Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Tamburello or pallatamburello is a traditional sport of Italy since 16th century. It has this name because they play with a roundish and oval tool named tamburello or tambourine in English language. Various forms of tamburello are popular in several nations of the world currently.

Forms

Tamburello open 
This form is also named classic and each team regularly has 5 players in open playing field 80 metres long and 20 large. Players use roundish tambourines during actions and they serve with oval tambourines. A rubber ball of 88 grams is used and the team which wins 13 games is final winner of the match: each game consists of 4 points. Professional Italian tamburello league is top level of competitions: in 2002 14 teams competed. A variant is played in a kind of stadium, with lateral wall, named sferisterio or sferodromo in Italian language.

Tamburello indoor 
Three players regularly form a side in indoor shorted courts.

Tambutennis 
Two players regularly form a side in courts divided by a net like tennis.
Tambeach 
One or two players regularly form a side on beach courts divided by a net like beach tennis.

Related pages
Palla

References

Other websites 
Italian manufacturer of tambourines

Video 
Open or 5 players a side 
Indoor or 3 players a side 
Tambutennis or 2 players a side
Tambeach

Team sports
Caniformia is a suborder of the order Carnivora. It contains all the dog-like mammals: Unlike the cat-like Feliformia, these animals have claws that are unable to contract. This group contains bears, seals, and true dogs, and more. 

The other suborder of Carnivora is the cat-like Feliformia.

Classification 
 Suborder Caniformia ("dog-like")
 Family Canidae: Foxes, Wolves, and Dogs
 Family Ursidae: Bears
 Family Ailuridae: Red Panda
 Family Mephitidae: Skunks
 Family Mustelidae: Weasels, Otters, and Badgers
 Family Procyonidae: Raccoons
 Superfamily Pinnipedia
 Family Odobenidae: Walruses
 Family Otariidae: Eared seals
 Family Phocidae: Earless seals

Cladogram

Other websites 

 Taxonomicon
An attribute-value system is a basic knowledge representation framework comprising a table with columns designating "attributes" (also known as "properties", "predicates," "features," "dimensions," "characteristics" or "independent variables" depending on the context) and rows designating "objects" (also known as "entities," "instances," "exemplars," "elements" or "dependent variables.").  Each table cell therefore designates the value (also known as "state") of a particular attribute of a particular object.
Example of attribute-value system
Below is a sample attribute-value system.  It represents 10 objects (rows) and five features (columns).  In this example, the table contains only integer values.  In general, an attribute-value system may contain any kind of data, numeric or otherwise.  An attribute-value system is distinguished from a simple "feature list" representation in that each feature in an attribute-value system may possess a range of values (e.g., feature  below, which has domain of {0,1,2}), rather than simply being present or absent 

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%" border="1"
|+ Sample Attribute-Value System
! Object !!  !!  !!  !!  !! 
|-
! 
| 1 || 2 || 0 || 1 || 1
|-
! 
| 1 || 2 || 0 || 1 || 1
|-
! 
| 2 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0
|-
! 
| 0 || 0 || 1 || 2 || 1
|-
! 
| 2 || 1 || 0 || 2 || 1
|-
! 
| 0 || 0 || 1 || 2 || 2
|-
! 
| 2 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0
|-
! 
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 2 || 1
|-
! 
| 2 || 1 || 0 || 2 || 2
|-
! 
| 2 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0
|}
Other terms used for "attribute-value system"
Attribute-value systems are pervasive throughout many different literatures, and have been discussed under many different names:
Flat data
Spreadsheet
Attribute-value system (Ziarko & Shan 1996)
Information system (Pawlak 1981)
Classification system (Ziarko 1998)
Knowledge representation system (Wong & Ziarko 1986)
Information table (Yao & Yao 2002)
Object-predicate table (Watanabe 1985)
Aristotelian table (Watanabe 1985)
Simple frames 
First normal form database

Related pages
Bayes networks
Entity-Attribute-Value model
Joint distribution
Knowledge representation
Optimal classification
Rough set

References 
 

Modeling
Timothy Henry "Tim" Henman OBE (born 6 September 1974) is an English retired tennis player, born in Oxford.

He reached the semi finals of Wimbledon many times, the first British tennis player to do so since the 1970s. He reached six grand slam semi finals and won eleven titles in his career. He once was ranked number four in the world.
He was sponsored by Adidas and Slazenger. He retired in 2007 as England's most successful tennis player of the last twenty years.

Personal life 
Henman comes from a sporting family. His mother and father were both interested in tennis and his grandfather played at Wimbledon in the 1940s and 50s. His grandmother also played mixed doubles at Wimbledon with his grandfather on two occasions.
Henman got 10 GCSEs at school and went into tennis training afterwards. He was told by doctors he had a type of bone disease in 1992. He carried on playing tennis anyway and he became professional aged 18 in 1992. In 1999 Henman married his long-term girlfriend Lucy Heald. The couple have three daughters: Rose, Olivia and Grace.

Playing career 
Henman moved up the rankings very fast. By 1994, one year after becoming professional, he was 200th in the world.
By 1996 he was in the top thirty. In 1995 he became the first player ever to be disqualified from the Wimbledon tournament. Because he was angry during a match he hit the ball very hard at a ball girl and it hit her on the head.
In 1998, he was ranked one of the ten best tennis players in the world. In the same year he also reached the Wimbledon semi-final. In 2001 he had a good year at Wimbledon beating Roger Federer in four sets. He reached the semi final only to be beaten by eventual winner Goran Ivanišević. In 2004 he reached the semi finals of Roland Garros in France but lost to Guillermo Coria. Towards the end of his career Henman did not play so well. He ended up falling to 63 in the world rankings. In 2005 he was knocked out of the second round of Wimbledon by Roger Federer. He also had a lot of injuries at this time, including many at important points in matches.

He got an OBE in 2003 and was painted by royal artist Christian Furr in 2005.

Henman's last Wimbledon was a disappointment. He went out in the second round to Feliciano López of Spain. Shortly after he announced his retirement. He had a press conference on 23 August 2007 to make it official.

References

Other websites 

 Official Site
 Picture of Henman
1974 births
British male tennis players
British Olympic silver medalists
Living people
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Sportspeople from Oxfordshire
Lasi is the name of a tribe and a part of Sindh. It is in southeast Balochistan Province, Las Bela District, about 80 miles north northwest of Karachi. The population was 15,000 in 1998. Another name for this area is Saraiki.

Sindh
Pakistani tribes
Ormuri () is an East Iranian language spoken in the city of Kaniguram in Pakistan. It may also be spoken by a few people in Logar, Afghanistan. It is notable for its unusual sound inventory. This includes a voiceless alveolar trill and voiced and unvoiced alveolo-palatal fricatives.

References

Languages of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Languages of Afghanistan
Iranian languages
Sansi is a language  spoken in Pakistan and the Republic of India.

Languages of Pakistan
Languages of India
Indo-Aryan languages
Endangered languages
Sindhi ( سنڌي, Sindhī) is the language of the Sindh region of South Asia, which is a province of Pakistan. It is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 41 million people in Pakistan and 2 million in the Republic of India.

Related pages
Languages of Pakistan

References

Other websites 
 Sindhi Tutorial
 SindhiLanguage.com
 Sindhi Script History and Script
 Daily Sindh Hyderabad A Newspaper in sindhi Language

Indo-Aryan languages
Languages of India
The Burig (or Purik), are a group of Tibetan Muslims, who live south of the Balti in Ladakh. Most of them live in Ladakh and Baltistan, mostly in Kargil, although many live in Leh.

Indian Muslims
West Pakistan formed a block whose people seemed homogeneous (similar to each other). However, the new region included people of different ethnicities and languages. The "One Unit Policy" was regarded as a rational administrative reform which would reduce spending and eliminate provincial prejudices. However with the military coup of 1958, trouble loomed for the province when the office of Chief Minister was abolished and the President took over executive powers for West Pakistan. The province of West Pakistan was dissolved in July 1970 by President Yahya Khan.

General elections held in December 1970 saw the Awami League under Mujibur Rahman win an overall majority of seats in parliament (all but two of the 162 seats allocated to East Pakistan). The Awami League advocated greater autonomy (or self-rule) for East Pakistan, but the military government did not permit Mujibur Rahman to form a government.
Stamp showing both the East and west divisions of Pakistan Before the secession of Bangladesh. On March 25th 1971, West Pakistan began a civil war to subdue the democratic victory of East Pakistanis. This began the war between the Pakistani military and the Mukhti Bahini. The resulting refugee crisis led to the intervention by India, eventually leading to the surrender of the Pakistani Army. East Pakistan suffered a genocide of its Bengali population. East Pakistan became the independent state of Bangladesh on December 16, 1971. The term West Pakistan became redundant.

Related pages
 Dominion of Pakistan

References 

20th-century establishments in Pakistan
Former subdivisions of Pakistan
1947 establishments in Asia
1970 disestablishments
1970s disestablishments in Asia
Ferozepur () founded by Firuz Shah Tughluq is a district in the Indian state of Punjab. The district is the oldest British district of Punjab. It was created in 1833 as district headquarters and was part of the earstwhile Lahore Division (now in Pakistan). 

Ferozepur has easy access by road and rail to other places such as Lahore, Okara, Kasur, Multan. The area is a center of many holy shrines and historic places. At the city of Zira, a Jain Swetambar Temple with very old brass icons and beautiful wall murals is located.

In addition to cotton and grain cultivation and agriculture-related services, Firozpur has some light manufacturing. Commercial progress is limited because it is very near the border between India and Pakistan.

Administration
The district is administratively divided into the following tehsils:

 Guru Har Sahai Tehsil
 Firozpur Tehsil
 Zira Tehsil

Districts of British India
Districts of Punjab, India
Pathankot (, ) is a city and a municipal committee in Gurdaspur district in the Punjab State of India. It is the fifth largest city in the state of Punjab in terms of population.

Pathankot is a meeting point of the Punjab region and considered a disputed territory by the United Nations. It is the last city in Punjab on the national highway that connects Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of Pakistan and India. This bestows strategic importance on the city. It is a major base for the defence forces, the Indian army and air force. It has the largest military base in the whole of Asia.

Due to its ideal location, Pathankot serves as a travel hub for the three northerly states. In the scenic foothills of Kangra and Dalhousie, with the river Chakki flowing close by, the city is often used as a rest-stop before heading into the Himalayan mountains of Kashmir, Dalhousie, Chamba, and Kangra.

Cities in Punjab, India
The Kori Creek (, ) is a tidal creek and maritime Border dispute  between the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat and the Kachchhi region of the Pakistani province of Sindh. It is in the Rann of Kutch marshland east of the Sir Creek, which is disputed between India and Pakistan. It is a 96 km (60 mi) strip of water disputed between the Republic of India and Pakistan, claimed by India as a part of the Indian Rann of Kutch marshlands. The creek, which opens up into the Arabian Sea, divides the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat with the Sindh province of Pakistan. 
The long-standing dispute hinges in the actual demarcation "from the mouth of Kori Creek to the top of Kori Creek, and from the top of Kori Creek eastward to a point on the line designated on the Western Terminus". From this point onwards, the boundary is unambiguously fixed as defined by the Tribunal Award of 1968.
The creek itself is in the uninhabited marshlands. During the monsoon season between June and September, the creek floods its banks and envelops the low-lying salty mudflats around it. During the winter season, the area is home to flamingoes and other migratory birds.

Dispute

The dispute is in the interpretation of the boundary line between Kutch and Sindh as depicted in a 1914 and 1925 map. At that time, the region was a part of Bombay Presidency of undivided India. After India's independence in 1947, Sindh became a part of Pakistan while Kutch became a part of India.
India supports its stance by citing the Thalweg Doctrine in International Law. The law states that river boundaries between two states may be, if the two states agree, divided by the mid-channel. Though Pakistan does not dispute the 1925 map, it maintains that the Doctrine is not applicable in this case as it only applies to bodies of water that are navigable, which the Kori Creek is not. India rejects the Pakistani stance by maintaining the fact that the creek is navigable in high tide, and that fishing trawlers use it to go out to sea. Several cartographic surveys conducted have supported the Indian claim. Another point of concern for Pakistan is that Kori Creek has changed its course considerably over the years. If the boundary line is demarcated (outlined) according to the Thalweg principle, Pakistan stands to lose a considerable portion of the territory that was historically part of the province of Sindh
. Accepting India's stance would also result in the shifting of the land/sea terminus (end) point several kilometres to the disadvantage of Pakistan, leading in turn to a loss of several thousand square kilometres of its Exclusive Economic Zone under the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea.
In April 1965, a dispute there contributed to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, when fighting broke out between India and Pakistan. Later the same year, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson persuaded both countries to set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. A verdict was reached in 1968, which saw Pakistan getting 10% of its claim of 9,000 km² (3,500 sq. miles).

The disputed region was at the center of international attention in 1999 after Mig-21 fighter planes of the Indian Air Force shot down a Pakistani Navy Breguet Atlantique surveillance aircraft over the Kori Creek on August 10, 1999, killing all 16 on board. India claimed that the plane had strayed into its airspace, which was disputed by the Pakistani navy. (See the Atlantique Incident)
Economic reasons
Though the Kori Creek has little military value, it holds immense economic gain. Much of the region is rich in oil and gas below the sea bed, and control over the creek would have a huge bearing on the energy potential of each nation. Also once the boundaries are defined, it would help in the determination of the maritime boundaries which are drawn as an extension of onshore reference points. Maritime boundaries also help in determining the limits of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and continental shelves. EEZs extend to 200 nautical miles (370 km) and can be subjected to commercial exploitation.

The demarcation would also prevent the inadvertent crossing over of fishermen of both nations into each others' territories.
Dispute resolution
The Federal Government of Pakistan lays claim to the entire creek as per paras 9 and 10 of the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 signed between the then provincial Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj, then the ruler of the former Princely state of Kutch.
However since 1969, there have been eight rounds of talks between the two nations, without a breakthrough. Steps to resolve the dispute include:
 Allocation
 Delimitation
 Demarcation
 Administration

Since neither side has conceded ground, India has proposed that the maritime boundary could be demarcated first, as per the provisions of Technical Aspects of Law of Sea (TALOS). However, Pakistan has firmly refused the proposal on the grounds that the dispute should be resolved first. Pakistan has also proposed that the two sides go in for international arbitration, which India has flatly refused. India maintains that all bilateral disputes should be resolved without the intervention of third-parties.

References
References 

Rivers of Pakistan
Territorial disputes of India
Territorial disputes of Pakistan
() is a Japanese maker of  sporting equipment for badminton, golf and tennis, making racquets, clubs, shoes, shuttlecocks, and other equipment for those sports.

Other websites 
Official company website

Manufacturing companies of Japan
Sports equipment
1946 establishments in Asia
1940s establishments in Japan
Companies based in Tokyo
The Bangladesh Liberation War ( Muktijuddho) was a revolutionary war for the independence of Bangladesh in 1971. The war was between East Pakistan (later with the help of India) and West Pakistan and lasted nine months. West Pakistan is called Pakistan today.

Ten million refugees left the country,and 30 million people left their homes. Between 300.000 and 3 million people were killed. Many Bengali women were raped, and there are documented cases of forced prostitution. Between 200.000  and 400.000 women were raped. Pakistan's religious leaders openly supported the crime by labelling Bengali freedom fighters as "Hindus" and Bengali women as "the booty of war". But in reality, more than 80 percent of the Bengali people were Muslims at that time. The Pakistani Army committed genocide on larger parts of the Bengali population. This is known as the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities today.
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's party won the Pakistan elections of 1970 and the military junta that ruled the country decided he must not be Prime Minister. The resulting war started on 26 March 1971 and finished on 16 December. A category 3 cyclone also happened during the war.

Ghulam Azam and Motiur Rahman Nizami were convicted for war crimes. Azam died before a final hearing. Nizami was executed for his crimes in May 2016.

no 

9 Trained Commander Md Sunnat Ali Mollik

Sources 

 
Wars involving India
Wars involving Pakistan
Wars of independence
1971 in Bangladesh
1971 in Pakistan
The Toray Pan Pacific Open (東レ・パン・パシフィック・テニス) is a WTA Tour of tennis tournaments for women. It is held every year since 1984 in Tokyo, Japan.

Past finals

Singles

Doubles

Other websites 
Official tournament website 

Tennis tournaments
Peter Potamus is a cartoon made by Hanna-Barbera.  It was first shown on television on September 16, 1964. The main characters are a friendly purple hippopotamus called Peter Potamus and his friend So-So the monkey.  Together they explore the world in a time-traveling hot-air balloon.  Peter has a special "Hippo Hurricane Holler" that helps him blow away his enemies.

References

Animated characters
Animated television series
1964 television series debuts
1966 television series endings
Hanna-Barbera characters
Anthromophic characters
1960s American animated television series‏‎
The Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) is a duck from the Americas, from Texas in the north to Uruguay in the south. Feral Muscovy ducks are found in New Zealand, Australia, and in Central and Eastern Europe.

Ecology 
The Muscovy duck is non-migratory species which normally lives in forested swamps, lakes, streams, nearby grassland, and farm crops, and usually roost in trees at nighttime. The duck's diet consists of roots, stems, leaves, seeds of aquatic plants and grasses as well as terrestrial plants including agricultural crops obtained by grazing or dabbling in shallow water. It may also eat small fish, amphibians, reptiles, crustaceans, insects, millipedes, and worms. The Muscovy is an aggressive duck; males tend to fight over food, territory or mates. The females fight with each other less often. Some adults will peck at the ducklings if they are eating at the same food source.

References

Ducks
Birds of Central America
Birds of South America
Soar could mean:
Soaring, a mode of flight
Soar (album), the second album (released 1991) by the American band Samiam
Hank Soar (1914–2001), an American football player, baseball umpire and basketball coach
Soar (cognitive architecture)
160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne), a US Army regiment
Soap on a Rope (SoaR), a webcomic
Smalltalk on a RISC, a project to develop a specialized RISC CPU for the execution of Smalltalk bytecode
Safe Operating Area, typically used to describe power limitations of electronic components
Southern Astrophysical Research Telescope
SOAR (camp), a Girl Guide camp held in British Columbia every three years
Any of several places in the United Kingdom:
The River Soar, a river in the English East Midlands
Soar, Anglesey, Wales
Soar, Nottinghamshire, England
Soar, Devon, England
Soar, Gwynedd, Wales
Soar, Powys, Wales
Old Soar Manor, England
Soaring might mean:
 Lift (soaring)
 Gliding
 Hang gliding
 Paragliding
 Soaring (magazine), published by the Soaring Society of America

Related pages
Bird flight
Hino could mean:
Hino, Shiga
Hino, Tokyo
Hino, Tottori
Hino District, Tottori
Hino Motors, Ltd.
Lake Hino in Estonia
Feliformia is a suborder in the mammal order Carnivora. It contains all the Felidae, which are cat-like animals. The suborder also contains the relatives of the cats, which includes hyaenas, civets, Asiatic linsangs, and more. There are six families, twelve subfamilies, 56 genera and 114 species in the Feliformia suborder now.

Molecular phylogeny shows the Feliformia is monophyletic. The other suborder of Carnivora is the dog-like Caniformia.

Taxonomy 
 Suborder Feliformia ("cat-like")
 Family Eupleridae: Fossa and others
 Family Felidae: Cats
 Subfamily Felinae
 Subfamily Pantherinae
 Family Nandiniidae:
 Genus Nandinia: African palm civet
 Family Viverridae: Civet cats, Genets etc.
 Family Hyaenidae: Hyaenas
 Subfamily Hyaeninae
 Subfamily Protelinae
 Family Herpestidae: Mongooses
 Family Primodontidae: Asiatic linsang
 Family Eupleridae: Varied group, endemic to Madagascar
†Barbourofelidae: Miocene "false" sabre-tooths 
 †Nimravidae: "false" sabre-tooths, from Eocene to end Miocene.
 †Stenoplesictidae: Civet-like animals
 †Percrocutidae: hyaena-like forms from the Miocene to later Pliocene

Cladogram

References
References 

1. Taxonomic references extant species (a); supporting descriptive information and pictures: Diversity Web (online) - Feliformia.
2. Taxonomic references extant species (b): ITIS Integrated Taxonomic Information System
3. Fossil record data (with taxonomic references) extant and extinct species: The Paleaobiology Database
4. Supporting taxonomic references extant and extinct species: Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification - Suborder Feliformia 
5. Gina D. Wesley-Hunt and John J. Flynn 2005: Phylogeny of The Carnivora
6a. Anne D. Yoder and John J. Flynn 2003: Origin of Malagasy Carnivora 
6b. Yoder, A., M. Burns, S. Zehr, T. Delefosse, G. Veron, S. Goodman, J. Flynn. 2003: Single origin of Malagasy Carnivora from an African ancestor – Letters to Nature
7. Philippe Gaubert, W. Chris Wozencraft, Pedro Cordeiro-Estrela and Géraldine Veron. 2005 - Mosaics of Convergences and Noise in Morphological Phylogenies: What's in a Viverrid-Like Carnivoran?

Other websites
Crack frequently refers to: 

 Crack, a fracture or discontinuation in a body
 Crack, in geology, a fracture (geology) in a rock
 Crack, short for crack cocaine, the freebase form of cocaine that can be smoked

Other uses
 Cracking (chemistry), the process whereby complex organic molecules are broken down into simpler molecules
An eared seal or otariid is Phocidae's family Otariidae.

Taxonomy 
Family Otariidae (Eared seals)
Genus Arctocephalus (Fur seals)
Genus Callorhinus
Northern Fur Seal (Callorhinus ursinus)
Genus Eumetopias
Steller Sea Lion or Northern Sea Lion (Eumetopias jubatus)
Genus Neophoca
Australian Sea Lion (Neophoca cinerea) 
Genus Otaria
South American Sea Lion or Southern Sea Lion (Otaria flavescens, formerly Otaria byronia) 
Genus Phocarctos
New Zealand Sea Lion (Phocarctos hookeri)
Genus Zalophus
California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus)

Other websites 

Pinnipeds
Taxonomy 
 Family Phocidae
 Subfamily Monachinae
 Tribe Monachini
 Genus Monachus
 Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus)
 Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monachus schauinslandi)
 Caribbean Monk Seal (Monachus tropicalis) †
 Genus Mirounga: Elephant seals
 Northern Elephant Seal (Mirounga angustirostris)
 Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina)
 Tribe Lobodontini
 Genus Ommatophoca
 Ross Seal (Ommatophoca rossii)
 Genus Lobodon
 Crabeater Seal (Lobodon carcinophagus)
 Genus Hydrurga
 Leopard Seal (Hydrurga leptonyx)
 Genus Leptonychotes
 Weddell Seal (Leptonychotes weddellii)
 Subfamily Phocinae
 Genus Cystophora
 Hooded Seal (Cystophora cristata)
 Genus Erignathus
 Bearded Seal (Erignathus barbatus)
 Genus Histriophoca
 Ribbon Seal (Histriophoca fasciata)
 Genus Phoca
 Spotted Seal (Phoca largha)
 Common Seal or Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina)
 Harp Seal (Phoca groenlandica, formerly Pagophilus groenlandicus)
 Genus Pusa
 Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida, formerly Phoca hispida)
Caspian Seal (Pusa caspica, formerly Phoca caspica)
 Nerpa or Baikal Seal (Pusa sibirica, formerly Phoca sibirica)
 Genus Halichoerus
 Grey Seal (Halichoerus grypus)
Other websites 

Pinnipeds
Ernst Walter Mayr (July 5, 1904, Kempten, Germany – February 3, 2005, Bedford, Massachusetts), was a German American scientist. He was one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary biologists. He was also a well-known taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, historian of science, and naturalist. He was a leading contributor to the modern evolutionary synthesis. He was especially interested in how new species formed.

Mayr joined the faculty of Harvard University in 1953, where he also served as director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1961 to 1970. He retired in 1975 as emeritus professor of zoology, showered with honors.

After his retirement, he went on to publish more than 200 articles, in a variety of journals—more than some reputable scientists publish in their entire careers; 14 of his 25 books were published after he was 65. Even as a centenarian, he continued to write books.
Mayr was awarded the Linnean Society's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1958. He was never awarded a Nobel Prize, because there is no such prize for evolutionary biology. He commented that Darwin would not have received one, either. Mayr did win a 1999 Crafoord Prize. That prize honors basic research in fields that do not qualify for Nobel awards, and is administered by the same organization as the Nobel Prize.

Speciation 
Neither Darwin nor anyone else in his time knew the answer to the species problem: how species could evolve from a single common ancestor.

Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a definition for the concept species. He wrote that a species is not just a group of individuals that look similar, but a group that can breed only among themselves.
When populations of organisms get isolated, the sub-populations will start to differ as time goes by. This way, they will evolve into new species. The most rapid genetic reorganization occurs in small populations which have been isolated. This happens if a species gets trapped on an island, for example. Or, perhaps, if the species lives in more than one environment.

Today, it is accepted that reproductive isolation is by far the most frequent cause of species splitting, and that geographical separation is the most frequent cause of this isolation. This was Mayr's most characteristic idea. Debate continues over the extent to which speciation occurs when a population is not so isolated.

Some books 
 
 
 
 Mayr, Ernst and William B. Provine (eds) 1980. The evolutionary synthesis. Harvard University Press, reprinted 1998 with new preface as .

References
References 

1904 births
2005 deaths
American centenarians
American evolutionary biologists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
German centenarians
German evolutionary biologists
Ornithologists
People from Bavaria
Ovis is a genus of the subfamily Caprinae, of the family Bovidae. The wild sheep and domestic sheep and other animals like it belong to this genus. There are 5 or more animals in this genus.

Taxonomy 
 Genus Ovis
 Ovis orientalis group
 Ovis orientalis
 Mouflon (Ovis orientalis orientalis group)
 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries or Ovis orientalis aries)
 Urial (Ovis orientalis vignei group)
 Argali or mountain sheep (Ovis ammon)
 Ovis canadensis group
 Snow sheep (Ovis nivicola)
 Thinhorn sheep (Ovis dalli)
Dall sheep (Ovis dalli dalli)
Stone sheep (Ovis dalli stonei)
 Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)

These are the main species of ovis.

References

Other websites 

Caprids
Aberdeen Football Club (also known as The Dons, The Reds and The Dandies) is a Scottish professional football club based in Aberdeen. They compete in the Scottish Premier League and are one of the most successful teams in their country, having won four league titles and seven Scottish Cups. They are also the only Scottish team to have won two European trophies, both in the same year.

Formed in 1903 as a result of the amalgamation of three clubs from Aberdeen, they rarely challenged for honours until the 1950s, when they won each of the major Scottish trophies under manager Dave Halliday. This level of success was surpassed in the 1980s, when, under the management of Alex Ferguson, they won three league titles, four Scottish Cups and a Scottish League Cup, alongside the European honours. Aberdeen were the last club outside of the Old Firm to win a league title, in 1984–85.
Aberdeen have played at Pittodrie Stadium since their inception. The ground currently has a capacity of 22,199 and was the first all-seated and all-covered stadium in the United Kingdom. Pittodrie was also the first football stadium to feature a dugout, an invention of player and coach Donald Colman. The club's colours have been primarily red and white since 1939; before this, they played in black and gold vertical stripes.

Aberdeen attract support from the city and surrounding areas, as they are the only senior team within a wide area. Aberdeen have no geographically close rivals; their nearest neighbours at the same level are in the city of Dundee, with Dundee United having been their principal rivals in the New Firm in the 1980s. Rangers supplanted Dundee United as rivals in the late 1980s, but the rivalry, while fierce, does not approach that of the Old Firm.
Colours and crest 
For the 1904–05 season, Aberdeen adopted a black and gold striped shirt, which led to the team being nicknamed "Wasps". This strip, with only minor variations, was worn until just before the start of the Second World War. The blue shorts lasted until 1911, and then were replaced with white ones. Socks were black with gold trim, either as stripes or as a solid bar at the turndown.
The club did not have an official crest before 1972, but several variations on the letters AFC had from time to time featured on the shirt, usually in some kind of cursive font. In November 1972, the club unveiled an official crest or logo, designed by Aberdonian graphic designer Donald Addison. The design represented a capital letter A as the side view of a football goal, with a ball forming the crossbar of the letter. This ball was crosshatched in such a way as to depict it as being inside the net, signifying the scoring of a goal. The logo was completed by the letters FC in smaller type at a level with the ball element. This badge was used on the shirts from around 1978, with no significant alterations until the mid-1980s when the words "Aberdeen Football Club" were added in a circular border, and the date of the club's founding, 1903, was added under the goal element. The current version of the crest, which retains these elements in a unified design, was introduced at the start of the 1997–98 season
. Two stars signifying the winning of the two European cups in 1983 were introduced over the badge in the 2005–06 season.
Stadium 

Aberdeen have played at Pittodrie Stadium, the name of which comes from the Pictish for "place of manure", throughout their existence. The ground was first used by the original Aberdeen F.C. in 1899, in a 7–1 win over Dumbarton; when they merged with two other teams in 1903, the new club took over the old Aberdeen ground. On August 15 1903, 8,000 spectators turned up to watch the new Aberdeen draw 1-1 against Stenhousemuir, the first game played at Pittodrie by its amalgamated tenants. The club initially rented the ground, but subsequently bought it in 1920. The stadium contains 21,600 seats, but due to the directors' boxes, some sources place this figure at 22,000.  The record attendance occurred on March 13 1954, when 45,061 spectators turned up for a Scottish Cup match between Aberdeen and Hearts.
The stadium consists of four stands. The Main Stand, which houses the club offices and players facilities, holds the majority of the supporters. The Merkland Road Stand is primarily for families. The South Stand is opposite the main stand and a quarter of this section is used to accommodate travelling supporters, except for Old Firm games, where half of this stand is given to the visiting fans. The newest element is the Richard Donald stand at the East, or Beach End, of the ground, and is named after former chairman Dick Donald. This is a modern, two–tier design, completed in 1993, containing hospitality suites which is significantly taller than the other structures at the ground. In 1978, Pittodrie became the first all covered, all-seater stadium in Britain.

The club are examining a move to a new stadium in Aberdeen.

Players

Current squad
Current squad

AFC Hall of Fame 
Aberdeen inaugurated the Hall of Fame following the club's centenary celebrations in 2003. At the launch, it was claimed that over a five-year period, around 50 players and staff would be inducted. However, as of November 2007, the following initial inductees are still the only ones listed on the official website as members:

  Chris Anderson
  Jim Bett
   Henning Boel
  Martin Buchan
  Dick Donald
  Arthur Graham

  Joe Harper
  Jim Hermiston
  John Hewitt
  Drew Jarvie
  Jim Leighton
  Fred Martin

  Willie Miller
  Teddy Scott
  Ally Shewan
  Neil Simpson
  Eddie Turnbull
  Alec Young

Managers 
List of full-time managers, as of 3 November 2012. Only competitive matches are counted. Caretaker managers are not listed.

Further reading

References

Other websites 
 Aberdeen F.C. Official Website 
 Red Ultras 
 Aberdeen F.C. at BBC My Club
 Aberdeen F.C. at Sky Sports 
 Reds Online 
  Gothenburg Greats 
  AFC Chat : Premier unofficial fans site
Scottish Premier League clubs
Aberdeen
1903 establishments in Scotland
Gunnar Nordström (12 March 1881, Helsinki – 24 December 1923, Helsinki) was a Finnish physicist. He is best known for his theory of gravitation, which was a competitor of Albert Einstein's general relativity. In 1914, Nordström added a space dimension to his theory. This described gravity and electromagnetism at the same time. Unluckily, Theodor Kaluza and Oskar Klein have got most attetion on this subject. Nordström is not well known in his own home country, but what he has done is known well in other countries. Some Finnish authors call Nordström as Finnish Einstein.
Nordström was born in Helsinki, the capital of Finland during the time when Finland was part of Russian Empire). He studied at University of Helsinki and completed his dissertation in 1908. Before this, he studied for some time in Göttingen where he met the world's best scientists. After this, he became a professor at the university. In 1910, he started his trip in Europe. He visited at Zürich, Berlin, Vienna, and Leyden. During his time in the Netherlands, he married Cornelia van Leeuwen. They had three children. 

Nordström was very close friend to Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. He died at Helsinki in 1923 because of radioactivity. In that time, radioactivity was thought to have healing effects.

1881 births
1923 deaths

Physicists
Scientists from Helsinki
Pope Pius XI (; , 31 May 1857–10 February 1939),  born Achille Ratti, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 260th Pope from 1922 to 1939.

Priest
Ratti was ordained as a priest in 1875.

Father Ratti was a professor at the Padua Seminary from 1882 to 1888. He worked at Ambrosian Library of Milan from 1888 to 1911; and at the Vatican Library from 1911-1914.

Bishop
In 1919, Pope Benedict XV made Ratti a Bishop of Lepanto.

In 1921, Benedict named him Archbishop of Milan.

Cardinal
In 1921, Ratti was made a cardinal.

Pope
Cardinal Ratti was elected pope on February 6, 1922; and he chose the name Pope Pius XI.

Some of his decisions were controversial. He made 18 concordats (treaties) with foreign governments. They included the Lateran Concordat with Italy in 1929; and the Reichskoncordat with Germany in 1933.

Related pages
 List of popes

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Vatican webpage, Pius XI biography 
  Catholic hierarchy, Pope Pius XI
 Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church,  Cardinal Ratti

1857 births
1939 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Italian popes
A defender in football is a player, who plays in at the back of the formation. There are many positions classed as a defender, mainly:

 Left Back
 Central Defender
 Right back
 Sweeper
 Full Back
 Wing Back

The defenders are the first number when referring to formations, for example:

 4-3-3 is the formation. This formation shows that there are four defenders, three midfielders and three attackers.
 4-4-2 is the formation. This formation shows that there are four defenders, four midfielders and two attackers.
 3-4-3 is the formation. This formation shows that there are three defenders, four midfielders and three attackers.

Famous Defenders

Football (soccer) terminology
A defender is usually somebody who participates in a legal defense (legal).

Defender can also refer to:

 Defender (football), a position in association football (soccer)
 Defendant, in Scots law for civil cases
 Public defender, in American law
 Windows Defender, an anti-spyware technology

Related pages 
 
 Defenceman
 Defender of the Faith
The modern evolutionary synthesis is about evolution. It explained how the discoveries of Gregor Mendel fit with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by means of natural selection. Mendel found out how we inherit our genes.

Key biologists who contributed work to the synthesis included: Julian Huxley, Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ernst Mayr, Ronald Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, Sewall Wright, G.G. Simpson, E.B. Ford, Bernhard Rensch and G. Ledyard Stebbins.

The theory 
The modern synthesis brought Darwin's idea up to date. It bridged the gap between different types of biologists: geneticists, naturalists, and palaeontologists.
It states that:
Evolution can be explained by what we know about genetics, and what we see of animals and plants living in the wild.
The variety of genes (alleles) carried in natural populations is a key factor in evolution.
Natural selection is the main mechanism of change. Even a very slight advantage can be important, continued generation after generation. The struggle for existence of animals and plants in the wild causes natural selection. Only those who survive and reproduce pass their genes on to the next generation. We find the strength of natural selection in the wild was greater than even Darwin expected.
Evolution is gradual: natural selection occurs, and small genetic changes collect. Species only change little from one generation to the next. Big changes do occur, from time to time, but they are very rare. Genetic drift is usually less important than natural selection. It can be important in small populations.
In palaeontology, we try to understand the changes in fossils through time. We think the same factors which act today also acted in the past.
As circumstances change, the rate of evolution may get faster or slower, but the causes are the same.
The idea that new species occur after populations split has been much debated. Geographical isolation often leads to speciation. In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation.  
"Evolution consists mainly of changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and another".
This shows how some biologists see the synthesis.

Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success. There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology. It cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research after WWII.

After the synthesis 
Several discoveries in earth sciences and biology have arisen since the synthesis. Listed here are some of those topics which are relevant to the evolutionary synthesis, and which seem soundly based.
Understanding of Earth history 
The Earth is the stage on which the evolutionary play is performed. Darwin studied evolution in the context of Charles Lyell's geology, but we now know more historical geology.
The age of the Earth has been revised upwards. It is now estimated at 4.56 billion years, about one-third of the age of the universe. The Phanerozoic only occupies the last 1/9 of this time.
Alfred Wegener's idea of continental drift became accepted around 1960.  The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates. These plates slowly move on the underlying asthenosphere.  This discovery links phenomena such as volcanos, earthquakes, orogeny, and provides data for many palaeogeographical questions. One major question is still unclear: when did plate tectonics begin?
Our understanding of the evolution of the Earth's atmosphere has progressed. The substitution of oxygen for carbon dioxide in the atmosphere occurred in the Proterozoic.  It was probably caused by cyanobacteria, whose colonies fossilised as stromatolites. This Great Oxygenation Event led to the evolution of aerobic organisms.  It led also to the first great ice ages.
Geologists have found and studied fossils of microbial life.  These rocks have been dated as about 3.465 billion years ago. John Maynard Smith and Eors Szathmary stress that a whole succession of stages were needed to produce what we call "life". The conclusion is that not only is the Earth very ancient, but life also is much more ancient than we used to think.
Walcott was the first geologist to identify pre-Cambrian fossil bacteria, from microscopic examination of thin rock slices. He also thought stromatolites were organic in origin.  His ideas were not accepted at the time, but may now be appreciated as great discoveries.
Information about palaeoclimates is increasingly available, and being used in palaeontology. One example: massive ice ages occurred in the Proterozoic, following the great reduction of CO2 in the atmosphere. These ice ages were immensely long, and led to a crash in microflora. See also Cryogenian period and Snowball Earth.
Catastrophism and mass extinctions. A partial reintegration of catastrophism has occurred, and the importance of mass extinctions in large-scale evolution is now clear. Extinction events disturb relationships between many forms of life and may remove dominant forms and release a flow of adaptive radiation amongst the groups which remain. Causes of extinction include meteorite strikes (K–T junction; End–Ordovician extinction events); flood basalt provinces (Deccan Traps at K/T junction; Siberian Traps at P–T junction); and other less dramatic processes.
Conclusion: our present knowledge of Earth history strongly suggests that large-scale geophysical events influenced macroevolution and megaevolution. These terms refer to evolution above the species level, including such events as mass extinction, adaptive radiation, and the major transitions in evolution.

Fossil discoveries 
Starting in the late 20th century scientists made excavations in parts of the world which had scarcely been investigated before.  Also, there is fresh appreciation of fossils discovered in the 19th century, but not appreciated at the time. Many outstanding discoveries have been made, and some of these have implications for evolutionary theory.
The discovery of the Jehol biota: dinobirds and early birds from the Lower Cretaceous of Liaoning, N.E. China. This shows that birds did evolve from coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs.
Studies on stem tetrapods from the Upper Devonian.
The early stages of whale evolution.
The evolution of flatfish (pleuronectiformes), such as plaice, sole, turbot and halibut. Their young are perfectly symmetrical, but the head is remodelled during a metamorphosis. One eye moves to the other side, close to the other eye. Some species have both eyes on the left (turbot), some on the right (halibut, sole); all living and fossil flatfish to date show an 'eyed' side and a 'blind' side. Darwin predicted a gradual migration of the eye in evolution, mirroring the metamorphosis of the living forms. A recent examination of two fossil species from the Eocene shows "the assembly of the flatfish bodyplan occurred in a gradual, stepwise fashion". The intermediate stages were fully viable: these forms ranged over two geological stages, and are found in sites which also yield flatfish with the full cranial asymmetry. The evolution of flatfish falls squarely within the evolutionary synthesis.
Evo-devo 
Important work on genetics has led to a new approach to animal development. The field is called evolutionary developmental biology, or evo-devo for short.

There is clear proof that much of development is closely controlled by special genetic systems involving hox genes. In his Nobel Prize lecture, E.B. Lewis said "Ultimately, comparisons of the [control complexes] throughout the animal kingdom should provide a picture of how the organisms, as well as the [control genes] have evolved".

In 2000, a special section of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) was devoted to evo-devo, and an entire 2005 issue of the Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution was devoted to the key evo-devo topics of evolutionary innovation and morphological novelty.

A survey of the field for the general reader gives examples.

Related pages 
Darwinism
Evolution
Natural selection
Evolutionary developmental biology

References
References

General sources 
Bowler, Peter J. 2003. Evolution: the history of an idea. University of California Press. 
Dobzhansky T. 1937. Genetics and the Origin of Species. Columbia University Press, 1937 
Huxley, Julian 1942. Evolution: the modern synthesis. Allen and Unwin, London. 
Mayr, Ernst 1942. Systematics and the origin of species, Columbia University; Harvard University Press reprint. 
Mayr, Ernst 2002. What evolution is. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 
Mayr E. and W.B. Provine eds. 1988. The evolutionary synthesis: perspectives on the unification of biology, Harvard University Press. 

Schopf J.W. (ed) 2002. Life's origin. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Other websites 

Evolution
History of science
A midfielder in football is a player who usually plays in the centre of the field. There are usually a number of midfielders in each team of football, and are normally split into three: attacking; central; and defending.

The midfielders are always the middle parts of the formation numbers, for example:

An attacking midfielder is a midfielder who is often positioned between the central midfielders and the forwards. They often have a primarily offensive role. Playmakers are a type of attacking midfielders. Some famous Attacking Midfielders include Kaká, Diego Maradona, Zico, and Zinedine Zidane.

A winger is a type of midfielder. They often join the strikers when the team creates attacks. Wide midfielders are a variation of a winger. Some famous wingers include Neymar, Arjen Robben, Ronaldinho, and Lionel Messi

References 

Football (soccer) terminology