Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Breed Traits 
Arabian horses have triangle-shaped heads, a wide forehead, big eyes, large nostrils, and small muzzles (noses). Most have a concave or "dished" profile. They have a slim, arched neck, smooth hindquarters and a naturally high-carried tail. Arabians have strong bone and good feet. They are especially noted for their excellent endurance. Arabians' hair coat colors are bay, gray, chestnut, and black. Arabians can have robicono and/or sabino genes. All Arabians have black skin under their hair coat, except under white markings.
The Bedouin sold many Arabian horses to people from Europe. Other Arabian horses were captured in war and taken to other countries outside of the Middle East. Today, Arabian horses are found all over the world. Arabian horse families are now labeled by where their most recent ancestors were bred, such as "Polish," "Spanish," "Crabbet" (from England), "Russian," "Egyptian", and "Domestic" (in the United States), and "Weil-Marbach" in Germany. For example, a horse called a "Polish Arabian" is an Arabian horse who has recent ancestors that were bred at farms in Poland, from horses the Polish people bought from the Bedouin in Arabia many centuries ago.

Uses 
Arabians compete in many places, including horse racing, horse shows, Endurance riding, show jumping, and more. They also make good pleasure, trail, and working ranch horses for people who do not like competitive events. Arabians also are seen in movies, parades, circuses and other places where horses are used.

History
History 

There are many legends and myths about Arabian horses. One legend says that the prophet Muhammad selected his five finest mares (female horses), called Al Khamsa ("the five") to be the foundation of the Arabian breed. Another legend says the Queen of Sheba gave an Arabian mare to King Solomon, and that is how the breed began. Yet another story says Allah made the Arabian horse from the south wind, saying, "I create thee, Oh Arabian...I give thee flight without wings."
In the desert, humans were the only source of food and water for the Arabian horse. Where there was no pasture, the Bedouin fed their horses dates, a fruit of the date palm tree, and camel's milk. Arabians needed to live on very little food, and survive a dry climate that was very hot in the day but very cold at night. Weak horses did not live, and the horses who survived the desert also had to survive being ridden for war. Therefore, the Arabian horse became very tough and able to live in a harsh world.

Famous Arabian horses 
Napoleon rode a gray Arabian stallion named Marengo. George Washington rode a half-Arabian named Blueskin during the American Revolution. A fictional horse, "The Black Stallion," was played by a real Arabian stallion named Cass Ole in the movie that was based on the book by Walter Farley.
Aziziye Stud 
In 1864 the Sultan Abdulaziz, founded a new Horse stud with Arabian horses and sent a commission to purchase in Bialocerkiew, the stud of Count Branicki in Poland, whose breeding have a very good reputation. The Commission purchased 92 horses, including some descendants of the 1855 stallion Indjanin imported from England.

Other websites 
 Arabian Horse Association (USA) 
 Arabian Horse site (AR)  

Horse breeds
The Earth's crust is the Earth's hard outer layer. It is less than 1% of Earth's volume. The crust is made up of different types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

Below the crust is the mantle. The crust and the upper mantle make up the lithosphere. The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates that can move.

The crust is of two different types. One is the continental crust (under the land) and the other is the oceanic crust (under the ocean). 
The continental crust is thicker, 30 km (20 mi) to 50 km (30 mi) thick. It is mostly made of less dense, more felsic rocks, such as granite. 
 The oceanic crust is thinner, 5 km (3 mi) to 10 km (6 mi) thick. It is made of denser, more mafic rocks, such as basalt.

The temperature of the crust increases with depth because of geothermal energy. Where the crust meets the mantle the temperatures can be between 200 °C (392 °F) to 400 °C (752 °F). The crust is the coldest layer because it is exposed to the atmosphere.

Composition
Composition 

Igneous rocks make up over 90% of Earth's crust by volume.p47 This is not noticeable because they are mostly covered by sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

A single family of silicates, the feldspars, account for about half of the material in the crust (60% by weight), and quartz is a sizeable proportion of the rest. Other common minerals are mica and hornblende.

Only 8% of Earth's crust is non-silicate minerals, and this includes carbonates, sulfides, chlorides and oxides.

Formation of the crust 
Earth's mantle and crust formed about 100 million years after the formation of the planet, about 4.6 billion years ago. At first the crust was very thin, and was probably changed often as the tectonic plates shifted around a lot more than they do now. The crust would have been destroyed many times by asteroids hitting Earth, which was much more common in the Late Heavy Bombardment.
The average age of Earth's continental crust is about 2.0 billion years. Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are in cratons. Such old continental crust and the mantle below it are less dense than other places in the Earth. These are not easily destroyed when the plates shift. The making of new continental crust is linked to times of major orogeny or mountain building. This happens at the same time as the formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea and Gondwana. The crust forms in part by the coming together of island arcs including granite and metamorphic fold belts. They are kept together partly by the subduction of the mantle below the crust, which makes a mantle on which the crust can float.

References 

Structure of the Earth
A food chain shows the feeding relationship between different organisms in a particular environment and/or habitat. 

Plants are at the bottom of a food chain because they are producers that make their food from photosynthesis. Consumers are animals that eat the products of producers or other animals.  The direction of arrows between the organisms shows who eats what and what gets eaten by what.

A food chain also represents a series of events and consumption in which food and energy are consumed from one organism in an ecosystem to another. Food chains show how energy is passed from the sun to producers, from producers to consumers, and from consumers to decomposes such as fungi. They also show how animals depend on other organisms for food.

In any ecosystem, many food chains overlap. Different food chains may include some of the same organisms. Several consumers may eat the same kind of plant or animal for food. When this happens, the food chain forms a food web.

Related pages
Ecology

References
References 

Food and drink
Predation
Embryology is the study of embryos and their development. The study of embryology starts with the fertilisation of an egg, and continues until the foetus stage. A broader term, developmental biology, covers the whole period of growth from the egg to adult life.  

In mammals (and some other animals) embryos develop inside the mother, in the mother's womb. Otherwise it takes place after the egg is laid. It most animals, there are various stages between the egg and the adult animal. If the stages are well-defined the process is called metamorphosis. 

Developmental biology
Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals, particularly the tissues. It is a part of cytology, and an essential tool of biology and medicine.

Histology is usually done by looking at cells and tissues under a light microscope or electron microscope. The tissue has to be specially prepared beforehand.

The process 
The stages below are only described in outline. Laboratories which do histology work from schedules which are much more detailed.

Fixing 
Chemical fixatives are used to preserve tissue from decay. This preserves the structure of the cell and of sub-cellular components such as cell organelles (e.g., nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria). The most common fixative for light microscopy is formalin (4% formaldehyde in saline).

Embedding 
After fixing, the block of tissue is embedded in paraffin wax. This holds and preserves the tissue as a block.
Sectioning 
The section is cut into a series of wafer-thin slices, each of which is put on a glass microscope slide. The machine which cuts the block is a mechanical guillotine which can be set to cut at a suitable depth for the tissue in question.

Staining 
Stains are dyes, chemicals used to make cells and tissues easy to see under a microscope. There are many tissue stains, and each of them has advantages and disadvantages.

Haematoxylin and eosin  (H&E) 
This is the most widely used stain in biology and medicine. Haematoxylin colours cell nuclei and eosin colours cell cytoplasm.

Silver nitrate 
Camillo Golgi developed a silver nitrate stain for nerve cells. His idea was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in his famous work on the structure of brain tissue.

Modern techniques 
Electron microscopy is used often as well as light microscopy. This has its own procedures. Its advantage is that it resolves things which light cannot resolve. For example, viruses were first seen by electron microscopy..
Specialised selective stains using immunology or radioactive labelling are now routine. The advantage of using antibodies or radioactive labels is that they stick to specific kinds of molecules. 
Increasingly popular is tagging with a fluorescent stain, which shows up even if a tiny part of a cell is stained. Immunoinfluorescence is the name of this particular technique.

Other websites

Anatomy
Laboratory techniques
Ann Arbor is a city in the US state of Michigan. It is the county seat of Washtenaw County. According to the 2010 United States Census, Ann Arbor was the 6th largest city in Michigan. In 2010, there were 113,934 people living there. The city is part of the Detroit Metropolitan Combined Statistial Area.

Ann Arbor was started in 1824. It is thought that the city is named after the wife, Ann, of one of the founders. The University of Michigan was moved to Ann Arbor in 1837. (Before that, the university had been in Detroit.) The city grew during the 1800s and 1900s. The only time the city did not grow was the Depression of 1873.

During the 1960s and 1970s, Ann Arbor was an important place for the Civil Rights Movement, the anti-Vietnam War movement, and for left-wing and liberal politics.
Today, Ann Arbor is home to the University of Michigan. The university is very important to the city because 30,000 people work for it. 12,000 of these workers work for the University of Michigan Health System, which are hospitals and clinics run by the university. Ann Arbor's economy is also very high-tech. High-tech companies come to the area because there are many graduates and a lot of research and development money at the university.

Sources 

County seats in Michigan
 
1824 establishments in the United States
1820s establishments in Michigan Territory
Microbiology -  (Greek μικρός, mikrós, „tiny“, βίος, bíos, „life“ and λόγος, lógos, „science“) is a science in the composition of biology, which is occupied by the study of microorganisms (bacterium, (archaebacteria), microscopic fungi, protozoa,alga,and viruses). Into the field of the interests of microbiology enter their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, evolution, role in the ecosystems 
and also the possibility of practical use. Bacteriology and medical microbiology are a division of microbiology.

History 

In 1665, Robert Hooke saw that cork was made up of little cubes that he named cells. Later Anton van Leeuwenhoek made the important connection that cells are living things when he saw through his early microscope smallest one-celled organisms. Later Christian Ehrenberg found that protista or bacteria were different kinds of cells. In the late part of the 1800s Martinus Beijerinck showed that there were small particles called viruses.
Another important change in the study of microorganisms came from the discovery of DNA and RNA.  This allowed using a vector to change the inside of a cell without killing it.  One recent discovery that changed the study of microbiology is the discovery of transposons or jumping genes.  Another one is the discovery of animal genes in the cells.

Branches 

The branches of microbiology can be classified into pure and applied sciences.  Microbiology can be also classified based on taxonomy, as in the cases of bacteriology, mycology, protozoology, and phycology.  There is considerable overlap between the specific branches of microbiology with each other and with other disciplines.  Certain aspects of these branches can extend beyond the traditional scope of microbiology
A  transposable element  is often called a transposon. It is a sequence of DNA that can move to new positions in the genome of a single cell. The press sometimes call them jumping genes, but it is not correct to call them 'genes'.

Transposons were first found by Barbara McClintock while working on maize in the 1930s to 1950s. She discovered transposition in maize, but it took years before her work was understood. She received a Nobel Prize for her work in 1983.

Transposition can create significant mutations and alter the cell's genome size.

Types 

Transposons are only one of several types of mobile genetic elements.
Transposons themselves are of two types according to their mechanism, which can be either "copy and paste" (class I) or "cut and paste" (class II).
Class I (Retrotransposons, aka retoposons):
They copy themselves in two stages, first from DNA to RNA by transcription, then from RNA back to DNA by reverse transcription. The DNA copy is then inserted into the genome in a new position. Retrotransposons behave very similarly to retroviruses, such as HIV.

Class II (DNA transposons):
By contrast, the cut-and-paste transposition mechanisms of class II transposons do not involve an RNA intermediate.

As causes of disease 
Transposons are mutagens. They can damage the genome of their host cell in different ways:
 A transposon or a retroposon that inserts itself into a functional gene will most likely disable that gene.
 After a transposon leaves a gene, the resulting gap will probably not be repaired correctly.
 Multiple copies of the same sequence, such as Alu sequences can hinder precise chromosomal pairing during mitosis and meiosis, resulting in unequal crossovers, one of the main reasons for chromosome duplication.
Use 
Transposons can carry accessory genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes. They can be used to put a gene into the DNA of an organism. This has been done with fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) by putting the transposon into the embryo.
Examples 
 The first transposons were discovered in maize (Zea mays), by Barbara McClintock in 1948, for which she was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1983. She noticed chromosome mutations caused by these transposons. About 50% of the total genome of maize consists of transposons. The Ac/Ds system McClintock described are class II transposons.
 One family of transposons in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster are called P elements. They seem to have first appeared in the species only in the middle of the twentieth century. Within 50 years, they have spread through every population of the species. Artificial P elements are used to insert genes into Drosophila by injecting the embryo.
 The most common form of transposon in humans is the Alu sequence. It is approximately 300 bases long and can be found between 300,000 and a million times in the human genome.
Mariner-like elements are another prominent class of transposons found in multiple species including humans. The Mariner transposon was first discovered by Jacobson and Hartl in Drosophila. This Class II transposable element is known for its uncanny ability to be transmitted horizontally in many species. There are an estimated 14 thousand copies of Mariner in the human genome comprising 2.6 million base pairs.
Evolution 
Transposons are found in many forms of life. They may have arisen independently many times, or perhaps just once and then spread to other kingdoms by horizontal gene transfer.

While some transposons may confer benefits on their hosts, most are regarded as selfish DNA parasites. In this way, they are similar to viruses. Various viruses and transposons also share features in their genome structures and biochemical abilities, leading to speculation that they share a common ancestor.

Excessive transposon activity can destroy a genome, which is lethal. Many organisms have developed mechanisms to inhibit them. Bacteria may delete transposons and viruses from their genomes; eukaryotic organisms use RNA interference (RNAi) to inhibit transposon activity.
In vertebrate animal cells nearly all the 100,000+ DNA transposons in a genome code for inactive polypeptides. In humans, all of the Class I-like transposons are inactive. The first DNA transposon used as a tool for genetic purposes, the Sleeping Beauty transposon system, was a transposon which was resurrected from a long evolutionary sleep.

Role in the immune system 
Transposons may have been co-opted by the vertebrate immune system as a means of producing antibody diversity: The V(D)J recombination system operates by a mechanism similar to that of transposons. This is a system of three genes which get rearranged in the production of vertebrate lymphocytes. The system diversely encode proteins to match antigens from bacteria, viruses, parasites, dysfunctional cells such as tumor cells, and pollens.
The final DNA sequence, and thus the sequence of the antibody, is highly variable, even when the same two V, D, or J segments are joined. This great diversity allows VDJ recombination to generate antibodies even to microbes that neither the organism nor its ancestors have ever previously encountered.

References 

DNA
Evolutionary biology
Toowoomba (also known as 'The Garden City') is a city in South East Queensland, Australia. It is 132 km west of Brisbane, and two hours drive from the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast beaches. With a population around 135,000, Toowoomba is Australia's second largest city that is not on the coast, after Canberra.

Every year in September, Toowoomba holds its annual Flower Festival, at Queens Park. When this is taking place, the town, especially its CBD are decorated with flowers. People who live there may also open their gardens for public judging for the garden competitions. Another attraction is the parade, where one would see floats with flower themes. Many people from all over the nation visit the festival, and a popular way to arrive is on the specially operating retired steam train.

Another major event held in Toowoomba is the Easterfest. It is a large religious festival that thousands of people come to, to see many famous singers perform. Many put up tents on in Queens Park.
Toowoomba is also known for its historical buildings, such as the town hall, The Empire Theatre, and the Cobb & Co Museum. The town hall was the first in Queensland to be built for a town hall. The Empire Theatre was built as a silent movie house in 1911. A fire nearly destroyed the building, but it was built again, and reopened in 1933. Now, it is the biggest regional theatre in Australia. The Cobb & Co Museum began in the 1880s as a small mail run. It moved both mail and passengers to Brisbane and further.

Toowoomba is also home to some notable private schools, including Toowoomba Grammar School (which is a GPS school), Downlands College, and The Glenny School, none of which are 'co-educational'.

During the 2010-2011 Queensland floods, several people were drowned in their cars when water flooded the main shopping centre.

References

Other websites
 Easterfest website

Cities in Queensland
Albury () is a city in New South Wales, Australia. It is on the Hume Highway that runs between Sydney and Melbourne. The Murray River separates Albury from Wodonga. Albury is on the north side of the Murray River. The river is also the border between Victoria and New South Wales. It is about 550 km from the state capital Sydney, but only 312 km from the Victorian capital Melbourne. Albury is believed to have been named after Aldbury in Hertfordshire.

The Australian Aboriginal people called the area Bungambrewatha. There are a number of historical aboriginal sites including rock paintings. There are also scarred trees, where the bark has been removed to make shields and canoes. The rich river flats would have provided food for native animals, and the wetlands would have been home to large numbers of water birds.
The first Europens to arrive in the area were the explorers, Hamilton Hume and William Hovell in 1824. They made their mark in a tree on the riverbank which later became the spot where people heading south would cross the river. Crossing the river was easy in summer when the water level was low. By 1844 a ferry was built to carry people over the river all year. There were soon many farmers moving into the area with large flocks of sheep. Some of the first in Albury were William Wyse and Charles Ebden.

References 

Cities in New South Wales
Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (30 March 1746 – 30 April 1828) was a Spanish painter. He painted many portraits of the Spanish Royal Family. His most famous paintings are Charles IV of Spain and His Family and The Third of May 1808. He regularly painted the famous Duchess of Alba.

Life

Youth 

Goya was born in Fuendetodos, in the region of Aragón, Spain, in 1746. His parents were José Benito de Goya y Franque and Gracia de Lucientes y Salvador. He spent his childhood in Fuendetodos. His father's work was gilding (putting gold onto picture frames). In about 1749, the family moved to a house in the city of Zaragoza. Goya went to school at Escuelas Pias. He became best friends with Martin Zapater. Through their lives, they wrote many letters to each other. Because of these letters, historians know a lot about Goya's life. When he was 14 Goya became an apprentice to the painter José Luzán.
Goya later moved to Madrid where he studied with Anton Raphael Mengs, a painter who was popular with Spanish royalty. Goya and Mengs did not like each other, and Goya got bad marks in his examinations. Goya tried to join the Spanish Royal Academy of Fine Art in 1763 and 1766, but failed.

He then traveled to Rome. In 1771 he won second prize in a painting competition in the city of Parma. Later that year, he returned to Zaragoza. He got work painting frescos in several buildings including the dome of the Basilica of the Pillar. He studied with the painter Francisco Bayeu y Subías. His painting began to show the style which later made his famous.

Success
Success 

Goya married Bayeu's sister, Josefa, in 1774. Francisco Bayeu was a member of the Spanish Royal Academy of Fine Art. This helped Goya to get work with the Royal Tapestry Workshop. He worked there for 5 years, and designed 42 patterns. Many of his designs were made into tapestries and used to decorate the bare stone walls of the royal palaces, such as El Escorial. The Spanish Royal family saw his works and later gave him work as a portrait painter. He also painted an altarpiece (Holy picture) for the Church of San Francisco El Grande. Because of this picture, Goya was at last made a member of the Spanish Royal Academy of Fine Art.

In 1783, the Count of Florida blanca, commissioned Goya (gave Goya the paid work) to paint his portrait. Then King Charles III of Spain and other important people wanted Goya to paint their portraits. Goya became friends with Crown Prince Don Luis, and lived in his house. From 1788, in the reign of Charles IV, Goya became even more popular.
Later life 
In the 1790s Goya became ill. It is not known exactly what his illness was. It is believed that he suffered mental breakdown. He may have had viral encephalitis or several strokes. He may have suffered from dementia. It is also thought that he may have been poisoned by lead paint. His sight, hearing, balance and mental health were all affected. 

His unhappiness was also affected by the French invasion of Spain in 1808. One of his most famous paintings, The Third of May 1808, is about the execution of Spanish men trying to defend their country.
After the defeat of the French, Goya did not get on well with King Ferdinand VII. Goya moved to a house far away from the court. He lived there with his housekeeper and her daughter, and taught painting to the girl, Rosario Weiss. Some of the walls of the house are painted with strange dark pictures, but it is not sure whether Goya did them. For two years Goya lived in France but returned to Spain where he was warmly welcomed home in 1826, He died in 1828 at the age of 82.

Works

Court paintings 
Goya's early cartoons for the royal tapestries are merry scenes of festivals in bright colours.
Two of Goya's most famous paintings were owned by a member of the royal court, Manuel de Godoy. These two paintings are called The Nude Maja (La maja desnuda) and The Clothed Maja (La maja vestida). The nude painting was thought of as very shocking. In 1813, the Inquisition said that both paintings were pornography and took them away. They were returned to Goya in 1836. Nobody knows who the woman was that posed for Goya. One idea is that she was the Duchess of Alba. She may have been Godoy's mistress. Perhaps Goya painted the figure from his imagination. There is only one earlier nude painting by a Spanish artist, Velazquez's "Venus and Cupid", (see National Gallery, London). When this painting was done, other nude figures, painted in Italy, Germany and other countries, always showed the woman as a goddess from mythology or had some other allegorical meaning (was a symbol of some sort)
. This painting is unusual because the nude figure is not meant to be a Goddess and does not seem to have any symbolic meaning. It is the very first life-sized female nude in Western Painting that is just about the beauty of the female body.
Later works 
 In 1793 and 1794 Goya was recovering from his illness. During this time, he painted eleven small pictures painted on tin. These pictures are known as Fantasy and Invention today. They show a change in his art. From that time on, he painted dark, frightening pictures about war, violence and madness.

One painting is called Courtyard with Lunatics. It is a scene in a mental asylum. It is about loneliness and fear. It shows how mentally ill people have trouble dealing with other people and normal life. Goya was the first artist to paint people with mental illness in a realistic way. Goya wanted to show that it was wrong to punish mentally ill people, and lock them up with criminals. There was a movement at this time to improve the life of people in asylums and prisons.
Goya made two series of prints. The first was called Caprichos and the second was called The Disasters of War. The Caprichos series shows nightmarish scenes of the problems with Spanish society. The Disaster of War shows scenes of terrible violence. These were not published until more than 30 years after his death. The Disaster of War were made because of the war between France and Spain. One of Goya's most famous paintings is a large picture called The Third of May 1808.(see above) It is about the executions of Spanish men that took place in 1808. This painting shows the courage of the unarmed Spanish hero. It shows the French soldiers in the firing squad acting as if they have no minds or feelings. This painting was a great inspiration to other painters such as the French painter Manet who painted a scene of the execution of the Governor of Mexico.
Goya's most frightening picture shows a giant man, eating people. It is now called Saturn Devouring His Sons, (after Saturn the Father of the Gods in Greek mythology) but no-one knows what it really means. It is more likely a picture of the way that War destroys people. In the house that Goya owned, there are paintings on the walls known as the Black Paintings. They show scenes with the Devil and witches. It is not sure whether Goya really painted them.

Influence 
Goya's brightly coloured tapestry cartoons influenced the French Impressionist painters such as Monet and Renoir. His portraits were an influence on Manet and Degas as well as Renoir. The Black Paintings influenced Expressionist painters.

References 

1746 births
1829 deaths
Spanish painters
People from Aragon
Deaths from encephalitis
Deaths from dementia
Inclusive disjunction (also called or) is a logic operation. It normally takes two truth values as inputs and returns one truth value as output. It is false when both inputs are false, but is true otherwise. It is written with the symbol .

In general, given two propositions  and ,  is true if  is true, or if  is true, or if both  and  are true.

This is different from the exclusive disjunction, which asserts "either x or y, but not both".

Related pages 

 Alternative
 Boolean algebra
 Horn clause
 Logical conjunction
 XOR gate

References 

Logic
Logical connectives
Logical conjunction (very often called and) is a logic operation. It is represented by the symbol . Logical conjunction takes two truth values as inputs and returns an output. If both of the inputs are "true" at the same time, then logical conjunction outputs "true". If one of the inputs is false, or if both of the inputs are false, then logical conjunction outputs "false".  Its logic gate equivalent is the AND gate.

Related pages 

 Exclusive disjunction
 First order logic

References 

Logic
Logical connectives
Logical negation (also known as not) is a logic operation. For a proposition , its negation is written as . It takes one input. It flips the value of the input as the output. If the input was true, it returns false; If the input was false, it returns true.

Related pages 

 First order logic
 Propositional logic

References 

Logic
Logical equality is a logical operation. It corresponds to equality () in Boolean algebra and biconditional (written  or ) in logic. It takes two inputs. It returns true if both inputs are true or if both inputs are false. Otherwise (when they are different), it returns false.

Related pages 

 Implication (logic)

References 

Logic
Implication (also known as logical consequence, implies, or  If ... then) is a logical operation. It is the relationship between statements that holds true when one logically "follows from" one or more others. While a statement of the form "if P then Q" is often written as , the assertion that "Q is a logical consequence P" is often written as .

Implications take two arguments. It returns false if and only if the first term is true and the second term is false.

This may be problematic, because it means that from a false proposition, anything can follow.

Examples
The following shows a (valid) implication
 All humans are mortal (they die).
 Aristotle is human.
 Therefore, Aristotle is mortal.
On the other hand, the statement I promise that if I am healthy, I will come to class has four possibilities:
 I am healthy, and I do come to class. I have kept my promise.
 I am healthy, and I do not come to class. I have not kept my promise.
 I am not healthy, and I do come to class. I have kept my promise.
 I am not healthy, and I do not come to class. I have kept my promise.
In the second scenario, the statement is false, since the promise is broken. In other scenarios, the statement is true, since the promise is kept.

Related pages
 If and only if
 Implication (grammar)
 Material conditional

References 

Logic
Logical connectives
The art of the Hellenistic time (from 400 B.C. to the end of the first century B.C.) in Greece) is sculpture and painting and other things.  For a long time, people said that the art of that time was not good.  Pliny the Elder talked about the Greek sculpture of the classical time (500 B.C. - 323 B.C., the time before the Hellenistic time) and then said Cessavit deinde ars ("then art stopped").  But much good art is from the Hellenistic time.  Many people   know about the sculptures Laocoön (in the picture) and Venus de Milo and Winged Victory of Samothrace.

Now more people have looked at writing about the Hellenistic time.  People discovered art from the Hellenistic time at Vergina and other places.  Now people can see that the art of the Hellenistic time is very good art.

Architecture
Architecture 

One of the things that made the Hellenistic time different from other times was the division of Alexander the Great's country into smaller parts.  In every part there was a family of leaders.  The Ptolemies had Egypt; the Seleucids had Mesopotamia, the Attalids had Pergamon, and other leaders had other parts.  Every family of leaders gave money for art in a way that was different from the way the city-states did it.  They made big cities and complex groups of buildings in a way that most city-states had already stopped doing by 500 BC.  This way of making buildings was new for Greece.  This way was not to try to change or fix a natural place, but to make the buildings fit the natural place.  There were many places for pleasure, for example many theatres and places to walk.  The Hellenistic countries were lucky because they had much empty space where they could make big new cities.  Some of their new cities were Antioch, Pergamon, and Seleucia on the Tigris.
Pergamon is a very good example of Hellenistic architecture.  It started with a simple fortress on the Acropolis (a very big rock).
Different Attalid kings added to it and made a huge group of buildings.  The buildings stretch out from the Acropolis in many directions, using the natural way of that part of the earth.  The agora, on the south on the lowest level, has galleries along its sides, with stoai (beautiful tall stone things to hold up the roof.) The agora is the beginning of a street which goes through the whole Acropolis.  On the east and top of the rock are the buildings of the organizers, leaders and soldiers.  On the west side, at a middle level, are religious buildings.  One of the biggest ones is the one with the Pergamon Altar which is called "of the gods and of the giants" and is one of the most beautiful pieces of Greek sculpture.  A very big theatre has benches stretched out over the sides of the hill, for people to sit on, and is able to hold almost 10,000 people.
At that time they liked to make very big things.  The second temple of Apollo at Didyma was like that.  It was twenty kilometers from Miletus in Ionia.  Daphnis of Miletus made the design for it at the end of the fourth century B.C. (about 300  B.C.) but it was never finished.  They continued building it until the 2nd century A.D. (past 100 A.D.).  The sanctuary (special part of the temple) is one of the largest ever made near the Mediterranean.  Inside a very big room, the cella has two rows of columns (tall round things) around it.  The columns are the Ionic kind, almost 20 metres tall, with much complex stone art on the bases and tops.

Sculpture 

Hellenistic sculpture includes portraits which show things such as suffering, sleep or old age.
Attalus I (269-197 BC), to commemorate his victory at Caicus against the Gauls — called Galatians by the Greeks — had two series of votive groups sculpted:  the first, consecrated on the Acropolis of Pergamon, includes the famous Gaul killing himself and his wife, of which the original is lost (the best copy is in the  Massimo alle Terme museum of Rome, see illustration); the second group, offered to Athens, is composed of small bronzes of Greeks, Amazons, gods and giants, Persians and Gauls.  Artemis Rospigliosi of the Louvre is probably a copy of one of them;  as for copies of the Dying Gaul, they were very numerous in the Roman period.  The expression of sentiments, the forcefulness of details — bushy hair and moustaches here — and the violence of the movements are characteristic of the Pergamene style.
These characteristics are pushed to their peak in the friezes of the Great Altar of Pergamon, decorated under the order of Eumenes II (197-159 BC) with a gigantomachy stretching 110 metres in length, illustrating in the stone a poem composed especially for the court.  The Olympians triumph in it, each on his side, over Giants most of which are transformed into savage beasts: serpents, birds of prey, lions or bulls.  Their mother Gaia, come to their aid, can do nothing and must watch them twist in pain under the blows of the gods.

Another phenomenon appears in Hellenistic sculpture:  privatization, which involves the recapture of older public patterns in decorative sculpture.  This type of retrospective style also exists in ceramics.  As for the portraits, they are tinged with naturalism, under the influence of Roman art.

Paintings and mosaics
Few Greek wall paintings have survived the centuries.  However, we can study the Hellenistic influences in Roman frescoes, for example those of Pompeii or Herculaneum.  Certain mosaics provide a pretty good idea of the "grand painting" of the period:  these are copies of frescoes.  An example is the Alexander Mosaic, showing the confrontation of the young conqueror and the Grand King Darius III at the Battle of Issus, a mosaic which adorns the walls of the House of the Faun at Pompeii.  It is believed to be a copy of a work described by Pliny the Elder (XXXV, 110) which had been painted by Philoxenus of Eretria for King Cassander of Macedon at the end of the 4th century BC. The mosaic allows us to admire the choice of colours, the composition of the ensemble with turning movement and facial expressivity.
Archeological discoveries at the cemetery of Pagasae (close to modern Volos), at the edge of the Pagasetic Gulf, or again at Vergina (1987), in the former kingdom of Macedonia, have brought to light some original works.  For example, the tomb said to be that of Philip II has provided a great frieze representing a royal lion hunt, remarkable by its composition, the arrangement of the figures in space and its realistic representation of nature.
The Hellenistic period is equally the time of development of the mosaic, particularly with the works of Sosos of Pergamon, active in the 2nd century BC and the only mosaic artist cited by Pliny (XXXVI, 184).  His taste for
trompe l'oeil (optical illusion) and the effects of the medium are found in several works attributed to him such as the "Unswept Floor" in the Vatican museum, representing the leftovers of a repast (fish bones, bones, empty shells, etc.) and the "Dove Basin" at the Capitoline Museum, known by means of a reproduction discovered in Hadrian's Villa.  In it one sees four doves perched on the edge of a basin filled with water.  One of them is watering herself while the others seem to be resting, which creates effects of reflections and shadow perfectly studied by the artist.

Ceramics
Ceramics 

The Hellenistic period is that of the decline of painting on vases.  The most common vases are black and uniform, with a shiny appearance approaching that of varnish, decorated with simple motifs of flowers or festoons.  It is also the period when vases in relief appeared, doubtless in imitation of vases made of precious metals:  wreaths in relief were applied to the body of the vase, or again the one shown here received veins or gadroons.  One finds also more complex relief, based on animals or legendary creatures.  The shapes of the vases are also inspired by the tradition of metal:  thus with the lagynos (pictured here), a wine jar typical of the period.
In parallel there subsisted a tradition of polychromatic figurative painting:  the artists sought a greater variety of tints than in the past.  However, these newer colours are more delicate and do not support heat.  The painting occurred therefore after firing, contrary to the traditional practice.  The fragility of the pigments preventing frequent use of these vases, they were reserved for use in funerals.
The most representative copies of this style come from Centuripe in Sicily, where a workshop was active until the 3rd century B.C.  These vases are characterized by a base painted pink. The figures, often female, are represented in coloured clothing: blue-violet chiton, yellow himation, white veil.  The style is reminiscent of Pompei and is situated much more on the side of the grand contemporary paintings than on the heritage of the red-figure pottery.

Minor arts

Metallic art
Metallic art 

Progress in bronze casting made it possible for the Greeks to create large works, such as the Colossus of Rhodes, with a height of 32 meters. Many of the large bronze statues were lost - with the majority being melted to recover the material. Because of this, only the smaller objects still exist. Fortunately, during Hellenistic Greece, the raw materials were plentiful following eastern conquests.
The work on metal vases took on a new fullness:  the artists competed among themselves with great virtuosity.  At Panagyurishte (now in Bulgaria), skilfully sculpted gold vases have been found: on an amphora, two rearing centaurs form the handles.  In Derveni, not far from Salonica, a tomb has provided a great krater with bronze volutes dating from approximately 320 BC and weighing 40 kilograms (Derveni krater).
It is decorated with a 32-centimetre-tall frieze of figures in relief representing Dionysus surrounded by Ariadne and her procession of satyrs and maenads.
The neck is decorated with ornamental motifs while four satyrs in high relief are casually seated on the shoulders of the vase. The evolution is similar for the art of jewellery.  The jewellers of the time excelled at handling details and filigrees:  thus, the funeral wreaths present very realistic leaves of trees or stalks of wheat.  In this period the insetting of precious stones flourished.
The figurines were equally fashionable.  They represented divinities as well as subjects from contemporary life.  Thus emerged the theme of the "negro", particularly in Ptolemaic Egypt: these statuettes of Black adolescents were successful up to the Roman period.  Sometimes, they were reduced to echoing a form from the great sculptures:  thus one finds numerous copies in miniature of the Tyche (good luck) of Antioch, of which the original dates to the beginning of the 3rd century BC.

Terra cotta figurines 

Previously reserved for religious use, in Hellenistic Greece the Greek terracotta figurine was more frequently used for funerary, and even decorative, purposes. The refinement of molding techniques made it possible to create true miniature statues, with a high level of detail.
In Tanagra, in Boeotia, the figurines, full of lively colours, most often represent elegant women in scenes full of charm.  At Smyrna, in Asia Minor, two major styles occurred side-by-side: first of all, copies of masterpieces of great sculpture, such as Farnese Hercules in gilt terra cotta.  In a completely different genre, there are the "grotesques", which contrast violently with the canons of "Greek beauty": the koroplathos (figurine maker) fashions deformed bodies in tortuous poses — hunchbacks, epileptics, hydrocephalics, obese women, etc.  One could therefore wonder whether these were medical models, the town of Smyrna being reputed for its medical school. Or they could simply be caricatures, designed to provoke laughter. The "grotesques" are equally common at Tarsus and also at Alexandria.

Art of glass and glyptic
It was in the Hellenistic period that the Greeks, who until then only knew molded glass, discovered the technique of glass blowing, thus permitting new forms. The art of glass developed especially in Italy. Molded glass continued, notably in the creation of intaglio jewelry.

The art of engraving on gems hardly advanced at all, limiting itself to mass-produced items that lacked originality. As compensation, the cameo made its appearance. It concerns cutting in relief on a stone composed of several colored layers, allowing the object to be presented in relief through the effects of color.  After that it is mounted on a pendant or as a ring.  The Hellenistic period produced some masterpieces like the Gonzaga cameo , now preserved at the Hermitage Museum.

Related pages
 Winged Victory of Samothrace

Bibliography

Other websites 

 Selection of Hellenistic works at the British Museum
 Selection of Hellenistic works at the Louvre
 Hellenistic Art , Insecula.com

Ancient Greek art
Interest is the cost for borrowing money or the payment for lending money. Usually, this is fixed as a percentage of the amount of money borrowed (which is called interest rate).
Simple and Compound interest
If the interest charged on $100 is 1 percent per year then every year the borrower must pay $1. If the $1 is not added to the amount owed then the borrower is paying simple interest. If simple interest of 1 percent is paid each year at the end of 100 years the borrower would have paid $100 in interest, $1 each year, and would still owe $100. If the $1 is added to the $100 the amount owed will increase to $101. 1 percent interest on $101 will be more than $1. This is called compound interest. Compound interest will cause the amount to grow each year. As the amount grows larger more is paid as interest each year and added to the total. If compound interest of 1 percent is paid on a loan of $100 each year the amount of interest paid will slightly increase and after 70 years the amount owed will have grown to $200 and the interest payment will have increased to $2.
Rule of 72
1 percent compound interest on $100 will cause the amount to double to $200 in about 72 years. That is called the rule of 72 which can be used to figure out how fast something grows. The rule can be used to figure out how fast anything that always  grows exponentially at the same rate will double in size. Suppose a kangaroo grows 12 percent a year; dividing 12 into 72 gives 6, so the kangaroo will double in size in 6 years. If the kangaroo grew 6 percent a year it would take 12 years for its size to double. If it only grew 2 percent it would take 36 years for its size to double.

Usury
At some times in the past, or in some places today, it has been illegal to make a person pay interest on a loan. It was, or is, against some religious rules. If the interest that a person must pay is too high, this is called usury. This is often illegal today, even when lower interest is legal.
Other meanings of interest
Interest can also be the care or concern that someone has for something or someone. If someone cares about something, they "have an interest" in that thing, or they "find it interesting". If something is beautiful, or funny, or new, that might make the thing interesting. However, a very important concern, for example love or hate, is more than an interest. An interest can also be a task that someone likes to do or watch, like a game or a hobby.

If someone has a legal right to something (usually money or property) they have an interest in that thing. This is also true for someone who shares a right with others, or a person who has a future right to something. For example, if some brothers and sisters will be given a house after their parents die, each of them "has a financial interest" in the house, even if the parents are still living.

Notes

Economics
Newcastle () is a city in New South Wales, Australia. It is also the second oldest city in Australia. Newcastle is 160km north of Sydney, and is the largest coal-harbour in the world. 500,000 people live in Newcastle making it second largest city in New South Wales. Newcastle was started in 1804 by Lieutenant Charles Menzies and was for convicts who mined the coal. It is named Newcastle after the English coal harbour of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Newcastle has lots of things to do such as restaurants and food.

Climate
Newcastle has a humid subtropical climate with warm humid summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall throughout the year. Newcastle is the windiest city in Australia, with an average 3pm windspeed of 31.4 km/h (19.5 mph), annually.

References
An era in geology is a time of several hundred million years. It describes a long series of rock strata which geologists decide should be given a name. An example is the Mesozoic era, when dinosaurs lived on the Earth. 

An era is made up of periods, and several eras make up an eon. The Phanerozoic eon started about 541 million years ago (mya). It is made up of the Paleozoic era (from the Greek for "oldest life"), the Mesozoic era ("middle life") and the Cainozoic era ("latest life").

Units of time
 
Geology