Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Formation of molecular orbitals
Theoretical chemists have invented rules for calculating MOs. These rules come from an understanding of quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics helps chemists to use what physics said about electrons to work out how the electrons behave in molecules.
Molecular orbitals form from "allowed" interactions between atomic orbitals. (The interactions are "allowed" if the symmetries (determined from group theory) of the atomic orbitals are compatible with each other.) Chemists study atomic orbital interactions. These interactions come from the overlap (a measure of how well two orbitals constructively interact with one another) between two atomic orbitals. The overlap is important if the atomic orbitals are close in energy.  Finally, the number of MOs in a molecule must equal the number of atomic orbitals in the atoms being brought together to form the molecule.
Qualitative approach
Chemists need to understand the geometry of MOs in order to discuss molecular structure. The LCMO (Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital) method gives a rough but good description of the MOs. In this method, the molecular orbitals are expressed as linear combinations of all of the atomic orbitals of each atom in the molecule.

Linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO)

Molecular orbitals were first introduced by Friedrich Hund and Robert S. Mulliken in 1927 and 1928.

The linear combination of atomic orbitals or "LCAO" approximation for molecular orbitals was introduced in 1929 by Sir John Lennard-Jones. His ground-breaking paper showed how to derive the electronic structure of the fluorine and oxygen molecules from quantum principles. This qualitative approach to molecular orbital theory is part of the start of modern quantum chemistry.
Linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO) can be used to guess the molecular orbitals that are made when the molecule’s atoms bond together. Similar to an atomic orbital, a Schrodinger equation, which describes the behavior of an electron, can be constructed for a molecular orbital as well. Linear combinations of atomic orbitals, (the sums and differences of the atomic wavefunctions) provide approximate solutions to the molecular Schrodinger equations. For simple diatomic molecules, the wavefunctions that you get are represented mathematically by the equations

Ψ = caψa + cbψb

and

Ψ* = caψa - cbψb
Ψ* = caψa - cbψb

where Ψ and Ψ* are the molecular wavefunctions for the bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals, respectively, ψa and ψb are the atomic wavefunctions from atoms a and b, respectively, and ca  and cb  are adjustable coefficients. These coefficients can be positive or negative, depending on the energies and symmetries of the individual atomic orbitals. As the two atoms become closer together, their atomic orbitals overlap to produce areas of high electron density. So, molecular orbitals are formed between the two atoms. The atoms are held together by the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nuclei and the negatively charged electrons occupying bonding molecular orbitals.

Bonding, Antibonding, and Nonbonding MOs
When atomic orbitals interact, the resulting molecular orbital can be of three types: bonding, antibonding, or nonbonding.

Bonding MOs:
Bonding MOs:

Bonding interactions between atomic orbitals are constructive (in-phase) interactions.
Bonding MOs are lower in energy than the atomic orbitals that combine to produce them.
Antibonding MOs: 
Antibonding interactions between atomic orbitals are destructive (out-of-phase) interactions.
Antibonding MOs are higher in energy than the atomic orbitals that combine to produce them.
Nonbonding MOs: 
Nonbonding MOs are the result of no interaction between atomic orbitals because of lack of compatible symmetries.
Nonbonding MOs will have the same energy as the atomic orbitals of one of the atoms in the molecule.

HOMO and LUMO
HOMO and LUMO

Each molecular orbital has its own energy level. Chemists sort the MOs by energy levels. Chemists assume that the electrons will fill the lowest energy level MOs first. For example, if a molecule has electrons to fill 15 orbitals, the 15 MOs with the lowest energy levels will be filled. The 15th MO on the list would be called the "highest occupied molecular orbital" (HOMO) and the 16th MO on the list would be the "lowest unoccupied molecular orbital" (LUMO). The difference in the HOMO's energy level and the LUMO's energy level is called the band gap. The band gap can sometimes serve as a measure of the excitability of the molecule: the smaller the energy, the more easily it will be excited. When the electron is excited, it will jump to an unoccupied MO. For example, this can help guess whether something will give out light (luminescence).

References
References

Other websites
Java molecular orbital viewer shows orbitals of hydrogen molecular ion.
The orbitron, a visualization of all atomic, and some molecular and hybrid orbitals
xeo Visualizations of some atomic and molecular atoms
Simulations of molecules with electrons caught in molecular orbital (Simulations run on PC only.)

Physics
Quantum chemistry
Theoretical chemistry
Computational chemistry
Chemical bonding
The Woodward–Hoffmann rules are a set of organic chemistry rules to predict the stereochemistry of pericyclic reactions. Pericyclic reactions are usually rearrangement reactions where the molecule is a ring (e.g. benzene ring).  They were written by Robert Burns Woodward (a chemistry professor at Harvard University) and Roald Hoffmann (a chemistry professor at Cornell University). Hoffmann was awarded the 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work, shared with Kenichi Fukui who developed a similar model. Woodward did not share the prize because he died two years before. Generally, the Nobel Prize is awarded only to living people. Woodward had already won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for a different discovery.
A recent paper in the journal Nature describes how mechanical stress can be used to reshape chemical reaction pathways to lead to products that apparently violate Woodward–Hoffman rules.<ref>Biasing reaction pathways with mechanical force. Nature 2007 446:423-427  (See also the corresponding "News and Views" in the same issue of Nature)</ref>

 Related pages 
 Woodward's rules for calculating UV absorptions
 Torquoselectivity

 References 

 Other websites 
 Symmetry rules!'', Sophie Wilkinson Chemical & Engineering News January 27, 2003 Volume 81, Number 04 CENEAR 81 04 pp. 59 ISSN 0009-2347 Article
 "SHMO calculator", Simple Huckel molecular orbital theory calculator Link 

Organic chemistry
Theoretical chemistry
Stereochemistry is the study of how molecules are affected by the way their atoms are arranged in space. It is also known as 3D chemistry as the word stereo means three dimensional. Using stereochemistry, chemists can work out the relationships between different molecules that are made up from the same atoms. They can also study the effect on the physical or biological properties these relationships give molecules. When these relationships influence the reactivity of the molecules it is called dynamic stereochemistry.
In chemistry, some molecules have more than one isomer. This means that molecules can have different forms, even though all the forms are made of the same atoms. There are two kinds of isomers. Constitutional isomers have the same atoms, but they are joined differently. Stereoisomers have the same atoms, they are joined the same way, but the atoms are arranged differently in space. An important part of stereochemistry is the study of chiral molecules. These molecules look almost identical, except that one molecule is the mirror image of the other.

In most chemical bonds, the atoms of a molecule free to move around without breaking the bonds. When a molecule has a double bond or a ring structure, the molecule can be sorted into different isomers. These are molecules with the same chemical structure but different forms.

The study of stereochemical problems covers the entire range of organic, inorganic, biological, physical and supramolecular chemistries.
History
Louis Pasteur was the first person to study stereochemistry. He observed in 1849 that salts of tartaric acid collected from wine-making equipment could rotate plane polarized light, but that salts from other sources did not. This property was the only difference between the two types of salt. It is due to optical isomerism. In 1874, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Joseph Le Bel discovered the difference was caused by the way that the atoms bonded to carbon in a tetrahedral (four faced) shape.
Uses of stereochemistry
Stereochemistry was important in solving the thalidomide disaster in the 1960s. Thalidomide is a drug that was first produced in 1957 in Germany. Doctors used it to treat morning sickness in pregnant women. Later, the drug was shown to cause deformations in babies. One isomer of the drug was not dangerous, but the other caused serious genetic damage to the embryos. In the human body, thalidomide undergoes racemization: even if only one of the two stereoisomers enters a human body, the body changes some of it to other one. The thalidomide disaster caused governments to test drugs more carefully. Selected people take new drugs in an experiment (clinical trial) first before the drug is made available for public use. Thalidomide is now used as a therapy for leprosy. Women must use it with contraceptives to prevent pregnancy.

Describing a molecule's stereochemistry
When an atom can have other atoms connect to it in more than one way, it is called a stereocenter.  For example, if a carbon atom has four different groups attached to it, it becomes a stereocenter.

Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority rules are part of a system for describing a molecule's stereochemistry. They rank the atoms around a stereocenter in a standard way. This allows the relative position of these atoms in the molecule to be described very clearly. A Fischer projection is a simplified way to show the stereochemistry around a stereocenter.

Related pages
 Chirality (chemistry)
 Alkane stereochemistry

References
Cornel Ronald West (born June 2, 1953) is an American philosopher, author, critic, actor, and civil rights activist. He is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America. West is the Class of 1943 University Professor at Princeton University. He teaches in the Center for African American Studies and in the Department of Religion. West is known for his combination of political and moral insight and criticism and his contribution to the post-1960s civil rights movement. Much of West's work focuses on the role of  race, gender, and class in American society and the means by which people act and react to their "radical conditionedness". West draws intellectual contributions from such diverse traditions as the African American Baptist Church, pragmatism and transcendentalism.

In June 2023, West announced his candidacy for President of the United States in the 2024 election. He ran for the Green Party nomination until switching to an Independent bid.
Early life 
West was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and grew up in Sacramento, California, where his father was a general contractor for the Defense Department and his mother was a teacher and a principal. Irene B. West Elementary School, Elk Grove, California, is named for her. While West was a student, he marched in civil rights demonstrations. As the class president in his high school, West organized protests demanding black studies courses. He later wrote that, in his youth, he admired "the sincere black militancy of Malcolm X, the defiant rage of the Black Panther Party [...] and the livid black theology of James Cone."
In 1970, West graduated from John F. Kennedy High School. He enrolled at Harvard University and took classes from philosophers Robert Nozick and Stanley Cavell. In 1973, he graduated magna cum laude in Near Eastern Languages and Civilization.  "Owing to my family, church, and the black social movements of the 1960s", he says, "I arrived at Harvard unashamed of my African, Christian, and militant de-colonized outlooks. More pointedly, I acknowledged and accented the empowerment of my black styles, mannerisms, and viewpoints, my Christian values of service, love, humility, and struggle, and my anti-colonial sense of self-determination for oppressed people and nations around the world."
Career

Ph.D and other degrees 
In 1980, he earned a Ph.D. from Princeton, where he was influenced by Richard Rorty's pragmatism. The title of his dissertation was Ethics, historicism and the Marxist tradition, which was later revised and published under the title The Ethical Dimensions of Marxist Thought.

In his mid-20s, he returned to Harvard as a W. E. B. Du Bois Fellow before becoming an Assistant Professor at Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York.  In 1985, he worked at Yale Divinity School in what eventually became a joint appointment in American Studies. While at Yale, he participated in campus protests for a clerical labor union and divestment from apartheid South Africa. He was arrested and jailed at one of the protests. As punishment, the University administration canceled his leave for Spring 1987, leading him to commute from Yale in New Haven, Connecticut, where he was teaching two classes, across the Atlantic Ocean to the University of Paris.
He then returned to Union and taught at Haverford College in Pennsylvania for one year before going to Princeton to become a Professor of Religion and Director of the Program in African-American Studies (1988–94). He worked with novelist Toni Morrison to improve the Princeton program.

In 1994, West accepted an appointment as Professor of African-American Studies at Harvard University, with a joint appointment at the Harvard Divinity School.  West taught one of the University's most popular courses, an introductory class on African-American Studies.  In 1998, he was appointed the first Alphonse Fletcher University Professor.  This professorship allowed West to teach both African-American studies and Divinity, Religion, and Philosophy.

In 2001, after an argument with Harvard President Lawrence Summers, West returned to Princeton, where he has taught ever since.
The recipient of more than 20 honorary degrees and an American Book Award, he is a long-time member of the Democratic Socialists of America, for which he now serves as Honorary Chair. He is also a co-chair of the Tikkun Community and the Network of Spiritual Progressives.  West is on the Board of Directors of the International Bridges to Justice, among others. West is also much sought-after as a speaker, blurb-writer, and Honorary Chair.

Critics, most notably The New Republic Literary Editor Leon Wieseltier, have charged him with opportunism, crass showmanship, and lack of scholarly seriousness.

West remains a widely cited scholar in the popular press in African-American Studies and Studies of Black Theology.

West is a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. He is a member of the fraternity's World Policy Council, a think tank whose purpose is to expand Alpha Phi Alpha's involvement in politics and social and current policy to encompass international concerns.
Entertainment career
West appears in both The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions,  playing Councilor West, who serves on the council of Zion. West's character advises that "comprehension is not a requisite of cooperation."  In addition, West provides philosophical commentary on all three Matrix films in The Ultimate Matrix Collection, along with integral theorist Ken Wilber.

Cornel West has also made several appearances in documentary films, such as the 2008 film Examined Life, a documentary featuring several academics discussing philosophy in real-world contexts. West, "driving through Manhattan, . . . compares philosophy to jazz and blues, reminding us how intense and invigorating a life of the mind can be."
He also appears in conversation with Bill Withers in the Bill Withers documentary, Still Bill.
West also makes frequent appearances on the political talk show Real Time with Bill Maher.
On the musical front, West recorded a recitation of John Mellencamp's song "Jim Crow" for inclusion on the singer's box set On the Rural Route 7609 in 2009.
In 2010, he completed recording with the Cornel West Theory, a Hip Hop band endorsed by West. He has also released two hip-hop/soul/spoken word albums, one under "Cornel West" (entitled Street Knowledge), the other under "Cornel West & B.M.W.M.B." (entitled Never Forget: A Journey of Revelations). Both works are musical expressions of West's personal politics and beliefs which he has enunciated in his previous written works.
In 2000, economist and former U.S. Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers became president of Harvard. In a private meeting with West, Summers allegedly rebuked West for missing too many classes, contributing to grade inflation, neglecting serious scholarship, and spending too much time on his economically profitable projects.  Some people say that Summers allegedly suggested that West produce an academic book (work that is typical of senior Harvard professors). West had written several books, some of them widely cited, but his recent output consisted primarily of co-written and edited volumes. According to some reports, Summers also objected to West's production of a CD, the critically panned Sketches of My Culture, and to his political campaigning. According to West's book Democracy Matters, Summers wrongly accused him of canceling classes for three straight weeks during 2000 to promote Bill Bradley's presidential campaign
. West contends that he had missed one class during his tenure at Harvard "in order to give a keynote address at a Harvard-sponsored conference on AIDS." Summers also allegedly suggested that since West held the rank of Harvard University Professor and thus reported directly to the President, he should meet with Summers regularly to discuss the progress of his academic production.
West contends that popular coverage of the controversy obscured the true issues at stake in his dispute with Summers.  West argues that Summers's vision of academia is corrosive to a deep democratic commitment that strives to connect the academy with society at large, so as to fulfill its calling to educate the public.  He contends that the controversy with Summers was indicative of the fact that "a market-driven technocratic culture has infiltrated university life, with the narrow pursuit of academic trophies and the business of generating income from grants and business partnerships taking precedence over the fundamental responsibility of nurturing young minds."   According to West, during the controversy he was highly regarded in the academic community, "had more academic references than fourteen of the other seventeen Harvard University Professors", and "had nearly twice as many such references as Summers himself
." At the time, West had been focused on reaching wider audiences as part of his effort to encourage civic engagement—especially amongst youth—in the hope of revitalizing what he calls a deep democratic commitment that would counteract the encroaching political nihilism that he argues threatens the future of American democracy.  While West does not deny the importance of academics engaging the more specialized concerns of their fields, he strongly opposes the sentiment that academia must limit itself to those rarefied interests.  Academia and academics, he contends, have an important role to play in promoting public discourse that cannot be achieved if professors lock themselves in their ivory towers instead of engaging society-at-large and the salient issues of the day.  Ultimately, this was the root of the quarrel, according to West.
Summers refused to comment on the details of his conversation with West, except to express hope that West would remain at Harvard. Soon after, West was hospitalized for prostate cancer. West complained that Summers failed to send him get-well wishes until weeks after his surgery, whereas newly installed Princeton president Shirley Tilghman had contacted him frequently before and after his treatment. In 2002 West left Harvard University to return to Princeton. West lashed out at Summers in public interviews, calling him "the Ariel Sharon of higher education" on NPR's Tavis Smiley Show. In response to these remarks, five Princeton faculty members, led by professor of molecular biology Jacques Robert Fresco, said they looked with "strong disfavor upon his characterization" of Summers and that "such an analogy carries innuendoes and implications... that many on the Princeton faculty find highly inappropriate, indeed repugnant and intolerable."
Harvard University's undergraduate student newspaper, The Harvard Crimson, suggested in October 2002 that the premise of Law and Order: Criminal Intent episode "Anti-Thesis" was based on West's conflicts with Summers.

Dispute with President Barack Obama
West publicly supported 2008 Democratic Presidential candidate Senator Barack Obama.  He spoke to over 1,000 of his supporters at the Apollo Theater in Harlem, N.Y.C. on November 29, 2007.  However, West now calls Obama  a "black mascot of Wall Street oligarchs and a black puppet of corporate plutocrats." In an interview, West said:As a young brother who grows up in a white context, brilliant African father, he's always had to fear being a white main with a black skin. All he has known culturally is white.West's comments about President Obama have drawn criticism from other African-Americans, including Melissa Harris-Perry and Al Sharpton.
West criticized President Obama when Obama won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2009, saying that it would be difficult for Obama to be "a war president with a peace prize".
West recanted his support for Obama in an April 2011 interview, in which he said Obama is merely a "black mascot" for America's elites and also "a black muppet of corporate plutocrats."

Activism
Activism

Views on race in America
West has called the U.S. a "racist patriarchal" nation where "white supremacy" continues to define everyday life. "White America," he writes, "has been historically weak-willed in ensuring racial justice and has continued to resist fully accepting the humanity of blacks." This has resulted, he claims, in the creation of many "degraded and oppressed people hungry for identity, meaning, and self-worth." Professor West attributes most of the black community's problems to "existential angst derive[d] from the lived experience of ontological wounds and emotional scars inflicted by white supremacist beliefs and images permeating U.S. society and culture."
In West's view, the September 11, 2001 attacks gave white Americans a glimpse of what it means to be a black person in the United States—feeling "unsafe, unprotected, subject to random violence, and hatred" for who they are. "The ugly terrorist attacks on innocent civilians on 9/11," he said, "plunged the whole country into the blues."

Politics 
West has described himself as a "non-Marxist socialist" (partly due to Marx's opposition to religion) and serves as honorary chair of the Democratic Socialists of America, which he has described as "the first multiracial, socialist organization close enough to my politics that I could join". He also described himself as a "radical democrat, suspicious of all forms of authority" on the Matrix-themed documentary The Burly Man Chronicles (Found in The Ultimate Matrix Collection).
West has been involved with such projects as the Million Man March and Russell Simmons's Hip-Hop Summit, and worked with such public figures as Louis Farrakhan and Al Sharpton, whose 2004 presidential campaign West advised.

In 2000, West worked as a senior advisor to Democratic presidential candidate Bill Bradley. When Bradley lost in the primaries, West became a prominent endorser of Ralph Nader, even speaking at some Nader rallies. Some Greens sought to draft West to run as a presidential candidate in 2004.  West declined, citing his active participation in the Al Sharpton campaign. West, along with other prominent Nader 2000 supporters, signed the "Vote to Stop Bush" statement urging progressive voters in swing states to vote for John Kerry, despite strong disagreements with many of Kerry's policies.
In April 2002 West and Rabbi Michael Lerner performed an act of civil disobedience at the U.S. State Department "in solidarity with suffering Palestinian and Israeli brothers and sisters". West said, "We must keep in touch with the humanity of both sides." In May 2007 West joined a demonstration against "injustices faced by the Palestinian people resulting from the Israeli occupation" and "to bring attention to this 40 year travesty of justice".  In 2011, West called on the University of Arizona to divest from companies profiting from the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian Territories.

West also serves as co-chair of the Tikkun Community. He co-chaired the National Parenting Organization's Task Force on Parent Empowerment and participated in President Clinton's National Conversation on Race. He has publicly endorsed In These Times magazine by calling it: "The most creative and challenging news magazine of the American left". He is also a contributing editor for Sojourners Magazine.
West supports of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA.) in its Kentucky Fried Cruelty campaign, aimed at eliminating what PETA describes as KFC's inhumane treatment of chickens. West is quoted on PETA flyers: "Although most people don't know chickens as well as they know cats and dogs, chickens are interesting individuals with personalities and interests every bit as developed as the dogs and cats with whom many of us share our lives."

In 2008, West contributed his insights on the current global issue of modernized slavery and human trafficking in the rockumentary Call+Response.

West is a member of the Campaign for Peace and Democracy.

During the 2016 United States presidential election, West was a strong supporter and campaigned for Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders. After Sanders lost the Democratic nomination, West supported Jill Stein of the Green Party.

2024 presidential election
In June 2023, West announced his candidacy for President of the United States in the 2024 presidential election. At first he said he was going to run for the People's Party, but then switched for the Green Party nomination.

His campaign has been controversial at times over his potential to become a spoiler candidate and hand the election to Donald Trump or another Republican.

On October 5, 2023 West announced that he was abandoning his candidacy for the Green nomination, and would instead continue his presidential bid as an independent candidate.
Published works 
 Black Theology and Marxist Thought (1979)
 Prophesy Deliverance! An Afro-American Revolutionary Christianity (1982)
 Prophetic Fragments (1988)
 The American Evasion of Philosophy: A Genealogy of Pragmatism (1989)
 Breaking Bread: Insurgent Black Intellectual Life (with bell hooks, 1991)
 The Ethical Dimensions of Marxist Thought (1991)
 Beyond Eurocentrism and Multiculturalism (1993)
 Race Matters (1993)
 Keeping Faith: Philosophy and Race in America (1994)
 Jews and Blacks: A Dialogue on Race, Religion, and Culture in America (with rabbi Michael Lerner, 1995)
 The Future of the Race (with Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 1996)
 Restoring Hope: Conversations on the Future of Black America (1997)
 The War Against Parents: What We Can Do For America's Beleaguered Moms and Dads (with Sylvia Ann Hewlett, 1998)
 The Future of American Progressivism (with Roberto Unger, 1998)
 The African-American Century: How Black Americans Have Shaped Our Century (with Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 2000)
Cornel West: A Critical Reader (George Yancy, editor) (2001)
 Democracy Matters: Winning the Fight Against Imperialism (2004)
 Commentary on The Matrix, Matrix Reloaded and Matrix Revolutions; see The Ultimate Matrix Collection (with Ken Wilber, 2004).
 Post-Analytic Philosophy, edited with John Rajchman.
 Hope On a Tightrope: Words & Wisdom (2008).
 Brother West: Living & Loving Out Loud (2009).
 The Rich and the Rest of Us: A Poverty Manifesto (with Tavis Smiley, 2012).
 Pro+Agonist: The Art of Opposition (2012)
References 

"Cornel Ronald West". Contemporary Black Biography, Volume 33. Edited by Ashyia Henderson. Gale Group, 2002. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: The Gale Group. 2004. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/BioRC
"Cornel West y la política de conversión". Thomas Ward. Resistencia cultural: La nación en el ensayo de las Américas. Lima, Universidad Ricardo Palma, 2004, págs. 344-348.
Nishikawa, Kinohi. "Cornel West." The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature. Ed. Hans Ostrom and J. David Macey, Jr. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. 1714-18.

Other websites
Other websites

 An Interview with Cornel West 
 Interview with Dr. Cornel West by JK Fowler on The Mantle March 18, 2011 
 Faculty bio at Princeton Religion department 
 Faculty bio at Princeton Center for African American Studies 
 Interview with Cornel West  from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
 CSPAN Booknotes The Cornel West Reader, 2/22/00 
 "Cornel West Gives Black Scholars a Bad Rap" By John McWhorter
 Dr. Cornel West Releases Long-Awaited Memoir - video report by Democracy Now!
Cornel West on Charles Rangel, Bush & Kanye West and Obama Admin
Living people
1953 births
2024 United States presidential candidates
American philosophers
American socialists
Democratic socialists
Writers from Tulsa, Oklahoma
African American writers
American Baptists
Harvard University alumni
Actors from Tulsa, Oklahoma
American civil rights activists
Princeton University faculty
Writers from California
Actors from California
Politicians from Tulsa, Oklahoma
Politicians from California
Green Party of the United States politicians
Anti-apartheid activists
Juno is an unmanned NASA New Frontiers spacecraft. It studies the planet Jupiter from orbit. It is the first mission to an outer planet to use solar panels for power instead of a radioisotope thermoelectric generator. The spacecraft was launched on August 5, 2011 from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and entered a polar orbit of Jupiter on July 5, 2016. Scott Bolton is leading the mission.

Juno's main goal is to understand the origin and evolution of Jupiter. Juno will also study the planet's atmospheric composition, gravity field, magnetic field, and polar magnetosphere.

References

Other websites

NASA spacecraft
Jupiter
Spacecrafts launched in 2010s
Mark Holton (born April 2, 1958) is an American actor. His movies include Hoboken Hollow (2007), Gacy, The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle (2000) and Little Giants (1994).

Holton went to school at Northeastern State University in Tahlequah, Oklahoma.

References

1958 births
Living people
American movie actors
Actors from Oklahoma
William Forsythe (born June 7, 1955) is an American actor. Forsythe played Al Capone in the television series The Untouchables. Forsythe has also played Sammy Gravano in the HBO movie Gotti and the serial killer John Wayne Gacy in Dear Mr. Gacy.

References

American movie actors
1955 births
Living people
American television actors
Actors from New York City
The Toyota Prius is a hybrid vehicle from the Japanese automobile producer Toyota. It is called 'hybrid' because it has two different engines: a gasoline engine (combustion engine) and an electric motor. Because of the electric motor, it uses less fuel than a normal gasoline automobile when driving at low speeds (for example in the city). The electric motor uses batteries for its power, and these batteries are charged by a dynamo when the gasoline engine is used at higher speeds. The first generation launched in Japan in December 1997, then it reached the rest of the world in 2000. It entered its second generation in 2003 and it began to become more popular with buyers. The third generation arrived in 2009 and grew larger in size. The fourth generation appeared in December 2015. The fifth generation arrived in 2022.

References 

1990s automobiles

2000s automobiles

2010s automobiles

2020s automobiles

Prius
The Upper Palaeolithic (Upper Paleolithic or Late Stone Age) is the third and last part of the Palaeolithic period. It lasted from about 40,000 to 10,000 years ago. Humans used tools for hunting and fishing. They also developed cave paintings. In this period, the Neanderthal man completely disappeared, leaving Homo sapiens as the only surviving species in the human genus.

In Europe, Asia and Africa, this time is known as the last part of the Old Stone Age.

The first modern humans  found in Western Europe date back to about 36,000 years ago. Those fossils were found in the south-west of Romania. The founds were made in a stone cave called Peștera cu Oase.

The Lascaux cave paintings are from this time period. They are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1979 and are in France.

Evidence for belief in the afterlife in the Upper Palaeolithic: appearance of burial rituals and ancestor worship.

Culture

Venus figurines
Venus figurines 

Possibly among the earliest traces of art are Venus figurines. These are figurines (very small statues) of women, mostly pregnant with visible breasts. The figurines were found in areas of Western Europe to Siberia. Most are between 20,000 and 30,000 years old. Two figurines have been found that are much older: the Venus of Tan-Tan, dated to 300,000 to 500,000 years ago was found in Morocco. The Venus of Berekhat Ram was found on the Golan Heights. It has been dated to 200,000 to 300,000 years ago. It may be the one of the earliest things that show the human form. 

Different kinds of stone, bones and ivory were used to make the figurines. Some are also made of clay which was then burned in a fire. This is one of the earliest known traces of the use of ceramics.
Today it is not known what the figurines meant to the people who made them. There are two basic theories:
 They may be representations of human fertility, or they may have been made to help it.
 They may represent (fertility) goddesses.
Scientists have excluded that these figurines were linked to the fertility of fields, because agriculture had not been discovered at the time the figurines were made.

The two figurines that are older may have mostly formed by natural processes. The Venus of Tan-Tan was covered with a substance that could have been some kind of paint. The substance contained traces of iron and manganese. The figurine of Berekhat Ram shows traces that someone worked on it with a tool. A study done in 1997 states that these traces could not have been left by nature alone.
Cave paintings 
Cave paintings are paintings that were made on the walls or roofs of caves. Many cave paintings belong to the Palaeolothic Age, and date from about 15,000 to 30,000 years ago. Among the most famous are those in the caves of Altamira in Spain and Lascaux in France.p545 There are about 350 caves in Europe where cave paintings have been found. Usually, animals have been painted, like aurochs, bisons or horses. Why these paintings were done is not known. They are not simply decorations of places where people lived. The caves they were found in usually do not show signs that someone lived in them.
One of the oldest caves is that of Chauvet in France. Paintings in the cave fall into two groups. One has been dated to around 30,000 to 33,000 years ago, the other to 26,000 or 27,000 years ago.p546 The oldest known cave paintings, based on radiocarbon dating of "black from drawings, from torch marks and from the floors". As of 1999, the dates of 31 samples from the cave have been reported. The oldest paintings have been dated from 32,900±490 years ago.

Some archaeologists have questioned the dating. Züchner believe the two groups date from 23,000–24,000, and 10,000–18,000 years ago. Pettitt and Bahn believe the dating is inconsistent. They say the people at that periods of time painted things differently. They also do not know where the charcoal used to paint some things is from, and how big the painted area is.
People from the Palaeolithic era drew well. They knew about perspective, and they knew of different ways to draw things. They also were able to observe the behaviour of animals they painted. Some of the paintings show how the painted animals behaved. The paintings may have been important for rituals.

Related pages 
Rock art

References 

Stone Age

sv:Paleolitikum#Senpaleolitikum
Adams Morgan is a culturally diverse neighborhood in Northwest Washington, D.C.. It is centered at the intersection of 18th Street and Columbia Road. Adams Morgan is the center of Washington's Hispanic immigrant community. It is a major night life area with many bars and restaurants, particularly along 18th Street (the primary commercial district) and Columbia Road. Much of the neighborhood has 19th- and early 20th-century row houses and apartment buildings. 

Adjacent to Adams Morgan is Dupont Circle to the south, Kalorama-Sheridan to the southwest, Mount Pleasant to the north, and Columbia Heights to the east.  The neighborhood is bounded by Connecticut Avenue to the southwest, Rock Creek Park to the west, Harvard Street to the north, 16th Street to the east, and Florida Avenue to the south.
History
The name Adams Morgan was originally hyphenated. It is derived from the names of two, formerly segregated area elementary schools—the older, all-black Thomas P. Morgan Elementary School (now defunct) and the all-white John Quincy Adams Elementary School.  Pursuant to the 1954 Bolling v. Sharpe Supreme Court ruling, District schools were desegregated in 1955.  The Adams-Morgan Community Council, comprising both Adams and Morgan schools and the neighborhoods they served, was formed in 1958.  The city drew boundaries of the neighborhood through three preexisting neighborhoods – Washington Heights, Lanier Heights, and Meridian Hill – naming the resulting area after both schools.
In the late 1960s, a group of residents organized and worked with city officials to plan and construct a new elementary school and recreational complex that was conceived as a community hub, a concept that 40 years later has become a favored one in public school facilities design.  The development was named the Marie H. Reed Learning Center after Bishop Reed, a community activist, minister and leader.  It featured a daycare center, tennis and basketball courts, a solar-heated swimming pool, health clinic, athletic field and outdoor chess tables.

Cultural diversity
Adams Morgan, together with the nearby Mount Pleasant and Columbia Heights, serve as a gateway community for immigrants. Since the 1960s, the predominant international presence in both communities has been Latino, with the majority of immigrants coming from El Salvador, Guatemala and other Central American countries.  Since the early 1970s, like other areas of the nation, Adams Morgan had seen a growing influx of immigrants from Africa, Asia and the Caribbean, as well. Gentrification and the resulting high cost of housing, however, have displaced many immigrants and long-time African American residents, particularly those with young children. Many small businesses have also been displaced. The community still retains a degree of diversity, most evident in its array of international shops and restaurants
.  Restaurants in Adams Morgan offer ethnic cuisines, among them Spanish, Ethiopian, Guatemalan, Mexican, Italian, Dutch, Vietnamese, Ghanaian, Cajun, Brazilian, Palestinian, Peruvian, Pakistani cuisine, Thai, Lebanese, Somali, and Chinese.
Although many immigrants and African-American residents have left Adams Morgan, the long-time institutions that meet the needs of Latinos and other non English-speaking residents ontinue to serve immigrants and their families.  Adams Morgan is home to Mary's Center, a clinic focusing on healthcare delivery to Spanish-speaking patients, and the Latino Economic Development Corporation, as well as numerous businesses and churches that employ and cater to immigrants. Adjacent Mt. Pleasant also hosts a number of commercial enterprises, social service agencies and other institutions that help to anchor local immigrants to the area.
Adams Morgan continues to show linguistic and cultural diversity of its public schools. Many of the families served live beyond the boundaries established for routine student enrollment; however, Adams, Reed, and H.D. Cooke elementary schools all have international populations, with children from well over 30 nations in attendance.  Latino and African-American children comprise the majority of students in the public schools, and virtually all are children of color.  

The second Sunday of September, the neighborhood hosts the Adams Morgan Day Festival, a multicultural street celebration with live music and food and crafts booths.  And, weather permitting, every Saturday—except during the coldest winter months—local growers sell fresh, organically grown produce and herbs; baked and canned goods; cheeses; cold-pressed apple juice and fresh flowers at the farmers market, in operation in the same location for more than 30 years.  Also on summer Saturdays, the Western Art Market is open at the Marie Reed School.
In the 1960s, the neighborhood's attractions included the Avignon Freres bakery and restaurant, the Café Don restaurant, the Ontario motion picture theater, and the Showboat Lounge jazz nightclub.  In the 1980s, Hazel's featured live blues and jazz.  Its soul food offerings made it a favorite of black jazz musicians like Dizzy Gillespie when they came to town.

Transportation
The area is not directly served by the Metrorail system. The nearest station, Woodley Park-Zoo/Adams Morgan (Red Line) is in the Woodley Park neighborhood, but was renamed in 1999 to reflect the station's proximity to Adams Morgan. The nearest station on the Green Line is Columbia Heights. In March 2009, the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) began operating a DC Circulator bus route connecting the center of Adams Morgan with both Metro stations. The area is also served by a number of WMATA Metrobus lines.
Politics
Adams Morgan is in the service area of Advisory Neighborhood Commission 1C.  The boundaries of ANC 1C are 16th Street NW on the east, Harvard Street NW and Rock Creek Park on the north, Rock Creek Park and Connecticut Avenue on the west, and Florida Avenue and U Street on the south.

References

Other websites

 Advisory Neighborhood Commission 1C
 Adams Morgan at Cultural Tourism DC 
 Adams Morgan Neighborhood Crime Fighters 

Neighborhoods in Washington, D.C.
Foxhall is a rich neighborhood in Washington, D.C.. It is bordered by Reservoir Road on the north side and Foxhall Road on the west and south sides. Glover-Archibold Park makes up the eastern border.
The first homes were constructed along Reservoir Road and Greenwich Park Way in the mid-1920s. By the end of December, 1927, some 150 homes had been erected, and the community given the name of Foxhall Village.

Foxhall is mostly residential. Foxhall has a distinct architecture. The vast majority of the homes are a brick Tudor style.

Sources

Other websites 
 Foxhall Community Citizens Association

Neighborhoods in Washington, D.C.
1927 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Washington, D.C.
Judiciary Square is a neighborhood in Northwest Washington, D.C..  It has various federal and municipal courthouses and a number of important federal and municipal office buildings. Judiciary Square is roughly between Pennsylvania Avenue to the south, H Street NW to the north, 6th Street to the west, and the I-395 access tunnel to the east.

The center of the Judiciary Square neighborhood is an actual plaza by the name of Judiciary Square, so named because it is adjacent to or inclusive of most of the courthouse buildings in the area. The square is between 4th and 5th Streets, with D Street to the south and F Street to the north.
Among the buildings in Judiciary Square are:
Four buildings of the H. Carl Moultrie Courthouse, which houses the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, the local trial court
Historic Courthouse, which houses the District of Columbia Court of Appeals, the highest D.C. court
E. Barrett Prettyman Federal Courthouse, which houses United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, at 450 E Street NW
United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims, at 625 Indiana Avenue NW
United States Tax Court Building, which houses the United States Tax Court
Federal Bureau of Investigation Washington field office
Frances Perkins Building, which houses the United States Department of Labor, at 200 Constitution Avenue NW
Steve Young Law Enforcement Legislative Advocacy Center of the Fraternal Order of Police, at 328 Massachusetts Avenue NE
Government Accountability Office and United States Army Corps of Engineers, headquarters, at 441 G Street NW
Jackson Graham Building, headquarters of the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, at 600 5th Street NW
National Building Museum (Old Pension Building) at 4th Street, 5th Street, F Street, and G Street NW
One Judiciary Square at 441 4th Street NW. Historically the Old Courthouse, the building served as D.C.'s city hall until 1908, when city government moved to the newly built John A. Wilson Building on Pennsylvania Avenue NW. However, Judiciary Square once again became the site of District government between 1997 and 2001, when the Wilson Building was being renovated and the D.C. mayor and Council had temporary chambers and offices in the One Judiciary Square building. Today the building houses various D.C. offices
An 1868 statue of Abraham Lincoln stands in the plaza at what was the south entrance to the Old Courthouse, which today is the back entrance to the Historic Courthouse, which houses the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. This was the first public monument ever built to Lincoln, funded by Washington residents starting just days after his death.
Washington, D.C. Department of Motor Vehicles
National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial
AARP headquarters at 601 E Street NW
Monuments to Albert Pike, José de San Martín (which has since been moved to Virginia Avenue), and John Marshall.
The neighborhood is served by the Judiciary Square station on the Red Line of the Washington Metro.

History

During the first half of the 19th century, Judiciary Square was mostly residential. Its proximity to the courthouses drew a number of lawyers, judges, and clerks to the neighborhood, while its location between the White House and the Capitol made it ideal for government employees. Among its most prominent residents were Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton, Vice President John C. Calhoun, and Daniel Webster. As of 2006, however, nearly all of the once plentiful rowhouses in the area were gone, with the remaining houses mostly centered around the intersection of 5th and D Streets.
Around the turn of the 20th century, the eastern side of Judiciary Square became an enclave of Italian immigrants in Washington - the equivalent of a Little Italy (although it was never called that). The Italian neighborhood rested on the eastern edge of the square proper, stretching eastward to about 2nd Street NW. The heart of the community was Holy Rosary Church, a chapel built at 3rd and F Streets NW.   The neighborhood lasted well into the 20th century, with a particular surge of Italian immigrants in the 1950s and 60s; in the mid 1970s, however, construction of the I-395 northbound extension through the city gutted about half of the neighborhood and forced its remaining residents to move away from the heavy commuter traffic
. Today the former Italian enclave is dominated by Federal office buildings and law offices for the trial attorneys who argue in Judiciary Square courthouses, although Holy Rosary Church remains standing and continues to draw a heavily Italian congregation along with its "Casa Italia" cultural center next door.