Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors: 50,000 – 2000 BC
Xia Dynasty: c. 2000 – c. 1600 BC
Shang Dynasty (or Yin Dynasty): c. 1600 – 1046 BC
Zhou Dynasty
Western Zhou: 1046 – 771 BC
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn period: 771 – 481 BC
Warring States period: 481 – 221 BC
Qin Dynasty: 221 – 206 BC
Han Dynasty: 206 BC – 220 AD
Western Han: 206 BC – 8 AD
Xin Dynasty: 8 – 23 AD
Three Kingdoms
The Kingdom of Wei: 220 – 265 AD
The Kingdom of Shu: 221 – 263 AD
The Kingdom of Wu: 229 – 280 AD
Jin Dynasty
Western Jin: 265 – 316 AD
Eastern Jin: 317 – 460 AD
The Sixteen Kingdoms
"Former Zhao" or "Han Zhao": 304 – 329 AD
"Cheng Han" or "Former Shu": 306 – 347 AD
Former Liang: 314 – 376 AD
"Later Zhao" or "Shi Zhao": 319 – 351 AD
Former Yan: 334 – 370 AD
"Former Qin" or "Fu Qin": 351 – 394 AD
Later Yan: 384 – 409 AD
"Later Qin" or "Iau Qin": 384 – 417 AD
Western Qin: 385 – 431 AD
"Later Liang" or "Lu Liang": 389 – 403 AD
Southern  Liang: 397 – 414 AD
Southern Yan: 398 – 410 AD
Western Liang: 400 – 421 AD
Northern Liang: 401 – 439 AD
"Xia" or "Hu Xia": 407 – 431 AD
"Northern Yan" or "Feng Yan": 409 – 436 AD
The countries below are not included in the sixteen kingdoms:
Former Chouchi:  296 – 371 AD
Later Chouchi: 385 – 443 AD
Dai: 315 – 376 AD
Ran Wei: 350 – 352 AD
Western Yan: 384 – 394 AD
Zhai Wei: 388 – 392 AD
Western Shu: 405 – 413 AD
Yuwenbu: 302 – 344 AD
Duanbu: 310 – 357 AD
Tuguhun:  313 – 633 AD
Southern and Northern Dynasties
Southern Dynasties
Song: 420 – 479 AD
Chi: 479 – 502 AD
Liang: 502 – 557 AD
Chen: 557 – 589 AD
Northern Dynasties
Northern Wei: 386 – 534 AD
Eastern Wei: 534 – 550 AD
Western Wei: 535 – 557 AD
Northern Chi: 550 – 557 AD
Northern Chou: 557 – 581 AD
Sui Dynasty: 581 – 618 AD
Tang Dynasty: 618 – 907 AD
Tang Dynasty had been interrupted by Wu Chou: 690 – 705 AD
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
Five Dynasties
Later Liang: 907 – 923 AD
Later Tang: 923 – 936 AD
Later Jin: 936 – 947 AD
Later Han: 947 – 950 AD
Later Chou: 951 – 960 AD
Ten Kingdoms
Wu Yue: 904 – 978 AD
Min (changed its name to Yin at 943 AD): 909 – 945 AD
Jinnan: 907 – 963 AD
Chu: 897 – 951 AD
Wu: 904 – 973 AD
Southern Tang: 937 – 975 AD
Southern Han: 917 – 971 AD
Northern Han: 951 – 979 AD
Former Shu: 907 – 925 AD
Later Shu: 934 – 965 AD
And other regimes
Dingnan Jiedu: 881 – 982 AD
Fongshang Jiedu (or Chi): 887 – 924 AD
Lulong Jiedu (or Yan): 897 – 913 AD
Chender Jiedu (or Zhao): 883 – 921 AD
Yiwu Jiedu: 900(?) – 922 AD and 928 – 929 AD
Wuping Jiedu (or Hunan Jiedu): 950 – 963 AD
Chinyuan Jiedu: 946 – 978 AD
Hexi Regime: ?
Song Dynasty
Northern Song: 960 – 1127 AD
Southern Song: 1127 – 1279 AD
Liao Dynasty (or Khitan) - 907 – 1125 AD
After the Gin Dynasty ends the Liao Dynasty, Yelü Dashi, an aristocrat of Liao, rebuilded the Liao Dynasty, we call it Western Liao, also known as Kara-Khitan Khanate: 1132 – 1218 AD
Gin Dynasty: 1115 – 1234 AD
Western Xia: 1038 – 1227 AD
Yuan Dynasty (Actually the Mongolia): 1279 – 1368 AD
Ming Dynasty: 1368 – 1644 AD
Qing Dynasty: 1636 – 1912 AD
The Republic of China: 1912 AD – now (It only ruled mainland China until 1949. It lost in the Chinese Civil War, so now it only rules Taiwan, Penghu, Kingmen, Mazhu, the Taiping Island and the Dongsha Island. The Republic of China after 1949 is actually Taiwan.)
The People's Republic of China: 1949 AD – now
References

Other websites 

Links for Middle School students from the Courtenay Middle School Library Collection

History of China
Chin
Shaka kaSenzangakhona (sometimes spelled Tshaka, Tchaka or Chaka; ca. 1787 – ca. 22 September 1828) was the most important leader of the Zulu Empire. He joined the Zulu tribal groups together into the beginnings of a nation. This Zulu nation ruled a large area of southern Africa, between the Phongolo and Mzimkhulu rivers. His leadership and his energy make him one of the greatest Zulu chieftains. He has been called a military genius for his changes and new ideas. However, there were also brutal and cruel things that happened when he was in charge.

Zulu leader 
Shaka maintained a good relationship with the Europeans in Africa, including the Colonial leaders. He was disliked by other Africans, including his own people, who hated his constant wars.
Ten years of  warfare placed incredible strains on the Zulu nation. Shaka, unstable and worried about being replaced by an heir, finally snapped into madness after the death of his mother in 1828. He imposed a year of celibacy on his people. He killed anyone who did not show enough sadness at the death of his mother. He was killed within the year by his half-brother, Dingane, who succeeded him as ruler. 

Even though he created brutal conditions for his subjects, he created the powerful Zulu Kingdom.

References 

1781 births
1828 deaths
African people
History of South Africa
Assassinated people
A halo is a ring of light that surrounds an object. Also, in much religious art, it may be seen surrounding the heads of saintly people such as Jesus.

It is believed by some Hindus that the halo shown around the heads of holy people is a depiction of their  "activated" crown chakra.

Halos are visual phenomena that appear near or around the Sun or Moon, and sometimes near other strong light sources such as street lights. There are many types of optical halos, but they are mostly caused by ice crystals in certain types of clouds. The shape of the crystals changes the type of halo seen. Light is reflected by the ice and may split into colors, similar to the rainbow.

Other websites 

 Halo explanations and image galleries  at Atmospheric Optics

Optics
The underworld is the place in Greek mythology where people go when they die. The underworld is controlled by Hades, one of the three main gods. The underworld's gates are guarded by the three-headed dog, Cerberus.  The underworld was surrounded by five rivers.  The Acheron was the river of woe, the Cocytus was the river of lamentation, the Phlegethon the river of fire, the Styx, the river of the unbreakable oath by which the gods took their vows, and the Lethe the river of forgetfulness.  When entering the underworld, Charon would take those with gold coins to the underworld.  Not everyone could enter, because not everyone had golden coins to pay the fare.
Three judges, by the names of Rhadamanthus, Minos, and Aeacus, would then decide where you would go.  People that lived normal lives would go to The Fields of Asphodel.  Heroes would go to The Fields of Elysium.  People who did horrible things would go the Fields of Punishment.  If you were put into Elysium, you could choose to be reborn or stay.  If you went to Elysium three times, then you went to the Isle of the Blessed.  This was like the ultimate heaven. Tartaros () was another place in the underworld, where immortal enemies of the current Twelve Olympians are eternally punished, for example Kronos and the other Titans. Tartaros overlaps with the fields of punishment.

Other websites 

Underworld
Afterlife
The Mughal Empire, (, ) was a Muslim empire in South Asia which existed from 1526 to 1858. The Mughal rule over India is called an Empire because it stretched over a large area.  When it was biggest it ruled most of the Indian subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, and parts of what is now India, Afghanistan and modern Pakistan and Bangladesh, between 1526 and 1707. Worth 25% of world GDP, it was the world's largest economy and it was well known for having signalled the proto-industrialization and for its lavish architecture.
The Mughal emperors were Turk-Mongols originally. Babur of the Timurid dynasty founded the Mughal Empire (and Mughal dynasty) in 1526 and ruled until 1530. He was followed by Humayun (1530-1540) and (1555-1556), Akbar (1556-1605), Jahangir (1605-1627), Shah Jahan (1628-1658), and the Islamic Aurangzeb (1658-1707) and several other minor rulers until Bahadur Shah Zafar II(1837-1857). After the death of Aurangzeb, the rule through sharia ended and the Mughal Empire became weak. It continued until 1857-58. By that time, India came under the British Raj. Test of living male descendant show's Y-DNA R-M198 (R1A1).
The Mughal Empire was established by able Muslim rulers who came from the present-day Uzbekistan after defeating the Delhi sultanate. The Mughal rule in India saw the country being united as one single unit and being administered under one single powerful ruler. During the Mughal period, art and architecture flourished and many beautiful monuments were constructed. The rulers were skillful warriors and admirers of art as well.

References

 
1526 establishments
1858 disestablishments
1520s establishments in Asia
19th-century disestablishments in Asia
The British Raj was a colony of the British Empire from 1858 to 1947.  "Raj" is a word in Hindi that means "rule" and so "British Raj" means rule by the British Empire in South Asia. The area is now in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. The British Raj is also called the British Indian Empire or the Indian Empire.

The term "British Raj" is used for the direct British rule over areas that had been conquered by the British, which are known as British India and included the British influence over many independent princely states. Those areas were governed by their own traditional rulers although they were under the overall authority of the British crown.

Undivided India is another term to mean the whole area of British rule, but it does not include Burma, which became in 1937 its own British colony.  The colony of Aden came under the same government from 1858 to 1937, as were British Somaliland (now part of Somalia) from 1884 to 1898 and Singapore from 1858 to 1867.
British rule ended on 15 August 1947. The borders between India and Pakistan came into effect on the 18 August. Many people died during the Partition of India.

Jammu and Kashmir, like the other princely states, had not been under direct British rule. India and Pakistan went to war over the area, which is now divided between them.

The 1861 census showed that the British population in the subcontinent was 125,945. Only 41,862 of them were civilians as compared with 84,083 European officers and men of the Army. In 1880, the standing Indian Army consisted of 66,000 British soldiers, 130,000 natives, and 350,000 soldiers in the princely armies.

References

 
History of Pakistan
Myanmar
Viceroys
1858 establishments
1850s establishments in the United Kingdom
19th-century establishments in India
19th-century establishments in Pakistan
Establishments in Bangladesh
1947 disestablishments in India
1947 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1850s establishments in Asia
1940s disestablishments in Asia
A lever is a simple machine. It is something that can be used in a lot of ways. One way is by measuring things, or by seeing which weighs more. A lever is supported by a fulcrum which it uses to lifts weights. It is one of six simple machines. There are three types of levers: first-class, second-class and third-class.

Early
The earliest remaining writings about levers are from the 3rd century BC. They were written by Archimedes. "Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the earth." is a famous quote from Archimedes who stated the correct mathematical principle of levers (quoted by Pappus of Alexandria).

Types of levers
There are three kinds of levers. The difference between them is where the fulcrum is and where the forces are acting.

First class

A first-class lever is a lever where the fulcrum is in between the effort and resistance (the load). Seesaws and crowbars are examples of first class levers.
Second class
A second-class lever is where the resistance is between the effort and the fulcrum. Wheel barrows and wrenches are examples of second class levers.

Third class
A third class lever is where the effort is between the resistance and the fulcrum. Staplers and your forearm are examples of third class levers.

References 

Engineering
Tools
Types of pulleys
 Static A static or class 1 pulley has an axle that is "staticed" or is stationary, meaning that it cannot be moved.  A fixed pulley is used to redirect the force in a rope (called a belt when it goes in a full circle).  A fixed pulley has a mechanical advantage of 1. The static pulley has a wheel and an axle.
 Movable A movable or class 2 pulley has an axle that is "free" to move in space.  A movable pulley is used to transform forces.  A movable pulley has a mechanical advantage of 2.  That is, if one end of the rope is anchored, pulling on the other end of the rope will apply a doubled force to the objecT attached to the pulley.
 Compound A compound pulley is a combination fixed and movable pulley system.
 Block and tackle - A block and tackle is a compound pulley where several pulleys are mounted on each axle, further increasing the mechanical advantage.  Plutarch reported that Archimedes moved an entire warship, laden with men, using compound pulleys and his own strength.
Mechanics
Tools
Józef Klemens Piłsudski (December 5, 1867 – May 12, 1935) was an important leader of Poland. He is seen in Poland as the father of the Polish state, since he declared Poland's independence at the end of World War 1.

From 1795 to 1918, Poland was not an independent country. The partitions of Poland divided it into three parts between Russia, Prussia (Germany) and Austria-Hungary. Piłsudski was born in the Russian part. The government tried to make Poles become Russian but Piłsudski was born in a noble family of patriots, that wanted Poland to be an own independent country.

In 1887 he got into trouble for helping people who tried to overthrow the Russian Tsar. For that he was sent to Siberia. When he came back from there he got more and more involved in politics.
Later Piłsudski became a soldier and wanted to make Poland independent again. At the beginning of World War I, people who agreed with Pilsudski helped Austria-Hungary, because they preferred it to Russia. Piłsudski created a Polish army in Austria called the Polish Legions. Piłsudski is famous for leading the I. Brigade of the Polish Legions.

When they stopped helping Austria-Hungary and Germany, Piłsudski was arrested. When the War was over, he was freed.

He came to Warsaw in November 1918 and helped to organize Poland, which now existed again after 123 of partition. Then, for a short time, he became its leader (not president but head of state). Gabriel Narutowicz became Poland's first president, but he was assassinated a few days later and Stanisław Wojciechowski became the next president. Piłsudski was shocked and left politics for a few years.
Poland's situation was not good and the politicians argued a lot. Many people, especially the soldiers, wanted Piłsudski back, so he told Wojciechowski to resign. When Wojciechowski said no, Piłsudki took over with the help of the Army. Parliament elected Ignacy Mościcki, Piłsudski's close friend to be the new president. . Together, they changed the Polish constitution and made other changes which made Poland stronger in the 1920s and 30s.
Today, Piłsudski is remembered as a heroe. He has many statues and streets named after him.

Childhood and youth 
Joseph Piłsudski, was born on 5 December 1867 in Zułowo in Lithuania, into a patriotic family. His father, Joseph Wincenty (1833-1902), had fought in the January 1863 Uprising against the Russian rule of Poland-Lithuania. His mother - Maria (1842-1884) - came from a famous family. He had a daughter, Jadwiga Piłsudska (1920-2014).

Piłsudski was a patriot since he was very young and often had problems with the Russian teachers in his school.
In his youth he got involved with Polish and Russian revolutionaries that planned to overthrow the Russian government and was sent to Siberia for helping them.

In Siberia he met many Polish Soldiers that fought for Independence in the 1863 uprising against Russia.

Early Political Life 
After his return from Siberia, Piłsudski created the Polish Socialist Party, that wanted to bring Poland back. They also wanted workers to be treated fairly. He wrote newspapers for the party and reminded Polish workers of their old homeland.

His party had paramilitary organizations that made protests and uprisings against Russian officers and generals from time to time.

Piłsudski personally took part in the famous Bezdanny Raid, where Piłsudski and his friends took a lot of money from a train that belonged to the Tsar.
With the money Piłsudski bought weapons and started preparing for the coming World War. Piłsudski hoped that during the war Russia and Germany would fight against each other, giving Poland a chance to return.

World War 1 
When World War 1 broke out, Piłsudski lead his armies on the side of Austria.

Piłsudski's Polish Legions won many battles for Austria and Germany against Russia and this made them respect Poland, allowing the existence of a Polish State in 1916.

Piłsudski's Brigade (I. Brigade) is also the subject of the famous Polish military song "My pierwsza brygada" which is the current anthem of the Polish military and very popular in Poland.

When Piłsudski decided that Poland must be indepenent from Germany too, he was arrested and brought to a fortress in Magdeburg, Germany in 1917. He was released at the end of the war in November 1918.

When Piłsudski returned to Poland, he was celebrated by masses of happy people. He was and is loved as a heroe in Poland to this day.
On 11. November Piłsudski declared that Poland is an independent country again, after 123 years of Poland not existing on the map.

Politics in Independent Poland 
After Poland started to exist again, Piłsudski was the leader of Poland.

In Russia a revolution broke out during World War 1 that deposed the Tsar and later the government.

The new soviet Russia was communist and wanted to conquer Europe, included Poland.

When in the year 1920 the soviet red army was at the gates of Warsaw, Poland's capital, Piłsudski sent his soldiers to battle the red army and defeated them. This battle is celebrated in Poland every year.

After the war with Russia was over, Piłsudski gave his power to the new democratic government of Poland in 1922.

Unfortunately, the first president was killed only 2 days after he became president. Piłsudski was very disappointed and sad, so he left politics and spent time with his family in their house in Sulejówek (a part of Warsaw).
The new governments of Poland were very weak and Poland was becoming pooerer and poorer. Many people missed Piłsudski and wanted him to become the leader of Poland again.

When Piłsudski organized a demonstration in 1926 asking the President to resign, fights broke out between Piłsudski's supporters and the president's supporters.

Finally, Piłsudski won the fights and was the leader of Poland again. His friend, Ignacy Mościcki was elected president by the Polish parliament.

Piłsudski's government was called "Sanacja" which means "healing", because they wanted to heal Poland of its problems and bad situation.

Under Piłsudski life became better in Poland and after some years, Poland was a strong country in Europe again.

Unfortuantly, Józef Piłsudski died in 1935 because of cancer. He was succeeded by General Edward Rydz-Śmigły, a soldier that fought for Piłsudski during World War 1.

1867 births
1935 deaths
Presidents of Poland
Former dictators
Events 
 First battle of Panipat – Babur becomes Mughal emperor of India, captures Delhi, and invades Northern India. Beginning of the Mughal Empire which would last until 1858.

Births 
 26 September 1511

Deaths
Sir Isaiah Berlin OM, FBA (6 June 1909 – 5 November 1997) was a British philosopher. He was born in Riga, Latvia, which at the time was a part of the Russian Empire. He was Jewish, and was the first Jew to win the prize of a fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford University.

Reputation
Isaiah Berlin was an important person of the 20th century. People see him as an important thinker of Liberalist ideas. He was made a member of the Order of Merit and was a professor at the University of Oxford. He made a distinction between positive liberty and negative liberty. His most famous work is probably Two Concepts of Liberty (where he introduced this distinction.) He died 5 November 1997.

1909 births
1997 deaths
20th-century British philosophers
Jewish British academics
Jewish British scientists
Knights Bachelor
Latvian Jews
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Order of Merit
People from Riga
Russian Jews
Latvian writers
Latvian scientists
The Guru Granth Sahib , also called Adi Granth, is the holy book of the religion Sikhism. It contains prayers, and hymns of Sikh religion. Sikhs believe the Guru Granth Sahib to be a living Guru, hence the Guru Granth Sahib has its own place also commonly known as 'Sach Khand' (the Heaven).

The name of the book is made up of three words. The first word is Guru, and a Guru in Sanskrit language means a teacher. Granth is a word of Hindi, and this means a book. The third word Sahib is a word of Urdu language and it means master. Thus, the Guru Granth Sahib means a Master Book by the Teacher. The Guru Granth Sahib, is a collection of hymns of the first five "Sikh Gurus", the "Ninth Guru", and various saints, or bhagats Sikhs and others such as Baba Farid.

But what makes it so significant is that it has the solution to every problem in the World. The Granth teaches us how we should live, and promotes a modern ideology. This is why it makes it so important to Sikhs.
The book is usually placed in the centre of the gurdwara, high up under a roof.They treat it as a living guru, waving a chaura(fan) over it and decorate its "seat"

It is written in the script  called Gurmukhi. The first composition in the Guru Granth Sahib is Mool mantar by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. 

Sikhism
Religious texts
1600s books
Zeno of Elea was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of southern Italy. He was born about 495 BC and died about 430 BC: the exact dates are not known meaning he was around the age of 65 years old.

Zeno a member of the Eleatic School founded by Parmenides. Aristotle called him the inventor of dialectic. He is best known for his paradoxes, which Bertrand Russell has described as "immeasurably subtle and profound".

Zeno also founded the Stoic School of Philosophy.

He was labeled as the "inventor of dialect" by Aristotle

Works 
Although many ancient writers refer to the writings of Zeno, not one of his writings have survived intact.

Plato says that Zeno's writings were "brought to Athens for the first time on the occasion of" the visit of Zeno and Parmenides

According to Proclus in his Commentary on Plato's Parmenides, Zeno produced "not less than forty arguments revealing contradictions", but only nine are now known.
Zeno's arguments are perhaps the first examples of a method of proof called reductio ad absurdum, meaning to reduce to the absurd. This destructive method of argument was used by him to such an extent that he became famous for it.

Related pages 
Zeno's paradoxes

References 

490s BC births
5th-century BC deaths
Presocratic philosophers
Zeno of Citium (sometimes called Zeno Apathea) (333 BC264 BC) was a Syrian philosopher. He was the student of Carates of Thebes, who was the most famous cynic at that time. He started the Stoic school of philosophy.

References

333 BC births
264 BC deaths
Ancient Greek philosophers
The Iron Curtain is a term related to the Cold War. It means the border between the states that were members of the Warsaw Pact (in Eastern Europe), and those that were not (then called The West).

This border was between East Germany and West Germany, between Czechoslovakia and Austria, and between Hungary and Austria.
The idea of the Iron Curtain was referring to the separation of the communist Europe compared to the democratic west, it was the idea that what was happening in the satellite states and in Russia was secret to the rest of the world. Satellite state refers to a country being controlled by another, in this case Russia was controlling countries such as Hungary, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and others which were previously controlled by Germany in WW2.

The idea of the Iron Curtain was made public by Winston Churchill, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, in 1946 when he was invited to speak at American University by Harry S. Truman (the American president at the time). Churchill's speech was seen by Nikita Khrushchev; leader of the USSR from 1958 until 1964 as a declaration of war, as Churchill urged a struggle against the Soviet Union.

References

Other websites
 Homepage for Susanna Lapossy's book Life Behind the Iron Curtain (about Iron Curtain times in Hungary)

20th century in Europe
Communism
The Indus Valley civilization was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BC; mature period 2700–1700 BC).

The civilization was in the subcontinent. It was discovered by archaeologists in the 1880s.
It developed along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River. These areas are now in modern Pakistan, north-west India and Afghanistan. 

The civilization started during the Bronze Age and the height of its development was between 2500 BC and 1500 BC. Including the civilizations directly before and after, it may have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th century BC.

The Indus Valley civilization covered a large area  from Balochistan (Pakistan) to Gujarat (Republic of India). The first city to be discovered by excavation (digging up) was Harappa and so this civilization is also called the 'Harappan Civilization'.
They were good builders. The ruins of the site shows skillful design. Their buildings had two or sometimes more storeys. The bathrooms were attached to the rooms.  One of the unique features of the city was its elaborate drainage system. A brick-lined drainage channel flowed alongside every street. Removable bricks were placed at regular intervals for easy cleaning and inspection.

The Harappan traders used seals on the knots of the sacks to be transported to make sure that they were not opened during the journey. Nobody knows how to read their writing system.

In 1842 Charles Masson wrote a book that mentioned the sites of Indus Valley Civilisation. Few people paid attention. Later, in 1921/22, John Marshall organised the first archaeological dig at Harappa.

References 

4th millennium BC
Ancient India
History of Afghanistan
3rd millennium BC
2nd millennium BC
Sumer is the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (in modern-day southern Iraq). They may have been one of  the first civilizations in the world, as were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley.

Sumer started around 3500 BC. The Sumerian civilization grew along the Tigris and Euphrates. This land was good for growing food. Sumerian culture is famous for its written cuneiform script - where letters were formed by pressing a triangle shaped reed into wet-clay tiles. They are also credited with creating the wheel, and dividing a day into 24 hours, and each hour into 60 minutes.

The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC. Early cuneiform script writing emerged in 3000 BC.

Sumerian communities were organized into city-states, each ruled by a priest or king, until Akkad conquered them in the third millennium BC. One of the most famous Sumerian cities was Ur (not the same city as Uruk, but near it).
Relations with the Akkadians 
During the 3rd millennium BC, a close cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism.

The Sumerian city of Eridu, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, may have been the world's first city.

The Sumerians lost their identity with their language around 2000 BC, because a large group of different people, the Amorites, moved into their region. The Sumerian language continued as a religious language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, for as long as cuneiform was used.

Clothing
The Sumerians made their clothing by using the natural resources that were available to them. Clothing was made from wool or flax which Sumerians could raise and harvest. How thick or how coarse the clothing was related to the season in which it was worn. Heavier clothing was worn in the winter, lighter clothing in the summer.
Men were bare-chested and wore skirt-like clothes that tied at the waist. Women usually wore dresses that covered them from their shoulders to their ankles. The right arm and shoulder were left uncovered. Men were either clean shaven or had long hair and beards. Women wore their hair long, but they usually braided it and wrapped it around their heads. When entertaining guests, women placed headdresses in their hair.

Although both rich and poor Sumerians wore the same style of clothing, the richer Sumerians wore clothing that was made out of expensive and luxurious materials. Rich women and princesses also wore clothing that was colorful and bright.

Both men and women wore earrings and necklaces. During celebrations, even more jewelry was worn. The wealthier Sumerians often wore beautiful gold and silver bracelets and earrings. Sumerians also wore necklaces with bright, precious stones. Some of these stones were lapis lazuli and carnelian.

Related pages 
Ur
Uruk

References 

Mesopotamia
4th millennium BC
Cingular Wireless was a mobile phone company from the United States. Cingular Wireless was created in 2000, by a joint venture of SBC Communications Inc. and the BellSouth Corporation.  AT&T Mobility LLC bought Cingular in 2006. Cingular became AT&T Wireless. The first  iPhone was sold in Cingular Wireless stores.

References

American telephone companies
Mobile phones
Companies based in Atlanta
2001 establishments in the United States
Zeno may mean:

People:
Zeno (emperor) (c.425–491), Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire 474–491
Zeno of Citium (333–264 BC), Hellenistic philosopher of the Painted Porch, founder of Stoicism
Zeno of Elea (c.490–c.430 BC), Hellenic Eleatic philosopher, follower of Parmenides and famous for his paradoxes
Zeno of Sidon (first century BC), Epicurean philosopher
Zeno of Tarsus (third century BC), Middle Stoa philosopher
St. Zeno of Verona (c.300–c.380), Roman Catholic Saint and an early Christian Bishop or martyr
The Zeno brothers (fourteenth century), Antonio, Carlo, and Nicolò Zeno, Venetian navigators
Nicolò Zeno (younger), publisher of the Zeno map

Other uses:
Zeno's paradoxes, paradoxes by Zeno of Elea
Zeno (crater), a lunar impact crater
Zeno programming language, an imperative procedural programming language designed to be easy to learn and user friendly
Quantum Zeno effect, an effect in quantum mechanics which disallows certain conditions in the decaying of a quantum state

Related pages
Xeno
Diogenes (Διογένης) is a Greek name. It can refer to different people:
 Diogenes of Sinope (412-323 BC), better known as Diogenes the Cynic or simply Diogenes
 Diogenes Apolloniates (about 460 BC), philosopher
 Diogenes the Stoic (Diogenes of Seleucia on the Tigris) (c. 150 BC)
 Diogenes Laertius (between 200 and 500 AD), historian
 Diogenes of Oenoanda (2nd Century AD), Epicurean
 Diogenes of Judea (about 100-76 BC), general and advisor for Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus
 Diogenes of Babylon, Greek philosopher
 Diogenes (duke of Syrmia), duke of Syrmia (11th century)
Mystery Science Theater 3000 (MST3K) is an American comedy television series. It was made in the U.S. state of Minnesota from 1988 to 1999. The series was at first made for a local station in Minnesota. It was later moved to Comedy Central, and then The Sci-Fi Channel. The series was about a man (originally Joel Robinson, played by Joel Hodgson, the show's creator, and later Mike Nelson, played by Michael J. Nelson, the show's head writer), who is put in a spaceship by an evil scientist. He was forced to watch some of the worst movies ever made. Joel makes some robots to keep him company. Two of the robots, named Crow T. Robot (played by Trace Beaulieu and, later Bill Corbett) and Tom Servo (played by Josh Weinstein and later Kevin Murphy), watch the movies with him. While the movie is shown, the three make jokes and comments about the movie they watch.

Other websites 
Satellite News - The Official Mystery Science Theater 3000 Web Site
Complete episodes on Google video
MST3K Wiki
1988 American television series debuts
1999 American television series endings
1980s American television series
1990s American television series
American comedy television series
Netflix original series
English-language television programs
Blaze Starr (born Fannie Belle Fleming; 10 April 1932 – 15 June 2015) was an American stripper and burlesque star. In the 1950s, she became well known in the United States. Besides her burlesque dancing, her affair with Governor Earl Long of the state of Louisiana got her more popularity.

Early life
Starr was born in rural Wayne County, West Virginia. She lived in Washington, D.C. and in Baltimore, Maryland during her youth.

Affair with the Governor
When Blaze Starr first met Governor Long in 1958, her first feeling was fear. She was afraid she was going to jail when the Governor of Louisiana walked in with the police during a dance. When the Governor and the police gave Blaze a standing ovation, she was dumbfounded. Blaze had never known a politician who went to a show bar for any reason other than to cause the dancers trouble. After her show, the Governor asked for her to come to his table. They became friends.
Their relationship quickly grew into a love affair. Soon coworkers, reporters, and voters all knew of the affair. Mrs. Blanche Long, the Governor's wife, told hospital people that Earl was crazy and had him put away. She thought this would make Earl end the affair with Blaze. The affair continued until the day Earl died in 1960.

Her life was exciting and full of adventures. In the 1950s, stripping was more of an art form. It was not just women taking off their clothes to get men into bed. Blaze was close to her family. Blaze met her perfect match when she met Earl. He accepted her life style and she accepted his. They fulfilled each other's needs for companionship, compassion, and love.

Death
Starr died on June 15, 2015 at her home in Wilsondale, West Virginia.  She was 83 years old. She had been worried about the health of her dog, whom she adopted as a stray. Her sister, Cathy Fleming, believed this stress, along with a "severe heart condition", killed her. Her dog died hours later.

References
References

Other websites
Blaze Star Gems  (official site)

1932 births
2015 deaths
Actors from West Virginia
American adult models
Comedians from West Virginia
American erotic dancers
Disease-related deaths in West Virginia
Deaths from heart disease
The Zip drive is a data storage device. The company Iomega introduced it in late 1994.

Originally it only supported 100 MB disks, but later versions began to support 250 MB and 750 MB disks.

Higher capacity Zip disks must be used in a drive with at least the same capacity ability. Generally, higher capacity drives also handle all lower capacity media. However, it is slower to write data on a 100 MB disk with a 250 MB Zip drive than with a 100 MB Zip drive.

Zip drives can transmit data to the computer in various ways. Internal drives have been made with IDE and SCSI interfaces. External drives can use SCSI, parallel port or USB interface.

Zip disks are thicker than 3.5" (9 cm) floppy disks. Nevertheless, zip disks are quite similar in appearance to regular floppy disks. This means the Zip drive slot is large enough to accept such a floppy disk.  However, they are not interchangeable.

storage devices
Cosmetics (also called makeup, make up, or make-up) are products used to make the human body look different. Often cosmetics are used to make someone more attractive to one person, or to a culture or sub-culture. In Western culture, women are the main users of cosmetics. Their use by men is less frequent, except on stage, television and movies. Cosmetics are widely used in the world of acting.

All cosmetics are temporary. They need to be renewed after a certain time. Cosmetics include lipstick, powders (e.g. blush, eyeshadow), and lotions as well as other things.

Facial cosmetics 
Most cosmetic products and methods are intended to improve the look of the face.  There are two categories: those which improve the basic quality of the skin, and those which sit on the skin during active social life.
Skin care 
The purpose here is to clean the skin, improve its basic quality, and prepare it for the application of make-up. Products are of these types:
Cleansers, used to remove make-up and clean the skin. 
Toners, used to remove oil from the skin and close the pores on the skin.
Moisturizers, used to make the skin soft and to reduce evaporation of water from the skin.
Primers, used to prepare the surface for the later application of make-up.
Concealers, to mask flaws or slightly modify the colour of the skin.
Foundation, a product which holds face-powder in place. More generally, it create an even, uniform colour, covers flaws and adjusts the natural skintone.
Make-up 
These are the cosmetics which the viewer actually sees on the face (or other parts of the body). They are some or all of these:
Rouge or blusher: talcum-based reddish powder, to give a more youthful appearance. Used mainly to emphasize the cheekbones, sometimes to redden the cheeks. Very ancient, used by the ancient Egyptians.
Face powder.  Or translucent powder applied with a powder puff, brush or sponge, it comes in all shades to match skin. 
Lipstick.
Eye make-up.
Hand care: manicure and nail polish

History of cosmetics 
The word cosmetics comes from the Greek κοσμητικός (kosmētikos), "skilled in ordering or arranging".
Archaeological confirms use of cosmetics in ancient Egypt and Greece. Cosmetics used included:
 Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protection balm.
 Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rosewater, used by Romans.
 Vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century.
 Nivea Creme was the first stable water-in-oil emulsion, 1911.
The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics. Cosmetics are mentioned also in the Old Testament. Men who think makeup is dishonest sometimes call makeup fakeup.

The makeup market originated and developed in the United States during the 1910s, thanks to the pioneering efforts of influential figures such as Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These visionary individuals played a crucial role in shaping the cosmetics industry. Shortly before the outbreak of World War II, Revlon entered the scene, followed by Estée Lauder in the post-war period, further solidifying the market's growth and diversity.
Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, Max Factor, Revlon, and Estée Lauder were instrumental in introducing innovative beauty products and revolutionizing the way makeup was perceived and used. Their contributions not only elevated the concept of makeup but also propelled it into the mainstream.

Often referred to as cosmetics, makeup encompasses a wide range of products designed to enhance or alter one's appearance. Examples include lipstick, mascara, foundation, eyeshadow, blush, and various other beauty items. These products are meticulously formulated and crafted to cater to diverse preferences, skin types, and tones.
The advent of these visionary makeup brands brought about a significant shift in societal attitudes towards beauty and self-expression. Their commitment to quality, innovation, and consumer satisfaction set the stage for the thriving cosmetics industry we see today. The influence of these pioneers continues to resonate, shaping trends, inspiring new brands, and driving continuous evolution within the makeup market.

With a rich history rooted in the early 20th century, the makeup market has evolved into a multi-billion-dollar industry, driven by a constant stream of new product launches, collaborations, and advancements in technology. Today, makeup has become an integral part of many individuals' daily routines, allowing them to express their unique personalities, enhance their features, and embrace their individuality.

Related pages
Perfume
Hair coloring
Nail art
Eye makeup
Body art

References
The Napoleonic Wars were fought during the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte over France. They started after the French Revolution ended, and Bonaparte became powerful in France in November 1799. War restarted between the United Kingdom and France in 1803 despite the Treaty of Amiens.

The wars changed European military systems. Cannons became lighter and moved faster. Armies were much larger but had better food and supplies and were very large and destructive, mainly because of compulsory conscription. The French became powerful very fast and conquered most of Europe but then lost quickly after the French invasion of Russia failed.

The Napoleonic Wars ended with the Second Treaty of Paris on 20 November 1815, just after the huge Battle of Waterloo, a large battle that the French lost. Napoleon was sent into exile, and the House of Bourbon ruled France again.
Some people call the time between 20 April 1792 and 20 November 1815 "the Great French War".
On one side were the France, the Kingdom of Italy and others. On the other side were Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, Sicily, and others.

1805-1812: Napoleon conquers Europe 
On May 18 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned Emperor of the French at Notre-Dame de Paris.  The following year, the Third Coalition startedin response, but he crowned himself King of Italy. Austrian Emperor Franz I angrily declared war on him and began the War of the Third Coalition. The British destroyed the French Navy at the Battle of Trafalgar in October. In December the Austrians and the Russians allied and fought the French at the Battle of Austerlitz. The Russo-Austrian army suffered a devastating defeat and had to sign a treaty with Napoleon.
In 1806, the War of the Fourth Coalition started. The Kingdom of Prussia declared war on France first but was crushed by Napoleon's troops at the Battle of Jena. Napoleon captured Berlin before the Russians could help. In 1807, Napoleon defeated the Russian army at the Battle of Friedland, which ended the Fourth Coalition.

In 1809, the War of the Fifth Coalition began by Austria declaring war on Napoleon. In the early phases of the war, the Austrians had advantage of the war, but later the French captured Vienna and ended the Fifth Coalition. At the height of his power in 1810, Napoleon had controlled France, Spain, northern Italy, Germany and part of Russia.
1812: Invasion of Russia and War of 1812 
Napoleon staged a French invasion of Russia in 1812 by gathering the largest army that Europe and possibly the whole world had ever seen, just as the Americans and the British started the War of 1812. In Russia, Napoleon barely won the huge Battle of Borodino but lost many of his soldiers. Napoleon hoped to make peace with the Russias, but they decided to retreat and abandon Moscow to the advancing French troops. However, the Russians decided to retreat and abandon Moscow to the advancing French troops. Napoleon found Moscow empty and burning. The cold winter along with starvation from scorched earth tactics devastated Napoleon's army. That was the first important defeat in his conquest of Europe
Napoleon's weakened Grande Armée had to retreat to Paris through the freezing winter of Russia but was finally defeated by the Russians. Prussia and Austria declared war after Napoleon's failure and began the War of the Sixth Coalition. Later, Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace and Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky's music piece 1812 Overture depicted the Patriotic War and celebrated the resistance and the liberation of Russia.

Meanwhile, the much smaller War of 1812 started between the British and the Americans, the latter trying to conquer Canada. The war continued until 1815, neither side gaining anything. Revolutions in Latin America made independent states in the Americas of most of the Spanish Empire, which was unstable by the French invasion.
1813-1814: Battle of Leipzig and First Restoration 
The British, Spanish and Portuguese had pushed Napoleon's forces out of Spain after the Battle of Vitoria.  Britain, Russia, Prussi, and Austria defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig and captured Paris in 1814. The brother of the executed King Louis XVI had already proclaimed himself as French King Louis XVIII, was sent by the Prussian forces to Paris and was crowned. Napoleon was forced to abdicate.

1815: Battle of Waterloo and Hundred Days 

Napoleon was later exiled to Elba and was nearly assassinated. However, he and 200 other men escaped back to Paris, forced Louis XVIII off the throne and stated the Hundred Days. The former Allies formed the Seventh Coalition, and the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon again at the Battle of Waterloo with the help of the Prussian General Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher in 1815. Louis XVIII was returned to the throne again, and the Second Restoration began.

References
References

Wars involving France
1800s in Europe
Wars involving Europe
19th-century conflicts
1810s in Europe
A cantata is a type of singing which is done accompanied by an instrument(s). By contrast, a cappella specifically refers to unaccompanied singing. The word(cantata) etymologically comes from the Italian word  which means "to sing".  The word "cantata" was used mainly in the 17th and 18th century to describe music with religious words that were sung by a choir or by soloists or both, accompanied by instruments. The most famous cantatas are those by Johann Sebastian Bach. Nearly all his cantatas are sacred (written for church services). Very often he used Lutheran hymn tunes (chorales) for the first and last movements. In between there are movements for solo singers: recitatives and arias. An example is Bach's cantata no 80 which is based on the chorale "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" (“A safe stronghold our God is still”). The whole work is about being safe in the hands of God. This is what the sermon would have been about. The congregation would join in singing the chorale towards the end of the cantata.
Other composers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) wrote cantatas which were secular (not religious). The word "cantata" has also been used in the 20th century by composers such as Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Benjamin Britten (1913-1976).

Thus the term came to apply to any and all forms of accompanied songs.

Musical forms
A clavichord is a musical instrument like a small keyboard. It was very popular for many years, especially in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

Sound 
The clavichord is a very quiet instrument. It is not suitable for playing with other instruments because it is so quiet. But it sounds very beautiful in slow, expressive music. It is used as a practice instrument by harpsichord players, or by organists who wanted to practice at home instead of in a (often very cold) church. They were so small that they could be lifted up and put on a table. They could be put one on top of another so that an organist could practise music written for a two-manual organ. Sometimes, they even had pedals for organists to practice this skill.

Uses 
Many German composers like Johann Sebastian Bach wrote music for the “Clavier”. This meant any keyboard instrument: harpsichord, clavichord or organ. The player could choose which they wanted to use.
When the piano suddenly became popular – in the 1760s and 1770s – people started to forget about harpsichords and clavichords. Today a few people make harpsichords and clavichords again so that people can play Renaissance and Baroque music - the music from when the clavichord was popular.

Other websites

Keyboard instruments
Early musical instruments
String instruments
Percussion instruments
Harmony means playing several notes together to make “chords”.  The word comes from the Greek harmonia meaning "to join things up" .  A tune by itself can sound nice, but it can be “harmonized” by adding an accompaniment of chords.  Studying how to do this is called harmonization.  Music students learn which chords sound nice after one another.  These are called “chord progressions”.  Many music theorists have written books about harmony.

Music which is made of a tune with harmony underneath is called “homophonic”.  In a way it is the opposite of polyphonic which means that each part (each voice) is a tune in itself. However, even polyphony needs to make pleasant harmony. Harmony as we know it in European music had become fully developed by the Baroque period (17th century).