Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
History of cladistics
The term clade was introduced in 1958 by Julian Huxley, cladistic by Cain and Harrison in 1960, and cladist (for an adherent of Hennig's school) by Mayr in 1965. Hennig referred to his own approach as phylogenetic systematics. From the time of his original formulation until the end of the 1980s cladistics remained a minority approach to classification.

In the 1990s it rapidly became the dominant method of classification in evolutionary biology. Computers made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics (traits). At about the same time the development of effective sequence analysis techniques made it possible to apply cladistic methods of analysis to biochemical and molecular features of organisms as well as to anatomical ones.
For some decades in the mid to late twentieth century, a commonly used methodology was numerical taxonomy.p221 This made no attempt to resolve phylogeny, only similarities. The weakness of this approach was that it left out the connection between classification and evolution.

Phylogenetic nomenclature
Phylogenetic nomenclature is a way of giving names to the groups (clades) that have been decided on by cladistic methods. It differs in many ways from Linnaean nomenclature. Critics of phylogenetic nomenclature include Ashlock, Mayr, and Williams.

Monophyly and paraphyly
Monophyly is defined differently in evolutionary biology and cladistics. In evolutionary biology, the term monophyletic refers to a group of organisms descended from its most recent common ancestor. A monophyletic group may include all or only a part of the descendants of the common ancestor. The ancestor may be a taxon of various ranks.
In cladistics, by contrast, a monophyletic group is a group consisting of all the inferred descendants of an ancestral species.

In cladistics, a group that includes only some of the descendants of the ancestral species is not monophyletic but paraphyletic. The objective of cladistics is to block out monophyletic clades. Therefore, the elements of a paraphyletic group must be rearranged so that they do form one or several clades. Degree of similarity is not a criterion in grouping organisms into clades.

A distinction 
Cladograms show who's related to what, and evolutionary trees show which evolved from whom.

Related pages
 Genealogy
 Monophyly
 Paraphyly
 Polyphyly

References
Kevin Ferguson also known as Kimbo Slice (February 8, 1974 – June 6, 2016) was a Bahamian-born American mixed martial arts fighter. He began fighting in a series of web videos. He fights in backyards, airplane hangars, and nuclear power plants. He was trained by Bas Rutten. He was born in Nassau, Bahamas.

Slice had six children. He used to work as a bodyguard.

Slice died of heart failure at a hospital in Margate, Florida on June 6, 2016, aged 42.

References

Other websites

 
 
 

1974 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Bahamian sportspeople
American mixed martial artists
Pangaea was the global supercontinent which formed in the Palaeozoic era. The process started about 450 million years ago (mya) and was complete by 210 mya. So, apart from some volcanic islands (not proven, but very likely), all the land areas were collected together in one big supercontinent.

Pangaea was the latest of a series of global supercontinents. They formed at various times since plate tectonics began on Earth. Panthalassa was the name of the huge global ocean which surrounded Pangaea.

Formation 
The collisions between continental plates formed the greatest mountain ranges in the history of the Phanerozoic eon. The mountain building included the Caledonian orogeny, the Alleghenian orogeny and the Variscan orogeny. The low mountains of Scotland, Scandinavia and eastern North America are the ground-down remains of these vast events.

Break-up 
There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first signs of rifting came in the Triassic before Pangaea was completely formed.
Pangaea broke up about 180/200 million years ago, in the early middle Jurassic. It broke into supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana before each of these broke into the present continents. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.

The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Lower Cretaceous (150–140 mya), when Gondwana separated into continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia).

The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America (Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 mya. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.

The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the Great Rift Valley in East Africa and Arabia.
Other sources 
Matte P. 2001. The Variscan collage and orogeny (480-290 mya) and the tectonic definition of the Armorica microplate: a review. Terra Nova 13, 122-128.
Stampfli G.M; Raumer J.F. von & Borel G.D. 2002. Paleozoic evolution of pre-Variscan terranes: from Gondwana to the Variscan collision. Geological Society of America Special Paper 364, pp. 263–280.
Torsvik T.H. et al 1996. Continental break-up and collision in the Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic - a tale of Baltica and Laurentia. Earth-Science Reviews 40, pp. 229–258.
Ziegler P.A. 1990. Geological atlas of western and central Europe. 2nd ed, Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij B.V.

References 

Supercontinents
Fatah is a Palestinian nationalist political party. Fatah is an acronym for Harakat At-Tahriri Al-Filistiniya. That means Palestinian National Liberation Movement in English. It was created by Yasser Arafat in the late 1950s. 

In 1968 Fatah joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization, and in 1969 it got a leadership role. When it was founded, it did not accept the existence of Israel, but now the group officially does. 

The political part of the party is not considered a terrorist group by any country, but its military part, the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades is considered a terrorist group. Fatah says that the Brigades are not a part of the party but Israel says that Fatah supports the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades.
Fatah and the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades 
Leaders of the brigades, and other members have said they are a military group that is a part of Fatah. On their website, and on posters they post the Fatah Emblem. Leaders of Fatah have said they did not create the brigades, or make them the military of Fatah. Since 2002 leaders in Fatah have tried to get the brigades to stop attacking Israeli citizens.

References 

Nationalist organizations in Palestine
Political parties in Asia
Politics of Palestine
Socialist International
West Bank
Balkh () is a city in Balkh Province of Afghanistan. It was a big city hundreds of years ago, but it was ruined by Mongols. It was not ruined forever, though. In 1850 it was captured by Dost Mohammad Khan.

Related pages 
 Balkh Province

References 

Cities in Afghanistan
Balkh Province
The Hessischer Rundfunk (HR) is a German television and radio broadcasting company based in Frankfurt am Main in the State of Hesse.

HR is a member of the group of German public-broadcasting institutions that makes up ARD.

The HR produces the regional television service HR Fernsehen  (which used to be called HR Fernsehen ) and six regional radio channels.

Other websites 
 Official website in German

German broadcasting companies
Frankfurt
As Sulaymaniyah (, ) is a province in the east of Iraq. The capital is Sulaymaniyah. The area is . Almost 1,800,000 people live there.

Provinces of Iraq
Arbil (,  Hewlêr; also written Erbil or Irbil) is a province in the north of Iraq. The area is . According to Arbil governorate in 2009 Arbil population was 1,720,000.

Provinces of Iraq
Dahuk (also Dohuk or Duhok, , , Duhok, Assyrian: ܢܘܗܕܪܐ, Nohadra) is a province in north of Iraq. The capital is also called Dahuk. 510,000 people live in the province.

References 

Kurdistan
Provinces of Iraq
Al Anbar (;  or Anbar) is a Western Region of Iraq. The largest province in Iraq by area, it shares borders with Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. Al Anbar is overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim Arab. Its capital is Ar Ramadi.

The name of the province is from the Arabic , ’Anbār, and means "granaries," as this region was the primary entrepot on the western borders of Lakhmid Kingdom. The famous Sunni theologian Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man, who developed Hanafi, one of the Sunni Madh'habs (schools of thought) is associated with this region.

Before 1976 the province was known as Ramadi; before 1962, it was known as Dulaim.

People 
Most of the inhabitants are Sunni Muslims from Dulaim tribe.

Geography of Al Anbar
The Euphrates River flows diagonally from the north to the southeast, passing through six of the eight districts; Al-Qa'im, Anah, Haditha, Hīt, Ramadi, Fallujah, Abu Ghraib, Ar Rutba, forms the majority of the Governorate's area, occupying the large desert area in the southwest.
Weapons in Al Anbar 
There are an estimated 20 million weapons in Al Anbar, opposed to an estimated population of 2 million, according to official reports, a ratio of ten firearms for every citizen.
It's traditional for Dulaim tribe members to keep a weapons at home.
The arms included mortars, surface-to-air missiles, anti-tank shells, rocket-propelled grenades as well as large quantities of mines, explosives and ammunition.

Iraq War events in Al Anbar
The city of Fallujah is also in Anbar. The Iraqi resistance were widely considered to be stronger in this province than in any other in Iraq, and hostility toward Against American forces.
In late 2004 to 2007, a series of operations by US forces, was not successful in driving resistance from Anbar. Additionally, in early 2006, several clans—some including resistance groups raids against Americans forces in the area, the increase of sectarian violence in baghdad(that pushed many of the Sunni Dulaimi clans back into alliances with militants) and the continued resistance control of several cities in Anbar showed that fighting in the region was far from over. Reports in March 2006 suggested that the Anbar capital Ramadi had largely fallen under resistance control along with most of the region, as a result the US sent an additional 3,500 Marines to re-establish control of the region.

The Iraq war website icasualties has reported that 1,842 Iraqi soldier and 2220 US Soldier and 7542 Mercenary were killed in action in Anbar province between the start of 2004 and the end of February 2006. Many of these died in and around Fallujah and Ramadi.
Anbar, with Ramadi and Haditha and Hit and Al Qa'im and Fallujah in particular, is known for its inhabitants' strong tribal
and religious traditions. Allegedly, former President Saddam Hussein was constantly
wary of the volatile nature of the area. All the inhabitants of the province are Sunni Muslims from the Dulaim tribe.

In 2015 ISIL conquered Ramadi and other places in Anbar.  In late 2016 the government of Iraq recovered most of those places.

Cities and The Population 
According to statistics of the Ministry of Commerce in 1999, there about million and half million inhabitants in seven major Cities in Al Anbar province.
According to statistics in 2008 The population 2,405,000 people.

According to the former regime in 2003 just the city of Fallujah (600 thousand) and Ramadi (700 thousand) exceed million and three hundred thousand people.
According to the election for the council governorate on January 30, 2005, The largely Sunni province is one of the most violent Against the occupation in Iraq and turnout was very low. Of the total population of some 2 million only 3775 voted.

According to The UN statistics in 2003 the Population of Al Anbar is 1,230,169, Ramadi (444,582), Fallujah (425,774), Al-Qaim (116,129), Hit (105,825), Haditha (75,835), Anah (37,211), Ar Rutba (24,813).

But The governor of Al Anbar Mamoun Sami Rashid Alwani says "The UN statistics are Incorrect and just included 7 major Cities from 80 cities and towns in Al Anbar" It continues, "We know our country more than strangers And Al Anbar Population about more than 3 million citizen".
Number of the Population is unknown, and there are no precise statistics Include all of the cities and towns and villages and the people of Al Anbar, just in the city of Abu Ghraib eastern Al Anbar There between 750,000 and 1.5 million inhabitants.
after the occupation The population of Al Anbar province Increase because of the sunni immigrants from Baghdad and southern Iraq, Whom are more than million people, and some areas in Al Anbar Decreased such as Fallujah and Ramadi.
The most important cities 
 Ramadi (445 thousand) —capital of Anbar
 Fallujah (425 thousand)
 Hit (150 thousand)
 Al-Qaim (105 thousand)
 Haditha (100 thousand)
 Abu Ghraib (1.5 million)
 Anah
 Rawah (25 thousand)
 Kabisa
 Anbar
 Al Baghdadi
 Al-Nukhaib
 Akashat
 Tarbil
 Husaibah Al Sharqiah
 Amiriyah Fallujah (40 thousand)
 Saqulauiah
 Jabhah
 Al Sharqiah
 Al Waleed
 Sa'dah
 Al Saqrh
 Al Mamorha
 Al Enaimih
 Al Rummaneh
 Al Karblah
 Baroana (20 thousand)
 Al Khaldiya
 Al Habanyah
 Al Karmah
 Al Quqa'
 Al Haqlaniyah
 Al Rahaliyah
 Ar Rutba

Other websites
 US Army Captain Travis Patriquin presentation, "How to win in Al-Anbar"
(Captain Patriquin USA, and Major Rachel McLung USMC were both Killed by an IED, while escorting press in Anbar (one of whom was Oliver North)

Sources

Al Anbar Governorate
Babil () is a province in Iraq. The area is . 2,000,000 people live in the province. The capital is Al Hillah  a Shia 

It contains the ancient city of Babylon.

The name Babil is the Arabic name for Babylon.

Provinces of Iraq
Coruscant is a fictional planet in the Star Wars movies. It has been the capital of the Galaxy for many years, and during that time, the planet has become one big city. It's most notable appearance was in the prequel trilogy.

Star Wars planets
Digital Video Broadcasting (often shortened to DVB) is a series of standards for sending digital content, like Television using digital technology.  Compression of the data stream allows carrying several video channels in one analog television channel.

There are different standards, some of them are
DVB-S, DVB-S2: Use Satellites to broadcast
DVB-C: Use a coaxial cable
DVB-T, DVB-T2: Use a terrestrial signal, relayed thorough various stations

Digital Audio Broadcasting is similar, but for audio.

Related pages 
 Digital Multimedia Broadcasting

Television technology
Baghdad () is a province in Iraq. The capital is also called Baghdad. 

The area is . The province is the smallest province in Iraq. 

Baghdad Governorate
Linguine are a form of Italian pasta. Sometimes they are also called Linguini (this is an English-language form, and is not Italian). 
They are flat, like fettuccine and trenette, but narrow like spaghetti. 

The name means "little tongues" in Italian - the word being derived from Latin lingua "tongue" with the suffix -ine which indicates that an item is smaller or lesser.

Linguine alle vongole (with clams) is a popular use of this sort of pasta.

Pasta
Basra or Al Basrah () is a province in the southeast of Iraq. It has an area of . The capital is also called Basra. 2,565,893 people live in the province.

Provinces of Iraq
Most eggs that are eaten by humans have a eggshell. there are multiple parts to the egg: the egg white, the egg yolk and various thin membranes,  Every part of the egg is edible, although the eggshell is usually thrown away. Eggs are a good source of protein.

Roe and caviar are edible eggs produced by fish. They do not have an eggshell, since they hatch underwater. They also are much smaller and do not have a white or yolk.

Egg as a food ingredient 
Birds' eggs are a common food source. The most commonly used bird eggs are those from the chicken, the duck, and the goose. Smaller eggs such as quail eggs are sometimes used as a fancy ingredient, as are the largest bird eggs, from ostriches.
Most of the chicken eggs sold for human consumption are unfertilized. The hens are kept without any roosters. Fertile eggs can be bought and eaten as well. There is no difference in the food value of fertilised and unfertilised eggs. Fertile eggs for eating do not have a baby bird inside. This is because eggs have to be kept cool before they are sold, and the cold stops the young inside from starting to grow.

Chicken eggs are widely used in many types of cooking. Recipes that use eggs include sweet and savoury dishes. Eggs can be used and cooked in many different ways. They can be hard-boiled, soft-boiled, scrambled, fried, combined with flour in cakes or eaten raw. Roasted eggs are used at the Jewish holiday of Passover. Pickled eggs are hard-boiled and then put in vinegar. They are often sold in UK fish and chip shops.
Eating raw eggs is not recommended for some people. This is because the egg may be contaminated with bacteria (like salmonella) that could cause illness. This could be serious for the elderly, the infirm, or pregnant women.

The body can use about 91% of the protein of a cooked egg, nearly twice as much as from a raw egg.

Color 

There is no difference in taste or food value between white or brown eggs.  The color of a chicken's egg depends on the breed.

In most of the United States, eggs are generally white; while in the northeast of that country and in the United Kingdom, eggs are generally light-brown. People in Brazil and Poland prefer brown or reddish eggs, because white eggs are thought of as "industrial", that is, for use in commercial bakeries.  The reason some people prefer one colour of egg and other people prefer a different colour is probably because of what the colours are linked with in their minds.  For example white is linked with purity, and brown-shelled eggs with greater wholesomeness.
Carotenoids can affect how intense the color of the yolk is.

Related pages 
Egg (biology)
 List of egg dishes

References 

 Stadelman W.J. and Cotterill O.J. 1995. Egg science and technology. 4th ed, New York: Food Products Press.

Other websites 

 9 Health Benefits of Eggs 
 Nutritional values of eggs 
 Nutritional value of free range eggs compared with factory eggs
 Criticism of the validity of the "Animal Care Certified" logo used by United Egg Producers(UEP) 
 British Egg Industry and the Lion Mark
 10 Health Benefits of Eggs

Breakfast foods
The following is a list of egg dishes:

Plain egg dishes

Savory egg dishes

Sweet egg dishes

References

Food-related lists
Dhi Qar () is a province in south east of Iraq, with an area of . The capital is An Nasiriyah and 1,454,200 people live in the province. 

Provinces of Iraq
Diyala () is a province in east of Iraq. Its area is . The capital is Baqubah. 1,271,000 people live in the province.

Provinces of Iraq
A leitmotif (pronounced , “LITE-mow-teef”) (also spelled leitmotiv), is a German word meaning leading motif.  It is a little musical theme that is often repeated in a piece of music, very often in opera. The leitmotif is linked in the musical story with a person or a thing or an idea.  The leitmotif might be a short tune, but it can also be a rhythm or just a chord.

The word “leitmotif” is sometimes used in other things such as literature.  In a book it might be an idea that keeps coming during the story.  It can also be used in movies or video games.
The word “leitmotif” is particularly associated with the operas of Richard Wagner.  The leitmotif helps to make the story dramatic and bind it together, because it makes the music easier to understand.  Sometimes a leitmotif will change during an opera as the character changes.  Various dramatic effects can be made with leitmotifs. For example, a leitmotif might be played before a character comes onstage, so the audience will know who is coming before the actor can be seen.  Three examples of leitmotifs from Wagner's Ring Cycle  Der Ring des Nibelungen  are: the leitmotif for the chief god Wotan (a person), the leitmotif for the Tarnhelm, the invisibility helmet, (a thing), and the leitmotif for the Renunciation of Love (an idea).
The use of leitmotif was not completely new in the 19th century.  For example: the first four notes of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony are used like a leitmotif during the whole symphony.  It was, however, Carl Maria von Weber who first used it a lot in his operas.  A music critic called F. W. Jähns used the word to describe Weber’s work.  Hector Berlioz wrote a symphony called Symphonie Fantastique which has a tune which he called idée fixe (“fixed idea”) to represent the love between the two characters.

Wagner did not actually use the word “leitmotif”.  He preferred to call such themes “Grundthema” (basic idea) or simple “Motiv”.  Some people, such as Eduard Hanslick, who did not like Wagner’s music, thought that Wagner’s use of leitmotifs made the music too simple.  Claude Debussy said the use of leitmotifs in operas was like having a world where crazy people would always use "visiting cards" to introduce themselves and then start singing their names to be sure everyone knew what was going on.
Many other composers used leitmotifs in a similar way to Wagner, e.g. Richard Strauss in his operas, Elgar in his oratorios The Kingdom and The Apostles or Alban Berg in his opera Lulu.  

Leitmotifs or music themes are also used to dramatise movies. For example, the famous Jaws theme uses a leitmotif for the shark.

Musical forms
Opera terminology
Karbala () is a province in Iraq, with 710,274 people living there. The capital of the province is also called Karbala, that is a holy city for Shi'a Muslims.

Provinces of Iraq
Pointe shoes are special shoes worn by ballerinas. They are made with a wide, flat, reinforced front end. This lets the dancer stand on tiptoe. 

In normal flat ballet shoes, the toe construction does not provide this support for the dancer's body weight. So they cannot stand or dance en pointe.

History 
Mid-18th century dancer Marie Camargo of the Paris Opéra Ballet was the first to wear a non-heeled shoe, enabling her to perform leaps that would have been difficult, if not impossible, in the old shoes.

The first dancers to rise up on their toes did so with the help of an invention by Charles Didelot in 1795. His 'flying machine' lifted dancers upward, allowing them to stand on their toes before leaving the ground. This lightness and ethereal quality was well received by audiences and, as a result, choreographers began put more pointework into their pieces.
As dance progressed into the 1800s, the desire grew to dance en pointe without the aid of wires. When Marie Taglioni first danced La Sylphide en pointe, her shoes were nothing more than modified satin slippers. Because the shoes of this period offered no support, dancers would pad their toes for comfort and rely on the strength of their feet and ankles for support.

The birth of the modern pointe shoe may be due to the early 20th century Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova, who was one of the most famous and influential dancers of her time. Pavlova's feet had particularly high arches, which left her vulnerable to injury when dancing en pointe. To help this problem, she would put tough leather soles into her shoes for extra support, and would flatten and harden the toe area to form a box. While this practice made dancing en pointe easier for her, it was regarded by her rivals as 'cheating'.
Health concerns 
Girls will usually start en pointe between the ages of 10 and 13. Starting too early may be bad for the feet of the dancer. Dance teachers' societies give their members information and advice on this subject.

Some girls will never go en pointe. This is usually because they are not strong enough, as going en pointe means one has to have enough strength. Ballet class is not social dancing, it is aimed at professional training. But the basic pre-pointe class may still be useful for young dancers who later move into, for example, stage dancing. In that case, the lack of pointe work would not interfere with their eventual employment.
Usage by male dancers
Pointe shoes are normally only worn by female ballet dancers. Male dancers may wear them for a comic effect in unorthodox roles such as the Ugly Stepsisters in Cinderella, or Bottom in A Midsummer Night's Dream. The all-male dance troupe Les Ballets Trockadero de Monte Carlo have dance programs with choreography entirely on pointe. This is one element of spectacle for the audience to demonstrate how the physical demands of classical ballet combine the artistic and the athletic.

Construction 
All pointe shoes are handmade. There are many different companies which make these shoes. Some of them include: Bloch, Capezio, Gamba, Grishko, Gaynor Mindens, Sansha and Freed of London.

There are many different parts to a pointe shoe:
Platform 
Vamp
Throat
Binding
Sockliner
Quarter 
Drawstring
Outer sole
Proper fit and safety 
Its important that pointe shoes fit correctly. If they do not, it can cause the dancers feet to become sore. It can also affect the way the dancer performs in them and may cause injury to the dancer. A dancer may need to try on many pairs of pointe shoes before they find ones that fit correctly. Also, when the pointe shoes are "dead" (too soft to dance in any more), the shoes will need to be replaced.

With light use, a pair of pointe shoes may last through ten to twenty hours of wear. A dance student may get weeks of serviceable use from a pair of pointe shoes. Professional dancers wear out pointe shoes much more quickly; a new pair may wear out in a single performance. As a result, ballet companies either buy shoes in bulk or give shoe allowances for their dancers.
Quantity & quality 
Ballet companies order pointe shoes in huge quantities at maybe $50-$110 a pair. A soloist or principal dancer will have her shoes specially hand-made to her needs, and may get through several in a single performance. Dancers' feet take a terrific battering, and few end their careers without having some damage to their feet. This is the reality behind the light, airy, graceful sight on the stage.

Demi-pointe 
Demi-pointe shoes are often used to train dancers who are new to pointe technique. They help dancers get used to the feel of pointe shoes, strengthen the ankles and feet. The toe box allows the dancer to feel a pointe, while the insole and outsole work together to give the resistance for developing foot and ankle strength.

Demi-pointe is often used in modern dance, because choreography in modern dance most often asks for balance on the ball of the foot, which is what those shoes are made for.

References 

Footwear
Ballet
Maysan () is a province in southeastern Iraq, bordering Iran. The capital is Amarah. 785,068 people live in the province. 

Provinces of Iraq
Najaf () is a province in southwestern Iraq. The province has an area of 28,824 km². The capital is also called Najaf. 1.477.134 people live in the province.

Provinces of Iraq
Ninawa (, , Assyrian: ܢܝܢܘܐ Nîněwâ) is a province in north of Iraq It has an area of 37,323 km². The capital is Mosul which lies near the Tigris river. 2,600,000 people live in the province. The ancient Biblical city of Nineveh is also in this province.  The name Ninawa is the Arabic name for Nineveh.

Nineveh Governorate
Al Muthanna (also Muthanna, ) is a province in southern Iraq, bordering Saudi Arabia. The province has an area of 83,268 km², and 1.035.000 people live there. The capital is Samawah.

Provinces of Iraq
Kirkuk Governorate ( ,  Parêzgay Kerkûk,  , ) or Kirkuk Province is a governorate in northern Iraq, with an area of . 

The capital is also called Kirkuk, and 949,000 people live in the province.

References

Provinces of Iraq
Iraq is divided into 18 provinces (muhafazah). also the Iraqi Constitution has recognized only one autonomous federal region inside Iraq, the name of the region is Iraqi Kurdistan Region, this region consists of the three provinces of Dahuk ( دهوك ), Arbil ( اربيل ) and As-Sulaymaniyyah (السليمانية )
Brussels-Capital Region is one of the three regions of Belgium. Its official name in the three official languages of Belgium:

 

It has a population of 1,222,637  (1 January 2022) on an area of 162 km².

Language 
Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual: Dutch and French, but most people speak French. In earlier times, they spoke Brabantian, which is a Dutch dialect.

History 
The area of Brussels-Capital Region belonged to the Duchy of Brabant until 1795. After the French occupation it became part of the newly formed province of South Brabant during the United Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1815 until 1831. After the Belgian separation in 1831, it became part of the newly formed province of Brabant. On 1 January 1995, Brabant province was divided into the provinces of Flemish Brabant (Dutch-speaking) and Walloon Brabant (French-speaking), and into the bilingual Brussels region.

Municipalities 

Brussels-Capital Region has 19 municipalities:

¹ Capital, English name Brussels.
Related pages 
There are two other regions:
 Flanders (or Flemish Region) for the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium
 Wallonia (or Walloon Region) for the French-speaking part of Belgium

References

Other websites 

Official website
The Brussels-Capital Region, belgium.be
Vaishali or Vesali (Pali)  was a city in what is currently Vaishali District, Bihar, India. The city was the capital of the Licchavi and the Vajjian Confederacy. At the time of the Buddha, Vesali was a very large and rich city. It was crowded with people and with much food.

Cities in Bihar
Archaeological sites in India
Licchavi (also Lichchhavi, Lichavi) was an ancient republic that existed in what is now Bihar state of India before the birth of Mahavira (b. 599 BC). Its capital was Vaishali.

From about 400 to 750, a kingdom in Nepal in the Kathmandu Valley had the same name, Licchavi.

Origins
Early Buddhist legends tell that Licchavi was a ruling family during Gautama Buddha's time in India, but links to the Nepalese kingdom are speculative.  The language of Licchavi inscriptions is Sanskrit, and the particular script used is closely related to official Gupta scripts. That means that India was a significant cultural influence. That was likely through Mithila, now the north of Bihar, India.

References
References

Other websites
  Tamot, Kashinath and Alsop, Ian. "A Kushan-period Sculpture, The Licchavi Kings", Asianart.com
  History of Nepal,  Thamel.com
  "Nepal: The Early Kingdom of the Licchavis, 400-750", Library of Congress Countryreports.org (September, 1991)
 Vajrācārya, Gautamavajra, "Recently Discovered Inscriptions of Licchavi, Nepal", Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies, Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. (pp. 117-134) 

Ancient India
Nepal
Bihar
1st millennium BC
Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic with an emphasis on liberty and the civic virtue practiced by citizens.  Republicanism always stands in opposition to aristocracy, oligarchy, monarchy, and dictatorship. More broadly, it refers to a political system that protects liberty, especially by incorporating a rule of law that cannot be arbitrarily ignored by the government.

United States 
According to John Adams, “They define a republic to be a government of laws, and not of men.” Much of the literature deals with the issue of what sort of values and behavior by the citizens is necessary if the republic is to survive and flourish; the emphasis has been on widespread citizen participation, civic virtue, and opposition to corruption.
Commonwealth Realms 
Many Commonwealth realms (countries which have the British Monarch as their head of state) have political movements to become republics. For example, the Prime Minister of Jamaica said that it will become a republic by 2025. In 1999, Australia had a vote to decide whether or not to keep the monarchy. The result was a majority supporting the monarchy.

Other websites
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 Res Publica: an international anti-monarchy Web directory 

Political ideologies
Tabriz تبریز  is the largest city in north-western Iran with a population of 1.6 million. Most of them speak the Azerbaijani language. Tabriz is north of the volcanic cone of Sahand and south of the Eynali mountain. It is the capital of East Azarbaijan Province.

Other websites 

Tabriz Historical Buildings Virtual Library - Related to Tabriz University 
Tabriz Information 
Tabriz Culture & Information Center
Tabriz City 
Tabriz from Encyclopaedia of the Orient 
Tabriz Municipal Office 
tabrizinfo.com
Tabriz Municipality News Agency
Tabriz Metro
Hundreds of Tabriz Pictures

Cities in Iran
East Azarbaijan Province
The sabre-tooth style of life evolved at least five times amongst carnivorous mammals. This is one of the best-known examples of convergent evolution.
Creodonts, were the earliest sabre-tooths known. They lived in the Eocene, and are in a different order from the Feliformia. Machaeroides and Apataelurus are examples. 
The Nimravids were a basal group in the Feliformia, lasting from the Eocene to the later Miocene epochs. Hoplophoneus is an example.
The Barbourofelidae is another family of Feliforms which developed the sabre-tooth lifestyle. They flourished in the Miocene. They are probably more closely related to the felids than the Nimravids.
Sparassodonts, such as Thylacosmilus, were a  metatherian  group of mammals. They used to be called "marsupial sabre-tooths", but they belong to a sister-group to the marsupials. Miocene to Pliocene.
The Machairodontinae: a subfamily of the Felidae, lived from the Miocene to the Pleistocene (23 million years ago to 11,000 years ago). Includes the famous Smilodon.
The saber tooths were ambush predators, and probably lived in open forests. This would explain their widespread occurrence in the Miocene, when much of the land was covered with woodland. Apart from the canine teeth, their adaptations included strength in the forelimbs (more so than present-day large cats). Their robust (heavy, tough) bodies speak of strength rather than speed.

An idea of how they killed is as follows. They hid in wait, and pounced. They hung on round the prey's neck, gripping and slashing the underside of the throat with their canine teeth. This would cause death by blood loss and loss of the air supply.

The fact that their teeth vary is interesting. Some have larger teeth, some had smaller dagger-like teeth, some had smooth thick teeth, others had blade-like teeth, sometimes with serrated edges. Some had flanges on the lower jaw, most did not. Ewer remarks that this must show that there were variations in killing method, and in the type of prey, but we know little about this.
There are none living today: they are extinct. The extinctions followed climate change, as the world cooled and grassland took over from woodland in the Pliocene and Pleistocene.

References 

Fossils
Prosper Mérimée (September 28, 1803 – September 23, 1870) was a French writer. He was also a historian and an archaeologist. He is probably best known for writing the short story "Carmen". "Carmen" became the basis for the opera Carmen by Georges Bizet.

1803 births
1870 deaths
Writers from Paris
Jerry Hsu (b. December 17, 1981) is an American professional skateboarder. He was born in, and currently lives in, San Jose, California. Hsu is a member of the San Jose Tilt Mode Army crew. He has several pro model skateboard decks with Enjoi Skateboards. Hsu was featured in the skateboard videos Bag of Suck by Enjoi. He won an award for best video part by Transworld Skateboarding Magazine and a reader's choice award for his work in the video.

References

1981 births
Living people
American skateboarders
Sportspeople from San Jose, California
Barnes & Noble, Inc. is the largest bookseller in the United States. It operates mostly through its Barnes & Noble Booksellers chain of bookstores which is based in lower Fifth Avenue in Lower Manhattan, New York City. Barnes & Noble also operated the chain of small B. Dalton Booksellers stores in malls until they announced the liquidation of the chain.

The company is known for large, upscale retail stores. Many of them contain a café serving Starbucks Coffee. Most stores also sell magazines, newspapers, DVDs, graphic novels, gifts, games, and music. Video games and related items were sold in the company's GameStop retail outlets until October 2004. Then, the division was made into its own company.

As of October 2009, the company operates 777 stores in all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. It also has 636 college bookstores, which serves nearly 4 million students and 250,000 faculty members across the country.
History
Barnes & Noble began in 1873 when Charles Barnes opened a book-printing business in Wheaton, Illinois. Their first true bookstore was set up by his son, William, with G. Clifford Noble, in 1917 in New York City. The original bookstore was at 31 West 15th St., and opened during World War I. In 1932, at the height of the Great Depression, the bookstore was moved to its current location on 18th Street and Fifth Avenue.
The business was bought in 1971 by Leonard Riggio. He oversaw the growth of the business. In 1974, Barnes & Noble became the first bookstore to advertise on television. A year later, the company became the first bookseller in America to discount books. It sold New York Times best-selling titles at 40% off the publishers’ list price. During the 1970s and 1980s, Barnes & Noble opened smaller discount stores.  These were eventually phased out in favor of larger stores. They also began to publish their own books to be sold to mail-order customers. These titles were mostly low price reissues of out-of-print titles. Selling them through mail-order catalogs allowed Barnes & Noble to reach new customers nationwide.
Barnes & Noble continued to expand throughout the 1980s. In 1987 it purchased the mostly shopping mall-based B. Dalton chain from Dayton Hudson. The last B. Dalton stores closed in January 2010. The purchase of 797 bookstores turned the company into a nationwide retailer. As of the end of fiscal year 1999, the second-largest online bookseller in the United States.  B&N's critics claim that it has added to the decline of local and independent booksellers.

It first began selling books online in the late 1980s, but the company’s website was not launched until May 1997. The site now carries over 1 million titles.

In 2002, Leonard Riggio's brother Stephen Riggio was named CEO.
Steve Riggio, CEO and Vice Chairman
Steve Riggio is vice chairman of the company and served on the board of directors. Riggio began his career at Barnes & Noble in 1975 after graduating from Brooklyn College. After getting his start in the buying and merchandising departments, he became general manager and vice president of the company’s direct mail division. He held this position from 1981 to 1987. Riggio became executive vice president of merchandising in 1987. Then, in 1995, he was appointed chief operating officer. He was appointed CEO in January 2003 and held that position till March 2010. In addition to his career at Barnes & Noble, Riggio serves on the board of directors of the National Book Foundation, Association for the Help of Retarded Children and the National Down Syndrome Society. According to Forbes.com, in 2007 Riggio’s salary is $786,358 a year. He also earns $2,323,942 in other long-term payments, for a yearly grand total of $3,110,480.
Publishing
Barnes & Noble publishes some of the books it sells. It reprints non-copyrighted titles or gets the American or English language rights from another publisher. In addition, Barnes & Noble pays for reprint anthologies and omnibus editions using in-house editors.

Barnes & Noble began to publish books during the 1980s, when they started reissuing out-of-print titles. One of these titles, The Gentle Art of Verbal Self-Defense by Suzette Haden Elgin, has sold over 250,000 copies.  The reissued edition of The Columbia History of the World by John Garrity has sold over 1 million copies.

Since then, the company has expanded its publishing operation. This expansion was helped by the company’s purchase of SparkNotes, an educational website and publishing company. Further expansions of the company’s publishing business include the purchase of how-to publisher Sterling Publishing in 2003 and the launch of Quamut in 2008.
From around 1992 through early 2003, Barnes & Noble released a series of literary classics for adults and children under the imprint Barnes & Noble Classics Collection. Originally available only in hardcover, most titles came in a black or cream-colored dustjacket edition. In 2003, Barnes & Noble redesigned and expanded its line of literature classics, releasing books in hardcover, trade paperback and mass-market editions.

Cafés

The first store to feature a café serving Starbucks beverages was in Springfield, New Jersey in 1993. Since then, most stores have been changed or built specifically to feature a cafe. The cafes serve Starbucks beverages, Harney & Sons or Tazo Tea, FIJI Bottled Water, bakery goods from The Cheesecake Factory, candy from Godiva Chocolatiers, sandwiches and other specialty products.  Although the cafés are owned and operated by Barnes & Noble, servers follow Starbucks' standards in beverage preparation.
Barnes & Noble hires community relations managers to engage in community outreach. The tasks of these managers include organizing in-store events, such as author appearances, children’s storytimes and book groups. Community relations managers work closely with local schools and groups for the promotion of literacy and the arts. One of the things that Barnes & Noble does in the community is sponsor a children's summer reading program that promotes literacy and puts over 2 million books into the hands of the children each year.  Barnes & Noble also hosts bookfairs which raise funds for schools and libraries. The company also hosts an annual holiday book drive to collect books for disadvantaged children. in 2007, 1.16 million books were collected and distributed
. To promote nationwide literacy among 1st to 6th graders and encourage more reading during the summer, Barnes & Noble has started a summer challenge where if children read 8 books and write about their reading, Barnes & Noble will give the readers a free book.
Barnes & Noble Nook

Barnes & Noble Nook is an electronic book reader created by the company, based on the Android platform.  The device was announced in the United States on 20 October 2009. It was released 30 November 2009 for US$259. nook competes with the Amazon Kindle, Sony Reader, and other readers, and includes Wi-Fi and AT&T 3G wireless connectivity, a six-inch E Ink display, and a separate, smaller color touchscreen that serves as the primary input device.

College bookstores
Barnes & Noble College Booksellers, Inc. is a part of the company which operates bookstores at more than 600 colleges. College Bookstores was previously owned by company chairman Leonard Riggio. It is based in Basking Ridge, New Jersey.
Barnes & Noble College Booksellers says that its store at Fifth Avenue and 18th Street in New York City is the "world's largest bookstore". This store carries a large variety of textbooks, medical books, and medical supplies in addition to the various trade titles carried at the company's main stores.

Related pages
Amazon.com

Notes

Other websites 

 Barnes & Noble corporate website 
 Barnes & Noble retail website
 Barnes & Noble at 18th Street Bookstore (flagship store) 

Companies based in New York City
1873 establishments in the United States
1870s establishments in New York (state)
Booksellers
Wasit () is a province in the east of Iraq. The capital is Al Kut. Wasit is an Arabic word meaning "middle". The province is along the Tigris about midway between Baghdad and Misan.

Provinces of Iraq
A birth defect (or congenital disorder) is a defect in a baby at birth, or which develops in the first month of life. It is neutral as to whether the cause is genetic (inherited birth defect) or environmental (causes in the environment, that is, outside the foetus). 

If a condition is said to be "congenital", that is neutral language. Often it is not known what causes a condition found at birth. In common use, it is often redirected to "birth defect". That term is also neutral as to cause. 

There are two main types of congenital defect. The first is caused by genetic abnormalities, which are hereditary. The second may be caused by conditions (such as infectious diseases) which a baby may get. However, we may not know what caused the condition.

Sometimes doctors may find out that a baby has a congenital disorder before its birth. They use prenatal diagnosis and screening tests, such as amniocentesis.

Genetic defects

Lethal or damaging genes 
Some gene alleles (versions of a gene) can damage the baby.
Conditions like dwarfism are nearly always genetic in origin. One type, achondroplasia, happens when a child's bones does not grow correctly. Another type is caused by pituitary malfunction, where the pituitary gland, which puts out growth hormones, does not work properly.

Many genetic disorders are caused by mutations (or changes) in gene alleles. Mutations can cause development to go wrong, or a simple biochemical deficiency (the body does not have enough of an important chemical). In the case of a chemical deficiency, the problem may be curable. For example, phenylketonuria was a cause of mental retardation. Doctors came up with a simple test to find which babies have this condition. They found that if these children got treated and followed a strict diet, they could get enough of the chemical they needed. Phenylketonuria now causes few cases of mental retardation.
Chromosome defects 
Cells divide and copy themselves to produce gametes. Sometimes, errors happen in the way that chromosomes are copied during this process. These errors are then copied again and again as cells keep dividing and copying themselves. The most common chromosomal disorder is Down syndrome ('Mongolism'). This condition happens when a child has three copies of the 21st chromosome, instead of two.

Maternal environment

Infectious diseases 
The other main type of congenital disorder is caused by an infectious disease being passed from mother to child. For example, If a pregnant woman gets rubella, her child can have many birth defects. Congenital syphilis was common a century ago, and congenital AIDS occurs today, and is common in some parts of Africa.
Screening and antibiotics has caused the number of infections transmitted by the mother to drop. It is a much smaller proportion than a century ago, despite AIDS. Also, maternal nutritional defects are much rarer, except in countries where food supply is limited. Therefore, genetic disorders have grown as a proportion of the total congenital defects.

Substances taken by the mother

Chemicals 
Sometimes mothers take chemicals which cause the embryo damage. Any substance that causes birth defects is known as a teratogen.

Drugs taken by the mother may affect development of the embryo. Pregnant women are not allowed to use some drugs. For example, thalidomide should not be used by a pregnant woman, or it can cause many defects in the foetus.
Lifestyle 
If the mother took certain things during pregnancy, these can lead to problems with the baby. Common examples of such things are smoking tobacco, or drinking alcohol. Food related: Pregnant women should eat well. If a pregnant woman does not receive enough folic acid with her food, the child can get neural tube defects.

Sensible precautions 
Many women give up cigarettes and alcohol when pregnant, because this gives the embryo a better chance of developing normally.

How common birth defects are 
About 3 percent of all babies have what is called a major physical anomaly. This is something that damages the way the baby looks, or how it functions (its physiology).