Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
1976  Viking Programme: The Viking 2 spacecraft lands at Utopia Planitia on Mars.
 1981  Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women enters into force.
 1987  A military coup occurs in Burundi, as Jean-Baptiste Bogaza is deposed by Major Pierre Buyoya.
 1988  The parliaments of the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland agree on introducing tougher anti-terrorism laws.
 1989  An Ilyushin II-62 aircraft crashes in Havana, Cuba, killing 171 people.
 1994  Sino-Soviet Split: Russia and China agree to de-target their nuclear weapons against each other.
 1995  The Soyuz TM-22 mission launches to the Mir Space Station.
 1997  Vietnam Airlines Flight 815, a Tupolev TU-134, crashes on approach to Phnom Penh Airport in Cambodia, killing 64 people.
 1999  An 87-automobile pile-up occurs on Highway 401 freeway just outside Windsor, Ontario.
From 2001 
 2001  In Belfast, Protestant loyalists begin a picket of Holy Cross Primary School for Girls. For the following 11 weeks, pupils and parents are escorted to school by armed police while being targeted by abuse.
 2004  On its third day, a siege at a school in Beslan, southern Russia ends in a massacre, in which over 300 people are killed.
 2006  Andre Agassi ends his professional tennis career, as he loses in the US Open against Benjamin Becker.
 2007  Adventurer Steve Fossett goes missing in the Sierra Nevada mountains in California. His remains are found in October 2008.
 2014  Flash floods in India and Pakistan kill over 200 people.
 2016  The People's Republic of China and the United States ratify the Paris Climate Change Agreement.
 2017  North Korea performs test for nuclear weapon against international law.

Births
Up to 1900 
 1034  Emperor Go-Sanjo of Japan (d. 1073)
 1499  Diane de Poitiers, mistress of Henri II of France (d. 1566)
 1568  Adriano Banchieri, Italian composer (d. 1634)
 1635  Peder Griffenfeld, Danish statesman (d. 1699)
 1643  Lorenzo Bellini, Italian astronomer (d. 1704)
 1675  Paul Dudley, Attorney-General of Massachusetts (d. 1751)
 1695  Pietro Locatelli, Italian composer (d. 1764)
 1710  Abraham Trembley, Swiss naturalist (d. 1784)
 1724  Guy Charleton, British Governor-General of Canada (d. 1808)
 1757  Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (d. 1828)
 1781  Eugène de Beauharnais, son of Napoleon's wife, Josephine (d. 1824)
 1810  Paul Kane, Canadian painter (d. 1871)
 1810  Prince Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orleans, French nobleman (d. 1842)
 1814  James Joseph Sylvester, British mathematician (d. 1897)
 1820  George Hearst, American businessman and politician (d. 1891)
 1829  Adolf Fick, German physiologist (d. 1901)
 1844  Sophia Tolstaya, Russian writer (d. 1919)
1849  Sarah Orne Jewett, American writer (d. 1909)
 1851  Olga Konstantinovna of Russia, Queen of Greece (d. 1926)
 1856  Louis Sullivan, American architect (d. 1924)
 1859  Jean Jaurès, French politician and historian (d. 1914)
 1861  James Hartness, American inventor, engineer and politician, 58th Governor of Vermont (d. 1934)
 1869  Fritz Pregl, Austrian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1930)
 1875  Ferdinand Porsche, German automotive engineer (d. 1951)
 1880  Gwynne Evans, American swimmer and water polo player (d. 1965)
 1882  Johnny Douglas, English cricketer and boxer (d. 1930)
 1887  Frank Christian, jazz musician (d. 1973)
 1893  Andrey Dikiy, Russian-American writer, historian, émigré politician and journalist (d. 1977)
 1899  Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Australian physician and virologist (d. 1985)
 1900  Urho Kekkonen, 8th President of Finland (d. 1986)
 1900  Maurice Dobb, British economist (d. 1976)
1901  1950 
 1902  Mantan Moreland, actor (d. 1973)
 1905  Carl David Anderson, American physicist (d. 1991)
 1907  Loren Eiseley, anthropologist (d. 1977)
 1908  Lev Semenovich Pontryagin, Soviet mathematician (d. 1988)
 1910  Kitty Carlisle, American actress and television personality (d. 2007)
 1910  Maurice Papon, French Nazi collaborator (d. 2007)
 1913  Alan Ladd, American actor (d. 1964)
 1914  Dixy Lee Ray, American politician, 17th Governor of Washington (d. 1994)
 1915  Memphis Slim, American blues pianist, singer and composer (d. 1988)
 1915  Knut Nystedt, Norwegian organist and composer (d. 2014)
 1916  Eddie Stanky, American baseball player (d. 1999)
 1918  Helen Wagner, American actress (d. 2010)
 1921  Thurston Dart, English harpsichordist and conductor (d. 1971)
 1921  Henry Bellmon, Governor of Oklahoma (d. 2009)
 1923  Kishan Maharaj, Indian tabla player (d. 2008)
 1923  Mort Walker, American cartoonist (d. 2018)
 1923  Fred Hawkins, American golfer (d. 2014)
1924  Mary Grace Canfield, American actress (d. 2014)
 1925  Bengt Lindström, Swedish painter and sculptor (d. 2008)
 1925  Hank Thompson, American singer (d. 2007)
 1926  Anne Jackson, American actress (d. 2016)
 1926  Joseph P. Kolter, American politician (d. 2019)
 1927  Hugh Sidey, American magazine editor
 1928  Gaston Thorn, Prime Minister of Luxembourg (d. 2007)
 1929  Carlo Clerici, Swiss cyclist (d. 2007)
 1929  Whitey Bulger, American criminal (d. 2018)
 1929  Irene Papas, Greek actress and singer
 1930  Cherry Wilder, New Zealand writer (d. 2002)
 1931  Albert DeSalvo, American serial killer (d. 1973)
 1931  Dick Motta, American basketball player
 1931  Fritz J. Raddatz, German writer (d. 2015)
 1932  Eileen Brennan, American actress (d. 2013)
 1933  Tompall Glaser, American country music singer (d. 2013)
 1934  Freddie King, American blues singer and guitarist (d. 1976)
 1935  Hans Sturm, German footballer (d. 2007)
 1936  Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali, former President of Tunisia (d. 2019)
1938  Caryl Churchill, English playwright
 1938  Ryoji Noyori, Japanese chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
 1939  Vivi Bach, Danish actress (d. 2013)
 1940  Eduardo Galeano, Uruguayan journalist and writer (d. 2015)
 1942  Al Jardine, American rock and roll musician (The Beach Boys)
 1943  Valerie Perrine, American actress
 1947  Kjell Magne Bondevik, former Prime Minister of Norway
 1947  Eric Bell, Irish guitarist (Thin Lizzy)
 1947  Michael Connarty, Scottish politician
 1947  Gérard Houllier, French football manager
 1947  Mario Draghi, Italian head of the European Central Bank
 1948  Levy Mwanawasa, 3rd President of Zambia (d. 2008)
 1949  Patriarch Peter VII of Alexandria, Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria and all Africa (d. 2004)
 1949  José Pekerman, Argentine football manager
1951  1975 
 1951  Maithripala Sirisena, President of Sri Lanka
 1953  Jean-Pierre Jeunet, French movie director
 1955  Steve Jones, British musician (Sex Pistols)
 1956  Pat McGeown, Northern Irish Provisional IRA member (d. 1996)
 1963  Mubarak Ghanim, Emirati footballer
 1963  Malcolm Gladwell, Canadian journalist, essayist and critic
 1964  Adam Curry, Internet entrepreneur
 1965  Charlie Sheen, American actor
 1965  Todd Lewis, guitarist and singer (Toadies and The Burden Brothers)
 1965  Carlos Simon, Brazilian football referee
 1965  Costas Mandylor, Australian actor
 1969  John Fugelsang, American actor
 1969  Dominic West, English actor
 1970  Maria Bamford, American voice actress and comedienne
 1970  Gareth Southgate, English footballer and coach
 1971  Kiran Desai, Indian writer
 1971  Paolo Montero, Uruguayan footballer
 1973  Jennifer Paige, American singer-songwriter
 1973  Damon Stoudamire, American basketball player
 1974  Clare Kramer, American actress, producer and screenwriter
From 1976 
 1976  Samuel Kuffour, Ghanaian footballer
 1976  Vivek Oberoi, Indian actor
 1977  Stephen Laybutt, Australian footballer
 1977  Olof Mellberg, Swedish footballer
 1979  Julio César Soares Espindola, Brazilian footballer
 1979  Tiffany Chapman, English actress
 1980  Jason McCaslin, Canadian musician (Sum 41)
 1981  Fearne Cotton, English television presenter
 1982  Kaori Natori, Japanese singer and songwriter
 1982  Sarah Burke, American freestyle skier (d. 2012)
 1984  Garrett Hedlund, American actor
 1985  Scott Carson, English footballer
 1986  Shaun White, American snowboarder and skateboarder
 1987  Chris Fountain, English actor
 1987  James Neal, Canadian ice hockey player
 1988  Jerome Boateng, German footballer
 1988  Sinan Bolat, Turkish footballer
 1990  Rita Volk, Uzbek-American actress
 1991  Thomas Delaney, Danish footballer
 1993  Dominic Thiem, Austrian tennis player
 1993  Rina Koike, Japanese model and actress
 1999  Rich Brian, Indonesian rapper

Deaths
Up to 1950 
 264  Sun Xiu, Chinese Emperor (b. 235)
 1354  Joanikije II, Serbian patriarch
 1402  Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan (b. 1351)
 1420  Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany, Regent of Scotland (b. 1340)
 1467  Eleanor of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1434)
 1592  Robert Greene, English writer and playwright (b. 1558)
 1634  Edward Coke, English jurist and Member of Parliament (b. 1552)
 1658  Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England (b. 1599)
 1808  Philip Gidley King, third Governor of New South Wales (b. 1758)
 1857  John McLoughlin, Canadian trapper (b. 1784)
 1860  Aleksey Khomyakov, Russian poet (b. 1804)
 1866  Konstantin Flavitsky, Russian painter (b. 1830)
 1872  Immanuel Nobel, Swedish engineer, architect, inventor and industrialist (b. 1801)
 1883  Ivan Turgenev, Russian writer (b. 1818)
 1893  James Harrison, Scottish-born inventor (b. 1816)
 1903  Joseph Skipsey, British poet (b. 1832)
 1914  Albéric Magnard, composer (b. 1865)
1918  Fanny Kaplan, Russian anarchist and revolutionary (b. 1890)
 1936  Nikita Balieff, Armenian-Russian puppeteer and director (b. 1876)
 1948  Edvard Benes, President of Czechoslovakia (b. 1884)
From 1951 
 1962  E. E. Cummings, American poet (b. 1894)
 1964  Stewart Holbrook, American writer (b. 1893)
 1967  Francis Ouimet, American golfer and businessman (b. 1893)
 1968  Isabel Withers, American actress (b. 1896)
 1969  John Lester, American cricketer (b. 1871)
 1970  Vince Lombardi, American football coach (b. 1913)
 1970  Alan Wilson, American singer and guitarist (b. 1943)
 1973  Rufino Santos, Filipino cardinal (b. 1908)
 1974  Harry Partch, composer (b. 1901)
 1980  Duncan Renaldo, actor (b. 1904)
 1985  Johnny Marks, American singer (b. 1909)
 1986  Beryl Markham, British horse trainer, adventurer and writer (b. 1902)
 1987  Morton Feldman, American composer (b. 1926)
 1989  Gaetano Scirea, Italian footballer (b. 1953)
 1991  Frank Capra, American movie director (b. 1897)
 1994  James T. Aubrey, American television executive (b. 1918)
 2001  Pauline Kael, American movie critic (b. 1919)
 2001  Thuy Trang, Vietnamese-American actress (b. 1973)
2003  Paul Hill, American anti-abortion murderer (b. 1954)
 2005  William Rehnquist, Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1924)
 2007  Jane Tomlinson, British charity fundraiser (b. 1964)
 2007  Steve Fossett, American businessman, aviator, sailor and adventurer (b. 1944) (date of disappearance)
 2011  Sandor Kepiro, Hungarian military officer (b. 1914)
 2012  Sun Myung Moon, Korean religious leader (b. 1920)
 2012  Mahmoud El-Gohary, Egyptian footballer and coach (b. 1938)
 2012  Michael Clarke Duncan, American actor (b. 1957)
 2013  Ariel Castro, American criminal (b. 1960)
 2014  Go Eun-bi, South Korean singer (b. 1992)
 2014  Andrew Madoff, American investment broker (b. 1966)
 2014  Mark Otway, New Zealand tennis player (b. 1931)
 2014  Aarno Raninen, Finnish actor, composer and musician (b. 1944)
 2014  Roy Heather, English actor (b. 1935)
 2014  Niki Nordenskjöld, Swedish actress (b. 1975)
 2015  Leon Gorman, American businessman (b. 1934)
 2015  Jean Luc Préel, French politician (b. 1940)
2015  Zhang Zhen, Chinese general (b. 1914)
 2015  Chandra Bahadur Dangi, Nepalese smallest-man-ever titleholder (b. 1939)
 2015  Adrian Cadbury, British businessman and rower (b. 1929)
 2015  Judy Carne, British actress (b. 1939)
 2016  Mir Quasem Ali, Bangladeshi businessman and politician (b. 1952)
 2016  Carlos Bulgheroni, Argentine entrepreneur (b. 1945)
 2017  John Ashbery, American poet (b. 1927)
 2017  Walter Becker, American musician, songwriter and producer (b. 1950)
 2017  Joan Colom, Spanish photographer (b. 1921)
 2017  Dave Hlubek, American musician and songwriter (b. 1951)
 2017  Victor Krasin, Ukrainian-born Russian human rights activist and politician (b. 1929)
 2017  Piet Ouderland, Dutch footballer and basketball player (b. 1933)
 2017  John P. White, American politician (b. 1937)
 2018  Lydia Clarke, American actress (b. 1923)
 2018  Jalaluddin Haqqani, Afghan militant (b. 1939)
 2018  Paul Koech, Kenyan long-distance runner (b. 1969)
 2018  Jacqueline Pearce, British actress (b. 1943)
2018  Gordon Phillips, English footballer (b. 1946)
 2018  Katyna Ranieri, Italian actress and singer (b. 1925)
 2018  Ina Isings, Dutch classical archaeologist (b. 1919)
 2019  Edgardo Andrada, Argentine footballer (b. 1939)
 2019  LaShawn Daniels, American songwriter (b. 1977)
 2019  Halvard Hanevold, Norwegian biathlete (b. 1969)
 2019  Peter Lindbergh, German fashion photographer (b. 1944)
 2019  José de Jesús Pimiento Rodríguez, Colombian footballer (b. 1919)
Observances 
 Saint Gregory the Great
 National Day of San Marino
 Independence Day (Qatar)
 Flag Day (Australia)
 Levy Mwanawasa Day (Zambia)
 Merchant Navy Day (United Kingdom)
 Dagen-H (Sweden)

September 03
Irrigation is when people add water to plants, to help them grow when there is not enough rain. Irrigation water can be pumped from rivers, natural lakes or lakes created by dams, from wells or allowed to flow to the fields by or open canals.

Types of Irrigation 
There are many different types of irrigation methods. The most common ones are:
 Sprinkler Irrigation
 Drip irrigation
 Surface irrigation
 Sub surface irrigation
 Manual irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation mimics natural rainfall where water falls on the plants.
In sprinkler irrigation, water is moved through pipes to sprinklers scattered around and within the field. The Sprinklers shoot water from pressurized outlets or guns from pipes into the air which then fall on the plants. Center pivot irrigation is a type of sprinkler irrigation. It's basically, sprinklers on wheels.
In drip irrigation, water drips directly to the roots of plants from pipes which have small holes or special emitters spaced along the pipe. Drip irrigation is more efficient than other irrigation methods because water is applied directly or close to plants' roots i.e. where it is needed. Thus, it uses less water, reduces leeching of soil nutrients and erosion of top soil.

In Surface irrigation, water from a source such as rivers, pipes, dams, canals e.t.c. floods the soil surface. Surface irrigation uses a lot of water compared to other irrigation methods. It could also drain nutrients beyond the reach of the plant roots. If the water is excessive, it could cause damage to the plant. However, surface irrigation is used extensively in rice farming. This is because the permanent flooding acts as a natural pest control method and rice can survive waterlogged soil.
Sub-Surface irrigation is when water comes from below the surface of the soil. Sub-surface irrigation create an artificial water table to place water right within reach of plants. Water seeps through the walls into the soil of farms from canals passing through and/or around the farm. Drip irrigation becomes sub-surface irrigation when the pipes are placed underground.

With Manual irrigation irrigation is done by humans using buckets, pipes or watering cans. It is labor-intensive and inefficient.

Impacts 
Irrigation can let more crops be grown on the same land, or allow a crop to grow in a dry period. It is expensive and care should be taken to ensure that the benefits from increased crop yields are not exceeded by the installation and operating costs of the irrigation scheme.
Irrigation causes a subsequent rise in water-tables. If saline water is below, it may rise to the surface. Sometimes salinity becomes high enough to kill the plants. Irrigation water itself can carry salt and sometimes other toxic materials that hurt the plants. To prevent this, irrigation projects must also assure good drainage.

References

Agriculture
Water
The Glastonbury Festival is a very big music festival. It is held at Worthy Farm near Glastonbury, Somerset, England, most years, during the last weekend in June. About 100,000 people come to the festival every time. The festival is hosted and organized by local farmer Michael Eavis. It is a widely known festival with many big and popular bands playing there every year.

Controversy 
In Glastonbury 2009, there was a great deal of controversy when Jay-Z was asked to headline the festival. The most infamous response to this was when Noel Gallagher from Oasis said that Glastonbury should only be for rock musicians.

1970 establishments in England
Music festivals in England
Somerset
Detroit ( ,   ; , ) is the most populous city in the state of Michigan in the United States. In 1950, Detroit was the fifth most populous city in the United States, with 1.8 million people. It was the 10th most populous city in the United States at the time of the 2000 census, with 950,000 people. By the 2020 census, Detroit fell to the 27th largest, because people moved away, and it had 640,000 people. Over four million people live in Detroit and its surrounding counties. The city borders Windsor, Ontario in Canada. The international border between Detroit and Windsor is one of the most crossed in the world.

The person who started the city was Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac. He was from France. Detroit was made a city in 1701. From 1805 to 1847, Detroit was the capital of Michigan.

Detroit ran out of money in March 2013. On July 18, 2013, Detroit filed for bankruptcy. This was the largest bankruptcy case of any city in U.S. history.
Sports 
Detroit is a city where many automobiles are made and this is why it is sometimes called the "Motor City", or "Motown". Many people call it the car capital of the world.  General Motors, Ford and Chrysler have their offices and many of their plants in and around Detroit.

Detroit is the home of many sport teams including the Detroit Lions (NFL), Detroit Red Wings (NHL), Detroit Tigers (MLB) and the Detroit City Soccer Club.

In 2006, the Super Bowl was played at Ford Field in Detroit.

Media 

WXYZ American Broadcasting Company

People 
Detroit is home to one of the largest black communities in the United States, with 77% being African-American. Detroit also has a large Arab population. Many Arabs live in metro Detroit. The Arab-American community in Detroit began with a small group of Syrian and Lebanese merchants who immigrated to Detroit in the late 1800s. Mexicans have recently replaced the shrinking population.

Violent crime rate is one of the highest in the USA.
Climate 
Detroit has a humid continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification), and is influenced by the nearby Great Lakes. Detroit usually has around 38 days of snow every year.

References

Other websites

 
County seats in Michigan
Michigan
1700s establishments in North America
1701 establishments
18th-century establishments in New France
War communism is the name for the economic policies that introduced to Russia in 1918 by Vladimir Lenin, leader of Russia from 1917 to 1924. The policy was ended in 1921 because it was not successful. Instead, he introduced the New Economic Policy in 1921.

War Communism was introduced for many reasons. However, the most important ones were: 
 to feed and supply the hungry Red Army of Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War
 to move towards complete communism

It was bad for the Russian economy because the government took away extra grain produced by the peasants. This was known as grain requisitioning. Peasants were not allowed to sell their extra food, so they stopped producing more than they needed to eat. This created a Russian famine with millions of people foodless and starving.

Communism
Economic policy
Russian Revolution
1918 establishments in the Soviet Union
1921 disestablishments
New Economic Policy (NEP) was an economic policy introduced by Lenin after the failed methods of War communism. These New Economic Policies were to revive the Russian economy. The new policy was a combination of private enterprise and state socialism. This is because the people did not believe in War communism.

The New Economic Policies meant that Russia returned to a partly capitalist society. This sorted out the problems of mass starvation and Famine which War communism had caused.

Lenin did not want Russia to stay in this way, he only introduced them to be supported again by the Russian people, and to revive the economy. In 1928 Joseph Stalin abolished the NEP.

History of the Soviet Union
1921 establishments
1920s establishments in the Soviet Union
Foreign aid is a country helping another country by giving money or things or sending people. That is especially needed when a disaster happens in a poor country. The help is sometimes comes from a country's government, but the country's ordinary people sometimes give money. Foreign aid may help by giving food and clean water to people who need them. A charity usually donates to the developing countries. Some aid is for economic development.  

The poorer countries are called LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries). The richer countries are called MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries). 

The United Nations and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development also work for such aid for poorer countries.

References 

International relations
Hydroelectricity''' is electricity made by generators that are turned by the movement of water. It is usually made with dams that partly block a river to make a reservoir of water. Water is released, and the pressure of the dam [potential  energy stored in the dam] forces the water down pipes that lead to a turbine. This causes the turbine to turn, which turns a generator which makes  electricity. 

This renewable energy method makes about one sixth of the world's electricity. It produces less pollution than the fires of steam engines do. Some places such as Norway and Quebec get most of their electricity this way. 

Because all methods have advantages and disadvantages, most countries have several ways to generate electricity. For example, hydroelectric methods have certain advantages, and atomic energy has quite different advantages. For most countries today, hydroelectric energy is the preferred, or one of the preferred methods.

Hydroelectric power plants
Advantages of hydroelectricity 
The way the electricity is produced does not harm the environment as much as fossil fuels like oil or coal do. Hydroelectricity is very powerful and safe, and produces no waste.

An important advantage of hydroelectric dams is their ability to be used as a peaking power plant. When the electricity demand declines, the dam simply stores more water.  Water that has been stored in a reservoir can be released (let go) when needed, so the energy can be made quickly.  Some hydroelectricity generators use pumped storage to store excess energy (often during the night), by using the electricity to pump water up into a basin.  Electricity can be generated when demand increases.  This flexibility also makes hydroelectricity a good match for less controllable intermittent energy sources. When the wind is not blowing or the sun is not shining, hydroelectricity can be created.
Using stored water in river dams is sometimes complicated by irrigation needs which may happen out of phase with peak electrical demands.

Another advantage is that hydroelectricity cannot run out as long as there is a good water supply. Once the dam is built, the electricity costs very little, no waste or pollution is produced, and electricity can be generated whenever it is needed.

A few hydro turbines do not have a dam but instead use the current of the "run of the river". They produce less electricity and cannot store energy for later use.
Disadvantages of hydroelectricity 
The building of large dams to hold water can damage the environment. In 1983, the Australian government stopped the Tasmanian state government from building a dam on the Gordon River in Tasmania after a huge public protest. The dam would have flooded the Franklin River. The Three Gorges Dam in China is the world's largest hydroelectricity project, and the world's largest power plant of any kind. The dam has flooded a huge area, meaning that 1.2 million people had to be moved. Scientists are concerned about many problems with the dam, such as pollution, silt, and the danger of the dam wall breaking.

References

Other websites 
 The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on hydroelectricity
Hydropower
Mallaig is a small town in Scotland. It is also a port. Ferries link Mallaig, which is on the mainland, to some islands. About 797 lived there in 2001.

Towns in Highland
Cramlington is a town in the county of Northumberland, in the north-east of England.

Cramlington is about five miles from the coast. The nearest beach is at Blyth, which is to the east. The county town of Morpeth is rather nearby.

Newcastle city is also close, which people of Cramlington can go and enjoy.

Cramlington is rather new, with lots of parks. The bicycle track system means cyclists can travel around the entire town without having to travel on the roads. The underpasses under the major roads mean children can walk around safe from traffic.

History

It was thought the Vikings were the first to settle in Cramlington. Until relatively recently it was made up of a few small mining villages, but was chosen to be a new town and since the 1960s, builders have enlarged the town to become the town of 40,000 it is today.

Facilites

The headquarters of The Officers Club menswear store is in Cramlington.
A large indoor shopping mall, Manor Walks, serves as the main shopping centre, next to the old village centre. There is a large leisure centre, Concordia, next to the shopping centre which has an indoor pool, climbing wall and well-equipped gym.

There are lots of Christian churches in the town including two Methodist, an Anglican church with two plants, as well as a Catholic church and a few Pentecostal and charismatic churches.

Cramlington Community High School is the only secondary school in the town, which passed the recent OFSTED inspection with 'outstanding' grades. The school system is about to be replaced with the two tier system, in which the high school will cater for 11-18 year olds.

Famous People

The comedian Ross Noble grew up in Cramlington.

References

Towns in Northumberland
Belfast (Irish: Béal Feirste) is the capital of Northern Ireland. It is the second largest city in Ireland, after Dublin. About 270,000 people live in the city. It became capital of Northern Ireland when Northern Ireland was created in 1921. A lot of famous ships were built by the Belfast shipyard Harland and Wolff. In 1911 they built the RMS Titanic.

 
Capital cities in Europe
Dungeness is a place on the coast in Kent, England. There are two power stations there called Dungeness Nuclear Power Station. There are also two lighthouses.

Kent
A power station (or power plant) is a place where electricity is produced. Most do this by  a big spinning electrical generator. In big powers stations the spinning is usually driven by a steam turbine. The steam may come from:

 Burning fossil fuels
 Nuclear power, using radioactive sources
 Using the earth's heat, called geothermal energy
 Using the sun's heat

Some do not use steam engines to spin the generator. Rather they use: 
 Hydropower, which uses the power of moving water to drive turbines
 Using the wind to drive wind turbines
 Internal combustion engine power

A few power stations use the sun's rays to generate solar power without motion.  There are many power stations around the world, because many things need electricity to work.

Stations may be operated as Load following power plant, peaking power plant, or base load power plant.

Energy sources

Renewable energy resources 
Renewable heat energy
 Solar thermal power
 Geothermal energy
Renewable flow energy
 Hydro-electric power
 Wind power
 Wave power
 Tidal power

Non-renewable energy resources 
These all use heat as a source of energy.
 Coal
 Oil
 Natural gas
 Nuclear power

Solid-state electricity sources 
These sources have no moving parts. They are more expensive than generators, and are used where other questions are more important.
 Solar cell
 Battery
 Thermocouple

Other websites

 
Electricity
The mind is a general term for the way a person thinks, reasons, perceives, wills, has ideas, and feels. For science, what others call the mind is entirely caused by workings of the brain. The philosopher Gilbert Ryle called mind the "Ghost in the Machine". He said the idea that it was separate from the brain was the mistaken "Official Doctrine". However, some think that mind is separate from the body and is called a soul (see dualism).

Many people argue about what makes up the mind. Some say that only reason and memory are part of the mind, because they are conscious. In this view the emotions like love, hate, fear and joy are different from the mind. Some people with this view say the emotions are part of the heart. Others argue that our rational and emotional states cannot be separated and should all be part of what we call the mind.
People often use mind  to mean the same as thought: the way we talk to ourselves "inside our heads". This is where the sayings "make up our minds," "change our minds" and "of two minds" come from. One of the important things of the mind in this sense is that it is private. No one else can "know our mind."

History of the word
The original meaning of the Old English gemynd was memory. This explains the sayings call to mind, come to mind, keep in mind, to have mind of, and so on. Old English had other words to express what we call "mind" today, such as hyge, meaning "mind, spirit".
The word mind gradually grew to mean all conscious thought over the 14th and 15th centuries.

Studying the mind

Aspects of the mind 
Thought is when we absorb what happens around us so that we can deal with it effectively according to our plans and desires. Thinking is using information, like forming concepts, problem solving, reasoning and making choices.

Memory is when we store information in our minds, and can later recall it.
Imagination is the ability to invent worlds inside the mind, complete or not. The mind makes these by drawing on experience in the shared world.

Consciousness is knowing that we exist and the world exists, and being able to understand what happens around us.

Mental health 
Just like the body, a mind can be healthy.  The measure of this is called mental health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there is not one way to measure mental health in all people, because there are many things in our environment that might make what is mentally healthy different from one person to another.  In general, most experts agree that "mental health" and "mental illness" are not opposites.  In other words, not having a mental illness does not mean you are in good mental health.
One way to study mental health is by looking at how well a person lives.  Signs of mental health include: feeling capable and happy, being able to handle normal levels of stress, making and keeping friends, leading an independent life, and being able to  recover from difficult situations.

Philosophy 
Philosophy of mind is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind and how it is linked to the body. The main problem is how the mind is related to the body, but there are also questions about the nature of the mind that do not talk about its relation to the physical body.

Dualism and monism are the two main ways people try to solve the mind-body problem. Dualism is when people believe that the mind and body are in some way separate from each other. It can be traced back to Plato, Aristotle, and the Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hindu philosophy, but it was most precisely formulated by René Descartes in the 17th century.
Monism is the belief that mind and body are not physiologically and ontologically distinct kinds of entities. This view was first seen in Western philosophy by  Parmenides in the 5th century BC and was later held by the 17th-century rationalist Baruch Spinoza. According to Spinoza, mind and body are two parts of a larger being.

Idealists think that the mind is all that exists and that the outside world is actually made up by the mind. Physicalists think that everything can be expressed by what is physical. Neutral monists believe that everything can be either mental or physical depending how you see it. For example, a red spot on a wall is physical, because it is an actual thing depending on the physical wall, but it is mental because our brain responds to the colour.  The most common monisms in the 20th and 21st centuries have all been different kinds of physicalism, including  behaviorism.
Psychology 
Psychology is the study of the way we think, feel and act. It involves the scientific study of processes such as perception, cognition, feelings, personality, as well as things around us that might affect the way we think. From this study, psychologists try to form rules for why we act the way we do. Psychology also includes using this knowledge to help solve problems of everyday life and treat mental health problems.

Social psychology and group behaviour 
Social psychology is the study of how we think, feel and act in groups of other people. Most people who study social psychology are either psychologists or sociologists.

Mind's eye 

The phrase Mind's eye refers to the ability to see things with the mind.

Related pages
Trance
Cognition

References

Psychology
Philosophy
Reality means anything that exists. An event that has actually happened, or a thing which really exists is said to have "reality." Something close to reality is realistic.

Reality is the state of things as they are, rather than as they may appear or might be imagined. In a wider definition, reality includes everything that is and has been, whether or not we can see it and understand it. An even wider definition includes everything that has existed, exists, or will exist.

Reality is often contrasted with what is imaginary, delusional, in the mind, dreams, what is false, what is fictional, or what is abstract.

All the same, what is abstract plays a role in everyday life and in academic research. For instance, causality, virtue, life and justice are abstract concepts. They are difficult to define, but they are not pure delusions.

Television programs that are not scripted are called Reality TV.
Viewpoints on reality
Philosophy looks at the nature of reality itself, and the relationship between the mind (as well as language and culture) and reality.
Science: the view that the world described by science is the real world. The scientists' view of reality depends on evidence, tests and experiments, worked out by specialists. In the end, what ends up in textbooks is what an "invisible college" of scientists has agreed on.

References
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (30 August 1797 – 1 February 1851) was an English writer. She is best known for writing the novel Frankenstein. She was in her teens when she wrote the book. She later edited the poems of her husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley.

Early life 
After her mother's death, Shelley lived with her older half-sister Fanny Imlay and their father. Fanny Imlay was Wollstonecraft's daughter from an affair she had with a soldier. Shelley's father married Mary Jane Clairmont in 1801. Clairmont already had two children and later had a son with Shelley's father. During that time, Shelleys's stepmother thought Shelley did not need be educated. Shelley did not give up because of that. She used her father's library and was often found reading by her mother's grave. Shelley's father often had visitors like Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth. She used those times to learn from them.
During May 1816, Mary and her husband Percy Bysshe Shelley traveled to Lake Geneva. They spent the summer near the famous poet Lord Byron. In terms of English literature, it was a great summer. Percy began work on "Hymn To Intellectual Beauty" and "Mont Blanc". Mary was inspired to write her classic work.

Frankenstein 
One evening, the group of young writers decided to have a contest telling horror stories. Another guest, Dr. Oliver Polidori, came up with The Vampyre. This later had a strong influence on Bram Stoker's Dracula. Other guests told scary stories, but Mary could not think of one. But that night, she dreamt of the story she had wanted to tell. She wrote it down, and in time, her story would be published as Frankenstein. It became more successful than any of the other writings produced that summer.
The year she published "The Modern Prometheus", known as Frankenstein was 1818. Mary was only 20 years-old. It is sometimes called the world's first science fiction novel. The ideas for both "Frankenstein" and Polidori's "The Vampyre" were from the famous poet, Lord Byron. The books "Frankenstein" and "The Vampyre" were both published on the same year. Once Mary Shelley published Frankenstein, her life became more interesting

Mary had many different sources for her work; one was the Promethean myth from Ovid. The influence of John Milton's Paradise Lost (the book the 'monster' finds in the cabin) is also seen in the novel. Also, she had read William Beckford's Vathek.

Marriage and Family Life
Shortly after Harriet's death, Shelley and Mary married, now with Godwin's blessing. Their attempts to gain custody of Shelley's two children by Harriet failed. Even though this happened, their writing careers enjoyed more success. In the spring of 1817, Mary finished Frankenstein. Mary had two sons and a daughter. The daughter died in infancy and the elder son when he was two. Mary and Percy were both vegetarians, and strong advocates for animal rights. One can see references to vegetarianism in her writing. For example, in her novel Frankenstein, the 'monster' was a vegetarian. After Percy's death in 1822, she returned to England to finish Shelley's writings and educate their only surviving child.

End Of Life 
Mary Shelley died of brain cancer on February 1, 1851 in London. Her body was buried at St. Peter's Churchyard in Bournemouth, in the English county of Dorset.
In Popular Culture 
Four films have shown Mary Shelley, and the basic idea of the Frankenstein story in 1816: Gothic directed by Ken Russell (1986), Haunted Summer directed by Ivan Passer (1988), Remando al Viento (English title: Rowing with the Wind) directed by Gonzalo Suárez (1988) and Mary Shelley directed by Haifaa al-Mansour (2017)

References

Other websites

 
 Mary Shelley chronology and bibliography – part of Romantic Circles
 
 
 Mary Shelley -Citizendium

1797 births
1851 deaths
British feminists
Deaths from brain cancer
English novelists
Vegetarians
Writers from London
The sum of two numbers is their value added together. This operation is called additive summation or addition. There are many ways of writing sums, including:
Addition ()
Summation ()
Code:
Sum = 0
For I = M to N 
Sum = Sum + X(I)
Next I (in Visual BASIC)

Sigma notation
Sigma notation is a mathematical notation to write long sums in a short way. Sigma notation uses the Greek letter Sigma (), and takes upper and lower bounds which tell us where the sum begins and where it ends. The lower bound usually has a variable (called the index, often denoted by ,  or ) along with a value, such as "". This tells us that the summation begins at 2, and goes up by 1 until it reaches the number on the top.

Properties

Applications
Sums are used to represent series and sequences. For example:

The geometric series of a repeating decimal can be represented in summation. For example:

The concept of an integral is a limit of sums, with the area under a curve being defined as:

Related pages 

 Product (mathematics)
References

Further reading
 Nicholas J. Higham, "The accuracy of floating point summation", SIAM J. Scientific Computing 14 (4), 783–799 (1993).

Other websites
 
 Sigma Notation  on PlanetMath
 Derivation of Polynomials to Express the Sum of Natural Numbers with Exponents 

Arithmetics
Mathematical notation
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African politician and activist. On April 27, 1994, he was made the first President of South Africa elected in a fully represented democratic election. He was also the first black President of his country, South Africa.

Mandela was born in Mvezo, South Africa to a Thembu royal family.

His government focused on throwing out the legacy of apartheid by ending racism, poverty, inequality, and on improving racial understanding in South Africa. Politically a believer in socialism, he served as the President of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1991 to 1997 and adopted new Constitution of South African in 1996 that prohibits all discrimination, based on language, religion, handicap and sexual orientation, not only on racism. Internationally, Mandela was the Secretary General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999.
Mandela received more than 250 honors, including the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Soviet Order of Lenin. He is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, or as Tata ("Father"). Mandela was described as a hero, and his actions gave thousands of people hope.

Mandela was sick  for several years during his retirement. He was hospitalized in late summer of 2013 from a continuous lung infection. Mandela died on 5 December 2013 in Houghton Estate, Johannesburg from a respiratory tract infection. He was 95 years old.

Early life
Early life 

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in Mvezo, Umtata (now Mthatha), Transkei, South Africa. He had thirteen siblings by the same father, and two mothers. His parents were Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa and Nosekeni Nonqaphi . His given name was Rolihlahla, a Xhosa name meaning pulling the branch of a tree or informally, troublemaker. He was a member of the Thembu royal family. On his first day of school, he was given the name Nelson by his teacher Miss Mdingane. Giving children in Africa English names was a custom among Africans during that period.

Mandela's father died when he was twelve. Mandela then lived with the local regent who sent him to school. He was the first member of his family to go to a school. He was expelled from Fort Hare University in 1941, because he led a group of students on political strike. After he was expelled, Nelson found a job as a night watchman.
Anti-apartheid activity 
In 1944, Mandela helped start the African National Congress Youth League. He was soon a high-ranked leader of the group.

He wanted to free South Africa without violence, but the government started killing and hurting protesters. He then started Umkhonto we Sizwe with Walter Sisulu and other people in the African National Congress that he admired, such as Mahatma Gandhi.

A trial was later held and became known as the Rivonia Trial. Mandela was on trial because of his involvement in sabotage and violence in 1962. He was sentenced to life in prison, and was sent to Robben Island, but was transferred to Victor Verster Prison in 1988. In 1990, he was let out of Victor Verster Prison after 26.5 years. He left prison after de Klerk removed a ban on the African National Congress. He ordered Mandela's release. He then received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993, with former State President of South Africa, Frederik Willem de Klerk.

Presidency
Presidency 

Mandela won the general election in April 1994. His inauguration was in Pretoria on 10 May 1994. Many people around the world saw his inauguration on television. The event had 4000 guests, including world leaders from different backgrounds. Mandela was the first South African President elected in a completely democratic election.

As South Africa's first black President, Mandela became head of the Government of National Unity which was under controlled by the African National Congress (or ANC). The ANC had no knowledge in politics, but had representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. In keeping with earlier promises, de Klerk became first Deputy President, while Thabo Mbeki was chosen second.
Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for president, Mandela soon trusted Mbeki throughout his presidency. This allowed Mbeki to organize policy details. Mandela moved into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town. He would settle into the nearby Westbrooke Manor. Westbrooke was renamed Genadendal. Preserving his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu. He visited Qunu regularly, walking around the area, meeting with local people who lived there, and judging tribal problems.
He faced many illness at age 76. Although having energy, he felt left out and lonely. He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls. He became friends with a number of rich business people, like Harry Oppenheimer and British monarch Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa. This resulted in strong judgment from ANC anti-capitalists. Despite his surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his $552,000 wealth to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, which he had founded in 1995. In that same year, Mandela published his autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom.
Although in favor of freedom of the press, Mandela was important of much of the country's media because it was owned and run by many middle-class whites. Mandela became known for his use of Batik shirts, known as Madiba shirts, even on normal events. Mandela had never planned on serving a second term in office. Mandela gave his farewell speech on 29 March 1999, after which he retired. Mandela's term ended on 14 June 1999. Thabo Mbeki succeeded Mandela as President of South Africa.

Nobel Prize 

He won the Nobel Peace Prize for his leadership for his anti-apartheid activism in 1993. After receiving the prize he said:

<blockquote>"We stand here today as nothing more than a representative of the millions of our people who dared to rise up against a social operation whose very essence is war, violence, racism, oppression, repression and the impoverishment of an entire people."</p>
</blockquote>
Personal life 
Mandela was married three times and has six children. He had seventeen grandchildren, and a growing number of great-grandchildren. Though physically non-emotional with his children, he could be stern and demanding.

Mandela married Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944. They had two children. Mandela remained married to Evelyn until they divorced in 1957. Evelyn died in 2004. He then married Winnie Madikizela in 1958. They had two daughters. The couple filed for separation in 1992. They divorced in 1996. Mandela married again  to Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in 1998. She was the widow of Samora Machel. Machel was the former Mozambican president and ANC ally who was killed in an air crash 12 years earlier.

Though publicly criticizing him on several events, Mandela liked United States President Bill Clinton. Mandela personally supported him during his impeachment trial in 1998.
Public retirement 
In June 2004, Mandela announced that he was retiring from public life. Mandela said "Don't call me, I will call you". Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the Nelson Mandela Foundation denied invitations for him to appear at public events and most interview requests.

Health 

On 27 March 2013, Mandela was hospitalized in Pretoria from a lung infection. It was reported on 28 March that he was responding well to treatment. Mandela was again hospitalized on 7 June from another lung infection, On 23 June, his condition was announced to be critical. On 26 June, it was announced that Mandela was put on life-support. On 4 July, Mandela's family announced that Mandela was under life-support and he was in a permanent persistent vegetative state. The next day, the South African government denied the fact that Mandela was in a vegetative state. Mandela was discharged from the hospital on 1 September 2013.

2013 death rumor