Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
October 

 October 13 – Olga Oleinik, Russian mathematician of Ukrainian origin (b. 1925)
 October 15 – Chang Hsueh-liang, Ruler of Manchuria (b. 1901)

November 

 November 21 – King Salahuddin of Selangor, Yang di-Pertuan Agong (b. 1926)
 November 29 – George Harrison, English musician (The Beatles) (b. 1943)

December 

 December 10 – Ashok Kumar, Indian actor (b. 1911)
 December 20 – Léopold Sédar Senghor, 1st President of Senegal (b. 1906)

Nobel prize winners 
 Chemistry – William S. Knowles
 Chemistry – Ryoji Noyori
 Chemistry – K. Barry Sharpless
 Economics – George A. Akerlof
 Economics – A. Michael Spence
 Economics – Joseph E. Stiglitz
 Literature – V. S. Naipaul
 Medicine – Leland H. Hartwell
 Medicine – Tim Hunt
 Medicine – Sir Paul Nurse
 Peace – United Nations
 Peace – Kofi Annan
 Physics – Eric A. Cornell
 Physics – Wolfgang Ketterle
 Physics – Carl E. Wieman
Fictional references to the year 
 Arthur C. Clarke set the 1968 movie 2001: A Space Odyssey in this year, the first year of the 21st century.

Other websites 
 2001 Year-End Google Zeitgeist – Google's Yearly List of Major Events and Top Searches for 2001
 Nisqually Earthquake Clearinghouse  – Information on the February 28th earthquake from the University of Washington

References
Biological type 
Organisms may have more than one kind of reproduction:
 Asexual reproduction: an example is the binary fission of an amoeba. Sometimes jellyfish, and many insects split or produce eggs without fertilisation. These are all methods of asexual reproduction.
 Sexual reproduction: most plants and animals reproduce by a union of two different sexes. Each sex makes the special cells used for reproduction. The new organism is made when both types of cells are united in a fertilised egg or zygote. Organisms that can make both kinds of cells for reproduction are called hermaphrodites. For example, most snails are hermaphrodite.
 Those organisms that produce sperm are called male, those that produce ova (eggs) are called female.
 Some animals and plants are capable of reproducing either sexually or asexually.
Benefits and drawbacks 
Asexual reproduction is easier than sexual reproduction, but there are benefits and drawbacks to both:
 An offspring produced asexually inherits genes only from its parent.
 Offspring produced sexually are genetically somewhat different from either parent. They inherit genes from both parents.

Humans
Humans 

In humans, sex is normally either male or female. For example: John's sex is male. Jane's sex is female. Most of the time, the sex of a person depends on what sex chromosomes that person got from his or her parents. A woman's ovum (egg cell) contains one X chromosome. A man's sperm contains either an X or a Y chromosome. When a sperm and ova combine to form a fertilised egg, the baby may get either of these chromosomes from its father. If the baby gets two X chromosomes, it will develop into a female. If the baby gets one X and one Y, it will develop into a male. Before babies are born, their sex parts are already formed, but not ready yet. During Puberty, the sex parts finish developing as well as other parts of the body like breasts and body hair.
There are some exceptions to this rule. Sometimes, the process of meiosis, which makes the sex cells, can go differently. This can result in a person having 3 X chromosomes, or 2 Y chromosomes or XXY instead of XY. Other times, the body may not follow exactly what their chromosomes are telling it to do.

Evolution 
Sexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago. It evolved within single-celled eukaryotes. The scientific community still discusses why it appeared, and why it still exists. Reasons commonly given include:
 Sex creates variation in offspring. If there are traits that give an advantage to the organism, they spread more easily. Traits that give a disadvantage tend to be removed quickly.
Sexual reproduction is a process that can only be found in eukaryotes. These cells have a nucleus and mitochondria. There are other kinds of organisms (other than animals, plants and fungi), the other eukaryotes – such as the malaria parasite – that also engage in sexual reproduction. Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between bacteria.  This is not the same as sexual reproduction, but it results in a similar mixture of genetic traits.

In sexual reproduction the cells used for reproduction, called gametes, are either eggs or sperms. Fertilisation needs two different such cells. The mechanism of cell division only works when one sperm alone enters the egg. Once it is in, a fast reaction goes through the egg cell wall to shut off all other sperm.

Sex determination
Sex determination 

Sex determination in biology is about the function of sex, not what individuals look like. In humans, males and females usually look different. In many species they do not, except for the sex organs.
Sex can be determined in different ways:
 Hermaphrodites produce both male and female gametes. This system can be found in some animals, for example snails, and in most flowering plants.
 In most cases there are separate sexes. This means that an organism either produces male gametes or eggs, but not both at the same time. The biological cause for an organism developing into one sex or the other is called sex determination.
 As a result of sex determination, the organism is either male, or female.

When there is sex determination there are basically two cases:
 The sex is determined through the genes the organism inherits from its parents.
 The sex is determined through the environment.

Genetic
Genetic 

Usually, sex is determined by an organism's genes. With genetic sex determination, most alleles or genes that influence sexual development are on the same chromosome. That chromosome is then called the sex chromosome. Because genetic sex determination is controlled by a pair of sex chromosomes (or if of one of the chromosomes is there or not), there are usually the same number of male and female offspring. In humans, for instance, sperms carry either an X or a Y chromosome, and they occur in roughly equal numbers.

Nongenetic 
For some species sex is not determined by inheritance, but instead by environmental factors experienced during development or later in life. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination: the temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2 °C.
Some fish change sex over the course of their life. This phenomenon is called sequential hermaphroditism. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasse the opposite is true—most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.

In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite. Ferns which grow in soil which has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by hormones remaining to develop as male.

Related pages 
Asexual reproduction
The evolution of sex
Gender
Nudity
Sexual intercourse
Sexual reproduction

References 

 
Biological reproduction
A hacksaw is a tool for sawing. A hacksaw is designed for cutting materials like very thin metals and plastic. It has a handle on one end, and can be either pushed or pulled across the object being cut. There are manual and electric hacksaws.

Cutting tools
In gardening, a spade is a tool for digging. It is similar to a shovel. It has a straight handle, usually of wood and a blade, usually of steel. 

For some purposes the difference between a spade and a shovel is important. For example, spade more easily digs in hard soil; a shovel more easily moves gravel. 

In card games a spade is one of the four shapes or "suits" of cards.
Basic English 850 words
Gardening tools
A hoe is a tool in farming and gardening. It has a blade, usually metal, attached to a long handle, usually wood. There are many types of blade and several uses, probably the most common of which is weeding. Other uses include shaping the soil and harvesting root crops such as potatoes. Along with the spade and fork, the hoe is considered a basic, essential hand farming implement.

Gardening tools
A shovel is a tool used for moving loose material.  Shovels have a flat bottom head which is angled slightly from the handle to enable scooping and moving of material. 

Although a shovel can be used for digging, it is much less efficient than a spade. Spades are straight, and transmit force straight downwards. Shovels move loose material, such as coal, snow, gravel etc. They are usually made of metal at the bottom, and wood is sometimes used for the handle.

References 

Gardening tools
Tools
A plunger is a tool. It is used to get rid of things that are blocking pipes. The plunger is placed over one end of the pipe, and the handle is pushed up and down. Doing this creates a sucking force, which makes the thing blocking the pipe move and unclog.

Tools
A ladder is a tool which is made for people to climb up or down. Ladders have two vertical supports that go along the whole length of the ladder. Between these supports are the horizontal rungs. The rung is what the climber can put his foot on. The climber can use his hands to hold on to the rungs above him, or to the supports at the side.

Some ladders are made in one piece. They can be carried around and made to lean against something such as the wall of a house. There should be a good distance between the bottom of the ladder and the wall so that the ladder is not too vertical, otherwise the ladder might fall backwards and the climber would fall off. Sometimes these ladders are extension ladders. Extension ladders are made in two or more sections so that the ladder can fold up to make it easier to carry about and to store. To open up the ladder, each section slides up almost to the top of the next section.
Step ladders are useful in the home or the garden to reach things that are not too high, e.g. ceilings or the tops of hedges. They have two parts which are joined by a hinge, so that they are shaped like an upside down V. There is usually a platform at the top to stand on, but this can be dangerous unless great care is taken that the ladder will not wobble or fall down.

Some ladders are vertical (they go straight up or down). These are fixed onto something. Examples are: ladders in a swimming pool for climbing in and out of the water, small ladders to climb up to a top bunk bed, ladders at the side of a big boat or at the side of a canal lock or of any other high or low construction where workmen may need to get up or down to do repairs.

Fire engines always have ladders. They often have a turntable ladder which makes it possible for the ladder to be facing in any direction.

Rope ladders can be folded away easily. They may be used for climbing trees or for rock climbing or in caves.

References
References 

Tools
Construction
Oral history is history that is told rather than written down. It is given through talking rather than reading a book. It is usually passed from generation to generation in order to explain events that have occurred. 

Though today oral history is not as popular as written history, it is still used in many places as a way of transferring knowledge about the past.
A generation can mean any group that is sorted by the time they were created.

In a family, a generation means all the people on one level of a family tree.  For example, your brothers, sisters and cousins are in the same generation as you.

In populations of people, a “generation” means groups of people born in different periods of time. Each generation lasts for the average amount of time between the birth of parents, and the birth of their children.

”Generation” can also mean a wave or series of something, like a generation of car model (2nd generation for example). Anything that is created in waves can have generations or editions. 

Family
Time
Genes are parts of DNA. DNA is a molecule inside a cell that carries the instructions for making the proteins the cell will need. Each gene contains a single set of instructions. These instructions usually code for a particular protein. Humans have about 20,000 genes that code proteins and many more that are non-coding. Half of a person's genes come from the mother. The other half come from the father.

The definition 
Originally: a hereditary unit which occupies a specific position (locus) on a chromosome. Other definitions are ways the gene showed itself: 
1. A unit which has one or more specific effects on the phenotype of an organism; 
2. A unit that can mutate to various alleles; 
3. A unit which recombines with other such units.
Modern definitions must take note of later discoveries. There are now two classes of genes:p173
1. genes that are transcribed into RNAs and are translated into polypeptide chains.
2. genes whose transcripts (tRNAs, rRNAs, snRNAs) are used directly. These are operators which serve as 'regulatory sequences' during transcription and translation of the DNA."The building blocks of life."

What genes do? 
Genes are passed on from parent to child and are an important part of what decides how children look and act (their biological properties). Genes affect the way our bodies work, including how we look. Our eye, hair and skin color are decided by genes. It is said that genes cause genetic effects in our bodies.

A gene may be dominant or recessive. These terms refer to the effect a gene has on the offspring who carry it in their genome.
A recessive trait might stay hidden for many generations. Let us use the child from the last example. We will call her "Mary". Mary has brown hair but has genes for both red and brown hair. Let us say Mary grew up and married Tom. Tom also has brown hair, but like Mary one of his parents had red hair. This means Tom has genes for both red and brown hair. Mary and Tom would each have a chance of passing either brown or red hair genes to their children. This means that the children of Mary and Tom could have either red or brown hair. This explains why a person might look different from their parents, but look like their grandparents or great-grandparents.

Structure and function 
The structure of a gene has many elements: the actual protein coding sequence is only a small part. There are DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.

Related pages
Allele#Dominance
Sequence analysis
Genetics
ENCODE, the complete analysis of the human genome
Gene therapy

References
References 

Cell biology
DNA
Classical genetics
Alliteration is when a sentence or phrase has words that start with the same sound. It is commonly used in advertising, poetry, headlines, and tongue-twisters. Basically the first consonant repeats itself throughout the sentence.

Alliteration is common for poetry. It was used one thousand years ago in Anglo-Saxon poems. A fine example is a strophe from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge:

 The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
 The furrow followed free;
 We were the first that ever burst
 Into that silent sea.

Robert Browning used alliteration many times, too. he employed it in the poem Summum bonum. This is a Latin expression and means "all the best".

 All the breath and the bloom of the year in the bag of one bee:

Alliteration is most commonly used in modern music but is also seen in magazine article titles, advertisements, business names, comic strip or cartoon characters, common sayings, and a variety of other titles and expressions.
One example of alliteration is "Sally sold sea shells by the sea shore". In Death Note, the pseudonym of the detective, L, is Ryuzaki Ryuga, his real name is L Lawliet.

Often, characters in books are named with alliteration. Many names in Harry Potter feature alliterations (for example, Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw, and Salazar Slytherin). Similarly, in Hairspray, most characters' names feature alliterations (e.g. Tracy Turnblad, Link Larkin, Corny Collins, Dan Dougherty, Penny Pingleton, and Seaweed Stubbs).

Titles of books sometimes use alliteration, including the titles of all thirteen books (except the last one) in Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events. Author Jeff Lindsay's novels about serial killer Dexter Morgan all feature alliteration in their titles: for example, Darkly Dreaming Dexter. Another example is William Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost.
A common application of alliteration is in books intended for children learning about letters. Animalia by Graeme Base famously applies alliteration within a storybook, going in order through each letter of the English alphabet and providing many sentences with alliteration.
Places in books: Bat Barn, Terror Tombs, Vampire Village, etc.
Code names: The release names of the Linux distribution, Ubuntu (e.g. Breezy Badger, Hoary Hedgehog, Feisty Fawn, etc.).
Game Titles: Prince of Persia (also the tag: Prince of Persia – Warrior Within).

Brand Names and Alliteration
Companies company use this alliterative effect all the time. The major reason companies use this technique is to ensure that their brand name is memorable. Think, for example, of all of the famous and well known brands and companies that have used alliteration in their names:
•Dunkin’ Donuts
•PayPal
•Best Buy
•Coca-Cola
•LifeLock
•Park Place
•American Apparel
•American Airlines
•Chuckee Cheese’s
•Bed Bath & Beyond
•Krispy Kreme
•The Scotch and Sirloin
Famous People and Alliteration
Alliterative names can also help you stand out in the crowd and can make you more memorable. For example, both fictional characters and real people may stand out in your head as a result of the alliterative effect of their name. Think of:

•Ronald Reagan
•Sammy Sosa
•Jesse Jackson
•Michael Moore
•William Wordsworth
•Mickey Mouse
•Porky Pig
•Lois Lane
•Marilyn Monroe
•Fred Flintstone
•Donald Duck
•SpongeBob SquarePants
•Seattle Seahawks
•Katie Courec (Remember, alliterative words don’t even necessarily have to start with the same letter, they simply have to have the same first sound).
 Pier Paolo Pasolini

Phrases and quotes
Finally, many famous phrases, quotes and saying also make use of alliteration:
•Busy as a bee
•Dead as a doornail
•Get your goat
•Give up the ghost
•Good as gold
•Home sweet home
•Last laugh
•Leave in the Lurch
•Living the life
•Look to your laurels
•Mad as a March hare
•Make a mountain out of a molehill
•Method to the madness
•Moaning Minnie
•Neck and neck
•Not on your nelly
•Out of order
•Pleased as punch
•Pooh-pooh
•Primrose path
•Right as rain
•Right roughshod
•Round Robin

Alliteration is commonly used since it adds interest to a sentence and can be a great way to help you remember names and phrases that you might other wide forget. Enjoy alliteration. It is a very fun and useful literary device.

References 

Figures of speech
Homophones are words that sound the same as another word but have a different meaning, and often a different spelling.

Examples include:
 one, won
 pail, pale
 fore, four, for
 it's, its
 there, their, they're
 Knight, night
 which, witch
 pore, pour
 pear, pair, pare
 see, sea, C
 high, hi
 wear, where
 hare, hair
 air, heir
 whether, weather
 too, to, two
 ate, eight
 no, know
 by, buy, bye
 flour, flower
 right, write
 be, bee
 week, weak
 rains, reins
 higher, hire
 fare, fair

Related pages
 Homonym
 Homograph
 Polysemy
 Synonym -a different word for the same or very similar meaning

Words

References
Condensation is how gas changes into a liquid when it touches a cooler surface. Condensation is part of the water cycle. It is the opposite of evaporation.

Process 
Condensation of water is when water changes from gas to a liquid or crystal shape.  Any gas can condense, either because the temperature is dropping or the pressure is increasing.  In either case the pressure of the condensing gas is higher than the vapor pressure of the gas, at that temperature).

During condensation, the molecules in the matter slow down. Heat energy is taken away, causing the state of matter to change. Condensation is exothermic.  This means that condensation makes the temperature go up.  Evaporation is the opposite and causes a temperature loss.
It is a useful process. One use is in distillation. The gas made from a boiling liquid mix is sent to a condenser, where the different parts condense differently. This can purify a liquid, such as alcohol or water. The condensing liquid makes heat, which must be removed for the condensation to continue.

Related pages 
 Desalination

References

Other websites 
 International Consortium of Advanced Technologies and Security at SDSU 
 ScienceDirect - Heat transfer and evaporation in geothermal desalination units
 Condensation (phase transition) -Citizendium

Chemistry
Precipitation is the falling of water from the atmosphere. It is a term in meteorology, and includes rain, snow, sleet, ice pellets, dew, frost, and hail. These form by condensation from atmospheric water vapor, and fall under gravity.

Fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions. In that case, the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. 

If liquid, precipitation can be measured using a rain gauge. The most common form of solid precipitation is snow. Snow is made when temperatures are so cold that water vapor changes directly to solid crystals. Frozen rain is hail or ice pellets.

Related pages
Water cycle

Meteorology
Relative humidity is a way of describing how much humidity is present in the air, compared to how much there could be. Meteorologists often use the relative humidity as a measurement to describe the weather at various places.

When the temperature is warm, more water vapor can be in the air than when it is cold. If the actual amount of vapor is compared to the total amount there could be as a fraction, then the number tells if the air feels dry or moist. The value is usually written in percent, where 0% means that the air is totally dry, and 100% means that it is so moist that mist or dew is about to form.

When the temperature is lowered to the dew point, relative humidity become 100% and the water vapor  condenses, making precipitation as dew, rain or snow (etc.).

Weather measurements
Meteorology
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a vitamin. It is found in fresh fruits, berries and vegetables. It is one of the water-soluble vitamins.

Vitamin C is important in wound healing. Without enough vitamin C, a person can get a sickness called scurvy. Lack of vitamin C was a serious health problem on long ocean trips where supplies of fresh fruit were quickly used up. Many people died from scurvy on such trips.

Most animals make their own vitamin C. Some mammals cannot. Those that cannot include the main suborder of primates, the Haplorrhini: these are the tarsiers, monkeys and apes, including humans. Others are bats, capybaras and guinea pigs.

Vitamin C was first discovered in 1928. In 1932, it was proved to stop the sickness called scurvy. That fruit was a cure for scurvy was known long before vitamins were known to exist.
History 
Through history the need for people to eat fresh plant food to help them get through long sieges or long sea trips was known by some wise people but was often forgotten.

The first attempt to prove this idea was by a ship's doctor in the Royal Navy called James Lind. At sea in May 1747 he gave some crew members lemon juice as well as their normal food, while others continued on normal food alone. The results showed that lemons prevented the disease. Lind wrote up his work and published it in 1753.

Lind's work was slow to be noticed. In 1795 the British navy adopted lemon or lime juice as food for sailors. The men hated the sour taste, and had to be forced to take it.

Limes, oranges; sauerkraut, salted cabbage, malt, and soup were tried with various effects. James Cook relied on sauerkraut to prevent the disease on his long voyages of exploration.
It was originally thought that only humans got scurvy. However, in 1907 Alex Holst and Theodore Frohlich, two Norwegian chemists found that guinea pigs could also get it if not given fresh food.

In 1928 the Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson proved that Eskimos (Inuit) are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet by eating raw meat.

In 1912 the Polish American scientist Casimir Funk first used the word vitamin for something present in food in small amounts that is essential to health. He named the unknown thing that prevented scurvy Vitamin C.

From 1928 to 1933, the Hungarian research team of Joseph L Svirbely and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, and separately the American Charles Glen King, first took out vitamin C from food and showed it to be an acid they called ascorbic acid.
In 1933/1934, the British chemists  Norman Haworth and  Edmund Hirst, and separately the Polish Tadeus Reichstein, successfully synthesized the vitamin.
It was the first man-made vitamin. This made it possible to make lots of vitamin C cheaply in factories. Haworth won the 1937 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for this work.

In 1959 the American J.J. Burns showed that the reason why some animals get scurvy is because their liver cannot make one chemical enzyme that other animals have.

Sources

Plant sources
Citrus fruits (such as lime, Indian gooseberry, lemon, orange, and grapefruit) are good sources of vitamin C.

Other foods that are good sources of vitamin C include papaya, broccoli, brussels sprouts, blackcurrants, strawberries, cauliflower, spinach, cantaloupe, sweet peppers, and kiwifruit.

The following table is to give an idea of how much vitamin C is in different plant foods. Each individual fruit will vary.
The amount of vitamin C in foods of plant origin depends on the kind of plant, the kind of soil where it grew, how much rain and sun it got, the length of time since it was picked, and how it was stored since then.
Cooking food destroys vitamin C.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table Showing Relative Abundance of Vitamin C in Principal Fruits and some Raw Vegetables
|-----
! Fruit
 mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit
! Fruit Continued
 mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit
! Fruit Continued
 mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit
|-----
| CamuCamu ||  2800  ||  Lemon
| 40 ||  Grape ||  10
|-----
| Rose hip ||  2000  ||  Melon, cantaloupe
| 40 ||  Apricot ||  10
|-----
| Acerola ||  1600  ||  Cauliflower
| 40 ||  Plum ||  10
|-----
| Jujube ||  500  ||  Grapefruit
| 30 ||  Watermelon ||  10
|-----
| Baobab ||  400  ||  Raspberry
| 30 ||  Banana ||  9
|-----
| Blackcurrant ||  200
| Tangerine/ Mandarin oranges
| 30 ||  Carrot ||  9
|-----
| Indian gooseberry ||  445  ||  Passion fruit
| 30 ||  Avocado ||  8
|-----
| Guava ||  100
|-----
| Kiwifruit ||  90  ||  Spinach
| 30 ||  Crabapple ||  8
|-----
| Broccoli (raw) ||  90  ||  Cabbage (raw green)
| 30 ||  Peach ||  7
|-----
| Loganberry ||  80  ||  Lime
| 20 ||  Apple ||  6
|-----
| Redcurrant ||  80  ||  Mango
| 20 ||  Blackberry ||  6
|-----
| Brussels sprouts ||  80  ||  Melon, honeydew
| 20 ||  Beetroot ||  5
|-----
| Lychee ||  70  ||  Raspberry
| 20 ||  Pear ||  4
|-----
| Persimmon ||  60  ||  Tomato
| 10 ||  Lettuce ||  4
|-----
| Papaya ||  60  ||  Blueberry
| 10 ||  Cucumber ||  3
|-----
| Strawberry ||  50  ||  Pineapple
| 10 ||  Fig ||  2
|-----
| Orange ||  50  ||  Pawpaw ||  10  ||  Bilberry
| 1
|}
Animal sources
Most species of animals synthesise their own vitamin C. It is therefore not a vitamin for them. It is made by a series of enzyme-driven steps which convert glucose to ascorbic acid. This is done either in the kidneys (reptiles and some birds), or the liver (mammals and perching birds). The loss of an enzyme which is essential for ascorbic acid synthesis has occurred quite frequently in evolution. It has happened in most fish, many birds; some bats, guinea pigs and most but not all primates, including humans. The mutations have not been lethal because ascorbic acid is so common in various food sources, especially fruit.

It was only realised in the 1920s that some cuts of meat and fish are also a source of vitamin C. However, the muscle and fat which make up the modern western diet are poor sources. As with fruit and vegetables cooking destroys the vitamin C content.
{| class="wikitable"=
|+ Table Showing Relative Abundance of Vitamin C in Foods of Animal Origin
|-----
! Food of animal origin
 mg vitamin C per 100 grams food
! Food of animal origin (contd)
 mg vitamin C per 100 grams food
! Food of animal
! mg vitamin C per 100 grams food
|-----
| Calf liver (raw) ||  36  ||  Chicken liver (fried )
| 13 ||  Goats milk (fresh) ||  2
|-----
| Beef liver (raw) ||  31  ||  Lamb liver (Fried)
| 12 ||  Beef steak (fried) ||  0
|-----
| Oysters (raw) ||  30  ||  Lamb heart (roast)
| 11 ||  Hens egg (raw ) ||  0
|-----
| Cod Roe (fried) ||  26  ||  Lamb tongue (stewed)
| 6 ||  Pork Bacon (fried) ||  0
|-----
| Pork liver (raw) ||  23
| Human milk (fresh)
| 4 ||  Calf veal cutlet (fried) ||  0
|-----
| Lamb brain (boiled) ||  17
| Cows milk (fresh) ||  2  ||  Chicken leg (roast)
| 0
|}
Artificial chemical synthesis
Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process developed in the 1930s uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The more modern Two-Step fermentation process was originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.

In 1934, the Swiss pharmaceutical company Hoffmann-La Roche was the first to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of Redoxon.
Main producers today are BASF/ Takeda, Roche, Merck and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd of the People's Republic of China.
Functions of vitamin C in the body 
In living organisms, ascorbate is an antioxidant, since it protects the body against oxidative stress. It is also a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions, including several collagen synthesis reactions that cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy when they are dysfunctional. In animals, these reactions are especially important in wound-healing and in preventing bleeding from capillaries.
Vitamin C is needed for the production of collagen in the connective tissue. These fibres are in many places throughout the body; providing firm but flexible structure. Some tissues have a greater percentage of collagen, especially: skin, mucous membranes, teeth, and bones.
 Vitamin C is required for making of dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline in the nervous system or in the adrenal glands.
 Vitamin C is also needed to make carnitine, important in the transfer of energy to the cell mitochondria.
 It is a strong antioxidant.
 The tissues with greatest percentage of vitamin C—over 100 times the level in blood plasma—are the adrenal glands, pituitary, thymus, corpus luteum, and retina.
 The brain, spleen, lung, testicle, lymph nodes, liver, thyroid, small intestinal mucosa, leukocytes, pancreas, kidney, and salivary glands usually have 10 to 50 times the concentration present in plasma.
Vitamin C deficiency
Lack of ascorbic acid in the daily diet leads to a disease
called scurvy, a form of avitaminosis that is characterized by:
 Loose teeth
 Superficial bleeding
 Fragility of blood vessels
 Poor healing
 Compromised immunity
 Mild anemia.

Daily requirement
A healthy person on a balanced western diet should be able to get all the vitamin C needed to prevent the symptoms of scurvy from their daily diet. People who smoke, those under stress and women in pregnancy have a slightly higher requirement.

The amount of vitamin C needed to avoid deficiency symptoms and maintain health has been set by variously national agencies as follows:
 40 mg per day UK Food Standards Agency
 60–95 mg per day US Food and Nutrition Board 2001 revision.
Some researchers have calculated the amount needed for an adult human to achieve similar blood serum levels as Vitamin C synthesising mammals as follows:
 200 mg per day - Linus Pauling Institute and US National Institutes of Health (NIH) Recommendation.
 3000 mg per day - Vitamin C Foundation's recommendation.
 6000–12000 mg per day–Thomas Levy, Colorado Integrative Medical Centre recommendation.
 6000–18000 mg per day - Linus Pauling's daily recommendation

High doses (thousands of mg) may result in diarrhoea, which is harmless if the dose is reduced immediately. Some researchers (Cathcart) claim the onset of diarrhoea to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies.

The small size of the ascorbic acid molecule means the kidneys cannot retain it in the body. Quite a low level in the blood serum will cause traces to be present in the urine. All vitamin C synthesising mammals have traces in the urine at all times.
In April 1998 Nature reported alleged carcinogenic and teratogenic effects of excessive doses of vitamin C. This was given great prominence in the world's media. The effects were noted in test tube experiments and on only two of the 20 markers of free radical damage to DNA. They have not been supported by further evidence from living organisms. Almost all mammals manufacture their own vitamin C in amounts equivalent to human doses of thousands of milligrams per day. Large amounts of the vitamin are used in orthomolecular medicine and no harmful effects have been observed even in doses of 10,000 mg per day or more.

Therapeutic uses
Vitamin C is needed in the diet to prevent scurvy. It also has a reputation for being useful in the treatment of colds and flu. The evidence to support this idea, however, is ambiguous and the effect may depend on the dose size and dosing regime. The Vitamin C Foundation recommends 8 grams of vitamin C every half hour to show an effect on cold symptoms.
Vitamin C advocacy
Fred R. Klenner, a doctor in Reidsville, North Carolina reported in 1949 that poliomyelitis yielded to repeated megadoses of intravenous vitamin C.

Nobel Prize winning chemist Linus Pauling began actively promoting vitamin C in the 1960s as a means to greatly improve human health and resistance to disease.

A minority of medical and scientific opinion continues to see vitamin C as being a low cost and safe way to treat infectious disease and to deal with a wide range of poisons.

A meta-study of the published research claimed that relatively high levels of vitamin C must be maintained in the body for it to function effectively as an antioxidant.

Some research shows that there are veterinary benefits of vitamin C as well.
One meta-study of the published research examined the effectiveness of ascorbic acid in the treatment of infectious disease and toxins. It was conducted in 2002 by Dr. Thomas Levy, medical director of the Colorado Integrative Medical Center in Denver. It claimed that overwhelming scientific evidence exists for its therapeutic role.

Some vitamin C advocates say that vitamin C is not used therapeutically because it cannot be patented. Pharmaceutical companies seek to generate revenue and profit their shareholders. They may be reluctant to research or promote something that will make them little money.

References 

Vitamins
DCPIP (its full name is 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol) is a blue chemical used as a dye because when it is oxidized it is blue.  Once DCPIP is reduced (by addition of electrons) it does not have a color anymore. This reaction can be reversed, and the colourless DCPIP will turn blue again, when it is oxidized.

Purpose 
DCPIP is often used to measure the electron transport chain in plants. It has a higher redox potential (electron affinity) than the Fe-S complex in cytochrome b and will therefore "steal" electrons from it. This means that cytochrome c does not  receive them. The process cuts off the electron supply of  photosystem I. A common way to illustrate this change is by the addition of vitamin C solution. This reduces the 'jelly' by transforming it to a colourless mass. This experiment can be carried out to illustrate the effect of changing cell sizes on SA/V (surface area:volume ratio). This is known as Titration.
References 
Mathews, Ahern, Van Holde, Biochemistry, Addison Wesley Longman Inc., 2000 pp534–5

Organochlorides
Organonitrogen compounds
Basic nutrition 
What is known about nutrition and diet keeps changing as more is learned. However, basic nutrition remains much the same. The best advice is to talk to a doctor or dietitian for personalized information based on an individual's lifestyle, health, and food likes and dislikes.
 Basic nutrition begins with a diet based on the major food groups that includes vegetables, whole grains, and dairy products. It should also have lean protein such as beans, legumes, nuts and seeds plus healthy fats.
 A basic nutrition plan should include guidelines for how much food from each group to eat.
 Foods should be those that can be found in local grocery stores instead of specialty and gourmet food stores.
 A basic food plan should be based on an individual's budget, lifestyle and (healthy) preferences.
 Drink plenty of water. Drink fewer Soft drinks, energy drinks and sports drinks which usually have sugar.
Read the food labels to see what is in the foods. For example, labels usually show what foods are lower in sodium such as in soup, bread, and frozen meals.
 A healthy diet should include seafoods (such as salmon, tuna, and trout) and shellfish (such as crab, mussels, and oysters). Seafood has protein, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids which are heart-healthy.
 Basic nutrition should contain balanced amounts of macronutrients for energy. Carbohydrates are one of the three macro-nutrients in the human diet (fat and protein are the other two).
 A healthy diet can replace dieting for weight loss. Eating healthy, along with physical exercise and practicing moderation, can lead to better health in the long run.
Special diets 
There are some diets made for people with some diseases. Here are some examples:

DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension)
 Gluten-free diet (Coeliac disease)
 Ketogenic diet (Epilepsy)

Related pages 
Food pyramid
Diet (nutrition)

References 

Diets
Diets
Dye is a substance used to color materials. It is often used to color the fabric used to make clothing. It has low solubility. A pigment won't do this because it won't stick to the fibers of the fabric and color them. A dye can be natural, usually made from plant material such as berries, or a dye can be artificial, meaning that it is made by humans from chemicals such as petrochemicals.

Most natural dyes are gotten from different parts of a plant like the roots, fruits, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens. Most dyes are synthetic and are made from petrochemicals.

Classification
Dyes can be classified based on their solubility and chemical properties.
Acid dyes can dissolve in water.  They are used on fibers such as silk, wool, nylon.  Most food coloring that are made by man are acid dyes.  Examples of acid dye are Alizarine Pure Blue B, Acid red 88, etc.
 Basic dyes can dissolve in water.  They are mainly used on acrylic fibers.  They may also be used on wool and silk.  Basic dyes are also used to make paper colourful.

Related pages 
Pigment
Food coloring#Natural food dyes
Hair coloring

References

Color
Cloth
Poetry is written, spoken or sung language that is used in stronger or more original ways than prose is used. Poetry uses the meanings of words as prose does; but it also uses the sounds of words as if they were music, especially rhymes, other repeating sounds, and rhythms (beats or meters).

Poetry arranges words and groups of words to make repetitions and parallelisms. Poetry uses figures of speech, ellipses and delayed identification to suggest that there is more meaning in the language.

Some people believe that poetry began when language began. They think it is probably "as old as history and older, present wherever religion is present."

The English words "poetry," "poet," and "poem" first appeared in English in the 14th century. They come from the Latin word poeta, which itself probably comes from poiein, a Greek word that means "to make."

There are three major kinds of poetry: lyric, narrative, and dramatic.
Lyric poetry tends to be brief and is often about emotions.
 Narrative poetry tells a story with a plot.
 Dramatic poetry can be performed as a play.

A poem can be as short as a few words or as long as a book. A one-line poem is called a monostich. A poem that is as long as a book is an epic.

Poems are often printed on the page as lines and groups of lines called stanzas.

There are many different "poetic forms" or ways to shape a poem on the printed page or in the ear of the person who hears it. Some forms are: the sonnet, haiku, the ballad, the stev, the prose poem, the ode, free verse, blank verse, limerick, and nursery rhymes.

Related pages 
 Acrostic
 Sonnet 
 Poet
 Free verse
 Digital Poetry

References
Literature is a group of works of art that are made of words. Most are written, but some are shared by word of mouth. Literature usually means a work of poetry, theatre or narrative. There are many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays, or novels. They can also be put into groups by their language, historical time, place of origin, genre, and subject. The word "literature" comes from the Latin word "literatura," which means "writing formed with letters."

Most of the earliest works were epic poems. Epic poems are long stories or myths about adventures, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh from ancient Mesopotamia. Ramayana and Mahabharta, two Indian epics, are still read today. The Iliad and Odyssey are two famous Greek poems by Homer. They were shared over time through speaking and memory and were written down around the 9th or 8th century BCE.

Literature can also mean imaginative or creative writing, which is read for its artistic value.
Related pages
English literature
French literature
Italian literature
German literature
Japanese literature
American literature
Spanish literature
Modernist literature

References
Imagination is the ability to form images of things or events in one's mind. When someone imagines something, they are trying to picture something in their mind that they are not experiencing at the moment or that is not really happening.

Related pages 
Fiction
Science fiction
Fantasy
Psychology

Thought
A calorimeter is a tool that measures the amount of thermal energy contained in a substance, or released in a reaction. A commonplace use is to measure heat of combustion.   

Laboratory equipment
Measuring tools
In biology, a bolus (from the Latin word for ball), is a ball-shaped living thing.

In medicine, a bolus is a large amount of a drug given to patients to raise the blood level before treatment.

A bolus can also refer to a ball of food after it has been chewed. It passes down the oesophagus by peristalsis.

Physiology
Drugs
Biology
The oesophagus (or esophagus) is also called the gullet. It is the part of the gastrointestinal system between the mouth and the stomach. It connects the pharynx and the stomach. It is about  long.

The oesophagus is lined with muscle, and is lubricated. Its muscle pushes food down into the stomach. The oesophagus can contract or expand to allow for the passage of food. The muscular movement that pushes the food down the oesophagus is called peristalsis. At the entrance to the stomach there is a ring of muscle called a sphincter. This is usually closed, but relaxes as food approaches, allowing it to enter the stomach. In the stomach, the food is churned until it turns into a soupy mixture called chyme.

Anatomy of the digestive system
A protease is a digestive  enzyme. It breaks down long chains of  proteins into shorter amino acids. Proteases have evolved a number of times. We know this because different kinds of protease can do the same reaction in completely different ways. Proteases are found in animals, plants, bacteria, archaea and viruses.

Now more than 50 types of protease are known. Each is a separate evolutionary origin of proteolysis.

Protease can be divided into 6 types :
serine proteases
threonine proteases
cysteine proteases
aspartate proteases
metallo proteases
glutamic acid proteases

References 

Enzymes
Dental floss is a special type of thread. It is used for cleaning spaces between teeth which cannot be reached by toothbrushes. It is important to floss before brushing teeth and to floss at least once a day.  Tooth brushing will not clean food that is packed between teeth. This 'food packing' can lead to unhealthy teeth and gums. Bacteria grow in this 'packed food' between teeth. These bacteria cause the surface of teeth (enamel) to break down. Then the teeth and gums and sometimes even the jaw can become seriously diseased.
Food that is trapped between the teeth can be uncomfortable and even cause pain. Some food is hard, for example meat, apple. Ground meat is soft and so is apple sauce. Chicken and turkey meat are hard and full of fibres and very often get trapped between the teeth. When hard food is trapped between the teeth it can cause discomfort and sometimes pain. When hard food is pressed by the teeth against the gum it can cause pain. Some people use toothpicks to try to remove trapped food from between the teeth and other people use dental floss to do this.

Dental floss can do most things that a toothpick can do but dental floss is much thinner than a toothpick and can thus get to places that most toothpicks cannot reach. So floss presumably does a better job at getting bits of food out from between the teeth, relieving discomfort and pain quicker.
When a person first starts flossing, bleeding can happen. This is normal and happens because teeth and gums that are not flossed are less healthy. It will stop as the teeth and gums get healthier with flossing.

Hygiene
Dentistry
Rickets is a disease that happens in young children.  It happens in children who do not get enough vitamin D and calcium.  It causes larger spaces inside bones, and makes them dry, like sponges.  It can make the legs curve toward each other (so the knees touch) or away from each other.

Rickets in adults is called osteomalacia.

The word "rickets" comes from the Greek word rhakhis, which means "spine."

Cause 
People need both vitamin D and calcium to make their bones strong.

Vitamin D helps the bones absorb (take up) calcium.  Low vitamin D makes it hard to absorb calcium.

The human body makes vitamin D3 in the skin, from cholesterol.  Then the liver changes vitamin D3 into calcitriol, which sends calcium from the blood into the bones.  The bones need calcium to stay strong.  However, the skin will not make vitamin D3 unless enough ultraviolet light shines on it.  Sunlight contains ultraviolet light, so getting enough sun is one way of getting enough D3.
People need calcium for calcification. Calcification uses calcium to help make bones bigger and stronger.  Low calcium makes bones delicate and easier to break.

Prevention 
Rickets can be prevented if a person gets plenty of calcium and vitamin D.

The best way to do this is to get a lot of sunlight, and eat foods that have a lot of vitamin D and calcium in them.  However, people who cannot get enough vitamin D and calcium this way can take supplements (vitamin pills that have calcium and vitamin D in them).

Calcium

Foods that have a lot of calcium in them include:
 Milk and other dairy products like cheeses
 Some green vegetables, like broccoli, spinach, and kale
 Today, many products are "fortified" with vitamin D: the vitamin was added when the food was made.  These foods include some kinds of orange juice, breakfast cereals, breads, and even bottled water.  The food's label will say how much calcium it has in it.
Calcium is absorbed best by the bones when it is taken in amounts of 1000mg or less.  Because of this, doctors suggest eating smaller amounts of foods with calcium in them, at different times in the day, instead of all at once.

Vitamin D

There are three ways to get vitamin D: sunlight, foods, or supplements (vitamin pills that have vitamin D in them).  However, many people cannot get enough vitamin D just from their diet.

There are only a few foods that have a lot of vitamin D in them.  They include:
 "Fatty fish" that were caught in the wild, like mackerel, salmon, and tuna
 Cooked egg yolk
 Vitamin D is added to some foods, like some kinds of dairy products, cereals, and orange juices