Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Gainsharing today
Today, companies use Gainsharing to  measure both the performance and reward employees when it improves. Companies use a pre-determined calculation (formula) to share the savings with all employees. The goals of a company’s Gainsharing plan depend on its cost structure and long-term competitive strategy and are tailored to fit the industry (manufacturing, service, or corporate). Information regarding the measures, formula, and gains (savings) is regularly and openly shared with all employees. Since the monetary gains are shared with employees, people develop more of a sense of ownership for their work and the company. People have a better understanding of how they influence the company's success.
Gainsharing develops the work culture
It should be noted that in a Gainsharing plan, the company's current performance is compared to its historic performance (baseline period). The savings above the baseline period determine the gain or loss. This is a very important point. Since gains are measured in relationship to a historical period, employees and the company must improve in order to make a gain. Performance thresholds must be corrected periodically for the effects of capital investment in new equipment as well as for the continuous improvement needed to meet ever higher customer demands.

When people do their work differently they must change. However, as everyone one knows, it is difficult for people to change. On the other hand, do people like money? Most people would say, "Yes." Therefore, Gainsharing can be a very powerful tool. Gainsharing promotes the need for continuous improvement and eliminates employees' sense of entitlement.
The employee involvement element
A very important part of a successful Gainsharing plan is the employee involvement element of Gainsharing. In order to foster a culture of positive change, a successful Gainsharing plan needs to incorporate a structure system of employee involvement. It is common for Gainsharing plans to have a "team-based" suggestion system in place.
In terms of the calculation, a Gainsharing plan may have from one to six key performance measures. The most effective Gainsharing plans have relatively few performance goals because employee understanding of them is necessary for success. Examples of measures include productivity, quality, waste, spending, and customer service which are all factors employees can control. The gains (savings) from each measure are calculated separately. Then gains and losses from each measure are added to determine the total gain. A portion of the total gain goes to the company and a portion is shared with all employees. Generally, from 10% to 50% of the gain is shared with employees. The percent of the gain shared with employees depends on employee controllability and importance of the measure to the organization. The pool is distributed to all participants, typically on a monthly or quarterly frequency
. The frequency of payouts depends on the employee line-of-sight (employees’ ability to identify what they do today to earn a payout at the end of the Gainsharing period). Companies with unskilled and semi-skilled employees typically have plans calling for payouts at shorter intervals than those with highly skilled workers.
Gainsharing implementation
It is very important to note that the development and implementation of a Gainsharing plan involves employees and that its goals are within employee control. An employee committee called the "Design Team" helps to make policy decisions on issues such as the plan's measures, employee eligibility, frequency of payout, and method of communication. Next the design team gets upper management approval before implementation. After approval, the Design Team is responsible for conducting meetings with all employees to communicate the details of the plan. Follow-up training should also take place.
The following summarizes many of the elements of a Gainsharing plan which have been discussed.
 Gains and resulting payouts are self-funded based on savings generated by improved performance.
 The plan commonly applies to a single plant, site, or stand-alone organization. However, some organizations have levels of sharing across multiple locations or corporation-wide.
 Performance is typically measured across departments, units, or functions.
 Measures are typically based on operational measures (productivity, quality, spending, customer service) and are more controllable by employees rather than an organization-wide measure of profits.
 Payouts are often monthly or quarterly.
 Many plans often have a year-end reserve fund to account for deficit periods.
 Employees often are involved with the design process.
 All employees are eligible for plan payments.
 The bonus is often paid as an equal percentage of compensation or equal cents per hour worked, rather than paid on the basis of individual performance.
A supporting employee involvement system is part of the plan in order to drive improvement initiatives.
 Plans are often reviewed at least annually and adjustments may be made that make sense for both the company and employees.
The keys to successful implementation are simplicity and employee involvement
 Simplicity - Employee understanding is necessary for them to be motivated by it.
 Involvement - The more employees are involved in a plan's design, the more ownership they will take in it.

Summary
Companies with successful Gainsharing plans view Gainsharing as much more than a bonus or incentive system. Instead, they see the system as an important part of their business strategy and a method to drive organization change. When properly designed and implemented, Gainsharing gradually grows into a company's core communications and compensation program. Gainsharing can be a powerful tool if installed and managed by a company that truly believes in its people.

Gainsharing Summary Table
Books
 Robert Masternak: Gainsharing-A Team-Based Approach to Driving Organizational Change, WorldatWork, 2003
 Brian Graham-Moore and Timothy L. Ross: Gainsharing and Employee Involvement, BNA Books, Second Printing November 1996
 John G. Belcher: Results-Oriented Variable Pay System, American Management Association, 1996

References

Management
t.A.T.u., or known in Russian as Тату, was a Russian pop music duo, made up of Lena Katina and Yulia Volkova. The group was formed in 1999 in Moscow. Their albums include "200 Russian "200 Po Vstrechnoy", "200 km/h in the wrong lane", "Lyudi Invalidy", "Dangerous and moving" and "Waste management". They split in 2011.

Career
t.A.T.u. released their first single "All the Things She Said" in 2002. It reached number one in the United Kingdom. The song is about a relationship between two girls. In the music video Lena and Yulia kiss each other. ITV banned it from their show CD:UK. In 2003 t.A.T.U performed "Ne Ver', Ne Boysia" at the 2003 Eurovision Song Contest for their country Russia. They came third.

t.A.T.u performed at the Sochi Winter Olympics.

References
References

2000s music groups
2010s music groups
Electronic music bands
Girl groups
LGBT-themed musical groups
Moscow
Musical duos
Musical groups disestablished in 2011
Musical groups established in 1999
Pop music groups
Rock bands
Russian musical groups
1990s establishments in Russia
Disestablishments in Russia
Oracle Bones were bones that the Chinese would carve or scratch their questions on. Then the priests would burn the oracle bone until it would crack. Then the priest read these cracks to the Chinese people for their answer. The Chinese people believed their answer to be from the gods. This was also known as the first stages of Chinese writing. These were very important to the Chinese. The oracle bones bear the earliest known significant corpus of ancient Chinese writing, using an early form of Chinese characters.

History of China
2nd millennium BC works
The Book of Mormon is a book that Latter Day Saints believe is the word of God along with the Bible.

The original English version of the Book of Mormon was published in March 1830 by a man named Joseph Smith, Jr. who said he was a prophet like the ones in the Old Testament.

Joseph Smith claimed that the record originated from gold plates that he was guided to find by an angel, and then used a spiritual gift from God to translate the book into English. The book says that the language it was first written in was made from "the learning of the Jews and the language of the Egyptians."
The story that is in the Book of Mormon is a shortened version written by a man named Mormon of the story of two groups of people called the Nephites and the Lamanites. Their ancestors left Jerusalem with their father Lehi about 600 years before the birth of Christ, sailed across a very big ocean, and came to live in the New World. It gives a story of their families, cities, wars, systems of government, spiritual experiences and religious beliefs among other things. The main purpose of the Book of Mormon is to teach about Jesus Christ.

It also contains the Book of Ether (a very old book discovered by the Nephites) which told the story of another people (called the Jaredites) who had lived in some of the same areas shortly after the time of the Tower of Babel, but died out because of wars.
Usually, Book of Mormon stories show the Nephites as the more righteous, industrious and peaceful people and the Lamanites as wicked, lazy and warlike. Wars happen all the time between the two groups. But, near the end of the book, the Nephites become more wicked than the Lamanites, and all the Nephites die in their last war, except for one named Moroni who was directed by God to bury the Book of Mormon in a hill so that Joseph Smith Jr. could find it.

The central theme of the book revolves around Jesus Christ visiting the people described, performing miracles and showing them the right way to live.

Other websites 
Book of Mormon at Scriptures.lds.org
 Book of Mormon Online

Mormonism
Religious texts
1830s books
A demilitarized zone is an area of land that has no military forces in it. This is usually to stop armies from fighting.

The most famous demilitarized zone is the Korean Demilitarized Zone on the land between North Korea and South Korea, Åland Islands, and Antarctica. No one can go into the Demilitarized Zone, so the wildlife is well preserved. There are thousands of soldiers and weapons on each side of the Demilitarized Zone, including to this day a massive American presence.

The Rhineland was also demilitarized from the end of World War I until 1936, when Adolf Hitler remilitarized it.

Related pages 
Neutrality (international relations)

Military
Journey or journeying may mean:
 Travel, going from one place to another

Arts and entertainment

Movies 
 Journey (1972 movie), a 1972 Canadian movie directed by Paul Almond
 Journey (1995 movie), a 1995 Hallmark Hall of Fame TV movie
 Journey (2004 movie), a 2004 short movie written and directed by Christine Shin

Music 
 Journey (band), an American rock band

Video games 
 Journey (1983 video game), a 1983 arcade game featuring the band
 Journey (1989 video game), a 1989 computer game by Infocom
 Journey (2012 video game), a 2012 PlayStation 3 game by thatgamecompany
Cúcuta (pron. IPA koo`koo-tä), or San Jose de Cúcuta, is the capital of the Norte de Santander Department, in Colombia. Cúcuta is an important city in northeastern Colombia because of where it is; on the border with Venezuela. People from Cúcuta are called cucuteños.

The area has grown fast since the 1960s, especially the suburbs of Villa del Rosario and Los Patios.

Adding also to the city's progress and development that had not been seen in 20 years with the building of six overpasses, a convention center, a new bus terminal, a new Integrated Massive Transportation System called Metrobus, the modernization of state owned schools, the recovery of Cucuta's downtown, and the duplication of the capacity for the General Santander Stadium. And the expectation over new industries that will come from Venezuela and will place their factories in Cucuta aimming at exporting through the Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement between Colombia and the United States.

History
History 

Simón Bolívar captured Cúcuta in 1813 and set out from there on his march to Caracas. At Cúcuta the constituent congress of 1821 met to draft the constitution of Greater Colombia (present day Venezuela, Ecuador and Colombia).

The city was largely destroyed by an earthquake on 18 May 1875, but was soon rebuilt.

In 1939, Cúcuta had 59,323 people. In 1990, it had 532,564. In 2005, the metropolitan area had 950,000 people.

Battle of Cúcuta 

The Battle of Cúcuta was important for the moral importance that gave Bolivar advantages to release to Venezuela. The battle began at 9:00 AM of the 28 of February 1813 and finished at noon. There were 400 men in the control of Simón Bolivar and 800 under Spanish General Ramon Correa. Two dies and 14 hurt in the liberating troops and 20 dead and 40 hurt in the Spanish troops.

Earthquake of Cúcuta
Also known as the Earthquake of the Andes. It happened the May 18 of 1875 at 11:15 AM. It completely destroyed Cúcuta, Villa del Rosario, San Antonio del Tachira and Capacho also causing serious damage to the Venezuelan people in San Cristóbal, La Mulata, Rubio, Michelena, La Grita, and Colón, among others. It was felt in Bogota and Caracas.

Geography 

Cúcuta is on a plateau in the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes. The official metropolitan area includes the municipalities of: Villa del Rosario, Los Patios, El Zulia, and Puerto Santander. All four neighboring municipalities contain extensive rural areas despite recent urbanization.

Orography 
The city of Cúcuta is plain toward the north and mountainous in its edges and in its central part, especially toward the south, where presents for the east the following mountains, removed of the eastern mountain range of the Colombian Andes.

Hydrography
Hydrography 

Cúcuta and Norte de Santander have many rivers, none of them with pollution problems, being the Pamplonita River, the Guaramito River, the San Miguel River and the Zulia River de most important.

Demography 

Cúcuta is a city with a big demographic growth, because it had 387,481 people in 1951. It the 2005-2006 census, 1,158,672 people lived there.

Economy

Cúcuta has an agroindustry that mainly produces milk products and liquors, construction has boomed in recent years, but it's a net commercial city due to its condition of border city with Venezuela. Thanks to it the major Colombian commercial centers, banks, and warehouses have offices in the city.

US - Colombia Free Trade Agreement implications for Cúcuta
Colombia signed a Free Trade Agreement with the United States to the opposition of Venezuela. Despite its opposition, industries from that country are constructing their infrastructure in Cúcuta to export their products to the United States, registering their products as if they were Colombian, an strategy that would allow them to export without paying certain tariffs. For that reason, Cúcuta is thought to become an industrial city.

This process in individual, appears by the legal norm of Colombia that allows exemptions in taxes to make but competitive to the region (through the Zona Franca), in addition that the own geographic characteristics of the area at issue you appear greater possibilities of exporting products through position of Maracaibo (Venezuela).

Shopping Malls
 Shopping Mall Unicentro
 Shopping Mall VENTURA Plaza (En construcción)
 Shopping Mall VIVERO
 Shopping Mall OITI
 Shopping Mall Plaza de Los Andes
 Shopping Mall Gran Boulevard
 Shopping Mall Bolívar

Climatology and Surface
Cúcuta has a municipal area of 1176 km² and is at 302 feet above sea level. The average temperature of 28 °C (82.4 °F) with an average humidity of 65%. Its medium annual precipitation is of 1,041mm. There are two rain seasons, between March-May and September-November. The dry months of the year are December and January with a medium precipitation of 58mm.

The City

Cúcuta is also known as the "Ciudad sin fronteras" (City without borders), "La ciudad de los arboles" (The city of the trees), "La hermosa villa" (The beautiful ville), y "Ciudad verde" (Green city)

The city is served by one transportation terminal and the Camilo Daza Airport, which is north of the city. In general, the more prosperous areas are along and above west (Caobos, La Riviera and some places of the center) and to the east.

The state owned university, the Francisco de Paula Santander University (UFPS), is in the northeastern part of the city; there are several private universities of varying quality.

People
People 

Many important personalities from Colombia are from Cúcuta such as the first President of Colombia, Francisco de Paula Santander, known as the man of the laws and Fabiola Zuluaga, tennis player, Virgilio Barco, a former president of Colombia, Marino Vargas Villalta, businessman; his grandson, Juan Jose Germán Vargas, tennis player and the musician Elias M. Soto.

Monuments and Parks 

Main monuments
 The monument of the Battle of Cúcuta
 The monument of Juana Rangel de Cuellar, the founder of Cúcuta
 The monument of Camilo Daza, in the Camilo Daza International Airport.

Main parks
 Santander Park (in Spanish "Parque Santander"). It is the main park of the city and is in front of the city hall.
 Colón Park (in Spanish "Parque Colón"). Constructed in honor to Christopher Columbus (in Spanish "Cristobal Colón").
 Simón Bolivar Park (in Spanish "Parque Simón Bolivar). constructed in honor to Simón Bolivar and donated by the Consulate of Venezuela in Cúcuta.
Green City 
The generation of cucuteños (people from Cúcuta) and the legion of foreigners who reconstructed the city after the 1875 earthquake planted trees which grew fruits called clemones that had acid and bitter fruits with which the boys played.

Soon they were replaced by acacias, peracos and almonds tree. In the historical course of the arborization of the city, different stages as far as the spices have been marked that have been used in the ornamentación.

In Cúcuta the love for the trees is preached and applied, and cucuteño (people from Cúcuta) respect someone who has planted one in front of his house. For this reason Cúcuta is well-known like the city forest of Colombia.

Education 

The basic education and the high school education are in Colombian "Calendary A" for schools (from February to November).
Schools
 Colegio Salesiano
 Colegio Calasanz
 Colegio La Salle
 Colegio Santo Angel de la Guarda
 Colegio Santa Teresa
 Colegio Gimnasio Domingo Savio
 Gimnasio Los Almendros
 Colegio Carmen Teresiano.

Universities
 Universidad de Santander
 Universidad Libre de Colombia
 Universidad de Pamplona
 Universidad Simón Bolivar
 Universidad Antonio Nariño
 Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander

References

Other websites 
 City Hall of Cúcuta 

Cities in Colombia
1733 establishments
Capitals of Colombian departments
18th-century establishments in South America
Norte de Santander
A baryton is a string instrument with many strings.
It was popular during Joseph Haydn's time.

String instruments
Frankston North is a suburb of Melbourne. It is near Frankston and Carrum Downs in Victoria, Australia. It is sometimes nicknamed "The Pines".

References 

Towns in Victoria (Australia)
King Kong is a 1933 black and white American adventure fantasy horror movie. the first film of the series. It was directed and produced by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack. The screenplay was by Ruth Rose and James Ashmore Creelman. They based the script on a story by Cooper and Edgar Wallace and the novel by Delos Lovelace. The movie stars Fay Wray, Bruce Cabot, and Robert Armstrong. It opened in New York City on March 2, 1933, to good reviews. As the first film of the King Kong series, followed up by Son of Kong in the following year.
The movie is about a huge ape a 15-meter creature called Kong who attacked by biplanes and kill in an attempt to possess a beautiful young woman. Kong is famous for its stop-motion animation by Willis O'Brien. The music was written by Max Steiner. In 1991, the movie was thought "culturally, historically and aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. It has been remade twice: once in 1976 and again in 2005.

Cast 
 Fay Wray as Ann Darrow
 Bruce Cabot as Jack Driscoll
 Robert Armstrong as Carl Denham
 Frank Reicher as Captain Englehorn
 James Flavin as Briggs
 Victor Wong as Charlie the Cook
 Sam Hardy as Charles Weston
 Murray Spivack as King Kong
In 1932, New York Harbor, filmmaker Carl Denham, known for wildlife films in remote and exotic locations, charters Captain Englehorn's ship, the Venture, for his new project. However, he cannot secure an actress for a role he has been reluctant to describe. Searching the streets of New York City, he meets Ann Darrow and promises her the adventure of a lifetime. As the Venture sets off, Ann meets the first mate, Jack Driscoll. Six weeks into the voyage, Denham reveals to Englehorn and Jack that their destination is, in fact, an uncharted island with a mountain that looks like a skull, of which he has come to knowledge from a Norwegian skipper who discovered a canoe blown off course with only one native left alive. Before the native died, the skipper was able to get a rough location of the island and some details on it, including its most distinctive feature - a huge ancient stone wall with an enormous wooden gate built by the ancestors of the natives back when they had high civilization
. Denham alludes to a monstrous creature named Kong, rumored to dwell on the island. Anchoring offshore at the island, the crew find a native village, where the natives prepare to sacrifice a young woman termed the "bride of Kong". The crew is spotted, and the native chief stops the ceremony. When he sees Ann, he offers to trade six of his tribal women for the "golden woman." Englehorn rebuffs him.
That night, Jack falls in love with Ann which she accepts. The natives kidnap Ann and take her through the gate and to an altar on the other side of the wall, where she is offered to Kong, an enormous gorilla-like creature. Kong carries a terrified Ann into the wilderness as Denham, Jack, and some volunteers enter the jungle in hopes of rescuing her. They encounter a giant dinosaur-like creature, a Stegosaurus, which they manage to defeat. After facing an aggressive Brontosaurus and Kong himself, Jack and Denham are the only survivors. A Tyrannosaurus rex attempts to devour Ann, but Kong kills it to defend her. Jack continues to pursue Kong, while Denham returns to the village, where Englehorn and the remaining crewmen are waiting. Upon arriving in Kong's lair, Ann is menaced by a snake-like Elasmosaurus, which Kong also kills. While Kong is distracted killing a Pteranodon that attempted to fly away with Ann, Jack rescues her, and the ape gives chase
. Jack and Ann run through the jungle and back to the village. Pursuing Ann, Kong breaks open the gate despite the huge beam securing it and the combined efforts of the crew and natives to push it closed. Kong relentlessly rampages through the village until Denham, who has decided to switch his plan from producing a film to capturing Kong and sailing him to New York City, knocks him unconscious with a gas bomb.
Shackled in chains, Kong is taken to New York City and presented to a Broadway theatre audience as "King Kong, the Eighth Wonder of the World." Ann and Jack, now engaged, are brought on stage to join him, surrounded by a group of press photographers. Kong, enraged by the ensuing flash photography, breaks loose. The audience flees in terror and Ann has whisked away to a hotel room on a high floor, but Kong, scaling the building, finds her and abducts her again. Kong rampages through the city with Ann in his grip, wrecking a crowded elevated train, and then climbs the Empire State Building. Jack suggests to the police for army airplanes to shoot Kong off the building, without hitting Ann. Four planes take off to attack Kong. However, Jack becomes agitated for Ann's safety and rushes to the top of the building with Denham in following. The planes wait until Kong sets Ann down and then open fire on him. Kong tries to fight off the planes, destroying one, but is mortally wounded by their gunfire
. He gazes at Ann one last time before he is hit twice more, and falls from the tower to his death. Jack reunites with Ann and Denham head backs down below to the street and pushes through a crowd to look at Kong's corpse. When a policeman remarks that the planes got him, Denham says, "Oh, no, it wasn't the airplanes. It was Beauty killed the Beast".
Reception 
Variety thought the movie was a powerful adventure. The New York Times thought the movie a fascinating adventure.

The movie was not shown in Nazi Germany because it was thought a threat to Aryan womanhood, even though it was allegedly Hitler's favorite movie.

In 2002, Roger Ebert wrote that the special effects are not up to modern standards, but the movie remains one "that still somehow works."

In 2020, King Kong held a score of 98% "Certified Fresh" based on 66 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes.

The movie made about $2 million when it was first shown. Its opening weekend total was estimated at $90,000. After the 1952 re-release, Variety estimated the film had made $4 million in cumulative domestic rentals for that year.

References
References 

1933 adventure movies
1930s American adventure movies
American horror movies
Giant gorilla movies
English-language movies
Monster movies
Movies set on islands
Movies set in New York City
Jungle movies
Movies about filmmaking
United States National Film Registry movies
King Kong
1930s horror movies
Recursion is a word from mathematics and computer science. It is used to define a thing, such as a function or a set. A recursive definition uses the thing it is defining as part of the definition.

Description 
Usually, a recursive function refers to itself in some cases (or inputs), but not in every case. A function that referred to itself in every case would never terminate.

When a function refers to itself, it often uses a smaller input than the input it was given. In this way, it can solve a problem by first solving a simpler version of the problem.

Example 
An example of a recursive function  is:

If  then return .
If  then return .
This function computes the factorial of a natural number. It works because  and .

The definition has two cases: a recursive case for , and a case for  that is not recursive. The case that is not recursive is called a "base case".

Uses
Uses 

Recursion can be used to write computer programs. A program that uses recursion may be easier to write and understand than a program that does the same thing without recursion.

Recursion is used in mathematics to prove theorems. This method is called induction.

The idea of recursion can be seen in art and language. For example:
 A fractal image contains smaller versions of itself.
 In the rules of grammar, a sentence can be part of another sentence.

Easter Eggs 
In the Google search engine, if you type up "recursion", it will say "Did you mean: Recursion", a reference to the meaning of recursion.

References

Computer science
A Monte Carlo algorithm is an algorithm for computers which is used to simulate the behaviour of other systems. It is not an exact method, but a heuristical one, typically using randomness and statistics to get a result. The algorithm terminates with an answer that is correct with probability . 

It is a computation process that uses random numbers to produce an outcome(s). Instead of having fixed inputs, probability distributions are assigned to some or all of the inputs. This will generate a probability distribution for the output after the simulation is run.
For example, a Monte Carlo algorithm can be used to estimate the value of π. The amount of area within a quarter-circle of radius 1 depends on the value of π. The probability that a randomly-chosen point will lie in that quarter-circle depends on the area of the circle. If points are placed randomly in a square with sides of length 1, the percentage of points that fall within a quarter-circle of radius 1 will depend on the value of π. A Monte Carlo algorithm would randomly place points in the square and use the percentage of points falling inside of the circle to estimate the value of π.This is an effective way for making approximations.

In modern communication systems, the quality of information exchange is determined by the presence of noise in the channel. The major source of noise - Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) being random in nature can be characterized using the Monte Carlo algorithm in simulating a Communications System
The modern version of the Markov chain Monte Carlo method was invented in the late 1940s by Stanislaw Ulam, while he was working on nuclear weapons projects at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.

Randomised algorithms
BBC Radio 2 is a radio station run by the BBC which is heard across the United Kingdom It started in 1967, replacing the BBC Light Programme.  It is the most popular of the BBC stations with more than 15 million listeners a week in 2017. The audience is mostly adults over the age of 35.

Radio 2 mostly plays music from a period lasting over 40 year. For example, it plays classic pop songs, rock, jazz and folk.

References

Other websites
 
 , from BBC iPlayer.

1967 establishments in the United Kingdom
2
Some people or organizations have many addresses of different people. They use these addresses to send the mail. In the postal system, using regular mail, such mailing lists are used to distribute these mails, which may be wanted (like newspapers) or unwanted (advertising).

Electronic mailing lists 
In the electronic form, these differences also exist. Bulk mail (SPAM) is distributed using mailing lists.

On the other hand, there are echo mailing lists people subscribe to. When a subscriber sends a mail to the mailing list, this mail is distributed (echoed) to all people who are on the list. The Software which manages such a mailing list sometimes offers options to the people who subscribe. Instead of getting each mail directly, they might want only one mail (per day). This mail then contains all the mails of that day. This is called a digest. Mails that come from people on the list might be handled differently from mails from people who are not subscribed to the mailing list.
Postal mailing list 
Mailing lists are a way to reach selected groups of people - by specific parameters (or markets) - through the Post office. The population may be broken into sections organized buy their unique qualities such as "catalog purchasers" or "business owners," or by geographic area such as businesses or residents in a particular city or zip code, or buy select statistical parameters such as businesses with over 20 employees, or heads of household with income of over $80,000. Direct Mail Lists are then sold to direct marketing companies wishing to make an offer to this specific segment of the population. By tightly specifying the parameters of the mailing list, direct mail is a very effective way to market to a precisely selected group with little wasted advertising expense.

Written communication
Electrochemistry is a kind of chemistry that studies chemical reactions that use or make electricity. Reactions like this happen at electrodes which are made from something that conducts electricity, and put in an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution that has ions in it.

Electrochemistry was "invented" at the same time as the voltaic pile; the first kind of electric battery.

Related pages
Isotope electrochemistry

Physical chemistry
Sulfuric acid, also known as sulphuric acid, is a strong acid. It is also a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is H2SO4. It was known as "Oil of Vitriol" in ancient times.

Properties
It is a dense (thick), clear, corrosive liquid that can dissolve in water. It can also melt through some weak substances.

History
It was once known as "oil of vitriol". This name was created by Jabir ibn Hayyan, the person who discovered it. It used to be prepared by the reaction of potassium nitrate with sulfur. This reaction would produce sulfur trioxide which would dissolve in steam to produce sulfuric acid. Then this reaction was done in lead containers. The contact process, the most common process, was invented in 1831 and is still used today.
Production
It is made by reacting sulfur trioxide with sulfuric acid to produce oleum. Then oleum is dissolved in water to produce more sulfuric acid. The sulfur trioxide is produced by burning sulfur to produce sulfur dioxide, which was then oxidized to sulfur trioxide with a catalyst. This process is called the contact process.
Uses
Sulfuric acid has many uses. World production in 2001 was 165 million tons, worth about $8 billion US dollars. Uses include ore processing, fertilizer manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing, lead acid batteries, and combining chemicals for scientific reasons. For example, phosphate rocks are reacted with sulfuric acid to produce soluble phosphates, useful in fertilizers. This reaction is also used to make phosphoric acid, useful in soda. Potassium compounds are dissolved in sulfuric acid to produce potassium sulfate, useful in fertilizers. Ammonia is also reacted with sulfuric acid to produce ammonium sulfate. These three chemicals are solids and provide the three main minerals needed in plants. Lead acid batteries use sulfuric acid as their electrolyte.
Reactions and safety
Sulfuric acid is very poisonous because of its acidity and corrosiveness. When it is mixed with sugar, it turns it into carbon. When it is dissolved in water, it becomes less harmful (does not make things black) but is still corrosive like normal acids. It reacts with metals to produce hydrogen and the metal sulfate. Some metals, such as tin, make sulfur dioxide and tin(II) sulfate. It reacts with sodium chloride to make hydrogen chloride.

Related pages
Sulfurous acid
Hydrogen sulfide

References

Acids
Sulfur compounds
A Jew is a person who is of Jewish heritage or who has converted to the Jewish religion. Jews typically consider themselves as a people and not only as adherents of a religion, therefore a Jew is not only one that practices the religion of Judaism, but it is also one who is of Jewish ethnic heritage. Jews originated as an ethnoreligious group in the Middle East. According to traditional Jewish law, called Halakha, someone is Jewish if their mother was a Jew or if they have converted to Judaism.  Judaism has been described as a religion, a race, an ethnic group, a culture, a nation, and an extended family.
Israel is the only modern country with a Jewish majority, but there are Jewish minorities in many places in the world. Most of them live in large cities in the United States, Argentina, Europe and Australia.  Both Israel and the U.S. have over five million Jews. In the Soviet Union there were more than two million Jews, but many of them moved to Israel, the U.S. and other Western countries since the collapse of the Soviet Union.
 
Jews have been victims of various persecutions. The most well known happened during the Second World War, when almost six million Jews were killed by the Nazis. It is known as the Holocaust.
Jewish ethnic groups 
All ethnic (non-convert) Jews have genetic heritage from the Levant (the region now known as Israel and/or Palestine). Within all of the world's Jews, there are Jewish ethnic groups. The two biggest are called Ashkenazi (who have historically lived in Central and Eastern Europe) and Sephardic (who have historically lived in lands around the Mediterranean Sea, particularly Spain and Portugal). Jews from the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia are called Mizrahi Jews. There are also Ethiopian Jews, Indian Jews (Bene Israel) and Chinese Jews (Kaifeng Jews).  Many of these groups have moved from one place to another.  For example, many Ashkenazi Jews live in the United States, and many Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews live in France.
Jews speak the languages of the countries where they live. Hebrew is the  language of Judaism because it is the language in which the Bible was written. It is still used for prayers. In Israel, Ivrit, which is the name for the new Hebrew language, is the common language. There are also other Jewish languages such as Yiddish and Ladino which are still spoken and written by some Jews.
History 
The Jewish scriptures say that Judaism began with a man named Abram who lived in the city of Ur, in present-day Iraq. According to the Midrash, Abram strongly believed that the people in Ur were wrong to pray to different gods and statues. He believed that there was really only one god who was not a statue. The Torah tells that God spoke to Abram and told him to leave Ur with his family and move to Canaan, where he started a new religion. God told him that his name would be changed to Abraham. The Midrash also says that angels taught Abraham a new holy language, which Jews believe is the language today known as Hebrew. Hebrew continues to be the language of Judaism. Abraham's grandson Jacob is said to be the one who first had the name of "Israel".
The Hebrews or Israelites, in twelve tribes, began a country called Israel in Canaan. They fought many wars against other peoples in the area. The name Jew comes from the name of one of these tribes, Judah. Later Judah was conquered by Babylonia in the early 6th century BC, and its people were taken captive to Babylon. They were allowed to go back to Judah again when Babylon was conquered by the Persian Empire. Some Jewish people stayed in Babylon (now Iraq) and others also lived in other countries.

By 50 BC, Judah (then called Judea) was ruled by the Roman Empire. During this time, the main language of Judea was Aramaic. The Jews did not like the Roman government or customs, and often made trouble for the Romans. In 70 AD, after a revolt against the government by the Jewish community, the Romans destroyed Judea's capital city, Jerusalem and sent almost all Jews into exile.
After this, the Jewish people did not have their own country. They were a small minority in almost every place they lived. This time is called the Diaspora, when Jews spread around the world. They lived in many other countries. Jews living in Spain and Portugal used the language Ladino (also called Judeo-Spanish). Jews living in Germany, Poland, Russia, and other countries in Central-Eastern Europe spoke the language Yiddish. Jews living in North Africa spoke Judeo-Arabic or Haketia, the local name for Ladino.  Jews have lived in most, but not all, places in the world, including India, China, Yemen, and Ethiopia.  Even today, Jews who do not live in Israel are often said to live "in the Diaspora". In some places, like India, Jews lived without any problems. In other places, like most of Europe and Islamic countries, there was bigotry or even hatred against Jews and they lived under discriminatory laws
. Sometimes Jews suffered from outright persecution (that is: systematic hatred and violence), sometimes they were forced to dress in special, ugly clothes, pay higher taxes than others, not build higher houses than others, not to ride a horse or donkey, wear certain badges etc. In Europe, where the Roman Catholic church forbade Christians from lending money against interest, some Jews worked as bankers and money-lenders, and became known as skillful bankers.
One nomad nation, the Khazars, converted to Judaism in the 8th century. The Khazar khanate, which was in the modern Ukraine and Byelorussia, was the only independent Jewish state before modern day Israel. The Khazar state was destroyed by the Eastern Vikings (Rus) in 987.

The Jewish people have always believed that they have a special mission from God. They do things in their own ways, such as having special rules about food and eating, not working on the Shabbat, keeping their own holidays, and not marrying people from other religions. Because of this, people in many different times and countries have thought that the Jews were strange, and maybe dangerous. Many countries made laws that the Jews could not work in some jobs or live in some places. Sometimes Jewish people were killed because of their religion. The word "antisemitism" describes the hatred for Jews.
During the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazi, or National Socialist government of Germany conquered most of Europe. They did terrible things to the Jewish people. The Nazi government killed more than six million Jewish people.  Before they were killed, often by means of a gas chamber, many of the Jews were made to be forced workers, and some of them were forced to help in the killing and capturing of the others. 

In 1948, after World War II, the United Nations made the country of Israel for the Jews in Palestine, which is in the same place as the original Israel, in the Middle East. The land had been part of the Ottoman Empire before World War I. Then Britain controlled the area under the oversight of the United Nations.  Many Jews moved back to Israel, then called Palestine, starting in the late 1800s. When the country of Israel was made in 1948, there were about 600,000 Jews in it. Today there are about 5,600,000 Jews in it.
When Jews moved back to Palestine, there were some people living there now.  Most of them did not want to live in a Jewish country.  This was the beginning of the Israeli-Arab or Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which continues today.

Jews have come to Israel from all over the world, bringing different languages, music, food, and history to create a unique culture.  Israel is the only country in the world where most people are Jews and where Hebrew is the main language.

Jewish history continues today in both Israel and the Diaspora. Outside of Israel, there are many Jews in the United States, Great Britain, Canada, France, Russia, Ukraine, Germany, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, and Australia.  There are smaller numbers of Jews living in other parts of the world.  

Some of the major problems faced by the Jewish people today include resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and dealing with high rates of assimilation (loss of Jewish identity) in some countries, like the United States.

Famous Jews
Famous Jews 

Many Jewish people have done great things in science, literature, business, and the arts.  Some of the most famous include:
David Ben-Gurion, Israeli politician
 Mel Brooks, movie director
 Noam Chomsky, American linguist and writer
 Aaron Copland, composer
 Bob Dylan, American singer
 Albert Einstein, scientist
 Anne Frank, writer
 Sigmund Freud, father of psychoanalysis
 George Gershwin, composer
 Emma Goldman, anarchist
 Theodor Herzl, founder of modern Zionism
 Jesus, central figure of Christianity
 Franz Kafka, writer
 Henry Kissinger, former American Secretary of State
 Emma Lazarus, author
 Rosa Luxemburg, politician
 Moses Maimonides, Jewish philosopher
 Marx Brothers, comedians
 Golda Meir, Israeli politician
 Benjamin Netanyahu, Israeli politician
 Shimon Peres, Israeli politician
 Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli politician
 Philip Roth, American writer
 Mark Rothko, American painter
 Steven Spielberg, movie director
 Baruch Spinoza, philosopher
 Mark Spitz, swimmer
 Barbra Streisand, singer and actress
 Natalie Portman, actress
 Bernie Sanders, United States senator

References
Edward Gough Whitlam (11 July 1916 – 21 October 2014), known "Gough Whitlam", was an Australian politician. He was the 21st Prime Minister of Australia., and the only Prime Minister to have been dismissed from office by a Governor-General. He was Prime Minister for three years. His Labor Party was elected after 23 years of government by the Liberal-Country Party Coalition, and his government made a lot of new changes. Whitlam is the only Prime Minister who has lived in the lifetime of all the other Prime Ministers.

Early life
Whitlam was born in Kew, a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria. He studied at the University of Sydney. Whitlam served at the Royal Australian Air Force from 1941 through 1945 during World War II.
Prime Minister of Australia
Whitlam became Prime Minister in December 1972. He succeeded William McMahon. His government, for most of the time it lasted, did not have a majority in the Senate (the upper house of the Australian Parliament). This made it hard for Whitlam's government to make laws. The Whitlam government nevertheless made progress in many areas including free health care for everyone, equal rights for women, equal rights for Aboriginal people including the right to own or control land, no more compulsory military service, trade relations with communist China, free tertiary education, and the chance for people with low incomes to get a lawyer to defend their rights.
Whitlam was defeated for a second time by Fraser at the next election in 1977, and resigned from parliament shortly after that. From then until his death in 2014 then he continued to be a very public figure, writing books and often commenting on political affairs.

Death
Whitlam married Margaret Dovey a prominent Australian swimmer and social worker in 1942 and they remained married till her death on 17 March 2012. On 21 October 2014, Whitlam died in Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, New South Wales at the age of 98.

Legacy
Whitlam is one of the most controversial people in Australia. Many people think of him as a hero while others consider his government to have been inefficient.

References

Other websites
Other websites

 Gough Whitlam  – Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
 The Whitlam Institute
 The Whitlam Dismissal – 11 November 1975
 Dismissal letter  – Copy of dismissal letter
 Gough Whitlam at the National Film and Sound Archive 
 
 
  Gurindji Land Ceremony Speech – transcript and audio from August 1975
 Listen to an excerpt of Gough Whitlam's 'Kerr's Cur' speech on australianscreen online

1916 births
2014 deaths
Attorneys General of Australia
Australian Anglicans
Australian Labor Party politicians
Australian lawyers
Leaders of the Opposition (Australia)
Politicians from Melbourne
Politicians from Sydney
Prime Ministers of Australia
Republicans
Treasurers of Australia
Prime Minister Gough Whitlam chose John Kerr to be Governor General in 1974. In 1974–75 the Whitlam government thought about borrowing US$4 billion in foreign loans. A Minister, Rex Connor, had secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan. The Treasurer, Jim Cairns, misled parliament about this. This made the new leader of the Opposition, Malcolm Fraser use the Senate to stop passing money for the government until there was an election. Whitlam refused. In 1975 the opposition, led by Malcolm Fraser, blocked government supply in the Senate. This meant that the government had no money. This was a big crisis in Australia. In order to end the crisis, John Kerr dismissed Whitlam and made Fraser the Prime Minister. Whitlam lost the election that was held a month later.

References

1914 births
1991 deaths
Governors-General of Australia
Politicians from Sydney
Australian lawyers
John Malcolm Fraser AC, CH, GCL, PC (21 May 1930 – 20 March 2015) was an Australian politician. He served as the 22nd Prime Minister of Australia from 11 November 1975 through 11 November 1983. He was also leader of the Liberal Party from 1975 to 1983.

Before being prime minister, Fraser was a member of the Australian Parliament from 1955 through 1983. He served as Minister of Defence from 1966 to 1968 and again from 1969 to 1971 and Minister for Education and Science from 1968 to 1969 and again from 1971 to 1972.

Early life
Fraser was born in Toorak, Victoria. He studied at Magdalen College, Oxford. He married Tamie Beggs in 1956.