Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
After World War I, dry cleaners began using chlorinated solvents. These solvents were much less flammable than petroleum solvents and were more powerful. By the mid-1930s, the dry cleaning industry had adopted tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene), widely called "perc", as the best solvent. It has excellent cleaning power and is stable, nonflammable, and gentle to most clothing. Some dry cleaners use different chemicals. 

Traditionally, the actual cleaning process was carried out at centralized "factories"; high street cleaners shops received garments from customers, sent them to the factory, and then had them returned to the shop after being cleaned, where the customer could collect them. This was due mainly to the risk of fire or dangerous fumes created by the cleaning process. At this time, dry-cleaning was carried out in two different machines — one for the cleaning process itself and the second to dry the clothing.
Machines of this era were called vented; their fumes and drying exhausts were sent into the air, in the same way as with modern tumble dryer exhausts. This added to environmental contamination. Also much potentially reusable perc was lost to the atmosphere. Much stricter controls on solvent emissions have ensured that all dry cleaning machines in the western world are now fully enclosed. No solvent fumes are vented to the atmosphere. In enclosed machines, solvent recovered during the drying process is returned condensed and distilled. So, it can be reused to clean more clothes, or safely thrown away. The majority of modern enclosed machines also incorporate a computer-controlled drying sensor, which automatically feels when most traces of perc have been removed from the load during the drying process. This system ensures that only the smallest amount of perc fumes will be released when opening the door at the end of the cycle.

Process
Process

A dry-cleaning machine is similar to a combination of a domestic washing machine, and clothes dryer. Garments are placed into a washing chamber (referred to as the basket, or drum). The chamber is the core of the machine. The washing chamber contains a horizontal, perforated drum that rotates within an outer shell. The shell holds the solvent while the rotating drum holds the clothing. The basket can hold between about 10 and 40 kg (20 to 80 lb).
Operators also check clothing for foreign objects before placing them into the machine. Items such as plastic pens will dissolve in the solvent bath and may damage textiles beyond recovery. Some textile dyes are "loose" (red being the main problem), and will release dye during solvent immersion. Operators will dry clean red clothing separately from lighter-color textiles to avoid color transfer to other clothes. The solvent used must be distilled to remove impurities that may transfer to clothing. Operators checked clothing for dry-cleaning compatibility, including fasteners. Many fasteners that decorate clothing either are not dry cleaning solvent proof or will not withstand the mechanical action of cleaning. Operators will remove them and restitch them after the cleaning. Or, operators will wrap them in a small padded protector. Fragile items, such as feather bedspreads or tasseled rugs or hangings, may be enclosed in a loose mesh bag. The density of perchloroethylene is around 1
.7 g/cm³ at room temperature (70% heavier than water), and the sheer weight of absorbed solvent may cause the textile to fail under normal force during the extraction cycle unless the mesh bag provides mechanical support.
Many people believe that all marks or stains can be removed by dry cleaning. Not every stain can be cleaned just by dry cleaning. Some need to be treated with spotting solvents; sometimes by steam jet or by soaking in special stain remover liquids before garments are washed or dry cleaned. Also, garments stored in soiled condition for a long time are difficult to bring back to their original color and texture. Natural fibers such as wool, cotton, and silk of lighter colors should not be left in dirty or soiled condition for long amounts of time as they absorb dirt in their texture and are unlikely to be restored to their original color and finish.

The main reason that washing in water has a different result than dry cleaning is that water is a polar solvent while dry cleaning uses a non-polar solvent.
A typical wash cycle lasts for 8–15 minutes depending on the type of garments and degree of soiling. During the first three minutes, solvent-soluble soils dissolve into the perchloroethylene and loose, insoluble soil comes off. It takes approximately ten to twelve minutes after the loose soil has come off to remove the ground-in insoluble soil from garments. Machines using hydrocarbon solvents require a wash cycle of at least 25 minutes because of the much slower rate of solvation of solvent-soluble soils. A dry-cleaning surfactant "soap" may also be added.

At the end of the wash cycle, the machine starts a rinse cycle wherein the garment load is rinsed with fresh distilled solvent from the pure solvent tank. This pure solvent rinse prevents discoloration caused by soil particles being absorbed back onto the garment surface from the "dirty" working solvent.
After the drying cycle is complete, a deodorizing (aeration) cycle cools the garments and removes even more of the solvent, by circulating cool outside air over the garments and then through a vapor recovery filter made from activated carbon and polymer resins. After the aeration cycle, the garments are clean and ready for pressing/finishing.

In fact, dry cleaning does not remove all of the solvent. There are no government standards for how much solvent is allowed to remain in the fabric. Detectable amounts of the solvent remain in clothes, with wool clothes retaining the most solvent.

Solvent processing
Working solvent from the washing chamber passes through several filtration steps before it is returned to the washing chamber. The first step is a button trap, which prevents small objects such as lint, fasteners, buttons, and coins from entering the solvent pump.
Over time, a thin layer of filter cake (called muck) accumulates on the lint filter. The muck is removed regularly (commonly once per day) and then processed to recover solvent trapped in the muck. Many machines use "spin disc filters," which remove the muck from the filter by centrifugal force while it is back washed with solvent.

After the lint filter, the solvent passes through an absorptive cartridge filter. This filter is made from activated clays and charcoal and removes fine insoluble soil and non-volatile residues, along with dyes from the solvent. Finally, the solvent passes through a polishing filter, which removes any soil not previously removed. The clean solvent is then returned to the working solvent tank.
To enhance cleaning power, small amounts of detergent (0.5%-1.5%) are added to the working solvent and are essential to its functionality. These detergents help dissolve hydrophilic soils and keep soil from redepositing on garments. Depending on the machine's design, either an anionic or a cationic detergent is used.

Since the solvent recovery is less than 100%, and because dry-cleaning does not remove water-based stains well, entrepreneurs have developed the wet cleaning process, which is, in essence, cold-water washing and air drying, using a computer-controlled washer and dryer. In general, wet cleaning is still being improved and developed, although low-tech versions of it have been used for centuries.

Symbols
Symbols

People who make clothes have special symbols to say how they should be cleaned. The international GINETEX laundry symbol for dry cleaning is a circle. It may have a letter P inside to indicate perchloroethylene solvent, or a letter F inside to indicate a hydrocarbon solvent. A bar underneath the circle means that only mild cleaning processes should be used. A crossed-out empty circle means the clothes should not be dry cleaned.

Solvents used
Modern
 Perchloroethylene — In use since the 1940s, perc is the most common solvent, the "standard" for cleaning performance, and strongest cleaner. It can cause color loss, especially at higher temperatures, and may destroy special trims, buttons, and beads on some garments. Better for oil-based stains (which account for about 10% of stains) than water-soluble stains (coffee, wine, blood, etc.). Perc is nonflammable and has low toxicity but can be harmful to skin. 
 Glycol ethers (dipropylene glycol tertiary-butyl ether)  — In many cases they are more effective than perchloroethylene (perc). In all cases they are better for the environment. Dipropylene glycol tertiary butyl ether (DPTB) has a flashpoint far above current industry standards, so it is not a fire hazzard. DPTB can dissolve water-soluble stains as well as (or better than) perc or the other glycol ether dry cleaning solvents presently in commercial use.
Hydrocarbon — This is most like standard perc dry cleaning, but the processes use hydrocarbon solvents such as Exxon-Mobil’s DF-2000 or Chevron Phillips' EcoSolv. These petroleum-based solvents are less strong than perc and require a longer cleaning cycle. While flammable, these solvents do not present a high risk of fire or explosion when used properly. A hydrocarbon solvent also contains volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that contribute to smog.
 Liquid silicone (decamethylcyclopentasiloxane or D5) — is gentler on garments than perc and does not cause color loss. GreenEarth Cleaning  charges a license fee for using this solvent. Though considerably more environmentally friendly, the price of it is more than double that of perc, and GreenEarth charges an annual affiliation fee. Degrades within days in the environment to silica and trace amounts of water and CO2. D5 produces nontoxic, nonhazardous waste.
 Modified hydrocarbon blends (Pure Dry)
Liquid CO2 — Consumer Reports rated this method better than conventional methods, but the Drycleaning and Laundry Institute commented on its "fairly low cleaning ability" in a 2007 report. Another industry certification group, America's Best Cleaners, counts CO2 cleaners among its members. Machinery is expensive—up to $90,000 more than a perc machine, making affordability difficult for small businesses. Some cleaners with these machines keep traditional machines on-site for the heavier soiled textiles. Others find plant enzymes to be equally effective and more environmentally sustainable. CO2-cleaned clothing does not off-gas volatile compounds. CO2 cleaning is also used for fire- and water-damage restoration due to its effectiveness in removing toxic residues, soot and associated odors of fire. The environmental impact is very low; Carbon dioxide is almost entirely nontoxic, it does not persist in clothing or in the environment, and its greenhouse gas potential is lower than that of many organic solvents.
Historical
 Carbon tetrachloride — Highly toxic.
 Trichloroethane and trichloroethylene — Overly aggressive and harsh.
 Stoddard solvent — Very flammable and explosive, 100°F/38°C flash point.
 CFC-113 - Freon — Ozone destroying CFC.

References

Other websites
 Difference between cleaning Article about sterilization and disinfection.
 Hazard Summary provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
 How stuff works article on how dry cleaning works.
 How stuff works article on how home dry cleaning works.
 NIOSH Safety and Health Topic: Drycleaning
 Perchloroethylene  (PDF) on PERC and environmental issues.
 Solvents in Europe
 Chemicals used in Dry Cleaning  (PDF)

Physical chemistry
Laundry
The Cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) are mammalian marine descendants of land mammals. Their terrestrial origins are indicated by:
 Their need to breathe air from the surface;
 The bones of their fins, which resemble the limbs of land mammals
 The vertical movement of their spines, characteristic more of a running mammal than of the horizontal movement of fish.

The question of how land animals evolved into ocean-going leviathans was a mystery until recent discoveries in Pakistan revealed several stages in the transition of cetaceans from land to sea.

DNA sequence analysis 
After many years when palaeontologists thought whales had evolved from mesonychids, DNA sequence analysis showed the closest relationship was with artiodactyls, the even-toed ungulates. A new clade was created to include Cetacea and their nearest relatives, the hippopotamus family. This clade is called the Cetartiodactyla.

Fossil record
Fossil record 

Hippo fossils are not found until the Miocene, but whale ancestors have been found from the Eocene. This leaves a gap of nearly 30 million years where no hippo ancestors are found.  The most recent hypothesis is that hippos and whales shared a common semi-aquatic ancestor which branched off from other Artiodactyls around 60 million years ago (mya).  This ancestral group probably split into two branches around 54 mya. One branch evolved into cetaceans, possibly beginning with the proto-whale Pakicetus from 52 mya.  These early cetaceans gradually became adapted to life in the sea. They became the completely aquatic cetaceans.

Indohyus 

Indohyus is a small deer-like creature, which lived about 48 million years ago in Kashmir. It belongs to the artiodactyls family Raoellidae, and is believed to be the closest sister group of Cetacea.
About the size of a raccoon or domestic cat, this herbivorous creature shared some of the traits of whales. It also showed signs of adaptations to aquatic life, including a thick and heavy outer bone coating. This is similar to the bones of modern creatures such as the hippopotamus, and reduces buoyancy so that they can stay underwater. This suggests a similar survival strategy to the African mousedeer or water chevrotain which, when threatened by a bird of prey, dives into water and hides beneath the surface for up to four minutes.

Size

Scientists from the University of Plymouth studied many animals that dive and hold their breath, from insects to whales, and they found that larger animals can hold their breath longer than smaller animals because they can store more oxygen for their size, and this difference was much bigger for warm-blooded animals than for cold-blooded animals.  They said this may be why modern whales and extinct diving animals like plesiosaurs became so large.
The blue whale is not the largest ever whale, and perhaps by quite a long way. 39 million years ago Perucetus colossus was between 85 to 340 tons, so up to 3x heavier than the blue whale.

References 

Evolutionary biology
Cetaceans
A Coal ball is a permineralised life form that is full of calcium, magnesium and occasionally iron sulfide. They generally have a round shape. Coal balls are not made of coal, even though they have the name "coal ball".

In 1855, two English scientists, Joseph Dalton Hooker and Edward William Binney, found coal balls in England. Because of that, the initial research on coal balls was done in Europe. Coal balls were found and identified in North America in 1922. Since then, coal balls have been found in other countries and several theories on their formation have been proposed.

Marie Stopes and D.M.S. Watson also examined coal ball samples. They agreed that coal balls formed in situ. They also added that interaction with a marine environment was necessary for a coal ball to form.

Coal balls are in coal seams across North America and Eurasia. North American coal balls are in more places than in Europe. The oldest coal balls were found in Germany and former Czechoslovakia.
In 1962, Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson found signs of marine animal remains in North American coal balls.

The quality of the preservation of organic material depends on the speed of the burial process and the degree of compression before undergoing permineralisation. Generally, coal balls resulting from remains that have a quick burial with little decay and pressure have a higher preservation degree. However, plant remains in most coal balls show various signs of decay and collapse.

Analysis
Thin sectioning was an early procedure used to analyse fossilised material contained in coal balls. The ball was cut into thin sections with a diamond saw. Then it was flattened and polished with an abrasive. Then it was examined under a  microscope. This is the procedure which was carried out by Hooker and Binney. The time needed, and the poor quality of samples produced, led to a more convenient method.

The new method, first used in 1928, is called the "liquid peel technique".
Related pages 
 Fossil
 Petrified wood

References 

Fossils
Geology
Napster was a computer program that allowed people to share music over the Internet. It was shut down as the result of a lawsuit by the RIAA. Napster has since reopened with some changes

File sharing
Paul John Flory (June 19, 1910 – September 9, 1985) was an American chemist and Nobel laureate. He worked in the field of polymers, or macromolecules.  He was a leading pioneer in understanding how polymers dissolve in solutions. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 "for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules."

Biography

Early life 
He graduated from Elgin High School in Elgin, Illinois in 1927. Flory received a bachelor's degree from Manchester College (Indiana) in 1931 and a Ph.D. from the Ohio State University in 1934.  His first position was at DuPont with Wallace Carothers.
Polymer science 
Flory's earliest work in polymer science was in the area of polymerization kinetics at the DuPont Experimental station.  Most chemists studying condensation polymerization believed that the reactivity of the end group decreased as the macromolecule grew.  Flory argued  that the reactivity was independent of the polymer's size. He showed that the number of polymer chains present decreased with size exponentially.

Flory introduced the important concept of chain transfer to the study of addition polymerization. This improved chemists' understanding of the kinetic equations. It also helped chemists to understand the distribution of the polymer sizes.

In 1938, after Carothers' death, Flory moved to the Basic Science Research Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati. There he developed a mathematical theory for the polymerization of compounds with more than two functional groups. He also developed the theory of polymer networks or gels.
In 1940, he joined the Linden, NJ laboratory of the Standard Oil Development Company. He developed a statistical mechanical theory for polymer mixtures there.

In 1943, he left to join the research laboratories of Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company as head of a group on polymer fundamentals.  In the Spring of 1948 Peter Debye, then chairman of the chemistry department at Cornell University, invited Flory to give the annual Baker Lectures.  He then was offered a position with the faculty in the Fall of the same year.  At Cornell, Flory expanded and refined his Baker Lectures into his best work (magnum opus), Principles of Polymer Chemistry which was published in 1953 by Cornell University Press.  This quickly became a standard text for all workers in the field of polymers, and is still widely used to this day.
Flory introduced the concept of excluded volume to polymers. (Werner Kuhn had already invented the term in 1934 for molecules in general.) "Excluded volume" refers to the idea that one part of a long chain molecule can not occupy space that is already occupied by another part of the same molecule. Excluded volume causes the ends of a polymer chain in a solution to be further apart (on average) than they would be were there no excluded volume.  The recognition that excluded volume was an important factor in analyzing long-chain molecules in solutions provided an important conceptual breakthrough. Excluded volume explained several puzzling experimental results of that time. It also led to the concept of the theta point, the set of conditions at which an experiment can be conducted that causes the excluded volume effect to be neutralized. At the theta point, the chain reverts to ideal chain characteristics – the long-range interactions coming from the excluded volume are eliminated
. This allows experimenters to more easily measure short-range features such as structural geometry, bond rotation potentials, and steric interactions between near-neighboring groups. Flory taught another advantage of performing the experiment at the theta point: the chain dimension in polymer melts would have the size computed for a chain in ideal solution. This works because excluded volume interactions are neutralized at the theta point.
He also invented an original method for computing the probable size of a polymer in good solution. He invented the Flory-Huggins Solution Theory. He derived the Flory exponent, which helps characterize the movement of polymers in solution.

Flory won the Perkin Medal and the Priestley Medal.

The Flory convention 
In modeling the position vectors of atoms in macromolecules it is often necessary to convert from Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) to generalized coordinates. The Flory convention for defining the variables involved is usually employed. For an example, a peptide bond can be described by the x,y,z positions of every atom in this bond or the Flory convention can be used. Here one must know the bond lengths , bond angles , and the dihedral angles . A three-dimensional structure can be described using the Flory convention by applying a vector conversion from the Cartesian coordinates to the generalized coordinates.
Later years 
He became a professor at Stanford University in 1961. He became the Jackson-Wood Professor there in 1966. He retired from Stanford in 1975.  He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 "for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules."  He remained active after his retirement, and consulted for IBM for some years.  He and his wife Emily Catherine Tabor (now dead) had three children, Susan, Melinda and John.  Susan has two children, Elizabeth and Mary.  Elizabeth has three children, Katy Greer, Margaret Greer, and Sam Greer.  Paul J Flory died of a heart attack in Big Sur, California in 1985.

Bibliography 
Flory, Paul. (1953) Principles of Polymer Chemistry. Cornell University Press. .
Flory, Paul. (1969) Statistical Mechanics of Chain Molecules. Interscience. . Reissued 1989. .
Flory, Paul. (1985) Selected Works of Paul J. Flory. Stanford Univ Press. .

References
References

Other websites 
A short autobiography of Paul Flory
Nobel lecture by Paul Flory

1910 births
1985 deaths
American chemists
Scientists from Illinois
People from Elgin, Illinois
American autobiographers
American Nobel Prize winners
Stanford University faculty
The alpine butterfly loop is a knot used to form a loop in the middle of a rope.  Once tied, the loop will not shift up and down the rope. It is good for adding a stationary loop in a continuous piece of rope, without bending the rope.

Related pages
 List of knots

Knots
This page is a list of knots.

More reading
 

Lists
The reef knot (or square knot) is a knot. It is often used to tie two ropes together. It is used to “reef” sails on sailboats. That is, reduce the sail area when the wind gets stronger.

Related pages
 List of knots

Sources

Binding knots
Joining knots
The sheet bend is a knot made to join two ends of rope together. Holds well when the ropes are different diameters.

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 List of knots

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Joining knots
Interstellar extinction is when the electromagnetic radiation of an astronomical object is blocked and/or scattered by other astronomical objects and cosmic dust.

Also known as galactic extinction when the object is in the Milky Way.

Astronomy
An astronomical object is any natural body that floats in space.  For example, stars, planets, meteoroids, moons, and other space objects.
Masala (; ) is a word used in South East Asia, mainly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. It is used for  a style of Indian movies where there is a mix of various styles of movies in one movie. For example, a movie can show action, comedy, drama, and romance. This movie style is used very often in South Indian films as it helps make the movies appeal to more viewers. Famous masala directors include S. Shankar, Perarasu and K. S. Ravikumar.

Cinema of India
Cinema of Pakistan
Bangladeshi movies
Sharaf Khan Bidlisi (, 1543 1603), was a Kurdish prince and historian. In 1597 he wrote a book on Kurdish history, Sharafnama.

References

Kurdish writers
1543 births
1603 deaths
Princes and princesses
Iranian historians
Usually, most people working in this form of economy are women; they work in the most erratic and corrupt segments of the job market.
Sixty percent of female workers in developing countries are employed by the informal sector. There are two main reasons why this is the case: First, the kind of employment that is available caters mostly to women. Secondly, most women either work from home, because they also have to take care of children, or they work as street vendors; both of these kinds of work are classified in the informal sector. 

What is more, most people at the top positions of the sector are men, and most people in the bottom positions are women.
For example, very few women are employers who hire others and more women are likely to be involved in smaller scale operations. Labor markets, household decisions, and states all propagate this gender inequality. The gender gap in terms of wage is even higher in the informal sector than the formal sector.

References

Labor
Economic markets
Feminism
Two half-hitches is a knot that is often used to attach rope to poles or other objects.  It is one of many knots that are called hitches.  When a clove hitch is tied around a rope, it forms the two half-hitches.

Related pages
 List of knots

Hitches
A clove hitch is a knot that is tied around an object.It is a kind of hitch knot. When a clove hitch is tied around a rope, it forms a knot called Two half-hitches.

Related pages
 List of knots

References

Hitches
The Hunchback of Notre Dame is a 1996 American-French animated musical drama movie based on Victor Hugo's novel. It was produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 34th Disney animated movie. It follows the deformed bell-ringer attempting to gain acceptance into society.

The movie stars Tom Hulce, Demi Moore, Tony Jay, Kevin Kline, Paul Kandel, Jason Alexander, Charles Kimbrough, David Ogden Stiers and Mary Wickes in her final movie role. Produced during a period known as the Disney Renaissance, the movie is considered to be one of Disney's darkest animated movie because its narrative explores such mature themes as infanticide, lust, damnation, genocide, and sin, despite the changes made from the original source material in order to ensure a G rating received by the MPAA. The musical score was written by Alan Menken, with songs written by Menken and lyricist Stephen Schwartz, who had previously collaborated on Pocahontas.
The movie was released on June 21, 1996 to largely positive reviews and was a commercial success, grossing over $325 million worldwide and becoming the fifth highest-grossing release of 1996. The movie received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for Menken's musical score. A darker, more Gothic stage adaptation of the movie, was rewritten and directed by James Lapine and produced by Walt Disney Theatrical in Berlin, Germany, as Der Glöckner von Notre Dame, and ran from 1999 to 2002. A direct-to-video sequel, The Hunchback of Notre Dame II, was released in 2002.
Plot
In 1482 Paris, Clopin, a Gypsy puppeteer tells a group of children the origin of the titular hunchback. Twenty years earlier, a group of gypsies are arrested by Judge Claude Frollo, the corrupt and fanatical Justice Minister, who pursues a woman and her deformed baby. After killing her near the Notre Dame Cathedral, Frollo attempts to drop the baby in the well, but the archdeacon stops him. Frollo decides to raise the child at the cathedral and atone for his sin. He names him Quasimodo.
As Quasimodo returns to the cathedral, Esmeralda meets Phoebus, the captain of the guard, who has her confined, instead of arresting her. Esmeralda befriends Quasimodo. He helps her escape the cathedral, and she gives him a pendant with a map to the Court of Miracles, the home of the gypsies. Frollo develops lustful feelings towards Esmeralda, calling on the Virgin Mary to protect him from her spell and avoid eternal damnation. The next day, Frollo and the guards arrest one of the civilians and burn every buildings. Phoebus defies Frollo, when he attempts to burn down the house. Phoebus falls unconscious at the  river Seine, but Esmeralda rescues him and they head to the cathedral for refuge. The gargoyles try to encourage Quasimodo, but he becomes heartbroken when Esmeralda has loved Phoebus. When Frollo returns to the cathedral, he bluffs to Quasimodo that he knows the location of the gypsy hideout and Frollo will attack at dawn with a thousand men
. Using Esmeralda's map, Quasimodo and Phoebus travel to the Court of Miracles, where Frollo and the guards capture everyone.
Frollo prepares to burn Esmeralda at the stake after she rejects him, but she is saved by Quasimodo and is brought into the cathedral. Phoebus releases himself and the gypsies, and unites the citizens of Paris while opposing Frollo and the guards. Quasimodo and the gargoyles pour molten lead into the streets to prevent everyone from entering the cathedral. Frollo sneaks inside, and pursues Quasimodo and Esmeralda onto the balcony, where he reveals to Quasimodo that he killed his mother. Frollo falls to his death into the lake of molten copper, while Phoebus saves Quasimodo. Esmeralda and Phoebus receive a blessing for their relationship, and Quasimodo is accepted into Parisian society.

Release date

References

1996 movies
American family movies
1990s American musical movies
Disney animated movies
English-language movies
Fiction set in the past
Movies based on books
Movies composed by Alan Menken
Movies composed by David Newman
Movies set in Paris
The Hunchback of Notre Dame (Disney)
Biological engineering (also known as biotechnological engineering and bioengineering) is any type of engineering that is applied to living things.

References 

Branches of biology
Engineering disciplines
The Audi A8 is the largest car produced by Audi. It replaced the Audi V8 in 1994, and is available with either short or long wheelbase. The range incorporates 6-, 8-, 10- and 12-cylinder petrol engines and 6- and 8-cylinder diesel engines. A more sporty version is the Audi S8.

A8
Front wheel drive vehicles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
Mariner 3 was a NASA spacecraft. It was the third spacecraft in the Mariner program. It was designed to take photos of the planet Mars after an eight month journey studying interplanetary (between planet) space. However, the spacecraft lost power eight hours after launch, and it never achieved the correct Mars trajectory. It eventually entered a heliocentric (Sun-centred) orbit.

References

Other websites 

Mariner 03
1960s in spaceflight
Selenography is the study of the physical features of the Moon.

References 

Moon
When two chemical substances come in contact with each other, through what is called a phase, they will interact with each other in that phase. They may also have an  interface. If a substance accumulates within a phase this is called absorption, if the same process happens on the interface, it is called adsorption. In the year 1909, James William McBain introduced the word Sorption to describe such a process, in the case where it is not easy or meaningful to make a difference between absorption and adsorption. 

Examples of where the concept of sorption is important are measuring the pollution of the environment; using sorption it is possible to bind pollutants to small particles in the air (called aerosols), or in the soil (where they bind to colloids). Sorption makes these bindings possible. In much the same way, polluants can be transported over long distances. 

Machines and processes that use sorption include the absorption refrigerator and solar air conditioning.

Physics
"Dreaming of You" is a song by Mexican-American Tejano pop singer Selena. It was released as the second single from the album of the same name (1995).

Chart performance

Certifications/Sales

References

Selena songs
1995 songs
Selenology is the science of the Moon. It is a branch of astronomy.

References 

Moon
Fobos-Grunt (also spelled Phobos-Grunt, also called Phobos Sample Return Mission) was an unmanned Russian spacecraft. It was an attempted sample return mission to Phobos, a moon of the planet Mars. Scientists intended Phobos-Grunt to orbit and study Mars. It was meant to look at Mars' atmosphere and dust storms, plasma and radiation. Then, Phobos-Grunt should have landed on Phobos and returned a 200 g soil sample to Earth.

The spacecraft was the first Russian interplanetary mission since Mars 96. It was launched on 8 November 2011 (UTC), aboard a Zenit rocket, at Baikonur Cosmodrome. It was sent with the Chinese spacecraft Yinghuo-1 and  with the Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment.

The name Phobos-Grunt () is Russian for Phobos-Soil.

References

Other websites

Information

Images
A picture of Phobos-Grunt . Retrieved 2011-09-05.
Phobos-Grunt diagram. Retrieved 2011-09-05.
A model of Phobos-Grunt. Retrieved 2011-09-05.

Spacecraft
Mars
2011 in Russia
2012 in Russia
Wade Belak (July 3, 1976 – August 31, 2011) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player that played a career total of 18 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was drafted by the Quebec Nordiques with the 12th overall pick in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft. Belak retired from the NHL on March 8, 2011 and remained with the Predators in an organizational role. On August 31, 2011, He was found dead in his condo at the One King Street West hotel in Toronto. His death was later treated as a suicide by Toronto police. Before his death he was preparing to take part in the upcoming season of Battle of the Blades.

References

Other websites
Other websites

1976 births
2011 deaths
American Hockey League players
Calgary Flames players
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Colorado Avalanche players
Cornwall Aces players
Florida Panthers players
Hershey Bears players
Ice hockey people from Saskatchewan
Nashville Predators players
Saint John Flames players
Saskatoon Blades players
Sportspeople from Saskatoon
Sportspeople who committed suicide
Suicides in Canada
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Skate (marketed as skate.) is a skateboarding video game that was published by Electronic Arts. It is available for the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 systems. The game is also featured as a mobile phone game which can be downloaded. The game is the first in the Skate video game series. It was followed by Skate 2 in 2009 and Skate 3 in 2010.

References

Other websites
Official game website

Sports video games
2007 video games
PlayStation 3 games
Xbox 360 games
Skate 2 is a skateboarding video game that was published by Electronic Arts. It is available for the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 systems. The game was the second in the Skate video game series. It was followed by Skate 3 which was released in 2010. The game got very good reviews with a 7.5 out of 10 from GameSpot and a 83 out of 100 from Metacritic.

References

Other websites
Official game website

Sports video games
2009 video games
PlayStation 3 games
Xbox 360 games
Skate 3 is a skateboarding video game that was published by Electronic Arts. It is available for the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 video game systems. The game was the third in the Skate video game series. The game takes place in the city of Port Carverton. The city also embraces skateboarding which was unlike the second game where they had a "skateboarding is a crime" mentality. The game got good reviews with a 7.5 out of 10 from GameSpot and a 80 out of 100 from Metacritic.

References

Other websites
Official game website

Sports video games
2010 video games
PlayStation 3 games
Xbox 360 games
Materials science studies the properties of matter to solve science and engineering problems. It uses applied physics and chemistry. Supersmall nanotechnology has got attention in recent years. There are many inventions of new material. Work on why structures fail or break down is very important to engineering.

History 
The important material of a given era is often its defining point. Examples are the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

Materials science originally studied ceramics and metallurgy.  These ancient crafts make materials science one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science. A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs showed that the physical  properties of a material were related to its atomic structure. As the phases changed, so did the physical properties of the material.
Important elements of modern materials science are a product of the space race: the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys, and silica and carbon materials, used in the construction of space exploration vehicles.

Materials science is now linked to the development of plastics, semiconductors, ceramics, polymers,  magnetic materials, medical implant materials and biological materials.
Cause of failures 
The study of disasters in the 19th and 20th century led to some important discoveries. A.A. Griffith (1893–1963) discovered that real materials never get near their theoretical strength. This was a groundbreaking discovery which led to changes in many industries. As an example, steel gets almost 1/10th of its theoretical strength, but most solids are 100 to 1000 times weaker than expected.
Metal alloys 
The industrial study of metal alloys is a large part of materials science. Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels. An iron carbon alloy is only considered steel if the carbon level is between 0.01% and 2.00%. For the steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steel is related to the amount of carbon present. Increasing carbon levels leads to lower ductility and toughness. Heat treatment processes such as quenching and tempering can significantly change these properties however. Cast Iron is defined as an Iron-Carbon alloy with more than 2.00% but less than 6.67% carbon. Stainless steel is defined as a regular steel alloy with greater than 10% by weight alloying content of chromium. Nickel and molybdenum are also found in stainless steels.
Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper and magnesium. Copper alloys have been known for a long time (since the Bronze Age), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently developed. Due to the chemical reactivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction processes required were only developed relatively recently. The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are also known and valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic shielding. These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratios are more important than bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering applications.

Polymers
Polymers 

Polymers are also an important part of materials science. They are the raw materials used to make what we commonly call plastics. Plastics are really the final product. They are made when polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing. The mixture is then shaped into a final form. Common polymers are, include polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, polystyrene, nylons, polyesters, acrylics, polyurethanes, and polycarbonates.

PVC (polyvinyl-chloride) is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are large. It lends itself to an incredible array of uses, from artificial leather to electrical insulation and cabling, packaging and containers. It is simple to make. It accepts a wide range of plasticisers and other additives, which  give it differing properties.

Ceramics and glasses
Another application of the material sciences is the structures of glass and ceramics, typically associated with the most brittle materials. Ceramics and glasses use covalent bonds and ionic-covalent bonds with SiO2, silica or sand, as a fundamental building block. Ceramics are as soft as clay and as hard as stone and concrete. Usually, they are crystalline in form. Most glasses contain a metal oxide fused with silica. At high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a viscous liquid. Glass forms into an amorphous structure when it is cooled. Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples. Fibers of glass are also available. Diamond and carbon in its graphite form are considered to be ceramics.
Engineering ceramics are known for their stiffness, high temperature, and stability under compression and electrical stress.  Alumina, silica carbide, and tungsten carbide are made from a fine powder of their constituents in a process of sintering with a binder. Hot pressing provides higher density material. Chemical vapor deposition can place a film of a ceramic on another material. Cermets are ceramic particles containing some metals. The wear resistance of tools is derived from cemented carbides with the metal phase of cobalt and nickel typically added to modify properties.

Composite materials
Another application of material science in industry is the making of composite materials. Composite materials are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic phases. Applications range from structural elements such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermally insulative tiles which play a key and integral role in National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Space Shuttle thermal protection system which is used to protect the surface of the shuttle from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. One example is Reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC), The light gray material which withstands re-entry temperatures up to 1510 °C (2750 °F) and protects the Space Shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cap. RCC is a laminated composite material made from graphite rayon cloth and impregnated with a phenolic resin
. After curing at high temperature in an autoclave, the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon, impregnated with furfural alcohol in a vacuum chamber, and cured/pyrolized to convert the furfural alcohol to carbon. In order to provide oxidation resistance for reuse capability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to silicon carbide.
Other examples can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and similar objects. These plastic casings are usually a composite material. It is a thermoplastic matrix such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) in which calcium carbonate chalk, talc, glass fibers or carbon fibers have been added for added strength, bulk, or electro-static dispersion. These additions may be referred to as reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose.

New magnetic material 
A  new magnetic material has been discovered. It could transform computer hard drives and energy storage devices.

A highly sensitive metal bilayer needs only a small shift in temperature to dramatically alter its magnetism. This is a very useful property in electronic engineering. "No other material known to man can do this. It's a huge effect. And we can engineer it", said Ivan Schuller, of the University of California, San Diego.
The material combines thin layers of nickel and vanadium oxide. This is a structure which is surprisingly responsive to heat. "We can control the magnetism in just a narrow range of temperature  without applying a magnetic field. And in principle we could also control it with voltage or current", said Prof Schuller.

Classes of materials 
Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, each of which may constitute a separate field. Materials are sometimes classified by the type of bonding present between the atoms:
 Ionic crystals
 Covalent crystals
 Metals
 Intermetallics
 Semiconductors
 Polymers
 Composite materials
 Vitreous materials

References

Further reading

Other websites 
BBC News Science of materials.
A catwalk is a raised walkway. The term is most often used for fashion shows, where models walk along showing off the clothes. A catwalk on a ship is a passageway above decks. A similar term is runway, but it need not be off the ground.

Movie 
Catwalk, a documentary on life on the fashion runways, was filmed in 1993 by director Robert Leacock. The movie followed models Christy Turlington, Naomi Campbell, Yasmin Le Bon, Kate Moss, and Carla Bruni as they jetted around London, Milan, Paris, and New York during Spring Fashion Week, including behind-the-scenes footage.  The movie was shot in black and white and colour, and featured many top designers at work, like a young John Galliano, Justin Thomas, Karl Lagerfeld, and Gianni Versace four years before his death.

Architectural elements
Fashion
"About a Girl" by the grunge band Nirvana is the third song on Nirvana's first album Bleach. It was one of Kurt Cobain's less heavy songs of the ones he wrote for the band. Compared to "Blew" and "Downer" it is considered quite mild.

Nirvana (band) songs
1989 songs
The Rescuers is a 1977 American animated comedy-drama adventure movie. It was produced by Walt Disney Productions. It was first released to movie theaters on June 22, 1977, by Buena Vista Distribution. It is the 23rd Disney animated movie. The movie is about the Rescue Aid Society, an international mouse organization in New York City and shadowing the United Nations. They are dedicated to helping abduction victims around the world at large. Two of these mice, shy janitor Bernard (Bob Newhart) and his co-agent, the elegant Miss Bianca (Eva Gabor), set out to rescue Penny (Michelle Stacy), an orphan girl who is being held prisoner in Devil's Bayou by treasure huntress Madame Medusa (Geraldine Page).

The movie is based on a series of books by Margery Sharp, mainly The Rescuers and Miss Bianca. The movie was very successful. Later Disney released a sequel called The Rescuers Down Under in 1990. This made this movie the first Disney animated movie to have a sequel.
Cast 
 Bob Newhart as Bernard
 Eva Gabor as Miss Bianca
 Geraldine Page as Madame Medusa
 Michelle Stacy as Penny
 Joe Flynn as Mr. Snoops
 Jim Jordan as Orville
 John McIntire as Rufus
 Jeanette Nolan as Ellie Mae and Pat Buttram as Luke
 James MacDonald as Evinrude
 Bernard Fox as Mr. Chairman
 George Lindsey as Deadeye
 Larry Clemmons as Gramps
 Dub Taylor as Digger
 John Fiedler as Deacon Owl
 Shelby Flint as Singer, Bottle
 Bill McMillian as T.V. Announcer

References

Other websites 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1977 comedy movies
1977 drama movies
1970s animated movies
American animated movies
American buddy movies
American comedy-drama movies
American family movies
American musical movies
Disney animated movies
Movies based on books
Movies about animals
Movies about mice
Movies about orphans
Movies about kidnapping
See also the Logan Medal of the Geological Association of Canada.
 
The Logan Medal of the Arts was an arts prize started in 1907. Art Institute of Chicago helped to award the prize.  From 1917 through 1940, 270 awards were given.  

The Medal was named for arts patron Frank Granger Logan. Logan founded the brokerage house of Logan & Bryan. He served over 50 years on the board of the Institute.  He and his wife, Josephine Hancock Logan, administered the award consistent with their support of the Society for Sanity in Art. They founded that Society in 1936. Josephine Logan also wrote a book in 1937 called Sanity in Art.  The Logans strongly opposed all forms of modern art, including cubism, surrealism, and abstract expressionism.