Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Compact Disc
The compact disc (CD) medium was developed in the 1980s as a new way to bring digital recordings of music to the market. Except for the introduction of the CD-ROM and several kinds of recordable CD, the CD has not changed much since then. Like DAT, it is a data medium rather than a way of recording vibrations directly. It was introduced to provide music in a way that is cheap for manufacturers but relatively high-quality, but it has since been adapted to meet many data-storage needs. Like DAT, the CD requires computer technology to record and to play.

By the 1990s, CDs had replaced cassettes and records as the main kind of commercial music media. Today, although CDs are still very popular, "online" digital recordings like MP3s are gaining fast.
Techniques
The earliest methods of recording sound involved the live recording of the performance directly to the recording medium. This was an entirely mechanical process, often called "acoustical recording". The sound of the performers was captured by a diaphragm with the cutting needle connect to it. The needle made the grooves in the recording medium.

To make this process as efficient as possible the diaphragm was located at the apex of a cone and the performer(s) would crowd around the other end. If a performer was too loud then they would need to move back from the mouth of the cone to avoid drowning out the other performers. As a result of this, in early Jazz recordings a block of wood was used in place of the bass drum.
The introduction of electrical recording made it possible to use microphones to capture the sound of the performance. The leading record labels switched to the electric microphone process in 1925, and most other record companies followed their lead by the end of the decade. Electrical recording increased the flexibility and sound quality. However once the performance was still cut to the recording medium, so if a mistake was made the recording was useless.

Electrical recording made it possible to record one part to disc and then play that back while playing another part, recording both parts to a second disc. This is called over-dubbing. The first commercially issued records using over-dubbing were released by the Victor Talking Machine Company in the late 1920s. However overdubbing was of limited use until the introduction of analog audio tape. Use of tape overdubbing was pioneered by Les Paul and is called 'sound on sound' recording. In this way performances could be built up over time.
The analog tape recorder made it possible to erase or record over a previous recording so that mistakes could be fixed. Another advantage of recording on tape is the ability to cut the tape and join it back together. This allows the recording to be edited. Pieces of the recording can be removed, or rearranged. See Audio editing

The introduction of electronic instruments (especially keyboards and synthesisers), effects and other instruments has led to the importance of MIDI in recording. For example, using MIDI timecode, it is possible to have different equipment 'trigger' without direct human intervention at the time of recording.

In more recent times, computers (digital audio workstation) have found an increasing role in the recording studio, as their use eases the tasks of cutting and looping, as well as allowing for instantaneous changes, such as duplication of parts, the addition of affects and the rearranging of parts of the recording.

History
History  

The French bookseller and printer Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville was the earliest known inventor of sound recording. It is believed he invented the first ever sound recording device known as the Phonautograph.

References

Other websites
 Mix Magazine/Primedia 2005 directory of Audio Engineering Programs
 Sound recording and reproduction formulas and calculators
 Audio Engineering Society
 The Engineer's Notebook 
 A selection of artefacts held at the British Library 
 WikiRecording An Online Guide to Audio Recording anyone can edit.

Sound
San or SAN (acronym) may refer to:

In mathematics:
 Stochastic Activity Network, stochastic extension to Petri nets
 Standard algebraic notation, the most common algebraic chess notation

In technology:
 Storage area network, a network designed to attach computer storage devices
 Styrene-acrylonitrile resin, a plastic

In biology:
 Sinoatrial node, pacemaking tissue in the right atrium of the heart
 Stochastic Activity Network, stochastic extension to Petri nets

In history:
 The Battle Creek Sanitarium was nicknamed The San by its guests.

In fiction:
 San (comics) is the name of a character of the Marvel Universe.
 Princess Mononoke, San is the original name of Princess Mononoke.

In geography:
 San, Mali, a town
 San River, a river in south-eastern Poland and western Ukraine, the Celt's word (san) means exactly river too.
 Sydney Adventist Hospital, due to the original name being the Sydney Sanitarium, which was shortened to the word "san".
In organizations and groups:
 Khoisan, in Southern Africa, also known as the San people, or Khwe Khoe, or Basarwa.
 South African Navy

In transportation:
 San Motors, an Indian automobile manufacturer.
 San Diego International Airport, IATA airport code
 Sandersville Railroad, The AAR reporting mark

In Music:
 San (参) is High and Mighty Color's 3rd Album

In other languages:
 the Italian and Spanish word for Saint
 San (letter), Greek letter between Pi and Qoppa
 -san, a Japanese title used after a person's name, the equivalent of Mr., Mrs. or Miss. Postfix of polite expressions like "Suzuki-san", "Ichirou-san",  or "Suzuki Ichirou-san" to name a personal family name or last name, verbally and literally, generally regardless of position, sex, age, and other factors.

 Pronunciation of 3 in Japanese and Mandarin Chinese
 Dream, in some Slavic languages
 Mountain, in Korean and Japanese.
Other uses:
 Senior Advocate of Nigeria
 Standard Address Number, a number used in the book trade to identify a supplier.
Sho could mean: 
 Shodo, Japanese calligraphy
 Sho, a letter of the Greek alphabet as used to write Bactrian
 Ford SHO V6 engine, an engine designed by Yamaha Motor Company, and used in the Ford Taurus sedan between 1989 and 1995
 Simple Harmonic Oscillator
 Showtime, a premium television network whose name is often shortened to Sho
Shō could mean several things:
 Shō (笙), a Japanese wind instrument
 Japanese given names. The following people have the given name "Shō":
 Sho Aikawa (哀川 翔)
 Sho Hayami (速水 奨)
 Sun Yat-sen (孫逸仙), a.k.a. "Nakayama Shō" (中山樵)
 Sho Sakurai (櫻井翔)
 Sho Yano
 The following fictional characters have the given name "Shō":
 Sho, a ninja from Captain Commando
 Sho of The Drifting Classroom
 Shou Amabane, Burning Rangers
 Syo Ashigawa, a character in Machine Robo Rescue
 Sho Fukamachi, the main and titular character of Battle Booster Armor Guyver
 Shō Kazamatsuri, Whistle!
 Sho Marufuji (Syrus Truesdale), Yu-Gi-Oh! GX (Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters GX)
 Shou Tucker, Fullmetal Alchemist
Sho Tsukioka, Battle Royale
 Sho Shinjo, Battle Arena Toshinden
 Sho, protagonist of Koei's video game Crimson Sea
 A Japanese surname. The following people have the family name "Shō":
 Mayumi Shō (荘 真由美)
Stigma (plural: stigmata) may refer to:

In biology:

 Stigma (anatomy), a small spot, mark, scar, or minute hole
 Stigma (botany), the part of a flower which takes in pollen
 The eyespot apparatus of unicellular organisms, for example Euglena and Chlamydomonas
 Astigmatism (eye) (stigma of the eye), difficulty in seeing clearly that is caused by a change in the inner shape of the eye

In discrimination:

 Badge of shame, a mark of infamy or disgrace
 Social stigma, a social disapproval of personal characteristics or beliefs that are against cultural norms, including:
Weight stigma, negative attitudes towards overweight/obese individuals

In literature:

 Stigma (book), a 1963 book written by Erving Goffman
 Stigma (manga), a Japanese manga story by Kazuya Minekura

In music:

 Stigma (album), an album recorded by the band EMF in 1992
 Vinnie Stigma, the long time guitarist of the seminal hardcore bands Agnostic Front and Madball

In sociology:
In sociology:

 Stigma (sociological theory), the phenomenon whereby an individual with an attribute, which is deeply discredited by his/her society, is rejected as a result of the attribute

In other fields:

 A bodily mark, sore, or sensation of pain in locations corresponding to the crucifixion wounds of Jesus; see stigmata
 "Stigma" (Enterprise episode), a second-season episode of Star Trek: Enterprise
 Stigma (movie), a 1972 movie featuring Philip Michael Thomas
 Stigma (letter), a ligature of the Greek letters sigma and tau
A Storage area network (SAN) is a computing solution for accessing and storing data. To the user, Storage Area Networks appear to be local to the operating system, but they are actually remote.

To understand the difference between a SAN and Network Attached Storage (NAS), the difference between the file system and storage must be made clear.

The file system is the interface that allows the user to access their data that is stored in physical storage (such as hard disks). From the point of view of the user, their data is saved as files. The file system takes care of storing the file data, which might actually be broken up into pieces and stored in different locations in storage.

On a personal computer, the file system and storage are on the same machine (Direct Attached Storage). In Network Attached Storage, the file system and storage are on a remote server. In a Storage Area Network, the file system is on the local machine, and the storage is on a remote machine.

Computing
Zeta or ZETA can refer to:

Alphabet
 Zeta (letter), the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet.

Science
 Zeta functions, in mathematics
 Riemann zeta function
 Tropical Storm Zeta, formed in December 2005 and lasted through January 2006
 Z-pinch, in fusion power
 Zero Energy Thermonuclear Assembly reactor, a British test facility

Computer 
 magnussoft ZETA, a computer operating system
 Zettabyte File System developed by Sun Microsystems

Geography
 Zeta River, in Montenegro
 Zeta plain, in Montenegro

History
 Principality of Zeta, a medieval state, today Montenegro
 Zeta Banovina, one of provinces (banovina) of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941

Popular culture
 Zeta Metroid, species of Metroid from Metroid II: Return of Samus
 Z (movie), a political movie by Costa Gavras
 Catherine Zeta-Jones, Welsh actress
 Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam, a televised anime
Publishing and Manufacturing
 Zeta (magazine), a Baja California investigative journalism newsweekly
 GM Zeta platform, a full-size car series
 Zeta, an Australian car produced by Lightburn
 A zeta key, a tool used to drive screws and bolts which have a hexagonal socket in the head.
The rings of Saturn are the planetary rings around the planet Saturn, which can be seen with a small telescope. They consist of many small particles, ranging in size from microscopic to the size of a bus (or bigger) that form clumps that move around Saturn. The particles in the rings are made almost entirely of water ice, with just a small amount of dust and other chemicals.  There are some gaps in the rings.  The moon Pan causes the gap called the "Encke gap" in Saturn's A ring. The Cassini Division, discovered by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, is a gap between the A ring and the B ring. It is a product of orbital resonance.

References

Saturn
Network attached storage (or NAS) is a computing solution. It means that storage (like a number of hard disks) is put on a computer network, so different users can access it. Today, boxes that already can do this are available rather cheaply. Also, such boxes can be built easily using a small or old computer. NAS is similar to, but easier to set up than a Storage area network.

Computer networking
The Republic of Lakotah is a proposed nation inside the United States. It was created by a Native American group called the Lakotah Freedom Delegation. The group believes that the Republic of Lakotah should be treated as a separate country. At the moment, no other country agrees that it is. The area includes parts of North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming and Montana.

Background
When European settlers first came to North America, the Lakotah people had been living there for thousands of years. The Lakotah are a Native American tribe that lives in the north central part of the United States.  The Lakotah first signed treaties with the United States in the 1800s. Since that time, the Lakotah have been citizens of the United States. 

On December 17, 2007, the Lakotah Freedom Delegation said that Lakotah tribe should no longer be a part of the United States. They wanted to return to the way things were before they signed the treaties.
They drew up borders for the Republic. The area included parts of North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming and Montana.  No other country has supported them. Most people feel these are to still belong to the United States.

Reasons for wanting independence
In December 2007, the group went to Washington, D.C. to speak to the government. They said that the Lakotah were ending from the treaties they had with the United States. They said the US had not been following the treaties and this had been causing problems on Lakotah land.

For example, the US and the Lakotah made an agreement called the Treaty of Fort Laramie. It said that the Lakotah could keep the Black Hills. The Black Hills is a very sacredplace for the Lakotah. The US broke the agreement and invaded the Black Hills when gold was found there. Today, the Black Hills is home to the National monument of Mount Rushmore.
The group does not think that the Republic of Lakotah is a new countr. They feel that it is an old counry that has been revived. Not all members of the Lakotah tribe support the groups actiona. Many of the leaders of the Lakotah tribe were not asked beforehand. Traditionally, a vote  is needed to change a treaty. Seventy-five percent of the Lakotah males need to vote to approve the change. There was no vote on the plans to create the Republic of Lakotah.

The group argues that it is legal  for the Lakotah to be its own country. They use the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Article Six of the United States Constitution and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples to support  their plans.

The Lakotah Freedom Delegation say they may follow the example of the Philippines or the Marshall Islands. These counrties used to belong to the United States but have become independant.
Government
Anyone can become a citizen of the Republic of Lakotah. The only thing they must do is give up their citizenship of the United States. The group plans to make its own passports and driving licenses. They say that the government will be run in the traditional Lakotah way. The leaders of the counry would be seleted by the tribe elders. They say the nation will use solar energy and wind power to make electricity. They would chose to use these methods because they do not hurt the environment.

At the moment, supporters of the Lakotah Freedom Delegation are arguing over the name of the country. Some people like the name Republic of Lakotah. Otthers prefer Lakotah Oyate. Oyate is the Lakotah word meaning "nation".
Support
A nation does not exist as a country until other countries recognise the boarders or government of that country. Other countries must also treat it as a separate country. The Lakotah Freedom Delegation has contacted the embassies of Venezuela, Bolivia, Chile and South Africa. They have asked each of these countries to accept them as an independent country. The group has also mentioned talking to Russia, Finland and Iceland, They say that Ireland and East Timor are interested in the plans. currrently, no other country in the world is treating Lakotah as a separate country.

The US government is not likely to support the Republic of Lakotah. It would mean that the United States would lose some land. The government has said that the plans of the group do not mean anything.

United States
Native Americans
Nationalism
Chanson is the French word for "song".  The word is often used in music to mean any song with French words, but it is more often used when talking about songs in which lyrics have been set to music by French classical composers.

Very often "chansons" refers to the French songs that were sung in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance.  People who sang these chansons were called "chansonniers". They had various forms, including ballade, rondeau and virelai.  Some composers at the time liked to set popular poetry to music.  The earliest chansons were for two, three or four voices, many of them being for three voices.   By the 16th century most were for four voices. Sometimes, the singers were accompanied by instruments.

Early chansons
Early chansons

The first important composer of chansons was the medieval composer Guillaume de Machaut.  In the Renaissance Guillaume Dufay and Gilles Binchois wrote many simple chansons.  Later Johannes Ockeghem and Josquin des Prez composed chansons which had lots of imitation between the voices. Clément Janequin wrote more simple, homophonic chansons.  He worked in the area around Paris.  Later composers such as Orlando de Lassus were influenced by the Italian madrigal. The style of music started to be used in music for instruments.

The first book of sheet music printed from movable type was Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, a collection of 96 chansons by many composers, published in Venice in 1501.

Later chansons

During the 16th century French songs started to be composed with lute or keyboard accompaniment.  In the 19th century many composers wrote songs with piano accompaniment.  These chansons were often called mélodies.
Popular Chanson
In France today "chanson" often refers to the work of more popular singers such as Georges Brassens, Jacques Brel, Édith Piaf, Camille, Olivia Ruiz.
French chansons of Jacques Brel have been translated and are interpreted in English by Arnold Johnston, Professor at West Michigan University. More than 100 chansons of Brel, Brassens, Barbara, Bécaud, Ferrat, Aznavour, Trenet et Ferré have been translated and are interpreted in German language by the Duo Stéphane & Didier (see www.deutsche-chanson-texte.de).

Related pages
 Mélodie

References 

Medieval music
Renaissance music
Song forms
A-type asteroids are fairly uncommon closer asteroids that have a strong, broad 1 µm olivine feature and a very reddish spectrum shortwards of 0.7 µm. They are thought to come from the completely differentiated mantle of an asteroid.

A-type asteroids are so rare that as of 2005 only 17 had been found.

Other websites 
 A technical report on A-Type Asteroids
C-type asteroids are asteroids made of carbonates. They are the most common variety taking up around 75% of known asteroids, and an even higher percentage in the farther part of the belt beyond 2.7 AU, which is dominated by this asteroid type. The amount of C-types may actually be higher than this, because C-types are much darker than most other asteroid types except D-types and others common only at the extreme farther edge of the Main Belt.

Characteristics
This type of asteroid has very similar spectra to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites (types CI and CM), whose chemical make-up is about the same as the Sun and the primitive solar nebula, except that they do not contain hydrogen, helium and other volatiles. Hydrated (water-containing) minerals are present.
C-type asteroids are very dark with albedos usually in the 0.03 to 0.10 range. Consequently, whereas a number of S-types can normally be viewed with binoculars at opposition, even the biggest C-types require a small telescope. The potentially brightest C-type asteroid is 324 Bamberga, but that object's very high eccentricity means it rarely reaches its maximum magnitude.

Their spectra contain moderately strong ultraviolet absorption at wavelengths below about 0.4 μm to 0.5 μm, while at longer wavelengths they are very featureless but slightly reddish. The so-called "water" absorption feature around 3 μm, which can be a sign of water content in minerals is also present.

The biggest unequivocally C-type asteroid is 10 Hygiea, although the SMASS classification places the biggest asteroid 1 Ceres, here as well, because that scheme lacks a G-type.

References
 S. J. Bus and R. P. Binzel Phase II of the Small Main-belt Asteroid Spectroscopy Survey: A feature-based taxonomy, Icarus, Vol. 158, pp. 146 (2002).
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (born 88/89 BC, died 12/13 BC) was a Roman politician. He was one of the closest men to Julius Caesar. He was Caesar's deputy in Rome when Caesar was away from Rome defeating Pompey in the battle of Pharsalus in Greece. He served as Pontifex Maximus (High Priest) after Caesar's death. 

Together with Octavian and Mark Antony he formed the Second Triumvirate to oppose the conspirators. The Triumvirate was set up to sideline the Consuls and Senate, which means it was the effective end of the Roman Republic.

Lepidus was older than the other two triumvirs. After the Battle of Philippi, he governed Spain and part of North Africa. He was blamed for a revolt in Sicily. This gave Octavian the excuse to strip him of his offices, except for Pontifex Maximus. He died peacefully in Circeii in Italy about end 12 to early 13 BC.

80s BC births
10s BC deaths
Roman politicians
Chicago may also mean:
 The University of Chicago
 Chicago (band), a pop-rock-jazz band
 Their second album, Chicago, released in 1970
 Chicago (CTA), stations on the Chicago Transit Authority's 'L' system, all named for their location on Chicago Avenue
 Chicago (CTA Brown Line)
 Chicago (CTA Red Line)
 Chicago (CTA Blue Line)
 Chicago (typeface), a classic Apple Macintosh font
 Chicago house, a genre of electronic dance music
 Chicago Powerfest, a metal festival held annually near Chicago
 Windows 95, codenamed "Chicago"
 Chicago Manual of Style, published by the University of Chicago
 USS Chicago, the name given to several United States Navy vessels
 334 Chicago, an asteroid
 Chicago (poker game), a Swedish poker game (or any one of several stud poker variants, including "Chicago," "Big Chicago," and "Little Chicago")
 Chicago, Western Cape, a suburb of Paarl, South Africa
Club Atlético Nueva Chicago
There are several Chicago schools of thought, generally named after distinguished programs of the University of Chicago. These include:
 Chicago school (architecture)
 Chicago school (economics)
 Chicago school (literary criticism)
 Chicago school (sociology)
In Entertainment:
 Chicago (band)
 Chicago, a play by Maurine Dallas Watkins, first performed in 1926
 Chicago (1927 film), based on the 1926 play
 Chicago (musical), first performed in 1975, based on the 1926 play
 Chicago (2002 film), based on the 1975 musical
 Chicago (magazine), published by the Tribune Company
 Chicago (art magazine)
 Chicago (album), by rock band Chicago
 "Chicago" (1957 song), by Fred Fisher
 "Chicago" (1970 song), by Graham Nash
 "Chicago" (2005 song), by Sufjan Stevens
 "Chicago" (2006 song), by Clueso
 "Chicago" (poem), by Carl Sandburg
 "Chicago" (Prison Break episode), the 38th episode of the American television series Prison Break
 Chicago (Sam Shepard play), a 1965 play by Sam Shepard
 Chicago (Trance artist)
Lacrosse, invented by the Native Americans, is a popular team sport in North America and a national summer sport for Canada. It involves the use of nets, or "heads" as they are called, which consist of a wooden or metal shaft with a net on the end. Hockey is a game based on this sport. Lacrosse is the most growing sport in the world. It is also the fastest sport on 2 feet  

There are about three different forms of lacrosse based on the different Native American tribes or places of how they played it. One of the ways still played today is called double stick; you play by using a two and a half foot stick in each hand and tossing a deer skin ball in between the two sticks.
The name “lacrosse” was named by the French settlers; with “Crosse” meaning curved stick it is called the curved stick. Lacrosse played a more serious role in Native American culture than anywhere else. It was often used to settle tribal disagreements. Lacrosse was not a very well-known sport until the late nineteenth century.  Now more than half a million people are playing, making it the most growing sport in the world.

How the game is played
Lacrosse has two teams, each with ten players. There is one goalie(using a head much larger than a normal players), three defensemen(using a stick with a longer shaft), three midfielders and three attack men. The goalies defend the goals, and if the ball goes into the goal, the team who scored the goal gains a point. Whoever scores the most goals by the end of the game wins, with an overtime period being played if the game is tied. The game has four quarters and starts with a "face off" at the beginning of each quarter. A face off is when the ball is on the ground to start the game, and one person from each team fights for possession of the ball, but in women's lacrosse the game begins with a draw, where the ball is above the ground and it is pressed between 2 sticks and each team fights for possession of the ball

References
"Lacrosse." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2013.
US Lacrosse. Thomas Vennum, Jr., n.d. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. <http://uslacrosse.org/TopNav/MuseumHallofFame/History.aspx >.
Stephen Michael "Steve" Reich (Born October 3, 1936) is an American composer of music in the style of minimalism. He is known for his music made with tape recordings, and instrumental music with a steady beat (such as Music for 18 Musicians).

He also wrote pieces that used what is called a phasing technique. With phasing technique, two parts might be playing the same part but at slightly different speeds. It is almost like a canon, or round. He wrote pieces like these for piano, violin, and, again, for tape recordings.

He also composed such pieces like In C and Different Trains, some of his most popular works. Others include, Drumming, City Life and The Cave.  

The critic Kyle Gann has said Reich "may...be considered...America's greatest living composer."
 

On January 25, 2007, Reich was named the 2007 recipient of the Polar Music Prize, together with jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins. On April 20, 2009, Reich was awarded the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for Music for his Double Sextet.

References
References

Other websites
 (an example of phasing, using two pianos)
 (a composition by Steve Reich for tape)

1936 births
Living people
American composers
A girl group is a music group with a group of female singers who normally harmonise together.

The term "girl group" is also used in a narrower sense in English-speaking countries. It suggests the American female pop singing groups of the late 1950s and early 1960s. They were hugely successful for a time, between the decline of early rock and roll and the British Invasion. Many of them were influenced by doo-wop style.

In the 1950s and 60s, the groups were mostly self-organised, girls who knew each other and often grew up together. The Chantels, for example, were four girl choristers from a Catholic high school in the Bronx, 1957. The Ronettes were two sisters and a cousin.p197 The Supremes were girls from a public housing estate in Detroit, Michigan. They were, and still are, America's most successful vocal group of all time. These groups had managers, of course, because they needed someone to deal with the music industry. But the managers did not set up the groups; they came after the groups were formed.
One obvious difference between the earlier groups and the later ones was in their social backgrounds. Earlier American groups, having grown up together, were all of the same social origin and colour. What is more, they had usually sung together, and socialised together, before they formed up as a group. This is also true of most of the earlier British boy groups. The later groups, on the other hand, were deliberately chosen for variety. This was done so that all sections of the audience would have at least one member they could identify with. They had not sung together, or maybe met each other, until their PR manager introduced them.

With the changing times, the marketing of popular music changed greatly, so that direct comparison of sales is not simple. but in many parts of the world digital sales are now the most important.

References
Heath Andrew Ledger (April 4, 1979 – January 22, 2008) was an Oscar-winning actor from Australia. Ledger started acting on television in the 1990s and then began acting in Hollywood movies. He was an important actor in many movies, including The Patriot, Monster's Ball, and Brokeback Mountain. He acted as The Joker in The Dark Knight. Ledger died in New York City on January 22, 2008. His last movie, The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, came out in 2009.

Early life and family 
Heath Ledger was born in Perth, Western Australia. Heath and his sister Katherine were named after the two main characters in the book Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. Ledger went to Guildford Grammar School, where he started acting. When he was 10 years old, he acted in a school play as Peter Pan.

Career
Career

Early career 
When he was sixteen years old, Ledger graduated school early to become an actor. With his best friend, Trevor DiCarlo, Ledger drove across Australia to Sydney. He came back to Perth in to act in the television series Sweat which was on television in 1996. In this series, he played a gay bicycle rider.

In 1996, Ledger acted in the fantasy-drama television series Roar. In 1999, Ledger had the main role in the teen comedy movie 10 Things I Hate About You. He also had the main role in the Australian movie Two Hands, directed by Gregor Jordan.

2000–2008 
From 2000 to 2005, Ledger had main acting roles in many movies, like The Patriot, Monster's Ball, A Knight's Tale, The Four Feathers, Ned Kelly, The Order, and The Brothers Grimm. In 2001, he won a prize called the ShoWest Award for the "Male Star of Tomorrow" for his acting in The Patriot and A Knight's Tale. In 2003, he was named one of Australian GQ's "Men of the Year" for acting.
Ledger was given the "Best Actor of 2005" award from both the New York Film Critics Circle and the San Francisco Film Critics Circle for his acting in Brokeback Mountain. In this movie, he plays a worker on a ranch in Wyoming named Ennis Del Mar, who is in love with a rodeo performer named Jack Twist, who is played by Jake Gyllenhaal. He also was nominated to win a Golden Globe award "Best Actor in a Drama" and the Academy Award for Best Actor for this acting, but he did not win either prize.

Also in 2005, Ledger acted as the character Giacomo Casanova in the romantic comedy movie called Casanova. This movie also included actress Sienna Miller.

In 2006, Ledger was asked to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In 2007, he was one of six actors to act as different sides of singer Bob Dylan in the movie I'm Not There.
Ledger acted in the role of the comic book villain The Joker in the movie The Dark Knight. This movie follows the 2005 movie Batman Begins. The movie was released on July 18, 2008. He was given respect and many awards for how well he acted in this movie, even though he died six months before it was shown in movie theaters. Some of these awards were the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor.

Also after he died, the movie The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus was first shown in movie theaters in 2009. Ledger was supposed to act as the main role of Doctor Parnassus, but he only filmed about half of the scenes before he died. The director for this movie, Terrry Gilliam, decided that the movie would be changed so that three other actors would also act as this character in some parts of the movie. The other actors were Johnny Depp, Colin Farrell, and Jude Law, who were all friends with Heath Ledger before he died.
Music 
Ledger started a record company with a singer named Ben Harper. In 2006, Ledger was the director of three music videos. The songs for these music videos were "Cause an Effect" and "Seduction Is Evil (She's Hot)" by Australian hip-hop musician N'fa, and "Morning Yearning" by Ben Harper.

Public image

Press reception 
Ledger had problems with paparazzi. It is said that he spat at and assaulted a photographer in Sydney in 2004. His relative is also said to have spat on a photographer in 2005. Ledger said this was not true.

Ledger caused problems after he was quoted in January 2006 in Australia's Herald Sun saying that West Virginia had banned Brokeback Mountain when it had not. He also said the state had lynchings as recently as the 1980s. These statements have been said to not be true by historians, who said that the last illegal public hanging in West Virginia happened in 1931.
Personal life 
From August 2002 to April 2004, Ledger had a relationship with actress Naomi Watts. They met when they both acted in the movie Ned Kelly. Before that, he dated the actresses Lisa Zane and Heather Graham.

Ledger was engaged to actress Michelle Williams, whom he met while making the movie Brokeback Mountain. They had one daughter, Matilda Rose, was born on October 28, 2005 in New York City.

In August 2007, the magazine Us Weekly said that Ledger and Williams ended their relationship. Ledger and Williams both said that the rumor was not true at that time. In September 2007, Williams' father, Larry, told the Sydney Daily Telegraph that Ledger and Williams had separated.
Death 
Ledger was found dead in his apartment  in the SoHo neighborhood of New York City on January 22, 2008. Ledger's body was found by a housekeeper and a massage therapist, who entered the bedroom to find him face down on the floor with sleeping pills on a nearby table. The police said that it did not look like the death was suicide. They also did not think his death was caused by someone else.

On January 23, 2008, Ledger's parents and sister appeared outside Ledger's mother's house in Applecross, Western Australia and read a short statement to news reporters:

The Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd released a statement saying, "It was with great sadness that I have learned of the passing of Heath Ledger... It is tragic that we have lost one of our nation's finest actors in the prime of his life."

Filmography

Awards and nominations 
If an award in this list is marked as "Nominated," it means that people were thinking about giving that award to Heath Ledger but chose to give it to someone else.
Academy Awards
 2009 - Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role, The Dark Knight (Won)
 2006 - Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role, Brokeback Mountain (Nominated)
 Australian Film Institute Awards
 1999 - Best Actor in a Leading Role, Two Hands (Nominated)
 2003 - Best Actor in a Leading Role, Ned Kelly (Nominated)
 2006 - Best Actor in a Leading Role, Candy (Nominated)
 2008 - Best Actor in a Supporting Role, The Dark Knight (Won)
 BAFTA
 2009 - Best Actor in a Supporting Role, The Dark Knight (Won)
 2006 - Best Actor in a Leading Role, Brokeback Mountain (Nominated)
 Golden Globe Awards
 2009 - Best Performance by an Actor In A Supporting Role in a Motion Picture, The Dark Knight (Won)
 2006 - Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture - Drama, Brokeback Mountain (Nominated)
 Independent Spirit Awards
 2008 - Robert Altman Award, I'm Not There. (Won) *shared w/ cast and crew.
 2006 - Best Actor, Brokeback Mountain (Nominated)
 MTV Movie Awards
MTV Movie Awards
 2008 - Best Villain, The Dark Knight (Won)
 2008 - Best Fantasy Actor, The Dark Knight (Won)
 2006 - Best Kiss, Brokeback Mountain (Won) *shared w/ Jake Gyllenhaal
 2002 - Best Kiss, A Knight's Tale (Nominated) *shared w/ Shannyn Sossamon
 2002 - Best Musical Sequence A Knight's Tale (Nominated) *shared w/ Shannyn Sossamon 
 2000 - Best Musical Sequence 10 Things I Hate About You (Nominated)
 Screen Actors Guild Awards
 2009 - Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role, The Dark Knight (Won)
 2006 - Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture, Brokeback Mountain (Nominated)
 2006 - Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role, Brokeback Mountain (Nominated)
References

Other websites 

 
 Heath Ledger comprehensive profile 
 Heath Ledger at Notable Names Database
 
 Heath Ledger comprehensive news & profile  at Daily Telegraph (Australia)
 www.gmanews.tv, Timeline of Heath Ledger's career

1979 births
2008 deaths
Actors who played the Joker
Academy Award winning actors
Satellite Award winners
Accidental deaths in New York City
Actors from Perth, Western Australia
Australian movie actors
Australian television actors
BAFTA Award winning actors
Drug-related accidental deaths in the United States
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Exposure comes from the Latin word "expōnere" which means to put out. It can mean:

 Lack of protection over prolonged periods under weather, extreme temperatures or dangerous substances (see also: hypothermia, radiation poisoning)
 Exposure (toxicology): When a toxin gets on or into a person's body
 Exposure (photography), the total amount of light allowed to fall on the sensor during the taking of a photograph
 Exposure, a 1979 music album by Robert Fripp
 Investment, a financial holding in a particular market sector
In photography, exposure is used to mean two things. Photograhic films or sensors have a certain senitivity. That means that a certain amount of light needs to be able to reach the film or sensor, before the image is correctly exposed. An exposure can also refer to a photo exposed that way.

Photography
Bury can mean the following:

Places 
Metropolitan Borough of Bury - A borough in the Metropolitan county of Greater Manchester
Bury - The largest town in the Metropolitan Borough of Bury

Other uses 
Bury or Burial - To put something underneath others, or to put a body in the earth
The Metropolitan Borough of Bury is one of the ten Metropolitan boroughs in the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester, England.

It was set up in 1974 from the county borough of Bury and the boroughs of Prestwich and Radcliffe, along with the urban districts of Tottington and Whitefield, and part of the urban district of Ramsbottom.

The metropolitan borough, has an area of .

Twin towns 
 Angoulême
 Tulle, Correze Department.  Originally twinned with Prestwich.
 Baden-Württemberg, Schorndorf, a medieval market town to the east of Stuttgart.
 Woodbury, New Jersey.
 Datong.

References

Other websites 
 Bury MBC website

1974 establishments in England
Metropolitan boroughs in Greater Manchester
Bury
In Ancient Greece, a metic () was a foreigner living in a Greek city-state (polis). The metic did not have the same citizen rights as a citizen who was born in the state he was living in.

The term 'metic' was especially used in ancient Athens in the 4th and 5th centuries BC. A notable metic was Aristotle, who was born in Stageira but lived in Athens for a long time.

Regardless of how many generations of the family had lived in the city, metics did not become citizens unless the city chose to bestow citizenship on them as a gift. This was rarely done. Citizenship at Athens brought eligibility for numerous state payments such as jury and assembly pay, which could be significant to working people. During emergencies the city could distribute rations to citizens. None of these rights were available to metics. They were not permitted to own real estate in Attica, whether farm or house, unless granted a special exemption.
Metics shared the burdens of citizenship without any of its privileges. Like citizens, they had to perform military service and, if rich enough, were subject to special tax contributions. Citizenship was very rarely granted to metics. More common was the special status of "equal rights" (isoteleia) under which they were freed from the usual liabilities.

The system came to an end in Hellenistic Athens, when the purchase of citizenship became very frequent. The census of 317 BC gave 21,000 citizens, 10,000 metics and 400,000 slaves in Attica.

In the Greco-Roman world, free people (non-citizens) living on the territory of a polis were called "paroikoi"  (see etymology of parish), in Asia Minor "katoikoi".

References 

Ancient Greece
The Democracy in Ancient Athens was very different from modern democracy. Citizens had the right to help govern but most people were not citizens.

To be classed as a citizen in fifth-century Athens you had to be male, born from two Athenian parents, over eighteen years old, and completed your military service.  Women, slaves, metics and children under the age of 20 were not allowed to become citizens.

Citizens could be involved in the running of Athens and could be chosen for important positions.  They were also allowed to own land.  Citizens were between 10% and 20% of the total population at various times in the 5th and 4th centuries.

The Ecclesia (Assembly of Men) 
Ancient Athens had a direct democracy. This meant that each citizen had an equal say and opportunity in the governing of Athens. The citizens of Athens would meet on a hillside (the Pnyx) 30 to 40 times a year to discuss how to run the city better. Usually a few thousand actually came to the meeting.
All citizens could attend the meetings.  People would stand on a raised platform called the bema to speak.  Speakers wore a garland whilst speaking. Any citizen could speak.

All major decisions concerning the running of Athens were decided here – taxes, war, policy, etc. Any decisions were made by a show of hands.

A black pig would be sacrificed to the gods at the start of the meeting to make sure the meeting went well.

All democratic countries now have an indirect democracy. This means  members of parliament are elected to make decisions concerning government. There are now too many people in  countries for them to meet on a hillside, and many people are too busy to be able to go many times each year.

The Boule (Council of 500) 
Cleisthenes, a democratic reformer, divided Attica into ten tribes in 510 BC. The Boule was made up of 50 male Athenian citizens chosen at random from each of the ten tribes (all over 30 years old). This meant that 500 men were elected, but only 50 served at any one time.
References

Ancient Athens
Democracy
Gucci, is an Italian fashion house (fashion design company).

It was started by Guccio Gucci (1881 – 1953) in Florence in 1909. Gucci is seen as one of the most famous, successful, and easily recognizable fashion brands in the world. Gucci is now owned by the French conglomerate company, Kering.

BusinessWeek magazine says that Gucci made more than US$7 billion in 2006, and was 46th in the magazine's yearly "Top 100 Brands". For this reason Gucci is the second biggest selling fashion brand after LVMH. Most importantly Gucci is the biggest selling Italian brand in the world. Gucci has about 425 shops in the world and it sells its products to other shops by franchisees and department stores.

History
History 

Gucci was started in 1906 by Guccio Gucci. In 1938, Gucci grew bigger, and a small shop opened in Rome. Guccio Gucci designed many of the company's famous clothes. In 1947, Gucci made the bamboo-handle handbag, which is still used. In the 1950s, Gucci also made the striped webbing (a type of material), and the suede and metal moccasin shoes.
Aldo Gucci grew into new markets, such as an agreement with American Motors Corporation (AMC), so that in 1972 AMC Hornet small "Sportabout" car became one of the first American cars to give a special luxury made by a famous fashion designer. The Gucci cars had striped green, red, and buff material inside, as well as the Gucci's logos and outside color selections.

The "Gucci Accessories Collection" was popular, but it brought the Gucci strength down. After a few years, the "Parfums section" started to sell better than the "Accessories section". The newly-made wholesaling business brought the once-exclusive brand to over a thousand stores in the United States alone with the GAC line, deteriorating the brand’s standing with fashionable customers. "In the 1960s and 1970s," writes Vanity Fair editor Graydon Carter, "Gucci had been at the pinnacle of chic, thanks to icons such as Audrey Hepburn, Grace Kelly, and Jacqueline Onassis. But by the 1980s, Gucci had lost its appeal, becoming a tacky airport brand."
References 

1921 establishments in Italy
Italian fashion houses
Florence
A ghoul is a monster from ancient Arabian folklore. Ghouls live in burial grounds and other uninhabited places. The English word comes from the Arabic name for the creature: الغول ghūl, which literally means "demon". The ghul is a devilish type of jinn believed to be sired by Iblis.

The female form is given as "ghouleh" in Muhawi and Kanaana (see ref below). The plural is "ghilan".

Ghoul is also a shapeshifting demon that lives in the desert. The demon can take the form of an animal, especially a hyena. It lures unwary travellers into the desert. It will then kill and eat them. The creature also preys on young children, robs graves, and eats the dead. Because of this habit the word ghoul is sometimes used to refer to an ordinary human such as a grave robber, or to anyone who likes the macabre. 

The star Algol takes its name from this creature.
In Iran 
In Iranian mythologies, Ghouls are creatures very similar to humans, but larger. Usually they are less intelligent and not necessarily evil.
Most Persian speakers use Ghoul to describe large people (figuratively "giants"). This may or may not be considered an insult, depending on the situation.

How ghouls are shown 

Ghouls and ghoul-like creatures have been portrayed in different ways in fiction, including a series of dark fantasy, short stories by Brian McNaughton, a Michael Slade novel, "Ghoul", Larry Niven's "Ringworld" series, J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, The Chronicles of Narnia, the works of Caitlín R. Kiernan, Laurell K. Hamilton's Anita Blake series, and Jim Butcher's The Dresden Files.

Literature 

Morlocks are a fictional species of cannibalistic ghouls, created by H. G. Wells for his 1895 novel, The Time Machine. The Morlocks, as well as another supposed offshoot of humans, the Eloi, exist in the future world in the year 802,701 A.D. in The Time Machine.
Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula has a character that acts much like a ghoul.  The character is named Renfield. Under the vampire's influence, Renfield becomes his willing slave. He develops a craving to eat living creatures in the hope of obtaining their life-force for himself. After being confined to an asylum, he considers eating a human hospital orderly, but finds he can only capture and consume flies, spiders, and the occasional bird.
In the fiction of H. P. Lovecraft, a ghoul is a member of a nocturnal race that lives underground. Some ghouls were once human, but a diet of human corpses, and perhaps the tutelage of proper ghouls, changed them into horrific bestial humanoids. In the short story "Pickman's Model" (1927), the first of Lovecraft's ghoul stories, they are unutterably terrible monsters; however, in his earlier novella The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath (1926), the ghouls are somewhat less disturbing, even comical at times, and both helpful and loyal to the protagonist. Richard Upton Pickman, a noteworthy Boston painter who disappeared mysteriously in "Pickman's Model", appears as a ghoul himself in Dream-Quest. Similar themes appear in "The Lurking Fear" (1922) and "The Rats in the Walls" (1924). Both of stories claim there are subterranean clans of degenerate,  cannibals or carrion-eating humans.
In modern and contemporary fiction, ghouls are often confused with other types of undead, usually the mindless varieties of zombies. Although modern fiction (post-1954), particularly 1954's I Am Legend, suggests that the latter beings share cannibalistic habits with ghouls, it is nonetheless generally believed that vampires and zombies prefer live prey.