Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
During the 1990s, Martin developed emphysema from years of cigarette smoking. He also had trouble with his liver. His health became bad. He began to think about death. He and his wife Jeanne were divorced years earlier, but had remained close. She encouraged him not to worry about dying, and to think about his parents, and their son Dean Paul, waiting for him.

Martin died in Beverly Hills, California over the Christmas holidays in 1995, watching television in bed. As a tribute, the lights on the Las Vegas Strip were dimmed for one minute, in his memory. His epitaph was the title of his best-remembered song: "EVERYBODY LOVES SOMEBODY SOMETIME".

References 

Actors from Ohio
American movie actors
Comedians from Ohio
American television actors
American radio actors
American television presenters
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles County, California
Deaths from emphysema
Deaths from lung cancer
Stage names
Singers from Ohio
1917 births
1995 deaths
Former Roman Catholics
People from Steubenville, Ohio
Definition
Segregation is not as simple as having "separate but equal" places for people of different races. Segregation happens when a country or a society views one race as better than another. The goal of segregation is to keep the "inferior" race away from the "better" race. Because one race is seen as "inferior," people of that race are not treated well. They go through discrimination. Often they are not given basic rights, like the right to vote. As a United States Supreme Court judge said in a case about segregation in schools: "separate facilities are [always] unequal." Things did stop segregation, like Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks. They helped a lot by speaking up for their side. Although they knew that they would get in trouble. Rosa Parks made every black person stop using the buses until the bus company ran out of money (most of their money came from black people). This worked and the black people were allowed to use the buses without separation.
Anglo-Saxon England
Segregation may have existed in early Anglo-Saxon England. When the Anglo-Saxons arrived in England in the 4th century, they may have created an "apartheid-like society," according to some historians. They may have treated the native British people like slaves, and had rules against marrying them. Some historians say Anglo-Saxons were much richer and had a higher social status than Celtic Britons.
Australia
From the early 1800s to the late 1980s, the Australian government took many Aboriginal children away from their families. Their families had not agreed to let their children go. However, the government had decided to force Aboriginal children to "assimilate" into Australian society. The children where placed in white homes or on missions. There, they were forced to learn Christianity, leave behind their Aboriginal culture, become a part of white society, and marry white people. The goal of this program was to "breed out" Aboriginal traits so that they no longer existed in Australia. Later, in 1951, the United Nations would define this type of program as genocide.

From about 1900 to the 1970s, Australia followed what became known as the "White Australia Policy." This policy kept non-white people from immigrating to Australia by making immigration tests too hard to pass.
In the early- to mid-twentieth century, many Aborigines were forced to live on missions. The goal of this policy was to get the Aborigines off their lands, because white settlers wanted to use them.

In the 1960s, Australia changed its official policy to "integration." This meant that the Aborigines had to be able to live in Australian society or on missions. However, many Aborigines refused to follow these orders and kept living far away from cities. In these areas, they were segregated from the rest of Australian society, and were also poorer. At the time, some people called the situation "apartheid," and even suggested that the Australian government's policies inspired the apartheid program in South Africa.
English settlers in Ireland
In 1366, the King of England passed thirty-five laws called the Statutes of Kilkenny. Their goal was to prevent English settlers in Ireland from mixing with the Irish people or becoming too much like the Irish. The laws made it illegal the English to marry native Irish people, have Irish children, adopt Irish children, use Irish names or clothes, or speak anything but English.

French Algeria
In 1830, France took control of Algeria from the Ottoman Empire. For over a hundred years, Algeria was a French colony. The French rulers kept an apartheid-like system in Algeria. For example, Arab and Berber Algerians were allowed to apply for French citizenship (which would give them the right to vote and other rights) only if they abandoned their Muslim religion and culture.

Algerian Muslims were not willing to go along with this "system of apartheid," and this system was one of the main causes of the Algerian War in 1954.

Germany
Germany

In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, "Wendish" (Slavic) people were not allowed to join some guilds. According to Wilhelm Raabe, "into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend."

In 1935, after the Nazi Party had taken control of the German government, they passed the Nuremberg Laws. The Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, believed that the "Aryan" race was better than any other races. The Nuremberg Laws made it illegal for "Aryan" and "non-Aryan" people to marry or have sex. At first, the laws were mostly meant to keep "Aryans" from mixing with Jewish people (who the Nazis viewed as an inferior race). However, the Nazis later added "Gypsies, Negroes and their bastard [children]" to the Laws. Aryans who broke these laws could be sent to concentration camps; non-Aryans could be executed. To keep German blood "pure," after World War II began, the Nazis made it illegal for any non-German to marry or have sex with a German person.
In 1939, the Nazis invaded Poland and took it over. They divided the Polish people into different ethnic groups. Based on how "Germanic" they were, each group had different rights. For example, the different groups were allowed different amounts of food; and were only allowed to live in certain places and use certain public transportation.

During the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazis made Jews wear yellow ribbons or stars of David with the word "Jude" ("Jew") on them. Racial laws discriminated against Jews and Roma people (Gypsies). For example, Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat Aryan patients; Jewish professors were not allowed to teach Aryan students. Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry; ride bicycles; or ride in cars. They were allowed to shop only from 3:00pm to 5:00pm, and only in stores owned by Jews. They could not go to theaters, swimming pools, or any other places for entertainment.
Also, between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish people were deported to Nazi Germany for forced labour. Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe. However, Polish people and other Eastern Europeans who the Nazis viewed as racially inferior were treated much worse. They were forced to wear a cloth tag on their clothing with the letter "P" on it, which showed that they were Polish. They had to follow a curfew and could not use public transportation. Usually, they had to work longer hours, for lower pay, than Western Europeans. In many cities, they had to live in segregated barracks, behind barbed wire. They were not allowed to talk to Germans outside of work. If they had sexual relations with Germans, they would be executed.

Imperial China
Imperial China

Tang dynasty 
During the Tang Dynasty, the Han Chinese passed several laws that segregated non-Chinese people from Chinese people. In 779, the Tang Dynasty made a rule which forced Uighurs to wear their traditional ethnic clothing, not Chinese clothing. It also banned them from 'pretending' to be Chinese, and from marrying Chinese women. The Han Chinese disliked the Uighurs because they loaned money for interest.

In 836, when Lu Chun was appointed governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and marrying them. Lu made segregation the law. He made it illegal for non-Chinese people to marry Chinese people or to own property. The law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "People of color." This meant foreigners like "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", and others.
Italy
In 1938, Italy was ruled by a fascist regime led by Benito Mussolini. The regime was allied with Nazi Germany. Under pressure from the Nazis, the regime passed several laws that said the Italian Empire would now practice segregation. They called these laws the 'provvedimenti per la difesa della razza' (norms for the defence of the race).

The laws especially targeted Jews. For example, Jews could not:

 Teach or study in schools or universities
 Own industries that were important to the country
 Work as journalists
 Enter the military
 Marry non-Jews
Because of these laws, Italy lost some of its best scientists. Some were fired. For example, Rita Levi-Montalcini, who would later win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, was told she could no longer work at her university. Others left Italy because of the laws. For example, Enrico Fermi, who worked on the first nuclear reactor and won the Nobel Prize for Physics, left the country. (His wife was Jewish.) Many other well-known scientists, physicists, mathematicians, and other scholars lost their jobs or left Italy because of the race laws.

Albert Einstein resigned from his honorary membership at the Accademia dei Lincei, an Italian science academy, to protest the race laws.

After 1943, when Northern Italy was occupied by the Nazis, Italian Jews were taken to Nazi concentration camps and death camps.

Jewish segregation
Jewish segregation

For centuries, Jews in Europe were often forced to live in segregated ghettos and shtetls (small towns where mostly Jews lived). In 1204, the Pope ordered Jews to segregate themselves from Christians and to wear clothing that marked them as Jews. Forced segregation of Jews spread throughout Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries.

In the Russian Empire, starting in the 1790s, Jews were only allowed to live in the Pale of Settlement. This was the Western frontier of the Russian Empire, about where Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine are today. By the early 20th century, most European Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement.

In Morocco, beginning in the 15th century, Jewish people were segregated in mellahs. In cities, a mellah was a separate area for Jews, surrounded by a wall with a fortified gateway. Rural mellahs were separate villages where only Jews lived.

In the middle of the 19th century, historian J.J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews:
Latin America
When Spanish people came to the Americas and made Latin American countries into colonies, they created a caste system based on race. They came up with fifteen different categories of people based on their race mixtures, including categories like "mulatto" and "mestizo". People who were "whiter" or more "Spanish" had a higher social status than people who were "darker" or more Native American. People who were "darker" were treated as inferior and faced discrimination  for example, they had to pay higher taxes than "whiter" people.

Usually, when they won their independence from Spain, most Latin American countries made laws against caste systems. However, prejudice based on race remains.

South Africa

Background
Racial segregation in South Africa began when the country was a Dutch colony. The Dutch landed at Cape Town in 1652 and gradually took over more and more of the country. Segregation continued when the British Empire took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795.
Slavery existed in South Africa until 1833. However, two years later, the government passed a law that changed slaves into indentured servants. This system was not very different from slavery. Throughout the rest of the 1800s, the South African colonies passed laws that limited these worker's rights and freedoms.

In 1894 and 1905, the government passed laws saying that "Indians" and 'blacks" had no right to vote. Other laws discriminated against non-whites, but were not as bad as the apartheid laws that would come within the next 50 years.

Beginnings of apartheid 
Apartheid in South Africa started in 1948. At that time, the National Party won control of the South African government. This political party was made up of Afrikaner people. Afrikaners are the descendants of Dutch settlers who came to South Africa in the 1600s and 1700s. The National Party believed in Afrikaner nationalism.

Apartheid laws
Apartheid laws

The National Party passed apartheid laws to make racial segregation the law in South Africa. Some of the most important laws included:

 The Population Registration Act (1950), which put South Africans into four racial categories: "black," "white," "Coloured" (mixed-race), and "Indian" (South Asians from the former British India).
 People had to register with the government and get identification cards that said what racial group they were in.
 The Group Areas Act (1950), which assigned a part of South Africa for each racial group to live in. People were forced to live in their assigned part of the country.
 Going into another part of the country was illegal without a permit. Black people could not enter cities unless they had permission from a white employer.
 The Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (1953), which created separate public places, like hospitals, universities, and parks, for the different races
 The Bantu Education Act (1953), which segregated education
Under these apartheid laws, between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million non-white South Africans were forced to leave their homes and move into segregated neighborhoods. This is one of the largest mass removals in modern history.

Other laws made it illegal for a person to marry or have sex with a person of a different race. Then, in 1969, the government took away "Coloured" people's right to vote. Since "Indians" and "blacks" had not been allowed to vote for decades, this meant that whites were the only people in South Africa who were allowed to vote.

In 1970, non-whites were banned from having representatives in the government. That same year, black people's South African citizenship was taken away.
Protests
Protests against apartheid started right after apartheid did. As early as 1949, the youth wing of the African National Congress (ANC) suggested fighting against racial segregation using many different strategies. Over the next 45 years, hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred. They included protests by the Black Consciousness Movement; student protests; labor strikes; and church group activism. In 1991, the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act was passed, reversing laws about racial segregation, including the Group Areas Act. In 1990, President Frederik Willem de Klerk started trying to end apartheid. Nonwhites were given the right to vote in 1993. South Africa had its first multiracial elections (where non-whites were allowed to be candidates in 1994. Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress won. Mandela and de Klerk were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 for working together to end apartheid.

United States
United States

The United States has a long history of racial segregation, starting when the first European settlers came to North America. First through slavery, then through racist laws, and then through racist attitudes, African-American people in the United States have faced segregation for centuries. People of other races have been segregated too. For example, during World War II, the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, ordered almost the entire Japanese-American population to be segregated in internment camps.

People of all races have fought against segregation and discrimination in the United States. Thanks to movements like the Civil Rights Movement, segregation is now against the law in the United States. However, prejudice against minority groups still exists. This has led to new types of segregation caused by people's prejudices and behavior.
Israel 
The State of Israel has practiced apartheid against Palestinians. It started in its occupation of the West Bank; the term apartheid in this context refers to apartheid in international law. Or may compare it with apartheid in South Africa. Some use the term to include treatment of Arab citizens of Israel. They describe their status as second-class citizens. 

These features regard such things as the ID system. Also includes the pattern of Israeli settlements, separate roads for Israeli and Palestinian people, Israeli military checkpoints, marriage law, the West Bank barrier, the use of Palestinians for cheaper labour, the Palestinian West Bank land exclaves, inequality in infrastructure, legal rights (e.g. "Enclave law"), and inequality of access to land and resources between Palestinians and Israeli settlers. It is argued that, like South Africa, Israel may be classified as a settler colonial society, in violation of international law.

Notes

References

Related pages
Religious segregation
American civil rights
Apartheid
Discrimination
History of China
History of Ireland
1940s in Italy
History of Russia
History of South Africa
History of the United Kingdom
African-American history
Human rights abuses
Jewish history
Race
1930s in Poland
1940s in Poland
1930s in Germany
1940s in Germany
Torrance is a city in southwest Los Angeles, California. Jared Torrance founded it in 1911. In 2020, there were 147,067 people living in Torrance. It is the eighth biggest city in Los Angeles county.

Things to See 
 Del Amo Fashion center is one of the biggest malls in the United States. 
 Madrona Marsh is a nature center that protects wild animals and plants.
 Torrance Beach is between Redondo Beach and Malaga Cove.
 The Armed Forces Day Parade shows people many military vehicles and soldiers. 
 Torrance High School is one of the oldest high schools in California. Many television shows used Torrance High, for example Buffy the Vampire Slayer and She's All That.
 Alpine Village is a restaurant, market, and mall. Oktoberfest is held here.

Trivia 
 It is where superstar teens Alyson Michalka and Amanda Michalka were born.

Notes

Other websites 
 City of Torrance official website 

 
1911 establishments in the United States
1910s establishments in California
Charles Edward Anderson "Chuck" Berry (October 18, 1926 – March 18, 2017) was an American singer, guitarist and songwriter. He is one of the original musicians who helped to create rock and roll and is known as the Father of Rock and Roll.

Career
In 1955 Berry met Muddy Waters who told him of a record company that would release his first song. In 1957 he joined the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly and other popular musicians on a tour around the United States. Over the next few years he became more and more popular and had many popular songs on the radio.  "Maybellene" (1955), "Roll Over Beethoven" (1956), "Rock and Roll Music" (1957) and "Johnny B. Goode" (1958) were massive hits.
He has influenced many rock and pop musicians who came after him. Berry has influenced many music artists, like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Beach Boys, and Bob Dylan. Berry tried to help an Apache waitress cross the US-Canadian border, but was caught by police and charged for prostitution. This dented his career: he served 18 months. When released, his first recording was "Nadine", (1964) also a huge hit. 

Berry was a favorite with The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and The Beach Boys, who adapted and recorded a number of his songs.

In 1986 a documentary film, Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll, was made. It featured a celebration concert for Berry's sixtieth birthday, organized by Keith Richards.

Death
Berry died at his home in Wentzville, Missouri on March 18, 2017 from a congestive heart failure, aged 90.

Discography
Chuck Berry discography

References

Other websites 

 Official website
1926 births
2017 deaths
African American musicians
African-American singers
American criminals
American prisoners
American robbers
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American singer-songwriters
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Singers from St. Louis, Missouri
Musicians from St. Louis, Missouri
The way to hold nagamaki was also very specific. It was held with the two hands in a fixed position in the same way a katana sword is held. Unlike the naginata, the hands did not change when handling the weapon and the right hand was always the closest to the blade. While handling nagamaki not too many sliding actions on the handle were performed as it was in naginata's case, where you use the entire length of the shaft. The nagamaki was not spread and developed until much later like the naginata sword. During the middle of the Muromachi period (1336-1600 A.D.) it reached its peak of usage. 

The nagamaki is designed for large sweeping and slicing strokes. It also works as a spear. Traditionally, it was used as an infantry weapon. Warriors used the weapon against horsemen. Still, it required more time and materials to create a nagamaki than a spears or a naginata sword, this is why it was not so widely spread.
The closest exemplar of real nagamaki you can see today is nagamaki-naoshi. It appears to be like a long katana-shaped glaive but straighter and thinner, with a very long handle. In contrast to it naginata is shorter, wider and more curved to the tip.

Other websites 
Japanese sword etiquette 

Japanese swords
It is said naginata have first been used in China in around 3 B.C. The first source it was mentioned in was the Kojiki (A Record of Ancient Matters, 712). Later, it is shown in the paintings of battlefield scenes made during the Tengyo no Ran (Tengyo Insurrection), in 936 A.D. The sword was used and improved during the Nara period (approx. 710-784 A.D.), and by the 11th century it was widely used in battles.

The naginata was also used by warrior-monks for temple defense against invaders. Around the 1400's A.D. this weapon was no more used by monks because the temples were no longer a target. The samurai used the naginata only when fighting against many enemies or on horseback.
Still, naginata was most commonly used when the samurai was too young to handle a full-length katana and when he was mostly an archer. By the Edo period (1603-1867), the naginata was no more used in combat. It became the symbolic weapon of samurai women, who trained for self-defense, defense of their children, and for building virtue. The fashion developed further and there were samurai families who hung naginata in important places of their houses. Later the naginata was even given as present to the bride.

There are three main theories why the naginata was made. One of the most spread is the belief that naginata evolved from a farming tool used for chopping. The tools were made as long staffs with sharp stones attached to one of the ends. The tool was used in the 3rd century B.C. Later, the stones were replaced with metal pieces. Thus, when the crops and lands of the farmers were under attack they defended it with their farming tools, which proved to be effective weapons and were later improved..
The Chinese theory is based on the idea that Chinese halberds were brought to Japan during early migrations, (around 200 B.C.). Most of the weaponry experts believe that even if the Chinese invented the weapon, but it was improved by the Japanese.

Another theory says that the naginata evolved directly as a weapon. The blade of naginata ancestors was made of bronze. Later, the discovery of steel made it even more effective. This theory affirms that the naginata development was far later than the appearance of metal in Japan from the Asian continents (around 200 B.C.).

The naginata was meant for foot soldiers to use; whereas the military elite (samurai) used the katana sword. There are evidences that naginata was also used by the Sohei (Buddhist warrior monks).
The naginata was also considered a women's weapon. It gave women a major advantage because its long shaft could keep the enemy at a safe distance. One of the most famous Japanese women warriors was Itagaki. Her naginata skills were better than even the most trained samurai. During the Edo period (1600-1800 AD), Japanese women were taught to handle the naginata by the age of 18.

The naginata was also considered an effective weapon against horsemen. The way naginata was handled required specific motions because of its length. Usually, it was sweeping and circular motion, because it was inconvenient to use striking methods like with a traditional sword. In order to use the naginata well, the handler has to quickly change hand positions along the length of the shaft.

This weapon did very well in cavalry battles, acting like medieval spears. Infantry used the naginata to cut the horse's legs. After this the disoriented rider was easily killed.

Martial Art
Martial Art 

Naginata is also known as a Japanese martial art performed by men, women, and children. The roots of this fighting technique come for over 1,000 years ago. This martial art has as its centerpiece a Japanese sword - Naginata. The weapon is very efficient against riders as well as against foot soldiers. The sword is very well balanced and weighted which makes it possible for women and children to use it. The naginata way of fighting is very graceful due to circular swinging of the naginata sword.

Today Naginata is a combat system that teaches respect, patience, etiquette, self-confidence, and self-control. The practice of Naginata teaches perfect control and balanced movements of the body. When into this art, discipline and concentration are needed to reach the grace and effectiveness of the movements. Moreover, it establishes person's character by developing a moral code based on honor.
The modern naginata has changed its shape during history. Now, it is more like a European halberd or glaive. The blade looks more like a scimitar moreso rather than of a wakizashi. Naginata went through the influence of westernization after the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912), when the value of martial arts dropped, and survived till the Showa period (1912 – 1926), when naginata became a part of the public school system.

Different styles of naginata handling were developed creating world known schools (ryu). The Atarashii Naginata School and Jikishin-kage ryu are the most popular. There are also known schools like Tendo ryu and Toda Ha Buko ryu. Despite the differences between these schools, the Naginata martial art has at its base the art of wielding one of the most original weapons and their goal is to develop the traditional etiquette and spiritual training of a person.

Other websites 
 More on Samurai 

Japanese swords
The Ainu language is the language of the Ainu people in northern Japan. It was not written until the 19th century. Since then, it has been written in katakana or the Latin alphabet.

In the 19th century, Ainu was spoken in Ezo (including Hokkaidō Island and the southern part of Chishima Islands), the southern part of Karapto (Sakhalin) and the northern part of Chishima Islands (Kuril Islands). Now it is only spoken in Hokkaidō.

Ainu had many dialects, including Chitose, Saru, and Karapto. Now only the Hokkaidō dialect survives. The dialects were so different from one another that a speaker of one dialect could not understand a speaker of another dialect.

Historically, speakers of Ainu lived near speakers of Japanese and Itelmen (from Kamchatka). The Nivkh, which was spoken in the northern part of Sakhalin, is another isolated language.
Grammar 
Ainu has subject-object-verb word order, like Japanese. Ainu phrases have left-branching structures: the word for a property is before the word for a person or thing.

Sample words 
The word ainu means "human being" and is the name used by the Ainu to refer to themselves. In contrast, kamuy means "god". The Ainu think that all existence that has mind and plays a role in this world are kamuy. Sparrows or standing trees are kamuy. In the Ainu perspective of the world, all goes well and human being can also be happy if ainu and kamuy help each other.

Most linguists think that the Ainu numeral system is based on twenty.

 Ape - fire.
 Iyomante - A festival to send a bear's soul to heaven.
 Kunnechupu - The moon.
 Kotan - village.
 Konru - ice.
 Sumari - (pronounced as in "Shumari") - fox.
 Seta - dog.
 Tonoto - sake.
 Nonno- flower.
 Huci - (pronounced as in "Hoochi") - grandmother, Old women.
 Pone - bone.
 Pirka - Beauty, cute.
 wakka - "drinkable" water.
Relations with other language families 
The Ainu language is classificated as language isolate, although there are several theories about a genetic relation. Some linguists suggest a relation to Altaic languages while others suggest a link to Indo-European languages. Some similarities also exist with northern native american languages.

References

Bibliography
 

Language isolates
Languages of Asia
Japan
Tenacious D is an American rock band formed in Los Angeles, California in 1994. The members of the band are actor Jack Black and his best friend Kyle Gass. Their songs have lots of profanity. Including Tribute, Beezleboss and many others.

Albums 
 Tenacious D (2001)
 The Pick of Destiny (2006)
 Rize of the Fenix (2012)
 Post-Apocalypto (2019)

Movies
 Tenacious D in: The Pick of Destiny

1994 establishments in California
1990s music groups
2000s music groups
2010s music groups
American comedy bands
American rock bands
American hard rock bands
American heavy metal bands
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Saurischia is one of the two orders of dinosaurs. In 1888, Harry Seeley classified dinosaurs into two main orders. Their hip structure was why they were put into these orders. Saurischians ('lizard-hipped') and the ornithischians ('bird-hipped') have differences in the ways bones in the hip are put together.

All carnivorous dinosaurs (the theropods) are saurischians, and so are the sauropods like Diplodocus and Brachiosaurus.

Birds are direct descendants of a group of theropod dinosaurs, so they are a sub-clade of saurischian dinosaurs in modern classification.

Order Saurischia
suborder Theropoda
suborder Sauropoda

Related pages
Ornithischia

References
A stethoscope is a instrument used by doctors and other medical people.  It is used to measure peoples heartbeat and their breathing.  It is placed on the area where the heart is or on the back. 

The modern stethoscope is made up of a Y-shaped flexible plastic tube. An earpiece is attached to each end of the Y and a sound-detecting device at the other end. The sound-detecting device has a thin plastic sheet on one side and a bell shape with a hole in on the other. The diaphragm is used to listen to a patient's chest for high-pitched sounds. The bell end is used to detect lower-pitched sounds. The lung sounds have a higher frequency than heart sounds.

Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laënnec (1781-1826) was a French physician who, in 1816, invented the stethoscope. Using this new instrument, he investigated the sounds made by the heart and lungs and determined that his diagnoses were supported by the observations made during autopsies.

Medical equipment
Gouda is a kind of soft cheese made from cows' milk. The cheese is named after the city of Gouda, which is famous for it. The name Gouda is not protected, so Gouda is made all over the world. There is also a protected designation of origin Noord-Hollandse Gouda (Gouda from North Holland). This may seem inaccurate, because the city of Gouda is in South Holland. Most of the cows however graze in North Holland.

There are two varieties of Gouda for export: Young gouda, which is between one and six months old. Young gouda is usually sold with a yellow or red coating of paraffin wax. 

Gouda that is older, is usually sold with a black coating. It is more brittle, and has a stronger scent. 

There are other variations, like Smoked Gouda, which is a processed cheese, and Leyden Gouda.

There is also spiced gouda which has spices in it to make it have more flavour.

References 

Dutch cheeses
Gouda
In Russian Orthodox Christianity, a passion bearer is someone who faces their death in a Christian or Christ-like way. They were not killed because of their religion, unlike martyrs, but they love God and show good virtues.

Christian saints
A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, porcelain, metal or even glass.  Tiles are generally used for covering roofs, floors, and walls.  They have been made for thousands of years.

Tiles can be simple square tiles or arranged in complex mosaics. Tiles are most often made from ceramic, with a hard glaze finish.

At the end of the 20th century, the technology of porcelain and glass tiles advanced, making them cheaper.  They became more commonplace.

Roof tiles 

Roof tiles are designed mainly to keep out rain, and are traditionally made from locally available materials such as clay or slate. Modern materials such as concrete and plastic are also used and some clay tiles have a waterproof glaze.

A large number of shapes (or "profiles") of roof tiles have evolved.
Fired roof tiles are found as early as the 3rd millennium BC in the  House of the tiles in Lerna, Greece. Debris found at the site contained thousands of terracotta tiles having fallen from the roof. In the Mycenaean period, roofs tiles are documented for Gla and Midea.

References 

Ceramics
Bellini can mean several people or things, including

Giovanni Bellini (c. 1430–1516) Venetian painter
Vincenzo Bellini, 19th century Italian composer

Bellini (cocktail), a popular drink invented in Venice
Gouda can mean:

 Gouda, Netherlands, a city in the Netherlands
 Gouda (cheese)
 Gouda (pottery)
 Gouda (slang)
 Gouda, South Africa, a town in the Western Cape Province of South Africa.
 Gouda was astate in India.  It joined with Banga state when India became independent in 1947 to form the state of West Bengal.
 Emperor Go-Uda, emperor of Japan
 Kazundo Gouda, a character in Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex 2nd Gig.

Related pages 
 Gauda
Porcelain is a ceramic material made by heating clay-type materials to high temperatures. It includes clay in the form of kaolinite.

Porcelain can be of different types: hard-paste porcelain, soft-paste porcelain and bone china. There is a distinction between hard-paste porcelain, fired at 1400 degrees Celsius, and soft-paste porcelain, fired at 1200 oC. Bone china is soft-paste porcelain made from bone ash and kaolinite.

The raw materials for porcelain are mixed with water and form a plastic paste. The paste is worked to a required shape before firing in a kiln.

History

China
History

China 

Porcelain originated in China, and 'china' is the common name of the product. By the Eastern Han dynasty period (196–220 AD) glazed ceramic wares had developed into porcelain. Porcelain manufactured during the Tang Dynasty (618–906 AD) was exported to the Islamic world, where it was highly prized. Early porcelain of this type includes the tri-colour glazed porcelain, or sancai wares. Porcelain items in the sense that we know them today could be found in the Tang Dynasty, and archaeological finds have pushed the dates back to as early as the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). By the Sui Dynasty (581–618) and Tang Dynasty (618–907), porcelain was widely produced.

Europe 

In 1712, many of the Chinese porcelain secrets were revealed in Europe by the French Jesuit father Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles, and published in Lettres édifiantes et curieuses de Chine par des missionnaires jésuites.
Germany 
Early in the 16th century, Portuguese traders returned home with samples of kaolin clay, which they discovered in China to be essential in the production of porcelain wares. However, the Chinese techniques and composition used to manufacture porcelain were not yet fully understood.

In the German state of Saxony, the search concluded in 1708 when Ehrenfried von Tschirnhaus produced a hard, white, translucent type of porcelain with  kaolin clay and alabaster, mined from a Saxon mine in Colditz. It was a closely guarded trade secret of the Saxon enterprise.
Von Tschirnhaus and his assistant Johann Friedrich Böttger were employed by Augustus the Strong and worked at Dresden and Meissen in Saxony. A workshop note records that the first specimen of hard, white and vitrified European porcelain was produced in 1708. At the time, the research was still being supervised by Tschirnhaus, who died in October of that year. Böttger reported to Augustus in March 1709 that he could make porcelain. He usually gets the credit for the European discovery of porcelain.

France 

The first important French soft-paste porcelain was made at the Saint-Cloud factory before 1702. Soft-paste factories were established at Chantilly in 1730 and at Mennecy in 1750. The Vincennes porcelain factory was established in 1740, and moved later to larger premises in Sèvres. in 1756. Vincennes soft-paste was whiter and more perfect than any of its French rivals, which put Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain in the leading position in France.
England 
The first soft-paste in England was demonstrated by Thomas Briand to the Royal Society in 1742, and is believed to have been based on the Saint-Cloud formula. In 1749, Thomas Frye took out a patent on a porcelain containing bone ash.  This was the first bone china, later perfected by Josiah Spode.

In the twenty-five years after Briand's demonstration, half a dozen factories were founded in England to make soft-paste table-wares and figures. Some famous  factories were:

 Chelsea (1743)
 Bristol porcelain (1748)
 Royal Crown Derby (1750 or 1757)
 Royal Worcester (1751)
 Wedgwood (1759)
 Spode (1767)

William Cookworthy discovered deposits of kaolin clay in Cornwall. This helped the development of porcelain and other whiteware ceramics in England. Cookworthy's factory at Plymouth,  1768, used kaolin clay and china stone. He made porcelain with a composition similar to the Chinese porcelains of the early 18th century.

References
References

Other websites 
 How porcelain is made
 How bisque porcelain is made
Chinese Porcelain

 International Ceramic Directory - providing you with links to ceramic artists, backstamps, manufacturers, historical sites and more
 ArtLex Art Dictionary - Porcelain 

Pottery
A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber or oven in which a controlled temperature regime is produced.

Other websites 
 Young International Woodfirer Association, an international association of people building and using woodfired kilns
 Northern Hardwood Initiative: Drying Hardwoods 

Pottery
ChuChu is a comic magazine that is written for teenage girls. It is published by Syougakukan（Japan).

Famous works 
Sakura zensen（Miyuki Ohbayashi）
ALMIGHTY×10(Aqua Mizuto)
NG boy×Paradise(Yukino Miyawaki)
Hitohira no koi ga furu(Yuu Yabuuchi)

Manga writers who write for ChuChu 
Aqua Mizuto
Chitose Yagami
Hisa Kyoumachi
Iori Shigano
Kana Nanajima
Kei Ouri
Kirara Himekawa
Kiyoko Arai
Kyoko Mami
Mai Jinna
Mikiko Satsuki
Miwako Sugiyama
Miyuki Ohbayashi
Naomi Uramoto
Naoto Kohaku
Natsumi Kawahara
Nimi Fujita
Nozomi Shiratori
Rei Nanase
Ryouko Mizoguchi
Satoru Takamiya
Sayumi Nakamura
Tae Usami
Takemaru SaSaki
Yukako Iizaka
Yukino Miyawaki
Yuu Yabuuchi

Manga
Metta is a Buddhist term translated as loving kindness or friendliness.

Metta is wanting others to be happy. 
The opposite is wanting others to be unhappy: anger, hatred.

Related pages
 Meditation

Other websites 
 The Path of Unlimited Friendliness  - a translation of the Karaniya  Metta Sutta by Dharmachari Ratnaprabha

Buddhist terminology
An oxide is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom and at least one atom of one other element. Most of the Earth's crust consists of oxides (mainly silica). Oxides can be made when elements are oxidized by air (when oxygen in the air reacts with the element).

Some common oxides are:
Water (hydrogen oxide) (H2O)
Iron(III) oxide (Rust) (Fe2O3)
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Lead(II) oxide (PbO)
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Magnesium oxide (Magnesia) (MgO)
Phosphorus pentoxide (P4O10)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) (N2O)
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
Copper(I) oxide (CuO) and Copper(II) oxide (Cu2O)

 
Ions
Mew can be:

Mew (band), a band from Denmark
Mew (Pokémon), a Pokémon
A proposal is when people suggest an idea. One kind of proposal is used when someone suggests an idea of marriage, when they ask the person they like to marry them.

Social sciences
Marriage
Versailles is a French city. It is in the western suburbs of Paris, 17.1 km. (10.6 miles) from the center of Paris. It is the capital of the Yvelines département. This city is very important for the History of France because it was formerly the capital of the kingdom of France.

Its name comes from the Latin word vertere, meaning to turn the soil.  

Versailles is made world-famous by the Palace of Versailles (Château de Versailles), where Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis XVI lived.

In 2004, about 85,900 people lived here.

This is where the Treaty of Versailles was signed at the end of The Great War.

Surroundings
Paris
Viroflay
Ville-d'Avray
Meudon

Education 
 Institut supérieur international du parfum, de la cosmétique et de l'aromatique alimentaire
 Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines

References
Major is a rank that is given for a mid-level command officer (higher than the rank of Captain and lower than the rank of Lieutenant Colonel). In Canada, it is shown by a thick bar followed by a thin bar and again by a thick bar. In Great Britain it is represented by a single crown. In the United States, it is shown by a gold oak leaf. The pay grade for the rank of major is O-4.

Military ranks
Types of siblings 
There are several different types of siblings.
 Full-Siblings (Full Brothers/Full Sisters or Brothers/Sisters): These types of siblings have both the same father and mother and are the most common type of siblings found.
Twins: There are two types of twins: identical and fraternal. Identical twins have exactly the same genes; fraternal twins are no more similar than regular siblings. Often, twins with a close relationship will develop a twin language from infanthood, a language only shared and understood between the two. Studies suggest that identical twins appear to display more twin talk than fraternal twins. At about 3 years of age, twin talk usually ends. Researchers were interested in subjects who were in the later years of life. They knew that past studies suggested that genetics played a larger role in one's personality in the earlier years of their life. However, they were curious about whether or not this was true later on in life. They gathered subjects with a mean age of 59, who included 99 pairs of identical twins, and 229 pairs of fraternal twins who were all reared apart. They also gathered twins who were reared together: 160 pairs of identical twins, and 212 pairs of fraternal twins
. They studied the most heritable traits in regard to personality, which are emotionality, activity level and sociability; also known as EAS. This study found that identical twins resembled each other twice as much as fraternal twins, due to genetic factors. Furthermore, environment influences personality substantially; however, it has little to do with whether they are reared together or apart. This study also suggests that heritability is substantial, but not as substantial as for younger subjects; it has less significance later on in life.
Half-Siblings (Half-brothers/Half-sisters): These types siblings have only one parent that is the same. They either only have the same father or the same mother. Those with the same mother, but different father are called uterine half-siblings or maternal half-brothers/half-sisters and those with the same father, but different mother are called agnate half-siblings or paternal half-brothers/half sisters.
 Step Siblings (Stepbrothers/Stepsisters): These types of siblings have different fathers and mothers, but one of their parents is married to a parent of the other one.
Example: John and Tom are step brothers because John's father is married to Tom's mother.
Three-quarter (3/4) Siblings (3/4 Brothers/3/4 Sisters): These types of siblings have one common parent, while their unshared parents have a mean consanguinity of 50%. This means that the unshared parents are either siblings or parent and child (similar terminology is used in horse breeding, where it occurs more frequently). Three-quarter siblings share more genes than half siblings, but fewer than full siblings.
 Foster Siblings (Foster Brothers/Foster Sisters): These siblings are children who are raised in the same foster home, foster children of the person's parents, or foster parents' biological children.
 Adoptive Siblings: (Adoptive Brothers/Adoptive Sisters) These types of siblings have different fathers and mothers, but one of their parents adopts another child causing the children to be adoptive siblings. This works with more than 2 adoptive children or one biological child and an adoptive child. This is a variation of step siblings .
In-laws (Brother-in-law/Sister-in-law): One's sibling-in-law is the sibling of one's spouse or the spouse of one's sibling.
 Co-Siblings-in-Law: They are one's co-sibling-in-law is one's sibling-in-law's spouse or sibling: One's sibling's spouse's sibling or one's spouse's sibling's spouse.
 Godsiblings (Godbrothers/Godsisters): These types of siblings are the children (biological, step, or adoptive) of one's godparent, or the godchildren of one’s parent; or two or more children who have a common godparent: the other godchildren on one’s godparent. If the godparents are not chosen within the family, they are unrelated by blood.
 In cultures with milk kinship, a milk sibling is a person who is not one's biological sibling, but was nursed by the same woman as oneself. The concept exists in Islamic law and Jewish law.
In Islam someone who is breastfed by a woman who is not their birth mother become siblings to the children of that woman if they are less than 2 years old and have been breastfed five times or more by that woman.
 Blood Siblings (Blood Brothers/Blood Sisters): Not to be confused with a consanguineous sibling, a blood brother or blood sister is a person to whom one has sworn loyalty through a ritual blood oath. The custom is rare in Western culture.
Cross Siblings (Cross Brothers/Cross Sisters): These types of siblings are individuals who share one or more half-siblings; if one person has at least one maternal half-sibling and at least one paternal half-sibling, the maternal and paternal half-siblings are cross-siblings to each other. Stepsiblings are not cross-siblings unless their married parents have a child together. Alternatively, cross-siblings may not be stepsiblings at all, in the event that the respective parents have a child without marrying, or the cross-siblings are born after the parents of the mutual half-sibling have separated. Cross-siblings are not biologically related, unless the parents have a biological relationship irrespective of their children's cross-sibling status.
Pseudosiblings (Pseudo Brothers/Pseudo Sisters): These types of siblings are someone that is not a sibling, but has a relationship like a sibling, or that one considers to be like a sibling. Pseudosiblings are often not related by blood (consanguinity) and are typically very close friends.
Related pages
 Family
 Father
 Mother
 Cousin
 Stepfather
 Stepmother
 Stepchild

References

Family
Basic English 850 words
In chemistry, a silicate is a chemical compound consisting of one or more central silicon atoms that are surrounded by electronegative anions.

The most common silicate species consist of silicon with oxygen as the anion. Silicate anions, with a negative net electrical charge, must have that charge balanced by other cations to make an electrically neutral compound.

Silicate rock
In geology and planetary science, the term silicate is used to denote types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals.