Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Leo III (died June 12, 816) was Pope from 795 to 816. He is famous for the coronation of Charlemagne as emperor in 800.

Early life
Leo was born in Rome.

Pope
Leo reported his election to Charlemagne, sent him the keys of Saint Peter's tomb and the banner of Rome. Charlemagne replied that it was his function to defend the church and the Pope's to pray for the kingdom and for victory of the army.

Charlemagne went to Rome in November 800, and on December 1 held a council there with representatives of both sides. Leo, on December 23, took an oath of purgation concerning the charges brought against him, and his opponents were exiled. Two days later Leo crowned Charlemagne at St. Peter's tomb. Charlemagne did intervene in church affairs, not always successfully.

The reasons for the coronation, the involvement beforehand of the Frankish court, and the relationship to the Byzantine Empire are all matters of debate among historians.

Related pages
 List of popes

Other websites
Other websites 

 Translation of Einhard's Life of Charlemagne (c. 817-830, translated in 1880)

8th-century births
816 deaths
Italian popes
Khanda is a symbol of Sikhism.  It is in the shape of three weapons and a circle.

Sikhism
Religious symbols
Dame Judith Olivia Dench  (born 9 December 1934) is an English movie, stage and television actress.

Judi Dench has appeared in James Bond movies since 1995 as the character M. She has also appeared in other large budget movies such as Mrs. Henderson Presents and Ladies in Lavender.

Personal life
Dench was born in Heworth, York, England. She is the daughter of Eleanora Olave (née Jones), a native of Dublin, and Reginald Arthur Dench, a doctor. Dench attended the Mount School, a Quaker independent secondary school in York. She became a Quaker. 

In 1971, Dench married British actor Michael Williams. Their only child is Tara Cressida Frances Williams. She was born on 24 September 1972. She is known professionally as Finty Williams. Dench and her husband starred together several times. Michael Williams died from lung cancer in 2001, aged 65.

In early 2012, Dench said she had macular degeneration. Because of this, she needed someone to read scripts to her.
Dench's brother, Jeffery Dench, died on 27 March 2014 at the age of 85.

Filmography

Awards and nominations

Movies 
Awards
1966: BAFTA Film Award for Best Newcomer – Four in the Morning
1989: BAFTA Film Award for Best Supporting Actress – A Handful of Dust
1989: BAFTA Film Award for Best Supporting Actress – A Room with a View
1998: BAFTA Film Award for Best Actress – Mrs. Brown
1998: Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Drama – Mrs. Brown
1998: Satellite Award for Best Actress in a Drama – Mrs. Brown
1999: Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress – Shakespeare in Love
1999: BAFTA Film Award for Best Supporting Actress – Shakespeare in Love
1999: SAG Award for Best Cast – Shakespeare in Love
2001: BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award
2001: SAG Award for Best Supporting Actress – Chocolat
2002: BAFTA movie Award for Best Actress – Iris
2007: British Independent Film Award for Best Actress – Notes on a Scandal
2009: Satellite Award for Best Cast – Nine
Nominations
1986: BAFTA Film Award for Best Supporting Actress – Wetherby
1988: BAFTA Film Award for Best Supporting Actress – 84 Charing Cross Road
1998: Academy Award for Best Actress – Mrs. Brown
1998: SAG Award for Best Actress – Mrs. Brown
1999: Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Shakespeare in Love
1999: SAG Award for Best Supporting Actress – Shakespeare in Love
2001: Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress – Chocolat
2001: BAFTA Film Award for Best Supporting Actress – Chocolat
2001: Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Chocolat
2001: Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama – Chocolat
2002: Academy Award for Best Actress – Iris
2002: BAFTA Film Award for Best Supporting Actress – The Shipping News
2002: Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Drama – Iris
2002: SAG Award for Best Actress – Iris
2002: SAG Award for Best Supporting Actress – The Shipping News
2002: Satellite Award for Best Actress in a Drama – Iris
2005: British Independent Film Award for Best Actress – Mrs Henderson Presents
2005: Satellite Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy – Mrs Henderson Presents
2006: Academy Award for Best Actress – Mrs Henderson Presents
2006: BAFTA Film Award for Best Actress – Mrs Henderson Presents
2006: Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy – Mrs Henderson Presents
2006: SAG Award for Best Actress – Mrs Henderson Presents
2006: Satellite Award for Best Actress in a Drama – Notes on a Scandal
2007: Academy Award for Best Actress – Notes on a Scandal
2007: BAFTA Film Award for Best Actress – Notes on a Scandal
2007: Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Drama – Notes on a Scandal
2007: SAG Award for Best Actress – Notes on a Scandal
2007: Saturn Award for Best Actress – Notes on a Scandal
2009: Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress – Quantum of Solace
2010: SAG Award for Best Cast – Nine
2012: BAFTA Film Award for Best Supporting Actress – My Week with Marilyn
Television 
Awards
1968: BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress – Talking to a Stranger
1982: BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress – A Fine Romance, Going Gently and The Cherry Orchard
1982: Broadcast Press Guild Award for Best Actress – A Fine Romance
1985: BAFTA TV Award for Best Light Entertainment Performance – A Fine Romance
2001: BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress – The Last of the Blonde Bombshells
2001: Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film – The Last of the Blonde Bombshells
2008: Satellite Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film – Cranford
Nominations
1980: BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress – ITV Playhouse, Macbeth and On Giant's Shoulders
1983: BAFTA TV Award for Best Light Entertainment Performance – A Fine Romance
1984: BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress – Saigon: Year of the Cat
1984: BAFTA TV Award for Best Light Entertainment Performance – A Fine Romance
1990: BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress – Behaving Badly
1998: BAFTA TV Award for Best Comedy Performance – As Time Goes By
2001: American Comedy Award for Funniest Female Performer in a TV Special – The Last of the Blonde Bombshells
2001: Emmy Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film – The Last of the Blonde Bombshells
2001: SAG Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Movie – The Last of the Blonde Bombshells
2008: BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress – Cranford
2008: Emmy Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film – Cranford
2009: Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film – Cranford
2010: Emmy Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film – Return to Cranford
2010: Satellite Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television movie – Return to Cranford
2011: Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film – Return to Cranford
Theatre 
Awards
1977: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Revival of a Play – Macbeth
1980: Evening Standard Award for Best Actress – Juno and the Paycock
1980: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Revival of a Play – Juno and the Paycock
1982: Critics' Circle Theatre Award for Best Actress – The Importance of Being Earnest and A Kind of Alaska
1982: Evening Standard Award for Best Actress – The Importance of Being Earnest and A Kind of Alaska
1983: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a New Play – Pack of Lies
1987: Critics' Circle Theatre Award for Best Actress – Antony and Cleopatra
1987: Evening Standard Award for Best Actress – Antony and Cleopatra
1987: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Play – Antony and Cleopatra
1996: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical – A Little Night Music
1996: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Play – Absolute Hell
1997: Critics' Circle Theatre Award for Best Actress – Amy's View
1999: Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play – Amy's View
2004: Society of London Theatre Special Award
Nominations
1982: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a New Play – Other Places
1982: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Revival of a Play – The Importance of Being Earnest
1992: Olivier Award for Best Director of a Musical – The Boys from Syracuse
1993: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Play – The Gift of the Gorgon
1998: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Play – Amy's View
1999: Drama Desk Award for Best Actress in a Play – Amy's View
1999: Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Play – Filumena
2005: Olivier Award for Best Supporting Performance – All's Well That Ends Well

References

Other websites
 Judi Dench Biography
1934 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Yorkshire
Actors who played M
BAFTA Award winning actors
Companions of Honour
English movie actors
English stage actors
English television actors
English voice actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Knights and Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Musical theater actors
People from York
Royal Society of Arts
Tony Award winning actors
Arendal is a city and municipality in the county of Aust-Agder, Norway. It is the administrative center of Aust-Agder county, and belongs to the geographical region of Sørlandet. The municipality is bordered in the southwest by Grimstad, in the northwest by Froland, and in the northeast by Tvedestrand municipalities.

The name 

The Norse form of the name was probably "Arnardalr". The first element is then the genitive case of "orn" m 'eagle', the last element is "dalr" m 'valley, dale'.

Related pages
List of mayors in Norway that are elected until 2027

Other websites 
 Arendal Kommune official website
 Arendal official tourist information 

Cities in Norway
Municipalities of Agder
Port cities and towns of the North Sea
S.S. Lazio is an Italian football club based in Formello (Via di Santa Cornelia 1000, 00060 Formello). 

They play in light blue shirts, white shorts and socks. The name Lazio was chosen as the original founders wanted to name the club after something which was greater and encompassed more than just the city that they were from - Lazio is the name of the region where Rome is. The sky blue and white team colors were inspired by the Greek flag and more specifically the country which gave birth to Olympic tradition; the eagle as an acknowledgement by its founders.

League title 
 Serie A : 2
 1973/74, 1999/00
 Serie B : 1
 1968/69
 Coppa Italia : 7
 1958, 1998, 2000, 2004, 2009, 2013, 2019
 Supercoppa Italiana : 5
 1998, 2000, 2009, 2017, 2019
 Cup Winners' Cup : 1
 1999
 UEFA Super Cup : 1
 1999
 Coppa delle Alpi : 1
 1971

League position

Former position

Other websites 
 SS Lazio
 Serie A

Italian football clubs
Rome
1900 establishments in Italy
[[Image:Punch.jpg|thumb|right|300px|1867 edition of the satirical magazine Punch]]

Satire is a form in art or writing which ridicules either a person, government, or an institution, often through the use of humour. Satire can either be in paintings, plays, books, songs, TV or movies. It also is used to stereotype people.

Satire was used long ago. It is a Latin word, though the plays of Aristophanes are often called satirical. Satire was widely known in Elizabethan times. Swift used it in his book Gulliver's Travels to make fun of people’s stupidity. Works like The Beggar’s Opera'' (1728) used satire to show how silly the politicians of the time were. The German playwright Bertolt Brecht used a lot of satire, as did Peter Cook. Jon Stewart and other comedians use it frequently.

Satire often points out ironic or bad things that powerful people are doing. Its adjective is satirical.

Related pages
Black comedy
Caricature
Cartoon
Humour
Irony
Parody

Other websites
MAD Magazine
The Onion
The Iron Cross was a medal given to German soldiers for bravery during wartime. The award was created by King Frederick William III of Prussia. It was first given out on 10 March 1813. The Iron Cross was awarded during the Napoleonic Wars, the Franco-Prussian War, the First World War, and the Second World War. This medal was received by Adolf Hitler after World War I.

The medal is only given in wartime, so no Iron Crosses have been given out since the end of the Second World War in 1945.

Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross 
During the Second World War an extra type of Iron Cross medal was given. It was the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and was given for acts of extreme battlefield bravery or successful leadership. The Knight's Cross was divided into five grades:
Knight's Cross
 Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves
 Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
 Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds
 Knight's Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds
History of Germany
Orders, decorations, and medals of Germany
1813 establishments
1810s establishments in Germany
Military of Germany
Manowar is an American heavy metal band from Auburn, New York, which formed in 1980.

Members 
 Eric Adams - vocal
 Joey DeMaio - bass guitar / guitar / keyboard / classical guitar
 Karl Logan - guitar / keyboard / classical guitar
 Scott Columbus - drums and percussion

Albums 
 Battle Hymns (1982)
 Into Glory Ride (1983)
 Hail To England (1984)
 Sign Of The Hammer (1984)
 Fighting The World (1987)
 Kings Of Metal (1988)
 The Triumph Of Steel (1992)
 Louder Than Hell (1996)
 Hell On Wheels (Live, 1997)
 Hell On Stage (Live, 1999)
 Warriors Of The World (2002)
 Gods Of War (2007)
 Battle Hymns MMXI (2010)
 The Lord of Steel (2012)
 Kings of Metal MMXIV (2014)
 Into Glory Ride Imperial Edition MMXIX (2019)
 Hail To England Imperial Edition MMXIX (2019)

Other websites 

 Official Manowar Website

American heavy metal bands
Power metal bands
In mathematics, a power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form

where an represents the coefficient of the nth term, c is a constant, and x varies around c (for this reason one sometimes speaks of the series as being centered at c). This series usually appears as the Taylor series of some known function; the Taylor series article contains many examples.

In many situations c is equal to zero, for example when considering a Maclaurin series.  
In those cases, the power series takes the simpler form

These power series appear primarily in analysis, but also appear in combinatorics (under the name of generating functions) and in electrical engineering (under the name of the Z-transform).  The familiar decimal notation for integers can also be viewed as an example of a power series, but with the argument x fixed at 10.  In number theory, the concept of p-adic numbers is also closely related to that of a power series.

Sequences and series
Mathematical analysis
Complex analysis
Calculus
A classical guitar, also called a Spanish guitar, is a musical instrument from the family of musical instruments called chordophones. This instrument is most commonly used by classical guitarists playing classical music, but it is also used in other music genres. It was first recognized 4 - 5 thousand years ago. 

Guitars
Vålerenga Fotball is a Norwegian football club from Oslo. It was founded in 1913. They are named after the neighbourhood of Vålerenga. They finished as runners-up in the 2010 Norwegian Premier League, the last time they won was in 2005. Vålerenga's home ground is Ullevaal Stadion, the national stadium for Norway. Their current coach is Martin Andresen.

Current squad 
As of January 15th 2010

Out on loan

Other websites
 Official website
 VPN (Vålerenga På Nett)
 Klanen, the Vålerenga fan club

Norwegian football clubs
Oslo
1913 establishments in Europe
1910s establishments in Norway
The Volga is the longest river in Europe. In Russian it is called Волга, in the Tatar language its name is İdel. 

Many people see it as the national river of Russia. It flows through the western part of the country. It is Europe's longest river, with a length of 3,530 kilometres, and forms the core of the largest river system in Europe. 

It rises in the Valdai Hills of Russia, 225m above sea level north-west of Moscow. The Kama, Oka, Vetluga and the Sura are its main tributaries. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which drains an area of about 1.35 million square kilometres in Russia. The Volga Delta has a length of about 160 kilometres. It includes 
555 channels and small streams. It is the largest estuary in Europe. It is the only place in Russia where pelicans, flamingoes, and lotuses may be found. The Volga freezes for most of its length for three months each year. Some of the biggest reservoirs in the world can be found along the river.

References

Other websites
Other websites

Rivers of Russia
Geography of Tatarstan
Oi! is a type of punk rock that was started in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s. The people that started it wanted to connect punk with a working class street-level following. Oi! is a mixing of the styles of early punk bands, such as The Clash, Sex Pistols and the Ramones. It is also influenced by early British rock bands (such as The Rolling Stones and The Who), football chants, pub rock and glam rock bands. The music is often very simple, and the lyrics are blunt (brutally honest, without tact).

Punk rock began to become popular in the 1970s. Some perceived that it was becoming more and more commercialised. This was the kind of thing that punks were against. Oi! began partly as a response to this perception. It was also partly a response to stereotyping that others made about punks. One stereotype was that many people in the early punk rock scene were young people using big words and trying to be artistic, but failing.
Early Oi! bands such as Sham 69 were around for years before the word Oi! was used to describe their style of music. The word was first used as a name for the new genre in 1980, by journalist Garry Bushell. He took the name from the way the Cockney Rejects used "Oi!" during live shows to introduce their songs. "Oi! Oi! Oi!" was the title of the third track on their second album. The word is an old Cockney expression, meaning "hey" or "hello". Other bands that were labelled as Oi! bands in the early days of the genre included Angelic Upstarts, The 4-Skins, The Business, Blitz, The Blood, and Combat 84. More recent punk bands such as Rancid and Dropkick Murphys have credited Oi! as a source of inspiration.

References

Other websites 
OiOiMusic.com Weekly updated site with interviews and reviews
Punk and Oi! in the UK  includes interviews and news about Oi! bands

Punk rock
The Brothers Grimm (German: Die Brüder Grimm, also Gebrüder Grimm) were the brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm. They were German academics and most famous for their collections of folktales and fairy tales, and for their work in linguistics.

The Grimm brothers both became linguists. They are the inventors of German philology. They also did other language-related work, like publishing one of the first grammar books for the German language.

They also wrote fairy tales, and collected the tales which people told them. They published a collection of fairy tales known as Grimms' Fairy Tales (Grimms Märchen).

Other websites 

 The Museum of the Brothers Grimm in Kassel, Germany
Texts and recordings 
 Household Tales by the Brothers Grimm, translated by Margaret Hunt  (This site is the only one to feature all of the Grimms' notes translated in English along with the tales from Hunt's original edition. Andrew Lang's introduction is also included.)
 
 . Translated by Margaret Hunt.
 Brothers Grimm - Fairy Tales  Audiobooks
 Recording of 63 Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm at LibriVox.org

Fairy tales
People from Hanau
Writers from Hesse
Heavy metal may mean:
Heavy metals, chemical elements within a particular range of atomic weights
Heavy metal music, a style of music
Heavy Metal (magazine), an American fantasy magazine based on the French magazine Métal Hurlant
Heavy Metal (movie), a 1981 animated movie based on the magazine, or its sequel Heavy Metal 2000
Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.², a 2000 computer game for Mac and PC by Gathering of Developers
"Heavy Metal", a 1978 song by Sammy Hagar, best known for being used for the 1981 movie of the same name
"Heavy Metal", a song by Judas Priest from Ram It Down
HeavyMetal, software for BattleTech
Bryozoans, also known as the Polyzoa, Ectoprocta or moss animals, are a phylum of small aquatic animals living in colonies. The colonies usually have a skeleton of calcium carbonate. Bryozoans have a long fossil history, starting in the Ordovician. In their life-style they resemble the polyps which form coral. They generally like warm, tropical waters but live all over the world. There are about 5,000 living species, and 15,000 fossil species are known. 

The colonies are formed by tiny (~0.2mm) members called zooids. They secrete tubes, usually of lime (CaCO3), sometimes of chitin, an organic compound. The zooids in a colony are all clones, produced by asexual reproduction. Despite this, most species produce different morphs: zooids with different functions. 

All bryozoa have a lophophore. This is a ring of ten tentacles surrounding the mouth, each tentacle covered with cilia. When feeding, the zooid extends the lophophore outwards; when resting it is withdrawn into the mouth to protect it from predators.
Anatomy & physiology

Bryozoan skeletons grow in a variety of shapes and patterns: mound-shaped, lacy fans, branching twigs, and even corkscrew-shaped. Their skeletons have many tiny openings. Each opening is the home of zooid. They have a body with a U-shaped gut, opening at the mouth and at the anus. They feed with their lophophore. The tentacles of the bryozoans are ciliated. The beating of the cilia creates a current of water which drives food (mainly phytoplankton) towards the mouth. In some groups, notably some ctenostomes, a gizzard may be formed.  

Bryozoans do not have a respiratory, or a blood system, because their small size allows diffusion of gases and nutrients. However, they do have a simple nervous system, and muscles, which together can quickly take the zooid down into its shelter.

One species of bryozoan, Bugula neritina, is of interest as a source of chemicals, bryostatins, which are under investigation as anti-cancer agents.
Reproduction & development  
Bryozoans can reproduce both sexually and asexually. All Bryozoans, as far as is known, are hermaphrodite (meaning they are both male and female).

All members of a colony are clones: they are genetically identical, produced by asexual reproduction. This occurs by budding off new zooids from the first zooid. So the colony grows; this is the way a colony expands in size. If a piece of a bryozoan colony breaks off, the piece can continue to grow and will form a new colony.
All zooids in a colony are linked by strands of epithelial cells. The individual members of a colony, the zooids, are in some species generalised: they feed, and they can reproduce on occasion. But in most species the zooids are specialised to diffent functions. In this case the feeding zooids are called autozooids, and the non-feeding members are called heterozooids. Functions done by heterozooids include sexual reproduction, protection, locomotion, plumbing, structural support. The functions of some heterozooids is still unknown. The commonest function is that eggs are developed in brooding chambers (ovicells) on female or hermaphrodite heterozooids. There are variations in the details: sometimes a little complex of heterozooids produce larvae in a cooperative effort.p4
Another way to describe the bryozoa which develop heterozooids is to say they are polymorphic. This term is used in biology to describe the way a genetically unified population develops into clearly distinct forms. The polymorphism is usually controlled by genetic switching mechanisms, but in bryozoa there is little knowledge of their genetics.

Ecology
Ecology 

Most species of Bryozoan live in marine environments. There are about 50 species which inhabit freshwater. In their aquatic habitats, bryozoans live on all types of hard substrates: sand grains, rocks, shells, wood, blades of kelp, pipes and ships may be heavily encrusted with bryozoans. Some bryozoan colonies, however, do not grow on solid substrates, but form colonies on sediment. While some species live at depths of 8,200 m, most bryozoans live in much shallower water. Most bryozoans are sessile and immobile, but a few colonies are able to creep about, and a few species of non-colonial bryozoans live and move about in the spaces between sand grains. One remarkable species makes its living while floating in the Southern Ocean. Several bryozoan species live in the Midwestern United States, especially in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky which was once a part of a large ocean, the Western Interior Seaway.
Their diet consists of small microorganisms, including diatoms and other unicellular algae. In turn, bryozoans are preyed on by grazing organisms such as sea urchins and fish. 

Bryozoans are almost entirely colony-forming animals. Many millions of individuals can form one colony. The colonies range from millimeters to meters in size, but the individuals that make up the colonies are tiny, usually less than a millimeter long. In each colony, different individuals have different functions. Some individuals gather up the food for the colony (autozooids), others depend on them (heterozooids). Some individuals are devoted to strengthening the colony (kenozooids), and still others to cleaning the colony (vibracula). There is only a single known solitary species, Monobryozoon ambulans, which does not form colonies.

Fossils
Fossils

Fossil bryozoans first appear in the early Ordovician and had a huge adaptive radiation. They were abundant throughout the Palaeozoic era: they were one of the most dominant groups of Palaeozoic fossils. They were major components of seabed communities and, like modern-day bryozoans, played an important role in sediment stabilization and binding. They were food sources for many other benthic organisms. During the Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian) 354 to 323 million years ago, bryozoans were so common that their broken skeletons form entire limestone beds. 

After a crash at the Permian/Triassic boundary, when almost all species went extinct, bryozoans recovered in the later Mesozoic to become as successful as before. The bryozoan fossil record has more than 15,000 species.
Most fossil bryozoans have mineralized skeletons. The skeletons of individual zooids vary from tubular to box-shaped and contain a terminal aperture from which the lophophore is protruded to feed. No pores are present in the great majority of Ordovician bryozoans, but skeletal evidence shows that epithelia were continuous from one zooid to the next.

One of the most important events during bryozoan evolution was the acquisition of a calcareous skeleton and the mechanism of tentacle protrusion. The rigidity of the outer body walls gave protection against predators, a greater degree of zooid connection, and the evolution of massive colony forms.

References

Other websites

Index to Bryozoa Bryozoa Home Page, was at RMIT; now bryozoa.net
Other Bryozoan WWW Resources
International Bryozoology Association official website
Bryozoan Introduction
Gordon Ramel The Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa) (recommended)
Bryozoans  in the Connecticut River

Invertebrates
Animal phyla
A placebo is a treatment for a disease or condition which is deliberately ineffective. The motive usually is that if a person believes that a medicine, diet, or other treatment is good for them, then it is good for them.

Sometimes sick people who receive a placebo feel like they are getting better, and sometimes their bodies actually do get better. When patients have that response, it is called the "placebo effect". The term placebo effect (or placebo response) was introduced in 1920. It is the response of the subject which causes the observed effect, not the substance,.

Origins 
John Haygarth tested a placebo effect in the 18th century. It showed "to a degree which has never been suspected, what powerful influence upon diseases is produced by mere imagination".
Émile Coué, a French apothecary, working  between 1882 and 1910, discovered what later came to be known as the "Placebo effect". He reassured his clients by praising each remedy's efficiency and leaving a small positive notice with each medication. In 1901 Coué began to study under hypnosis. In 1913, Coué and his wife founded La Société Lorraine de Psychologie appliquée. His book Self-mastery through conscious autosuggestion was published in England (1920) and in the United States (1922).

Placebos and blind trial 
Placebos are used as part of blind trials. Blind trials work like this: Some people are given the medicine or treatment being tested, and others are given the placebo. No one knows who gets the real treatment and who gets the placebo. They are "blind" to their treatment.
If researchers notice that the "treatment group" is different from the "placebo group" they will know that the difference is because of the treatment. Without a "placebo group" then researchers cannot know if those changes would have happened anyway, no matter which medicine people had taken.

Genuine effects of placebos 
Placebos can have real effects on patients: that is what "placebo effect" means. Since a landmark paper in 1955 the placebo effect has been recognised and accepted by some, and denied by others. However, there is no doubt that for certain conditions, the placebo effect does exist. Examples are:

Relief of pain. Studies of acupuncture have been positive. The placebo effect is mediated by "top-down" processes from neocortex areas that influence expectations. "Diseases lacking major 'top-down' or cortically based regulation may be less prone to placebo-related improvement".

 Parkinson's disease: Placebo relief is associated with the release of dopamine in the brain.
Depression: Placebos reducing depression affect many of the same areas that are activated by antidepressants with the addition of the prefrontal cortex

 Caffeine: Placebo-caffeinated coffee causes an increase in bilateral dopamine release in the thalamus.
 Glucose: The expectation of an intravenous injection of glucose increases the release of dopamine in the basal ganglia of men (but not women).
 Methylphenidate: The expectation of intravenous injection of this drug in inexperienced drug users increased the release of dopamine in the ventral cingulate gyrus and nucleus accumbens, with this effect being largest in those with no prior experience of the drug.

Related pages 

 Belief
 Medication
 Optimism
 Pessimism
 Pharmacology
 Scientific method

References 

Drugs
For other senses of this word, see identity.

In mathematics, the term identity has several important uses:

An identity is an equality that remains true even if you change all the variables that are used in that equality.

An equality in mathematical sense is only true under more particular conditions. For this, the symbol ≡ is sometimes used (note, however, that the same symbol can also be used for a congruence relation as well.)
In algebra, an identity or identity element of a set S with an operation is an element which, when combined with any element s of S, produces s itself. In a group (an algebraic structure), this is often denoted by the symbol .
The identity function (or identity map) from a set S to itself, often denoted  or , such that  for all x in S.
In linear algebra, the identity matrix of size n is the n-by-n square matrix with ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere. It is often denoted by the symbol .

Examples
Examples

Identity relation
A common example of the first meaning is the trigonometric identity

which is true for all real values of  (since the real numbers  are the domain of both sine and cosine), as opposed to

which is only true for certain values of  in a subset of the domain.

Identity element
The concepts of "additive identity" and "multiplicative identity" are central to the Peano axioms.
The number 0 is the "additive identity" for integers, real numbers, and complex numbers. For the real numbers, for all 

 and

Similarly, The number 1 is the "multiplicative identity" for integers, real numbers, and complex numbers. For the real numbers, for all 

 and

Identity function 
A common example of an identity function is the identity permutation, which sends each element of the set  to itself.

Comparison
These meanings are not mutually exclusive; for instance, the identity permutation is the identity element in the set of permutations of  under composition.

Related pages
Related pages 

 Identity Property
 One
 Zero

References

Other websites 
 EquationSolver   - A webpage that can test a suggested identity and return a true/false "verdict".

Algebra
Equality can mean several things:

In sciences:
 Equality (mathematics)
 Equality (objects)

In humanities:
 Egalitarianism, the belief that all/some people ought to be treated equally 
 Equality of opportunity
 Discrimination
 Racial equality
 Sexual equality
 Social equality

People and places:
 Equality, Illinois

Related pages
 Equals sign (=)
 Social inequality
Identity could mean:

Philosophy

 Identity (philosophy) is the sameness of two things.
 Identity theory of mind, in the philosophy of mind, holds that the mind is identical to the brain
 Personal identity

Mathematics

An identity is an equality that holds regardless of the values of its variables.
An identity object is an entity that does not change other objects; identity function, identity element and identity matrix

Social science and psychology
Identity (social science). In the social sciences, identity has specific meanings, stemming from cognitive theory, sociology, politics, and psychology.
Cultural identity is a person's self-affiliation (or categorization by others) as a member of a cultural group.
Gender identity is the gender with which a person identifies (or is identified by others).
Digital identity is the representation of identity in terms of digital information.
Online identity is the digital identity established by computer network users.
Psychological identity is the concept that an individual has a unique identity developed relatively late in history.
Business
An accounting identity is a basic accounting formulation that must, by construction, hold; for example, the balance sheet of a company must balance. The term may also be used to apply to formulations in economics that have the same characteristics, for example, the balance of payments must balance.
Corporate identity is the physical manifestation of a business brand.
Identity theft is the deliberate appropriation of someone else's identity (without that person's permission) for criminal purposes.

Computer science

Identity (object-oriented programming), a property of objects that allows those objects to be distinguished from each other.
Identity column in SQL Server represents a database field whose values are automatically generated by the server, and uniquely identify a row in the table.

Religion
 Christian Identity, a controversial religious belief which holds that Europeans and their descendents are the Biblical Israel

Television, film, music and literature
Identity (novel), a novel written by Milan Kundera
Identity (movie), a movie directed by James Mangold, starring, among others, John Cusack
Identity (album), an album from Zee with Richard Wright and Dave Harris
Identity (music), a transformation of pitches in music
Identity (game show), a game show on NBC hosted by Penn Jillette

Related pages
 Secret identity
 identity card
 Identification
In mathematics, two things are equal if and only if they are exactly the same in every way. That is, they have the same (mathematical) value and the same mathematical properties. Mathematicians use the equals sign (=) to say this. This defines a binary relation, equality. The statement "x = y" means that x and y are equal.

Equivalence in a more general sense is provided by the construction of an equivalence relation between two mathematical objects, that is, two mathematical objects are equivalent if they are related by this relation. In which case, the equivalence is often represented using the symbols  or .

A statement that two expressions denote equal quantities is an equation (or an equality). Equations are equal. Inequalities are unequal.

An equality is also a transitive relation. This means that if one object is equal to a second object, and the second object is equal to a third object, then the first object is equal to the third object as well.
Since a predicate is a way of describing something that is true, another way to say this is that if one thing that is true about a variable is not true about the other variable, then they are not equal as far as mathematical logic is concerned: two things are only equal if anything that is true about one has to be true about the other.

In geometry, the word congruence is often preferred. Numbers are equal, geometrical objects are congruent. Two shapes are congruent if one can be moved or rotated so that it fits exactly where the other one is. If shrinking or enlarging one of the two objects is needed, then they are not congruent. They are called similar instead. The congruence relation is often represented by the symbol , while the similarity relation is represented by the symbol .
In computer science, usually, the mathematical definition is used. Very often, the comparison is written == (and the assignment, the act of giving a value, is written as =, or :=). In object-oriented languages, or languages which have pointers, there is an additional problem. Those languages contain references (which are in fact pointers). If two such references do not reference exactly the same object, then they are different and a == b will be false in this case.

For this reason, many such languages have introduced another operator (in Java, this method is called equals). This operator compares the actual values of the objects—not where the variables that reference them point to.

In social sciences, two people are equal if many of the same things are true about them. For example. two people who have the same amount of education and money, and who are of the same age usually think of each other as equals. Another name for a person who is equal to another person is a peer.
Related pages
Equals sign
Equation
Inequality
Logical equality
Congruence

References 

Mathematics
Geometry
Arithmetics
Algebra
The term ministry could mean:

Ministry (government department), a department of a government
Ministry (collective executive) (often the Ministry), the complete body of government ministers (whether or not they are in cabinet) under the leadership of a prime minister
The Ministry, also known as the Aireacht, the cabinet of the government established by the revolutionary Irish Republic of 1919-1922
Religious ministry, a type of activity conducted by members of various faiths
Ministry (band), an American industrial metal band
Ministry of Sound, a well known nightclub in London, sometimes referred to as the Ministry
Ministry of Darkness, a professional wrestling faction in the WWE
Ministry (magazine), a magazine for pastors published by the Seventh-day Adventist Church

Related pages
Minister
Ministry, in Christianity, is the activity that is done by members of the church to serve the purposes of the church. 

It can mean this activity as a whole, or specific activities, or organizations in a church that perform specific activities.

Age-specific Ministry 
As churches attempt to meet the needs of their congregations, they often separate their members into groups according to age categories. Age-specific groups meet for religious study including Sunday school programs, fellowship, and other activities. These age divisions may include:
Nursery
Pre-school
Children, generally elementary age students
Youth, generally middle and high school students
College and career, designed for university-age students
Adults, which is often broken up into single adults, couples ministry, men's and women's ministries, and senior adults.

Nearly all churches have some form of worship music, whether from a choir, orchestra, or worship band.
Service and outreach
Many churches sponsor ministries designed to reach out others on a local and global scale, usually grouped under the heading of missions. There are many organizations which perform missions on a fully-funded and organized level, such as North American Mission Board, operated by the Southern Baptist Convention.

Related pages
Christianity
Sermon

Church organization
Christian behavior and experience
For other meanings of the term ministry, see Ministry.

A ministry is a department of a government, led by a political minister. 
Ministries are usually subordinate to the cabinet, and prime minister, president or chancellor.  A government will usually have several ministries, each with a specialised field of service.  National ministries vary greatly between countries, but some common ones include Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Finance, and  Ministry of Health.

Some countries such as Switzerland, the Philippines and the United States do not use the term "ministry" for their government departments, and instead simply call them departments.  In Hong Kong the term "bureau" is used.

In Canada, some provincial-level government departments are called "ministries" (such as in Ontario and British Columbia) but most are called "departments."  Their heads are referred to as "ministers" in both levels of government, however.

Related pages
 Cabinet

Ministries
Galerius (Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, ~250 – 5 May 311), was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311.

Galerius served as a soldier with distinction. When the Tetrarchy was introduced by Diocletian in 293 Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were given the rank of Caesar. Galerius married Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and took over the Illyrian provinces.

War with Persia

Defeat 
In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, Galerius moved from the Danube to the Euphrates. There his first campaign ended in a defeat by the Sassanid prince Narses, near Callinicum. This disaster caused the loss of Mesopotamia.
Diocletian came to Antioch, where the official version of events was made clear: Galerius was to take the blame. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor.p17p292/3 The message was clear: the loss at Carrhae was not due to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but due to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted.

Victory 
In 298 Galerius got reinforcements from the Danube in the Spring. He led the army to attack Narseh in northern Mesopotamia, and Narseh retreated to Armenia.

The rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but unfavorable to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces. In two battles, Galerius got victories over Narseh.p18p293
During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.p18 Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch. This was, to the Persians, a constant reminder of Roman victory.p293 Galerius advanced into Media and Adiabene, winning victories.p151 He took Nisibis (Nusaybin, Turkey) before 1 October 298. He moved down the Tigris, taking Ctesiphon, and looking at the ruins of Babylon. Then he returned to Roman territory by the Euphrates.

Narses asked for peace. Mesopotamia was returned to Roman rule and even some territory east of the Tigris. This was the greatest extension of the Roman Empire in the east.

Last years 
In 305, on the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, Galerius got the title of Augustus, together with Constantius, his former colleague. Two younger men were appointed as Caesars: Maximus Daia and Severus II.
Galerius' hopes were dashed when his colleague Constantius died at York in 306. The legions raised his son Constantine to the position of Augustus. Galerius only discovered this when he got a letter from Constantine, who told him of his father's death, modestly asserted his natural claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented that the enthusiasm of his troops had not allowed him to get the Imperial purple in a regular manner.

The first emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage. As he could not restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.p28/9p6279–80p160
When he had time to reconsider his position, he realised his chances of winning a war against Constantine was doubtful. Therefore, without commenting on the choice of the British army, Galerius accepted the son of his deceased colleague as the ruler of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave him only the title of Caesar, and the fourth rank among the Roman princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his favourite, Severus II.

Suddenly Galerius had the unexpected loss of Italy to Maxentius, his son-in-law. Galerius’ need for revenue led him to make a strict examination of the property of his subjects for the purpose of taxation. A survey was taken of their estates. Where there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was used to get a sincere declaration of their personal wealth.
Italy had traditionally been exempt from any form of taxation, but Galerius ignored this. Italy began to murmur against this indignity and Maxentius used this sentiment to declare himself emperor in Italy, to the fury of Galerius. Therefore, Galerius ordered his colleague Severus to immediately march to Rome, so that, by his unexpected arrival, he would easily suppress the rebellion. Severus was quickly captured and executed by Maximian, who had once again been elevated to the rank of co-emperor, this time by his son Maxentius.

The importance of the occasion needed the presence and abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army collected from Illyricum and the East, he entered Italy. He was determined to revenge the death of Severus and to punish the rebellious Romansp122 However, due to the skill of Maximian, Galerius found every place hostile, fortified, and inaccessible. Though he forced his way as far as Narni, sixty miles from Rome, he controlled only his camp.
As he was facing difficulties, Galerius made the first steps to reconciliation. He sent two officers to tempt the Romans by the offer of a conference. These offers were rejected with firmness, his friendship refused. Unless he retreated, he might meet the fate of Severus. It was not a moment too soon; money from Maxentius to his soldiers had corrupted their loyalty. When Galerius began his withdrawal from Italy, it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.

In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.
Galerius’ plan soon failed. The news of Licinius’ promotion was carried into the East, and Maximinus, who governed the provinces of Egypt and Syria, rejected his position as Caesar. Maximus claimed (and got) the equal title of Augustus. For the first, and indeed for the last time, six emperors administered the Roman world. Although the memory of a recent war divided the empire into two great hostile powers, their fears and the fading authority of Galerius produced an apparent tranquility in the imperial government.

The last years of Galerius saw him keep the position of first among equals. He spent the rest of his time enjoying himself, and ordering some important public works, such as discharging into the Danube the superfluous waters of Lake Pelso, and cutting down the immense forests around it.

Persecution of Christians
Christians had lived in peace during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to the influence of Galerius. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of secret gatherings.

But in April 311 Galerius issued the general edict of toleration, from Nicomedia in his own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine. Lactantius gives the text of the edict in De Mortibus Persecutorum ('On the Deaths of the Persecutors', chapters 34, 35). This marked the end of official persecution of Christians. Galerius died on 5 May, 311.

Other websites 

 Medieval Sourcebook: Edict of Toleration by Galerius, 311.
 Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus
 Lactantius about Galerius in his "De Mortibus Persecutorum" chapter XXIII & XXVII
 Catholic Encyclopedia

References 

250s births
311 deaths
4th-century Roman emperors