Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The 1970s  1980s

In 1979, the Iranian Revolution turned Iran into an Islamic Republic.  A group called Iran Human Rights Documentation Center says that between 1979 and the 1990s, leaders of the Iranian government had 162 people assassinated, in 19 different countries.  The group says Iran stopped the assassinations because a German court put out an arrest warrant for the head of Iranian military intelligence.

Anwar Sadat, the President of Egypt, was assassinated in 1981 at a parade.  He was killed by people who wanted to take over the country and make it into an Islamic Republic.

In 1983, Benigno Aquino, Jr. was assassinated.  Aquino was against Ferdinand Marcos, the dictator who ruled the Philippines. The people of the Philippines were so upset that they started the non-violent People Power Revolution, which led to the end of Marcos's government.  Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino, became President of the Philippines.
In India, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984.  Her son Rajiv Gandhi became the next Prime Minister. He was assassinated in 1991.  (They were not related to Mohandas Gandhi.)

The 1990s to today

Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated in 1995.  The Israelis and Palestinians were working on a peace agreement.  Rabin was killed by an Orthodox Jew who did not agree with the peace treaty.  Many historians think Rabin's murder is one of the main reasons the peace talks fell apart.

In Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto was assassinated in 2007.  Bhutto had been the first woman who was ever elected to lead a Muslim country.  An Al-Qaeda leader said that Al-Qaeda assassins had killed Bhutto.  He said that it did so because Bhutto was trying to get rid of violent Jihadist militia groups in Pakistan.  He said this made her important to the United States, so Al-Qaeda killed her.
In the 2020s, President of Haiti Jovenel Moïse was assassinated in 2021 and former Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe was assassinated in 2022.

Statistics
One research study looked at assassinations of national leaders (leaders of countries, like presidents or prime ministers).  The study showed that:
 Since 1895, assassins have tried to kill national leaders 298 different times.  59 of those world leaders were killed.
 Since 1950, a national leader has been assassinated in nearly two out of every three years.

Another study looked at all assassinations between 1946 and 2013.  It included not just national leaders, but also other members of government (including local governments), and people who were against the government.  This study found that between 1946 and 2013, a total of 954 people were assassinated in 758 different attacks.
This study also looked at who was most likely to be assassinated. Of the 954 people who were assassinated:
 21% were members of parliament
 18% were opposition leaders (leaders of political parties or groups that spoke out or fought against the government)
 17% were national leaders
 14% were government ministers
 10% were diplomats
 5% were local politicians, like governors or mayors

References
Gillian Leigh Anderson,  (born August 9, 1968) is an American-British film, television and theatre actress, activist and writer. Her credits include the roles of FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the long-running and widely popular series The X-Files, ill-fated socialite Lily Bart in Terence Davies' film The House of Mirth (2000), and DSI Stella Gibson on the BBC crime drama television series The Fall. Among other honours, Anderson has won a Primetime Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.
After beginning her career on stage, Anderson achieved international recognition for her role as FBI Special Agent Dana Scully on the American sci-fi drama series The X-Files for all ten seasons (1993–2002, 2016). Her film work includes the dramas The Mighty Celt (2005), The Last King of Scotland (2006), Shadow Dancer (2012) and two X-Files films: The X-Files: Fight the Future (1998) and The X-Files: I Want to Believe (2008). Her other notable television credits include: portraying Lady Dedlock in the successful BBC production of Charles Dickens' Bleak House, Wallis Simpson in Any Human Heart, portraying Miss Havisham in Great Expectations (2011) and Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier on Hannibal. In 2013, Anderson began starring as DSI Stella Gibson on the critically acclaimed BBC crime drama television series The Fall. She has been serving as an executive producer from its second series. She will be appearing as goddess Media in the upcoming TV series American Gods
. Anderson is the co-writer of The EarthEnd Saga novel trilogy and the self-help guide book WE: A Manifesto for Women Everywhere.
Aside from film and TV, Anderson has taken on the stage and has received both awards and critical acclaim. Her stage work includes Absent Friends (1991) – for which she won a Theatre World Award for Best Newcomer, A Doll's House (2009) –  that earned her a Laurence Olivier Award nomination, and a portrayal of Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire (2014, 2016) – for which she won the Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actress and received her second Laurence Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress.

Anderson has been active in supporting numerous charities and humanitarian organizations. She is an honorary spokesperson for the Neurofibromatosis (NF) Network and the co-founder of South African Youth Education for Sustainability (SAYes). Anderson was appointed an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2016 for her services to drama.

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Gillian Anderson at Emmys.com
1968 births
Actors from Chicago
American activists
American feminists
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
American voice actors
DePaul University alumni
Emmy Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Honorary Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Living people
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Debt is what someone owes to someone else. Usually, debt is in the form of money, but it can also be items, services, favors, or other things. Thus if you make an agreement to give or do something for someone else, you now owe a debt. Unpaid debt can lead to problems such as the Greek government-debt crisis. Debt is used by governments, corporations and individuals to make purchases that they could not normally afford.  Common types of debt owed by households and individuals are mortgage loans, car loans, credit card debt, and income taxes. In the case of individuals, debt is a way to use an anticipated income combined with the future purchasing power at present before earning the same. 

On the other hand, corporates have a multitude of options when it comes to debt.  Companies may use debt for their working capital or day-to-day operations.
Types of debt 
Goods, services or money borrowed with the intent of repayment (in kind or not) creates a debt. Debt can be classified as either secured debt, unsecured debt, revolving debt, or a mortgage.

A secured debt uses collateral, which is an asset that is promised to the debt-holder until the debt has been repaid. If the repayment is not made in full, the lender gets the collateral asset. For instance, a car loan typically creates a secured debt. If you still owe money on the car loan and do not make timely payments, the note-holder can take back (or repossess) the car and sell it to get the money still due. A home mortgage is similar.
An unsecured debt is more risky to the debt-holder (the lender, also called creditor). In the event of non-payment of the debt, the lender cannot take assets. Credit card debt is typically unsecured. If you charge items to a credit card and do not make the monthly payments, the credit card issuer can report the non-payment to the credit-reporting agencies. That will reduce your credit score so others will not lend you money. But usually they cannot take back whatever you bought with the card.

Revolving debt is a line of credit or an amount that a borrower can continuously borrow from. In other words, the borrower may use funds up to a certain amount, pay it back, and borrow up to that amount again. Revolving credit accounts are open ended, meaning they don’t have an end date. As long as the account remains open and in good standing, borrower can continue to use it.
A mortgage is a debt issued to purchase real estate, such as a house or condo. It is a form of secured debt as the subject real estate is used as collateral against the loan.

Related pages 
Debt bondage
Loan

References 
Basic English 850 words
Economics
Uranium is a chemical element (a metal) on the periodic table. It has an atomic number of 92, which means that a uranium atom has 92 protons in its center, the nucleus. 

Uranium dug out of the ground is made from three different isotopes. The isotypes are different types of uranium with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Most of it is uranium-238; uranium-235 is less common; uranium-234 is the rarest. Pitchblende is the main ore that is mined for uranium.

Uranium-235 can be used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons by making a nuclear chain reaction. This turns the uranium-235 into uranium-236 and splits the nucleus into two smaller nuclei. This makes two completely different elements with smaller atomic numbers. The process is called nuclear fission and creates lots of heat. This heat makes it very useful for making steam in nuclear reactors, or for making explosions with nuclear weapons. Most such weapons use plutonium made from uranium-238. Uranium is slightly radioactive.
Uranium without its uranium-235 is called depleted uranium. It is less radioactive than natural uranium. It is used in anti-tank weapons. Uranium can also be used as a dye for stained glass or pottery.

Uranium is a dangerous substance. Because uranium is radioactive it is often seen with the hazard sign for radioactive elements, a group of three triangles with curved outer edges pointing in towards the middle (as you can see on the left). Uranium is a shiny white metal, but is usually seen in its oxide form which is black. Spent or partially spent uranium fuel rods are kept underwater, inside a nuclear reactor or in a spent fuel pool. Uranium can glow blue due to Cherenkov radiation. In addition to being radioactive, uranium is a heavy metal and is chemically toxic.
Characteristics 
Uranium is a silvery white, weakly radioactive metal. It has a Mohs hardness of 6. It is malleable, ductile and slightly paramagnetic. It is strongly electropositive. It is a poor electrical conductor. Uranium metal has a very high density of 19.1 g/cm3.

Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metal elements and their compounds. Hydrochloric and nitric acids dissolve uranium, but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid dissolve the element very slowly.

Uranium-235 was the first isotope that was found to be fissile: The molecule splits. Other naturally occurring isotopes are fissionable (can be broken down), but are not fissile.

As little as 15 lb (7 kg) of uranium-235 can be used to make an atomic bomb. The nuclear weapon detonated over Hiroshima, called Little Boy, relied on uranium fission.

History

Pre-discovery use
Pre-discovery use

The use of uranium in its natural oxide form dates back to the year 79 AD. It was used in the Roman Empire to make ceramic glazes yellow. Yellow glass with 1% uranium oxide was found in a Roman villa on Cape Posillipo in the Bay of Naples, Italy. It was found by R.T. Gunther of the University of Oxford in 1912. In the late Middle Ages, pitchblende was extracted from the Habsburg silver mines in Joachimsthal, Bohemia (now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic). In the early 19th century, the world's only known sources of uranium ore were these mines.

Origin 
Uranium is only naturally formed by the rapid neutron capture in supernovae and neutron star mergers.

Radioactive heat production is present on Earth in quantities. It may be a widespread component of Solar System planets, and possible other planetary systems. That might help to explain the high internal temperatures of planets.
Mining 
The world's largest producer of uranium is Kazakhstan, which in 2019 produced 43% of the world's mining output. Canada was the next largest producer with a 13% share, followed by Australia with 12%. Uranium has been mined in every continent except Antarctica.

References

See also: Uranium mining

Fuel
Uranium
The Graduate is a 1967 American movie based on a novel by Charles Webb, and directed by Mike Nichols. It is set in Southern California.

In the movie and book, a recent college graduate (played by Dustin Hoffman) is seduced by Mrs. Robinson (Anne Bancroft), the wife of his father's business partner. He later falls in love with their daughter Elaine (Katharine Ross).

The movie was Hoffman's first major role (it was his second role). He was nominated for an Academy Award for his performance.

The soundtrack album contained music by folk duo Simon and Garfunkel, and replaced The Beatles's White Album for the number one position (most sales) on the music charts.
Scenes from The Graduate have been well-remembered by many people, since it appeared. In one of them, one-word advice for corporate success ("Plastics") is given by a family friend of Benjamin's. (Reportedly, sales of stock in plastics companies jumped in the months after the movie appeared.) Another scene, where Ben tries to stop Elaine from marrying another man, has been imitated and parodied in television programs, including the cartoon series Daria.

In 1998, a play based on the movie premiered in London and on Broadway; its stars included Kathleen Turner, Alicia Silverstone and Morgan Fairchild.

Cast

Anne Bancroft as Mrs. Robinson
Dustin Hoffman as Benjamin Braddock
Katharine Ross as Elaine Robinson
William Daniels as Mr. Braddock
Murray Hamilton as Mr. Robinson
Elizabeth Wilson as Mrs. Braddock
Buck Henry as Hotel Clerk
Walter Brooke as Mr. McGuire
Brian Avery as Carl Smith
Norman Fell as Mr. McCleery
Marion Lorne as Singleman party guest
Alice Ghostley as Singleman party guest
Uncredited:
Mike Farrell as a bellhop at the hotel
Richard Dreyfuss as Boarding House Resident
Ben Murphy as the shaving student in the fraternity house
Kevin Tighe as Carter, Carl Smith's fraternity brother
Eve McVeagh as party guest
Hamilton Camp as Second Hotel Clerk
Donald F. Glut as College Student
Elaine May as Girl with Note for Benjamin

Awards and honors
Anne Bancroft, Dustin Hoffman, and Katharine Ross earned Oscar nominations for their performances.

Along with the acting nominations, the movie received nominations for Best Cinematography, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Picture. Mike Nichols won the Academy Award for Best Director.

The movie won the BAFTA Award for Best Film, the BAFTA Award for Best Editing (to Sam O'Steen) and the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.

In 1996, The Graduate was picked to keep in the U.S. National Film Registry by the Library of Congress.
American Film Institute recognition
 1998: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies - #7
 2000: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs - #9
 2002: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Passions - #52
 2004: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Songs:
"Mrs. Robinson" - #6
 2005: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes:
 "Plastics." - #42
 "Mrs. Robinson, you're trying to seduce me. Aren't you?" - #63
 2007: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) - #17

The movie is listed in the 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die book.

Alfa Romeo made a "Graduate" edition Alfa Romeo Spider, the car Benjamin drives in the movie.

References

Other websites 
 
 NPR feature on movie
 Kierkegaard's Narrative : The Graduate
1967 comedy-drama movies
1967 romantic comedy movies
1967 romantic drama movies
Adultery in movies
American comedy-drama movies
American romantic comedy movies
American romantic drama movies
1960s English-language movies
Movies about suburbia
Movies based on books
Movies directed by Mike Nichols
Movies set in California
Sex comedy movies
American independent movies
Aquitaine (Occitan: Aquitània; ; ) is a part of southwestern France. It was once an administrative region but is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. With over 41,000 square kilometers, it is one of the largest regions of mainland France (the largest of all French regions is French Guiana, in South America).

Its capital was Bordeaux, the largest city. The French name of the people living in the region is Aquitain.

The five departments in the region were Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne, and Pyrénées-Atlantiques.

Geography
The Aquitaine region was the third largest region of Metropolitan France, after Midi-Pyrénées and Rhône-Alpes. Its area was . It bordered with three French regions: Poitou-Charentes to the north, Limousin to the northeast and Midi-Pyrénées to the east. To the south is Spain (Aragon and Navarre) and to the west the Atlantic Ocean. The coast along the Atlantic Ocean, part of the Bay of Biscay, is called the Côte d'Argent (Silver Coast).
The Greenwich Meridian passes through Aquitaine.

Most of Aquitaine is in the Aquitanian basin, a relatively flat and geologically young landscape. High mountains are found only in the south of Aquitaine, in the Pyrenees mountain range. The Pic Palas (), at , is the highest point of Aquitaine; it is on the border with Spain.

The main rivers of the region are the Garonne, that flows through the Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; the Dordogne, that flows through the Dordogne and Gironde departments; the Lot, that flows through the Lot-et-Garonne department; the Dropt, that flows through the Dordogne, Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; and the Adour, that flows through the Landes department.

The climate is mild - except in the high mountains - all year round. On the Atlantic coast, the annual average temperature is above 15 °C, in Bordeaux is about 14 °C and on the border of Limousin is still 11 °C. Rainfall is relatively high and is higher in the south of the region.
History
In the Middle Ages Aquitaine was at times a kingdom and a duchy. Various wars made it larger and smaller. Aquitane came into the control of England when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152. It remained in English control until 1453 at the end of the Hundred Years' War.

Departments
The Aquitaine region is formed by five departments:

Demographics
The Aquitaine region had a population, in 2012, of 3,285,970, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

The 10 most important cities in the department are:

Gallery

Notes

References

Other websites 

 Regional Council of Aquitain official website  
 Visit Aquitaine 
 Regional information and tourist attractions
 Aquitaine: the cradle of humanity
A nightmare is a very powerful dream that the sleeper finds disturbing or frightening. Nightmares usually have either physiological causes, like a high fever, or psychological ones, like trauma or stress in the sleeper's life.  Nightmares are common, but nightmares that happen very often can cause problems with sleep. They may cause people to get medical help.

Nightmares usually happen during REM sleep.

In earlier times 
In earlier times, people thought that such nightmares were really the work of demons. They thought people were having nightmares because an Incubus was sitting on the chest of the sleeper. This can also be seen on the image. Sometimes people also thought magic and demonic possession were involved.
In the 19th century, people thought their diet was responsible. When Ebenezer Scrooge sees a ghost in A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens, he thinks "... an undigested bit of beef, a blot of mustard, a crumb of cheese, a fragment of an underdone potato..." is responsible. Similarly, the Household Cyclopedia (1881) offers this advice about nightmares:
"Great attention is to be paid to regularity and choice of diet. Intemperance of every kind is hurtful, but nothing is more productive of this disease than drinking bad wine. Of eatables those which are most prejudicial are all fat and greasy meats and pastry... Moderate exercise contributes in a superior degree to promote the digestion of food and prevent flatulence; those, however, who are necessarily confined to a sedentary occupation, should particularly avoid applying themselves to study or bodily labor immediately after eating... Going to bed before the usual hour is a frequent cause of night-mare, as it either occasions the patient to sleep too long or to lie long awake in the night. Passing a whole night or part of a night without rest likewise gives birth to the disease, as it occasions the patient, on the succeeding night, to sleep too soundly
. Indulging in sleep too late in the morning, is an almost certain method to bring on the paroxysm, and the more frequently it returns, the greater strength it acquires; the propensity to sleep at this time is almost irresistible."
References 

Psychology
Sleep
Melilla is a city in North Africa, which is separated from Spain by the Mediterranean Sea. It is an exclave that belongs to Spain, and is all surrounded by Morocco, which believes it should belong to them. Ceuta is another such city. Until it became a self-governing city in 1995, it belonged to the Province of Málaga.

Its surface is about 20 square kilometers, and there are almost 70,000 people living there.

References

Other websites 

 Google Maps entry for Melilla

Exclaves
Ceuta is a Spanish city in North Africa, at the Strait of Gibraltar which divides it from mainland Spain. It is an exclave of Spain, and is all surrounded by Morocco, which believes it should belong to them. Melilla is another such city. The city area is about 20 square kilometers, and there are over 82,000 people living in the city. The city is surrounded by a border fence, which has been built to keep the Moroccans (and other Africans) from moving there unlawfully. Until it became a self-governing city in 1995, it belonged to the Province of Cádiz.

It was built by the Phoenicians at a strategic position.

References

Other websites

Exclaves
 
North Africa
Burkina Faso (UK: Help:IPA/English /bɜːˌkiː.nə ˈfæs.əʊ/, US: /bʊrˌkiː.nə ˈfɑː.soʊ/) is a country in West Africa. It used to be called Upper Volta and the name was changed to Burkina Faso in 1984. The country was once ruled by France, but it has been independent since 1960. The capital is Ouagadougou.

In 2005, about 13,228,000 people lived in the country. It is next to Mali, Niger, Benin, Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. It does not have any coast with an ocean or sea. People from Burkina Faso are called Burkinabé (pronounced burr-KEE-na-bay).

History
People have lived in the area of Burkina Faso for thousands of years. At first, they were hunter-gatherers, hunting animals and collecting fruits and vegetables. Later they became farmers. People called the Mossi arrived between the 11th and 13th centuries. They ruled the area until the end of the 19th century. In 1896 France beat the Mossi kingdom and became the colonial rulers of Burkina Faso. After World War I, the country was called Upper Volta.
In 1960, Upper Volta became independent from France. The first president of the new country was Maurice Yaméogo. After he became the president, Yaméogo banned other political parties. For several years the people of Upper Volta were very unhappy with the government and in 1966 the military took over in a military coup. In 1983 the government was taken over again by military men called Thomas Sankara and Blaise Compaoré. Sankara became president. In 1984, he changed the name of the country to Burkina Faso. It means "land of honest people".

In December 1985, Burkina Faso went to war for five days with near-by country Mali. In 1987, there was another military coup and Sankara was assassinated (murdered). Blaise Compaoré became the president.
On 28 October 2014 protesters began to march and demonstrate in Ouagadougou. Compaoré was ready to change the constitution and extend his 27-year rule. On 30 October 2014, some protesters set fire to the parliament. They also took over the national television headquarters. On 31 October 2014, President Compaoré, resigned after 27 years in office.

In 2015 the country held their first election. Roch Marc Christian Kaboré, a former Prime Minister, was elected as president. In 2022, Kaboré was removed from power during a military coup d'état led by Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba.

Regions, provinces, and departments
Burkina Faso is divided into thirteen regions, forty-five provinces, and 301 departments. The regions are:
 Boucle du Mouhoun
 Cascades
 Centre
 Centre-Est
 Centre-Nord
 Centre-Ouest
 Centre-Sud
 Est
 Hauts-Bassins
 Nord
 Plateau-Central
 Sahel
 Sud-Ouest

Cities
Below is a list of the largest cities in Burkina Faso. For other cities see List of cities in Burkina Faso.

Geography and climate
Burkina Faso is made up of two major types of countryside. The larger part of the country is covered by a peneplain. It has a gently undulating landscape with a few isolated hills. The southwest of the country forms a sandstone massif. The highest peak, Ténakourou, is found at an elevation of . The area is bordered by sheer cliffs up to  high. The average altitude of Burkina Faso is . The difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater than . Burkina Faso is a mostly flat country.

Burkina Faso has a tropical climate with two distinct seasons. In the rainy season, the country receives between  of rainfall. In the dry season, the harmattan – a hot dry wind from the Sahara – blows. The rainy season lasts about four months, from May/June to September. It is shorter in the north of the country.

Burkina Faso's natural resources include manganese, limestone, marble, phosphates, pumice, salt and small deposits of gold.
Burkina Faso's fauna and flora are protected in two national parks and several reserves.

Culture
Literature in Burkina Faso is based on the oral tradition, which remains important. Since the 1970s, literature has developed in Burkina Faso with many more writers being published.

There is also a large artist community, especially in Ouagadougou. Much of the crafts produced are for the growing tourist industry.

The food of Burkina Faso, typical of west African cuisine, is based around staple foods of sorghum, millet, rice, maize, peanuts, potatoes, beans, yams and okra. The most common sources of protein are chicken, eggs and fresh water fish.

Related pages
 Burkina Faso at the Olympics
 Burkina Faso national football team
 List of rivers of Burkina Faso

References

Other websites
 
 

 
Least developed countries
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
1960 establishments in Africa
The Battle of Waterloo was a battle that was fought between the French on one side and the British and the Prussians on the other.

Napoleon Bonaparte was Emperor of France and had started and lost the Napoleonic Wars.  He had built an empire that stretched from Spain to the Russian border.  Defeated at the Battle of Leipzig and elsewhere, he accepted exile on the island of Elba in 1814. 

In February 1815, he returned to France and again took control of the French Army.  He attacked his enemies in what is now Belgium and was defeated at Waterloo.  It was the last battle of the Napoleonic Wars.
Prelude
In earlier days, Napoleon seemed unstoppable until two separate campaigns failed.  He gathered a huge army to invade and to conquer Russia in 1812.  His army was caught by the Russian winter and destroyed.  The countries of Eastern Europe, led by Austria and Prussia, began to ally against him, forcing his troops back towards France.  Meanwhile, a small army in Portugal and Spain, led by Arthur Wellesley, who later became Duke of Wellington, began to push Napoleon’s troops out of Spain.

By 1814, Napoleon faced total defeat, with invasions from all sides. A peace treaty was arranged. in which he would abdicate (give up the throne) and live on a small Mediterranean island, Elba, with a small army. He was replaced as ruler of France by Louis XVIII, a brother of Louis XVI.

Hundred Days
On Elba, Napoleon was not content. He had been promised money by the new French government, but it did not keep its promise. His wife, an Austrian princess, and his sons were forbidden to visit him.
Messages from France showed that his enemies were quarreling. He seized his opportunity, went by ship in February 1815 and landed in France again. His welcome was very mixed. Many French were tired of war and the death and suffering that it made. However, others wanted a return to the power and glory of the old days and saw Napoleon as their best hope.

His first days were tense but his personal leadership and persuasion gained the support of the army.  When Louis XVIII panicked and fled the country, there was little to stop Napoleon returning to Paris and being emperor again.

Waterloo Campaign
What Napoleon needed now was a period of time to organise himself and the French army. The allies were caught completely by surprise, and their only chance to stop him lay with two small armies in Belgium: a British and Dutch army commanded by the Duke of Wellington and a Prussian army, commanded by Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher .
Napoleon decided on a further gamble. He gathered an army and prepared a surprise attack on Wellington and Blücher and hoped to catch them unprepared. His plan was successful at first, and he crossed the Belgian border before Wellington and Blücher could join forces.

Ligny and Quatre Bras
His first battle was at Ligny, and after a fierce day of fighting, he defeated the Prussian army, forcing it to retreat. Thinking that Blücher would retreat back to Prussia, Napoleon turned his attention towards Wellington. There was already a small battle at Quatre Bras, as Wellington tried to delay the French advance. That gave Wellington enough time to prepare a full defensive position across the road leading to Brussels near the village of Waterloo.

The French army advanced towards them and set up their camp on a ridge facing the combined British and Dutch army. Heavy rain caused delays and confusion, and both sides settled down for the night in the mud to await the dawn and the forthcoming battle.
Napoleon’s army faced Wellington’s Anglo-Dutch army near Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Wellington’s troops were deployed behind a low ridge, which partially protected them from the French massed artillery.

Phase 1 – Attack on Hougoumont
At around 11:00, Napoleon ordered his guns to open fire. The French infantry began an attack against the Château of Hougoumont, defended by the British Foot Guards. That was intended to draw Wellington’s reserves away from the centre, where Napoleon’s main attack would fall. According to records, Hougomont was considered to be vital to winning the battle.
Phase 2 – French infantry attacks
At 13:30, Napoleon launched an infantry attack against Wellington’s centre. Men of the King’s German Legion resolutely defended the farm of La Haye Sainte, which disrupted the French attack. The British artillery and musketry succeeded in checking the French assault, and the British Household and Union heavy cavalry brigades charged after the wavering Frenchmen. Excited by their success, the British cavalry pursued their enemy too far and in turn suffered terrible casualties at the hands of the French lancers and light cavalry.
Phase 3 – French cavalry attacks
At 15.00, the Anglo-Dutch army appeared to be retreating (moving back) after the heavy bombardment that it had received all day and so General Marshal Michel Ney led a massed French cavalry attack against Wellington’s centre. However, the British infantry had been retreating only to regroup and to tend the wounded, and it formed squares to defend itself from the cavalry attack. The French took terrible casualties, as they circled the solid formations of infantrymen.

The situation further deteriorated for Napoleon as Blücher's Prussian troops launched an attack at Plancenoit to his rear at 16.30.
Phase 4 – Prussians begin to increase pressure
By early evening, the French attack at Hougoumont, which was intended as a diversion, had the opposite effect. The French committed more and more troops to the bitter fighting around the château, which was held by only a small force of British Guardsmen. More French reserves were being sent to meet the Prussian threat to the rear of Napoleon’s army at Plancenoit. However, the French had at last succeeded in capturing the farm of La Haye Sainte, only a short distance from Wellington’s centre.
Phase 5 – Attack by Imperial Guard
At approximately 19.30 Napoleon committed his last reserves in a final effort to obtain victory. As the Prussians arrived to bolster Wellington’s flank, veterans of the French Imperial Guard advanced to finish the job. The British infantry, exhausted from the continuous heavy gunfire that it had had received all day, rose to meet them. The musketry of the British Guards Brigade defeated Napoleon’s finest troops, who fled. The whole French army joined those troops in retreat. Wellington ordered his entire line to advance, and the French were driven from the field.

References

Further reading 
.
Battle of Waterloo -Citizendium

1815
Waterloo
Waterloo
Waterloo
Waterloo
Wallonia
Walloon Brabant
Waterloo
São Tomé and Príncipe, officially the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe is an island nation in Central Africa, it is located off the Gulf of Guinea. The main islands of São Tomé and Príncipe are about 140 km apart and about 250 and 225 km, respectively, off of the northwestern coast of Gabon. The country has a population of 201,800 (2018 official estimate),São Tomé and Príncipe is the second-smallest and second-least populous African sovereign state after Seychelles as well as the smallest and least populous Portuguese-speaking country in the world. 
 
The English translation of the countries name is Saint Thomas and Prince.

The islands were a Portuguese colony, but have been independent since July 1975. Portuguese is the official language.
History
The Portuguese arrived in São Tomé Island on December 21, 1471, and Príncipe Island on January 17, 1492. As these were days dedicated to saints, both islands had saints’ names. S. Antão Island, the former name of Príncipe Island, changed in 1500 to honor the Prince of Portugal.

The official historical version says that the country was uninhabited before the arrival of the Portuguese sailors.

The first successful Portuguese settlement in the archipelago was in 1493. The volcanic soil of the islands proved to be good for sugar crops. Hard work was needed to grow and harvest the sugar crops. Slaves were brought from Portugal to do the work. Because other countries began producing more sugar, the islands were not able to make money from it. Instead it became a stopping place for the slave trade.  

In the 19th century, crops of coffee and cocoa were grown. These became successful. By 1908 the country was the largest producer of cocoa. It is the most important crop for the country.
On February 3, 1953, the Batepá massacre occurred. In the massacre hundreds of local people were killed by Portuguese settlers. The Portuguese wanted workers for the crops. The locals said they were being used as slaves. The governor told the military to take any locals who did not want to work. 

In the late 1950s a group wanted independence. They were called the MLSTP (Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe). In 1974 they succeeded in removing Marcelo Caetano as their leader. On 12 July 1975 São Tomé and Príncipe became an independent country. The first president was Manuel Pinto da Costa. He was the MLSTP`s General Secretary. 

Until 1990 the MLSTP was the only political party. They changed the constitution to allow other political parties. The new  Party of Democratic Convergence (PCD) won the most seats in the National Assembly. Miguel Trovoada was elected president.
Politics
The president is elected for a five-year term and can be re-elected. The prime minister is elected for a four-year term. The thirteen members of the cabinet (the group of ministers) are chosen by them. All adult citizens can vote in the elections. They vote by secret ballot.

Provinces
São Tomé and Príncipe is divided into 2 provinces: Príncipe and São Tomé.

The provinces are further divided into seven districts, six on São Tomé and one on Príncipe (with Príncipe having self-government since April 29, 1995).

Cities

Geography and Climate

São Tomé and Príncipe is formed by two volcanic islands - the biggest of which is S. Tomé - and several islets. It is in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western equatorial coast of Africa. Both islands belong to the Cameroon volcanic mountain line.

The archipelago is 1,001km2 in size. The equator line passes through the Rolas’s Islet which is in the south of S. Tomé Island. The tallest peak is the Peak of S. Tomé at 2,024m tall.
The climate is tropical, hot and humid, with an annual average temperature of 27 C. There are two main seasons. Gravana is the driest season. It has little or no rainfall and the temperatures are lower. Gravana lasts from June to August. The rainy season is from October to May.

Economy

Since the archipelago´s discovery, its economy has been based on agriculture and fishing. Cocoa is 95% of the country’s exports. Other exports are copper, palm oil and coffee. Another economic activity is tourism.

After independence, the country’s economy was nationalized, it was then privatised in the early 1990s. Now the government budget is mainly based on foreign assistance from donors such as the UN Development Programme, the World Bank, and country donors.

The main importers of the archipelago's production are Portugal with 51%, France with 14%, Angola with 11%, and Japan with 10%.

In 2001, petroleum was found in the waters claimed by the archipelago and Nigeria.

Demographics
Demographics

According to the 2010 census, about 163,000 people lived in São Tomé and Príncipe. 52,000 lived in the capital and less than seven thousand lived on Príncipe Island.

São Tomé is the country’s capital and main city.

The people of S. Tomé and Príncipe are divided into the following ethnic groups: mixed-blood, descendents of Portuguese settlers and African slaves; Forros, the biggest ethnic group and descendents of freed slaves;  Angolares, descendents of Angolan slaves; Tonga, mixed blood of Forros and hired workers from Angola, Mozambique and Cape Verde; and Cape Verdean descendents.

The country’s official language is Portuguese. Other languages spoken are Forro, a creole spoken by 80% of S. Tomé Island`s people; Angolar, spoken mainly on the southeast of S. Tomé Island; Lung`ié, spoken in Príncipe Island; and Creole from Cape Verde.

Almost everyone is Christian:  Roman Catholic, Evangelical Protestant and Seventh-Day Adventist.

Culture
Culture

The country’s culture is the product of Portuguese and African cultural influence. Typical dances on the islands are Ússua, Socopé, Dêxa, and Puita. Tchiloli, Danço Congo and Auto dos Floripes are public theatrical performances, examples of the Portuguese cultural legacy.

Alda Neves da Graça do Espírito Santo was a famous poet from São Tomé.

Education
Children are required to attend school for four years. The National Lyceum (São Tomé and Príncipe) and the University of São Tomé and Príncipe are the two colleges.

References

 
Portuguese-speaking countries
Least developed countries
1975 establishments in Africa
The Republic of Equatorial Guinea is a nation in west central Africa, and one of the smallest countries in Africa. It borders Cameroon on the north, Gabon on the south and east, and the Gulf of Guinea on the west. The country's territory is both on the continent and on islands. The continental part is known as Río Muni. On one island, Bioko, is the capital, Malabo.

Equatorial Guinea and the peoples living there were colonized by Spain. Spanish is an official language because of this.

Provinces 
Equatorial Guinea is divided into eight provinces (capitals appear in parentheses):

 Annobón (San Antonio de Palé)
 Bioko Norte (Malabo)
 Bioko Sur (Luba)
 Centro Sur (Evinayong)
 Djibloho (Ciudad de la Paz)
 Kié-Ntem (Ebebiyín)
 Litoral (Bata)
 Wele-Nzas (Mongomo)

The provinces are further divided into districts.

References

Other websites

1968 establishments in Africa
 
French-speaking countries
Least developed countries
Spanish-speaking countries
Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (born June 5 1942) has been the President of Equatorial Guinea since 1979. Mbasongo did the military academy in Zaragoza, Spain. He came to power in a military coup, deposing the former leader Francisco Macías Nguema. Ngema had ruled the country for the previous decade. He was known to be very cruel. Ngema was sentenced to death and executed by a firing squad. Mbasonga promised to start over and to do a better job at governing the country.

In 1982, a new constitution was made. MBasogo was given the newly created post of president. He was re-elected in 1989, 1996 and 2002. In 1989 he was the only candidate, in the 1996 and 2002, international observers said the election results were false.
Obiang's regime kept clear authoritarian characteristics even after other parties were legalized in 1991.  Most domestic and international observers consider his regime to be one of the most corrupt, ethnocentric, oppressive and undemocratic states in the world. Equatorial Guinea is now essentially a single-party state, dominated by Obiang's Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea (PDGE). In 2008 American journalist Peter Maass called Obiang Africa's worst dictator, worse than Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe. The constitution grants Obiang wide powers, including the power to rule by decree.  Nonetheless, Obiang has far less power than Macías. For the most part his rule has been considerably milder.  Notably, there have been none of the atrocities that characterized the Macías era.
All but one member of the 100-seat national parliament belong to the PDGE or are aligned with it. The opposition is severely hampered by the lack of a free press to express  their views. Around 90% of all opposition politicians live in exile, 550 anti-Obiang activists have been jailed unfairly, and several killed since 1979.

In July 2003, state-operated radio declared Obiang to be a god who is "in permanent contact with the Almighty" and "can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell."  He personally made similar comments in 1993.  Despite these comments, he still claims that he is a devout Catholic and was invited to the Vatican by John Paul II and again by Benedict XVI. Macías had also proclaimed himself a god.

In November 2021, Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo was appointed at his party's congress as a candidate for a sixth term in the 2023 election.

References
References

1942 births
Living people
African Union chairpersons
Current national leaders
Presidents of Equatorial Guinea
Dictators
Lord Voldemort (born Tom Marvolo Riddle) is a fictional character and the main antagonist in the Harry Potter series of children's books. 

The books were written by British author J.K. Rowling. Voldemort first appears in the 1997 fantasy novel Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. He appears in six of the seven books.

In the Harry Potter movies, Voldemort is played by actors Richard Bremmer, Christian Coulson, Ralph Fiennes, Hero-Fiennes Tiffin, and Frank Dillane.

Name

"Voldemort" is a translation of the French words "vol de mort", which means "flight of death" in French. J.K. Rowling apologized for this in 2009, saying that she did not mean that French people were bad: "I can assure you that no anti-French feeling was at the origin of this choice. As a Francophile, I have always been proud of my French blood. But I needed a name that evokes both power and exoticism." She also said that Voldemort himself was "100 percent English".

Character development
Lord Voldemort is frequently described as "the most evil wizard" in the Harry Potter franchise. Many characters are afraid to say his name and he is often referred to as "He Who Must Not Be Named" or "You-Know-Who". 

Voldemort and his followers, the Death Eaters believe wizards should rule the world and conquer non-magical people instead of hiding from them. He also thinks that "pure-blood wizards", wizards who do not have any non-magical parents or ancestors, are superior to other people.

Backstory 
Tom Marvolo Riddle grows up in an orphanage in England. He does not know about wizards or magic but does know he can do things other children cannot. He like to scare the other orphans, kill their pets and steal their things from them. When he is 11 years old, a teacher at the wizard school Hogwarts named Albus Dumbledore comes to his orphanage and tells him he is a young wizard and can go to the school.
Over the years, Voldemort makes magical objects called Horcruxes and puts part of his soul in each one. This keeps him from dying all the way and makes it possible for his friends to bring him back to life.

Appearances

Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone 
In the first novel and movie, it is established that Voldemort was an evil wizard who had many followers. The protagonist, Harry Potter's parents were among those who fought against him. Voldemort killed Harry's parents, but due to their sacrifice, he could not kill Harry and he accidentally killed himself. This made Harry famous in the Wizarding World.
Towards the end of the story, Harry finds out that one of the teachers at Hogwarts named Professor Quirrell was trying to steal a magical stone called the Philosopher's Stone. Quirrell takes off his turban and reveals that Voldemort's soul is living on the back of his head and that he is trying to get the Stone to revive Voldemort. Quirrell/Voldemort tries to attack Harry but due to the protective spell that his parent's sacrifice gave him, Harry cannot be killed and Quirrell dies while Voldemort's spirit escapes.

Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets 
In the second book, Ginny Weasley comes into possession of a magic diary and is eventually possessed by Tom Riddle, a manifestation of Voldemort's younger self. Riddle possesses Ginny and makes her open the Chamber of Secrets, which allows a massive snake to terrorise the school and attack students who have non-magic parents. At the end of the book, Harry defeats the snake and destroys the diary, which also makes Tom Riddle's manifestation disappear.
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire 

Voldemort makes his next appearance at the end of the fourth book. Voldemort has Harry trapped in a graveyard and his servant, Peter Pettigrew, uses Harry's blood in a potion which gives Voldemort a full body. Because Harry's blood was used in the potion, Voldemort can now "touch" Harry.

Voldemort summons his Death Eaters and tries to kill Harry but their wands connect because they have the same core. The ghosts of Harry's parents distract Voldemort for enough time for Harry to escape.

Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix 
The Ministry of Magic (the magical government) denies that Voldemort has returned. Voldemort frees his most loyal followers from prison, including Bellatrix Lestrange. Harry also discovers that he and Voldemort can look into each other's minds.
In the battle at the end of the book, Voldemort fights Albus Dumbledore, the most powerful wizard. Voldemort escapes but not before the Minister of Magic sees him and the entire Wizarding World is made aware that Voldemort is back.

Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince 
Although he does not appear in this book, his past and childhood are looked at. Harry and Dumbledore discover that Voldemort has made Horcruxes (objects which a wizard can put their soul inside so that they live forever). Several of the Horcruxes, including Tom Riddle's diary, have been destroyed but more remain. Voldemort also gives Draco Malfoy the mission of killing Dumbledore, but it is ultimately Professor Snape who does so, although Snape is actually working for Dumbledore.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows 
In the seventh and final book (and its two film adaptations), Harry, Ron and Hermione go on a search for Voldemort's Horcruxes so that they can destroy them and make him mortal. Meanwhile, Voldemort steals the Elder Wand (most powerful wand) from Dumbledore's tomb. 

Voldemort's forces attack Hogwarts because Harry is searching for a Horcrux inside Hogwarts castle. During the battle, Voldemort kills Snape because he believes that Snape is the current Master of the Elder Wand (because Snape killed Dumbledore), but Voldemort doesn't know that the wand actually belongs to Draco, who was the one to disarm Dumbledore.