrice, Aprile 2015

 Silvia Guagliumi,Expo 2015:
Leonardo da Vinci e l'architettura lombarda.Saggio pubblicato su Il Giornale dell'Ingegnere (Organo ufficiale dell'Ordine degli Ingegneri e Architetti di Milano),
N.4 - Aprile 2015.
 Silvia Guagliumi, In ricordo di Leonardo, Rivista In Arte, Aprile/Maggio/Giugno 2019.

Other websites
Other websites 

 
 Leonardo da Vinci: Experience, Experiment, Design (review) 
 
 
 Complete text & images of Richter's translation of the Notebooks
 Vasari Life of Leonardo : in Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects.
 Web Gallery of Leonardo Paintings
 Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci
 Da Vinci Decoded Article from The Guardian
 The true face of Leonardo Da Vinci?
 Leonardo da Vinci's Ethical Vegetarianism 
 Leonardo da Vinci, a biography with description of his major works, written for children; Tamsyn Taylor, 2020

1452 births
1519 deaths
Inventors
Italian mathematicians
Italian architects
Italian sculptors
Botanists
People from Florence
15th-century Italian painters
Anatomists
Polymaths
Events 
 February 27 – The Dominican Republic gains independence from Haiti.
 An American dentist named Wells invents chloroform.

New Books 
 The Luck of Barry Lyndon by William Makepeace Thackeray

Births 
August 6 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
May 22 – Mary Cassatt

Deaths 
 June 27 – Joseph Smith, Jr, founder of Mormonismhe was raped and murderd
1902 (MCMII) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar.

Events 
 July 11 – Arthur Balfour becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
 Marie and Pierre Curie discover radium
 The Real Madrid football club starts in Spain
 Statue of Boudica unveiled in Westminster, London

Births

January 

 January 8 – Georgy Malenkov, Soviet politician (d. 1988)

February 

 February 1 – Langston Hughes, American writer (d. 1967)
 February 4 – Charles Lindbergh, American pilot (d. 1974)
 February 10 – Walter Houser Brattain, American physicist (d. 1987)
 February 27 – John Steinbeck, American writer (d. 1968)

March 

 March 24 – Thomas E. Dewey, American politician (d. 1971)

April

May

June 

 June 16 – Barbara McClintock, American geneticist (d. 1992)

July 
 July 10 – Kurt Alder, German chemist (d. 1958)

August 

 August 8 – Paul Dirac, English physicist (d. 1984)

September 

 September 21 – Ruhollah Khomeini, revolutionary leader (d. 1989)

October
October 

 October 5 – Ray Kroc, American fast food entrepreneur (d. 1984)

November 
 November 9 - Anthony Asquith, British director (d. 1968)

December 

 December 5 – Strom Thurmond, American politician (d. 2003)
 December 9 – Margaret Hamilton, American actress (d. 1985)

Deaths 
 April 30 - Swami Vivekananda - Indian social reformer (b. 1863)
 December 14 – Julia Grant – former First Lady of the United States (b. 1826)
 September 16 – Levi Strauss, American business person (b. 1829)

Hits songs 
 "The Entertainer" m. Scott Joplin
Events 
 Roentgen discovers X-rays
 Marconi invents the wireless telegraph
 China and Japan sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki
 José Paulino Gomes was born on 4 August

Births

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August 
 August 4  José Paulino Gomes, Brazilian supercentenarian (d. 2023)

 August 24 – Abdul Rahman of Negeri Sembilan, 1st Yang di-Pertuan Agong (d. 1960)

September

October 
 October 8 – Juan Perón, President of Argentina (d. 1974)
 October 25 – Levi Eshkol, 3rd Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1969)

November

December
1796 was a leap year.

Events 
 An English doctor invents a vaccination against smallpox.

Births 
January 7-Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales
July 26 - George Catlin, American painter
December 27 – Mirza Ghalib, poet of Urdu
Events 
 Thomas Edison invents the light bulb.
 Rutherford B. Hayes State of the Union Address.

Births 
 March 14 – Albert Einstein, German scientist (died 1955)
 August 8 – Emiliano Zapata, Mexican revolutionary
 August 15 – Ethel Barrymore, American actress (died 1959)
 November 7 – Leon Trotsky, Ukrainian revolutionary and Marxist (died  1940)
 December 22 – Sydney Greenstreet, British actor (died 1958)
 Samuel Goldwyn, movie producer
 Simon Rodia, creator of the Watts Towers
Deaths 
 January 26 - Julia Margaret Cameron, British Indian photographer (b. 1815)
 February 11 – Honoré Daumier, French caricaturist and painter (b. 1808)
 February 23 – Albrecht Graf von Roon, Prime Minister of Prussia (b. 1803)
 February 25 – Charles Peace, British criminal (executed) (b. 1832)
 March 1 – Joachim Heer, Swiss politician (b. 1825)
 March 30 – Thomas Couture, French painter and teacher (b. 1815)
 April 30 – Sarah Josepha Hale, American writer (b. 1788)
 June 1 – Napoleon Eugene, Prince Imperial, son of French Emperor Napoleon III (b. 1856)
 June 27 - Sir John Lawrence, British Indian administrator (b. 1811)
 August 30 – John Bell Hood, America Confederate general (b. 1831)
 November 5 – James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist (b. 1831)
 August 11 – George Willison Adams, Ohio abolitionist (b.1799)
1769 was a common year.

Events 
 James Watt invents an engine driven by steam

Births 
 August 15 – Napoleon
1807 (MDCCCVII) was .

Events 
Robert Fulton builds the steamship
Events 
 Benz builds the first single-cylinder engine for car.
 John K Starley creates the first genuine bicycle, the Rover.
 John Boyd Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire.
 W.S. Gilbert & Arthur Sullivan's The Mikado
 The Times reports that "A lady well known in literary and scientific circles" has been cremated by the Cremation Society in Woking, Surrey. She is the first person to be officially cremated in the United Kingdom.
 Cholera epidemic in Spain – one of the victims is the king Alfonso XII.
 Third Burmese War begins.
 Clint Eastwood defeats Mad Dog Tannen.
 Sitting Bull joins Buffalo Bill.
 Randolph Churchill becomes a viceroy of India.
 Nikola Tesla sells a number of his patents to George Westinghouse.
 William Stanley, Jr. builds the first practical alternating current transformer device, the induction coil.
 Local anesthetic.
 First skyscraper – Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois, USA (10 floors) is built.
 Bicycle Playing Cards are first produced.
Births 
 January 8 – John Curtin, Australia's 14th Prime Minister
 September 17 – George Cleveland, Canadian actor

Deaths 
 March 31 – Charlotte Brontë, British writer
1837 was a common year.

Events 
 Samuel Morse invents the electric telegraph.
 Michigan becomes the 26th state.
Platinum is a soft, heavy, white metal. It is a precious metal. It usually costs more than gold.
In chemistry, platinum is element number 78, and its atoms have an atomic weight of 195 a.m.u.. The symbol for platinum is Pt, from Spanish platina meaning "little silver".

Platinum is very malleable and ductile, which means it can be hammered into thin sheets and it can be pulled into wire. Platinum is very stable. Acids do not affect platinum.

The most common use of Platinum is in a vehicle's catalytic converter.

Transition metals
List
Sorted by name; initial letter means Igneous, Sedimentary or Metamorphic rocks.

A 
I Andesite – an intermediate volcanic rock
M Anthracite – a form of hard coal

B 
S Banded iron formation – a fine grained chemical sedimentary rock composed of iron oxide minerals 
S Bauxite – the main ore of aluminium. It is mostly aluminium oxide.
I Basalt – grey/black fine-grained rock from lava which cooled on the  surface of the Earth.
S Blue Lias – a formation of rocks, part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site.
S Breccia – a sedimentary or tectonic rock composed of fragments of other, broken rocks
C 
S Chalk – a fine grained carbonate rock composed mainly of coccoliths
S Chert – a fine grained chemical sedimentary rock composed of silica
S Clastic rock – composed of fragments, or clasts, of pre-existing rock. 
S Claystone – a sedimentary rock formed from clay 
S Coal – a sedimentary rock formed from peat 
S Concretion – a concretion is a rock in which a mineral cement fills the spaces between the sediment grains.
S Conglomerate – a sedimentary rock composed of large rounded fragments of other rocks
S Coquina – a sedimentary carbonate rock formed by accumulation of abundant shell fossils and fragments

D 
I Dacite – a felsic to intermediate volcanic rock with high iron content 
S Diatomite – a sedimentary rock fromed from diatom fossils 
I Diorite – a coarse grained intermediate plutonic rock
S Dolomite – a carbonate rock composed of calcium magnesium carbonate: CaMg(CO3)2
I Dunite – a rock made mostly of olivine
E 
Evaporite – a chemical sedimentary rock formed by accumulation of minerals after evaporation

F 
S Flint – a form of chert 
I Foidolite – a plutonic igneous rock composed of >90% feldspathoid minerals

G 
I Gabbro – a coarse grained plutonic rock chemically equivalent to basalt. Plutonic = magma cooled below surface of the Earth. 
M  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
I Granite – a coarse grained plutonic rock composed of orthoclase, plagioclase and quartz
M Granulite – a high grade metamorphic rock formed from basalt; also a facies of metamorphic rocks 
M Greenschist – a generic term for a mafic metamorphic rock dominated by green amphiboles 
S Greenstone –  greenish sandstone; and a geologic formation in Great Britain
S Greywacke – an immature sandstone with quartz, feldspar and rock fragments within a clay matrix 
S Gritstone – a coarse sandstone formed from small pebbles
H 
I Horneblendite – a mafic or ultramafic cumulate rock dominated by >90% hornblende 
M Hornfels – a metamorphic rock formed by heating by an igneous rock

I 
I Ignimbrite – a fragmental volcanic rock

K 
I Kimberlite – a rare ultramafic, ultrapotassic volcanic rock and a source of diamonds

L 
S Lignite – brown coal
S Limestone – a sedimentary rock composed primarily of carbonate minerals

M 
M Marble – a metamorphosed limestone 
S Marl (geology) – a limestone with a considerable proportion of silicate material 
M Migmatite – a high grade metamorphic rock verging upon melting into a magma 
S Mudrock – a sedimentary rock composed of clay and muds
S Mudstone – a type of mudrock

N 
I Nephelinite – a silica undersaturated plutonic rock with >90% nepheline

O 
I Obsidian – volcanic glass
S Woolite – a chemical sedimentary limestone (formed by precipitation)
P 
I Pegmatite – an igneous rock (or metamorphic rock) with giant sized crystals 
I Peridotite – a plutonic or cumulate ultramafic rock composed of >90% olivine 
M Phyllite – a low grade metamorphic rock composed mostly of micaceous minerals 
I Plutonic rocks – intrusive rocks that crystallized from magma slowly cooling below the surface of the Earth. 
I Pumice – a fine grained volcanic rock with gas bubbles inside
I Pyroclastic rocks – rocks of volcanic origin

Q 
M Quartzite – a metamorphosed sandstone typically composed of >95% quartz

R 
I Rhyolite – a felsic volcanic
S 
S Sandstone – a clastic sedimentary rock defined by its grain size 
M Schist – a low to medium grade metamorphic rock 
M Serpentinite – a metamorphosed ultramafic rock dominated by serpentine minerals
S Shale – a clastic sedimentary rock defined by its grain size 
S Siltstone – a clastic sedimentary rock defined by its grain size 
M Skarn – calcium-bearing silicate rocks of any age: a metasomatic rock 
M Slate – a low grade metamorphic rock formed from shale or silts
M Steatite – Steatite or soapstone is a metamorphic rock. It has a large amount of the mineral talc.
I Syenite – a plutonic rock dominated by orthoclase feldspar; a type of granitoivolcanic rock; can be a generic term

T
I Tonalite – a plagioclase-dominant granitoid 
S Travertine – a carbonate precipitate from hot-springs. 
S Tufa – a porous carbonate precipitate from ambient-temperature water
I Tuff – a fine grained volcanic rock formed from volcanic ash

V                
I Variolite
W 
S Dickstone – a matrix-supported carbonate sedimentary rock

Related pages
List of minerals
Igneous rock
Sedimentary rock
Metamorphic rock
Geology

 Types
Science-related lists
This is a list of minerals.


A
Abelsonite
Abernathyite
Abenakiite-(Ce)
Abswurmbachite
Abhurite
Actinolite
Acuminite
Agate a variety of quartz
Alabaster a variety of gypsum or calcite-rich rock
Albite
Alexandrite a variety of chrysoberyl
Alforsite
Allingite a synonym of ambe
Altaite
Alum 
Alunite
Alvanite
Amazonite a variety of microclin
Amber fossilized resin
Amblygonite
Amethyst a variety of quartz
Amosite asbestiform grunerite
Amphibole (mineral group)
Analcime
Analcite synonym of analcime
Anatase
Andalusite
Anglesite
Anorthite
Anorthoclase
Antigorite
Apatite (mineral group)
Aquamarine a variety of beryl
Aragonite
Arfvedsonite
Armalcolite
Asbestos  fibrous serpentine or amphibole minerals
Astrophyllite
Augite
Avalit
Aventurine a variety of quartz
Axinite (mineral group)
Azurite
B
Baddeleyite
Barite
Bastnaesite (mineral group)
Beckerite natural resin
Bertrandite
Beryl
Biotite (mineral group)
Bixbite
Blomstrandine synonym of aeschynite-(Y)
Boehmite
Bornite
Briartite
Brucite
Burmite amber from Burma
Bytownite

C
Calcite
Canfieldite
Carnallite
Carnelian a variety of quartz
Carnotite
Cassiterite
Celadonite
Celestite
Cerussite
Chabasite (mineral group)
Chalcedony a variety of quartz
Chalcopyrite
Chalcocite
Chlorapatite
Chlorite (mineral group)
Chromite
Chrysoberyl
Chrysolite gemmy yellow-green forsterite
Chrysotile group name - asbestiform serpentine
Cinnabar
Cinnabarite synonym of cinnabar
Citrine
Clevite (not a valid species)
Clinochrysotile
Clinoclase
coal (mineral group)
Coesite
Colemanite
Coltan short for minerals of the columbite group
Columbite (mineral group)
Cooperite
Cordierite
Corundum
Covellite
Crocidolite  asbestiform riebeckite
Crookesite
Cryolite
Cummingtonite
Cuprite
Cylindrite
Cymophane variety of chrysoberyl
D
Datolite
Dawsonite
Delessite [[magnesian chamosite]]
Diamond
Diaspore
Diopside

E
Emerald variety of beryl
Epsom salt synonym of epsomite
Euxenite-(Y)

F
Feldspar (mineral group)
Ferberite
Ferricrete
Ferro-anthophyllite
Ferrocolumbite
Ferrotantalite
Fergusonite (mineral group)
Fluorapatite
Fluorichterite
Fluorite
Fluorspar synonym of fluorite
Franckeite
Franklinite

G
Gadolinite (mineral group)
Galena
Garnet (mineral group)
Germanite
Gibbsite
Glauconite
Goethite
Gold
Graphite
Grunerite
Gypsum

H
Halite
Hematite
Hemimorphite
Hibonite
Hiddenite variety of spodumene
Hornblende some minerals of the amphibole group
Hübnerite
Hutchinsonite
Hyalite variety of opal
Hydroxylapatite

I
Ice
Idocrase synonym of vesuvianite
Illite
Ilmenite

J
Jade  tough, green rock, chiefly made of jadeite or amphiboles
Jasper a variety of quartz

K
Kainite
Kalsilite
Kamacite
Kaolinite
Karpinskyite
Keilhauite  variety of titanite
Kern
Kobellite
Kogarkoite
Krantzite natural resin
Kunzite variety of spodumene
Kyanite
L
Labradorite
Lapis lazuli
Lazurite
Lepidolite
Leucite
Lignite
Limonite
Lizardite
Lodestone
Lonsdaleite
Lorandite

M
Magnesia (mineral)
Magnesite
Magnetite
Malachite
Malacolite
Manganocolumbite
Marcasite
Mariposite variety of phengite/muscovite
Meerschaum
Mendozite
Menilite
Metacinnabarite
Mica
Microcline
Milk quartz
Molybdenite
Monazite
Morganite
Morion
Muscovite

N
Nepheline
Niobite
Niobite-tantalite

O
Olivine
Onyx
Opal
Orthochrysotile
Orthoclase

P
Palagonite
Parachrysotile
Pentlandite
Periclase
Perlite
Petalite
Petzite
Phenacite
Phillipsite
Phlogopite
Phosphorite
Pitchblende
Plagioclase
Plivine
Pollucite
Polycrase
Prehnite
Pumicite
Pyrite
Pyrochlore
Pyroxene

Q
Quartz

R
Rhodochrosite
Riebeckite
Rock crystal
Rose quartz
Roumanite
Ruby
Rutile

S
Salt (sodium chloride)
Samarskite
Sapphire
Sard
Scapolite
Scheelite
Serpentine
Sillimanite
Simetite
Smectite
Smoky quartz
Sodalite
Soda niter
Sperrylite
Spinel
Spodumene
Stannite
Stantienite
Staurolite
Steacyite
Stibnite
Strontianite
Sylvite
T
Talc
Talcum
Tantalite
Tanzanite
Teallite
Telluride
Thortveitite
Titanite
Topaz
Tourmaline
Travertine
Tremolite
Troctolite
Tufa
Turquoise
Tutty

U
Ulexite
Uralite
Uraninite

V
Vaterite
Vermiculite

W
Weloganite
Willemite
Wiserine
Wolframite
Wollastonite

X
Xenotime

Y
Yttria

Z
Zabuyelite
Zaccagnaite
Zaherite
Zajacite-(Ce)
Zakharovite
Zamboninite
Zanazziite
Zapalite
Zappinite
Zaratite
Zeolite
Zeuxite
Zhanghengite
Zharchikhite
Zhemchuzhnikovite
Zhonghuacerite-(Ce)
Ziesite
Zimbabweite
Zinalsite
Zinc-melanterite
Zincite
Zincobotryogen
Zincochromite
Zinkenite
Zinnwaldite
Zippeite
Zircon
Zirconolite
Zircophyllite
Zirkelite
Zoisite

Related pages
List of rocks

Science-related lists
Minerals are substances that are formed naturally in the Earth. Minerals vary in composition, from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms. In contrast, a rock sample is a random aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids, and has no specific chemical composition. Most of the rocks of the Earth's crust have quartz (crystalline SiO2), feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and a few other minerals. Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have been found in only a few places in the world. The largest group of minerals by far is the silicates (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are made largely of silicon and oxygen, also with ions of aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium and other metals.

Rocks are made of minerals. Minerals are usually solid, inorganic, have a crystal structure, and form naturally by geological processes.
The study of minerals is called mineralogy.

A mineral can be made of single chemical element or more usually a compound. There are over 4,000 types of known minerals. Two common minerals are quartz and feldspar.

Characteristics of minerals 

A mineral is a substance that usually
 is an inorganic solid. (elemental mercury is an exception)p184
 Has a definite chemical make-up
 usually has a crystal structure; some do not
 is formed naturally by geological processes

One recent definition is:
"A mineral is a homogeneous (which means composed of parts or elements that are all of the same kind) naturally occurring substance with a definite but not necessarily fixed chemical composition. Most minerals are solids with an ordered atomic arrangement, and most are inorganic in the chemical sense of that word".
Alternatively, a mineral is one listed as such by the International Mineralogical Association.
Minerals and rocks 
Minerals are different from rocks. A mineral is a chemical compound with a given composition and a defined crystal structure. A rock is a mixture of one or several minerals, in varying proportions.

A rock has only two of the characteristics minerals have–it is a solid and it forms naturally. A rock usually contains two or more types of minerals. Two samples of the same type of rock may have different kinds of minerals in them. Minerals are always made up of the same materials in nearly the same proportions. A ruby is a mineral. Therefore, a ruby found in India has similar makeup as a ruby found in Australia.

Formed in nature 
Minerals are formed by natural processes. A few substances with the same chemical composition as minerals can be produced by living creatures as part of their shells or bones. The shells of molluscs are composed of either calcite or aragonite, or both.