Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Tolkaapiyam (தொல்காப்பியம்) is a book on grammar of the Tamil language.

Tol (தொல்) means Old and Kappiyam (காப்பியம்) means a literary work.
The name of the author could not be identified (usually referred as Tholkappiyar) and the work apparently relates to Grammar in Tamil.
It is learnt that the author was one of the 12 disciples of Sage Agastya the Father of Tamil Grammar. This sage was living in the south near Madurai, during the visit of Lord Ram to the south in search of his wife, abducted by the Lankan King Ravan.
The age of Lord Ram precedes that of Lord Krishna and hence the work can safely be said to precede 3000 BC (the ideal period of Mahabharat Yudh).
Lord Shiva and his Son Murugan is said to have laid the first tenets for the Tamil Language, probably long long time before sage Agastya could compile the same.

Tamil language
The great auk was a large bird, that could not fly. People hunted it for meat and feathers. It grew rare, because it was too easy to kill, and the ones left could not breed fast enough to make up for the lost ones. The last known great auks (there were two auks) were killed on June 3, 1844 in Iceland.  It lived mostly in the water, like a duck. 

Penguins got their name from the great auk. The word "penguin" was the Celtic word for "great auk". When sailors saw penguins for the first time, they thought they looked like great auks.
The great auk was covered in black feathers, but had white feathers on its chest and abdomen. It had very short wings, like stubs, which meant it could not fly. On land it stood upright and was about 75 cm tall. They spent most of their time at sea, coming to shore in the summer to breed. They lived in large breeding colonies on low rocky islands in the north Atlantic Ocean from Canada to Norway. Females laid one egg on bare rock. In winter they went as far south as Florida and southern Spain.

References

Charadriiformes
Flightless birds
Extinct birds
kl:Apparluk
Abbey Road Studios, usually called just "Abbey Road", are the recording studios in EMI's headquarters in St. John's Wood, London, England.

Abbey Road had three different studios for most of its history. Other space was turned into a fourth studio later. Studio One is large, and used to be a ballroom. Symphony orchestras and very large bands and groups are recorded there. Studio Two is smaller, and works best for small combos or groups of musicians. Studio Three is much smaller, and is meant for soloists and duos. Studio Four is mostly for post-production, where changes are made to earlier recordings.

Recording studios
Ujamaa, meaning 'familyhood' is the group of ideas of Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere. They are based on the traditional African society.

Tanzania
Nationalism
A prisoner is a person who is forced to stay in a prison against their will. People who are suspected of a crime, for example, a murder, may be  arrested and held in jail so they won't escape before their trial. After conviction a prisoner may be punished. For example, they may be imprisoned for a fixed number of years, or receive a life sentence meaning they stay in jail until they die. 

A prisoner of war is a person who was captured by the enemy in a war.
The Fachhochschule Düsseldorf is a so-called Fachhochschule (university of applied sciences), that means a special kind of college, with technical, design and business subjects in Düsseldorf.
It was founded in 1971.

List of Departments
 Architecture
 Design
 Electrical Engineering
 Mechanical and Process Engineering
 Media Sciences
 Social and Cultural Studies (e.g. Sociology)
 Business Studies (applied Economy studies)

Other websites 
 Official Website

Education in Düsseldorf
1971 establishments in Germany
Psychoanalysis is a field of psychology and medical therapy. It is a set of theories and ways of treating mental disorders. It was started in the early 1890s by the Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud, with experience from the clinical work of Josef Breuer and others.

Since then, psychoanalysis has expanded and been revised, reformed and developed in different ways. Freud's own colleagues and students, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung, had their own ideas. They went on to develop their ideas independently from Freud. Much later, Anna Freud and Melanie Klein used the ideas to treat troubled children.
The basic ideas of psychoanalysis are:
 besides inherited personality, a person's development is determined by events in early childhood;
 human behavior, experience, and thought is largely influenced by unconscious irrational drives;
 attempts to bring these drives into awareness is resisted by defence mechanisms;
 conflicts between conscious and unconscious (repressed) material can result in mental disturbances such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety, depression, etc.;
 liberation from the effects of the unconscious material is achieved by bringing this material into the conscious mind (e.g. by the skilled guidance of the analyst.

The unconscious mind 
Sometimes people cannot say why they are feeling the way they feel or acting the way they act. What causes the feelings and actions is called the unconscious mind in psychodynamic theory.
Different methods 
Under the broad umbrella of "psychoanalysis" there are at least 22 different approaches to the theory and clinical treatment. The term also refers to a method of studying child development.

Freudian psychoanalysis uses a type of treatment where the subject (analytic patient) talks, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams. From these the analyst works out the unconscious conflicts which cause the patient's symptoms and character problems. By interpreting them for the patient, the analyst creates insight into the problems. The analyst identifies and clarifies the patient's pathological defences, wishes and guilt.

Psychoanalysis has been criticized on many fronts. It has been called a pseudoscience, and lacking in empirical support. However, it remains influential within psychiatry, more so in some quarters than others.

References 

Philosophical movements and positions
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis
Zaandam is a city in the west of the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. It has about 74,000 inhabitants (2014). It makes part of the municipality of Zaanstad.

First settlements in the region were known up from the 11th century.

Czar Peter the Great visited Zaandam in 1697 and 1717.

20th-century disestablishments in the Netherlands
Cities in North Holland
Former municipalities of North Holland
Zaanstad
Windows 3.x was a family of Microsoft Windows operating system, released in 1990-1994. Notable operating systems in this family include Windows 3.0 and Windows 3.1. This Windows could run in either Standard or 386 Enhanced memory modes. Both of the modes used a Graphical User Interface (or picture-based), and supported a mouse, but 386 Enhanced Mode was faster and was better at multitasking (or doing many things at once). Windows NT 3.x was released in 1993-1996.

It also had many features from versions of Windows before it. These included a calculator, a notepad, and more.  It also brought in many new features, like the Program Manager (which is still in Windows XP today - Start>Run>progman.exe), and the icons and programs looked better.

Windows 3.x was made better in 1992, with Windows for Workgroups 3.1x (1992-1993), that added networking support.

Microsoft operating systems
A woodwind instrument is an instrument belonging to the woodwind family.  Traditionally they were always made of wood, although some of them are now made of metal or plastic.

In an orchestra there are four main types of woodwind instrument. Each of these also has related instruments of different sizes:

The flute is the highest of the four main instruments.  The lowest note is Middle C and it has a range of 3 octaves.  The piccolo is the smallest and highest instrument in the orchestra.  It plays one octave higher than the flute.  There is also an alto flute which sounds a fifth lower than the ordinary flute.  Flutes are still sometimes made of wood, but mostly they are metal.

The oboe can play slightly lower than the flute.  There is a larger version called the cor anglais (which means: “English horn”).

The clarinet plays nearly an octave lower than the flute.  The bass clarinet plays an octave lower than the clarinet.
The bassoon is the lowest of the four main members, but the contrabassoon plays right down to the bottom B flat of the piano.

The recorder is one of the oldest and most popular woodwinds and has been used to great effect by greats, such as Bach, Telemann and Vivaldi.  The general public is normally only familiar with the plastic, child's version of the recorder, but professional and high-quality recorders are still made of wood.

The saxophone may look like a brass instrument, but it is played like a clarinet and therefore it is a woodwind instrument.  It is usually played in bands and jazz groups.
Use 
Woodwind instruments are played in several ways. The flute is played by blowing across the top of the mouthpiece.  It is like blowing across the top of an empty bottle.  The oboe and bassoon both have a double reed.  It is like blowing through a drinking straw.  Bagpipes have double reeds which are inside the mouthpiece (“enclosed reeds”). The clarinet and saxophone have single reeds which are clamped against the opening of the mouthpiece.

In comparison, brass instruments are all blown in the same way: by blowing against a cup-shaped mouthpiece.  This is why the saxophone cannot be called a brass instrument, although it is made of brass.

The way that a player shapes his mouth to blow an instrument is called the “embouchure”.  Woodwind instruments have several different embouchures.
In an orchestra there may be two each of flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons.  In larger orchestras, particularly from the Romantic period onwards, there may be three or four.  Sometimes the extra instruments such as the piccolo are used.  If, for example, in an orchestral piece the third flute is marked “doubling piccolo”, it means that the person playing flute 3 will also play the piccolo.  However, if the piccolo plays at the same time as flute 3 they will obviously need an extra player for the piccolo part.

Woodwind instruments in an orchestra often have short solos.  These will be played by the first player (the “section principal”).
Bewitched is a comedy television show that was shown on TV by ABC from 1964 to 1972. It is about a man who is married to a witch.

The lead characters are Darrin and Samantha Stephens. Samantha twitches her nose or moves her hands to make a spell happen. Samantha was played by Elizabeth Montgomery. Darrin was played by Dick York from 1964 to 1969. Because of illness, Dick York left the show and was replaced by Dick Sargent who played Darrin from 1969 to 1972. Samantha's mother Endora was played by Agnes Moorehead. Endora dislikes Darrin and often makes things difficult for him.

1960s American comedy television series
1970s American sitcoms
1964 television series debuts
1972 television series endings
English-language television programs
Dumbo is a 1941 American animated movie. It was produced by Walt Disney Productions. It was first released on October 23, 1941 by RKO Radio Pictures. The fourth movie in the Walt Disney Animated Classics, Dumbo is based upon a child's book of the same name by Helen Aberson and illustrated by Harold Perl. The main character is Jumbo Jr., a baby elephant who is cruelly nicknamed Dumbo. He is ridiculed for his big ears, but in fact he is capable of flying by using them as wings. Throughout most of the movie, his only true friend aside from his mother is the mouse Timothy, making fun of the stereotype between mice and elephants. Dumbo was made to make up for the damages of Pinocchio and Fantasia
. The movie has been criticized in recent years as being "racist" (the leader crow in the movie was named "Jim Crow" and at some point in the 1950s was renamed "Dandy Crow" in attempt to avoid controversy, but the original name is still the one mostly known, although it was supposed to be just a sarcastic mockery to the Jim Crow laws in the Southern USA back then and was used only on the character's model sheets), yet is also considered to be one of Disney's best movies. It was an attempt to be simple and make profits for the Disney studio, is now generally regarded as a classic of animation. At 64 minutes, it is one of Disney's shortest animated features.
The story 
Florida, 1941. Mrs. Jumbo sadly looks on how babies are delivered by the stork to other circus animals. As even a baby elephant makes a pretty heavy package, hers is the last to arrive, but soon becomes the laughing stock of the others because of his big ears, getting meanly named "Dumbo" by the others. When Mrs. Jumbo can not take the public making fun of her son, she is locked up as "mad elephant", and Dumbo finds himself all alone. A mouse named Timothy comes and scares the mean herd. He encourages Dumbo and tells the circus director to make Dumbo the top (literally) of an elephant pyramid stunt which ends up literally bringing the house down, and Dumbo is given the job of "baby clown" in a repetitive, humiliating and dangerous number as punishment. To cheer Dumbo up, Timothy brings him to go see his mother. The next morning, they find themselves up in a tree with a bunch of crows, who discover that Dumbo can fly.
Cast 
 Dumbo is the mute title character.
 Edward Brophy: Timothy Q. Mouse
 Herman Bing: The Ringmaster
 Margaret Wright: Casey Junior
 Sterling Holloway: Mr. Stork
 Cliff Edwards: Jim/Dandy Crow
 Hall Johnson Choir: Crow Chorus
 Nick Stewart: Specks Crow
 James Baskett: Fats Crow
 Hall Johnson: Deacon Crow
 Jim Carmichael: Dopey Crow
 Verna Felton: Elephant Matriarch, Mrs. Jumbo
 Dorothy Scott: Elephant Giddy
 Sarah Selby: Elephant Prissy
 Noreen Gammill: Elephant Catty
 John McLeish: Narrator
 The Sportsmen: Themselves
 Note: These actors were credited in the opening credits of the movie.
Crew 
 Based on the Book by: Helen Aberson and Harold Pearl
 Supervising Director: Ben Sharpsteen
 Screen Story by: Joe Grant and Dick Huemer
 Story Direction: Otto Englander
 Sequence Directors: Norman Ferguson, Wilfred Jackson, Bill Roberts, Jack Kinney, Sam Armstrong
 Animation Directors: Vladimir Tytla, Fred Moore, Ward Kimball, John Lounsbery, Art Babbitt, Woolie Reitherman
 Story Development: Bill Peet, Aurie Battaglia, Joe Rinaldi, George Stallings, Webb Smith
 Character Designs: John P. Miller, Martin Provenson, John Walbridge, James Bodrero, Maurice Noble, Elmer Plummer
 Music: Oliver Wallace and Frank Churchill
 Lyrics: Ned Washington
 Orchestration: Edward Plumb
 Art Direction: Herb Ryman, Ken O'Conner, Terrell Stapp, Don Da Gradi, Al Zinnen, Ernest Nordli, Dick Kelsey, Charles Payzant
 Backgrounds: Claude Coats, Al Dempster, John Hench, Gerald Nevius, Ray Lockrem, Joe Stahley
Animation: Hugh Fraiser, Harvey Toombs, Milt Neil, Hicks Lokey, Howard Swift, Don Towsley, Les Clark, Claude Smith, Berny Wolf, Jack Campbell, Walt Kelly, Don Patterson, Cy Young, Ray Patterson, Grant Simmons, Josh Meador, Bill Shull, Art Palmer
 Story: Vernon Stallings
 Art Direction: John Hubley
 Animation Director: Frank Thomas
 Cel Painter: Phyllis Bounds Detiege
 Animators: Eric Larson, Retta Scott
 Singing Voice for "Look Out for Mr. Stork": Thurl Ravenscroft
Characters

Dumbo the Flying Elephant 
Dumbo is the main character in the movie. He is a fictional anthropomorphic elephant who has really big ears. He can fly using his big ears. Similar to Dopey from Snow White and the 7 Dwarfs and Gideon in Pinocchio, Dumbo has no spoken dialogue. However, in the live-action/puppet television series Dumbo's Circus, Dumbo was voiced by Katie Leigh.

In the movie, Dumbo is delivered by Mr. Stork, and is made fun of for the strange size of his ears. As his mother, Mrs. Jumbo, beats up the bullies who pick on her baby, the ringmaster has his helpers chain her up and lock her up in a trailer, which says: "MAD ELEPHANT". It is then that Timothy Q. Mouse looks after Dumbo. The two of them try to make Dumbo famous and get his mother free. Thanks to the help of a "magic feather" from some crows, Dumbo flies to fame, and gets his mother free.
Timothy the Mouse 
Timothy Q. Mouse is a mouse who became the only friend of elephants Dumbo and his mother Mrs. Jumbo. He teaches Dumbo how to become the ninth wonder of the universe, and the only flying elephant in the whole world.

Mrs. Jumbo 
Mrs. Jumbo is Dumbo's mother. Deeply depressed at not having her baby delivered, she loves her son more than anything. She becomes angry when the boys pick on him.

Other characters include the other elephants who also make fun of Dumbo, the Ringmaster, the clowns of the circus, the Pink Elephants, Mr. Stork and the Crows who give Dumbo the "magic feather" and teach him to fly.
Release 
Even though World War II was going on, Dumbo was still the most financially successful Disney movie of the 1940s. This was one of the first of Disney's animated movies to be broadcast, albeit severely edited, on television, as part of Disney's anthology series. The movie then received another distinction of note in 1981, when it was the first of Disney's canon of animated movies to be released on home video and also was released in the Walt Disney Classics Video Collection in 1985. That release was followed by remastered versions in: 1986, 1989, 1991 (Classics), and 1994 (Masterpiece). In 2001, a 60th Anniversary Special Edition was released that has original RKO titles. In 2006, a "Big Top Edition" of the movie was released on DVD that also has original RKO titles. A UK Special Edition was released in May 2007 and was a successful Disney release.

Theatrical release history
United States 
 October 23, 1941 (original release)
 May 25, 1949 (the final RKO release)
 June 6, 1959 (the first Buena Vista release)
 June 3, 1977
Worldwide 
 Brazil: November 17, 1941
 Argentina: December 24, 1941
 United Kingdom: February 8, 1942
 Canada: March 31, 1942
 Australia: June 4, 1942
 Mexico: July 9, 1942
 Portugal: January 27, 1944
 Spain: September 25, 1944 (Madrid)
 Spain: December 14, 1944 (Barcelona)
 Sweden: September 16, 1946
 Netherlands: April 25, 1947
 Belgium: April 25, 1947
 France: October 25, 1947
 Norway: December 26, 1947
 Denmark: June 25, 1948
 Hong Kong: August 19, 1948
 Colombia: September 16, 1948
 Finland: October 1, 1948
 Italy: October 2, 1948
 Argentinian inChilean Spanish: October 15, 1948
 Poland: October 23, 1949
 West Germany: April 8, 1952
 Austria: May 22, 1953
 Japan: March 13, 1954
 Philippines: September 28, 1955
 Israel: January 21, 1967
 Lebanon: May 14, 1968
 Iraq: October 18, 1979
 Kuwait: October 14, 1986
 Chad: January 12, 1989
 China: July 12, 1989 (Beijing)
Home video release history 
 June 4, 1982, 1981 (VHS and Betamax)
 June 4, 1982 (Laserdisc)
 December 3, 1986 (VHS and Betamax - 45th Anniversary- Walt Disney Classics)
 July 13, 1990 VHS and Laserdisc -Walt Disney Classics
 May 3, 1991 (VHS and Laserdisc - 50th Anniversary Edition - Walt Disney Classics)
 October 28, 1994 (VHS and Laserdisc - Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection)
 August 17, 1999 VHS Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection
 October 23, 2001 (VHS and DVD - 60th Anniversary Edition)
 June 6, 2006 (DVD - Big Top Edition)
 September 20, 2011 Blu-Ray and DVD - 70th Anniversary Edition
 April 26, 2016 Blu-Ray - 75th Anniversary Edition

Reception 
The movie received very good reviews and did well at the box office despite being released less than 2 months before World War II.
The leader crow voiced by Cliff Edwards was originally named "Jim Crow" for script purposes. The other crows are all voiced by African-American actors and singers, all members of the Hall Johnson Choir: Nick Stewart, James Baskett, Jim Carmichael and Hall Johnson. The late famous duo of African-American dancers Freddie and Eugene Jackson were invited and hired by Disney to work as live-action reference and models for the animators of the characters, like the chief-animator and Disney Legend Ward Kimball, improvising dances and movements then used in the iconic musical sequence "When I See An Elephant Fly". Despite suggestions of racism by writers like Richard Schickel, many historians, critics, writers, pundits and personalities such as John Grant, Leonard Maltin, John Canemaker, Floyd Norman, Eric Goldberg, Alex Wainer, Michael Wilmington, Whoopi Goldberg and Neal Gabler reject these claims
. For instance, the crows are noted as forming the majority of the characters in the movie who are empathetic and sympathetic to Dumbo's plight (the others are Timothy Q. Mouse and Mrs Jumbo), they are free spirits who serve nobody, and intelligent characters aware of the power of self-confidence and of what means being ostracized and marginalized, unlike the Stepin Fetchit stereotype common at that time and in the previous decade. Furthermore, their song "When I See An Elephant Fly" is more orientated to mocking Timothy Mouse than Dumbo's large ears.
Soundtrack listing 
 Main Title (01:47)
 Look Out For Mister Stork (02:16)
 Loading The Train / Casey Junior / Stork On A Cloud / Straight From Heaven / Mother And Baby (04:58)
 Song Of The Roustabouts (02:38)
 Circus Parade (01:28)
 Bathtime / Hide And Seek (01:31)
 Ain't That The Funniest Thing / Berserk / Dumbo Shunned / A Mouse! / Dumbo And Timothy (03:23)
 The Pyramid Of Pachyderms (01:58)
 No Longer An Elephant / Dumbo's Sadness / A Visit In The Night / Baby Mine (03:34)
 Clown Song (01:00)
 Hiccups / Firewater / Bubbles / Did You See That? / Pink Elephants On Parade (06:07)
 Up A Tree / The Fall / Timothy's Theory (01:32)
 When I See An Elephant Fly (01:48)
 You Oughta Be Ashamed (01:10)
 The Flight Test / When I See An Elephant Fly (Reprise) (00:57)
 Save My Child / The Threshold Of Success / Dumbo's Triumph / Making History / Finale (02:14)
 Spread Your Wing (Demo Recording) (01:08)
Songs 
 Baby Mine (Betty Noyes)
 Casey Junior (The Sportsmen)
 Look Out for Mr. Stork (The Sportsmen)
 Song of the Roustabouts (The King's Men)
 The Clown Song (A.K.A."We're gonna hit the big boss for a rise") (Billy Bletcher, Eddie Holden and Billy Sheets)
 Pink Elephants on Parade (The Sportsmen)
 When I See an Elephant Fly (Cliff Edwards and the Hall Johnson Choir)
 When I See an Elephant Fly (Reprise)

Media and marketing

Dumbo's Circus 
Dumbo's Circus was a live-action puppet television programme for preschool audiences that aired on The Disney Channel in the 1980s. Unlike in the movie, Dumbo spoke on the show. Each character would perform a special act, which ranged from dancing and singing to telling knock knock jokes.
Books 
 Walt Disney's Dumbo Happy to Help: () A picture book Disney Press by Random House Disney, written by Liane Onish, illustrated by Peter Emslie. It was published January 23, 2001, this paperback is for children age 4-8. Twenty-four pages long, its 0.08 inches thick, and with cover dimensions of 7.88 x 7.88 inches.
 Walt Disney's Dumbo Book of Opposites () A book published in August 1997 by Golden Books under the Golden Board Book brand. It was written by Alan Benjamin, illustrated by Peter Emslie, and edited by Heather Lowenberg. Twelve pages long and a quarter of an inch thick, this board edition book had dimensions of 7.25 x 6.00 inches.
 Walt Disney's Dumbo the Circus Baby () A book published in September 1993 by Golden Press under the A Golden Sturdy Shape Book brand. Illustrated by Peter Emslie and written by Diane Muldrow, this book is meant for babies and preschoolers. Twelve pages long and half an inch thick, this book's cover size is 9.75 x 6.25 inches.
 Walt Disney's Dumbo
Dumbo (My First Disney Story)
 Fly, Dumbo, Fly!
 I'm Gonna Like Me: Letting Off a Little Self-Esteem
Theme parks 
Dumbo the Flying Elephant is a popular ride that appears in Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, Disneyland, Tokyo Disneyland, Disneyland Park (Paris), and Hong Kong Disneyland.

Video games 
Dumbo appears as a hero in the game Kingdom Hearts. Sora, the main character, flies on him and Dumbo splashes enemies with water from his trunk.

Titles in other languages 
  (Dumbo)
 
 
  (xiǎo fēi xiàng, or Little Flying Elephant)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  (Danbo)
  (Dumbo)
 
 
 
 
  (Dambo)
  (Dambo)
 
 
 
 
 
(NOTE: Most of the above titles were later renamed simply Dumbo.)

Directing animators 
 Art Babbitt (Mr. Stork, Clowns)
 Ward Kimball (The Crows)
 John Lounsbery (Timothy Mouse and Dumbo)
 Wolfgang Reitherman (Timothy Mouse)
 Vladimir Tytla (Dumbo, the elephants)
 Fred Moore (Timothy Mouse)
 Frank Thomas (Pink Elephants)
 Note:All directing animators were credited on supervising these characters except Frank Thomas.
Sequence directors 
 Wilfred Jackson (Dumbo)
 Jack Kinney (The Crows)
 Sam Armstrong (Casey Junior, Mr. Stork)
 Bill Roberts (Timothy Mouse, Clowns)
 Norman Ferguson (Pink Elephants, Circus animals)

References

Other websites 

 
 
 
 

1941 adventure movies
1941 musical movies
1940s family movies
American family movies
American musical movies
Buddy movies
Disney animated movies
English-language movies
Movies based on books
Movies about elephants
Movies about mice
Movies about birds
Movies about animals
Movies about animal cruelty
Movies about bullying
Movies with circus settings
Movies composed by Oliver Wallace
(born ;* 10. February 1898 in Augsburg; † 14. August 1956 in Berlin) was a German poet and dramatist.

Life 
Brecht went to school in Augsburg, where his father was the director of a paper factory.
He completed his degree in 1917.
Afterwards he studied sciences, medicine and literature at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University in Munich. He had to take a break in his studies because he had to join the army.

In the 1920s, Brecht went to Berlin and became a part of the cultural scene. He met his second wife Helene Weigel in Berlin and married her, after divorcing his first wife. It was with his second wife that Brecht had another son.

In Berlin he met a lot of artists and intellectuals of the Weimar Republic. 
His works became very critical about the capitalistic society (e.g. "Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny" (1930)). Many of his friends were communists, but he never joined the KPD.
His most famous work was from that time, the "Dreigroschenoper".
In 1933 the Nazis prohibited playing some of his works and arrested some of his friends.
After the Reichstag fire, he travelled from Germany to Prague, Vienna, Switzerland and Denmark.

For the next five years he lived in Denmark. In 1938 he wrote "Das Leben des Galilei" (The Life of Galilei) about Galileo Galilei, who was hunted by the Holy Inquisition because he wanted to tell the scientific truth.

When Germany occupied Denmark he had to flee once again.

He went to Sweden, then to Finland and finally to Moscow in the Soviet Union.
Even under Stalin he was not safe. He therefore flew through China to the United States.
He lived and worked in California and translated a lot of text.

In 1947, in the McCarthy era, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated him, because they suspected him of being a communist. 
He gave a statement and said that he had never been a member of the communist party. 
He then flew back to Switzerland - the only place he could go to at the time.
In 1948 he was allowed to return to Berlin, East Berlin.
He was an important writer and director for the young East Germany.
After the workers' protest on June 17 1953, Brecht complained about the Eastern German government which landed him into some trouble. From that point on he got more and more isolated.

Brecht died of a heart attack in 1956 at the age of 58 years in Berlin.

Works 

Dramas (chronological)
Baal
 Trommeln in der Nacht
 Im Dickicht der Städte
 Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England
 Mann ist Mann
 Die Dreigroschenoper
 Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny (Opernlibretto)
 Der Ozeanflug, auch Der Lindberghflug, auch Der Flug der Lindberghs
 Das Badener Lehrstück vom Einverständnis, auch Lehrstück
 Der Jasager. Der Neinsager (Opernlibretti / Lehrstücke [Schuloper])
 Die Maßnahme (Lehrstück)
 Die heilige Johanna der Schlachthöfe
 Die Ausnahme und die Regel (Lehrstück)
 Die Mutter
 Die Rundköpfe und die Spitzköpfe
 Die Horatier und die Kuriatier (Lehrstück)
 Furcht und Elend des Dritten Reiches
 Leben des Galilei
 Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder
 Das Verhör des Lukullus, auch Lukullus vor Gericht, auch Die Verurteilung des Lukullus (Hörspiel, später Opernlibretto)
 Der gute Mensch von Sezuan
 Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti
 Der aufhaltsame Aufstieg des Arturo Ui
 Die Gesichte der Simone Machard auch Die Stimmen (vgl. Lion Feuchtwanger Simone)
 Schweyk im Zweiten Weltkrieg
Der kaukasische Kreidekreis
 Die Tage der Commune
 Turandot oder Der Kongreß der Weißwäscher
 Bearbeitung der Antigone (1947)
 Bearbeitung des Coriolanus von Shakespeare (1952/53)
One act dramas

 Die Bibel
 Die Gewehre der Frau Carrar
 Die Hochzeit, auch Die Kleinbürgerhochzeit
 Der Bettler oder Der tote Hund
 Prärie (Opernlibretto)
 Er treibt einen Teufel aus
 Lux in Tenebris
 Der Fischzug
 Dansen
 Was kostet das Eisen?
 Die sieben Todsünden, auch Die sieben Todsünden der Kleinbürger (Ballettlibretto)

Lyrics

Lyric cycles
 Lieder zur Klampfe von Bert Brecht und seinen Freunden (1918)
 Psalmen (1920)
 Bertolt Brechts Hauspostille (1916–1925)
 Die Augsburger Sonette (1925–1927)
 Die Songs der Dreigroschenoper (1928)
 Aus dem Lesebuch für Städtebewohner (1926–1927)
 Die Nachtlager (1931)
 Geschichten aus der Revolution (1932)
 Sonette (1932–1934)
 Englische Sonette (1934)
 Lieder Gedichte Chöre (1933)
 Chinesische Gedichte (1938–1949)
 Studien (1934–1938)
 Svendborger Gedichte ([1926]–1937)
 Steffinsche Sammlung (1939–1942)
 Hollywoodelegien (1942)
 Gedichte im Exil ([1944])
 Deutsche Satiren (1945)
 Kinderlieder (1950)
 Buckower Elegien (1953)

Lyirics and songs (not complete)
Choral vom Manne Baal
 Ballade von den Seeräubern
 Die Legende vom toten Soldaten
 Die Liebenden, auch Terzinen über die Liebe
 Der Schneider von Ulm
 An die Nachgeborenen
 Die Lösung
 Mein Bruder war ein Flieger
 Fragen eines lesenden Arbeiters
 Erinnerung an die Marie A.
 Schlechte Zeit für Lyrik
 Resolution der Kommunarden
 Morgens und abends zu lesen
 Kinderhymne

Prosa

 Bargan läßt es sein
 Geschichten vom Herrn Keuner
 Dreigroschenroman
 Der Augsburger Kreidekreis
 Flüchtlingsgespräche
 Kalendergeschichten
 Die unwürdige Greisin
 Die Geschäfte des Herrn Julius Cäsar

Ausgaben
Ausgaben

 Sämtliche Stücke in einem Band. Komet, 2002, 
 Die Gedichte in einem Band. Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2002, 
 Große kommentierte Berliner und Frankfurter Ausgabe. Aufbau Verlag u. a., Berlin u. a. 1988–2000, , 30 Bände [1]
 Geschichten vom Herrn Keuner. Zürcher Fassung. Herausgegeben von Erdmut Wizisla. Suhrkamp Verlag Frankfurt am Main 2004.  (Enthält erstmals veröffentlichte Geschichten aus einem Zürcher Fund im Jahr 2000.)

1898 births
1956 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Disease-related deaths in Bavaria
East German people
German poets
People from Augsburg
Writers from Bavaria
Beresford is a city in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota. Most of the city is located in Union County, but a small part of it is in Lincoln County. Beresford became a city in 1884, and 2,005 people lived there at the 2010 census.

References

Other websites
City of Beresford website

Cities in South Dakota
1884 establishments in Dakota Territory
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (22 January 1729 in Kamenz (Saxony) – 15 February 1781 in Braunschweig) was a German poet and philosopher in the time of the enlightenment.

Life
Lessing was one of twelve children. His father was a Protestant priest. He went to school in Kamenz and got a stipendium for the Higher School in Meißen. From 1746 to 1748, he studied medicine and theology in Leipzig. In 1750, he moved to Berlin, where he met Voltaire. In 1752 he got the Magister (Master) degree from the university in Wittenberg.

He moved back to Leipzig in 1755, but returned later to Berlin. He traveled around in Europe and studied. He worked as a reporter. From 1760 to 1765, he worked as secretary for a general in Breslau (today: Wroclaw). Later he worked at the theater and became a librarian. Lessing got married in 1776. But 1778 his wife died.

In 1781, Lessing died.

Works

Other websites
Other websites 

In German
 Fabeln von Lessing  im Literaturnetz
 Lessing-Akademie Wolfenbüttel
 Lessing-Museum in Kamenz
 Biographie
 Biographie in ADB
 Briefe, die Neueste Literatur betreffend
 Deutscher Bildungsserver: Pädagogische Materialien zu Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 
 Einführung in die Dramentheorie Lessings
  kostenlose Hörbuchabhandlung als MP3: Über die Wahrheit
 Das Lessing-Denkmal in Wolfenbüttel 

1729 births
1781 deaths
18th-century German philosophers
German poets
Writers from Saxony
Heinrich Böll (December 21, 1917 in Cologne – July 16, 1985 in Langenbroich the Eifel, south of Bonn) was a German writer. He was the winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972.

Life 
Böll was born in Cologne. His family were strong Catholics and pacifists.
He went to school from 1922 to 1937. After his abitur, he started a training to become a bookseller. He did not go to the Hitler Youth, but he had to join the German army in the World War II. In 1939, he started to study German literature in Cologne, but he had to break for his army service.

In 1945 he became prisoner of war by the Americans. The Americans wanted to educate the German people to became a democracy. So they encouraged prisoners with talent to write. Böll and some other young writers founded the group 47.

Böll wrote a lot of social critical literature. His main themes were the repression in the way of life by conservative catholic forces and the unsolved problem of old Nazis in the society.
In the 1970s, he criticized the losing of civil laws by the fight against terrorism (of the RAF, Red Army Faction, a left-winged political terror group in the 1970s in West Germany). For that reason, the Bild-Zeitung, an very conservative yellow press newspaper, started a campaign against him.

In the late 1970s, he started to look for Human Rights in the Eastern Block, where some friends of his lived, too. He helped the Soviet dissidents Alexander Solshenizyn and Lev Kopelev.

In the 1980s, he worked for the peace movement. He protested against the nuclear armament in West Germany.

He went back to the Roman Catholic Church, which he left 1976 by protests, before he died.

Heinrich Böll Foundation 
The Green Party of Germany gave its foundation the name of Böll, Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung. The goals of the foundation are for countries to work together, civil laws and democratic and ecological thinking.
Selected bibliography 
 Der Zug war pünktlich (The Train Was on Time), 1949
 Das Vermächtnis (A Soldier's Legacy), written 1948-1949; publ. 1981
 Wanderer, kommst du nach Spa (Stranger, Bear Word to the Spartans), 1950
 Die schwarzen Schafe (Black Sheep), 1951
 Nicht nur zur Weihnachtszeit (Christmas Not Just Once a Year), 1951
 Wo warst du, Adam? (And Where Were You, Adam?), 1951
 Der Engel schwieg (The Silent Angel), written 1949-1951; publ. 1992
 Und sagte kein einziges Wort (And Never Said a Word), 1953
 Haus ohne Hüter (House without Guardians), 1954
 Das Brot der frühen Jahre (The Bread of Those Early Years), 1955
 Irisches Tagebuch (Irish Journal), 1957
 Die Spurlosen (Missing Persons), 1957
 Doktor Murkes gesammeltes Schweigen (Dr. Murke's Collected Silence), 1958
 Billard um halb zehn (Billiards at Half-Past Nine), 1959
 Ein Schluck Erde, 1962
 Ansichten eines Clowns (The Clown), 1963
 Entfernung von der Truppe (Absent Without Leave), 1964
 Ende einer Dienstfahrt (End of a Mission), 1966
Gruppenbild mit Dame (Group Portrait with Lady), 1971
 Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum (The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum), 1974
 Fürsorgliche Belagerung (The Safety Net), 1979
 Was soll aus dem Jungen bloss werden? (What's to Become of the Boy?), 1981
 Vermintes Gelände, 1982
 Die Verwundung (The Casualty), early tales, publ. 1983
 Frauen vor Flusslandschaft (Women in a River Landscape), 1985 (publ. posthumously)
Translations 
More than seventy translations of Annemarie and Heinrich Böll are listed in the bibliography published in 1995 by Werner Bellmann: poetical works of Brendan Behan, Eilis Dillon, O. Henry, Paul Horgan, Bernard Malamud, J. D. Salinger, George Bernard Shaw et al.
Secondary literature 
 Bernd Balzer: Das literarische Werk Heinrich Bölls. Kommentare und Interpretationen. dtv, München 1997. 
 Werner Bellmann (Ed.): Das Werk Heinrich Bölls. Bibliographie mit Studien zum Frühwerk. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1995. 
 Werner Bellmann (Ed.): Heinrich Böll, Romane und Erzählungen. Interpretationen. Reclam, Stuttgart 2000. 
 Michael Butler (Ed.): The Narrative Fiction of Heinrich Böll. Social conscience and literary achievement. Cambridge 1994.
 J.H. Reid: Heinrich Böll. A German for His Time. Berg Publishers Ltd., Oxford 1988.
 Klaus Schröter: Heinrich Böll. Rowohlt-Verlag, Reinbek 1987. 
 Jochen Vogt: Heinrich Böll. 2. Aufl. Beck, München 1987. 
 Heinrich Vormweg: Der andere Deutsche. Heinrich Böll. Eine Biographie. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln 2002.

Other websites 
 Heinrich-Böll-Foundation
 Cologne Library Heinrich Böll Archive 
 The Heinrich Böll Page 
 Nobel Archive: Böll, 1972 
 http://www.heinrich-boell.de/ - German homepage
1917 births
1985 deaths
German military personnel of World War II
German Roman Catholics
Writers from Cologne
German Nobel Prize winners
Anna Seghers (; born Anna Reiling, 19 November 1900 – 1 June 1983), was a German writer notable for exploring and depicting the moral experience of the Second World War.

Seghers' parents were orthodox Jews, but also interested in Christianity. Nelly made her abitur in 1920. Before this, she had served as a nurse during World War I.

She married Hungarian Laszlo Radvanyi in 1925, and obtained Hungarian citizenship.

After the Nazis took over government in Germany, she was arrested and her books were burned.

In 1947 she returned to Berlin, Eastern Berlin, joining the Socialist Party. She worked for the Writers Union of the GDR.

She died in 1983 in Berlin.

References 

1900 births
1983 deaths
East German people
German communists
Hungarian Jews
Jewish German writers
People from Mainz
Refugees from Nazism
Writers from Rhineland-Palatinate
Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (November 10, 1759 in Marbach, Württemberg – May 9, 1805 in Weimar), usually known as Friedrich Schiller, was a German poet, philosopher, historian, and dramatist.

Works

Plays 
 Die Räuber (The Robbers) (1781)
 Kabale und Liebe (Intrigue and Love) (1784)
 Don Carlos, Infant von Spanien (Don Carlos) (1787)
 Wallenstein (1800)
 Die Jungfrau von Orleans (The Maid of Orleans) (1801)
 Maria Stuart (Mary Stuart) (1801)
 Turandot (1802)
 Die Braut von Messina (1803)
 Wilhelm Tell (William Tell) (1804)
 Demetrius (unfinished at his death)

Poems 
 An die Freude or Ode to Joy (1785) which became the basis for the fourth movement of Beethoven's ninth symphony
 The Artists
 The Cranes of Ibykus
 The Bell
 Columbus
 Hope
 Pegasus in Harness
 The Glove
 Nänie which Brahms set to music

Other websites
Other websites 

 
 Friedrich Schiller Chronology
 "Say it loud – it's Schiller and it's proud" by George Steiner
 2005 is Schiller year: all dates
 Letters upon the Education of Man at 
 Schiller Monument in Schiller Park, German Village, Columbus, Ohio, USA  
 Schiller multimedial  combines a biographical observation by Norbert Oellers with classic recordings and video clips
 Mobile Schiller  Mobile Java application containing 20 poems of Schiller

Writers from Baden-Württemberg
1759 births
1805 deaths
German poets
Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee  (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British politician. Prime Minister from 1945 to 1951, he was the first Labour prime minister with a majority in government, and was very important in the setting up of the welfare state. He was made a member of the House of Lords after he retired, and became the first Earl Attlee.

Attlee died of pneumonia in 1967. He is buried in Westminster Abbey.

Early life and education
Attlee was born in Putney. Attlee was educated at Haileybury College. He graduated from University College, Oxford with a Second Class Honours BA in Modern History in 1904.
Career
Attlee began a career as a barrister after graduating from Oxford. This lasted for two years. He then worked as manager of Haileybury House in East London. Attlee's work at the House inspired him to become a socialist. In 1907 he joined the Fabian Society. In 1908 he joined the Independent Labour Party. In 1911, he was employed by the UK Government. In 1919 Attlee became Mayor of Stepney. He was elected to Parliament in 1922 as the MP for Limehouse., In 1935 he was elected leader of the Labour Party. From 1942 to 1945 he was deputy prime minister.  Attlee resigned as party leader after Labour lost the 1955 election.  He was made a member of the Order of Merit in 1951 and a Knight of the Garter in 1956. In 1958 he started the Homosexual Reform Society with Bertrand Russell.
1883 births
1967 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
British mayors
British military personnel of World War I
Companions of Honour
Deaths from pneumonia
Deputy Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom
Labour Party (UK) MPs
Members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Infectious disease deaths in London
Knights of the Garter
Order of Merit
Members of the House of Lords
People buried in Westminster Abbey
People from Putney
Politicians from London
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1922–1923
UK MPs 1923–1924
UK MPs 1924–1929
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UK MPs 1931–1935
UK MPs 1935–1945
UK MPs 1945–1950
UK MPs 1950–1951
UK MPs 1951–1955
UK MPs 1955–1959
United Kingdom Earls
The bassoon is the lowest of the four main instruments of the woodwind family. Like the oboe, it has a double reed. The reed is attached to a curved metal mouthpiece called a "crook" or "bocal" which is joined to the main part of the instrument. This consists of two parts called ‘bass joint’ and ‘wing joint’ (or ‘tenor joint’). These two are joined at the bottom by a U-shaped piece called the ‘boot’. At the top of the instrument is the ‘bell joint’. The instrument is quite heavy. Some players have a neckstrap around their neck to support the weight, but usually they use a seat strap that connects at the bottom of the boot and goes across the floor. The bassoonist, a person who plays a bassoon, then sits on that strap. The bassoon is held to the right side of the bassoonist and the top of the boot joint is usually level with the players hip. The bassoon, when played right, can sound very beautiful
. The bassoon has one of the largest note ranges, going from low B flat to a high F on the top line of the treble clef. The bassoon can also play in tenor clef, but usually plays bass clef.
Some bassoons have a white, ivory ring round the top of the bell joint. These are German bassoons (called ‘Heckel’). French bassoons (called ‘Buffet’) do not have this ring, and also sound quite different to German bassoons. Bassoons have keys to help the player to cover all the holes, but these keys do not use the Boehm fingering system like the other woodwind instruments. German bassoons use a system called the Heckel system, and French bassoons use the Buffet system.

The Bassoon is usually seen as a comical instrument, however it provides a very important role in the orchestra. In fact, the Saxophone was invented to replace the Bassoon and Oboe, however, was rejected because it didn't sound the same in the orchestra.
To play the bassoon, it is very important to have lots of breathing support. Like with the oboe, fast passages can be played using double tonguing (single tonguing is like saying “tu-tu-tu-tu-tu”, double tonguing is like saying “te-ke-te-ke-te-ke”). In most music, the bassoon will spend a lot of time playing a bass line, perhaps the same notes as the cello or tuba. It can sometimes sound quite amusing when playing an “um-cha-um-cha” accompaniment like in the “Dance of the Cygnets” from Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake. It can sound very tuneful and sad as in the second movement of Rimsky Korsakov’s Sheherazade. Listen to the opening of Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring where it plays some quite high notes to fool people that it is the Cor anglais or the English Horn. Even a famous composer, Saint Saëns, did not know what the instrument was. Prokofiev uses the bassoon for grandfather’s tune in Peter and the Wolf. Also, to play the bassoon, a player needs big hands because the bassoon's keys and holes are quite wide.
History and repertoire 
The bassoon developed from a renaissance instrument called the curtal or dulcian. These were double reed instruments which often played with shawms. In the Baroque period the bassoon became popular as an instrument to play the bass line, perhaps playing the same as the cello. A man named Hotteterre made many parts of the modern bassoon. In the late Baroque period composers like Antonio Vivaldi wrote concertos for bassoon and orchestra. Some more famous bassoon concertos include one by Mozart, and in more recent times by Peter Maxwell Davies. The bassoon was a very important instrument in the orchestra. Mozart and Beethoven gave the bassoon important parts in the music.
Contrabassoon 
In some pieces with a large orchestra a contrabassoon is used. This plays an octave lower than a bassoon, taking it right down to bottom B flat or C on the piano. Some contrabassoons are made to play a note lower, i.e. the very lowest note of the piano (A). One might expect to see the contrabassoon sticking up high above all the other instruments in the orchestra, but in fact the tube keeps doing U-turns, making four parallel rows of tubing. They are usually made with the bell pointing downwards. The weight is supported by a peg to the floor. The contrabassoon used to be shaped like a bassoon.

The contrabassoon adds richness to the sound of a full orchestra. Listen carefully for the contrabassoon in the hymn-like introduction to the last movement of Symphony no 1 by Brahms. It can be clearly heard, growling away, in the opening of the Piano Concerto for the Left Hand by Ravel.

Double reed instruments
An octave is the distance between two musical notes that have the same letter name.

If a musician sings or plays a scale (‘do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-si-do’) the first and last ‘do’ are an octave apart. It is called an ‘octave’ because there are eight notes in a scale (‘octo’ is Latin for ‘eight’).

If a musician sings or plays the first two notes of the song “Somewhere over the rainbow” (i.e. the word ‘Somewhere’) these two notes are an octave apart.

Two notes that are an octave apart sound very similar, almost like the same note. The scientific reason for this is that the top note vibrates twice as fast.  For example: if someone plays Middle C on a piano, a hammer hits the Middle C strings inside and makes them vibrate 256 times a second.  The C an octave higher will vibrate 512 times a second.
Young children who learn the piano will not be able to stretch an octave with one hand, if their hands are too small. Most adults can stretch an octave easily (playing one note with the thumb, and the other with the little finger).

Related pages
Interval (music)

Music theory
Tinder is a material that is used to start fires easily when lit with a match.
Some materials commonly used as tinder are:
Dry pine needles, leaves or grass
Birch bark 
Dead, standing (usually one season old) goldenrod 
Cloth, lint, or frayed rope (if made from plant fibers and not treated with fire retardant) 
Char cloth 
Cotton swabs, tampons 
Paper, paper towels, toilet paper, etc. 
Punk wood (in the process of rotting) or charred wood 
Some types of fungus (best known is the amadou or horse's hoof fungus) 
Bird down 
Small twigs (poor tinder but commonly available)
Fine-grade soap-coated steel wool 
Shaved magnesium or other alkaline earth metals

Fire