Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Tula Paulinea Contostavlos (born 13 July 1988), known as Tulisa, is a British singer, songwriter and actress of Greek and Irish ancestry. She was a member of the Camden-based hip hop group N-Dubz. Tulisa was also a judge on The X Factor.

Background 

Tula Paulinea Contostavlos was born on 13 July 1988 in Camden Town, London. When Contostavlos was five, her mother, who has bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder, was sectioned under the Mental Health Act. The 2010 BBC programme, Tulisa: My Mum and Me, described Contostavlos' life looking after her mother before joining N-Dubz.

On 9 March 2020, Contostavlos revealed she suffered from Bell's palsy.
Family 
Her Irish mother, Anne Byrne, was born in Churchtown, Dublin. Anne and her three sisters were in a 1980's big band and swing group, called Jeep. Contostavlos' father, Plato Contostavlos, is Greek-Cypriot and at one time was keyboardist with Mungo Jerry. Plato's brother, Byron Contostavlos, was bassist with Mungo Jerry and later became the manager of N-Dubz.

Career 
Tulisa was in the band N-Dubz with her cousin Dappy and their friend Fazer. The group became very popular. Tulisa was a celebrity judge on The X Factor in 2011 and 2012. She mentored the "Groups" category in 2011. They included Little Mix, the first group to win the competition. Tulisa returned to the show in 2014 because Mel B was ill.
As a singer, Contostavlos has recorded three studio albums with N-Dubz, Uncle B (2008), Against All Odds (2009) and Love.Live.Life (2010). In 2011, she started work on a solo album. In 2012 it was released. The Female Boss got a lot of bad reviews and didn't chart well. Three singles were released from the album. The first single, "Young", entered the UK Singles Chart at number one.

In 2022, N-Dubz went on a reunion tour. They have also appeared on Celebrity Gogglebox together since 2023.

Drug trial
In June 2013, Costostavlos, along with rapper Mike GLC were arrested on suspicion of supplying class A drugs. In July 2014, Contostavlos' trial for supplying cocaine ended because it was discovered that the journalist who accused her, Mazher Mahmood, had lied to the court.
In July 2014, she made a documentary about her time during the trial named Tulisa: The Price of Fame, which premiered on BBC Three to a moderate success, attracting 615,000 viewers (3.8% of the audience within its time slot).  In April 2015, Justice Nicholas Kearns, President of the Irish High Court, described her as having been "cruelly deceived in a shabby sting operation", but dismissed her attempt to sue the Irish Sun for defamation.

After the collapse of her drug trial, The Guardian Suzanne Moore wrote an article on Contostavlos image and reputation and wrote that "Tulisa is famously a working class girl made good, though of course made good is never what she is allowed to be". In Moore's opinion, "Tulisa has been branded by the media as a chav and therefore almost anything can be said about her".

Discography

 The Female Boss (2012)

Filmography

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 

Actors from London
British people convicted of assault
British R&B musicians
English movie actors
English singer-songwriters
People from the London Borough of Camden
Singers from London
Television personalities from London
1988 births
Living people
Musicians from London
English R&B singers
English hip hop musicians
Grime music artists
English dance musicians
British blue-eyed soul singers
English blue-eyed soul singers
Alexandra Stan (born June 10, 1989 in Constanța, Romania as Alexandra Ioana Stan) is a Romanian singer-songwriter, model and occasional dancer. She begun her career by releasing her debut single "Lollipop (Param Pam Pam)", which was diffused by radio stations around the world, but failed to enter any international chart. Her next single "Mr. Saxobeat" was also distributed by her long-time managers and producers' label MAAN Studio. It became a worldwide success when it reached number-one on nine international charts and got Gold and Platinum certification awards around the world for selling an estimate of 10,000,000 copies of it worldwide. Her next records entitled "Get Back (ASAP)" and "One Million" were also praised and seen in charts around the world, especially in Eastern Europe. She released her debut album "Saxobeats" in late 2011. The record gained major sales and reached the top-forty in several album charts
. 2013, Stan rose to fame after it was reported by worldwide newspapers that she was beaten by her manager Marcel Prodan, who she later sued for blackmailing and injuring.
Awards and nominations

References

Romanian singers
1989 births
Living people
Thompson Island is a phantom island, in the South Atlantic. It was thought to be about 150 km north-northeast of Bouvet Island. 

Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier discovered Bouvet Island in 1739. In 1808, James Lindsay of the Snow Swan discovered Bouvet Island again, and named it Lindsay Island. The next time, George Norris of the Sprightly sighted Bouvet on 10 December 1825. He landed on 16 December, and took possession of the island, which he named Liverpool Island, for King George IV of the United Kingdom.
Between December 13 and December 16, Norris sailed the waters northeast of Bouvet Island, where he discovered another island. It was much smaller, and the sea around it was much rougher. Three miles southeast of the newly discovered island, he found three rocks. In his log, he named the newly found island Thompson Island, and the rocks chimneys, because of their form. He also marked the position of his discoveries on a map. Unfortunately, the positions of the islands on the map did not match those written down in the log. In 1853 the discoveries of Thompson Island, Bouvet Island, and the Chimneys showed up on an official map of the British admiralty. 

In 1893, Captain Joseph J. Fuller reported another sighting of Thompson Island, on his ship, Francis Allyn.

The Valdivia expedition wanted to find the exact position of Bouvet and Thompson Island, in November 1898, but was unable to find Thompson Island.
In 1915, a German ship, the Meteor, gave a depth of the sea of 1579 m at the position where Thompson had been reported. If Thompson ever existed, it is probable that it disappeared in a volcanic eruption sometime in the 1890s.

The Norwegian Arctic Expedition (1928/29) failed to find Thompson Island, and declared it did not exist.

Thompson Island continued to appear on maps published as late as 1943.

The only person to have seen Thompson Island was probably Norris. Fuller's description of Thompson Island matches more or less that given of Bouvet Island in Norris' diary, and is therefore questionable.

References

 Gerhard Engelmann: Die Bouvet-Insel. Mit 4 Karten. In: Geographische Zeitschrift. Bd. 46, Nr. 11, Leipzig 1940, pp 408–424.
 Rupert Thomas Gould: Oddities: a book of unexplained facts; London [1928] (Chapter VII: The Auroras, and other doubtful islands pp. [190]–247)

Phantom islands
Early years 
Gajdusek's father, Karol Gajdusek, was from Büdöskö, Kingdom of Hungary, now Smrdáky, Slovakia. He was an ethnic Slovak who was a butcher. His mother's parents from Debrecen, Hungary. Gajdusek was born in Yonkers, New York. He graduated from the University of Rochester in 1943. Gajdusek studied physics, biology, chemistry and mathematics. He got an M.D. from Harvard University in 1946. His postdoctoral research was done at Columbia University, the California Institute of Technology, and Harvard. In the early 1950s, Gajdusek was drafted into the military as a research virologist at Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 1954 he went to work at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research in Melbourne, Australia. In Australia, he began the work that led to his getting the Nobel Prize.
Kuru 
Gajdusek's best-known work was on kuru. This disease was affecting many people among the South Fore people of New Guinea in the 1950s and 1960s. Gajdusek felt there was a connect between the spread of the disease and the funerary cannibalism by the South Fore people. He lived among the Fore and studied their language and culture. He also performed autopsies on people who died of kuru.

Gajdusek thought that kuru was spread by the ritualistic eating of the brains of dead family members. He proved this idea by infecting primates with the disease and showing that it had an very long incubation period of several years. When the cannibalism was stopped, kuru stopped spreading in just one generation. This was the first time it was shown that a non-inflammatory degenerative disease could be spread in humans.
Gajdusek was not able to identify what exactly spreads kuru. Other research by Stanley Prusiner and others led to the finding of proteins called prions that caused these disease and other similar diseases.

Some people in the medical community, do not think that cannibalism was still practiced when Gajdusek did his research. Willam Arens, an anthropologist, says that Gajdusek never saw cannibalism himself. Researchers who worked with the Fore in the 1950s say that cannibalism was stopped in 1948. This was almost a decade before Gajdusek went to New Guinea. Many other researchers, including Robert Klitzman, S. Lindenbaum, R. Glasse, and researchers at the Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research have made reports that say that the cannibalism still happened.

Gajdusek became head of the laboratories for virological and neurological research at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1958. He was made a part of the National Academy of Sciences in 1974.
Child molestation conviction 
During his trips in the South Pacific, Gajdusek had brought 56 children back to live with him in the United States. He gave them the chance to have high school and college education. Later, as an adult, one of these children said that Gajdusek molested him as a child.

Gajdusek was charged with child molestation in April 1996. This was based on things in his own diary and what the victim told police. He said this was true in 1997 and was sent to jail for 12 months.  After he got out of jail in 1998, he went to Europe. He never returned to the United States and lived in Amsterdam, Paris, and Tromsø. Gajdusek openly admitted molesting boys and his approval of incest.

Death 
Gajdusek died December 12, 2008 in Tromsø, Norway, at the age of 85.

References

Other websites
 Gajdusek's autobiography, written at the time of his Nobel Prize
 Carleton Gajdusek: Obituary, Los Angeles Times
 Current autobiography in Hungarian
1923 births
2008 deaths
American Nobel Prize winners
American physicians
American sex offenders
Harvard University alumni
People from Yonkers, New York
Scientists from New York (state)
University of Rochester alumni
GIS may stand for Geographic Information Sciences or for Geographic Information System. These are two different but related things in geography. The Geographic Information Sciences include many fields of knowledge that help to understand geographic information while a Geographic Information System is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data and allow for the study of "layers" of geographic information.

GIS also known as geographic information system is a computer system made for capturing and displaying positions on the earth’s surface and portraying data in many different ways on maps.  Its main job is to help in analyzing groups of data and in finding correlations or patterns.  For example a map could use GIS to find out the amount of rubbish in one area, and also include how many factories and types of factories are in that area.
GIS can store information about a location and help provide knowledge on many different topics in a location.  Users can specify a place via latitude and longitude, postal code or address.  Then GIS can provide information about the people in that area including: income, population and education levels.  It can also tell about physical things such as soil types, vegetation, water sources, manmade structures like buildings and roads.  

Acronyms
Branches of geography
Mike Pelino (born November 13, 1959 in Welland, Ontario) is a Canadian Ice hockey coach. He has been an assistant coach for the New York Rangers from 2004 until 2009.  Pelino started his coaching career in the NHL as an assistant coach for the Florida Panthers in 2003. In 2010, he became the head coach of the Peterborough Petes in the OHL.

Since 2013, he has been working for the Metallurg as an assistant coach in KHL. In the 2013/2014 season the team won Gagarin's Cup and became the KHL champions.

References

Canadian ice hockey coaches
Ice hockey people from Ontario
1959 births
Living people
Carl Sandburg (January 6, 1878 – July 22, 1967) was an American poet. He won several awards, including three Pulitzer Prizes. He also wrote a biography of Abraham Lincoln. The majority of his poems were about the city of Chicago. He was born in Galesburg, Illinois.

Writers from Illinois
American poets
Pulitzer Prize winners
1878 births
1967 deaths
Industrial Workers of the World
Hard Again is a album by Muddy Waters. It was produced by Johnny Winter who also played guitar. The record was his first for Blue Sky Records. It was also the first studio album after he left Chess Records

Recording 
The recordings lasted three days. For the recordings Muddy used his then current touring band of guitarist Bob Margolin, pianist Pinetop Perkins, and drummer Willie "Big Eyes" Smith. James Cotton played harmonica and Charles Calmeses the bass.

Songs 
Three of the songs on the album – "Mannish Boy", "I Want to Be Loved", and "I Can't Be Satisfied" – were re-recordings of songs for Chess Records. One of the songs recorded, "The Blues Had a Baby and They Named It Rock and Roll, Pt. 2", was co-written by Brownie McGhee and another song, "Bus Driver", was co-written by T. Abrahamson.

An outtake from the recording sessions, "Walking Through the Park", appeared on the 2004 Legacy Recordings reissue CD, while several more unused tracks appeared on King Bee in 1981.
Reception 
The album has been well received by several critics.  Dan Oppenheimer of Rolling Stone magazine said that "Mannish Boy" sounded like it was recorded live while both Oppenheimer and Daniel Gioffre of Allmusic state how powerful Willie "Big Eyes" Smith's drumming is. Oppenheimer, Gioffre, and Robert Christgau all share the opinion that Hard Again is Muddy Waters comeback album.

Charts and awards 
Hard Again peaked at #143 on the Billboard 200, which was his first appearance on the chart since Fathers and Sons in 1969.

Track listing 
All songs written by McKinley Morganfield, except where others are noted.
Original album 
 "Mannish Boy" (Morganfield, Ellas McDaniel, Mel London) – 5:23
 "Bus Driver" (Morganfield, Terry Abrahamson) – 7:44
 "I Want to Be Loved" (Willie Dixon) – 2:20
 "Jealous Hearted Man" – 4:23
 "I Can't Be Satisfied" – 3:28
 "The Blues Had a Baby and They Named It Rock And Roll, Pt. 2" (Morganfield, Brownie McGhee) – 3:35
 "Deep Down in Florida" – 5:25
 "Crosseyed Cat" – 5:59
 "Little Girl" – 7:06

2004 bonus track 
<li>"Walking Through the Park" – 3:55

Personnel 
The following people contributed to Hard Again:

Muddy Waters – vocals, guitar
Bob Margolin – guitar
Pinetop Perkins – piano
James Cotton – harmonica
Willie "Big Eyes" Smith – drums
Charles Calmese – bass
Johnny Winter – guitar, producer
Dave Still – engineer
Andy Manganello – assistant engineer
Joseph M. Palmaccio – mastering
Al Quaglieri – reissue producer
Chris Theis – mix engineer

Release history

References

Other websites 
musicbox-online Hard Again album review

Blues albums
From 1896 to 1899 Governor of the Cape and High Commissioner for South Africa, Alfred Milner made preparations for another war in order to gain the wealth of the Orange Free State and in September 1899 British troops arrived in South Africa. Paul Kruger president of the Transvaal sent Britain an ultimatum asking strongly for their departure.

Boer farmers from Sandspruit, Volksrust, the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal fought in the war. As the Boers lost men in battle they recruited young boys and old men to fight. Black people also fought alongside the Boers in the war and they made up 20 to 25 percent of total Boer manpower. The German Empire was friendly to their cause, and the Boers used Krupp guns. Much of the fighting was on  horseback. As the Boers lost battle after battle they were eventually forced to make peace on the 23rd of March, 1902, and surrender to British authority.

Related pages 
 Second Boer War

References 

Wars involving the British Empire
19th century in South Africa
1880s
19th-century conflicts
Lilly Ledbetter (born Lilly McDaniel April 1938) was the plaintiff in the American employment discrimination case Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. She has since become a women's equality activist.

Women's equality

Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
Goodyear paid Ledbetter significantly less than men holding the same job. This violated the Equal Pay Act of 1963 which said that she could sue to get the pay difference. Her lawsuit eventually reached the Supreme Court. The court said that she waited too long to sue Goodyear. In response to the court decision, Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, which is named after her. Under the new law, other women will be able to get backpay after employers keep pay discrimination secret.

United States Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsberg stated:Lilly
Ledbetter was a supervisor at Goodyear Tire and Rubber’s plant in Gadsden, Alabama, from 1979 until her retirement in 1998. For most of those years, she worked as an area manager, a position largely occupied by men. Initially, Ledbetter’s salary was in line with the salaries of men performing substantially similar work. Over time, however, her pay slipped in comparison to the pay of male area managers with equal or less seniority. By the end of 1997, Ledbetter was the only woman working as an area manager and the pay discrepancy between Ledbetter and her 15 male counterparts was stark: Ledbetter was paid $3,727 per month; the lowest paid male area manager received $4,286 per month, the highest paid, $5,236.

Activism
On August 26, 2008 (Women's Equality Day), Ledbetter spoke at the Democratic National Convention, on the topic of pay equity.

In June 2011, she dined with New York Congresswoman Carolyn Maloney, who introduced the Equal Rights Amendment the previous month, and Eleanor Smeal.

References
References

Other websites

A documentary on the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009
 English Wikisource has original text related to this article: Lilly Ledbetter on the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009

Living people
1938 births
Feminists
The German Democratic Republic (GDR), or East Germany, sent athletes to the Olympic Games from 1956 until 1988. They have taken part in both the Summer and Winter Games. From 1956 through 1966, East German athletes were a part of a combined team from both East and West Germany. After 1966, the East Germans were a separate team. They won a total of 519 medals at the Olympics.

History

Division of Germany
Germany was divided after World War II. Three separate states were created. German athletes tried to take part in the 1948 games but the Allies did not let this happen. Finally, in 1949, the National Olympic Committee for Germany was founded in the Western Federal Republic of Germany. The IOC accepted it as both of the larger two larger German states. The small, French-occupied Saarland and its NOC were separate until after 1955.
East German authorities of the Nationales Olympisches Komitee für Ostdeutschland did not send their athletes to the 1952 games in an all-German team. The wanted a team of their own. This was not allowed by the IOC.

United German Team
East Germany agreed to take part in the 1956 Games. German athletes from the East and West Germany took part in the games in 1956, 1960 and 1964 as the United Team of Germany. This team was just called Germany at the time.

Success of East Germans
The GDR renamed their NOC to Nationales Olympisches Komitee der DDR in 1965. It was accepted by the IOC in 1968. At this point East Germany sent its own team to the Games. They did not take part in the in 1984 Summer Olympics due to the Soviet boycott.
Germany undivided
In 1990, the German reformed back into Germany. The "NOC of the GDR" joined the "NOC of Germany" on 17 November 1990. The German athletes took part in the Olympic Games in a single team again from 1992 forward. During the first decade after this, athletes from the Eastern part of Germany still won many of Germany's medals. This shows that doping was not the only reason East Germany did so well in the Olympics. It shows that their training conditions were also very important. As trainers and athletes started to move freely around the country, this difference between east and west became smaller.

Medal tables

Medals by Summer Games

Medals by summer sport

Medals by Winter Games

Medals by winter sport

References

Other websites
 GDR Sport System in German 

Former nations at the Olympics
Sport in East Germany
Sonar is a machine that uses underwater sound waves to find other objects in the sea. A sonar can work by sending out sound and listening for echoes (active sonar), like a radar, or by listening for sound made by the object it is trying to find (passive sonar). 

The basic parts of an active sonar are:
 the transmitter creates the sound waves.
 the hydrophone or hydrophone array converts the sound waves into electricity. 

The first use of passive sonar was in 1490 by Leonardo da Vinci, when he put a tube onto water and listened. Active sonar was first used in 1917 by Paul Langevin. The word SONAR was created during the Second World War as an acronym for Sound Navigation and Ranging. This acronym replaced the British acronym ASDIC. The word is now thought by many people as a regular word, no longer as an acronym.

References
 

Machines
Wave physics
Rococo art and architecture was feminine, graceful, florid and ornate. Creamy and pastel-like colours were used for paintings, unlike the darker shades in Baroque art. Religion and politics were no longer necessarily the core theme of Rococo art, unlike the Baroque, and everyday life became more commonly represented. In such a way, Rococo art revolved around themes such as love, romance, fun, landscapes, and mere portraits. Additionally, Far Eastern themes became popular in Rococo, especially Chinoiserie. Famous Rococo artists include Boucher, Watteau and Fragonard, amongst several others.

The Rococo has been the focus of much discussion, analysis and criticism by art historians throughout history. It has been criticised over the years for being over-the-top, superficial and frivolous; in such a way, the term has even been used derogatively in various points of history. Nevertheless, Rococo art and theatre has also received praise for the elegance, "beauty", and "charm" of its artwork.

References
References 

Art
Architectural styles
French culture
18th century in France
The main courses of Azerbaijani cuisine are over 30 kinds of soups, including those prepared from plain yogurt. One of the most famous dishes is plov. Plov is a saffron-covered rice, served with different herbs. The Azerbaijani cuisine has more than 40 different plov recipes. Other second courses include many kinds of kebabs and shashliks, including lamb, beef, chicken, and fish (baliq) kebabs. Sturgeon, a common fish, is normally skewered (skewer is a thin metal or wood stick used to hold pieces of food together) and grilled as a shashlik, being served with a tart pomegranate sauce called narsharab.  Dried fruits and walnuts are used in many dishes. The traditional condiments are salt, the spices black pepper, sumac, and especially saffron. Much of the saffron comes from the Absheron Peninsula.

Black tea is the national drink, and is drunk after food is eaten. It is also popular on its own or with dried fruits.
Another popular drink is sherbet, a sweet cold drink made of fruit juice mixed or boiled with sugar, often perfumed with rose water. Azerbaijani sherbet is not sorbet, the cold dessert.

Other websites 

 Comparison of Cuisine between North and South Azerbaijan , Azerbaijan International, Autumn 2000, pp. 24–27.
 Proverbs about Food in Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan International, Autumn 2000, pp. 36–37.
 Food! Glorious Food!, Special issue of Azerbaijan International, Autumn 2000.
 Azerbaijani dishes: Photographs and descriptions
 Azerbaijani cuisine: Descriptions of dishes by category on Advantour.com
 Cuisine of Azerbaijan based on the book Azerbaijani Cooking  published in Baku 
 Selected recipes from Azerbaijani cuisine
 Farida's Azerbaijani Cookbook
 Azerbaijani Food
was a  after Bunkyū and before Keiō.  This period  spanned only slightly more than a single year from February 1864 through April 1865. The reigning emperor was . 

The nengō Genji means "original rule".

Events of the Genji era
.
 8 July 1864 (Genji 1, 5th day of the 6th month): Skirmish at Ikedaya near  Kyoto, also known as  Ikedaya Jiken or Ikedaya Incident.  Samurai supporting the emperor clashed with police forces of the Tokugawa shogunate.

 12 August 1864 (Genji 1, 11th day of the 7th month): Sakuma Shōzan is assassinated at age 53.  Anti-shogunate (sonno joi) forces were responsible for his death.

 5-6 September 1864 (Genji 1, 5th-6th day of the 8th month): Bombardment of Shimonoseki

Related pages 
 Edo period

References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

Japanese eras
1864 establishments
1860s establishments in Japan
1860s disestablishments in Japan
1865 disestablishments
"Kde domov můj" (, meaning "Where My Home is") is the national anthem of the Czech Republic. It was the national anthem of the former country of Czechoslovakia, combined with parts of the Slovak national anthem "Nad Tatrou sa blýska". It was created by Josef Kajetán Tyl and František Škroup in 1834, and was first published in the play Fidlovačka aneb žádný hněv a žádná rvačka.

Lyrics

Czech original

English version
This version was translated into English by Czech poet Václav Sládek (1845–1912).
Where is my home, where is my home?
Over leas are waters streaming,
On the hills blue forests dreaming,
Flowery wolds Spring‘s happy skies,
Like as earthly Paradise:
There‘s the land so full of beauty,
Čechia, my fatherland!

Where is my home, where is my home?
Where God self to man had spoken:
Gentle be, but never broken,
Ever cheerful, hopeful, strong,
Bravely thwarting any wrong:
There‘s the land of manly honor,
Čechia, my fatherland!
German version
Between 1918 and 1938 there was an official version in German by Karl Wenzel Ernst.
Wo ist mein Heim, mein Vaterland,
Wo durch Wiesen Bäche brausen,
Wo auf Felsen Wälder sausen,
Wo ein Eden uns entzückt,
Wenn der Lenz die Fluren schmückt:
Dieses Land, so schön vor allen,
Böhmen ist mein Heimatland.
Böhmen ist mein Heimatland.

Hungarian version
Between the same years there was an official version in Hungarian.
Hol van honom, hol a hazám,
Hol patak zúg a hegyháton,
Csörgedez a rónaságon.
Üde virág a kertben,
Mint egy földi édenben.
Ez az istenáldotta föld,
Csehszlovák föld a hazám,
Csehszlovák föld a hazám.

Lyrics used between 1918 and 1992
Kde domov můj,
kde domov můj.
Voda hučí po lučinách,
bory šumí po skalinách.
V sadě stkví se jara květ
zemský ráj to na pohled!
A to jest ta krásná země
země česká domov můj!
Země česká domov můj!
Nad Tatrou sa blýska, hromy divo bijú
Nad Tatrou sa blýska, hromy divo bijú
Zastavme ich, bratia, veď sa ony stratia,
Slováci ožijú.
Zastavme ich, bratia, veď sa ony stratia,
Slováci ožijú.

References

National symbols of the Czech Republic
National anthems
A synchrotron is a type of particle accelerator where particles travel around many times in a circle.  It uses a magnetic field to turn the particles in the circle and an electric field to speed up the particles. The components are carefully matched up with the travelling particle beam so that the circle stays the same size while the particles go faster. Mark Oliphant invented the proton synchrotron. Vladimir Veksler was the first to publish the idea. Edwin McMillan constructed the first electron synchrotron.
The synchrotron is an improvement over the cyclotron where the particles travel in a spiral pattern.  A cyclotron uses a constant magnetic field and a constant-frequency applied electric field.  (One of these is varied in the synchrocyclotron). Both of these fields are varied in the synchrotron to change the path from a spiral to a circle. By carefully making the fields bigger as the particles gain energy, the width of the circular path can be kept the same as the machine accelerates the particles. This allows the vacuum chamber for the particles to be a large thin circular pipe torus (donut shape). It is easier to use some straight sections between the bending magnets and some bent sections within the magnets giving the torus the shape of a round-cornered polygon. A path that acts like a very large circle can be constructed using simple straight and curved pipe segments, unlike the disc-shaped chamber of the cyclotron type devices
. The shape also requires the use of multiple magnets to bend the particle beams. Straight sections are required at spacings around a ring for both radiofrequency cavities, and in third generation setups space is allowed for insertion of energy extraction devices such as wigglers and undulators. Most synchrotrons use two types of magnets: dipole magnets to bend the particle beam and quadrupole magnets to focus the beam.
The maximum energy that a cyclic accelerator can impart is typically limited by the strength of the magnetic field(s) and the minimum radius (maximum curvature) of the particle path. So, over time, physicist have built accelerators with bigger magnets and larger circles to reach higher particle energy levels.

In a cyclotron, the maximum radius is quite limited as the particles start at the center and spiral outward. So, the entire path must be a self-supporting disc-shaped vacuum chamber. Since the radius is limited, the power of the machine becomes limited by the strength of the magnetic field. In the case of an ordinary electromagnet the field strength is limited by the saturation of the core (when all magnetic domains are lined up the same way, the field cannot not be further increased to any practical extent). The arrangement of the single pair of magnets the full width of the device also limits the economic size of the device.
Synchrotrons overcome these limits, using a narrow beam pipe which can be surrounded by much smaller and more tightly focusing magnets. The ability of this device to accelerate particles is limited by the fact that the particles must be charged to be accelerated at all, but charged particles under acceleration emit photons (light particles), which makes them lose energy. The limiting beam energy is reached when the energy lost to the lateral (bending) acceleration required to maintain the beam path in a circle equals the energy added each cycle. More powerful accelerators are built by using large radius paths and by using more numerous and more powerful microwave cavities to accelerate the particle beam between corners. Lighter particles (such as electrons) lose a larger fraction of their energy when turning. Practically speaking, the energy of electron/positron accelerators is limited by this radiation loss, while it does not play a significant role in the dynamics of proton or ion accelerators
. The energy of those is limited strictly by the strength of magnets and by the cost.
Design and operation
Particles are injected into the main ring at substantial energies by either a linear accelerator (linac) or by an intermediate synchrotron which is in turn fed by a linear accelerator. The "linac" is in turn fed by particles accelerated to intermediate energy by a simple high voltage power supply, typically a Cockcroft-Walton generator.

Particles are designed to leave the linac at a specified speed ("injection velocity") for entry into the synchrotron.  The operators calculate the magnetic field strength needed to steer particles with the injection velocity on the path of the synchrotron.  The operators give the electromagnets enough current to create the right amount of magnetic field strength.
Starting from that initial magnetic field strength, the magnetic field is then increased. The particles pass through an electrostatic accelerator driven by a high alternating voltage. At particle speeds not close to the speed of light the frequency of the accelerating voltage can be made roughly proportional to the current in the bending magnets. A finer control of the frequency is performed by a servo loop which responds to the detection of the passing of the traveling group of particles. At particle speeds approaching light speed the frequency becomes more nearly constant, while the current in the bending magnets continues to increase. The maximum energy that can be applied to the particles (for a given ring size and magnet count) is determined by the saturation of the cores of the bending magnets (the point at which increasing current does not produce additional magnetic field). One way to obtain additional power is to make the torus larger and add additional bending magnets
. This allows the amount of particle redirection at saturation to be less and so the particles can be more energetic. Another means of obtaining higher power is to use superconducting magnets, these not being limited by core saturation.
When the particles have reached their maximum energy, they are steered out of the synchrotron and aimed at a target.  Early synchrotrons used stationary targets.  In order to double the energy of a collision, physicists in the 1970s began to collide two particle beams travelling in the opposite direction instead of just one beam and a stationary target.  To have two beams that are travelling in the synchrontron in opposite directions, they used particles with the same mass but with the opposite sign.  For example, electrons and positrons or protons and antiprotons.

Large synchrotrons
Large synchrotrons

One of the early large synchrotrons, now retired, is the Bevatron, constructed in 1950 at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. The name of this proton accelerator comes from its power, in the range of 6.3 GeV (then called BeV for billion electron volts; the name predates the adoption of the SI prefix giga-). A number of heavy elements, unseen in the natural world, were first created with this machine. This site is also the location of one of the first large bubble chambers used to examine the results of the atomic collisions produced by the machine.

Another early large synchrotron is the Cosmotron built at Brookhaven National Laboratory which reached 3.3 GeV in 1953. The first Cornell University synchrotron was built before 1950 with a power of 300 MeV.
The largest device of this type seriously proposed was the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC), which was to be built in Texas. This design, like others, used superconducting magnets which allow more intense magnetic fields to be created without the limitations of core saturation.  Its planned ring circumference was 87.1 kilometres (54.1 mi) with an energy of 20 TeV per beam of protons.  Construction was begun in 1991 but later cancelled in 1994. The project had been poorly managed.  Some people say that the end of the Cold War resulted in a change of scientific funding priorities that contributed to its ultimate cancellation.
Synchrotrons which are useful for cutting edge research are large machines, costing tens or hundreds of millions of dollars to construct, and each beamline (there may be 20 to 50 at a large synchrotron) costs another two or three million dollars on average. These installations are mostly built by the science funding agencies of governments of developed countries, or by collaborations between several countries in a region, and operated as infrastructure facilities available to scientists from universities and research organisations throughout the country, region, or world. More compact models, however, have been developed, such as the Compact Light Source.

List of installations

 Note: in the case of colliders, the quoted energy is often double what is shown here. The above table shows the energy of one beam but if two opposing beams collide head on, the centre of mass energy is double the beam energy shown.
Applications
Life sciences: protein and large molecule crystallography
LIGA based microfabrication
Drug discovery and research
"Burning" computer chip designs into metal wafers

Analysing chemicals to determine their composition
Observing the reaction of living cells to drugs
Inorganic material crystallography and microanalysis
Fluorescence studies
Semiconductor material analysis and structural studies
Geological material analysis
Medical imaging
Proton therapy to treat some forms of cancer

Related pages
 List of synchrotron radiation facilities
 Synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy
 Energy amplifier
 Superconducting Radio Frequency

References

Other websites
Other websites

Canadian Light Source
Australian Synchrotron
Diamond UK Synchrotron
Lightsources.org 
CERN Large Hadron Collider
Synchrotron Light Sources of the World
A Miniature Synchrotron:  room-size synchrotron offers scientists a new way to perform high-quality x-ray experiments in their own labs, Technology Review, February 4, 2008
Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory 
Podcast interview with a scientist at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Indian SRS 
 Sameen Ahmed Khan, Synchrotron Radiation (in Asia), ATIP Report, No. ATIP02.034, 28 pages (21 August 2002). (ATIP: The Asian Technology Information Program, Tokyo, Japan, 2002).  Complete Report.
ALBA Light Source

Physics
Brave is a 2012 American computer-animated fantasy-adventure movie which stars Billy Connolly and Emma Thompson. The movie was released on June 22, 2012, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures and distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Pixar was the studio that worked on this movie. It received positive responses from critics and won an Oscar.

The movie is set in Scotland during the Medieval period. 16-year-old Princess  causes chaos in the kingdom of DunBroch by not wanting to marry.

It took six years to make.

Characters 
Merida - A 16-year-old princess.

2012 animated movies
2012 comedy movies
2012 fantasy movies
2010s American adventure movies
American animated movies
American comedy movies
2010s American fantasy movies
2010s English-language movies
Fiction set in the past
Movies about animals
Movies set in Scotland
Movies that won the Best Animated Feature Academy Award
Pixar movies
2010s feminist movies
2010s computer-animated movies
was a  after Man'en and before Genji.  This period spanned the years from February 1861 through February 1864. The reigning emperor was .

Events of the Bunkyū era

 1861 (Bunkyu 1): Ukai Gyokusen established the first commercial photography studio (Eishin-dō) in Edo.

 1861 (Bunkyu 1): Great comet of 1861.

 January 1862 (Bunkyū 1, 12th month): The Bonin Islands (Ogasawara Islands) were confirmed as part of Japan.

 1862 (Bunkyū 2): The Bunkyū Reforms reduced restrictions on daimyo which had beeb ordered by Ii Naosuke. 

 14 September 1862 (Bunkyū 2, 21st day of the 8th month): Satsuma samurai killed Charles Lennox Richardson at Namamugi on the Tōkaidō road, also known as the Namamugi Incident (Namamugi Jiken).

 22 April 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 5th day of the 3rd month): Shogun Iemochi traveled in a great procession to the capital.  He had been summoned by the emperor, and he had 3,000 retainers as escort.
28 April 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 11th day of the 3rd month): Emperor Komei made an Imperial progress to the Kamo Shrines.  He was accompanied by the shogun and many feudal lords.

 15-17 August 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 2nd-4th of the 7th month ): British Bombardment of Kagoshima in retaliation for the death of Charles Lennox Richardson.

Related pages 
 Edo period

References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, The Japanese Calendar -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection
 "The procession of the Shôgun nearby Shono, in Shirasagi-zuka, Ise, at night," woodblock print by Utagawa Tsuyanaga 

Japanese eras
1861 establishments
1860s establishments in Japan
1860s disestablishments in Japan
1864 disestablishments
France has taken part in every Olympic Games with the possible exception of the 1904 Games. In 1904, different sources list Albert Corey as taking place in the games for either the United States or France.

The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for France is FRA.

History
France has hosted the Games 5 time:
1900 Summer Olympics in Paris
1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix
1924 Summer Olympics in Paris
1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble
1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville

French athletes have won 671 medals at the Summer Olympic Games. Fencing and cycling are their best sports.  France has won 94 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. Most of these are in alpine skiing.

Medal tables

Medals by Summer Games

Medals by Winter Games

Medals by summer sport
     Leading in that sport

Medals by winter sport

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites 

 France at Olympic.org
 France profile at London2012.com 
 

Nations at the Olympics
Olympics
was a  after Ten'ō and before Daidō.  This period started in August 782 and ended in May 806.  During this time, the emperor was .

Events of the Enryaku era

 782 (Enryaku 1, 6th month): Fujiwara no Uona was removed from his office.
 783 (Enryaku 3, in the 3rd month): Fujiwara no Tamaro died at the age of 62 years.
 783 (Enryaku 3, in the 7th month): Fujiwara no Korekimi was promoted in the hierarchy of the Imperial court.
 784 (Enryaku 3): The emperor moves the capital to Nagaoka
 788 (Enryaku 7): The Buddhist monk Saichō establishes a monastery on Mt Hiei
 793 (Enryaku 12): Construction began on the Buddhist temple complex at Enryaku-ji.
 17 December 794 (Enryaku 13, 21st day of the 10th month): The Emperor moved by carriage in a grand parade from Nara to Heian-kyō.
 796 (Enryaku 15): Copper coins were minted with the legend Ren-hei Ei-hō.
 797 (Enryaku 16): Shoku Nihongi was written.
 806 (Enryaku 25): Emperor Kammu died at the age of 70.

Related pages 
 Nara period

References
References

Other websites 
 National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection
 Imperial Household Agency (Kunaichō), Mausoleum of Emperor Kammu 

Japanese eras
8th-century establishments in Japan
9th-century disestablishments in Japan
782 establishments
806 disestablishments
Jean-Honoré Fragonard (5 April 1732 in Grasse – 22 August 1806 in Paris) was a French artist. He is remembered as one of the most important French painters of the rococo style. He was a pupil of François Boucher, and developed Boucher's style further. At first he did historical paintings, but soon gave up on these.

He then painted things that were light-hearted, and slightly erotic. His works include The Swing, A Young Girl Reading, and The Secret Meeting. Together with Boucher and Antoine Watteau, he is one of the principal painters of French Rococo. He lost his wealth during the French Revolution. After the revolution, the painting style was different, because he had trouble adapting, he died a poor man.

Gallery

Related pages 
 List of French painters

References 
 

French painters
Writers from Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur
1732 births
1806 deaths
People from Alpes-Maritimes‎
In mathematics, a system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of linear equations involving the same set of variables.

Description
Mathematicians show the relationship between different factors in the form of equations.  "Linear equations" mean the variable appears only once in each equation without being raised to a power. A "system" of linear equations means that all of the equations are true at the same time. So, the person solving the system of equations is looking for the values of each variable that will make all of the equations true at the same time. If no such values can satisfy all of the equations in the system, then the equations are called "inconsistent."

For example,

is a system of three equations in the three variables , , . A "solution" to a linear system is a choice of numbers for each variable such that every equation is true at the same time. The following is a solution to the equation above: 

It works because it makes all three equations true:
In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a branch of linear algebra, a subject which is fundamental to modern mathematics. Computer algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and such methods play a prominent role in engineering, physics, chemistry, computer science, and economics. A system of non-linear equations can often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a helpful technique when making a mathematical model, computer model, or computer simulation of a relatively complex system.  For complex systems, there are many equations and many variables, not just two or three. In many cases, the number of equations and variables in the system are the same.  In some cases, there are more variables than equations, and the solution will be a range of different values rather than one exact solution.

Simple example
The simplest kind of linear system involves two equations and two variables:
One method for solving such a system is as follows. First, solve the top equation for  in terms of :

Now substitute this expression for x into the bottom equation:

This results in a single equation involving only the variable . Solving gives , and substituting this back into the equation for  yields :

This method generalizes to systems with additional variables.

Using Matrices
Very often, all the coefficients are written in the form of a matrix A, which is called a coefficient matrix.

In much the same way, the variables can be written in the form of a vector:
.
This makes it possible to write 
.
Mathematically, the vector defined above is a 1-by-n matrix. The system of equations can then be solved using the multiplication operation defined on matrices. A, x and b are all part of the same algebraic field.
Solving a system of linear equations
There a three cases when looking for solutions to a system of linear equations:
There is no solution
There is exactly one solution
There are many solutions; the exact number depends on the properties of the field. In many cases there will be an infinite number of solutions.
There are two categories of methods for solving a system of linear equations. Iterative methods use many steps to get a solution, direct methods only need one step:
An example for a direct method is to solve the system for one variable; this variable can be eliminated and replaced by an expression that only uses other variables, or a number. Doing this for all variables of the equation will lead to a solution of the system if it exists.
Another method is to transform two equations so that one of the sides of the equations is the same in both cases; it is then possible to write another equation, which replaces the two equations and reduces the number of equations by one.
Gaussian elimination
QR decomposition
Cholesky decomposition
Cramer's rule
Examples for iterative methods are:
Relaxation, including the Gauss-Seidel and Jacobi methods
Multigrid method
Krylow method
There are examples such as geodesy where there are many more measurements than unknowns. Such a system is almost always overdetermined and has no exact solution. Each measurement is usually inaccurate and includes some amount of error. Since the measurements are not exact, it is not possible to obtain an exact solution to the system of linear equations; methods such as Least squares can be used to compute a solution that best fits the overdetermined system. This least squares solution can often be used as a stand-in for an exact solution.

Solving a system of linear equations has a complexity of at most O (n3). At least n2 operations are needed to solve a general system of n linear equations. The best algorithm known to date was developed by Don Coppersmith and Shmuel Winograd and dates from 1990. It has a complexity of  n2.376 Unfortunately, it is of little practical use.