Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Alexander Selkirk, (1676 - 13th December 1721) also known as Alexander Selcraig, was a Scottish sailor. He became famous for his amazing story of survival and is likely to have inspired Daniel Defoe to write the book Robinson Crusoe.
When he returned, his story was written down by a person in his town and has been made into a slightly different version by Daniel Defoe who named it Robinson Crusoe. 'Robinson Crusoe' has been rewritten many times by lots of different people. There were some differences like how Crusoe was stranded for over twenty years and Selkirk, four. Even though this story was based on Selkirk, the island he deserted was renamed Robinson Crusoe Island after being called Juan Fernández Island.

1676 births
1721 deaths
Sailors
People from Fife‎
Robert Gould Shaw (October 10, 1837 in Boston, Massachusetts – July 18, 1863 in Morris Island, South Carolina) was a colonel during the American Civil War. He led the all African American 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment.

Shaw died leading his troops attacking Fort Wagner in 1863, aged 25.

References

1837 births
1863 deaths
American colonels
Military people killed in action
Military personnel of the American Civil War
People from Boston
Military people from Massachusetts
Robinson Crusoe Island  is the largest of three islands in the Juan Fernández archipelago, belonging to Chile. The island is also known as Isla Más a Tierra or Aguas Buenas. More than 800 people live on the island, which is  from the coast of South America. In 1966, Chile renamed it Robinson Crusoe Island, because Alexander Selkirk had spent about four years alone there. Selkirk may have been the person who inspired Daniel Defoe to write the book Robinson Crusoe.

Pacific islands
Islands of Chile
Biosphere reserves
Valparaíso Region
Joseph Frank "Buster" Keaton VI (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966) was an American actor, comedian and director. He is most famous for his silent films which showed his skill at physical comedy.

The magazine Entertainment Weekly listed Keaton at number seven on their list of "The Greatest Directors of All Time." And in 1999 the American Film Institute placed Keaton at 21 on their list of "The Greatest Male Actors of All Time."

Famous movie critic Roger Ebert wrote that Keaton's "extraordinary period from 1920 to 1929, he worked without interruption on a series of movies that make him, arguably, the greatest actor-director in the history of the movies."

In a 2002 worldwide poll by "Sight & Sound" Keaton's 1927 movie titled "The General" was number 15 on their "Best movies of All Time" list. Three other Keaton movies were also added to the magazine's survey.

Notes

Other websites 

Buster Keaton Museum
Buster Keaton in Five Easy Clips
1895 births
1966 deaths
Actors from Kansas
American movie actors
American movie directors
American movie producers
American screenwriters
American silent movie actors
American television actors
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles County, California
Deaths from lung cancer
Russian roulette is a deadly game played with a revolver. In the game, there is only one bullet in one of the six cylinder slots of the revolver. The person then closes the cylinder, spins it, places it against their head or sometimes inside their mouth and pulls the trigger, in hopes that the loaded cylinder slot hasn't aligned with the barrel and will therefore fire. The person therefore has a one-in-six chance of killing themselves.

It is done either for bravado, boredom, suicide or other reasons. It sometimes used in fiction as part of interrogations, where the interrogator asks the suspect if he wants to play a game of Russian roulette and palms the bullet.

Related pages 
 Roulette

Games
A nude beach is a beach where people can swim (or do other activitiers) without having clothes on. These beaches usully come in different varietires:

 Beaches thatrequire people to be nude, if the weather permits it. People that are not nude, will not be tolerated. Usually, these beaches are part of a holiday resort, or a club.
 Beaches where people have the choice of going nude, or partly clothed. In Europe, this will apply to most beaches which are part of a commune, which designated the beach as a nude beach.

Young children running around naked are often tolerated, on most beaches in Europe.This applies to children aged to about 5 years old.

In many parts of Europe, nudity on the beach is often at least tolerated. The beaches where it is forbidden, and the ban is enacted are rare.
Situation in the United States 
For example, there is a public nude beach called Haulover Beach near Miami, Florida. There is a public nude park usually called Hippie Hollow Park (but officially called McGregor Park) on a lake near Austin, Texas. There is an admission charge and children are not allowed. There are several nude beaches in California. People are nude at one end of a public nude beach called Crystal Crescent Beach near Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. There is a public nude beach called Hanlan's Point Beach on an island near downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. There is a public nude beach called Wreck Beach in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.  There is a public nude beach close to New York City called Gunnison in Sandy Hook, New Jersey.

There are many nude beaches in Europe and Australia

References

Beaches
Nudity
An undercroft is traditionally a cellar or storage room, often brick-lined and vaulted, and used for storage in buildings since medieval times.

References 

Rooms
Buddha Bar is a Parisian bar and restaurant. It is in Boissy-d'Anglas street, in the 8th district of Paris, famous for its atmosphere. The franchise has expanded with similarly themed Buddha Bar venues in Prague, Kyiv and London, among others.

October 2012 saw the launch of Buddha-Bar London and Parisians,  Tarja Visan has brought her expertise across the channel and into the heart of Knightsbridge.
 
Buddha-Bar London aims to push culinary boundaries and the menu blends Far Eastern cuisine with Western tastes and influences. Chinese, Japanese, Thai and other Eastern flavours are stylishly entwined to spearhead a new-wave Pacific Rim cuisine. Dishes created especially for London include Venison Tataki, Smoked Duck and Foie Gras Gyoza, Dragon Scallop and Pan-fried Seabass with Shiso Butter.

References

Other websites
Buddha Bar website

European restaurants
Buildings and structures in Paris
Trisomy 18, also known as Edwards syndrome is a trisomy. It is a genetic disorder. People with trisomy 18 have three copies of chromosome 18. "Normal" people have two copies of the chromosome. It is named after John H. Edwards, who first described the syndrome in 1960. It is the second most common autosomal trisomy, after Down Syndrome, that carries to term.  

It is estimated that about  one in 3,000 live births are affected.  The incidence increases as the mother's age increases.  The syndrome has a very low rate of survival. People with Edwards syndrome often have heart abnormalities, kidney malformations, and other internal organ disorders.  

About 95% of the babies with Edwards syndrome die before they are born. About half of all babies born with the condition will reach two months of age, and only 5-10% will survive for a year.  The median life span is five to fifteen days. One percent of children born with this syndrome live to age ten, typically in cases of the less severe mosaic Edwards syndrome.
References 

Trisomies
The Thames Embankment is a major feat of 19th century civil engineering. It reclaimed marshy land next to the River Thames in central London.

Overview 
The Embankment now runs on the northern side of the river from Parliament in Westminster to the City of London. It is a continuous four-lane road (mostly a double carriageway). It connects with all the bridges along the route from Westminster Bridge to Blackfriars Bridge.

It was built in two parts, the Victoria and the Chelsea Embankment, but it is now unified. Londoners regard it as a single road, the Embankment. There is a much smaller road on the south side of the river, called the Albert Embankment.

References 

Roads in London
Embankment
City of London
City of Westminster
The London Transport Executive (LTE) was the organisation responsible for public transport in the Greater London area, England, United Kingdom, between 1948-1963. In common with all London transport authorities from 1933 to 2000, the public name and operational brand of the organization was London Transport.

1948 establishments in Europe
1962 disestablishments
1960s disestablishments in England
Defunct companies of the United Kingdom
Intermodal transport authorities
1940s establishments in England
The Strand is a street in the City of Westminster, London. It runs parallel with the Thames on the northern side. It links the City of London with the centre of London at Charing Cross and Trafalgar Square. The Strand is the southern boundary of the Covent Garden district. Covent Garden is the space once occupied by a famous fruit and vegetable market, and is now a huge pedestrian-only plaza with many commercial outlets.

The Strand passes Aldwych, and joins directly with Fleet Street at Temple Bar. The street is just over three-quarters of a mile long. It includes many commercial premises, two theatres, and hotels. The most notable hotel is the Savoy Hotel, one of the grand London hotels.
The road's name comes from the Old English strond, meaning the edge of a river. The street was much identified with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries, with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river. These included Essex House, Arundel House, Somerset House, Savoy Palace, Durham House and Cecil House. The aristocracy moved to the West End during the 17th century, and the Strand became known for its coffee shops, restaurants and taverns. 

The street was a centre point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century, and several venues remain on the Strand. At the east end of the street are two historic churches: St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes. This easternmost stretch of the Strand is also home to King's College, one of the two founding colleges of the University of London.  In addition to the current Somerset House, other important structures include the Royal Courts of Justice and Australia House.

References
References 

City of Westminster
Roads in London
Parnassiinae is a subfamily of butterflies.  It belongs in the family Papilionidae.  They are commonly known as Apollos and Parnassians.  The butterflies in this subfamily are only found in the Holarctic Region (the Holarctic Region is the northern part of North America and Eurasia).

The caterpillars and adults are poisonous to vertebrates.  The caterpillars are thought to be Müllerian mimics with millipedes.  The adult butterflies are thought to be Müllerian mimics with adult Whites.

After mating, the male glues a structure to the end of the female's abdomen.  This keeps the female from mating again.  This structure is called a sphragis.

Tribes and genera
Parnassiini Duponchel, 1835
Hypermnestra Ménétriés, 1846
Parnassius Latreille, 1804
Luehdorfiini Chapman, 1895
Archon Hübner, 1819
Luehdorfia Crüger, 1878
Zerythiini
Sericinus Westwood, 1851
Bhutanitis Atkinson, 1873
Zerynthia Ochsenheimer, 1816
Allancastria Bryk, 1934
Extinct species
The two species listed here are extinct.  They are also of uncertain placement.

Doritites bosniackii Rebel, 1898†
Thaites ruminiana Scudder, 1875†

References

Other websites

Parnassiinae at Tree of Life 

Papilionidae
Milot, (Kréyòl: Milo) is a town in northern Haiti, in the  arrondissement (part of a Haitian department) Acul-du-Nord, Nord department; the town is on the northern foothills of the Massif du Nord mountain range.

The most important economic activity in Milot is farming. Some crops are sugar cane, cacao, tobacco and citrus fruits like orange.

After the Haitian independence, the country was divided in two parts and the northern part was made a kingdom by Henri Christophe and he made Milot the capital of his kingdom.

Christophe built a palace in Milot where he and his family lived; the palace was named Sans-Souci. He also built a fort,  Citadelle Laferrière, high in the mountains at about 8 km from Milot, and some smaller forts in Ramiens, on the road to the Citadelle. These buildings are now part of the Natural History Park - Citadel, Sans Souci, Ramiers, a World Heritage Site designated by the UNESCO in 1982.

Gallery

References 

Cities in Haiti
Islam is a minority religion in Austria with 4.22% of the population in the 2001 census. Most Muslims came to Austria after 1960. They were migrant workers from Turkey and Ex-Yugoslavia. There are also communities of Arab and Pakistani origin.

The westernmost Bundesland Vorarlberg has the highest share of Muslims in the country with 8.36%. There is a lot of industry there. It is followed by the capital Vienna with 7.82%. The central Bundesländer Salzburg, Upper Austria, Tyrol and Lower Austria have an average Muslim population. The south-eastern states of Styria, Carinthia as well as Burgenland in the east have fewer Muslims than the average.
Austria is unique among Western European countries. It is until now the only country that has granted Muslims the status of a recognized religious community. They were first recognised after Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878. Austria has regulated the religious freedoms of the Muslim community with the so called "Anerkennungsgesetz" ("Act of Recognition"). This law was reactivated in 1979 when the Community of Muslim Believers in Austria (Islamische Glaubensgemeinschaft in Österreich ) was founded. This organization has the right to give lessons of religious education in state schools. It could also collect "church tax", but so far it has not exercised this privilege. It does not build, finance or administer mosques in Austria.
Parallel structures exist within the Islamic religious group. The religious life takes place in mosques belonging to organisations. These organisations represent one of the currents of Turkish, Bosnian and Arab Muslims. Among the Turkish organisations, the "Federation of Turkish-Islamic Associations" is controlled by the Directorate for Religious Affairs, whereas the other groups, such as the Süleymancıs and Milli Görüş can be seen as branches of the pan-European organisation centered in Germany.

Muslims in Austria according to their ethnic groups

Further reading
Study for Bundesministerium des Innern: Perspektiven und Herausforderungen in der Integration muslimischer MitbürgerInnen in Österreich, Mathias Rohe, Universität Erlangen. May 2006 (summary by MilitantIslamMonitor.Org: Radical Islam in Europe: Austrian government study concludes 45% of Muslims unwilling to integrate)
 Anna Strobel: Unique Legal Status – Muslims in Austria  From: Herder Korrespondenz, 2006/4, pp. 200–204
 Census 2001: Population 2001 according to religious affiliation, languages, origin and nationality (PDF)(German), Statistik Austria.

Austria
Religion in Austria
Clever Hans (in German, der Kluge Hans) was a horse that was supposed to be able to do lots of difficult mathematical sums and solve complicated problems. Later, it was discovered that the horse was giving the right answers by watching the reactions of the people who were watching him.

How Hans seemed to be clever 
Hans was a horse that lived in Germany in the early 20th century. He belonged to a man called Wilhelm von Osten. Von Osten was a teacher who taught mathematics at a local school. He was an amateur horse trainer.

This was a time when people were becoming interested in how intelligent animals were. This was largely because of what Charles Darwin had been writing about.
Von Osten taught Hans to add, subtract, multiply, divide, work with fractions, tell the time and date, read and spell and to understand German. If he asked the horse a question such as: "What is 12 plus 12", the horse would tap its hoof 24 times. Von Osten traveled round the country with Hans, showing off his clever horse to the public.

Scientists became interested in Clever Hans. The psychologist Carl Stumpf got a group of people together to study what was happening. His assistant  Oskar Pfungst was the main investigator. The horse almost always gave the right answer when he could see his owner. He also gave the right answer if someone else asked him a question. This showed that Von Osten was not deliberately giving him secret signs.
The Clever Hans effect 
This effect is often called the "Clever Hans effect". It is used in psychology to describe when an animal or a person senses what someone wants them to do, even though they are not deliberately being given signals. It is important to take this effect into account when testing animals' intelligence or human intelligence. An animal may need to be separated from its trainer if their true intelligence is to be observed. On the other hand, an animal may be upset when it cannot see its trainer, so it might not give the right answer. This problem can often be solved by creating a situation in which the trainer does not know the right answer.
The Clever Hans effect is famous, and has been used in popular culture. For example, there is an episode of The Simpsons ("Smart and Smarter"), in which Lisa Simpson becomes jealous of her baby sister Maggie because Maggie seems to be even more intelligent than Lisa. Then it is discovered that Maggie has been watching Lisa so carefully that she could sense what the answers were. Lisa is relieved to discover this.

Other websites 
 Classics in Psychology: Oskar Pfungst's Clever Hans (the horse of Mr. von Osten), by Robert H. Wozniak
 Clever Hans the math horse
Animal communication
Cognition
Experiments
Individual horses
Richard Vincent "Rick" Mercer (born October 17, 1969) is a Canadian comedian who has been on shows like This Hour Has 22 Minutes and his own show The Rick Mercer Report.

Mercer is openly gay.

References 

Canadian comedians
LGBT broadcasters
LGBT comedians
Canadian LGBT people
1969 births
Living people
The London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) was the organisation responsible for public transport in London, England, United Kingdom, and its environs from 1933 to 1948. In common with all London transport authorities from 1933 to 2000, the public name and operational brand of the organisation was London Transport.

London bus route historic numbering
Historically, bus routes run by London Transport were grouped by the type of service that they provided.

The 1924 London Traffic Act imposed a numbering scheme known as the Bassom Scheme, named after Chief Constable A.E. Bassom of the Metropolitan Police who made it. Changing and short lines used letter suffixes. The numbers were grouped also by the company that operated the route.

The numbering was revised in 1934 after London Passenger Transport Board was formed:

References

Other websites
 The Railway Archive - London Passenger Transport Act, 1933 (25 MB)
Defunct companies of the United Kingdom
Intermodal transport authorities
1933 establishments in the United Kingdom
1948 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
The County of London was a county of England from 1889 to 1965, corresponding to the area today known as Inner London. It was created as part of the general introduction of elected county government in England, by way of the Local Government Act 1888.

Other websites
County of London boundary map 

Local government in London
1889 establishments in England
1965 disestablishments in England
19th century in London
20th century in London
Brockley is an area and electoral ward of the London Borough of Lewisham in England. It is about  south east of Charing Cross, it is covered by the London postcode district SE4.

Wards of London
London Borough of Lewisham
Downham is a district occupying much of the boundary between the London Borough of Lewisham and the London Borough of Bromley; it is the name of an electoral ward covering much of the area on the Lewisham side. Downham was named in honour of Lord Downham, who was chairman of the London County Council between 1919-20.

Wards of London
Archway is an area of north London in the London Borough of Islington. 

London Borough of Islington
Areas of London
Considered one of the first stars of the NHL, Morenz played 14 seasons in the league. He was a member of a team that won the Stanley Cup three times, all of them being the Canadiens. During his NHL career he was in the top 10 leading scorers ten times. For seven seasons in a row Morenz led the Canadiens in both goals scored and points. Three times in he was named the most valuable player of the league, and he led the league once in goals scored and twice in points scored. He was named to the NHL All-Star Team three times.

Morenz died from problems with a broken leg, an injury he suffered in a game. After his death, the Canadiens stopped using his jersey number, the first time the team had done so for any player. When the Hockey Hall of Fame opened in 1945, Morenz was one of the first 12 people to be added. In 1950, the Canadian Press named him the best ice hockey player of the first half of the 20th century.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

All statistics are taken from NHL.com.

Awards
Awards

NHL

Notes

Other websites

1902 births
1937 deaths
Canadian ice hockey centres
Chicago Blackhawks players
Hart Memorial Trophy winners
Hockey Hall of Fame inductees
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Montreal Canadiens players
New York Rangers players
Stanley Cup champions
Norbury is a town in the London Borough of Croydon, on the border with the London Borough of Lambeth and the London Borough of Merton. It shares the postcode London SW16 with nearby Streatham. Norbury is  south of Charing Cross.

London Borough of Croydon
Areas of London
Waterloo station, also known as 'London Waterloo', is a major railway terminus in London. It is owned and operated by Network Rail. It is near the South Bank in the London Borough of Lambeth, and in Travelcard Zone 1.

References

Other websites 

Station information for Waterloo from Network Rail
Waterloo photo gallery on Flickr
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive

Waterloo Station Central Telephone Enquiry Bureau (CTEB) History
 http://www.london-se1.co.uk/news/view/3164

Railway stations in London
London Travelcard zone 1
Bakerloo line stations
Northern line stations
Jubilee line stations
Highbury is an area in the London Borough of Islington.

London Borough of Islington
Areas of London
Leyton is an area of East London and part of the London Borough of Waltham Forest,  northeast of Charing Cross. It borders Walthamstow and Leytonstone; Stratford in Newham; and  Homerton and Lower Clapton in the London Borough of Hackney. 

There is a professional football team based in Leyton called Leyton Orient F.C.

Other websites

Areas of London
London Borough of Waltham Forest
Tooting is a suburb in the London Borough of Wandsworth in south London. It is  south south-west of Charing Cross. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London.

References 

Tooting
The atomic radius of an element is the distance between the nucleus and the edge of the electron cloud. 

The atomic radius is rather hard to define, because it is impossible to know where all of the electrons are at a given time. 

In the periodic table of the elements, the atomic radius tends to increase as you move down a group because the number of electrons is greater, and so the radius of the circle of electrons in the element is bigger. As you move to the right across a period, the atomic radius tends to decrease due to the shielding effect.

Nuclear physics
Dale Davis (born March 25, 1969) is a retired NBA basketball player who played the positions of center and power forward. When he played in the NBA, he played with the Indiana Pacers, the Portland Trail Blazers, the Golden State Warriors, and the Detroit Pistons. He played college basketball at Clemson University.

1969 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
Detroit Pistons players
Golden State Warriors players
Indiana Pacers players
Portland Trail Blazers players
Sportspeople from Georgia (U.S. state)
In construction, underpinning is the process of strengthening and stabilizing the foundation of an existing building or other structure. Underpinning may be needed for a many of reasons: 

The original foundation is not strong or stable enough.
The usage of the building has changed.
The type of soil supporting the foundation may have changed (possibly through subsidence) or were misjudged during planning.
The construction of nearby structures causes the excavation of soil supporting existing foundations.
It is more economical, due to land price or otherwise, to work on the current structure's foundation than to build a new one.

Construction
Epistasis is the interaction between genes at different loci. It was a term invented by William Bateson in 1909.

When Gregor Mendel did his experiments on the sweet pea, he chose seven traits, such as round vs wrinkled peas, and tall vs short plants. He found the plants had pairs of 'factors' (genes) which controlled their appearance (phenotype). However, one pair of factors never affected the other pairs. But with epistasis, the action of one gene does affect another gene, even one on a different chromosome. 

Use of the term has varied somewhat. Its original meaning was quite narrow: for instance, a gene for no wings in Drosophila will obviously mask genes for any other aspect of the wings. In general, however, epistasis denotes any departure from independence of the effects of different genetic loci.

References 

Classical genetics
Holborn tramway station (not to be confused with Holborn tube station) was a tram stop underneath Kingsway in central London. It was part of the Kingsway tramway subway route. When the station opened opened it was named Great Queen Street.

Services from Angel Islington to Aldwych started on 24 February 1906. Services rom Highbury station to Tower Bridge and from Highbury station to Kennington Gate started on 10 April 1908.

The station closed just after 12.30am on 6 April 1952. Much of the station remains in the disused tunnel but there is no public access.

Other websites
 Holborn Tram Station in 1933
Underground-History.co.uk  Includes illustrated account of a visit to the site in November 2003

Trams in London
Transport in the London Borough of Camden
Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene activity which are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence. It is the study of gene expression, the way genes bring about their phenotypic effects. An organism's cells are, genetically, nearly identical. There are, however, certain occurrences that can change how genes are expressed or suppressed.

These changes in gene activity may stay for the rest of the cell's life. They may last for many generations of cells, through cell divisions. However, there is no change in the underlying DNA sequence of the organism. Instead, non-hereditary factors cause the organism's genes to behave (express themselves) differently. Epigenetics works by mechanisms such as DNA methylation, where a gene expression may be suppressed. 

Epigenetic factors may last into adulthood.
Definitions 
A general definition is "the study of... gene activity during the development of complex organisms". Thus epigenetic can be used to describe anything other than DNA sequence which influences the development of an organism.

A stricter or narrower definition is "the study of mitotically and/or meiotically heritable changes in gene function which cannot be explained by changes in DNA sequence". More simply, it is the study of cell division where there are changes in gene expression that cannot be explained by changes to the DNA of the cell.
The term "epigenetics" has been used to describe processes which are not heritable. An example is histone modification. So some definitions do not require heritability. Adrian Bird defined epigenetics as "the structural adaptation of chromosomal regions so as to register, signal or perpetuate altered activity states". This definition includes DNA repair or cell division phases, and stable changes across cell generations. It excludes others such as prions unless they affect chromosome function. 

The NIH Roadmap Epigenomics Project uses the definition: "...For purposes of this program, epigenetics refers to both heritable changes in gene activity and expression (in the progeny of cells or individuals), and also stable, long-term alterations in the transcriptional potential of a cell".

In 2008, a consensus definition of the epigenetic trait, "stably heritable phenotype resulting from changes in a chromosome without alterations in the DNA sequence", was made at a Cold Spring Harbor meeting.
A somewhat out of date but otherwise reliable and readable account is from The Guardian newspaper.

Imprinting 
Genomic imprinting in this context means tagging a gene for the lifetime of the individual. Tagging is the basic operation where cytosine amino acids have a methyl group added by the enzyme DNA methyltransferase. This changes the operation of that gene to be (usually) more favourable to the individual. Usually, it switches the gene off. 

In general, the advantage of this is to keep the gene output in the most favourable condition for the lifetime of the particular individual. 

Imprinting is giving rise to much medical research at present.

Mammals 
Imprinting seems to have evolved only about 150 million years ago in animals. It seems largely confined to mammals. However, it may have originated separately (and earlier) in plants.
Examples 
The best example of epigenetic changes in eukaryotes is the process of cell differentiation, where a less specialized cell becomes more specialized. During morphogenesis, generalised stem cells become the cell lines of the embryo which in turn become fully differentiated cells. In other words, a single fertilized egg cell – the zygote – divides and changes into all the many cell types: neurons, muscle cells, epithelium, blood vessels etc.

As the embryo develops, some genes get switched on, while others are switched off or moderated. This process is called gene regulation. There are many molecules inside the cell nucleus which do the job of adjusting the genes' output.

DNA and histones make up what is called chromatin. Epigenetic modifications to the chromatin are copied during cell division. This produces a line of cells, all of which are alike. This is called a tissue.
Meiosis cancels epigenetic changes, and resets the genome to its baseline state, so the process unfolds in each new generation. There are some exceptions to this rule, but none of these exceptions involve changes to DNA base pair sequences.

This process is different from mutations of the DNA. Genetic mutations change the primary DNA sequence, and mutations can happen in any cell. However, only mutations in cells involved in reproduction can affect the offspring.

Forms of genetic imprinting have been found in plants and filamentous fungi.

References 

 
Cell biology
Developmental biology
Cellular differentiation is how a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. It is part of developmental biology. Different tissues have different kinds of organelles inside the cells. 

Differentiation occurs many times during the development of a multicellular organism. The organism changes from a single zygote to a complex system of tissues and cell types. Differentiation is also a common process in adults: adult stem cells divide to make fully-differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal cell turnover.

Differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals. These changes are largely due to changes in gene expression. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. It does involve switching off many genes not needed in a particular tissue. Thus, cells in different tissues may have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome.
Cell potency is a cell's ability to differentiate into other cell types. A cell that is able to differentiate into many cell types is known as pluripotent. Such cells are called stem cells in animals and meristematic cells in higher plants.  A cell that is able to differentiate into all cell types is known as totipotent. In mammals, only the zygote and early embryonic cells are totipotent, while in plants many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques.

References 

Genetics
Cell biology
Developmental biology
Morphogenesis (meaning the "beginning of shape"), is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape. 

It is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation. 

The process controls the organized spatial distribution of cells during the embryonic development of an organism. Morphogenetic responses may be induced in organisms by hormones, by substances produced by other organisms, or by mechanical stresses induced by spatial patterning of the cells. Morphogenesis can take place in an embyro, a mature organism, in cell culture or inside tumor cell masses.

Developmental biology
Cell biology
Plant anatomy
Gastrulation is a phase early in the development of most animal embryos. In it, the embryo is dramatically restructured by cell migration.

Gastrulation varies in different phyla. It is followed by organogenesis, when individual organs develop within the newly formed germ layers.

The gastrula is the double-walled stage of the embryo. During gastrulation, some of the cells of the blastula migrate inwards to make an inner layer, the endoderm. In some animals another cell layer forms, the mesoderm, between the endoderm and the ectoderm.

Germ layers 
Among animals, sponges show the simplest organization, having a single germ layer. Cnidaria and ctenophores show an increase in complexity, having two germ layers, the endoderm and ectoderm. All higher animals (from flatworms to humans) possess a mesoderm as well as ectoderm and endoderm.
Development of germ layers 
The purpose of gastrulation is to position the 3 embryonic germ layers, the endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm. These layers later develop into certain bodily systems.

 The ectoderm develops into the skin, nails, the epithelium of the nose, mouth and anal canal; the lens of the eye, the retina and the nervous system.  
 The endoderm develops into the inner linings of the digestive tract, as well as the linings of the respiratory passages. It also forms many glands, such as the liver and pancreas.  
 The mesoderm forms the somites, the notochord, and the mesenchyme, which give rise to the muscles, circulatory and excretory systems of the body. This key innovation evolved hundreds of millions of years ago and led to the evolution of nearly all large, complex animals. The formation of a mesoderm led to the development of a coelom. Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and develop independently of the body wall while fluid cushions and protects them from shocks.
Related pages
Cellular differentiation

References 

Developmental biology
Wat Phra-sri Rattana Mahathat or Wat Yai is the most important monastery of Phitsanulok. It was built in the reign of Phra Maha Thamma Racha I in 1357 BCE. In the temple, there is a Buddha image called Phra Buddha Chinnaraj. The pearl inlaid wooden doors of the temple were built by King Borommakot in 1756 as tribute to Phra Buddha Chinnaraj. Behind the temple, there is a large pagoda  high with a staircase leading up to the niche containing the Buddha relics. In front of the pagoda, there is Phra Attharos, a standing Buddha image.

Buddhist temples in Thailand
2nd millennium BC buildings and structures
Jikji is the oldest extant movable metal type book in the world.

Jikji is the short title of a Korean book whose full title can be translated as Anthology of the Great Priests' Zen Teachings. It is a Buddhist document, and was printed during Korea's Goryeo era in 1377.

Jikji is a book about Zen Buddhism published in Heungdeok temple. It was written by the Buddhist monk Baegun who died three years before this edition was printed. Baegun was the chief priest of the Anguk and Shingwang temples in Haeju. 

Jikji was published 78 years before Johannes Gutenberg's "42-Line Bible". Jikji consists of two volumes. Only the second volume is extant. This volume is held in the National Library of France. UNESCO confirmed Jikji as the world's oldest metalloid type book in September 2001, and includes it in the Memory of the World program.

References

Buddhist texts
Korea
14th-century books
The Bibliothèque nationale de France is the National Library of France in Paris.

History
The National Library of France was founded at the Louvre by Charles V in 1368. It grew under Louis XIV and opened to the public in 1692. 

Following a series of regime changes in France, it became the Imperial National Library and in 1868 it moved to new buildings on the Rue de Richelieu. In 1896, the library was the largest collection of books in the world.

In 1988, President François Mitterrand agreed to build a new modern library. It now contains more than twenty million volumes.

Manuscripts 
The library has 5,000 Greek manuscripts and the Jikji (the oldest printed document with movable type).

References

 Riding, Alan.  "France Detects a Cultural Threat in Google," New York Times. April 11, 2005.

Buildings and structures in Paris
National libraries in Europe
Organizations based in Paris
Fitness in biology is the relative ability of an organism to survive and pass on its genes to the next generation.p160 It is a central idea in evolutionary theory. Fitness is usually equal to the proportion of the individual's genes in all the genes of the next generation.

Like all terms in evolutionary biology, fitness is defined in terms of an interbreeding population, which might or might not be a whole species. If differences in individual genotypes affect fitness, then the frequencies of the genotypes will change over generations; the genotypes with higher fitness become more common. This is the process called natural selection.
An individual's fitness is caused by its phenotype, and passed on by its genotype. The fitness of different individuals with the same genotype are not necessarily equal. It depends on the environment in which the individuals live, and on accidental events. However, since the fitness of the genotype is an averaged quantity, it reflects the reproductive outcomes of all individuals with that genotype.

Relatedness 
Fitness measures the number of the copies of the genes of an individual in the next generation. It doesn't really matter how the genes arrive in the next generation. For an individual, it is equally "beneficial" to reproduce itself, or to help relatives with similar genes to reproduce, as long as similar number of copies of individual's genes get passed on to the next generation. Selection which promotes this kind of helper behaviour is called kin selection.
Our closest relatives (parents, siblings, and our own children) share on average 50% (half) of our genes. One step further removed are grandparents. With each of them we share on average 25% (a quarter) of our genes. That is a measure of our relatedness to them. Next come first cousins (children of our parents' siblings). We share 12.5% (1/8) of their genes.p100

Hamilton's rule 
William Hamilton added various ideas to the notion of fitness. His rule suggests that a costly action should be performed if:
   where:
  is the reproductive cost to the altruist,
  is the reproductive benefit to the recipient of the altruistic behavior, and
  is the probability, above the population average, of the individuals sharing an altruistic gene – the "degree of relatedness".
Fitness costs and benefits are measured in fecundity.

Inclusive fitness 
Inclusive fitness is a term which is essentially the same as fitness, but emphasises the group of genes rather than individuals.
Biological fitness says how well an organism can reproduce, and spread its genes to its offspring. The theory of inclusive fitness says that the fitness of an organism is also increased to the extent that its close relatives also reproduce. This is because relatives share genes in proportion to their relationship.

Another way of saying it is: the inclusive fitness of an organism is not a property of itself, but a property of its set of genes. It is calculated from the reproductive success of the individual, plus the reproductive success of its relatives, each one weighed by an appropriate coefficient of relatedness.

History 
The British social philosopher Herbert Spencer coined the phrase survival of the fittest in his 1864 work Principles of biology to mean what Charles Darwin called natural selection. The original phrase was "survival of the best fitted".

References 

Classical genetics
Evolutionary biology
Cilla Black (27 May 1943 – 1 August 2015) was a English television personality, singer and actress. Her birth name was Priscilla Maria Veronica White and she was born in Liverpool. She became known for her songs "Anyone Who Had A Heart" and "You're My World" as well as her long-running TV shows Blind Date (1985-2003) and Surprise Surprise (1984-2001).

In the early 1960s, young Cilla worked at the Cavern Club in Liverpool, where the Beatles often performed, as a hat check girl. She also sang onstage at the Cavern sometimes, backed by the band that was playing at the time. "Swinging Cilla" was well-liked by the Cavern's members and guests.

One day Brian Epstein visited the Cavern to meet the Beatles, and ask about a record they made, so he could sell copies at his family's music store. Stories rose later that Cilla was working, and she first met Epstein when he gave her his hat and coat. Neither one remembered this later, though, and each believed the story was not true.
Epstein's getting to know the Beatles led to his becoming their manager, and with his help, they won a recording contract. The Beatles' talent and work with music producer George Martin led to hit records. Epstein decided to manage other Liverpool musicians. Along with the bands and male singers he signed up, Epstein chose Cilla as his only female performer. He suggested her stage name (changing White to Black), so she and her family could keep their privacy. Martin also agreed to record her, helping choose songs that would showcase her voice.

Cilla became popular first in England and Europe, then in America as the Beatles' music started the "British Invasion" there in 1964. One of her first hits, "Anyone Who Had A Heart", was recorded earlier by American singer Dionne Warwick. The two records sounded similar, even though Cilla had not heard Warwick's version, and a few people believed she had copied it. Both women later also recorded the theme song for the movie Alfie, but they sounded different.
Cilla had other hit records, including "You're My World" and a television theme song, "Step Inside, Love". Epstein enjoyed working with her, even helping her choose wardrobe for performances and looking after her backstage, but personal problems later took away his attention. He died in 1967, after a drug overdose.

In time, Cilla Black stopped having hits. She remained popular in England, though, and was a welcome hostess and guest on television. She also made appearances from time to time, to sing the songs from the time she was most popular.

In later years, her health became poor. Arthritis made walking painful, and she was nearly deaf. She admitted that she did not want to live past 75 years old, because she enjoyed her life less and less as she aged.

Cilla Black died of a stroke after a fall at her holiday home near Marbella, Spain, on 1 August 2015, aged 72. Her funeral took place in Liverpool on 20 August 2015.

References

Other websites
Other websites 

1943 births
2015 deaths
Accidental deaths from falls
Accidental deaths in Spain
Actors from Liverpool
Deaths from stroke
Disease-related deaths in Andalusia
English movie actors
English pop musicians
English television actors
English television presenters
Singers from Liverpool
Paulista Avenue (in Portuguese: Avenida Paulista) is the most important avenue and one of the main financial centers of the city of São Paulo, Brazil.

Related pages
 São Paulo
 Downtown São Paulo

São Paulo
Didcot is a town in Oxfordshire about  south of Oxford. Until 1974 it was part of Berkshire.

History and economy

During the Roman Empire the Romans dug a ditch that runs north through what is now known as the Ladygrove area north of the town near Long Wittenham.

Didcot first appears in historical records in the 13th century as Dudcotte, Berkshire.  Parts of the original village still exist in the Lydalls Road area and part of All Saints' Church dates back to the 11th century.

Railways
The Great Western Railway, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, reached Didcot in 1839. In 1844 the Didcot railway station was opened. The original station burnt down in the later part of 19th century.
Didcot is junction of the routes to London, Bristol and Oxford. It was formerly a junction for Southampton via the Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway but that closed in the 1960s. 
The traffic to Southampton meant that the town had strategic importance to military logistics, in particular during the First World War campaign on the Western Front and the Second World War preparations for D-Day.

Power stations

The Didcot Power Stations (which are next to each other, and actually in Sutton Courtenay) supply electricity to the National Grid. The power station has also proved a popular man-made object for local photographers. One power station was closed in 2013 and has been demolished. The other is still operating in 2018.

Further reading

Other websites

Didcot Twinning Association
Didcot Railway Centre
Didcot.com community website
Didcot First  
Didcot Town FC 
Future Didcot
Cornerstone arts centre
The Didcot Herald 
 Didcot Choral Society
South Oxfordshire
Towns in Oxfordshire
Civil parishes in Oxfordshire
13th-century establishments in England
Horsepower is a unit of power that is approximately how much work one horse can do. It is equal to 746 watts.  The idea of horsepower was originated by James Watt, who invented the steam engine. Because people used horses to pull carts, it was an amount of energy that could be understood by most people at that time.  A human can only maintain about , but an engine can maintain much higher than that. Small motors can create  while a jet engine can create more than .

Imperial units
Units of power
Mason Evan Raymond (born September 17, 1985) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger. He currently plays for the Calgary Flames of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played for the Vancouver Canucks and Toronto Maple Leafs. He was drafted 51st overall by the Vancouver Canucks in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft.

On June 28, 2014, Raymond was signed as a free agent by the Calgary Flames to a three-year, $9.5 million contract.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

International

References

Other websites
 
 
 

1985 births
American Hockey League players
Anaheim Ducks players
Calgary Flames players
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Ice hockey people from Alberta
Living people
Manitoba Moose players
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Stockton Heat players
Vancouver Canucks players
Pavol Demitra (November 29, 1974 – September 7, 2011) was a Slovak professional ice hockey centre who last played for the Lokomotiv Yaroslavl of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL). He first played in the NHL in 1993, having previously played with the Ottawa Senators, who selected him in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft, St. Louis Blues, Los Angeles Kings and Minnesota Wild. Before he joined the NHL, Demitra played in Slovakia, as well as the American Hockey League (AHL) and International Hockey League (IHL), minor professional leagues in North America. In Demitra's NHL career spanning 16 years, he has achieved the 300-goal mark and won the Lady Byng Trophy for sportsmanship in 2000. On September 7, 2011, at 4:02 PM local time, Demitra died when a Yakovlev Yak-42 passenger aircraft, that was carrying the entire hockey team of Lokomotiv Yaroslavl crashed near Yaroslavl, Russia. The plane was on its way to Minsk, Belarus, to start the 2011-12 KHL season.

References

Other websites