Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Bibliography

Theory and philosophy
Frank Ankersmit (ed), A New Philosophy of History, 1995, 
Michael Bentley, Modern Historiography: An Introduction, 1999 
Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft [1940?]
Peter Burke, History and Social Theory, Polity Press, Oxford, 1992
E. H. Carr, What is History? 1961, 
R.G. Collingwood, The Idea of History, 1936, 
Geoffrey Elton, The Practice of History, 1969, 
Richard J. Evans In Defence of History, 1997, 
David Hackett Fischer, Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought, Harper & Row, 1970.
Keith Jenkins, Rethinking History, 1991, 
 Keith Jenkins, ed. The Postmodern History Reader (2006)
Arthur Marwick, The Nature of History, 1970, 
 Alun Munslow. The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies (2000)
John Tosh, The Pursuit of History, 2002, 
 W.H. Walsh, An Introduction to Philosophy of History, 1951.
Hayden White, The Content of Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation, 1987,
Histories of historical writing
 Geoffrey Barraclough, History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences, (1978)
Michael Bentley (ed.), Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997,  990pp; 39 chapters by experts
Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 2nd edition, 1994, 
H. Floris Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry, Chicago, 1994, 
Mark T. Gilderhus, History an Historiographical Introduction, 2002, 
Georg G. Iggers, Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (2005)
Susan Kinnell, Historiography: An Annotated Bibliography of Journal Article, Books and Dissertations, 1987, 
 Lloyd Kramer and Sarah Maza, eds. A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006. 520pp; .
Arnaldo Momigliano, The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography, 1990, 
Philippe Poirrier, Aborder l'histoire, Paris, Seuil, 2000.
Philippe Poirrier,Les enjeux de l'histoire culturelle, Paris, Seuil, 2004.
Feminist historiography
Mary Ritter Beard, Woman as force in history: A study in traditions and realities
Gerda Lerner,  The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History, New York: Oxford University Press 1979
 Bonnie G. Smith, The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice, Harvard UP 2000
Mary Spongberg, Writing women's history since the Renaissance, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002
Judith M. Bennett, History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006
Thematic and regional
John Ernest. Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 1794-1861. University of North Carolina Press, 2004
 Frank Farrell. Themes in Australian History: Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography (1990)
Marc Ferro, Cinema and History, Wayne State University Press, 1988
 R. Darcy and Richard C. Rohrs, A Guide to Quantitative History (1995)
 Hudson, Pat. History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches (2002)
James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, Touchstone Books 1996
Tessa Morris-Suzuki, The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History, 2005, 
 Gary Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross Dunn. History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past, (2000)
Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (1988), 
 Thomas Söderqvist. The Historiography of Contemporary Science and Technology (1997)
Sommer, Barbara W. The Oral History Manual (2003)
Jan Vansina, "Oral Tradition as History," University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1985
Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim. Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory (1982)
Journals
Cromohs — cyber review of modern historiography 
History and Theory
History of Historiography

Related pages
 List of historians

References

Other websites
Series of accessible, interactive online lectures
BBC Historiography Guide 
Summary of key historiographical schools 
Philosophy of History  introduced at The Galilean Library
Scientific Historiography , explained in an interview with Aviezer Tucker at the Galilean Library
International Commission for the History and Theory of Historiography
The historical method are the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.

Guidelines 

Following Garraghan (in: A Guide to Historical Method, 168) puts six questions that should be answered as minimal standard for a sound historical method:

 When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?
 Where was it produced (localization)?
 By whom was it produced (authorship)?
 From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?
In what original form was it produced (integrity)?
 What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?

References
References 

Gilbert J. Garraghan, A Guide to Historical Method, Fordham University Press: New York (1946).   .
Louis Gottschalk, Understanding History: A Primer of Historical Method, Alfred A. Knopf: New York (1950). .
Martha Howell and Walter Prevenier, From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods, Cornell University Press: Ithaca (2001). .
C. Behan McCullagh, Justifying Historical Descriptions, Cambridge University Press: New York (1984). .
R. J. Shafer, A Guide to Historical Method, The Dorsey Press: Illinois (1974). .

Related pages
Historiography
Historical linguistics
Scientific method

Other websites 
Historical Sources Online by Marc Comtois
Philosophy of History  by Paul Newall
The Historian's Sources, online lesson by the Library of Congress
Federal Rules of Evidence in United States law
A primary source is an original document or other material that has not been changed in any way. It is a reliable first-hand account usually written at or near the time the event(s) occurred. Usually it was produced by someone with direct personal knowledge of the events that are described. It is used as an original source of information about the topic. Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources. Secondary sources are documents based on primary sources. Thus, a memoir of a participant in an event is a primary source, whilst a history of that event based on several memoirs is a secondary source. Different kinds of work have slightly different definitions of a primary source. In journalism, for example, a primary source can also be a person.

Related pages 

Historiography
Secondary source
Tertiary source

References
References

Bibliography 
 Jules R. Benjamin. A Student's Guide to History (2003)
 Kathleen W. Craver. Using Internet Primary Sources to Teach Critical Thinking Skills in History (1999)
  Thomas Cripps, "Historical Truth: An Interview with Ken Burns", American Historical Review 100 (1995), 741-64. online at JSTOR
  Michael Drake and Ruth Finnegan (Eds), Sources and Methods for Family and Community Historians: A Handbook, (Cambridge University Press in conjunction with the Open University, 1997)
 Wood Gray, Historian's handbook, a key to the study and writing of history (Houghton Mifflin, 1964).
 Martha C. Howell and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods (2001)
 Library of Congress, " Analysis of Primary Sources" online 2007
 Richard A. Marius and Melvin E. Page. A Short Guide to Writing About History (5th Edition) (2004)
 Barbara W. Sommer and Mary Kay Quinlan, The Oral History Manual (2002)
Other websites
- to primary sources repositories
A listing of over 5000 websites describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources
 Find primary sources  in the collections of major research libraries using ArchiveGrid

- to all sources repositories
Wikisource – The Free Library – is the Wikimedia project that collects, edits, and catalogs all source texts.
- to essays and descriptions of primary, secondary and other sources
Ithaca College Library - Primary and secondary sources
"How to distinguish between primary and secondary sources" from the University of California, Santa Cruz Library
"Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary sources"  from James Cook University Library
 Joan of Arc: Primary Sources Series -- Example of a publication focusing on primary source documents.
 Finding primary sources from the University of California, Berkeley library
 "Primary versus secondary sources"  from the Bowling Green State University library
 Finding primary sources in world history

Science
Source could mean:

Research 
Source text, in research (especially in the humanities), a source of information referred to by citation
Primary source, firsthand written evidence of history made at the time of the event by someone who was present
Secondary source, written accounts of history based upon the evidence from primary sources
Tertiary source, compilations based upon primary and secondary source.

Organizations 
Source (UNSW), a community service provider that used to operate at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia
The Source by Circuit City, a Canadian electronics store
Technology 
Source, in hydrology, is the origin of water for a river or stream 
Source code for software, see also free software or open-source software
The Source (service), an online service provider founded in 1978 
A terminal in a field effect transistor
Light source, an object emitting light
Sound source, an object emitting sound
Energy sources, are substances or processes with high concentrations of energy
Voltage source, any device or system that produces an electromotive force between its terminals
Current source, an electrical or electronic device that delivers or absorbs electric current
Source engine, a proprietary game engine developed by Valve Software for Half-Life 2
Counter-Strike: Source, a game utilizing the Source engine
Day of Defeat: Source, a game utilizing the Source engine
A SCSI endpoint
Communication source
Music 
The Source, a series of volumes by Graham Kendrick that are compilations of Christian church music
The Source (album), an album by Grandmaster Flash & the Furious Five
The Source, an album by Ali Farka Touré
The Source (musician), the production identity of UK electronic music record producer John Truelove
"The Source", a song by Built to Spill from their 1994 album There's Nothing Wrong with Love
Source, an album released by the band The Duskfall in 2003.

Film and television 
The Source (documentary), a 1999 documentary movie about the Beat generation
The Source (film), a 2002 science fiction movie, also known as The Secret Craft in the UK and The Surge for its American DVD release
The Source, the overarching entity in the machine city of the Matrix universe
The Source (Charmed), a fictional evil being in the television series Charmed
The Source, a character in the short-lived 1978 US television sitcom Quark
Highlander: The Source, the fifth film in the Highlander franchise
Print 
The Source (novel), a 1967 novel by James A. Michener
The Source (magazine), a magazine of hip-hop music and culture
Source (comics), a sentient entity who provides advice to the New Gods in the DC Multiverse
The Source, a book by Art Bell about paranormal matters

Media 
Journalism sourcing, a person, publication or other record or document that gives information
The Source (network), a radio network operated in the 1970s and 1980s by NBC
WVUR-FM, "The Source", Valparaiso University's student-run radio station

Other 
Source theory, any process that generates successive messages can be considered a source of information
Sources of law, the materials and processes out of which law is developed
Sources of international law, the materials and processes out of which the rules and principles regulating the international community are developed
Source (river or stream), the original point from which the river flows
Believers of the Source, a disbanded Faction of the Planescape universe
A secondary source is a document or recording that writes or speaks about information that is one step removed from the original source. 

The secondary source depends on the  primary source or original source of the information. Secondary sources interpret, evaluate or discuss information found in primary sources. In historiography, a secondary source is a study written by a scholar about a topic. Secondary sources frequently cite primary sources and other secondary sources. They rarely cite tertiary sources.

Example 
A secondary source would be a book on 13th century politics, while the Magna Carta itself would be a primary source.
Many secondary sources use extensive citations in the form of footnotes or endnotes.

Legal use 
The main use of secondary sources in law is to explain the law. They also explain legal concepts. They are used to analyze and describe laws as well as comment on them. Judicial decisions and opinions by qualified experts are secondary sources.
Related pages
Source text
Primary source
Tertiary source

References

Further reading
Primary and secondary sources

Science
Breinigerberg is a small village in the West of Germany, the state of North Rhine-Westphalia About 972 people live at the place. It is close to the Naturpark Nordeifel, a large forest area in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands.

The road L12 passes through Breinigerberg splitting it into two parts. 

In the last two centuries, Breinigerberg was famous for mining. Even the ancient Romans dug for ore in the area. It was used for the production of brass in the city of Stolberg. Today there is no more mining but the remains are still present. Big holes in the Schlangenberg area prove what had been left from the past. Today the Schlangenberg is a natural reserve protecting rare flowers and insects.

Other websites 
 Webside of Breinig and Breinigerberg

Villages in North Rhine-Westphalia
A document (noun) is a piece of information that is used to communicate something. In most of the cases it is a paper that contains information in the form of ink marks, but nowadays documents can be digital as well. 

To document (verb) means to produce an object by collecting and representing information.
Different sorts of documents 
 Prototypical Documents: Letters, memos, legal forms, Instruction manual
 Documents of Record: Newspapers and magazines
 Books: Text book, Novels, Recipe books, Encyclopedia, Comic books
 Canonical Documents: The Bible,Iliad and Odyssey,Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Quran, Code of Hammurabi,Tao Te Ching
 Transactional Documents: Cheque, Contracts, Prescription, Receipt, Form (document), Postage Stamp
 Functional Documents: PDF files, PostScript files, XML files, Email
 Non-Prototypical Documents: Post-it notes, Fortune cookie strips, Maps, Paintings, milk cartons, cereal boxes
 Non-Classical Digital Documents: Web Page, Weblog, Wiki
Boundary Examples: The plaque on the Pioneer 11 spacecraft, designed by astronomer Carl Sagan, and using information assumed to be universal is an extreme example of a document that is intended to communicate with aliens. On the other hand, the recorded and printed signals of the SETI project would constitute documents if they were discovered to contain alien communication.
Everyday use 
When one views a document, they can see the connotations and denotations that appear in a search for document. From these usages, readers can infer one or more of the following typical contexts:

 Writing that provides information (especially information of an official nature)
 Anything serving as a representation of a person's thinking by means of symbolic marks
 A written certificate of ownership or obligation
 To record in detail; "The parents documented every step of their child's development"
 A digital file in a particular format
 To support or supply with references; "Can you document your claims?"
 Authentication
 An artifact that meets a legal notion of document for purposes of discovery in litigation

Document life cycle management 
Technology to manage documents has developed with documents themselves.  They include practices for preserving, archiving, destroying, and managing documents. These together are called the "document life cycle"
Physical preservation: Documents in traditional physical forms and in digital physical forms such as magnetic media must be physically preserved.  This aspect of document management deals with such issues as the aging of paper (acid-free paper helps with preservation) and the obsolescence of media such as floppy disk or videotape.

 Storage: This aspect includes management of limited resources such as shelf space and disk space, and optimal space utilization.  Modern libraries such as the University of Nevada and the University of Michigan often use complex space-saving technologies such as robotic retrieval systems for stacks and moving bookshelves.  The whole field of data compression can be viewed as made for the storage of digital documents.
Cultural Preservation: This function, traditionally done by librarians involves the selection, arrangement and storage of documents in safe places.  The importance of this part of document management can be seen in the impact of historical events like the burning of the Library of Alexandria.  Today, library and information science has developed into an important academic job.

 Bibliometrics: This aspect of document management involves functions of indexing, creating statistics and taxonomies, and improving the usability of large collections of documents. The modern history of this management technology dates back to Melvil Dewey and the Dewey Decimal System. Today, the science of bibliometrics is largely concerned with managing the impact of electronic technologies. This aspect must also deal with ISBN numbers, Library of Congress data and other standards.
Digital Content Management: The explosion of digital content has resulted in technologies being created to manage large collections of digital information generated by organizations. Such systems must manage access control and privileges, multiple electronic format, interface with printing systems and enable collaborative workflows around documents.

 Digital-Physical Interaction Management: As long as both paper and digital documents continue to be made and used, the modern management technologies to manage their interaction will continue. Key to this management is the management of large scale and systematic scanning of physical documents (such as the Google book scanning project).
Destruction: With the increased cost of identity theft, corporate scandals and privacy concerns, the destruction of both paper and electronic documents  has become increasingly important to manage. Technologies such as shredders play a role, as do verifiable ways to destroy electronic documents to ensure compliance with privacy laws.

 Security: Shannon's information theory has led to an entire discipline that deals with the security of documents, and associated technologies such as encryption, as well as more physical security features such as watermarks and making currency documents that are safe from counterfeiting.

 Transportation: The entire mail system, as well as modern courier systems, is largely built on the need to physically move documents from one location to the other.

Related pages
 Archive
 Book
 Illuminated manuscript
 Seal (device)
 Typewriter
Software for document creation
 LaTeX (Open source)
 LibreOffice (Open source)
 Microsoft Office (made by Microsoft)
 Visual Studio Tools for Office
 OpenOffice (Open source)
 SATySFi (Open source)

Text editors

 GNU Emacs
 Notepad++
 Vim

References
Sellen, A. J. and Harper, R. H. R., 2001, The Myth of the Paperless Office
 McLuhan, M., 1969, The Gutenberg Galaxy
 McLuhan, M., 1964, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man
 Landow, G. P., 2006, Hypertext 3.0: Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization
 Bush, V., 1945, As We May Think, Atlantic Monthly, https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush
 Kelly, K. 2006, Scan This Book!, New York Times Magazine, http://www.kk.org/writings/scan_this_book.php
 Owen, D., 2004, Copies in Seconds: How a Lone Inventor and an Unknown Company Created the Biggest Communication Breakthrough Since Gutenberg—Chester Carlson and the Birth of the Xerox Machine
 Searle, J. R., 1997, The Construction of Social Reality
 Anderson, B., 2006, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, New Edition
 Levy, D., 2003, Scrolling Forward: Making Sense of Documents in the Digital Age
Gladwell, M., 2002, The Social Life of Paper, New Yorker Magazine, http://www.gladwell.com/2002/2002_03_25_a_paper.htm
 Lewis, D. K., 2002 Convention: A Philosophical Study (Revised edition)
 Pedauque, R. T., Document: Form, Sign and Medium, as Reformulated for Electronic Documents 
 Romano, F., 1989, Pocket Guide to Digital Prepress
 Sweet, J., 2003, Document Boundaries Master's Thesis, Rochester Institute of Technology
Object could mean:

 Object (philosophy), a thing, being or concept
 Physical entity, something that is tangible and within the grasp of the senses
 Object (grammar), a sentence element, such as a direct object or an indirect object
 Object (task), an aim, target or objective
 The intended result of an action
 Object (physics), a collection of masses
 Object, an entity treated by mathematical category theory
 3D model, a representation of a physical object
 Object (National Register of Historic Places), a classification used by the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.
 (As a verb, pronounced: ob-JECT): to make an objection, to say that one disagrees with something.
Computing
 Object (computer science), a language mechanism for binding data with methods that operate on that data
 Object-oriented programming (OOP), an object is an instance of a class
 Object file, the output of a compiler or other translator program (also known as "object code")
 Object (Information Processing), an information source for an Information Processor
 HTML object tag

Popular culture
 "Object", a song by The Cure from their 1979 album Three Imaginary Boys
 Objects from the 2006 television series The Lost Room
The International Standard Book Number, ISBN, is a unique commercial book identifier barcode. The ISBN system was created in the United Kingdom, in 1966, by the booksellers and stationers W.H. Smith.

Originally, it was the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code and still was used in 1974; it was adopted as the international standard ISO 2108 in 1970. A similar, numeric identification, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines. Since January 1, 2007, ISBNs are of 13 digits, like in Bookland EAN-13. The TC 46/SC 9 is responsible for the standard.

Overview 
An ISBN is given to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a book. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned after January 1, 2007, and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007. An International Standard Book Number consists of 4 or 5 parts:
for a 13 digit ISBN, a GS1 prefix: 978 or 979
 the group identifier code, (group of countries sharing a language)
 the publisher code,
 the item number, and
 a checksum character or check digit.

The ISBN parts may be of different lengths, and usually are separated with hyphens or spaces.

The group identifier code (GIC) number is 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2 for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking countries; 4 for Japanese; 5 for Russian, et cetera. The original standard book number (SBN) had no group identifier, but affixing a zero (0) as prefix to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. The group identifier may be up to 5 digits long; e.g. 99936 is a group identifier for the country Bhutan.
The national ISBN agency assigns the publisher number (cf. the category: ISBN agencies); the publisher selects the item number. Generally, a book publisher is not required to assign an ISBN, nor for a book to display its number (except in China; see below), however, most book stores only handle ISBN bearing merchandise.

A listing of all the 628,000 assigned publisher codes is published, and can be ordered in book form, but, as of 2007, it costs US$300. The web site of the international ISBN agency does not offer any free method of looking up publisher codes.

Related pages
Related pages 

 Amazon Standard Identification Number (ASIN)
 CODEN (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works)
 Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
 European Article Number (EAN)
 International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN)
 International Standard Music Number (ISMN)
 International Standard Recording Code (ISRC)
 International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
 International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC)
 Library of Congress Control Number
 PMID (PubMed ID)
 Serial Item and Contribution Identifier (SICI)

Footnotes

Other websites 

 ISO 2108:2005 at www.iso.org
 Brief Summary of ISBN 
 How to find a book from Wikibooks
 ISBN to European Article Number EAS EBS CONELRAD transition at isbn.org
 Description of the ISBN to EAN upgrade process  at bookweb.org
National and international agencies
 International ISBN Agency—coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system.
 ISBN Agency Australia —Thorpe-Bowker, a division of R R Bowker LLC
ISBN agency for UK and Republic of Ireland—Nielsen Book
 ISBN agency for US and Puerto Rico— R.R. Bowker LLC
 Numerical List of Group Identifiers  List of language/region prefixes
Online tools
 Special:Booksources, Wikipedia's ISBN search page.
 www.isbn.org/converterpub.asp Free 10-digit to 13-digit conversion tool from the ISBN agency.
Can also use it to verify ISBNs to see if they are valid. Assures compliance with the full ISBN spec, not just the check digit.
 The ISBN tools website  has open-source Java classes to implement 10- and 13-digit ISBNs.
 Publisher access system for Books in Print and Global Books in Print database products
 ISBNdb.com—find books by ISBN, author, title, subject, et cetera; auto-corrects ISBN checksums if needed.
 ISBN.nu —offers free searching of a titles database.
 RFC 3187  Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform resource names (URN)
 ISBN-13 For Dummies 
 Implementation guidelines  (pdf document) for the 13 digit ISBN code.

Publishing
Book terminology
ISO standards
Identifiers
An index is a system used to make finding information easier.

Index could also mean:

 Index (publishing), a detailed list, usually arranged alphabetically, of the specific information in a publication
 Index cards in a rolodex or old card catalog, early and mid 20th century technologies for maintaining such lists
 Index (mathematics), for various meanings of the word in mathematics
 Index (economics), a single number calculated from an array of prices and quantities.
 Index, Washington, a town in Snohomish County, Washington, United States.
 Index (typography), a largely obsolete punctuation mark
In publications:
 Index Librorum Prohibitorum, a list of publications which the Catholic Church censored
 Germany's List of Media Harmful to Young People, colloquially known as The Index, published by the Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien
 Index Magazine, was a prominent New York City based publication for art and culture.
 Truman State University Index, the weekly newspaper distributed at Truman State University and throughout the Kirksville, Missouri community.
 The Index, the student newspaper of Kalamazoo College, published since 1877.
 The Index (journal), a European propaganda journal created by Henry Hotze to support the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.
In computers and information retrieval:
 Index (database), a feature in a computerized database which allows quick access to the rows in a table
 Index (information technology), in computer science, either an integer which identifies an array element, or a data structure which enables fast lookup
 Index (search engine), for supporting information retrieval in search engines
 Webserver directory index, a default or index web page in a directory on a web server, such as index.html
 Subject indexing, describing the content of a document by keywords
Other:
 The Index, an item on the Halo (megastructure) in the Halo series of video games.
 The Index (skyscraper), a tower under construction in Dubai.
 Index (retailer), a defunct UK catalogue retailer formerly owned by the Littlewoods group and known as Littlewoods Index
 Index finger, The second digit of a human hand is also referred to as the index finger, pointer finger, forefinger, digitus secundus, or digitus II.
 Index fund, a collective investment scheme
 Indexicality, in linguistics, the variation of meaning of an utterance according to certain features of the context in which it is uttered
Recording means to capture data to store it on a storage medium or record as a video format.

Historical records of events have been made for thousands of years. Amongst the earliest are cave painting, runic alphabets and ideograms. Technology continues to provide and expand means for human beings to record their thoughts, feelings and experiences.

References

Related pages 
 Writing
 Sound recording
 Record
 RecordingWiki offers you more information about recording. 

Engineering
Pedro Santana is a municipality in the Dominican Republic, in the Elías Piña Province, on the border with Haiti, along the left side of the Artibonite river.

Origin of the name
The town, and municipality, was named after Pedro Santana, a general of the Independence wars and first president of the Dominican Republic. He was born in Hincha, now a Haitian city ("Hinche") near the border.

Population
The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 3,917: 2,120 men and 1,797 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

History
The old small town of Los Cercadillos was elevated, with the present name, to the category of municipal district of Bánica on 16 September 1942 and to the category of municipality by the Law 3208 of 3 March 1952.

Geography
Pedro Santana has an area of  and is at  to the north of Bánica and at  to the north of Comendador.
The limits of the municipality are the Dajabón province to the northwest, the Santiago Rodríguez province to the northeast, the San Juan province to the east, the municipality of Bánica to the south and Haiti to the west.

Administrative division
The municipality of Pedro Santana has only one municipal district; this is:

Economy
The main economic activity of the municipality is farming.

References 

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
1952 establishments in the Dominican Republic
The visual system is the part of the nervous system which allows organisms to see.
It interprets the information from visible light to build a representation of the world surrounding the body. The visual system has the complex task of (re)constructing a three dimensional world from a two dimensional projection of that world. The psychological manifestation of visual information is known as visual perception.

Introduction
This article mostly describes the visual system of mammals, although other "higher" animals have similar visual systems. In this case, the visual system consists of:

 The eye, especially the retina
 The optic nerve
 The optic chiasma
 The optic tract
 The lateral geniculate nucleus
 The optic tectum (superior colliculus)
 The optic radiation
 The visual cortex
 The visual association cortex
Different species are able to see different parts of the light spectrum; for example, bees can see into the ultraviolet, while pit vipers can accurately target prey with their infrared imaging sensors.<ref>	     AB Safer and MS Grace (2004),   "Infrared imaging in vipers: differential responses of crotaline and viperine snakes to paired thermal targets". Behav Brain Res. 154(1):55-61. 2004 Sep 23. </ref>

References
References

David H. Hubel 1989. Eye, Brain and Vision. New York: Scientific American Library.
David Marr 1982. Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information. San Francisco: Freeman.
R.W. Rodiek 1988. The Primate Retina. In Comparative Primate Biology. vol 4 of Neurosciences. eds H.D. Steklis and J. Erwin. pp. 203–278. New York: A.R. Liss.
Matthew Schmolesky, The Primary Visual Cortex 
Martin J. Tovée 1996. An introduction to the visual system. Cambridge University Press. 
Andreas Vesalius 1543. De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body)
Torsten Wiesel and David H. Hubel 1963. The effects of visual deprivation on the morphology and physiology of cell's lateral geniculate body. Journal of Neurophysiology'' 26, 978-993.
Other websites
"Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System" - John Moran Eye Center at University of Utah
VisionScience.com - An online resource for researchers in vision science.
Journal of Vision - An online, open access journal of vision science.

Vision
Microform is a name given to special photographic films. Microforms contain reduced images of documents. Usually, documents stored on microform are reduced about 25 times. Microform is mainly used for archival purposes.

There are three common formats:
Microfilm, which comes in reels of film.
Aperture card, This contains additional digital data (as a punch card).
Microfiche, a flat sheet with many pages.

Properly stored (room temperature, 50% humidity), microform should be able to last up to 500 years.

Images 

Photography
Storage devices
An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal. 

The difference from a digital signal is that also very small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. When one speaks of analog one often means an electrical context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals.

An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. 
Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured change in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure.

For example, in sound recording, changes in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which causes related changes in a voltage or the current in an electric circuit.  The voltage or the current is said to be an "analog" of the sound.

See digital for a discussion of digital vs. analog.

Physics
Electronics
A microphone, sometimes referred to as a mike or mic (both IPA pronunciation: ), converts sound into an electrical signal.

Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, in radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice.

Kinds of Microphones 
Sound passes through the air in waves, and as was said above, the microphone turns the sound wave into an electrical wave.  Different kinds of microphones will turn the sound waves into electricity in different ways.
Carbon button - This is the first kind to become commonplace, being used in most 20th century telephones. Sound waves, by compressing and decompressing a piece of carbon, change the amount of electric current flowing in the wire, thus creating electrical waves. This kind became rarer late in the century, due in part to lack of high fidelity. 
 Dynamic - This uses a round plastic or rubber disk connected to a wire coil in order to turn sound into electricity.  The sound wave hits the disk which vibrates as a result.  This vibration moves the coil back and forth near a magnet very quickly in order to create an electrical current.  The dynamic microphone is the exact opposite of a speaker which uses an electrical current to move the coil, which moves the disk.  Then the disk makes sound.
Ribbon - This is similar to a Dynamic microphone.  A thin, small sheet of metal (tin or aluminum usually) hangs between two magnets.  When sound hits the thin piece of metal, the metal vibrates.  That vibration creates an electrical signal in the metal.
 Condenser - This uses two small metal plates to create an electrical current.  Basically two  small metal plates are placed very near to each other and electricity is run through the plates.  This creates an electric field between the two plates.  When sound hits these plates, the plates vibrate.  The vibration makes small changes in the electric field.  These changes create the electrical signal.
 Crystal or ceramic microphones use piezoelectricity.
Equipment 
A pop filter (or pop shield) is often used in recording studios.  It is an electronic filter that reduces or eliminates 'popping' sounds caused by fast moving air (such as air from the mouth).

History
The first microphones were invented as telephone transmitters. They included liquid and dynamic designs. Carbon transmitters were later used in this and other applications.

Related pages
 Loudspeaker — The inverse of a dynamic microphone

Other websites 

 Info, Pictures and Soundbytes from vintage microphones
 Microphone construction and basic placement advice 
 History of the Microphone 
 Microphone sensitivity conversion — dB re 1 V/Pa and transfer factor mV/Pa
 Large vs. Small Diaphragms in Omnidirectional Microphones

References

Data input
Audio technology
Digital signal can mean two different things: 
 discrete-time signals that are digitized.
 the waveform signals in a digital system.

Discrete-time signals 

Digital signals are digital representations of discrete-time signals, which are often produced by changing an analog signal.

An analog signal is a datum that changes over time (for instance the temperature at a given place; the depth of a certain point in a pond; or the amplitude of the voltage at some node in a circuit). A discrete-time signal is a sampled version of an analog signal: the value of the datum is noted at fixed intervals (for example, every microsecond) rather than continuously.

In short, a digital signal is a quantized discrete-time signal; a discrete-time signal is a sampled analog signal.
In the digital revolution the usage of digital signals has increased significantly.
Many modern media devices, especially the ones that connect with computers use digital signals to represent signals that were traditionally represented as analog signals; cell phones, music and video players, personal video recorders, and digital cameras are examples.

In most applications, digital signals are represented as binary numbers, so their precision of quantization is measured in bits.

Waveforms in digital systems

In computer architecture and other digital systems, a waveform that switches between two voltage levels representing the two states of a Boolean value (0 and 1) is referred to as a digital signal.

The clock signal is a special digital signal that is used to synchronize digital circuits.
The image shown can be considered the waveform of a clock signal.
Logic changes are triggered either by the rising edge or the falling edge.

Electrical engineering
Telecommunications
Pneumatics is the use of compressed air for mechanical motion.  It has many uses. 

Pneumatic transfer systems are employed in many industries to move powders and devices. Pneumatic devices are also used where electric motors cannot be used for safety reasons, such as deep in a mine where explosive dust or gases may be present.

Examples of pneumatic tools 

 Pneumatic drill (jackhammer) used by road workers
 Pneumatic nailgun
 Pneumatic switches
 Pneumatic actuators
 Air compressors
 Vacuum pumps
 Barostat systems used in Neurogastroenterology and for researching
electricity
 Cable Jetting - a way to install cables in ducts
 Pneumatic mail systems
 Air brakes on buses, trains, and trucks

Comparison to Hydraulics

Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses air, which is compressible, while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil or water.

Advantages of pneumatics 

 The working fluid is very light in weight so supply hoses are not heavy.
Because the working fluid is (mostly) just air, there is usually no need for a return line for the working fluid and leaks of the working fluid tend not to be messy.

 Because air is compressible, the equipment is less likely to be damaged by shock.  The air in pneumatics absorbs excessive force, whereas the fluid of hydraulics directly transfers force.

Advantages of hydraulics 

 Higher energy density owing to the much higher working pressures usually employed.

 The hydraulic working fluid is basically incompressible, leading to a minimum of spring action. When hydraulic fluid flow is stopped, the slightest motion of the load releases the pressure on the load; there is no need to "bleed off" pressurised air to release the pressure on the load...

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 www.pneumatics.be - didactic website - for students - how pneumatics works
 U.S. Department of Energy  - Improving Compressed Air System Performance
 Fluid Power Educational Foundation  - Advancing and Supporting Hydraulic & Pneumatic Education
 Pneumatics Glossary  - Glossary of Pneumatic Terms

Fluid mechanics
Engineering
Technology
Saxe-Gotha () was a state in today's Thuringia, Germany.

It was created in 1640 for Duke Ernest I and ended in 1680 when his lands were divided after his death in 1675. The area around Gotha passed to Ernest's eldest surviving son, Frederick of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, who also inherited Altenburg (which Ernest had inherited through his wife Elisabeth Sophie) and became Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.

Dukes of Saxe-Gotha 
 Ernest I the Pious (1640 – 75, also Duke of Saxe-Altenburg from 1672)
 Divided into Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Römhild, Saxe-Eisenberg, Saxe-Hildburghausen and Saxe-Saalfeld in 1680

When the house of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was split. Saxe-Gotha passed to the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld who in turn gave Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen. The Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen became Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, and gave Saxe-Hildburghausen to Saxe-Meiningen.
After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War it became a part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.

References 
 Saxe-Gotha , Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press (2001 – 05), accessed January 27 2007

1572 disestablishments
1640 establishments
House of Wettin
States of the Holy Roman Empire
Thuringia
1640s establishments in Europe
Seafloor spreading happens at the bottom of an ocean as tectonic plates move apart. The seafloor moves and carries continents with it. At ridges in the middle of oceans, new oceanic crust is created. The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate pull rather than magma pressure, although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges.   
 
At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and other places), material from the upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic plates. It forms new crust as the plates move away from each other. The new crust then slowly moves away from the ridge. It is a place of earthquakes and volcanoes. Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in plate tectonics. At oceanic trenches, seafloor crust slides down and under continental crust.
Earlier theories (e.g. by Alfred Wegener) of continental drift were that continents 'plowed' through the ocean. The modern idea is that the ocean floor itself moves and carries the continents with it as it expands from a mid-ocean ridge. Today, it is accepted. The phenomenon is caused by convection in the weak upper mantle, or asthenosphere.

Additionally spreading rates determine if the ridge is a fast, intermediate, or slow. As a general rule, fast ridges see spreading rate of more than 9 cm/year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 4-9 cm/year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 4 cm/year.

Mid-ocean ridge 
A mid-ocean ridge is an underwater mountain system. This consists of mountain chains, with a  rift valley running along its spine, formed by plate tectonics. A mid-ocean ridge marks the boundary between two tectonic plates which are moving apart. A mid ocean ridge is made by a divergent boundary.
The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every ocean. The mid-oceanic ridge system is the longest mountain range in the world. The continuous mountain range is  long. It is several times longer than the Andes, the longest continental mountain range. The total length of the oceanic ridge system is  long.

How it works 
Mid-ocean ridges are geologically active, with new magma constantly emerging onto the ocean floor and into the crust at and near rifts along the ridge axes. The crystallized magma forms new crust of basalt and gabbro.

The rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest at the axis of the ridge and age with increasing distance from that axis. New magma of basalt composition emerges at and near the axis because of decompression melting in the underlying Earth's mantle.
The oceanic crust is made up of rocks much younger than the Earth itself: oceanic crust in the ocean basins is everywhere less than 200 million years old. The crust is in a constant state of 'renewal' at the ocean ridges. Moving away from the mid-ocean ridge, ocean depth progressively increases; the greatest depths are in ocean trenches. As the oceanic crust moves away from the ridge axis, the peridotite in the underlying mantle cools and becomes more rigid. The crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the oceanic lithosphere. 

Slow spreading ridges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge have large, wide rift valleys, sometimes as big as 10-20 km wide and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest. By contrast, fast spreading ridges like the East Pacific Rise are narrow, sharp incisions surrounded by generally flat topography that slopes away from the ridge over many hundreds of miles.

References 

Oceanography
Plate tectonics
The Dominican city of Comendador is the head municipality of the Elías Piña province, on the border with Haiti.

Population
The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 19,344: 9,675 men and 9,669 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

History
The city was founded in 1868, and named after Nicolás de Ovando, the "Comendador of Lares" (Comendador was the chief of a military or religious order). It was founded where there was a military post close to the border with Haiti. The Taíno name of the region was Duan.

There was several fights between Haitian and Dominican soldiers during the Dominican-Haitian War after 1844. The most important fight was the La Estrelleta Battle in a savanna near Comendador.

The old military post was made a Cantón (now called Municipal District) of the Azua province in 1907. The next year, in 1908, it was elevated to the category of municipality of the same province.
Its name was changed to Villa Elías Piña on 29 November 1930. In 1972, its name was changed back to Comendador..

Geography
Comendador is at  to the west of Santo Domingo and    of San Juan de la Maguana. The limits of the municipality are the municipality of Bánica to the north, the San Juan province to the east, the municipality of El Llano to the south and Haiti to the west.

The average daily temperature in the city is  and the average rainfall for the year is .

Administrative division
The municipality of Comendador has two municipal districts; these are:

Economy
The main economic activity of the municipality is agriculture. Commerce with Haiti is also an important economic activity in the city.

References 

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
1868 establishments
1860s establishments in the Dominican Republic
Emily Greene Balch (1867-1961) shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946 with John Raleigh Mott (1865-1955). Both laureates were American.

1867 births
1961 deaths
Writers from Massachusetts
American Nobel Prize winners