Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Hamburg, or in full Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (, Low German: Friee un Hansestadt Hamborg), is a city in the north of Germany on the banks of the River Elbe, 18 km away from the North Sea. It is also one of the States of Germany.

With a population of about 1.85 million (1850000), it is the biggest German city after Berlin and the sixth largest city of the European Union. The religion is about 37% Protestant, 10% Catholic, 8% Muslim, 38% agnostic, 2% Pagan.

Since it was an important member of the Hanseatic League, the city's official name still includes Hansestadt (Hanseatic city). Other German cities that do the same today are: Lübeck, Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund, Bremen, Greifswald and Demmin. The membership in this trade alliance has influenced the architecture of the city to a great extent. It has also left some marks in the region around the city. Strategic bombing in World War II devastated the city.

In 2017 a consulting company ranked it 17th for best place to live in the world.
The area of Hamburg is . It has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification).

Economy 
Hamburg's harbour is, by shipments, the second largest harbour in Europe (after Rotterdam) and among the ten largest in the world. It is a very important gate to the countries along the Baltic Sea and Eastern Europe.

There are about 120,000 businesses in Hamburg. The company Airbus has an assembly plant for large civil aircraft in Hamburg. 30,000 people are employed in Hamburg's aircraft industries.  Only two other places in the world have so many:  Seattle in the United States and Toulouse in France.

About half of Germany's nationwide newspapers and magazines are made in Hamburg. Germany's most-viewed television news Tagesschau is broadcast from Hamburg.

Hamburg's red-light district (in Sankt Pauli) is the largest in Europe.
Sister cities 
 , Saint Petersburg, since 1957
 , Marseille, since 1958
 , Shanghai, since 1986
 , Dresden, since 1987
 , León, since 1989
 , Ōsaka, since 1989
 , Prague, since 1990
 , Chicago, since 1994

Related pages
 Berlin
 Munich
 Cologne
 Frankfurt/Main
 Düsseldorf

References

Other websites

 
Imperial free cities
Emphysema is a disease of the lungs. 

It is one of the diseases that make up chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This is a set of diseases where the flow of air in the lungs is obstructed. Emphysema is most often caused by smoking but can be caused by other diseases or have no known cause at all.

It occurs when the very small air sacs (called the alveoli) at the ends of the airways in the lungs start to break down from many sacs to form much bigger sacs. The alveoli are the areas of the lung where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged into and out of the blood. Emphysema makes it hard for people to blow air out of the lungs because air gets trapped inside the broken alveoli due to the collapse of the walls. The trapped air in the lungs creates the characteristic "barrel chest" of emphysema.
There is no cure for emphysema. Treatment includes stopping smoking and taking medicines ('broncho-dilators' and sometimes corticosteroids). Supplemental oxygen is recommended in those with low oxygen levels at rest. It decreases the risk of heart failure and death if used 15 hours per day, and may improve people's ability to exercise. In those with normal or mildly low oxygen levels, oxygen supplementation may improve shortness of breath. There is a risk of fires and little benefit when those on oxygen continue to smoke.

Associations
Emphysema is commonly associated with chronic bronchitis. As it is rather difficult to delineate "pure" cases of emphysema or chronic bronchitis they are classed together into chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Other websites 
 Global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease 

Breathing problems
Pulmonology
Oxygen is a chemical element. It has the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is the third most common element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. 

Oxygen is more than a fifth of the Earth's atmosphere by volume. In the air, two oxygen atoms usually join to make dioxygen (), a colourless gas. This gas is often just called oxygen. It has no taste or smell. It is pale blue when it is liquid or solid. 
 
Oxygen is part of the chalcogen group on the periodic table. It is a very reactive nonmetal. It makes oxides and other compounds with many elements. The oxygen in these oxides and in other compounds (mostly silicate minerals, and calcium carbonate in limestone) makes up nearly half of the Earth's crust, by mass.
Most living things use oxygen in respiration. Many molecules in living things have oxygen in them, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and fats. Oxygen is a part of water, which all known life needs to live. Algae, cyanobacteria and plants make the Earth's oxygen gas by photosynthesis. They use the Sun's light to get hydrogen from water, giving off oxygen.

At the top of the Earth's atmosphere is ozone (), in the ozone layer. It absorbs ultraviolet radiation, which means less radiation reaches ground level.

Oxygen gas is used for making steel, plastics and textiles. It also has medical uses and is used for breathing when there is no good air (by divers and firefighters, for example), and for welding. Liquid oxygen and oxygen-rich compounds can be used as a rocket propellant.
History
Oxygen gas () was isolated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604. It is often thought that the gas was discovered in 1773 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Sweden, or in 1774 by Joseph Priestley, in England. Priestley is usually thought to be the main discoverer because his work was published first (although he called it "dephlogisticated air", and did not think it was a chemical element). Antoine Lavoisier gave the name oxygène to the gas in 1777. He was the first person to say it was a chemical element. He was also right about how it helps combustion work.
Early experiments 
One of the first known experiments on how combustion needs air was carried out by Greek Philo of Byzantium in the 2nd century BC. He wrote in his work Pneumatica that turning a vessel upside down over a burning candle and putting water around this vessel meant that some water went into the vessel. Philo thought this was because the air was turned into the classical element fire. This is wrong. A long time after, Leonardo da Vinci worked out that some air was used up during combustion, and this forced water into the vessel.
In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle found that air is needed for combustion. English chemist John Mayow added to this by showing that fire only needed a part of air. We now call this oxygen (O2). He found that a candle burning in a closed container made the water rise to replace a fourteenth of the air's volume before it went out. The same thing happened when a live mouse was put into the box. From this, he worked out that oxygen is used for both respiration and combustion.

Phlogiston theory

Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov and Pierre Bayen all made oxygen in experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries. None of them thought it was a chemical element. This was probably because of the idea of the phlogiston theory. This was what most people believed caused combustion and corrosion.
J. J. Becher came up with the theory in 1667, and Georg Ernst Stahl added to it in 1731. The phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were made of two parts. One part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned.

Materials that leave very little residue when they burn, like wood or coal, were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston. Things that corrode, like iron, were thought to contain very little. Air was not part of this theory.
Discovery
Polish alchemist, philosopher and physician Michael Sendivogius wrote about something in air that he called the "food of life", and this meant what we now call oxygen. Sendivogius found, between 1598 and 1604, that the substance in air is the same as he got by heating potassium nitrate. Some people believe this was the discovery of oxygen while others disagree. Some say that oxygen was discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He got oxygen in 1771 by heating mercuric oxide and some nitrates. Scheele called the gas "fire air", because it was the only gas known to allow combustion (gases were called "airs" at this time). He published his discovery in 1777.
On 1 August 1774, British clergyman Joseph Priestley focused sunlight on mercuric oxide in a glass tube. From this experiment he got a gas that he called "dephlogisticated air". He found that candles burned more brightly in the gas and a mouse lived longer while breathing it. After breathing the gas, Priestley said that it felt like normal air, but his lungs felt lighter and easy afterwards. His findings were published in 1775. It is because his findings were published first that he is often said to have discovered oxygen.

French chemist Antoine Lavoisier later said he had discovered the substance as well. Priestley visited him in 1774 and told him about his experiment. Scheele also sent a letter to Lavoisier in that year that spoke of his discovery.

Lavoisier's research
Lavoisier did the first main experiments on oxidation. He was the first person to explain how combustion works. He used these and other experiments to prove the phlogiston theory wrong. He also tried to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element.

In one experiment, Lavoisier found that there was no increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container. He also found that air rushed in when the container was opened. After this, he found that the weight of the tin had increased by the same amount as the weight of the air that rushed in. He published his findings in 1777.  He wrote that air was made up of two gases. One he called "vital air" (oxygen), which is needed for combustion and respiration. The other (nitrogen) he called "azote", which means "lifeless" in Greek. (This is still the name of nitrogen in some languages, including French.)
Lavoisier renamed "vital air" to "oxygène", from Greek words meaning "sour making" or "producer of acid". He called it this because he thought oxygen was in all acids, which is wrong. Later chemists realised that Lavoiser's name for the gas was wrong, but the name was too common by then to change.

"Oxygen" became the name in the English language, even though English scientists were against it.

Later history
John Dalton's theory of atoms said that all elements had one atom and atoms in compounds were usually alone. For example, he wrongly thought that water (H2O) had the formula of just HO. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. By 1811, Amedeo Avogadro correctly worked out what water was made of based on Avogadro's law.
By the late 19th century, scientists found that air could be turned into a liquid and the compounds in it could be isolated by compressing and cooling it. Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pictet discovered liquid oxygen by evaporating sulfur dioxide to turn carbon dioxide into a liquid. This was then also evaporated to cool oxygen gas in order to turn it into a liquid. He sent a telegram to the French Academy of Sciences on 22 December 1877 telling them of his discovery.

Characteristics

Properties and molecular structure
At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen has no colour, odour or taste. It is a gas with the chemical formula  called dioxygen.
As dioxygen (or just oxygen gas), two oxygen atoms are chemically bound to each other. This bond can be called many things, but simply called a covalent double bond. Oxygen gas is very reactive and can react with many other elements. Oxides are made when metal elements react with oxygen, such as iron oxide, which is known as rust. There are a lot of oxide compounds on Earth.

Allotropes
The common allotrope (type) of oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen (O2). This is the second biggest part of the Earth's atmosphere, after dinitrogen (N2). O2 has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ/mol Because of its energy, O2 is used by complex life like animals.

Ozone (O3) is very reactive and damages the lungs when breathed in. Ozone is made in the upper atmosphere when O2 combines with pure oxygen made when O2 is split by ultraviolet radiation. Ozone absorbs a lot of radiation in the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum and so the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere protects Earth from radiation.
Above the ozone layer, (in low Earth orbits), atomic oxygen becomes the most common form.

Tetraoxygen (O4) was discovered in 2001. It only exists in extreme conditions when a lot of pressure is put onto O2.

Physical properties
Oxygen dissolves more easily from air into water than nitrogen does. When there is the same amount of air and water, there is one molecule of O2 for every 2 molecules of N2 (a ratio of 1:2). This is different to air, where there is a 1:4 ratio of oxygen to nitrogen. It is also easier for O2 to dissolve in freshwater than in seawater. Oxygen condenses at 90.20 K (-182.95°C, -297.31 °F) and freezes at 54.36 K (-218.79 °C, -361.82 °F). Both liquid and solid O2 are see-through with a light-blue colour.

Oxygen is very reactive and must be kept away from anything that can burn.

Isotopes

There are three stable isotopes of oxygen in nature. They are 16O, 17O, and 18O. About 99.7% of oxygen is the 16O isotope.
Occurrence
Oxygen is the third most common element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen.

Apart from iron, oxygen is the most common element on Earth (by mass). It makes up nearly half (46% 
to 49.2% of the Earth's crust as part of oxide compounds like silicon dioxide and other compounds like carbonates. It is also the main part of the Earth's oceans, making up 88.8% by mass. Oxygen gas is the second most common part of the atmosphere, making up 20.95% of its volume and 23.1% of its volume. Earth is strange compared to other planets, as a large amount of its atmosphere is oxygen gas. Mars has only 0.1%  by volume, with the other planets having less than that.
The much higher amount of oxygen gas around Earth is caused by the oxygen cycle. Photosynthesis takes hydrogen from water using energy from sunlight. This gives off oxygen gas. Some of the hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to make carbohydrates. Respiration then takes oxygen gas out of the atmosphere or water and turns it into carbon dioxide and water.

Uses

Medical
O2 is a very important part of respiration. Because of this, it is used in medicine. It is used to increase the amount of oxygen in a persons blood so more respiration can take place. This can make them become healthy quicker if they are ill. Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart problems, and any disease that makes it harder for a person to take in oxygen.

Life support
Low-pressure O2 is used in space suits, surrounding the body with the gas. Pure oxygen is used but at a much lower pressure. If the pressure were higher, it would be poisonous.
Industrial
Smelting of iron ore into steel uses about 55% of oxygen made by humans. To do this, O2 gas is injected into the ore through a lance at high pressure. This removes any sulfur or carbon from the ore that would not be wanted. They are given off as sulfur oxide and carbon dioxide. The temperature can go as high as 1,700 °C because it is an exothermic reaction.

Around 25% of oxygen made by humans is used by chemists. Ethylene is reacted with O2 to make ethylene oxide. This is then changed to ethylene glycol, which is used to make many products such as antifreeze and polyester (these can then be turned into plastics and fabrics).

The other 20% of oxygen made by humans is used in medicine, metal cutting and welding, rocket fuel, and water treatment.

Compounds
The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 in nearly every compound it is in. In a few compounds, the oxidation state is −1, such as peroxides. Compounds of oxygen with other oxygen states are very uncommon.
Oxides and other inorganic compounds
Water () is an oxide of hydrogen. It is the most common oxide on Earth. All known life needs water to live. Water is made of two hydrogen atoms covalent bonded to an oxygen atom (oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen). (this is the basic principle of covalent bonding)
There are also electrostatic forces (Van de'r Waals forces) between the hydrogen atoms and adjacent molecules' oxygen atoms. These pseudo-bonds bring the atoms around 15% closer to each other than most other simple liquids. This is because Water is a polar molecule (Net asymmetrical distribution of electrons) due to its bent shape, giving it an overall net field direction, mainly due to oxygens 2 non bonding pairs of electrons, pushing the bonding H's further together than the linear arrangement with lower enthalpy (see CO2). This property is exploited by microwaves to oscillate polar molecules, especially water. And its responsible for the extra energy needed to disassociate H20.
Because of oxygen's high electronegativity, it makes chemical bonds with almost all other chemical elements. These bonds give oxides (for example iron reacts with oxygen to give iron oxide). Most metal's surfaces are turned into oxides when in air. Iron's surface will turn to rust (iron oxide) when in air for a long time. There are small amounts of carbon dioxide () in the air, and it is turned into carbohydrates during photosynthesis. Living things give it off during respiration.

Organic compounds
Many organic compounds have oxygen in them. Some of the classes of organic compounds that have oxygen are alcohols, ethers, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, esters, and amides. Many organic solvents also have oxygen, such as acetone, methanol, and isopropanol. Oxygen is also found in nearly all biomolecules that are made by living things.

Oxygen also reacts quickly with many organic compounds at, or below, room temperature when autoxidation happens.

Industrial production
One hundred million tonnes of O2 are gotten from air for industrial uses every year. Industries use two main methods to make oxygen. The most common method is fractional distillation of liquefied air. N2 evaporates while O2 is left as a liquid. O2 is the second most important industrial gas.Because it is more economical , oxygen is usually stored and transported as a liquid. A small steel tank of 16 liters water capacity with a working pressure of 139 bar (2015 psi) holds about 2150 liters of gas and weighs 28 kilograms (62 lb) empty. 2150 liters of oxygen weighs about 3 kilograms (6.6 lb).

The other main method of making oxygen is by passing a stream of clean, dry air through a pair of zeolite molecular sieves. The zeolite molecular sieves soaks up the nitrogen. It gives a stream of gas that is 90% to 93% oxygen.

Oxygen gas can also be made through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen.

Safety
Safety 

Oxygen's NFPA 704 says that compressed oxygen gas is not dangerous to health and is not flammable.

Toxicity
At high pressures, oxygen gas (O2) can be dangerous to animals, including humans. It can cause convulsions and other health problems. Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at pressures more than 50 kilopascals (kPa), equal to about 50% oxygen in the air at standard pressure (air on Earth has around 20% oxygen).

Premature babies used to be placed in boxes with air with a high amount of O2. This was stopped when some babies went blind from the oxygen.

Breathing pure O2 in space suits causes no damage because there is a lower pressure used.

Combustion and other hazards
Concentrated amounts of pure O2 can cause a quick fire. When concentrated oxygen and fuels are brought close together, a slight ignition can cause a huge fire. The Apollo 1 crew were all killed by a fire because the air of the capsule had a very high amount of oxygen.
If liquid oxygen is spilled onto organic compounds, like wood, it can explode.

Related pages 
Carbon dioxide
Atmosphere
Great Oxygenation Event

References

General references 
 
Canfield, Donald 2014. Oxygen: a four billion year history. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14502-0
Lane, Nick 2002. Oxygen: the molecule that made the world. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860783-0

Gases
Oxygen
Blood is a liquid in humans and many animals. Blood is pushed through the organism by the heart. It brings nutrients and oxygen to the tissues of the body. It also takes away waste and carbon dioxide from tissues.

Blood is made up of blood plasma and various cells. These include red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Platelets help blood to clot. Hemoglobin is in red blood cells. White blood cells help fight infections and heal wounds.

Plasma 
Blood plasma is the yellow liquid in which blood cells float. Plasma is made up of nutrients, electrolytes (salts), gases, non-protein hormones, waste, lipids, and proteins. These proteins are albumin, antibodies (also called immunoglobulins), clotting factors, and protein hormones. Plasma that does not have the protein fibrinogen is called serum and cannot clot. Adults have about 3 liters of plasma. Plasma is a liquid, mostly water (90%). Plasma takes up 55% of blood volume.

Red blood cells
Red blood cells 

Another name for red blood cell is erythrocyte. 'Erythro' means red; 'cyte' means cell. RBC is an acronym for red blood cell.

RBCs carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body. Cells in the body need oxygen to live. Cells also make carbon dioxide as a waste. 

RBCs are filled with hemoglobin. This is a protein. It is made to carry a large amount of oxygen. Hemoglobin has iron in it. The iron and oxygen gives hemoglobin its red color. Erythropoietin promotes the creation of RBCs. Blood type antigens are carried on the surface of red cells.

RBCs also help the blood stay at a normal pH. The blood needs to be at a pH of 7.4. If it is much more or less than 7.4, a person can get very sick or die. RBCs stops changes in blood pH. The proteins and the carbon dioxide in the RBC do this.
White blood cells 
White blood cells are a big part of the immune system. They attack things that do not belong in the body. They kill germs such as bacteria and viruses. They kill cancer cells. White blood cells also help to fight other toxic substances.

White blood cells find where the germs are, and start to destroy them. WBCs arrive in the blood. They also go out of the blood in places where there is infection. WBCs do this to fight the germs that make the infection. If they go out of the blood to fight an infection, they may return in the lymphatic system. So WBCs are in lymph nodes. 

Another name for white blood cell is leukocyte. Leuko means white. -cyte means cell. WBC is an acronym for white blood cell. There are three main kinds of WBCs. They are lymphocytes, granulocytes and monocytes. Some of the WBCs mature into cells which do similar work in the tissues.
The different WBCs work in different ways. Some WBCs kill and eat germs and cancer cells. Some WBCs make antibodies. These are proteins that stick to a cell and tell other WBCs to kill it. Some WBCs make chemicals. They release these chemicals to fight things that do not belong in the body. These chemicals cause inflammation in a part of the body. When a germ makes someone sick, the body shows it. If a bacteria gets under someone's skin and causes an infection, the skin gets red, hot, and painful. This redness, heat, and pain are signs of inflammation. This shows that WBCs are fighting the infection and killing the bacteria.

Platelets 
Platelets help make blood clot. A clot is when the liquid blood becomes solid. The body makes blood clot when the skin is cut. This stops blood from going out of the skin too much.
For blood to be able to clot is essential. But, rarely, some blood clots are bad. If a blood clot happens in a blood vessel going to the brain, it can cause a stroke. If it happens in a blood vessel going to the heart, it can cause a heart attack. This does not usually happen to young, healthy people with the exception of clotting conditions. 

Platelets are not the only things that make clots. There are proteins in the blood that help make clots. Both platelets and clotting proteins are needed to make good clots.

Where blood comes from 

Blood cells are made in the bone marrow. The spleen (a smaller, vital  organ situated inside the ribcage) manages the amount of white blood cells that flow throughout your blood, it also can manage many functions of the liver.  The bone marrow is the soft material in the middle of bones. Special cells in the bone marrow make most of the blood cells in the body.
Plasma proteins are made mostly by the liver. The water and electrolytes in plasma come from the food and water that a person eats.

Although blood is a fluid, in some respects it is a kind of connective tissue. Its cells  originate in bone marrow and the spleen, and in the blood there are potential molecular fibres in the form of fibrinogen. These are activated when a blood clot forms.

References 

Basic English 850 words
The 1960s was a decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 1960 and ended on December 31, 1969. It is distinct from the decade known as the 197th decade which began on January 1, 1961 and ended on December 31, 1970. Many things happened in the sixties, including the Space Race, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Vietnam War.

The 1960s term also refers to an era more often called the Sixties. This was a set of cultural and political trends around the globe. This "cultural decade" is loosely defined as beginning around 1963 and ending around 1974.

The social revolution of the 1960s was part of a wider counterculture. Old ways were changed, new ways taken up. Typical was the introduction of the birth control pill, and its effect on sexual activity, widespread use of certain drugs and a general disrespect for traditional ways.

Pop art also started in the 1960s.
Events 
 Decolonization of much of Africa
 1961 - Yuri Gagarin is first human in the space during Soviet Vostok 1 mission.
 1961 – Berlin Wall built.
 1961 – Bay of Pigs invasion.
 1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis.
 1963 – Assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22.
 1965 – Indiainvades Pakistan on September 6.
1967 - Six-Day War.
 1968 – Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.
 1969 – Under the Apollo 11 program Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first humans on the Moon.
 Unix created.

Important people

Actor 
 Cary Grant, British-American actor
 Charles Boyer, French actor
 Dana Andrews, American actor
 Fred Astaire, American actor
 Fred MacMurray, American actor
 Gene Reynolds, American actor
 James Stewart, American actor
 Kirk Douglas, American actor
 Melvyn Douglas, American actor
 Paul Newman, American actor
 Sean Connery, Scottish actor
 Robert Taylor, American actor
 Spencer Tracy, American actor
 Toshirō Mifune, Japanese actor
 William Holden, American actor
Actress 
 Anita Ekberg, Swedish actress
 Audrey Hepburn, British-Belgian actress
 Ava Gardner, American actress
 Barbara Stanwyck, American actress
 Bibi Ferreira, Brazilian actress
 Deborah Kerr, British actress
 Donna Reed, American actress
 Doris Day, American actress
 Fay McKenzie, American actress
 Gene Tierney, American actress
 Ginger Rogers, American actress
 Gloria Swanson, American actress
 Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress
 Janet Leigh, American actress
 Judy Garland, American actress
 Katharine Hepburn, American actress
 Lana Turner, American actress
 Lauren Bacall, American actress
 Machiko Kyō, Japanese actress
 Mai Zetterling, Swedish actress
 Marilyn Monroe, American actress
 Monica Vitti, Italian actress
 Muriel Pavlow, British actress
 Olivia de Havilland, American actress
 Peggy Stewart, American actress

Director 
 Alfred Hitchcock, British movie director
 Federico Fellini, Italian movie director
 Orson Welles, American director
 Stanley Kubrick, American movie director

Footballer
Footballer

Musician 
 Bob Dylan, American recording artist
 Elvis Presley, American singer
 Joan Baez, American singer
 Jimi Hendrix, American guitarist
World Leader 
 Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China
 Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt
 Charles de Gaulle, President of France
 Georges Pompidou, President of France
 Konrad Adenauer, Chancellor of Germany
 Ludwig Erhard, Chancellor of Germany
 Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Chancellor of Germany
 Willy Brandt, Chancellor of Germany
 Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India
 Lal Bahadur Shastri, Prime Minister of India
 Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India
 Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel
 Abdul Rahman of Negeri Sembilan
 Hisamuddin of Selangor
 Putra of Perlis
 Ismail Nasiruddin of Terengganu
 Pope John XXIII until 1963
 Pope Paul VI since 1963
 Chiang Kai-shek, President of the Republic of China
 Nikita Khruschev, Leader of Soviet Union
 Leonid Brezhnev, Leader of Soviet Union
 Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand
 Harold Macmillan, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Alec Douglas-Home, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
John F. Kennedy, President of the United States
 Lyndon Johnson, President of the United States
 Richard Nixon, President of the United States
 Ho Chi Minh, President of Vietnam
The 1970s was a decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 1970 and ended on December 31, 1979. It is distinct from the decade known as the 198th decade which began on January 1, 1971 and ended on December 31, 1980.
Events 
 Throughout the decade: decolonization continued: Angola, Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Oman, the Bahamas, and many other countries gained independence. Also, metrication in many English speaking countries.
 1970, December 15 – spaceship Venera 7 lands on Venus.
 1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
 December 16 – Partition of Pakistan of East and West Pakistans into Bangladesh and Pakistan.
 1972, March 2 – Pioneer 10 is launched (sent into space). It becomes the first spaceship to fly near Jupiter and the asteroid belt.
 1972 – Munich massacre
 1973, April 6 – Pioneer 11 is launched. It becomes the first the first spaceship to fly near Saturn.
 1974 – August 9 Richard Nixon resigned as President of the United States due to the Watergate scandal. 
 1973 – 1973 Arab-Israeli War
 1975 – end of the Vietnam War
 1975 – communists take power in Cambodia.
 1976, July 20 – spaceship Viking 1 lands on Mars.
1977, August 20 – Voyager 2 is launched. It becomes the first spaceship to fly near Uranus and Neptune.
 1977, September 5 – Voyager 1 is launched. It is now the farthest spaceship from the Earth.
 1977: The last cases of smallpox of the world.
 1978 – year with three popes
 1978, October 1 – Vietnam invades Cambodia.
 1979 – the World Health Organization says it has eliminated smallpox.
People

Actor 
 John Travolta, American actor

Actress

Footballer 
 Pelé, Brazilian football player
World Leader 
 Edward Heath, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 James Callaghan, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Fidel Castro, President of Cuba
 Augusto Pinochet, President of Chile
 Willy Brandt, Chancellor of Germany (until 1974)
 Leonid Brezhnev, leader of the Soviet Union beginning in 1964
Richard Nixon, President of the United States (until 1974)
Gerald Ford, President of the United States (until 1977)
 Jimmy Carter, President of the United States
 Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
 Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel until 1977
 Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India until 1977
 Golda Meir, Prime Minister of Israel (until 1974)
 Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader
 Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
 Pope John Paul I, pope
 Pope John Paul II, pope
 Francisco Franco, dictator of Spain (until 1975)
 Deng Xiaoping, leader in China
 Mao Zedong, leader in China (until 1976)
Pope Paul VI, pope (until 1978)
 Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran until 1979
 Ayatollah Khomeini
 Juan Perón, President of Argentina (until 1974)
 Jorge Rafael Videla, dictator of Argentina
 Muammar al-Gaddafi, dictator Libyan
 Pol Pot, Prime Minister of Cambodia
 Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt
 Helmut Schmidt, Chancellor of Germany
 Georges Pompidou, President of France
 Bhumibol Adulyadej,  King of Thailand
 Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, President of France
 Pierre Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada (until 1979)
The 1980s was a decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 1980 and ended on December 31, 1989. It is distinct from the decade known as the 199th decade which began on January 1, 1981 and ended on December 31, 1990.

This decade (group of ten years) is sometimes called the "Greed decade" in English speaking countries. Unlike the 1960s and 1970s, this is when the word yuppie was used to describe "young urban professionals" – young adults who lived in cities and started to get good jobs. This was also the rise of a more conservative period in these countries – Ronald Reagan was president for most of this time in the United States, Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and Brian Mulroney was Prime Minister of Canada.

This decade also saw the Soviet Union fight a war that seemed endless in Afghanistan, civil war in Ethiopia, and the fall of the Berlin Wall which started the end of the Cold War and of Communism in Eastern Europe.
The "eighties" are also well known for their extreme fashions, such as "big hair", New Wave, punk rock, funk, or preppies.  Rap music first started to get big in the 80s, and often went with breakdancing in what is now called the "old school" days. Many developments were also made in computer technology during these years, and video games became popular.

In sports, Italy and Argentina won the FIFA World Cup. The Philadelphia Phillies, Los Angeles Dodgers, St. Louis Cardinals, Baltimore Orioles, Detroit Tigers, Kansas City Royals, New York Mets, Minnesota Twins and Oakland Athletics won the World Series. The Pittsburgh Steelers, Oakland Raiders, San Francisco 49ers, Washington Redskins, Los Angeles Raiders, Chicago Bears and New York Giants won the Super Bowl. Finally, the Los Angeles Lakers dominated the NBA, with only the Houston Rockets winning a title.
Important events 
 1980 - 1988 – Iran-Iraq War
 Solidarity movement in Poland.
 Glasnost and Perestroika reforms in the Soviet Union.
 1981 – AIDS is discovered for the first time.
 1981 – Assassination attempts are made on Ronald Reagan and Pope John Paul II.
 1982 – Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom.
 1979 - 1989 – Soviet-Afghan War
 1984 - Sikh Genocide
 1986 – Prime Minister Olof Palme is assassinated
 1986 – The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes.
 1986 – End of Marcos regime in the Philippines
 1986 – The Chernobyl accident happens in Ukraine because of a test that went wrong. It is the second-largest known nuclear accident, after the Mayak accident in 1957. It is also one of the biggest disasters for the environment. Many people died.
 1987 – President Ronald Reagan travels to Berlin to deliver his "Tear down this wall!" speech.
 1989 – Japanese Emperor Hirohito dies.
 1989 – Tiananmen Square massacre
 1989 – The Berlin Wall is torn down.
Important people 
 Pope John Paul II, Pope in the 1980s
 Elizabeth II, British queen from 1952 to 2022
 Hirohito, Emperor of Japan from 1926 to 1989
 Akihito, Emperor of Japan since 1989
 Kim Il-Sung, dictator of North Korea
 Bhumibol Adulyadej, king of Thailand
 Deng Xiaoping, leader in China from 1978 to 1990
 Jimmy Carter, President of the United States from 1977 to 1981
 Ronald Reagan, President of the United States from 1981 to 1989
George H.W. Bush, President of the United States from 1989 to 1993, vice-president of the United States from 1981 to 1989
 Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990
 Helmut Schmidt, German chancellor until 1982
 Helmut Kohl, German chancellor from 1982 to 1998
 François Mitterrand, French President from 1981 to 1995
 Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq
 Muammar al-Gaddafi, Libyan dictator
 Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt
 Yitzhak Shamir, Prime minister of Israel
 Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader
 Arnold Schwarzenegger, Austrian actor
Sylvester Stallone, American actor
 Michael Jordan, American basketball-player
 Tom Cruise, American actor
 Eddie Murphy, American actor
 Duran Duran, English band
 Eurythmics, music band
 Prince, American singer
 Madonna, American singer
 Michael Jackson, American singer
 Bob Geldof, musician and fundraiser
 Iron Maiden, British heavy metal band
 N.W.A, hip hop group
 Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines
 Corazon Aquino, President of the Philippines
 Indira Gandhi, prime minister of India until 1984
 Rajiv Gandhi, prime minister of India from 1984 until 1989
 Fidel Castro, leader of Cuba
 Augusto Pinochet, Chilean dictator
 Jorge Rafael Videla, dictator of Argentina until 1981
 Leopoldo Galtieri, dictator of Argentina from 1981 to 1982
 Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romanian dictator until 1989
 Wojciech Jaruzelski, Polish communist leader
 Lech Walesa, leader of Polish Solidarity movement
 Ayatollah Khomeini, leader of Iran
 Mikhail Gorbachev, the last chairman of the communist party of the Soviet Union.
Sandra Day O'Connor, the first woman on the Supreme Court, from Arizona.
 Terry Fox, running across most of Canada in his Marathon of Hope.
 Hulk Hogan, American pro-wrestler and actor
Steve Jobs, Founder of Apple Inc.
The 1990s began on January 1, 1990 and ended on December 31, 1999. It was the last decade of the 1900s century and the 1000s millennium. It is distinct from the decade known as the 200th decade which began on January 1, 1991 and ended on December 31, 2000.

Events 
 1990 - 1991 – Gulf War
 1990 – German reunification
 1991 – The end of the Cold War.
 1991 – Breakup of Yugoslavia
 Yugoslav Wars
 1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union
 1992 – The European Union is founded.
 1993 – Dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
 1994 – Genocide in Rwanda
 1994 – End of Apartheid in South Africa.
 1997 – Handover of Hong Kong
People 
 Pope John Paul II, Pope in the 1990s (the last full decade he would serve as Pope until his death in 2005)
 Andre Agassi, American tennis player
 Pete Sampras, American tennis player
 Michael Schumacher, German formula 1 driver
 Backstreet Boys, American boy band
 Slobodan Milošević, President of Serbia from 1989 to 2000
 Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990
 John Major, British Prime Minister from 1990 to 1997
 Tony Blair, British Prime Minister from 1997 to 2007
 George H. W. Bush, President of the United States until 1993
Bill Clinton President of the United States from 1993–2001
 François Mitterrand, President of France from 1981 to 1995
 Jacques Chirac, President of France from 1995 to 2007
 Jiang Zemin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1989 to 2002
 Alberto Fujimori President of Peru 1990–2000
 Fidel Castro, leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008
 Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
 Madonna, singer-songwriter
 The Prodigy, electronic dance group
Britney Spears, American singer
 Spice Girls, music group
 Mariah Carey, singer
 Celine Dion, singer
 Whitney Houston, singer
 Mel Gibson, actor
 Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the USSR 1985–1991
 Boris Yeltsin, President of Russia from 1991 to 1999
 Michael Jordan, American basketball player
 Tom Hanks, American actor 
 Nicole Kidman, actress
 Sandra Bullock, American actress
 Tom Cruise, American actor
 Robin Williams, American actor and comedian
 Jim Carrey, Canadian-American actor and comedian
 George Clooney, American actor
 Brad Pitt, American actor
 Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian
 Arnold Schwarzenegger, American actor
 Oprah Winfrey, American talk show host
 Ellen DeGeneres, American talk show host
 Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq 1979–2003
 Helmut Kohl, German chancellor until 1998
 Nelson Mandela, President of South Africa 1994–1999
 Thabo Mbeki, President of South Africa 1999–2008
 Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli Prime Minister
 Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011
Muammar al-Gaddafi, Libyan dictator from 1969 to 2011
 Nirvana, rock band
 Steven Seagal, American actor
 Julia Roberts, American actor/actress
 Gerhard Schröder, German Chancellor from 1998 to 2005
 Lech Wałęsa, President of Poland from 1990 to 1995
 Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader
 Kim Il-Sung, dictator of North Korea from 1948 to 1994
 Kim Jong-il, dictator of North Korea from 1994 to 2011
 Tupac Shakur, American rapper
 Diana, Princess of Wales
 Gianni Versace, fashion designer
 Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft
 Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple
Other websites 
Source for some items:
 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ 
 http://m-w.com/
North Rhine-Westphalia (, Low Franconian: Noordrien-Wesfale, Low German: Noordrhien-Westfalen, Kölsch: Noodrhing-Wäßßfaale) is the federal state (Bundesland) with the highest population in Germany. It is in the western part of Germany and has 18,033,000 inhabitants. The capital is Düsseldorf, while the city with the most inhabitants is Cologne.

Districts 
North Rhine-Westphalia is divided into five government regions:
 Arnsberg
 Cologne
 Detmold
 Düsseldorf
 Münster

History 
 1807-1813 — Westphalia is a kingdom.
 1817 — Westphalia became a province of Prussia.
 1824 — Jülich, Kleve, Berg and Niederrhein united to Rhine Province.
 1919 — Belgium took Eupen and Malmedy.
 1946 — Rhine Province, Westphalia and Lippe-Detmold united to North Rhine-Westphalia.
Cities 
 Aachen
 Bergisch Gladbach
 Bielefeld
 Bocholt
 Bochum
 Bonn
 Bottrop
 Castrop-Rauxel
 Cologne
 Dinslaken
 Dortmund
 Düren
 Düsseldorf
 Duisburg
 Essen
 Geldern
 Gelsenkirchen
 Gütersloh
 Hagen
 Hamm
 Hattingen
 Heinsberg
 Herne
 Iserlohn
 Köln
 Krefeld
 Leverkusen
 Lippstadt
 Lünen
 Marl
 Moers
 Mönchengladbach
 Mülheim an der Ruhr
 Münster
 Neuss
 Oberhausen
 Paderborn
 Ratingen
 Recklinghausen
 Remscheid
 Siegen
 Solingen
 Unna
 Velbert
 Wesel
 Wuppertal
 Witten
 Xanten
A computer program is a list of instructions that tell a computer what to do. Everything a computer does is done by the instructions of a program. The first computers were made with only one built-in program, but today's computers have memory, which can be used to store many different programs. John von Neumann, a mathematician born in Hungary, came up with this idea in the late 1940s. 

Some common examples of computer programs:
 Web browsers, like Mozilla Firefox or Chrome
 Word processors, like Microsoft Word or Google Docs
 Video games
 Operating systems, like Microsoft Windows or iOS
A computer program is usually stored as a file on the computer's hard drive. The file contains a list of instructions. When the user runs the program, the computer reads the file does what the instructions tell it to do. These instructions can be very simple, like "add these numbers together" or "save these letters". A computer program is written by a programmer, who combines many of these simple instructions to do complicated things, like talking to the computer's screen and telling it to show a video.

The main part of the computer, the processor, is built to understand instructions written in machine code, meaning very long patterns of ones and zeroes. This is hard for humans to understand, so computer programmers write in a programming language, such as BASIC, C, or Java. Once the program is written, the programmer uses a compiler to turn it into machine code so the computer can read it.
There are also bad programs, called malware, written by people who want to do bad things to a computer. Some are spyware, trying to steal information from the computer. Some try to damage the data stored on the hard drive. Some others send users to web sites that offer to sell them things. Some are computer viruses or ransomware.

Related pages 
 Software
 Operating system
 Programming language
 Utility software

Other websites 
 Computer program Citizendium
The word data means "known facts". Data especially refers to numbers, but can mean words, sounds, and images. Metadata is data about data. It is used to find data.

Originally, data is the plural of the Latin word datum, from dare, meaning "give". Datum is rarely used in English. So data often gets used as if it were a singular word. Some people like to say "data are", not "data is".

References 

Knowledge
Computing
Statistics
The 2000s, also known as the noughties, was a decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 2000 and ended on December 31, 2009. It was the first decade of the 2000s century and the 2000s millennium. It is distinct from the decade known as the 201st decade which began on January 1, 2001 and ended on December 31, 2010.

Events 

 November 7, 2000 – George W. Bush is elected President of the United States. The results were not known until December 12, 2000 due to the state of Florida being too close to the results.

 January 13, 2001 – A 6.6 magnitude earthquake strikes El Salvador killing at least 400 people.

 February 20, 2001 – An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease occurs in the United Kingdom and over 10 million sheep and cattle were killed.

 July 2, 2001 – The first artificial heart is implanted in a human being.
September 11, 2001 – Terrorist attacks are carried out on the World Trade Center in New York City and The Pentagon in Washington, D.C. by members of the Islamic extremist group Al Qaeda. The attacks involve the hijacking of four American passenger planes. Almost 3,000 people die. Two of these planes fly directly into the two towers of the World Trade Center, causing both towers to collapse. A third plane flies into a section of the Pentagon. A fourth plane crashes in a field in Pennsylvania after the terrorists are overpowered by passengers.

 September 18, 2001 – Letters containing anthrax spores are mailed to several American media offices and two American senators. Twenty-two people are exposed and 5 people die.

 September 21, 2001 – A chemical factory explodes in Toulouse, France, killing 29 people and seriously wounding over 2,500.

 2001 – War in Afghanistan (2001–present) begins as the United States, with help from other countries, invades Afghanistan.
2002 – May 20: East Timor gains independence from Indonesia
 2002–2003 – SARS outbreak
 2003 – Invasion of Iraq
 2003 – December 26: earthquake in Bam, Iran
 2004 – March 11: Bomb attacks on Madrid's train network
 2004 – June 5: President Ronald Reagan dies at 93
 2004 – September 1: Beslan School hostage crisis in Russia
 2004 – Orange Revolution in Ukraine
 2004 – December 26: tsunami in the Indian Ocean
 2005 – April 2: Death of Pope John Paul II
 2005 – July 7: Bomb attacks on the London Underground
 2005 – October 8: earthquake in Kashmir
 2005 – November 22: Angela Merkel becomes Chancellor of Germany
 2005 – 2005 Atlantic hurricane season is the worst on record.
 2006 – January 16: Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, in Liberia becomes the first female president on the African continent.
 2006 – July – August: war between Israel and Lebanon
 2006 – December 30: Saddam Hussein is executed in Iraq.
 2007 – May 16: Nicolas Sarkozy becomes President of France.
2007 – June 27: Gordon Brown becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
 2008 – February 24: Cuban President Fidel Castro retires. He is succeeded by his brother Raul Castro.
 2008 – May 3: Burma is hit by Cyclone Nargis.
 2008 – May 12: China's Sichuan province is hit by a major earthquake.
 2008 – November: Mumbai terrorist attacks
 2008–2009 – war in the Gaza Strip
 2009 – January 20: Barack Obama becomes the 44th President of the United States and the first African-American President.
 2009-2010 – The flu pandemic turn out to be a global pandemic.  
 2009 – June 12:The end of analog television broadcast all across United States switch off analog transmitter and translation to Digital Television.
 2009 – June 25: Death of Michael Jackson