Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Broken English, or Engrish is a variant of the English language by people who do not speak English very well.

The term may refer to spoken English, and it can also describe written English. In Japan, it is common to add English text to items for decorative and fashion purposes.

The term Engrish first appears as an Asian mispronunciation of the word English in the 1940s.  It was not until the 1980s that it began to be used to as a byname for defective Asian English. The related term "wasei-eigo" means made-up English words that have entered into everyday Japanese.

Broken English can be found in East Asian countries, and also many places in other places where a lot of East Asians live. Broken English has been found on many things from poorly translated signs, menus, and manuals to strangely worded advertisements, food items, and strange t-shirt slogans. Broken English also sometimes happens when a word or sentence is badly translated on the Internet.

Related pages 
 All your base are belong to us
 Pidgin
References 

English language
Pidgins and creoles
English-based pidgins
Sacred cow is an idiom. It is an expression or phrase that is used without the literal meaning of being about a cow or religion. When spoken or written it means a person or a belief that has been respected for a long time. It has become sacred and people are then afraid or unwilling to criticise or question it. 

The idiom is based on the honor shown to cows in Hinduism. It is thought to have started in America in the early 20th century. Similar idioms are used in many other languages. Saying "holy cow!" when surprised may be another example.

An actual 'sacred cow' or 'sacred bull'  is a real animal that is treated with sincere respect in specific religions and their celebrations. They cannot eat the meat of cows because they are sacred.
In religion 
In Hinduism, cows are thought to be sacred, or deeply respected. Cows are seen as a 'caregiver' or maternal figure. One Hindu goddess, Bhoomi (भूमि), is usually shown in the form of a cow. She represents the Earth. Most Hindus respect cows for their gentle nature, and cows also represent strength. Hindus who eat meat will avoid eating [cow meat]. 

There is a festival to thank cows for serving farmers for agriculture, This festival is called as "Mattupongal" which is one among the four days of the grand Indian festival called the Pongal which is completely focused on thanking each and every agricultural implement.

Celebration of cows 

In the Hindu tradition, cows are honored, garlanded and given special feedings at festivals all over India. One is the annual Gopastami festival, dedicated to Krishna and cows.
The cow's nature is represented in Kamadhenu; the goddess who is the mother of all cows. In India, more than 3,000 institutions called Gaushalas care for old and infirm cows. According to animal husbandry statistics there are about 44,900,000 cows in India, the highest in the world. So while some old and infirm cows are treated in Gaushalas, the rest are generally abandoned at public places such as railway stations and bazaars.

Honoring the cow inspires in people the virtues of gentleness and connects them with nature. The cow gives milk and cream, yogurt and cheese, butter and ghee. The milk of a cow is believed to refine a person. The ghee (clarified butter) from the milk is used in ceremonies and in preparing religious food. Cow dung is used as fertilizer, as a fuel, and as a disinfectant in homes.

Quotes

Related pages 
 Vegetarianism

References

Figures of speech
Hinduism
In Hinduism, a murti (also spelled murthi or murthy) usually means an image in which the Divine Spirit is expressed ('murta'). Hindus call the presence of God into the image so that they can communicate with him and receive his blessings.Hindus don't worship the murti or statue itself but the god who is present in their minds and souls. It can also be set up any where

Role of murtis in worship
Murtis sometimes are abstract, but almost always stone or metal images of God in a human-like form like Shiva or Ganesha, Rama or Krishna, Saraswati or Kali. Murtis are made according to strict prescriptions and then installed by highly trained priests through a ceremony. The priests can then call on God in the image daily.
Murtis in Hindu  temples and shrines are a mystical form of communication with God and devas. This is similar to our ability to communicate with others through the telephone. One does not talk to the telephone; rather the telephone is a way to interact with another person. Without the telephone, one could not have a conversation across long distances; and without the sanctified image in the temple, one cannot easily talk with the Deity.

Going beyond murtis in Hinduism
The image or murti of worship is a focus for prayers, although Hindus can see God is in all things, in stone and water, fire, air and ether, in the enlightened person of a satguru and inside their own soul. Some temples do not have any murti in the sanctum but a symbolic diagram. Some Hindu branches reject the worship of images.
In Hinduism, one of the highest achievements is when one goes beyond the need of all form and symbol. This is the yogi’s goal obtained through meditation.  Hinduism is also one of the religions that uses more symbols to represent God in preparation for getting beyond them.

Sacred images in other religions
Image worship appears to be an intelligent, mystical practice shared by all of the world’s great religions. All religions have their symbols of holiness: the Christian cross, or statues of Mother Mary and Saint Theresa, the holy Kaaba in Mecca, the Sikh Adi Granth enshrined in the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Arc and Torah of the Jews, the image of a meditating Buddha, the totems of indigenous and Pagan faiths, and the artifacts of the holy men and women of all religions. Any Christian respects the Bible and considers it sacred. His book and the Hindu’s murtis are similar in this way.
Critics of image worship consider this practice "idolatry". People who practice idolatry believe that God is the material object itself. Instead, Hindus worship murtis to call on the presence of the spiritual God and then communicate with him.

References

Hinduism
Religious objects
Virtual Memory is a way of managing memory which is a recent trend of technology used in computers. Hardware (the physical part of the computer, such as the CPU or graphics card) runs software. This software will need computer memory to run, and do what it needs to do. Most computers in use today can do more than one thing at a time, they run more than one application. This is known as multiprocessing. 

In this case, all the programs or applications that are running on the computer at a time share its resources. A computer does not have more processors or main memory (RAM) just because more programs run on it.
Virtual memory is the idea that the application sees a block of memory of a given size. The application can use this memory as it sees fit. This block of memory is virtual in the sense that it comes from different parts. Some of it may be in the main memory of the computer, but some may also be on disk. The CPU has a special part, called Arithmetic Logic Unit which does some of the translations between application memory and system resources. Modern operating systems also do a part of this work.

When a program tries to access a block of memory that is not in system memory, that program is stopped, and the block is loaded into system memory. What was in that part of the system memory is written to disk. This is usually called paging.
Certain computer systems, such as  embedded systems, do not use virtual memory, because they need a very fast response time, or one that always stays the same. One of the problems is that with virtual memory it is difficult to predict the response time. An application that uses a part of memory which needs to be loaded from disk will have a different response time from one that does not. Therefore, virtual memory concept is not used in embedded systems. 

Computer science
The Bolshoi Theatre (Russian: Большой театр, Bol'shoy Teatr, Large Theater) is a world-famous theatre and opera company in Moscow, Russia, which gives performances of ballet and opera. It is in the centre of Moscow, near the Kremlin.

History of the building

The Bolshoi Theatre began in 1776 when Empress Catherina II allowed Prince Pyotr Urusov to run theatrical performances.  That theatre burned down and a new one was built in 1825.  After that one burned down too, it was rebuilt and reopened in 1856.  After that, no important repairs were made to the building for 150 years.  By the beginning of the 21st century it was in a very bad state and in danger of falling down.  Major repairs were started in 2005, and the theatre was re-opened in 2011.
At the time of the Communist Revolution (1917), the Bolsheviks thought the theatre represented the old tsars and everything that had been bad in Russia.  They wanted to demolish it.  Then they started to use it for their meetings.  Lenin and Stalin both gave speeches there.  The operas that were performed had to be ones that did not criticize the Soviet Union in any way

References

Other websites
From Russia With Love: Costumes for the Ballets Russes 1909-1933 

Opera houses
Buildings and structures in Moscow
A guild is an association of craftspeople or merchants who control the practice of their craft in a town. 

Many groups of people started as guilds, including scholars, and religious guilds. Many modern organisations, like universities, started as guilds. However, the basic idea of a guild was to control the training and practice of a trade or business. In Europe, guilds were given authority by the monarch. New young members had to serve as apprentices to a master for a certain length of time (such as seven years). At the end they became full members of the guild, and could set up on their own, and take apprentices of their own. That is the way the European world worked up to and including the first part of the 20th century.
There were guilds of weavers and dyers in the wool trade, of masons and architects in the building trade. There were guilds of painters,  blacksmiths, bakers, butchers, and so on. The Corporation of the City of London includes the "livery companies". These companies were originally guilds. The senior members of the livery companies choose the Lord Mayor of London, the sheriffs and certain other officers.

Guilds were common in the cities of the Middle Ages. After that, around 1700 to 1800 their influence lessened somewhat. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith were much opposed to the idea of guilds. They believed that guilds hindered economic development and free trade.

References 

Middle Ages
Organizations by type
Delara Darabi (; September 29, 1986 - May 1, 2009) was a Iranian girl, who was sentenced to death at age of 17. She was convicted of murder, despite her highly probably innocence and was executed by hanging.

Case
Case 

Her case has raised controversy for number a reasons:
 Iranian Government had signed the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Convention on the Rights of the Child, and, according to this, no person under age of 18 could be sentenced to death; however, despite this, Iran had executed number of minors;
 Her guilty verdict is disputable:
 She had initially claimed responsibility for having murdered her father's cousin, Mahin Darabi, in order to protect her boyfriend Amir Hussein (age 19), because he told her that, because she was under the age of 18, she could not have received the death sentence. What he said was wrong.  Amir Hussein recevied 10 years in prison for being Delara's "accomplice" in Mahin's murder, while Delara was sentenced to death.
 Delara was left-handed, and there is abundant evidence that the murderer was right-handed.
Delara's sentence was upheld by Iran's Supreme Court. The only person who could commute the sentence is Iranian Head of Judiciary, Ayatollah Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi.

In January 2007, Delara attempted to commit suicide.

Darabi was kept in Rasht Prison. According to her family and attorney, she was severely beaten by prison guards and fellow prisoners and left with a broken arm. Conditions in prison were extremely poor, leading Delara to repeatedly file requests to be transferred to another prison with better sanitary and overall conditions.  Her requests were not answered.

Darabi was also a talented painter, poet and pianist. Her paintings were exhibited in Tehran and, recently, in Amsterdam.

She was executed May 1, 2009.

Campaigns to save Darabi
There was a petition online to save Darabi. A similar petition was started by Miss Canada 2003 Nazanin Afshin-Jam for another Iranian minor, Nazanin Fatehi, who was also sentenced to death. After worldwide attention and over 350,000 signatures Nazanin Fatehi was finally found innocent and freed. Amnesty International has also made many public statements and a letter campaign about Darabi.

Personal background 

She was born in city of Rasht (Province of Gilan), where she was a high-school student before her arrest. She had three sisters: Elaheh (21-year old), Ghazale (19) and Sheida (8). Elaheh and Ghazale are college students.

Her sisters were also born in Rasht.

Other websites 
 Amnesty International April 2007 Urgent Action call about Delara Darabi 
 Stop Child Executions Campaign page about Delara 
 SaveDelara campaign 
 Delara Darabi paintings presentation

1986 births
2009 deaths
Human rights
Iranian people
Murderers
People executed by hanging
Gilan Province
Freestyle football is a sport played by one person by kicking a football. Freestyle football is a new sport, which has become more popular in recent years. 

To play freestyle football, one needs skill to keep the ball off the ground. This is done by juggling the ball with one's feet. Many people can do this well. At the same time, they can add in more difficult tricks. The most famous trick is called 'around the world'.  There are five or more different ways of doing 'around the world'. Freestyle football can be played anywhere, such as in the street or a park.

Other websites 
Moscow Football Freestyle Organisation
Professional Football Freestyle Agency 
Professional Football Freestyle Agency 

Football
Croydon is a large town in Greater London, southern England in the United Kingdom. It is south of London and is part of the London Borough of Croydon.

History
The town grew up from Anglo-Saxon times around a palace belonging to the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1276 the archbishop allowed a weekly market to take place nearby and this date is taken as the founding of the town. The town grew in the eighteenth century as a stage coach stop on the way to the popular seaside town of Brighton from London. In the nineteenth century railways put the town only 15 minutes from London by fast train and it grew 23 times in terms of the number of people living there between 1801 and 1901.

Things to do
Things to do

Croydon is well known for having many places to go shopping, which includes two shopping centres called Centrale and the Whitgift Centre. A third one called Park Place is planned. Croydon has been rated the 20th best shopping area in the UK. It is also well known for holding a lot of offices for companies to let. The council wants to keep Croydon a big town by building more offices and entertainment facilities so a new place called the Croydon Gateway is planned. Purley Way, just west of Croydon, is a large retail park area which has many shops like Comet (which went in admin in 2012), Sainsbury's, McDonald's, IKEA, Argos, M&S, Boots along with a cinema and bowling alley.

Transport
Croydon is very easy to get to. There is a large bus station on the edge of Croydon, and three railway stations called East Croydon, West Croydon, and South Croydon.
Croydon is also served by Tramlink, a tram system, the only tram system in all of Greater London. It is the place where all four routes meet. They go to places like Elmers End and Beckenham in Bromley to the east, Wimbledon and Mitcham in Merton to the west, and Addington and Addiscombe to the south.

References

London Borough of Croydon
Towns in London
Addington is a village in the London Borough of Croydon in south London. Addington is home to many historical sites in Croydon, like Croydon Palace and the Addington Palace. St Mary's Church is also in Addington and is known for the cross commemorating five archbishops in the foreground. Before the tram system was introduced in 2000 connections to the town were very short with only a few buses to Croydon. 

New Addington is a town close by to Addington. Once there was only one school in the village and all the children went to it, now that school has been demolished.

References

London Borough of Croydon
Villages in England
Gandhi first in 1921, Congress spoke of their flag. The flag Pingali Venkayya, who had designed. There were two colours, red for the Hindus, and green for Muslims. Was in the middle of a cycle. For the other religions in the white paint was added. A few days before Independence, the Constituent Assembly national modified. The spinning wheel replaced by the Ashok Chakra Lee. The new flag of the country's second President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan explained again.

The national flag of India the top band of Saffron color, indicating the strength and courage of the country. The strip between the white is a symbol of peace and truth with Dharma Chakra. The lower green stripe fertility, growth and auspiciousness of the land exhibits. Built on the white strip cycle menstrual cycle says. Wheel of Dharma wheel of the law that says the third century BC Mauryan Emperor Ashoka built the Sarnath Temple was taken from. The Chakra intends to show that this is life in movement and death in stagnation.
Are estimated using the following transfer in Indian flag colors. In flag saffron, white, green and blue colors that HTML Arljilbi and Web colors in the (hexadecimal notation); CMYK equivalent; Dye color and Penton equal number.

References
 
 .
 
 .
 
 
 
 
 
Trevor Royle, The Last Days of the Raj, Cornet Books, Hodder and Stoughton, London, pg. 217)

Notes

Other websites

Additional References

India
National symbols of India
The Indian Emblem of India  is the symbol of the Republic of India, formally called 'National emblem'. It has four lions. The idea for this coat of arms was taken from the Sarnath Lion Capital that was built by Indian emperor Ashoka. It's a pillar in the city of Sarnath. Ashoka built it around 250 BC using a single piece of polished sandstone. The symbol is invariably used on all types of currency notes, passports and coins of India. In the two dimensional view of this symbol, one can see 3 heads (the fourth being hidden from view). It was adopted on 26 January 1950, the day that India became a republic.

The lions represent royalty and pride. It also represents the currency. 

The wheel beneath the lions is called the Ashoka Chakra or Dharmachakra comes from Buddhism, representing Truth and Honesty. The horse and the bull probably stand for the Strength (Mental) of the people of India. There are four Ashoka Chakras in total around the emblem and two horses and bulls each.
The verse written below, Satyamev Jayate is a very popular and revered saying in the ancient language Sanskrit. It can be divided phonetically into three words - Satyam, which means truth, Ev or aev, that is, only and Jayate which means wins or won. The whole verse can be translated as, 'Only (the one who speaks) the truth will win or wins.' This verse describes the power of honesty and truth in society and religion. You can lie to your friends, family, but you cannot lie to God and yourself. Your conscience will forever be stained.

The verse can also be translated as 'The truth alone triumphs'. Meaning that even after all the lies and deceptions with which we have been fooled, the truth will finally emerge victorious.

References

India
National symbols of India
Lions in heraldry
The Spanish Wikipedia (In Spanish: Wikipedia en Español) is a Spanish-language edition of Wikipedia. Started in May 2001, it is the 9th-largest Wikipedia by article count. The Spanish Wikipedia has about  articles.

References

Other websites 

 Spanish Wikipedia main page.

Wikipedias
Spanish language
Crystal Palace is a place and former site of a landmark in London, England. The town is between the London Boroughs of Croydon, Bromley, Lambeth, Southwark and Lewisham. 

The town is home of the Crystal Palace television mast, a large aerial which receives television and radio signals so that people in London can hear or see the channels. The Croydon Transmitter was also put in Crystal Palace, so if something went wrong with the Crystal Palace Ariel this one could take over.
The space used to hold The Crystal Palace, a large building made mostly out of glass. It was called The Great Exhibition of 1851 and used to be in Hyde Park, but the palace was moved to Crystal Palace in 1854. People went to it for over seven decades. Sydenham Hill, where the Crystal Palace was, is one of the highest locations in London and the size of the palace made it easy to see from Central London. This led to the area around the building becoming known as Crystal Palace instead of Sydenham Hill. The palace was destroyed by fire on the 30th November 1936 and the site of the building and its grounds are now known as Crystal Palace Park and include an olympic sized swimming pool.

Crystal Palace Park is a large park in Crystal Palace, which is known across South London, mainly for the statues of the dinosaurs. There is also a stadium used for national athletics and a large sports centre.
There is no town centre in Crystal Palace, as most of the area is covered by homes, although many people confuse Upper Norwood town centre (which has a Sainsbury's in it) as Crystal Palace. Anerley is also close by. There is a bus station on Crystal Palace Parade and there is a train station in Crystal Palace for Central London and Croydon.

Other websites 

 Map of Crystal Palace 

Towns in London
Al-`Askarī or the `Askariyya Mosque/Shrine (Arabic: مرقد الامامين علي الهادي والحسن العسكري; transliterated: Marqad al-Imāmayn `Alī l-Hādī wa l-Ħassan al-`Askarī) is a Shī`a Muslim holy site. It is in the Iraqi city of Samarra. Samara is 60 miles from Baghdad. It is one of the most important Shīite mosques in the world. It was built in 944. Its dome was destroyed in February 2006 (see al-`Askarī Mosque Bombing).

The remains of the tenth and eleventh Shī`a Imāms, `Alī l-Hādī and his son Hassan al-`Askarī, known as "the two `Askarīs" (al-`Askariyyān), rest at the shrine. It stands next to a shrine to the Twelfth or "Hidden" Imām, Muħammad al-Mahdī. The `Askariyya Shrine is also known as the "Tomb or Mausoleum of the Two Imāms", "the Tomb of Imāms `Alī l-Hādī and Hassan al-`Askarī" and al-Hadhratu l-`Askariyya.

Also buried inside the Mosque are the remains of Hakimah Khatun, sister of `Alī l-Hādī, and of Narjis Khatun, mother of Muħammad al-Mahdi.
Time magazine reported at the time of the 2006 al-Askari mosque bombing that “al-Askari [is] one of Shi'ite Islam's holiest sites. Only the shrines of Najaf and Karbala are more important. Even Samarra's Sunnis hold al-Askari in high esteem. The expression 'to swear by the shrine' is routinely used by both communities".

History
The Imāms `Alī l-Hādī (also known as an-Naqī) and Hassan al-`Askarī lived under house arrest in the part of Samarra that had been Caliph al-Mu'tasim's military camp (`Askaru l-Mu'tasim). As a result, they are known as the `Askariyyān ("Dwellers in the Camp"). They died and were buried in their house on Abī Ahmad Street near the mosque built by Mu'tasim. A later tradition attributes their deaths to poison.
The shrine around their tombs was built in 944 by the Hamdanid governor Nasīr ad-Dawla. It became a focus for pilgrims. It was developed and rebuilt several times in following centuries, including, in particular, by Arslan al-Basasiri around 1053 and by Caliph an-Nasīr li-Dīn Allāh in 1209.

Nasir ad-Din Shah Qajar undertook the latest remodelling of the shrine in 1868, with the golden dome added in 1905. Covered in 72,000 gold pieces and surrounded by walls of light blue tiles, the dome was a dominant feature of the Samarra skyline. It was approximately 20 metres in diameter by 68 metres high.

Bombings
Bombings

2006 attack
On February 22, 2006, at 6:55 a.m. local time (0355 UTC) explosions occurred at the mosque. The explosions destroyed its golden dome and severely damaged the mosque. Several men, one wearing a military uniform, had earlier entered the mosque. They tied up the guards there and set explosives, which resulted in the blast. Two bombs were set off by five to seven men dressed as personnel of the Iraqi Special forces who entered the shrine during the morning.

2007 attack
At around 9 a.m. on 13 June 2007, suspected al-Qaeda people destroyed the two remaining 36m-high golden minarets flanking the dome's ruins. No fatalities were reported. Iraqi police have reported hearing "two nearly simultaneous explosions coming from inside the mosque compound at around 9 a.m." A report from state run Iraqia Television stated that "local officials said that two mortar rounds were fired at the two minarets."

References
References

Other websites
 Aljazeera picture gallery
 Images of the destruction: before and after
 BBC picture gallery
 BBC video
 NYT picture gallery

Mosques in Iraq
10th-century buildings and structures
Hathor was an Egyptian goddess. She was a cow goddess and was associated with the Milky Way. Hathor was the daughter of Ra.

Temples and worship 

There are still remains of Hathor's temple in Dendera, Egypt. Dendara was her most well known. Her temple is 37 miles away from Luxor.  It is thought that the temple of Hathor was built and decorated between the second century B.C.E. and the first century C.E. It had two intricately designed columned halls with the head of the goddess Hathor engraved in to each of them.  Additionally, several shrines were built on the flat roof of the temple.  There was also an enclosed sacred lake where the priests and patients would bath in order to heal themselves and become pure. There was sacred treasure hidden in two underground rooms near the sanctuary. At her temple people would pray to her for good wealth.  Overall, Hathor was a busy goddess, as were most of the other gods and goddesses.

Goddess' purpose
Goddess' purpose 

In Egypt, Hathor was the goddess of love, beauty, dancing, music, and fertility. Hathor is one of the main goddesses. Hathor means "House of Horus". Before Hathor was the nice goddess she was the goddess of destruction. There was a myth that Ra ordered Hathor (Sekmet) to go out to eat the people. But days passed and Ra wanted Sekmet (Hathor) to stop but Sekmet was enjoying it. So Ra dyed beer red and scattered it all over the land. Sekmet saw it and thought it was the blood of the people she killed, so she drank it all and became drunk. After she slept for three days and woke up renewed, she didn't want to eat human flesh any more and became a new goddess, Hathor.
Appearance 
Hathor appeared in four different forms. In human form, Hathor had a cow head with two cow horns. She was represented as a cow because cows were highly valued animals. She wore a menat which was a special necklace. A menat is a heavy beaded necklace with a crescent shape in the front and a tall mushroom shaped piece in the back. In one of her animal forms, she was a cow with an ankh. An ankh was the symbol of life. Another of Hathor's animal forms was a fierce lion.  Hathor's symbol was a cow with a sun disc.  The ancient Egyptians drew her as the sky of the Milky Way. Hathor's titles include the Golden One, the Lady of Song, the Mistress of Maidens, and the Lady of the Sycamore. She had traveled to Greece from a horrible argument with the gods and goddesses, she was banished from the land, and she was so ashamed of herself, she became the goddess of beauty and love.
Power 
Hathor had a lot of power over Ancient Egyptians moods. Hathor had the power to bring laughter, happiness and joy. If she was far away the Egyptians mood would become miserable. Hathor very much enjoyed helping and changing others moods embracing them and loving them dearly. Hathor saw past the hell that was placed and granted Peace to all for eternity. Everyone then became their own Ptah.

References 
Relmer, Pat Egyptian Mythology 
Dunand, Francoise God and Men in Egypt 
Manning, Ruth Ancient Egyptian Women 
Wilkinson, Richard The Complete Gods and Goddesses in Ancient Egypt 
Barret, Clive The Egyptians Gods and Goddesses 
Lesko, Barbara The Great Goddesses of Egypt 
Fisher, Lenard The Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt

 Hathor Article by Caroline Seawright 
 Domain of Het-Hert (Hathor) 

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Santorini is an archipelago in the Aegean Sea. It is about  north of Crete. The archipelago is made of five islands. The biggest of these is also called Santorini. Orther names for the archipelago, and the island are Thera or Thira. The archipelago formed around a caldera. 13.600 people live there. The island has been settled for a long time, there are archeologial sites dating to Minoan times, and to the paleolithic.  The volcano erupted around 1500 BC, and may have wiped out the Minoan culture there. The island was later resettled. 

Wine regions
Calderas
Volcanoes of Europe
Islands of Greece
Sāmarrā () is a town in Iraq. It is on the east bank of the Tigris in the Salah ad Din Governorate, 125 km north of Baghdad. In 2003, the town had an estimated population of 348,700 people. 

Samarra is a city of culture and heritage. Samarra is home to the Malwiya Mosque Minerat. In 836 CE, the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mu'tasim founded a new capital at the banks of the Tigris. Here he built extensive palace complexes surrounded by garrison settlements for his guards, mostly drawn from Central Asia and Iran (most famously the Turks).

Cities in Iraq
The Holy See (Latin: Sancta Sedes, "holy seat") is the title for the office of the Bishop of Rome, that is, the Pope. 
The Holy See also means the Pope and the Roman Curia, the governing body of the Roman Catholic Church.

Every episcopal see is seen as holy and the Eastern Orthodox Church calls all of its sees "holy" or "sacred" (). "The Holy See" (definite singular) usually refers to the see of Rome, which is also called "the Apostolic See". While "Apostolic See" can refer to any see founded by any of the Apostles, the term is in this case refers to the see of the bishop seen as successor of Saint Peter, one of the Apostles.

Aside from Rome, the archiepiscopal See of Mainz, which was also of electoral and primatial rank, is the only other Western see that bears the title of "Holy See", although this usage is less common.
Organization of the Holy See 
The Pope governs the Church through the Roman Curia. The Roman Curia consists of the Secretariat of State, nine Congregations, three Tribunals, eleven Pontifical Councils, and an assortment offices that conducts church affairs at the highest level. The Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State, leads and supervises the Curia. The current Secretariat of State, Tarcisio Cardinal Bertone, acts as the Holy See's prime minister. Archbishop Dominique Mamberti, Secretary of the Section for Relations With States of the Secretariat of State acts as the Holy See's foreign minister. Bertone and Mamberti have been chosen to hold these positions by Pope Benedict XVI in September 2006.
International organizations 
The Holy See is active in international organizations and is a member of the following groups:
International Grains Council (IGC)
International Committee for Military Medicine (ICMM)
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO)
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO)*
Universal Postal Union (UPU), International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT)
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
Note: In 1971, the Holy See announced the decision to adhere to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in order to "give its moral support to the principles that form the base of the treaty itself."
The Holy See is also a permanent observer of the following groups:
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
International Labour Organization (ILO)
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
Latin Union (LU)
Organization of American States (OAS) in Washington
Organization of African Unity (OAU)
United Nations*
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
United Nations Drug Control Programme (UNDCP)
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS)
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
World Tourism Organization (WToO)
World Trade Organization (WTO)
World Health Organization (WHO)
World Food Programme (WFP)
Note: the Holy See is a permanent observer in the United Nations and, in July 2004, gained all the rights of full membership except voting. According to Archbishop Celestino Migliore, Holy See Permanent Observer, "We have no vote because this is our choice." He added that the Holy See considers that its current status "is a fundamental step that does not close any path for the future. The Holy See has the requirements defined by the UN statute to be a member state and, if in the future it wished to be so, this resolution would not impede it from requesting it."
The Holy See is an observer on an informal basis of the following groups:
Asian-African Legal Consultative Committee (AALCC)
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
United Nations Committee of Peaceful Use of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS)
World Meteorological Organization in Geneva (WMO)

The Holy See has a delegation to the Arab League in Cairo. It is also a guest of honor to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe.

The Holy See, not the Vatican City, maintains diplomatic relations with states (such as with the United Kingdom), and participates in international organizations. Foreign embassies are accredited to the Holy See, not to the Vatican City, and it is the Holy See that establishes treaties and concordats with other sovereign entities. When necessary, the Holy See will enter a treaty on behalf of the Vatican City.
Under the Lateran Treaty, the Holy See has extraterritorial authority over 23 sites in Rome and five Italian sites outside of Rome, including the Pontifical Palace at Castel Gandolfo.
The same authority is granted by international law to the Apostolic Nunciature of the Holy See in a foreign country.

Related pages
 Roman Curia
Pope Francis
 Pope Benedict XVI
 Vatican City

References

Further reading
 La Due, William J. The Chair of Saint Peter: A History of the Papacy
Other websites 
 The Holy See Website
 Primacy of the Apostolic See
 CIA World Factbook on Holy See 
 Between Venus and Mars, the Church of Rome Chooses Both  - The Holy See’s geopolitics analyzed in the light of the dominant doctrines
 The Holy See in the course of time, from an Orthodox perspective
 Permanent Observer Mission of the Holy See to the United Nations
 Australian Embassy in The Holy See 
 Canadian Embassy to the Holy See 
 British Embassy to the Holy See 
 The Embassy of the Czech Republic at the Holy See in Vatican 
 United States Embassy to the Holy See 
  Vatican City 

Popes
The Tigris is a river in the Middle East. It is the eastern of two rivers that define Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia literally means (the land) between the rivers. The other river is called Euphrates. The source of the river is in the Taurus mountains in Turkey. From there, it flows through Northern Kurdistan in Turkey and forms part of the border between Turkey and Syria. The remainder is in Iraq. 

The river is 1,900 kilometres (1,181 miles) long. It comes together with the Euphrates in the Shatt-al-Arab (which is called Arvand Rud in Persian). The Shatt-al-Arab flows into the Persian Gulf. The river had an important role in the development of civilization, as early farmers used water from the river to water their crops and produce more food.

Rivers of Iraq
Rivers of Turkey
Rivers of Syria
Mesopotamia
In ancient Egyptian mythology, Tawaret (also Taweret) was the demon-wife of Apep, the first god of evil. She was often shown as a hippopotamus. Because female hippos are aggressive to protect their young, pregnant women wore amulets of Tawaret to protect their pregnancies.

Tawaret was a very popular goddess in the first Dynasty. She was, overall, the goddess who protected women during childbirth and pregnancy. In ancient Egypt, it was believed that if you wanted to live through childbirth it was necessary to pray to Tawaret.

Other websites 
 ancientegypt.co.uk

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Seshat was the ancient Egyptian idea of knowledge, shown as a goddess. She became the goddess of writing, astronomy/astrology, architecture, and mathematics. When Thoth became the god of wisdom, Seshat was seen as his daughter, or sometimes, as his wife. In art, she was shown as a woman with a stylised papyrus plant above her head. This symbolised writing since the Egyptians wrote on a material that came from papyrus.

Other websites
thekeep.org 
egyptmyths.net
ancientegypt.co.uk

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Apep in Egyptian mythology was an evil demon. He was associated with darkness and chaos. He was often shown as a snake.

Apep's name was often incorrectly defined as he who was spat out. It was said that he had been formed by Neith, who had been the goddess of the ancient waters in the Ennead, from a length of spit she had spat at Nu, the god of the ancient waters in the Ogdoad. Some subsequent commentators speculated that Apep must have been an earlier creator, and chief god, thus explaining why he had so much anger towards Ra.

It was believed that Ra (the sun) each night passed into Duat and then battled with Apep, always winning except for certain days in which Ra is momentarily devoured, what the Egyptians saw as an eclipse.

Instead of being worshipped he was done the exact opposite and spat upon. Models would be made of wax and clay and then burnt, spat upon, and defaced.
Physical Description 
Apep was a fifty foot long snake.  He was black, orange, and a little bit green. Apep was very strong. He symbolized darkness, storms, night, the underworld and death. Ramses sixth tomb depicted him, having nine heads, representing the souls he killed.
In some depictions he is shown being attacked by a cat. The cat represents Bast, the goddess of cats. Bast was Ra's 'Guardian', so to speak. Bast's job was to protect Ra on his trips through the Duat every night. this is how he became the physical description
Influences 
 The asteroid 99942 Apophis, an Aten-class asteroid, is named in its honour, because it was at Level 4 on the Torino impact hazard scale between 2004 and 2006. 
 The name Apophis was given to the first major false god enemy in the sci-fi series Stargate SG-1
 The name Apep Heidemann was given to the major enemy in the Japanese manga Seraphic Feather. 
 In the Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game, there is a snake-like Trap Card Monster called 'Embodiment of Apophis'. Considering the original Yu-Gi-Oh!'s Egyptian origins, this befits the context of the card game.

Other websites 
 Apep, Water Snake-Demon of Chaos, Enemy of Ra... 
 ancient Egypt: The Mythology - Apep

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Ville Valo (born November 22, 1976) is a Finnish baritone singer and songwriter. He is the lead singer in the Finnish rock band HIM. He lives in Helsinki, Finland.

References

Other websites 
 HIMzone666 
 HIMzone666.forum 

1976 births
Living people

Finnish singer-songwriters
Baritones
Singers from Helsinki
Prefix notation is a mathematical notation. It is a way to write down equations and other mathematical formulae. Prefix notation is also known as Polish notation. The notation was invented by Jan Łukasiewicz in 1920. He wanted to simplify writing logic equations.

When prefix notation is used, no grouping elements (like parenthesis) are needed.

With prefix notation, the function is noted before the arguments it operates on. 

Some CASIO calculators use prefix notation. Some programming languages that were influenced by lambda calculus, like LISP, use prefix notation.

Mathematical notation
Nephthys was a goddess with wide power and capacity, and she was often referred to as "The Excellent Goddess." 
She could also be dangerous, able to kill the enemies of the king with her fiery breath. In this capacity, she was considered a protector of the king. . 
Nephthys has a central role in the popular myths of Osiris; it is her magical powers that helps to resurrect his body, as well as to protect and nurture Horus while he is a child.
She is in some contexts presented as a protector of the dead, in other as protecting the baboon-headed Hapi, one of the 4 canopic jars.
In the Late Period, she became linked with the goddess, Anuket.

Family 
According to myth, Nephthys had four siblings. Her parents were Geb the god of the earth and Nut the goddess of the sky. She was the sister of Isis, Osiris, Horus, and sister/twin and consort of Seth. Nephthys was also the mother of Anubis, the jackal-headed one with black skin.
Cult 
In the 19th Dynasty of the Ramesside Pharaohs, a temple of Nephthys called the "House of Nephthys of Ramesses-Meriamun" was built in the town of Sepermeru, midway between Oxyrhynchos and Herakleopolis, on the outskirts of the Fayyum and quite near to the modern site of Deshasheh.

References 
Relmer, Pat Egyptian Mythology A to Z
Fisher, Leonard The Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt
Barett, Clive The Egyptian Gods and Goddesses

Other websites 
 ancientegypt.co.uk
 touregypt.net
 pantheon.org 
 http://www.Touregypt.net/godsofegypt/Nephthys2.htm
 http://www.aelives.com/gods.htm 
 http://www.philae.nu/Akhet/Netjurun.html

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Anuket was the first ancient Egyptian goddess of the Nile river in areas like Elephantine Island, at the start of the Nile's journey through Egypt, and in nearby parts of Nubia. Her temple was built at the Island of Seheil. 

Since the god Khnum and goddess Satis were thought to be the gods of the source of the Nile, Anuket was believed to be their daughter. The Egyptians believed that the two tributaries in her area of the Nile were her arms. Because tributaries move quickly, she became associated with fast-moving things, like arrows, and the gazelle. 

In art, she was usually shown as a gazelle, or with a gazelle's head, and sometimes had a headdress of feathers.

When the Nile started its annual flood, the Festival of Anuket began. People threw coins, gold, jewelry, and precious gifts into the river, thanking Anuket for the life-giving water. The taboo that was held in several parts of Egypt of not eating fish, which were considered sacred, was lifted during this time.
Other websites 
 touregypt.net
 egyptianmyths.net
 pantheon.org 

Egyptian gods and goddesses
The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the ancestor of the Indo-European languages.

It is the best-understood of all proto-languages. It was put together by the methods of historical linguistics.

Discovery and reconstruction 
There are different ideas about when and where PIE was spoken. PIE may have been spoken as a single language. Then it began to separate, around 3700 BC. The exact date is not known. The most popular hypothesis for where it came from and how it spread is called the Kurgan hypothesis. In this theory, its origin is in the Pontic-Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe.

Method 
There is no direct evidence of PIE because it was never written. All PIE sounds and words are reconstructed from later Indo-European languages. The asterisk symbol is used to mark reconstructed PIE words, for example: * 'water', * 'dog', or * 'three (masculine)'. Many words in modern Indo-European languages seem to have come from such "proto-words" by regular sound changes, such as Grimm's law.

Phonology
Phonology

Vowels
The vowels in commonly used notation are:

Consonants

The corresponding consonants in commonly used notation are:

The following phonemes are generally accepted:
 Short vowels 
 Long vowels ; usually the macron is used to mark long vowels (a:, e:, o:). Sometimes, a colon (:) is also used to say that the vowel is long.
 Diphthongs 
 vowel allophones of consonantal phonemes: .

Accent 
PIE had a free pitch accent. That means that the stress of a word could happen on any syllable and could change even for related words. Different meanings of a word could be marked only with high or low pitch.

Morphology 
PIE was an inflected language: it had roots with suffixes. That basic root shape is often altered by the ablaut, a system of regular vowel changes. An example of ablaut in English is the strong verb sing, sang, sung and the related noun song.
Synthetic 
Most Indo-European languages are synthetic. That means they have many morphemes per word. Morphemes may be combined to make complex words, as in German Root words may be put on "bound morphemes" to show their function, which are morphemes that appear only as part of a larger word.
 German example: Aufsichtsratsmitgliederversammlung => "Supervision + council + member + assembly"
 Spanish example: escribiéndomelo => "writing it to me"

Those methods were probably used often in PIE. Languages like English, which don't have a lot of combinations like that, come from earlier, more typical Indo-European languages. English comes from Anglo-Saxon, a Western Germanic language. The fact that English once was synthetic like German is shown by cranberry morphemes, which are so called because the "cran-" is a fossil of a word that no longer exists. Also, mulberry and raspberry, where also the first syllable is a bound morpheme.
Sample texts 
Because PIE was spoken a very long time ago, there are no texts anymore. Scientists have tried many times to make example texts for to show what it could be like. These are just educated guesses. People have tried for 150 years to make a single sentence in PIE, but this has not happened yet. Even so, such texts are still useful because they show what PIE might have looked like.

People have rewritten a text by Schleicher multiple times as an example text:

Schleicher (1868) 
Avis akvāsas ka

Avis, jasmin varnā na ā ast, dadarka akvams, tam, vāgham garum vaghantam, tam, bhāram magham, tam, manum āku bharantam. Avis akvabhjams ā vavakat: kard aghnutai mai vidanti manum akvams agantam. Akvāsas ā vavakant: krudhi avai, kard aghnutai vividvant-svas: manus patis varnām avisāms karnauti svabhjam gharmam vastram avibhjams ka varnā na asti. Tat kukruvants avis agram ā bhugat.
Schleicher's reconstruction says that that the o/e vocalism was secondary. His version of PIE is more like Sanskrit than modern reconstructions are.

Hirt (1939) 
Owis ek’wōses-kʷe

Owis, jesmin wьlənā ne ēst, dedork’e ek’wons, tom, woghom gʷьrum weghontm̥, tom, bhorom megam, tom, gh’ьmonm̥ ōk’u bherontm̥. Owis ek’womos ewьwekʷet: k’ērd aghnutai moi widontei gh’ьmonm̥ ek’wons ag’ontm̥. Ek’wōses ewьwekʷont: kl’udhi, owei!, k’ērd aghnutai vidontmos: gh’ьmo, potis, wьlənām owjôm kʷr̥neuti sebhoi ghʷermom westrom; owimos-kʷe wьlənā ne esti. Tod k’ek’ruwos owis ag’rom ebhuget.

Hirt introduced the o/e vocalist and some rather different consonants.

English translation 
The Sheep and the Horses