Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
John Heartfield (June 19, 1891 in Berlin – April 26, 1968 in Berlin) is the English version of the name of the German photomontage artist Helmut Herzfeld. He started to call himself Heartfield in 1916, to criticize the rabid nationalism and anti-British sentiment in Germany during World War I.

Career 
In 1918, Heartfield began at the Berlin Dada scene, and the Communist Party of Germany. He was thrown out of the Reichswehr film service because he supported the strike after the assassination of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. With George Grosz, he founded Die Pleite, a satirical magazine. Heartfield started to work for two communist publications: the daily Die Rote Fahne (The Red Flag)and the weekly Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung (AIZ)(Workers' Illustrated Newspaper). AIZ published Heartfield's most famous work
In 1933, after the National Socialists came to power in Germany, Heartfield moved to Czechoslovakia, where he continued his photomontage work for the AIZ (which was published in exile); in 1938, the Nazis were preparing to invade Czechoslovakia, so he moved to England, and lived in Hampstead, London. After World War II he settled in East Germany, after 1954 he lived in East Berlin and worked closely with theatre directors such as Benno Besson and Wolfgang Langhoff at Berliner Ensemble and Deutsches Theater.

In 2005, Tate Britain held an exhibition of his photomontage pieces.

Works 
His photomontages satirising Adolf Hitler and the Nazis often used Nazi symbols such as the swastika to change their propaganda message.
One of his more famous pieces, made in 1935 entitled Hurrah, die Butter ist Alle! () was published on the frontpage of the AIZ in 1935. The photomontage shows a family at a kitchen table, where a nearby portrait of Hitler hangs and the wallpaper is covered with swastikas. The family — mother, father, old woman, young man, baby, and dog — are trying to eat pieces of metal, such as chains, bicycle handlebars, and rifles. Below, the title is written in large letters, in addition to a quote by Hermann Goering during food shortage. Translated, the quote reads: "Iron has always made a nation strong, butter and lard have only made the people fat".   The picture makes fun of a speech Goering made, the quote is shortened to "Guns before butter"

Modern culture 
Hurrah, die Butter ist Alle! served as the inspiration behind the song "Metal Postcard (Mittageisen)" by Siouxsie & the Banshees; the song was re-recorded in German and released as a single with Heartfield's work as the cover art.
The Heartfield piece The Hand has 5 Fingers with its original text: "5 fingers make a hand! With these 5 grab the enemy!", was referenced by alternative metal band System of a Down. A text printed on the back of the album System of a Down reads: "The hand has five fingers, capable and powerful, with the ability to destroy as well as create".

References 

 Brigstocke, H. (2001). The Oxford companion to Western art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
 Willett, John (1997). Heartfield versus Hitler. Hazan (Fernand) Editions, France. 

Footnotes

Other websites 
 Towson University  Heartfield's Online Art
 Brasscheck Heartfield versus Hitler

1891 births
1968 deaths
East German people
German communists
German photographers
People from Berlin
Refugees from Nazism
A solenoid is a 3 dimensional structure of wire. When this wire is wrapped around a metallic block in a coil and electricity is passed through it, it has some special magnetic properties. Electromagnetic induction makes it an electromagnet that can be switched on or off. The side in which the current appears to be passing clockwise, is the South Pole, and the side in which the current seems to be passing anticlockwise is the Northern Pole. The solenoid works just like a bar magnet, and therefore has many uses.  

This principle is used to create valves, among other things. Where the solenoid operates an electric switch, it is a relay. 

Pinball machines, vehicles and traditional door bells use solenoids.

Electronic components
Electromagnetism
Kyffhäuserkreis is a rural district in the northern part of Thuringia, Germany.

History 
In the 12th century there was a castle on the Kyffhäuser mountains, which was built during the reign of emperor Frederick I. According to the local legend, the emperor did not die, but instead went to sleep in this castle.

From 1579 on the region belonged to Saxony, but after 1815 it was divided between the Prussian Province of Saxony and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.

In 1952 the two districts of Artern and Sondershausen were set up by the East German government. These districts were merged in 1994, with only a few municipalities joining other districts.

Partnerships
The district has a partnership with the district Ahrweiler in Rhineland-Palatinate, which was actually established with the district Artern in 1990.

Geography 
The district is named after the Kyffhäuser mountains. The main river is the Unstrut, which flows through the east of the district.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References
References

Other websites
 Official website (German)
 Touristic website (English, German)

Rural Districts of Thuringia
Nordhausen is the northernmeost Landkreis (rural district) of Thuringia, Germany.

History 
The district was created in 1815, when the Prussian province Saxony was created. There were many changes to the boundaries up to 1952, when some municipalities were brought into the district and others left.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites
 Official website (German)

Rural Districts of Thuringia
Saale-Holzland-Kreis is a landkreis (rural district, or county) in the east of Thuringia, Germany.

History 
The district was set up in 1994 by joining the old districts of Eisenberg, Jena and Stadtroda. When the district of Stadt rod) was first set up in 1922 it already covered nearly the area of the current district. In 1952 the East German government abolished the federal states (Bundesländer), and also split the district into the three parts, which were put together again in 1994.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites 
 Official website (German)

Rural Districts of Thuringia
Saale-Orla is a Landkreis (rural district) in the east of Thuringia, Germany.

History 
The district was created in 1994 by joining the old districts of Lobenstein, Pößneck and Schleiz.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites 
 Official website (German)
 Touristic website (German, English)

Rural Districts of Thuringia
Saalfeld-Rudolstadt is a Landkreis (district) in the south of Thuringia, Germany.

History 
The district dates back to the Landratsamt Saalfeld, which was created in 1868, and in 1922 it was converted into the Landkreis. Also in 1922 the district Rudolstadt was created. Both districts were merged in the local government changes of 1994.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites
 Official website  (German)

Rural Districts of Thuringia
Schmalkalden-Meiningen is a Landkreis (rural district) in the west of Thuringia, Germany.

History 
The district was created in 1994 by joining the old districts of Schmalkalden, Meiningen and part of Suhl-Land.

Partnerships 
The district has a partnership with the Vogelsbergkreis in Hesse, as well as with the Komitat Pest in Hungary.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites 
 Official website  (German)
Sömmerda is a Landkreis (rural district) in the north of Thuringia, Germany.

History 
The district Sömmerda was created in 1952. In 1994 the districts of Thuringia were reorganized, and the district Sömmerda was made a lot bigger by adding municipalities from the old districts Artern and Erfurt-Land.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites
 Official website (German)

Rural Districts of Thuringia
Ahnapee is a town in Kewaunee County, Wisconsin, United States. There were 977 people living in Ahanpee as of the 2000 Census.  The town has an area of 31.2 square miles, says the United States Census Bureau.

References

Towns in Wisconsin
Kewaunee County, Wisconsin
The electron-volt or electron volt, symbol eV, is used to measure energy. It is defined as the amount of energy an electron gains after being accelerated by 1 volt of electricity. Joules are used often for energy measurement, but it is sometimes useful to use electron-volts for very small amounts of energy, such as that carried by a single subatomic particle. To convert joules into electron-volts, divide joules by the charge of an electron, which is about 1.602 coulomb.

E.g. 5 J = 5/1.602  5 J = 3.121 eV.

The electronvolt is often used in atomic, nuclear and particle physics. For example, the energy of photons can be measured by the voltage necessary to overcome their photoelectric effect.

Other websites 
 Conversion Tool
 Electronvolt Citizendium

Units of energy
Physics
Meltingen is a municipality in the district Thierstein in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites

Municipalities in Thierstein District
Messen is a municipality in the district Bucheggberg, in the canton of Solothurn, Switzerland. On 1 January 2010, the former municipalities of Balm bei Messen, Brunnenthal, Messen and Oberramsern merged to form the municipality of Messen.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities in Bucheggberg District
Metzerlen-Mariastein is a municipality in the district Dorneck in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Mariastein Abbey website  

Municipalities in Dorneck District
Mühledorf can be one of two municipalities in Switzerland:

Mühledorf, Bern, in the Canton of Bern
Mühledorf, Solothurn, in the Canton of Solothurn
Mühledorf was a municipality in the Bucheggberg district in the canton of Solothurn, Switzerland.  On 1 January 2014, the former municipalities of Mühledorf, Aetingen, Aetigkofen, Bibern, Brügglen, Gossliwil, Hessigkofen, Küttigkofen, Kyburg-Buchegg and Tscheppach merged into the new municipality of Buchegg.

References

Other websites 

 Official website  

Former municipalities of Solothurn
Kolding is a Danish seaport found at the head of Kolding Fjord in Region Syddanmark (Region of Southern Denmark). Kolding is a transportation, commercial, and manufacturing centre, and has many industrial companies.

With a population of 86,000 inhabitants, Kolding is the seventh largest in Denmark.

History

Battles of Kolding

1658
In the Battle of Kolding on December 25, 1658, the alliance of Polish and Danish forces under hetman Stefan Czarniecki defeated the Swedish forces of Charles X Gustav of Sweden.

1849
A battle between German and Danish troops in the town on April 23 1849 during the First War of Schleswig.

The fireworks accident in Seest

On November 3, 2004, N. P. Johnsen's Fireworksfactory in Seest exploded. One firefighter died, 85 people were injured, and around 2000 people were evacuated during this accident in Kolding,.
Important places in Kolding
 The Museet på Koldinghus, the museum of the city. It has a collection of Danish art from the late Middle Ages to the 1940s, and a very large collection of items in gold and silver.
 The Trapholt art museum.
 The Designskolen Kolding, a university school of design

Sister cities
The following cities are sisters of Kolding:
  Anjo, Japan (since 1997)
  Delmenhorst, Germany (since 1979)
  Drammen, Norway (since 1946)
  Huéscar, Spain (since 1982)
  Lappeenranta, Finland (since 1947)
  Panevėžys, Lithuania (since 2000)
  Pisa, Italy (since 2007) 
  Stykkishólmur, Iceland (since 1979)
  Szombathely, Hungary (since 1991)
  Örebro, Sweden (since 1946)

Notes

Other websites

 Official English homepage of Kolding municipality 
 Official site of Koldinghus castle
 Kolding Museum 

Cities in Denmark
Region of Southern Denmark
Drammen is a city and municipality in the county of Viken, Norway. It has a population of 101 000 people. 

Drammen was established as a municipality January 1, 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). The rural municipality of Skoger was merged with Drammen January 1, 1964. (And then transferred from the county of Vestfold to the county of Buskerud.)

Drammen is one of the larger cities in Norway, and is about 47 km from the capital of Norway, Oslo. The city centre is at the end of a valley, on  both sides of the river Drammenselva, and where the river meets the Drammensfjord. Drammen is also the main city for car and fruit import in Norway.

The name 
The Norse form of the name was Drafn, and this was originally the name of the inner part of Drammensfjord. The fjord is, however, probably named after the river Dramselva (Norse Dröfn).
Geography 
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  "features": [
    {
      "type": "Feature",
      "properties": {},
      "geometry": {
        "type": "Point",
        "coordinates": [
          10.200347844511272,
          59.74647928472788
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}The city centre lies at the end of a valley, on both sides of the Drammenselva river, and where the river meets the Drammensfjord. Drammen is also the main harbor for car and fruit import in Norway. The forests around Drammen are called Drammensmarka. In the summer it is a popular area for hiking. In the winter skiing tracks are made and lighting make it cross country skiing possible during the evenings.
Famous people 
 Martinus Rørbye, painter (1803–1848)
 Marcus Thrane, labour movement leader (1817–1890)
 Hans Peter Faye, sugar plantation pioneer (1859–1928)
 Johan Halvorsen, composer, conductor and musician (1864–1935)
 Betzy Kjelsberg, politician and feminist (1866–1950)
 Geirr Tveitt, composer and pianist (1908–1981)
 Charles Mathiesen, speed skater (1911–1994)
 Hans-Jørgen Holman, musicologist and educationalist (1925–1986)
 Sverre Holm, actor (1931–2005)
 Sten Stensen, speed skater (1947–)
 Ole Hermann Borgan, referee (1964–)
 Johann Olav Koss, speed skater (1968–)
 Kim Christiansen, snowboarder (1976–)

Sport clubs 
 SBK Drafn 21 Norwegian Championships in bandy.
 Drammen golfklubb. Founded 1989.
 IF Hellas
 SBK Skiold
 Strømsgodset IF. Founded February 10th 1907. Four Norwegian championships in football (1969, 1970, 1973, 1993). Winner of the Norwegian football league 1970. 6 Norwegian championships in bandy.
 IF Sturla
 Drammen HK Handball club in Men's European Champions League (07/08)
Related pages
List of mayors in Norway that are elected until 2027

References

Other websites 
 Statistics Norway about Drammen 
 History of Drammen
 Weather forecast and map for Drammen 
 Webcamera, Drammen 
 iDrammen, local site for news and events 
 Drammen Photoclub, pictures from Drammen 
 Drammen og Oplands turistforening
 Drammen theatre
 Drammen museum 
 Drammens Sportsfiskere 
 FIS World Cup Sprint Cross Country in Drammen
 Drammen Elvefestival

Cities in Norway
Municipalities of Viken (county)
Sonneberg is a Landkreis (rural district) in the south of Thuringia, Germany.

History 
The district was created in 1868 when districts were created in Saxe-Meiningen. In 1952 part of the district was incorporated into the newly created district Neuhaus am Rennweg. This district was dissolved again in 1994 and the district Sonneberg did regain its old size.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites
 Official website (German)

 
1868 establishments in Europe
1860s establishments in Germany
Unstrut-Hainich is a Landkreis (district) in the north of Thuringia, Germany.

History 
The district was set up on July 1, 1994 by joining the two previous districts of Mühlhausen and Bad Langensalza.

Partnerships
The district has a partnership with the Wetteraukreis in Hesse dating back to the German reunification of 1990. The district also has a partnership with the Lithuanian districts of Ukmerge and Raseiniai.

Geography 
The district is named after the river Unstrut and a hill chain, the Hainich. The Hainich became the 13th national park of Germany in 1997.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites
 Official website (German)

Rural Districts of Thuringia
Cecil can mean:

Places in the United States of America:
Cecil, Georgia
Cecil, Ohio
Cecil, Pennsylvania
Cecil County, Maryland
Cecil, Wisconsin

Cecil can also be these people:
Cecil Adams, a name which designates the unknown author or authors of The Straight Dope
CECIL, Liverpool Band
Chuck Cecil, American football player
Cecil Fielder, American baseball player
Cecil Rhodes, British imperialist and businessman
Cecil B. DeMille
Cecil Calopachi, Newzealand/Thai Artist
Cecil Heftel -American politician in Hawaii
Cecil is a prototype-based programming language.
Wartburgkreis is a Landkreis (rural district) in the west of Thuringia, Germany. The city of Eisenach is nearly completely surrounded by Wartburgbreis.

History 
The district was set up in 1994 by joining the old districts of Eisenach and Bad Salzungen, and a few municipalities from the district Bad Langensalza. The city of Eisenach left the district in 1998 and became a district-free city.

The district is named after the Wartburg, a castle near Eisenach most famous as Martin Luther's refuge in 1521.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites
 Official website (German)

Rural Districts of Thuringia
Weimarer Land is a Landkreis (rural district) in the east of Thuringia, Germany. The district-free city of Weimar is completely enclosed by the district.

History 
The district dates back to the Großkreis Weimar, which was created in 1922 after the federal state Thuringia was established. The two cities Weimar and Apolda were not part of the district. In 1952 the district was split into two parts - Weimar and Apolda. In 1994 the two parts were merged again, however not completely covering the territory as before 1952.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites 
 Official website (German)

Rural Districts of Thuringia
The Congress of Arras was a meeting in Arras in 1435, between representatives of England, France, and Burgundy. The Treaty of Arras (1435) was an important diplomatic win for France, late in the Hundred Years' War. The English expected only to talk peace with the French. However, Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy made peace with Charles VII of France. This hurt England because Philip the Good had helped them for 16 years. Richard the Lionheart refused to accept any documents of proposals after the signing.

Hundred Years' War
1435
15th century in England
15th century in France
Arras
Appanage is important to the history of France during the Middle Ages. The law said that when a king dies, his oldest son becomes the next king. Kings who wanted to give a younger son some land too sometimes created an appanage. Appanage was one way to keep a civil war from happening, if two or more sons wanted to fight each other to be the next king.

The younger son controlled the appanage as a duke and ruled almost like a king, except he could not sell the land. The ruler of an appanage could give it to his sons and grandsons, but eventually that part of the family would run out of sons and the land would go back to the king. 

History of France
Scripps Ranch is a suburb of San Diego, California. It is home to the EW Scripps mansion.

Buildings and structures in San Diego, California
The New Statesman is a British left-wing political magazine that is published weekly in London.

History 
The New Statesman was founded in 1913 with the support of George Bernard Shaw and other prominent members of the Fabian Society. 

In 1930 the Statesman merged with the Liberal weekly the  Nation, and changed its name to the New Statesman and Nation, which it remained until 1964.  The chairman of the Nation'''s board was the economist John Maynard Keynes, who came to be an important influence on the paper.

During the 1930s, the Statesman'' moved to the left politically. It became strongly anti-fascist and was generally critical of the government policy of appeasement of Mussolini and Hitler.

Other websites
New Statesman official website
New Statesman PDF edition

Newspapers published in the United Kingdom
Left-wing politics is a kind of politics that supports social equality and egalitarianism.  

What a person means by left-wing depends on where the person lives. In Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand left-wing politics is often associated with social democracy and democratic socialism.

Related pages

Left-wing ideologies
 Democratic socialism
 Eco-socialism
 Left-wing libertarianism
 Social democracy
 Socialism

Left-wing issues
 Egalitarianism
 Democracy
 Human rights
 Secularism
 Social equality
 Labor rights / workers' rights

Bibliography
 
 Lin Chun, The British New Left, Edinburgh : Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1993
 
 Marxism on Terrorism  by John Molyneux
 Terrorism and Communism by Karl Kautsky
 Leftism in India

Related pages
 Right-wing

Other websites
 The Marxists Internet Archive (a free online Marxist library)
 Leftist Parties of the World  List of present-day leftist parties and organizations of the world, with links to their websites.

Communism
Socialism
Political movements
Bourgeoisie  means a social class of people who own the means of production, making them in the upper or merchant class. Hence, all employers are bourgeoisie. Their status or power comes from employment, education, assets, or wealth and not from aristocratic (political) origin, as a lowly café or factory owner is bourgeoisie. 
The term is widely used in many non-English speaking countries as an approximate equivalent of middle class.   

As the bourgeoisie are not its opposing counterpart proletariat, they don't have to be a labourer doing menial work for money. And if they do any work that gets them money, then it's only because of the many proletariat people beneath them, who generated their wealth through their labour, of which the higher up bourgeoisie person took a cut (commission).
History 
Bourgeoisie is a French word that was borrowed directly into English in the sense that is explained above. 
The French word bourgeois comes from the Old French word burgeis, meaning "an inhabitant of a town". (cf. Middle English burgeis, Middle Dutch burgher and German Bürger). The Old French word burgeis comes from bourg, meaning a market town or medieval village, itself derived from Late Latin burgus, meaning "fortress"

Related pages
 French Revolution
 Elite
 Aristocracy
 Anarchism
 Capitalism
 Leninism
 Marxism

Notes
Notes

References 
Hal Draper, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Vol. 2: The Politics of Social Classes. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979.
Ralph Miliband, Class and class power in contemporary capitalism, in: Stanislaw Kozyr-Kowalski and Jacek Tittenbrun, On Social Differentiation. A Contribution to the Critique of Marxist Ideology, Part 2. Poznan: Adam Mickiewicz University Press, 1992, pp. 7–62.
Ernest Mandel, Social differentiation in capitalist and postcapitalist societies, in: Stanislaw Kozyr-Kowalski and Jacek Tittenbrun, On Social Differentiation. A Contribution to the Critique of Marxist Ideology, Part 2. Poznan: Adam Mickiewicz University Press, 1992, pp. 63–91.
Erik Olin Wright et al., The Debate on Classes. London: Verso, 1989.
Anthony Giddens, The Class Structure of the Advanced societies, 1981.

Other websites 

The Democratic State – A Critique of Bourgeois Sovereignty

Social classes
The César Awards are the best-known movie awards in France. The Académie des Arts et Techniques du Cinema has given this award every year since 1975.

Related pages
Lumières Award
Louis Delluc Prize
Academy Awards
British Academy Film Awards

Other websites

 Official website
 

Movie awards
Status is a state, condition or situation. In common usage it may refer to:

Social status
Economic status
HIV status
Legal status
Status quo
Status symbol
A category of the grammar of  Semitic languages, see nunation, status constructus
In sociology or anthropology, social status is the honor or rank of one's position in society.  People earn social status by their own work. This is call achieved status. Or, people can have a place in a social system by birth. This  inherited position is called ascribed status.

Further reading
 Michael Marmot (2004), The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity, Times Books
 Botton, Alain De (2004), Status Anxiety, Hamish Hamilton
 Social status. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October  17,  2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online:
Gould, Roger (2002). The Origin of Status Hierarchy. American Journal of Sociology, 107, Retrieved Oct. 26, 2007, from http://www.library.ohiou.edu:5334/ehost/pdf?vid=5&hid=108&sid=f177ce9d-24b5-4e01-819e-b243bd3768e1%40sessionmgr107
Mcpherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. BIRDS OF A FEATHER. American Journal of Sociology, 27, Retrieved Sept 27, 2007, from http://www.library.ohiou.edu:5334/ehost/detail?vid=7&hid=109&sid=c920800d-7008-402f-a473-219b2545f452%40sessionmgr102.
Bolender, Ronald Keith (2006). "Max Weber 1864-1920". Retrieved November 1, 2007, from http://www.bolender.com/Sociological%20Theory/Weber,%20Max/weber,_max.htm .
Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, translated by Richard Nice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.

Related pages
 social capital
 social class
 discrimination

Social classes
Bergstraße or Bergstrasse can mean many things, including:

Bergstraße Route – The Mountain route in the Odenwald of Baden-Württemberg and Hesse
Kreis Bergstraße – A rural district in Hesse
Hessische Bergstraße – A Hessian winegrowing region
Badische Bergstraße – A winegrowing region in Baden-Württemberg
Bergstraße (German: Landkreis Bergstraße, Hessian: Londgrääs Bergschdrooß) is a rural district in south Hesse, Germany.

History 
The district was created in 1938. Two old districts, Bensheim and Heppenheim, joined and became Bergstraße.

Geography 
The district is in the Odenwald mountains. Melibokus as the highest elevation at 517 meters. The Bergstraße is a tourist route which from Darmstadt to Wiesloch. The northern part of this route goes through the district and gave it its name.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

Other websites 
 Official website (German)
The treaties of Arras can be one of two treaties:
 the Treaty of Arras (1435), between Charles VII of France and Philip the Good of Burgundy
 the Treaty of Arras (1482), between Louis XI of France and the governments of the Low Countries
In sociology, Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures.

There are various ways to divide classes. The working class do hard work for others. Where money is used, they are paid for it, but they seldom have much money. Where money is used little, as in feudalism, or not at all, as in the Inca Empire there are still classes.

Historians usually see two other groups - people who are rich or have a lot of influence, called the upper class, and all the remaining people who are in between, called the middle class.

Not all societies have social classes. Scientists have found no proof for hierarchical power structures during the Stone Age.

Determinants of class
In societies where classes exist, one's class is determined largely by:
 occupation
 education and qualifications
 income, personal, household and per capita
 wealth, including the ownership of land, property, means of production,  et cetera
 family background.
In the United Kingdom there are upper class, middle class, working class and underclass people.

Related pages
Bohemianism
Caste
Constitution
Constitutional economics
Class struggle
Clergy
Household income in the United States
Social status
Social structure
Working class
Upper class

References
References

Further reading
 Marx, Karl & Engels, Frederick; The Communist Manifesto, (1848). (The key statement of class conflict as the driver of historical change).
 Savage, Mike; Class Analysis and Social Transformation (London: Open University Press, 2000). 
 Sennett, Richard & Cobb, Jonathan;  The Hidden Injuries of Class, (Vintage, 1972) (classic study of the subjective experience of class).
 Wlkowitz, Daniel J.; Working with Class: Social Workers and the Politics of Middle-Class Identity (University of North Carolina Press, 1999).  
 "Class, Status and Party", Max Weber, in e.g. Gerth, Hans and C. Wright Mills, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, (Oxford University Press, 1958). (Weber's key statement of the multiple nature of stratification).
 Wright, Erik Olin; Class Counts: Comparative Studies in Class Analysis (Cambridge University Press, 1997)
Other websites
Class Action: 
 http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/IL06Ag01.html  Dargin, Justin, The Birth of Russia's New Energy Class. The Asia Times (Dec. 6, 2007)
Dictionary of the history of ideas:  Class
Charles Dunoyer And The Theory Of Industrialism and Comte And Dunoyer After The 1830 Revolution: The Impact Of Their Ideas  in The Radical Liberalism Of Charles Comte And Charles Dunoyer  by David M. Hart.
Marxist and Austrian Class Analysis (PDF) by Hans-Hermann Hoppe
Classical Liberal Roots of the Marxist Doctrine of Classes (PDF document), Classical Liberal Roots of Marxist Class Analysis  (MP3 audio file), lecture by Ralph Raico.
Rethinking Cultural and Economic Capital  - Jan Rupp
Mümliswil-Ramiswil is a municipality in the district Thal in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities in Thal District
Nennigkofen was a municipality in the district Bucheggberg, in the canton of Solothurn, Switzerland. On 1 January 2013, the former municipalities of Lüsslingen and Nennigkofen merged to form the new municipality of Lüsslingen-Nennigkofen.

References

Other websites

Former municipalities of Solothurn
Neuendorf is a municipality in the district Gäu in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites

 Official website 

Municipalities in Gäu District
Niederbuchsiten is a municipality in the district Gäu in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites

 Official website 

Municipalities in Gäu District
Barahona is a Dominican province. It is in the southwestern part of the country. Its capital city is Santa Cruz de Barahona.

It was created as a Maritime District, an old category given to some regions along the coast, on 12 September 1881. The Dominican Constitution of 1907 changed the Maritime Districts to provinces.

Name
The province takes the name from its capital city, Santa Cruz de Barahona. Barahona is a Spanish last name, and it seems that a Spanish colonist with that name lived in the area.

Location
Barahona is bordered to the northwest by the province of Baoruco, to the northeast by Azua, to the west by the Independencia province. The Pedernales province is to the southwest and south of Barahona and the Caribbean Sea is to the east.
History
The province was part of the old Azua. It was created as a Maritime District on 12 September 1881 with the municipalities of Santa Cruz de Barahona, Cabral, Duvergé, Enriquillo and Neiba. Its category was changed to province by the Dominican Constitution of 1907.

Two new provinces were created from the original province of Barahona. The Baoruco Province was created in 1943 and then the Pedernales Province in 1957.

Cabral and Enriquillo are municipalities of the province since 1907; later, other municipalities were created: Paraíso in 1974; Vicente Noble in 1978; Las Salinas and Polo in 2001; El Peñón in 2002; Fundación in 2003; and La Ciénaga and Jaquimeyes in 2004.

The municipal districts of the province were created in:
 1996 : Canoa
 1999 : El Cachón
 2001 : Los Patos and Pescadería
 2003 : Quita Coraza
 2004 : Arroyo Dulce, Fondo Negro, Baoruco and Palo Alto
 2006 : La Guázara
 2007 : Villa Central

Population
Population

In  (last national census), there were  people living in the Barahona province, and 156,513 () living in towns and cities. The population density was  persons/km².

Its population represents  of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 14th (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

, the total estimated propulation of the province is 188,820 inhabitants.

The largest city of the province is Santa Cruz de Barahona, its head municipality or capital, with a population (in 2010) of 62,054 inhabitants.

Geography
The Barahona province has a total area of . It has 3.6% of the area of the Dominican Republic and it is ranked as the 12th (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province. The altitude of Santa Cruz de Barahona, provincial capital, is .
There are two important regions in the province: the valley of the Yaque del Sur river, in the north of the province, and the Sierra de Bahoruco ("Bahoruco mountain range"). Because the Sierra de Bahoruco gets to the coast, most of the population lives on the coast or near the river Yaque del Sur; the only town in the mountains is Polo.

The eastern part of Sierra de Neiba is in the northwest of the province and the Sierra Martín García is the limit with the Azua Province, in the northeast.

The valley of the river Yaque del Sur is an important farming centre in the southwest because people here uses the water of the river to grow different crops, mainly plantain and sugar cane. The Rincón lake is in this valley; fishing is an important activity in this lake.
The Sierra de Bahoruco is in the rest of the province (south, center and west); the part of the Sierra de Bahoruco that is in the province of Barahona is called Bahoruco Oriental (Eastern Bahoruco) because it is different from the rest of the mountain range. While pines are common in the Sierra de Bahoruco, they are not common in Eastern Bahoruco where there are rainforests because those mountains, and the province, have the Caribbean Sea to the east and winds bring a lot of water that falls on the mountains.

The highest mountain in Eastern Bahoruco is Pie de Palo (1,603 m). Other high mountains are Trocha de Pey (1,476 m), La Torre (1,455 m) and Loma Remigio (1,287 m).

The most important river of the province is Yaque del Sur. Other rivers are Nizaíto (23 km long) and Bahoruco (14 km). The river San Rafael is only 3 km long but many persons go there during summer to enjoy its cool waters and part of its water is taken to the city of Barahona.
The climate of the province is a tropical climate, very hot and dry in the valley, but it is cooler on the mountains. In the valley, cacti and other plants of dry regions are common. Rainforests are common in the mountains of the province because it rains a lot in the Bahoruco Oriental.

There are three important roads in the province, and they get to the border with Haiti. One of them goes through the province from north to south and gets to Pedernales after crossing the Sierra de Bahoruco by the coast.

The other two roads get to Jimaní; they go around the Lake Enriquillo, one by the northern side and the other by the southern side of the lake.

Municipalities
There are 11 municipalities and 11 municipal districts (M.D.) in the province. The municipalities and its municipal districts (M.D.) are:

Economy 
The main economic activity of the province is agriculture; the main products are coffee in the mountains and plantain and sugar cane in the valley of the river Yaque del Sur.
Other important economic activities are industry (sugar and textiles) in Santa Cruz de Barahona and fishing along the Caribbean coast.

Related pages
 Provinces of the Dominican Republic

References

Provinces of the Dominican Republic
1881 establishments in North America
1880s establishments in the Dominican Republic
Black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer) is a common type of fungus. 

It grows and reproduces the same way that most molds do. In asexual reproduction, the mold makes spores inside a sporangium. When the spores are ready to leave and spread more mold, the sporangium breaks open and lets the spores float out. 

In sexual reproduction its hyphae touch the hyphae of another Rhizopus mycelium. When they fuse, they make round balls called zygospores. After some time, the zygospore makes another sporangium, which then makes spores. During this sexual  process, genetic recombination takes place, as with all eukaryotes.

When the spores land on a suitable place, they begin to grow. They very quickly start making hyphae, small tendrils that look like roots. Hyphae are part of the mycelium. The mycelium is the main part of the mold, and grows inside the bread. Black bread mold grows fast when the temperature is higher than 15 degrees Celsius and lower than 20oC.
Black bread mold is found in all countries of the world. It is often found growing on bread and on soft fruits such as bananas and grapes. Because the mold spores are airborne, the mold can spread easily.

Related pages 
 Mycorrhiza
 Mould
 Fungus

References

Other websites
 Time lapse video of Rhizopus stolonifer attacking strawberries  at the Cornell Mushroom Blog.
 Black mold - Ill health effects & its removal- A DIY Guide Toronto

Moulds
Dental specialties
 Dental public health - The study of dental epidemiology and social health.
 Endodontics - The study, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases of the dental pulp.
 Oral pathology - The study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases.
 Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology - The study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases.
 Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery - Tooth extractions, dental implants, and facial surgery.
 Orthodontics - The straightening of teeth.
 Periodontics - Dentists which specialize in the treatment of periodontal (gum) disease
 Pediatric dentistry - Dentistry for children...
 Prosthodontics - Dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants. Some prosthodontists train more in "oral and maxillofacial prosthodontics", to learn how to replace missing facial parts, such as ears, eyes, noses, etc.
Other websites
The History of Dentistry
Information for UK dental professionals
The American Dental Association
Good Smile Dental
National Dentist Registry

References

Dentistry
The Toyota Tundra is a full-size pickup truck. It is sold by Toyota in the United States. The Tundra was first sold in 2000. The truck is bigger than the Toyota Tacoma. There are four different versions of the Tundra. These are the original, "base", version and the "SR5", "Grade", and "CrewMax" versions. The Tundra is made in San Antonio, Texas. The design of the truck was changed in 2007 and 2021. The Tundra was a replacement for the Toyota T100 pickup, a bigger version of the Toyota Hi-Lux.

Tundra
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
2020s automobiles
Pickup trucks
The Toyota Celica was a sports car made by Toyota. Toyota stopped selling the Celica in 2005 due to low sales and it was replaced by the Scion tC. The first Celicas were made in 1970.

Celica
1970s automobiles
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
Front wheel drive vehicles
Sports cars
The Toyota 4Runner is a sport utility vehicle made by Toyota. Toyota makes the 4Runner in Tahara, Japan as well as the Hino factory. The 4Runner was first sold in 1984 as a camper version of the Toyota Hi-Lux, sharing the same parts and engines. The 4Runner got a bigger V6 engine in 1988. Toyota has redesigned the 4Runner in many years of its life. The 4Runner was sold as a 2-door model alongside the 4-door until 1992. The 4Runner's competition comes from the Nissan Pathfinder, Jeep Grand Cherokee, and Chevrolet Blazer. The 4Runner was a compact SUV until 1996.

4Runner
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
Sport utility vehicles
Rhythmic gymnastics (short: RG) is a type of gymnastics. Rhythmic gymnasts perform on a floor with an apparatus, accompanied by music, in individual or group events. Gymnasts manipulate one or two apparatus: rope, hoop, ball, clubs, and ribbon. Rhythmic gymnastics is a sport that combines elements of gymnastics, dance, and apparatus manipulation. The victor is the participant who earns the most points, determined by a panel of judges, for leaps, balances, pirouettes, flexibility, apparatus handling, execution, and artistic effect.

Rhythmic gymnastics developed from other sports. It is influenced by group gymnastics, classical ballet, German apparatus work, and the Swedish free exercise method.

International competitions are split between juniors, under sixteen by their year of birth; and seniors, for women sixteen and over again by their year of birth. The largest events in the sport are the Olympic Games, World Championships, and World Cups.
Rhythmic gymnastics was officially recognized by FIG in 1963. The first time rhythmic gymnastics was in the Olympics was in 1984 in Los Angeles. That year, a Canadian gymnast called Lori Fung won the individual competition. In 1996, rhythmic gymnastics group competitions were added to the Olympics.

Rope 
The length of the rope depends on how tall the gymnast using it is. They swing the rope, throw and catch the rope, make figure-eights, and more. They also leap and jump through the rope while they are holding it.

Hoop 
The hoop is made of wood. Gymnasts toss it and catch it, spin it, swing it, and roll it in many different ways.

Ball 
Balls used in rhythmic gymnastics are made with rubber or soft plastic. Gymnasts throw balls and catch them, bounce and roll them, balance the ball on their hand, and do waves and circles.
Clubs 
The clubs are another piece of equipment that rhythmic gymnasts use. The clubs look similar to bowling pins or bottles. They are made of wood or plastic. Gymnasts use the clubs to do circles, throws, swings, plus tapping.

Group 
The group routine is a little bit different. It’s not a piece of equipment; it’s just a different kind of routine. In the group event, five rhythmic gymnasts will do a routine together. The gymnasts have to work together to make the routine work. In a group routine, gymnasts will exchange whatever equipment they are using with each other.

References 

Rhythmic Gymnastics. Plymouth State University, n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2012. 
Rhythmic Gymnastics.  USA Gymnastics, n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2012. 
Rhythmic Gymnastics Equipment and History. Olympic.org, n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2012.

Other websites 

 Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique 
 Rhythmic Gymnastics 
 The Art of Gymnastics - The Israeli site of Rhythmic Gymnastics  
 Men's Rhythmic Gymnastics
 More on rhythmic gymnastics
Wealth often means that much money is available. But there are several other aspects that can be more important. If one thinks of single persons one will look at their personal property or assets like land and livestock. Looking at countries one thinks of GDP per capita and of natural capital. 

The original meaning of the old English word for "weal", where wealth comes from, was "well-being" or welfare. (It was an adjective.)

Related pages
Capital accumulation
Constitution
Constitutional economics
Household income in the United States
Poverty

Economics
The term qualification may mean:
Professional certification (also called simply qualification)
A certificate of having passed a course such as a GCSE.
Product certification (also called product qualification)
A process of deciding the running order in many racing events, and other sport.
Qualification problem of non-monotonic logic.
Professional certification, trade certification, or professional designation, often called simply certification or qualification, is a certification a person gets to assure that he/she is qualified to perform a job or task.

Certifications are very common in aviation, construction, technology and other industrial sectors, as well as health care and finance.

Other websites 
 ABA Standing Committee on Specialization 
 Association of Professionals in Business Management (APBM)
 American College of Forensic Examiners Institute (ACFEI)

Standards
Darmstadt (German: Regierungsbezirk Darmstadt, Hessian: Regierungsbezirk Damstadt) is one of the three Regierungsbezirk of Hesse, Germany. It is in the south of the state.

Places

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Regions of Hesse
A nebula is an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases in a galaxy.

The Persian astronomer, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, mentioned a true nebula for the first time in his book, Book of Fixed Stars (964). He said that there was a "little cloud" near the Andromeda galaxy.

Origin 
A nebula is usually made up of hydrogen gas and plasma. It may be the first stage of a star's cycle, but it may also be one of the last stages.

Many nebulae or stars form from the gravitational collapse of gas in the interstellar medium or ISM. As the material contracts, massive stars may form in the center, and their ultraviolet radiation ionises the surrounding gas, making it visible at optical wavelengths.

The size of these nebulae, known as H II regions, varies depending on the size of the original cloud of gas.  These are sites where star formation occurs.  The formed stars are sometimes known as a young, loose cluster.
Some nebulae are formed as the result of supernova explosions, the death throes of massive, short-lived stars.  The materials thrown off from the supernova explosion are ionized by the energy and the compact object that it can produce.  One of the best examples of this is the Crab nebula, in Taurus.  The supernova event was recorded in the year 1054 and is labelled SN 1054.  The compact object that was created after the explosion lies in the center of the Crab Nebula and is a neutron star.

Other nebulae may form as planetary nebulae. This is the final stage of a low-mass star's life, like Earth's Sun. Stars with a mass up to 8-10 solar masses evolve into red giants and slowly lose their outer layers during pulsations in their atmospheres.  When a star has lost enough material, its temperature increases and the ultraviolet radiation it emits can ionize the surrounding nebula that it has thrown off.  The nebula is 97% Hydrogen and 3% Helium with trace materials.
In the past galaxies and star clusters were also called 'nebulae', but no longer. Nebulae can be sorted by what they look like and why we can see them.

Star-forming regions and diffuse nebulae 

Large regions of ionised hydrogen gas are produced by star-forming regions. Nebulae are often star-forming regions, such as in the Orion complex. In these regions gravitation pulls together gas and dust. Material clumps together to form larger masses, which attract further matter. Eventually this become massive enough to form stars. The material left over may form planets and other planetary system objects.

Emission nebulae / H II regions 
Emission nebulae make their own light. They are often called H II regions, because it is the ionized hydrogen which makes them glow. Usually the gases in an emission nebula are ionized. This makes them emit light and infra-red radiation.

Reflection nebulae 
Reflection nebulae reflect light from nearby stars.
Dark nebulae 
Dark nebulae do not emit light or reflect light.  They block the light from stars that are far away.

Planetary nebulae 
Planetary nebulae are quite common, because they are produced by red giant stars late in their lives. These stars usually become white dwarfs, leaving behind an expanding ball of ionized gas, which we see as a roughly circular bright nebula.

Supernova remnants 
A supernova occurs when a high-mass star reaches the end of its life.  When nuclear fusion in the core of the star stops, the star collapses and explodes .  The expanding shell of gas forms a supernova remnant. The Crab nebula is a supernova remnant which probably exploded in 1054 AD. Light and X-ray emission from supernova remnants comes from ionized gas. There is a huge amount of radio emission called synchrotron emission. This emission originates from high-velocity electrons oscillating in magnetic fields.

References

Other websites
In computer science a schema or database schema describes the structure of a database in a formal language that is supported by the database management system. Using the database schema, it is possible to create a blueprint of the database. This blueprint will not contain any data. The database schema uses logical formulas to create integrity constraints. It is not possible to insert data into the database that violates these integrity constraints. All contraints use the same language. 

There are different kinds of database schemas:
The conceptual schema expresses the concepts in the database, and how they relate to each other
The logical schema is a mapping of entities with their attributes, and the respective relations
The physical schema is a particular implementation of a logical schema.