Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Latin word for "pound" is libra. The £ or ₤ is a stylised writing of the letter L, a short way of writing libra. This is similar to how a pound of mass is abbreviated "lb". Up until around the 1970s, especially on typewriters or keyboards without a "£" symbol, it was common to write "L" instead of "£".

The symbol for pennies is p. The British write 50p or £0.50 and say it "fifty pence" or simply "fifty pee"

The old system 
The pound has only been divided into 100 pence since 1971. Before this time it was divided into 20 shillings. Each shilling was divided into 12 pennies.

The symbols for shilling and penny came from Roman coins: "s" for shilling (from the Latin word solidus) and "d" for penny (from the Latin denarius). The penny was divided into 4 farthings. The farthing became obsolete (was no longer used) in 1961 because it was worth so little.
Coins just before the change in 1971 were: 1/2d (ha'penny), 1d (one penny), 3d (threepence; the coin was called a "thrup'ny bit"); 6d (sixpence); 1s (one shilling, also called one "bob"); 2s (a florin); 2s6d (half a crown; the crown, 5s (a quarter of a pound sterling), was not used in modern times).

How prices were written and pronounced in the old system:
 ½d (half a penny) was pronounced "haypenny" (spelt: ha'penny or halfpenny)
 2d (two old pennies) was always pronounced "tuppence"
 3d (three old pennies) was always pronounced "thrupence" or "thruppenny bit" for the 3d coin" (spelt threepence)
 One shilling was written "1/–" (sometimes called a "bob").
 Prices in shillings and pence were pronounced like this: 2/6 (or: 2s6d) "two and six" (or: "two shillings and sixpence").
 The price £4 6s 3¾d was pronounced: "four pounds six shillings and thruppence three-farthings"
There was also a guinea. Originally the guinea was a gold coin. Although the coin had not been minted or circulated for a long time, prices were still sometimes given in guineas. A guinea was 21s (or £1 1s 0d). A price of 58 guineas was, in fact, £60 18s 0d, which sounds more than "58 guineas".

Coins 
(Following the Great Recoinage of 1816)

Notes
(Following the Great Coinage of 1816)

Decimalisation 
In circulation before 1971 were the halfpenny, penny, threepence, sixpence, shilling, florin, crown, sovereign, ten shilling note, and the one, five, 10, 20 and 50 pound notes.

The crown and sovereign were legal currency before 1971. By then they were commemorative coins and not commonly found in circulation. They are both still legal currency at a value of 25 pence and £1 respectively.
In 1971, the pound sterling of the United Kingdom and the Irish Pound of Ireland were decimalised (divided into 100). Most coins were de-monetised. £1 was equal to 100 pence after then. One shilling became 5 pence, remaining  of £1. £1 stayed the same.

Decimal currency

Other websites 
 The banknotes of the United Kingdom

British currency
Pound (currency)
Vestfold is a former county in Norway. It bordered Buskerud and Telemark. The county administration was in the city of Tønsberg. Vestfold was west of the Oslo Fjord. The river Numedalslågen runs through the area. Many islands are at the coast. Vestfold is mostly lowland areas. It is among the best agricultural areas of Norway.

On 1 January 2020 the county merged with Telemark to the current county of Vestfold og Telemark.

Vestfold used to be a headquarters for whaling fleets. The economy of the coastal towns of Vestfold now is centered around fishing and shipbuilding. Some lumbering is done away from the coast. The district also has some of the best farmland in Norway.

Municipalities 

Vestfold County has a total of 14 municipalities:
Andebu
Hof
Holmestrand
Horten
Lardal
Larvik
Nøtterøy
Re
Sande
Sandefjord
Stokke
Svelvik
Tjøme
Tønsberg

Former counties of Norway
Vestfold og Telemark
Buskerud will (2024) become a county of Norway. (It was a county, before 2020.) Its main city was Drammen.

On 1 January 2020 the county merged with Akershus and Østfold to the current county of Viken.

Former counties of Norway
Viken (county)
Telemark is a former county in Norway. Skien is the main city in Telemark.

On 1 January, 2020 the county merged with Vestfold to the current county of Vestfold og Telemark.

Former counties of Norway
Vestfold og Telemark
Akershus is a former county in Norway. It was bordered by Hedmark, Oppland, Buskerud, Oslo and Østfold; the area has a short border with Sweden. Akershus was the second largest county in population after Oslo. It has more than half a million people living in it. The county was named after Akershus Fortress. The county administration was in Oslo, which was not part of the county.

On 1 January 2020 the county merged with Buskerud and Østfold to the current county of Viken.

Geography 

Most of the county is in the districts Follo and Romerike. There are also the two smaller districts of Asker and Bærum which are west of Oslo. This happened when the municipality of Aker (surrounding Oslo) was moved from Akershus county to Oslo in 1948.
Akershus includes some of the lake Mjøsa and some of the river Glomma. Because it includes many suburbs of Oslo, notably Bærum, Akershus has a large number of people living in a small area. The main national railway lines into Oslo run through Akershus with many stations such as Asker, Ullensaker, Ski and Lillestrøm.

The county includes the historical place Eidsvoll, 48 km north of Oslo. This is where the National assembly voted the Norwegian constitution in 1814. South of Eidsvoll is the international airport of Oslo Airport at Gardermoen. The home of the crown prince is in Asker.

Buildings 
The county has a major international airport, the Oslo Airport. It also has two university hospitals, Akershus University Hospital and Sunnaas Hospital.
History 
Akershus became a fief in the 16th century. At that time it included the current counties of Hedmark, Oppland, Buskerud and Oslo. It also included municipalities of Askim, Eidsberg and Trøgstad in the county of Østfold. In 1685 Buskerud was separated from Akershus. In 1768 Hedmark and Oppland were also separated from Akershus. In 1842 Christiania (Oslo) was made separate as well. In 1948 Aker was transferred to the county of Oslo.

Origin 
The county is named after Akershus Fortress. The fortress was built in 1299. Its name means "the (fortified) house of (the district) Aker".

Municipalities 

 Asker
 Aurskog-Høland
 Bærum
 Eidsvoll
 Enebakk
 Fet
 Frogn
 Gjerdrum
 Hurdal
 Lørenskog
 Nannestad
 Nes
 Nesodden
 Nittedal
 Oppegård
 Rælingen
 Skedsmo
 Ski
 Sørum
 Ullensaker
 Vestby
 Ås

Other websites 
 Akershus county website 

Former counties of Norway
Viken (county)
The West Highland White Terrier or Westie is originally a Scottish dog. 

The Westie was first used for hunting foxes and otters. The breed is well known for high stamina, courage and agility. Westies have a double white coat which protects them from attacks and cold weather. They have dark black eyes.

They are small dogs and are lively, playful and alert. They are loyal to their owner, but can be stubborn at times. They are known to kill small animals, such as moles, squirrels, chipmunks and birds. They like to be outdoors.

Terriers
FCI breeds
Dog breeds originating in Scotland
"Soldier" is an R&B/hip hop song written by Beyoncé Knowles, Kelly Rowland, Michelle Williams, Rich Harrison, Sean Garrett, T.I., and Lil Wayne for Destiny's Child's fourth studio album, Destiny Fulfilled (2004). It was produced by Knowles and Harrison and released as the album's second single in fall 2004. The song reached number 3 in Australia and the United States. It became the group's tenth and final consecutive top 10 hit in the US. It peaked in the top 10 in New Zealand, the UK, Denmark, Ireland, Israel, Finland, Italy, Greece and Switzerland. The song also was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration category. It won the Soul Train Lady of Soul Award for Best R&B/Soul Single by a Group, Band or Duo.
Credits and personnel 
 Lead vocals - Beyoncé Knowles, Kelly Rowland, Michelle Williams
 Vocal production - Beyoncé Knowles, Kelly Rowland
 Recorded by Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios, NYC
 Additional vocals recorded by Tom Tapley, Fabian Marasciullo
 Audio mixing - Dexter Simmons
 Additional pro tools editing - Rommel Nino Villanueva
 Mastered by Tom Coyn
Official versions
 "Soldier Part II" (feat Rohff)
 "Soldier" (Remix) (feat Stack Bundles, Lil' Wayne & T.I)
 "Soldier" (DJ Noodles Remix) (feat. T.I. & Trazz)
 "Soldier" (JS Nu Soul Remix)
 "Soldier" (Kardinal Beats Remix)
 "Soldier" (Maurice's Joshua Nu Anthem Remix)
 "Soldier" (Maurice's Joshua Soul Remix)
 "Soldier" (Maurice's Joshua Nu Beat Remix)
 "Soldier" (Danny Howell & Dick Trevor's Kinkyfunk Remix) (feat. T.I.)
 "Soldier" (Grizz Blackmarket Remix) (feat. T.I. & Lil' Wayne)
 "Soldier" (MGM Antiloop Confusion Mix)
 "Soldier" (Bizarre Remix)
 "Soldier" (Remix) (feat. B.G.)
 "Soldier" (Remix) (feat. Bizarre of D-12)
 "Soldier" (Gogh's In House Mix)
 "Soldier" (Soldja Boy Crank Mix) (performed by Beyoncé Live on her 2007 Tour)

2004 songs
Destiny's Child songs
Lil Wayne songs
In dermatology, an abrasion is a damage to the skin that affects only the surface, generally not deeper than the epidermis. But it can give mild bleeding. Mild abrasions, also known as 'grazes' do not scar, but deep abrasions may lead to the development of scarring tissue.

Abrasion injuries occur rather often when exposed skin comes into moving contact with a rough surface causing trauma to the upper layers of the epidermis.

Such injuries, where caused by abrasive contact with textiles or carpet, are sometimes referred to as 'rug burn' or 'carpet burn'.

Related pages
 Wound

Medical signs
Injuries
Abrasion may mean:

Abrasion (medical), damage to the skin, generally not deeper than the epidermis
Abrasion (dental), the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from a foreign element
Abrasion (geology) (corrsion), mechanical scraping of a rock surface by friction between rocks and moving particles during their transport in wind, glacier, waves, gravity or running water.
Abrasion (materials science), abrasive wear is the erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of another solid.
Abrasion (band), a heavy metal trio formed in Melbourne, Australia.
In materials science, wear is the erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of another solid. The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology.
There are four principal wear processes:

Adhesive wear
Abrasive wear
Corrosive wear
Surface fatigue

Explanation 

The definition of wear does not include loss of dimension from plastic deformation, although wear can happen without loss of material. Also this definition does not include impact wear where there is no sliding motion or cavitation  (also corrosion) where counterbody is  a fluid..
Wear, along with other aging processes such as fatigue, creep, and fracture toughness, causes progressive degradation of materials with time leading to failure of material at an advanced age. Under normal circumstances, the property changes during usage normally occur in three different stages as follows:-
•	Primary or early stage or run-in period, where rate of changes can be high. 
•	Secondary or mid-age process where a steady rate of aging process is                                                      maintained. The useful or working life is at this stage.
•	Tertiary or old-age stage, where rapid rate of aging leads to early failure.

With increasing severity of environmental conditions, such as, higher temperatures, strain rates, stress and sliding velocities, the secondary stage is shortened and the primary stage tends to merge with the tertiary stage, thus drastically reducing the working life. Surface engineering processes are used to minimize wear and extend working life of material.
Adhesive wear
Adhesive wear is also known as scoring, galling, or seizing. It happens when two solid surfaces slide over one another under pressure.

Abrasive wear
This happens when material is removed by contact with hard particles. The particles either may be present at the surface of a second material or may exist as loose particles between two surfaces. 
Abrasive wear can be measured as loss of mass by the Taber Abrasion Test according to ISO 9352 or ASTM D 1044.

Corrosive wear

Often referred to simply as “corrosion”, corrosive wear is deterioration of useful properties in a material due to reactions with its environment.

Surface fatigue

Surface fatigue is a how the surface of a material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is one type of general material fatigue.

References
References 

R.Chattopadhyay; Surface Wear- Analysis, Treatment, and Prevention, ASM-International, OH, USA, 2001, ..
R.Chattopadhyay, Advanced Thermally Assisted Surface Engineering Processes Kluwer Academic Publishers, MA, USA (now Springer, NY), 2004, , E-.

Materials science
Compacted oxide layer glaze describes the often shiny, wear-protective layer of oxide formed when two metals (or a metal and ceramic) are slid against each other at high temperature in an oxygen-containing atmosphere. The layer forms on either or both the surfaces in contact and can protect against wear.

References 
 I.A. Inman. 2003. Compacted oxide layer formation under conditions of limited debris retention at the wear interface during high temperature sliding wear of superalloys. Ph.D. dissertation, Northumbria University.  (preview)

Related pages 
 Wear (erosion)

Materials
Wear can mean:
 Wear (erosion), the erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of another material
 The River Wear, a river in northeast England
 WEAR-TV, an ABC affiliate, in Pensacola, Florida
 Wear is a lesser used synonym for jibe, generally referring to tall ships.
 To have on one's person, like an item of clothing.
 Wear (journal), a scientific journal
In medicine, a wound is a type of physical injury where in the skin is torn, cut or punctured (an open wound), or where blunt force trauma causes a bruise (a closed wound). In pathology, it specifically means a sharp injury which damages the dermis of the skin. A mortal wound is one that  leads directly to the death of the victim.

Healing 
To heal a wound, the body undertakes a series of actions collectively known as the wound healing process.

Related pages
Injury

References

Other websites 

WOUNDS, online open-access journal featuring articles about wound care and related research.
Ostomy Wound Management, online open-access journal featuring articles about wound care, ostomy care, incontinence care and nutrition
Journal of Burns and Wounds , online open-access journal featuring articles about wound care and related research

Medical emergencies
Injuries
Armando Anthony "Chick" Corea (June 12, 1941 – February 9, 2021) was a famous American jazz pianist/keyboardist and composer.

He was born in Chelsea, Massachusetts and learned to play drums and piano with his father.  His career began in 1962 and he moved to New York City where he went to music schools and played with famous jazz musisicans such as Stan Getz, Sarah Vaughan and Miles Davis.  In 1972 he started his own jazz band called Return to Forever, where he played electric piano.  In the 1980s he formed one band called the Acoustic Band and one called the Electric Band.  He also had small trios and bigger bands. One of his recents bands was called "Spanish Heart Band" and had 8 members.

All together he made around 80 records and won 23 Grammy Awards.  Some of his best known jazz compositions were called "Spain", "500 Miles High", "Fiesta", "Armando's Rhumba" and "Windows".

Corea died from cancer at his home in the Tampa Bay Area of Florida on February 9, 2021, at age 79.

References
References

American composers
American pianists
American jazz musicians
Grammy Award winners
Musicians from Massachusetts
1941 births
2021 deaths
Cancer deaths in Florida
Monthey is a district of the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It contains the following municipalities:

 Champéry
 Collombey-Muraz 
 Monthey
 Port-Valais 
 Saint-Gingolph 
 Troistorrents
 Val-d'Illiez 
 Vionnaz 
 Vouvry
Raron was a district in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It contains the following municipalities:

 Ausserberg
 Betten
 Bister 
 Bitsch 
 Blatten 
 Bürchen 
 Eischoll 
 Ferden 
 Filet
 Grengiols 
 Hohtenn 
 Kippel 
 Martisberg 
 Mörel 
 Niedergesteln 
 Raron 
 Riederalp 
 Steg 
 Unterbäch 
 Wiler

Former districts of Switzerland
Children that are homeless, and that have to look for themselves are called street children. They may have run away, or they may have no relatives who look after them.   

Looking at it more closely, there are two different concepts:  

 Children on the street: They spend most of the day on the street, because they have to work. They sleep at home.  
 Street children in the proper sense: The center of the lives of these children is on the street. They also sleep there (because they have nowhere else to go).   
According to the European Federation for Street Children, they are an extremely vulnerable group living in very difficult conditions. The human rights of many of these children are often violated: They are exposed to violence or sexual exploitation and abuse. They may be addicted to drugs.

Article 27 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) says that the state recognises the right of every child to a standard of living that is adequate for the development of the child.
“State parties recognize the right of every child to a standard of living adequate for the child's physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social 

development.” Homelessness denies each one of those rights. According to an Inter-NGO Program on street children and youth, a street child is “any girl or boy who has not reached adulthood, for whom the street (in the widest sense of the word, including unoccupied dwellings, wasteland, etc.) has become his or her habitual abode and/or source of livelihood, and who is inadequately protected, directed, and supervised by responsible adults.”
Children who have no home but the streets, and no family support. They move from place to place, living in shelters and abandoned buildings.
‘Child on the street': children who visit their families regularly and might even return every night to sleep at home, but spends most days and some nights on the street because of poverty, overcrowding, child sexual abuse or physical abuse at home.
Part of a street family: these children live on sidewalks or city squares with the rest of their families. They may be displaced due to poverty, wars, or natural disasters. The families often live a nomadic life, carrying their possessions with them. Children in this case often work on the streets with other members of their families.
In institutionalized care: children in this situation come from a situation of homelessness and are at risk of returning to a life on the street or facing at the child labour or child prostitution.

References

Street children
Saint-Maurice is a district in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It contains the following municipalities:

 Collonges 
 Dorénaz
 Evionnaz
 Finhaut
 Massongex
 Mex
 Salvan
 Saint-Maurice 
 Vernayaz
 Vérossaz
Sierre is a district of the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It contains the following municipalities:

 Ayer
 Chalais 
 Chandolin 
 Chermignon 
 Chippis 
 Grimentz 
 Grône 
 Icogne 
 Lens 
 Miège 
 Mollens 
 Montana-Vermala
 Randogne 
 Sierre 
 Saint-Jean 
 Saint-Léonard 
 Saint-Luc
 Venthône 
 Veyras 
 Vissoie
Sion is a district of the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It contains the following municipalities:

 Arbaz 
 Grimisuat 
 Salins
 Savièse 
 Sion 
 Veysonnaz
Steckborn is a former district of the canton of Thurgau. The capital city was Steckborn.

It contains the following municipalities:

Former districts of Thurgau
Frauenfeld is a district of the canton of Thurgau. The capital city, and the capital of Thurgau, is the city of Frauenfeld.

These municipalities are in the district:

Frauenfeld District
The American badger (Taxidea taxus) is an animal usually found in the Great Plains area of North America. 

It looks similar to the European badger, but it is  not closely related to them. It is found in the western, central, and eastern United States, northern Mexico, and south-central Canada.

The American badger's habitat lives in open grasslands eating prey (such as mice, squirrels, and groundhogs). The badger likes areas such as prairies  with sandy loam soils where it can dig easily for its prey. They are found in many places from high alpine meadows to sea level.

American badgers are excellent diggers, and can tunnel rapidly through the soil using their powerful forelimbs.

Badgers are carnivorous.  Unlike many carnivores that stalk their prey in open country, badgers catch most of their food by digging. They can tunnel after ground-dwelling rodents with amazing speed.

References 

Mustelids
Mammals of North America
Kreuzlingen is a district of the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. The capital city is Kreuzlingen.

It contains the following municipalities:

Kreuzlingen District
Weinfelden is one of the eight districts of the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. The capital city is Weinfelden.

It contains the following municipalities:

Weinfelden District
Bischofszell is a former district of the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. The capital city was Bischofszell.

It contains the following municipalities:

Former districts of Thurgau
Diessenhofen  is a former district of the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. The capital city was Diessenhofen.

It contains the following municipalities:

Former districts of Thurgau
Münchwilen is one of the eight districts of the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. The capital city is Münchwilen.

It contains the following municipalities:

Münchwilen District
Arbon is a district of the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. The capital city is Arbon.

It contains the following municipalities:

Arbon District
Steckborn is a municipality in Frauenfeld in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. It was the capital city of Steckborn.

Steckborn is near Lake Constance. In 2005, 3,398 people lived there.

History 
People already lived in the area around Steckborn in the 100s. There are also Roman ruins of walls and other buildings. Probably in the 800s, the village became part of the territory of the monastery of Reichenau. This is the period when it is first written about.

Trivia 
Karl Friedrich Gegauf, entrepreneur
Fritz Gegauf, inventor of the sewing machine and founder of Bernina

References

Other websites 

www.steckborn.ch 
BERNINA International site

Municipalities in Frauenfeld
Cities in Switzerland
Frauenfeld is the capital city of the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. It is also the capital city of the district of Frauenfeld.

History

Early history 
The city is first written about in 1246. It grew up around the Frauenfeld castle on the land of the Reichenau convent.

In 1264, it became the property of the Habsburgs. In 1374, the Habsburgs bestowed the right of judgment for all of Thurgau (which then included St. Gallen) on the Duke of Frauenfeld.

Twice in the 1700s, Frauenfeld was partly destroyed by fire, in 1771 and in 1788.

The fall of the old Old Swiss Confederacy in 1798 as a result of the French invasion brought an end to the gatherings in Frauenfeld.

Modern history 
In 1919, the municipalities of Langdorf, Kurzdorf, Huben, Herten, and Horgenbach became part of Frauenfeld. In 1998, Gerlikon, Schönenhof, and Zelgli joined Frauenfeld.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Official website

Municipalities in Frauenfeld
Capital cities in Switzerland
Benito Jerónimo Feijoo y Montenegro (8 October 1676 - 26 September 1764) was a Galician neoclassical monk and scholar noted for encouraging scientific thought in Galicia and Spain.

He was born in Casdemiro, and joined the Benedictines at the age of 12, and had taken classes in Galicia, León, and Salamanca. He later taught theology and philosophy at the university of Oviedo, and died at Oviedo. Padre Feijoo studied in Salamanca, Spain, at the University of Oviedo, earning a professorship in theology.  Feijoo was a prominent essayist for the Spanish, and his critiques, letters, and plays helped change the steadfast beliefs of many during the 18th century.

His two famous multi-volume collection of essays, Teatro critico universal (1726-1739) and Cartas eruditas y curiosas cover a range of subjects, from education, law, and medicine, to superstitions and popular beliefs.
Father Feijoo was a debunker of myths. He had great interest in natural science and many of his essays touch on topics related to this subject and to the many myths about creatures and lands that abounded at that time. One example of how far his naturalistic bent went can be found in a story told by Julio A. Feijoo, one of his descendents, born in Cuba in 1910. Father Feijoo believed that demonic possession was a psychological phenomenon. Once he was called upon to perform an exorcism, and in order to demonstrate that this phenomenon was more due to suggestibility than anything else, in performing a spurious exorcism on the "possessed" subject, he read from Bocaccio's famous bawdy work the Decameron. Upon hearing the Latin lines, the "possessed" individual settled down and declared himself to be free of demonic influence.

1676 births
1764 deaths
Galician people
Christian monks
Spanish writers
Benedictines
Kreuzlingen is a municipality in the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. 

It is the second largest city of the canton, after Frauenfeld with a population of over 18,000.

In 1874, the municipality of Egelshofen was renamed Kreuzlingen. It reached the present size with the adding of Kurzrickenbach in 1927 and Emmishofen in 1928.

Geography
It is located on Lake Constance.

It is halfway between Schaffhausen and Rorschach.

History

The name of the municipality stems from the Augustinian monastery Crucelin, which was later renamed Kreuzlingen Abbey. It was built in 1125 by the Bishop of Constance, Ulrich I. In the Swabian War and the 30 Years' War after the siege of Constance by Swedish troops, Kreuzlingen Abbey was burned down by the people of Constance. The crime was blamed on the monks for having supported the enemy. In 1650, the monastery was rebuilt in its present location. Because of secularization in 1848, the buildings became a school. The chapel became a Catholic church
People already lived in the Kreuzlingen area during the Bronze Age. Celtic and Roman coins and artifacts show that people continued to be settled in the area pre-writing. Kurzrickenbach is first mentioned as Rihinbah in 830, Egelshofen is mentioned as Eigolteshoven in 1125, and Emmishofen is mentioned as Eminshoven in 1159. The territory of the municipality, except for the Augustinian monastery, belonged to the Bishop of Constance. 

Until the beginning of the 19th century, the current centre of Kreuzlingen was still largely agricultural. The first steamboats began to operate on Lake Constance in 1824. The first train line to Romanshorn was finished in 1871, and the second to Etzwilen in 1875. This brought commerce and industry to the area. In 1874, Kreuzlingen became the capital of the district, instead of the previous capital, Gottlieben. However, until World War I, Kreuzlingen was a kind of suburb of Constance. Most of its profits went to German firms. The war made Kreuzlingen more independent.
w:The Sanatorium of Bellevue (1857-1980), which occupied part of the old monastery, played an important role in the history of Kreuzlingen. In 1842, a man called Ignaz Vanotti from Constance bought a large area of land and constructed a building to house the emigrant press of Bellevue in 1843, which had been in Römerburg before. In 1857, Ludwig Binswanger, a psychiatrist from Münsterlingen bought the property and opened a private sanatorium. The clinic was very modern and stayed in the control of the Binswanger family for nearly 120 years. Important psychiatric discoveries, particularly under the founder's grandson's control, especially in the development of existential psychotherapy, were made at the sanatorium. However, few of its buildings remain.

Economy
Earlier, most of the people in Kreuzlingen made a living in the wine industry. However, because of diseases and bad harvests, the last wine grapes were raised in Kreuzlingen in 1938.
Today, the local economy is mostly shopping and handcraft, with the largest employer being a clothing maker.

References

Other websites

http://www.kreuzlingen.ch

Cities in Switzerland
Municipalities in Kreuzlingen
Weinfelden is a municipality in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.  It is the capital of the district of the same name.

In December 2004 it had about 9500 people.  Since it is in the middle of the canton, part of the canton's government is in the town. The Thurgau cantonal bank is also there. The grand council of the canton meets in Weinfelden during the winter.

History

Early history 
Already in the year 124 AD, there was a Roman bridge over the Thur at Weinfelden. The name Weinfelden is first documented in 838.

Weinfelden was by far the biggest town in the canton of Thurgau. In 1798, Paul Reinhart and his committee led the area to freedom from the domination of the Eidgenossen. In 1803, Thurgau became an independent canton, through the mediation of Napoleon, with Frauenfeld as capital.

Modern history 
In 1830, Thomas Bornhauser spoke to a large crowd in Weinfelden, demanding a liberal constitution for the canton. It is one of the first (if not the first) such document.
Portraits of both Paul Reinhart and Thomas Bornhauser hang in the Rathaus.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities in Weinfelden
Cities in Switzerland
Bernardino de Sahagún (1499 – October 23 1590), was a Franciscan missionary to the Aztec (Nahua) people of Mexico, best known as the compiler of the Florentine Codex, also known as  (General History of the Things of New Spain).

1499 births
1590 deaths

Spanish writers
Christian missionaries
Franciscans
A bruise, also called a contusion or an ecchymosis, is a visible bluish or purplish mark or patch appearing beneath the surface of the skin, resulting from blood that leaked out of the deeper layers of the tissues. Bruises are usually caused by a blow or pressure. In older people, bruises may also occur without a special reason.

Bruises often cause pain but are normally not dangerous. Sometimes bruises can be serious and lead to other more life-threatening forms of hematoma, or they can be associated with serious injuries such as fractures and internal bleeding.  Minor bruises may be easily recognized, in people with light skin color, by their characteristic blue or purple appearance (idiomatically described as "black and blue") in the days following the injury.

How long do bruises last?
Bruises change color over time. That is because the body is fixing the bruise by breaking down and reabsorbing the blood, which makes the bruise to go through many colors before it later disappears. The age of a bruise can be guessed by looking at its color.

 At the start, it is red because of the blood that is appearing just under the skin.
 Within  the first five days  the hemoglobin inside the blood changes and the bruise turns into the color of a bluish-purple or even black.
 Between five and ten days, the bruise usually becomes slightly green or yellow.
 Then, after 10 or 14 days, it finally becomes a yellowish-brown or light brown.

Usually, a bruise takes about two weeks to  fade away. Some people bruise easily, but others do not. This is because they may have more tough skin tissue, certain diseases or conditions, or they take certain kinds of  medication.

Also, blood vessels tend to become fragile as people get older, which is why elderly people receive a bruise much more easily.
Speeding the healing process 

Applying cold when the bruise is discovered helps make it smaller, because it stops the blood that's flowing to the area. It also keeps the swelling down. It is best to apply ice to the bruise for half an hour to an hour at a time for a day or two after the bruise first appears. However, it is not advisable to place ice right on the skin. Putting some icecubes in a plastic bag and wrapping a towel around the bag is a better idea to stop the bruise from getting worse.

Another way to help heal the bruise is to put the bruised area above the level of the heart. This helps to slow the flow of the blood because more of the blood in the bruise will flow back toward the rest of the body instead of leaking out into the tissues. If this is not done, more blood will flow into the bruise and make it grow.
If the bruise causes pain, painkillers, such as NSAIDs may be used against the pain. Certain creams exist to help with bruises. These creams usually combine a substance that helps skin growth with one that acts against the pain. Gently massaging the area of the bruise may also help recovery, and stop the pain, according to the gate theory of pain. If the massage is painful, it will not help the healing process. As for most injuries, these techniques should not be applied until at least three days after the initial damage to ensure all internal bleeding has stopped. Increasing blood flow will allow more healing factors into the area and encourage drainage, but if the injury is still bleeding this will also allow more blood to seep out of the wound and cause the bruise to become worse. In most cases, hematomas spontaneously revert. In cases of large hematomas or those localized in certain organs (''e.g.'', the brain), a physician may perform a puncture of the hematoma to allow the blood to exit.
Bruises as a sign of other conditions
Bruises that do not result from the application of force (blunt trauma) may be a symptom for other conditions: People with such bruises often have a problem with their blood. Platelet or coagulation disorders often lead to the increased bruising.  Unexplained bruising may be a warning sign of child abuse, domestic abuse, or serious medical problems such as leukemia or meningoccocal infection. Unexplained bruising can also indicate internal bleeding or certain types of cancer.

During an autopsy, bruises accompanying abrasions indicate the abrasions occurred while the person was alive, as opposed to damage that occurred after death

References

Other websites 
   - Home Remedies For Bruise
 Firstaidweb on bruises 
 What is a bruise? for kids
 Bruises in sports
 Fake bruises as fashion 

Medical signs
Leopoldo Alas y Ureña (25 April 1851 – 13 May 1901), also known as Clarín, was a Spanish realist writer born in Zamora. He died in Oviedo on 13 May 1901.

Clarin lived in León and Guadalajara in his childhood, then he moved to Oviedo in 1865. There he studied Bachillerato (high school) and he started his law career. He lived in Madrid from 1871 to 1878, where he started his career as a journalist and he graduated with the thesis El Derecho y la Moralidad (Law and Morality). He taught in Zaragoza from 1882 to 1883. In 1883 he returned to Oviedo to take up a position as teacher of Roman law.

He wrote books including La Regenta. It is a long work, similar to Flaubert's Madame Bovary, one of the books that helped to inspire it. Other influences included Naturalism and Kraussism, a philosophical trend which made cultural and moral change in Spain.  He also wrote Nuevo viaje al Parnaso and La Literatura en 1881 (1882), working with Armando Palacio Valdes.
La Regenta is special for its great number of characters and other stories around the main story of the novel. The main character is shown in a way that is not very clear. On the other hand, the downfall of the provincial lady has place amidst two very different men who want to marry her: the most handsome man in the city, who is the winner in the end, and the cathedral's priest. The way the priest is shown is a very important part of the book.

For the description of the provincial setting and the city's collective life, Clarín used styles such as the internal monologue or the free indirect style, which makes the story be told by the characters, not the narrator.

In 1890, he published a new novel, Su único hijo. Most critics do not think it is as good as La Regenta. Su único hijo was originally meant to be the first of a series of three books, but these were not written. The only parts of them that exist are an outline and a few fragments of two of the novels. Su único hijo was Clarín's last long book.
Clarín also wrote some stories and some journalistic articles.

Clarin remains a rather unknown figure in the Spanish literary world. He searched for God and was Humanist at the same time. This strange mix has led to there being different views on the meaning of his writings. La Regenta in particular has many different views on what it could mean.

Works
La Regenta (The Regent's Wife) (1884–85) [Novel]
Su único hijo (His Only Son) (1890) [Novel]
Doña Berta (1892)
¡Adiós, Cordera! (1892)
Cuentos morales (Moral Stories) (1896)
El gallo de Sócrates (Socrates' Rooster) (1900)

Essays
 Solos de Clarín (1881)
 La literatura en 1881 (1882)
 Sermón perdido (1885)
 Nueva campaña (1887)
 Ensayos y revistas (1892)
 Palique (1894)

1851 births
1901 deaths
Spanish writers
Pasiphaë is one of Jupiter's moons. It was found in 1908 by Philibert Jacques Melotte and was named after Pasiphaë from Greek mythology, the wife of Minos and mother of Minotaur.

References

Jupiter's moons
Anthe is a very small moon of Saturn between the orbits of Mimas and Enceladus. It is also known as Saturn XLIX and its designation was S/2007 S 4. It is named after one of the Alkyonides; the name means flowery.

It was found by the Cassini Imaging Team in images taken on May 30, 2007. Once the find was made, a search of older Cassini images showed this small moon in observations from as far back as June 2004. It was first announced on July 18, 2007.

Saturn's moons
Kiviuq is a non-spherical moon of Saturn. It was found by Brett J. Gladman in 2000, and given the designation S/2000 S 5.

It was named in 2003 after a "giant" of Inuit mythology. Kiviuq (also spelled Keeveeok, Qiviuq or Kivioq) is a legendary and heroic Inuk, a sort of Inuit Odysseus. He has lived very long (or has had several lives), has wandered and journeyed, living all sorts of adventures whose details depend on the story-teller's local tradition.

Kiviuq is about 16 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 11.1 million kilometers in 450 days. It is a member of the Inuit group of non-spherical moons.

Kiviuq displays light-red colours and the infrared spectrum very similar to Siarnaq and Paaliaq, further supporting the thesis of a possible common origin of the Inuit group in the break-up of a bigger body.

Other websites
David Jewitt pages

Saturn's moons
Manchukuo was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in China and Inner Mongolia from 1932 until 1945. It was first a republic, but in 1934 it became a constitutional monarchy. It had little international recognition and was under the de facto control of Japan. Japan also took Inner Mongolia in 1936 and renamed it Mengjiang in 1936.

Manchuria was the place of the Manchus, including the kings of the Qing dynasty. In 1931, Japan occupied Manchuria after the Mukden Incident.  A pro-Japanese government was created one year later with Puyi, the last Qing emperor, as the nominal regent and later emperor. Manchukuo's government was removed in 1945 at the end of World War II. The Soviet Union invaded in August 1945, and formally transferred the territory to Chinese administration in the following year.
Although the territories came under the jurisdiction of the Nationalist government, the brief Soviet occupation helped make the region a base for the Chinese Communist troops led by Mao Zedong. The People's Liberation Army got Japanese equipment and a strategic advantage against the National Revolutionary Army led by Chiang Kai-shek.

Manchus were a minority in Manchukuo: the largest ethnic group were Han Chinese. The number of Koreans increased during the Manchukuo period, and there were also Japanese, Mongols, White Army Russians and other minorities. The southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula was ruled by Japan as the Kwantung Leased Territory. 

Manchukuo had a Japanese death camp called Unit 731 where up to half a million died from medical experiments and other causes. This is similar to the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz in Nazi-occupied Poland.
In August 1945 Stalin invaded Manchukuo as well as Mengjiang and North Korea. America got South Korea, so the two large countries split Korea in half. Stalin controlled Manchuria until 1946. In the same year, 1946, Stalin helped Mao Zedong in the Second Chinese Civil War (19461949).

Names of Machukuo 
Manchukuo means Manchuria in Japanese 満州国 ; manchukoku . The Mongolians called it (Mongolian : Манеж-Го : Manjugo) the Russians called it (Russian : Маньчжоу-Го : Man’chzhou-Go) the Chinese called it (Chinese : 满洲国 : manzhouguo) the Koreans called it (Korean : 만주국 : Manjugug).

References 

Former countries in Asia
20th century in Japan
20th century in China
1932 establishments in Asia
1945 disestablishments in Asia
20th century in Mongolia
Puppet states
Former dictatorships
Ijiraq is a non-spherical moon of Saturn. It was found by the team of
Brett Gladman, John J. Kavelaars, et al. in 2000, and given the designation .

Orbit 

Ijiraq orbits Saturn at an average distance of 11,100,000 km in 451 days on an orbit very similar to Kiviuq's. The diagram illustrates its orbit in relation to other non-spherical moons of Saturn. The eccentricity of the orbits is represented by the yellow segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre.

Physical characteristics 
While Ijiraq is a member of the Inuit group non-spherical moons, recent observations revealed that Ijiraq is redder than Paaliaq, Siarnaq and Kiviuq.
Name 
Kavelaars, an astronomer at McMaster University, suggested this name to help astronomical nomenclature to get out of its Greco-Romano-Renaissance rut. He spent several months trying to find names that were both multi-cultural and Canadian, consulting Amerindian scholars without finding a name that seemed good. In March 2001, he was reading an Inuit story to his children and had a revelation. The ijiraq plays at hide-and-seek, which is what these small moons of Saturn do: they are hard to find, and cold like the Canadian Arctic (the team of discoverers includes Canadians, Norwegians and Icelandic's—Nordicity is their common trait). Kavelaars contacted the author of the tale, Michael Kusugak, to get his assent, and the latter also suggested the names for Kiviuq and 90377 Sedna.

Other websites 
 David Jewitt pages

Saturn's moons
Denial of the Armenian Genocide is the belief that the Armenian Genocide did not happen or that what happened was not genocide.

From 1915-1923, the Ottoman Empire (which later became the Republic of Turkey), tried to remove many Armenian people from the Empire. Between 800,000 and 1,800,000 Armenians were killed. Also many Armenians had to leave their homes (this is called relocation or displacement).

People who deny the Armenian Genocide say that these things never happened or that it was not that serious. They also say that the Ottoman government never centrally organised genocide against the Armenian people.  For example, the Republic of Turkey, and Azerbaijan do not believe at all that the Ottoman government tried to remove and kill the Armenian people in the Empire.
Origins of Armenian Genocide Denial in Turkey 
The Armenian Genocide happened in 1915-1916, but since 1789, Turkey has denied many acts of violence towards the Armenian people. Fatma Gocek, who studies the Armenian genocide, believes that because Turkey has denied violence towards Armenians since 1789, Turkey was more likely to deny the Armenian genocide.

Since the Armenian Genocide happened, the main claim of denial used by the Ottoman Empire (later the republic of Turkey) has remained the same.The Ottoman Empire believes that the genocide never happened, that Turkey is not responsible for the genocide and that “Genocide” is too strong of a word to use to describe what happened.
The leaders of the Ottoman Empire thought they could not say the Armenian Genocide was real. This was because most of the countries the Ottoman Empire was allied with had mainly Christian people. Armenians were also Christian, and if the Ottoman Empire’s allies found out the Ottoman Empire used violence against other Christians, the allies would have been upset. The leaders of the Ottoman Empire instead tried to say Armenians were a national security (making sure a country is safe) threat as the reason why the deportations happened.

During the time the genocide was happening, Enver Pasha, told Ambassador Morgenthau (the American Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire) that Armenians were separatists (wanting to create their own country on Ottoman Land), traitors (people who betray their country) and violent towards Ottoman soldiers and that was why the Ottoman government had to displace them. This was untrue, Armenians were only violent after the genocide had started.
After World War 1, Talat Pasha (another leader of the Armenian Genocide and the Ottoman Empire), followed Enver’s strategy to minimize the Armenian Genocide. 

 Talat Pasha said “Every government has the right to defend itself against those who stage armed revolts.”.
 He meant that any country has the right to defend itself against people who participate in violence with the goal of changing the government.

The Armenians did not participate in violence against the government until after the genocide had started. The violence the Armenians participated in was for their self-defense.

After World War 1, the Ottoman Empire tried to prove they were not responsible for the genocide by trying to place the blame on other groups. The Ottoman Empire blamed corrupt officials, Kurds, and criminals for the events of the genocide.
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk was the founder of Turkey, and still holds a very important role in how Turkish people see themselves. Ataturk originally supported justice for people responsible for the genocide. He said the genocide was 

 “[A] Shameful [act]” 
 and said
 “What were the Allied powers waiting for before hanging these scoundrels”
 Ataturk meant that the Allied powers of World War 1 should have sentenced the people responsible for the genocide to death. 

In 1920 the Treaty of Sevres was signed. This would have resulted in a loss of land and loss of sovereignty (the ability for a country to govern itself independently) for Turkey. In 1921 Greece invaded Turkey. In two ways Turkey’s territory and sovereignty were threatened. Because of this, Ataturk changed his opinion on the Armenian Genocide so he could bring Turks together. Ataturk denied the Armenian Genocide to promote nationalism and unity against the two major threats (The Treaty of Sevres and the Greek invasion).
Later, Turkey began a campaign claiming that people who survived the genocide were lying. Turkey also said that foreigners who said the Armenian Genocide happened were part of a group conspiring against Turkey (trying to cause harm to Turkey). Also, Turkey said any documents proving the Armenian Genocide happened were fake.

Armenian Genocide Denialism in Turkey Today 
Today, denial of the Armenian Genocide is a large part of Turkish nationalism and how Turks define themselves. If a Turk agreed that the Armenian Genocide was real, this would go against how Turks see their country. This would cause problems with self and national-identity.
Study of Armenian Genocide Denial 
In 1990, psychologist Robert Jay Lifton got a letter from the Turkish Ambassador to the United States. In the letter, the Ambassador asked Lifton how he could have talked about the Armenian Genocide in one of his books (because the Ambassador believed the Genocide never happened).  By mistake, the Ambassador also included a draft of a letter written by scholar Heath Lowry, which told him how to keep the Armenian Genocide from being talked about in books.  Lowry was later named to a chair (an important position) at Princeton University.  Princeton had been given a $750,000 grant from the Republic of Turkey.  This led to many arguments about ethics in scholarship.