Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
John Henry Newton, Jr. (July 24, 1725 – December 21, 1807) was a slave ship captain who became an Anglican clergyman. He was the author of many hymns, including "Amazing Grace".

References

Other websites 
Famous Quotes by John Newton
Amazing Grace: The True Story 
Amazing Grace: John Newton information

1725 births
1807 deaths
British abolitionists
British Christian hymnwriters
English activists
English Anglicans
English poets
English priests
Gospel Music Hall of Fame inductees
Royal Navy officers
Slavers
Writers from London

British sailors
John Newton may mean:
John Newton (1725–1807), English slaveship master and Anglican clergyman, author of “Amazing Grace”
John Haymes Newton (b. 1965), American actor
John Newton (engineer) (1822–1895), U.S. Army engineer and Civil War general
John Newton (soldier) (1755–1780), American Revolution soldier, fictionalized as a hero
John T. Newton (1793–1857), American naval officer
The Beginning Place is a science fiction book that was written by Ursula K. Le Guin in 1980.

1980 books
Books by Ursula K. Le Guin
Science fiction books
Ursula Kroeber Le Guin () (October 21, 1929 – January 22, 2018) was an American writer. She wrote books, poetry, children's books, essays, short stories, fantasy and science fiction. She was born and educated in California. She grew up in an academic home. Her parents were an anthropologist and a psychologist. Ideas from these two subjects are important in her writing. Le Guin spent most of her life in Portland, Oregon.

She was a very successful author. She won many awards. Other writers thought she was very creative. Le Guin was also very political. She mixed politics in her writing. She supported feminism and freedom. She was very interested in gender and sexuality. She also supported other writers.

Life

Early life: California
Ursula K. Le Guin was born Ursula Kroeber in Berkeley, California, on October 21, 1929. Her father, Alfred Louis Kroeber (1876–1960), was an anthropologist at the University of California, Berkeley. Le Guin's mother, Theodora Kroeber (1897–1979; born Theodora Covel Kracaw), had a graduate degree in psychology. She started writing in her sixties and became a successful author. Her best known work was Ishi in Two Worlds (1961). This was a biography of Ishi, an indigenous American who was the last known member of the Yahi tribe.

Ursula had three older brothers: Karl, Theodore, and Clifton. The family had a large collection of books. Ursula and her brothers all liked to read when they were young. Le Guin read science fiction and fantasy. She and her brothers often read issues of Thrilling Wonder Stories and Astounding Science Fiction. She liked myths and legends. She especially liked Norse mythology and Native American legends that her father would tell her.
Many people visited the Kroeber family. Some of the visitors were well-known academics such as Robert Oppenheimer. Le Guin used Oppenheimer as the model for her lead character in The Dispossessed, a physicist named Shevek. The family lived in a summer home in the Napa valley and a house in Berkeley during the school year.

Education

Le Guin studied at Berkeley High School. She graduated with another student who became a famous science fiction author, Philip K. Dick. She received her Bachelor of Arts in Renaissance French and Italian literature from Radcliffe College in 1951. She was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa honor society. Le Guin then studied at Columbia University, and earned a Master of Arts in French in 1952. Soon after, she began a Ph.D. program. She won a Fulbright grant to continue her studies in France from 1953 to 1954. Later, Le Guin also received Fulbright grants to travel to London in 1968 and 1975.

France
France

Le Guin stayed at Hôtel de Seine while in Paris. Ursula met historian Charles Le Guin in 1953 while traveling to France on the Queen Mary, . Charles was also a Fulbright Scholar. They got married in Paris in December 1953. They returned to the United States in 1954.

Marriage and children
Le Guin said that getting married meant she had to stop studying for her doctorate degree. Le Guin worked while her husband finished his doctorate at Emory University in Georgia, and later at the University of Idaho. She taught French and worked as a secretary until her daughter Elisabeth was born in 1957. The couple had another daughter, Caroline, and a son, Theodore (born 1964).

Return to the West Coast: Portland
In 1959 Charles became a history instructor at Portland State University, so they moved to Portland, Oregon. He taught there for more than 35 years. They lived in Portland for the rest of their lives.
Writing life
She first wrote in the 1960s. She won many Hugo and Nebula awards. She won the Gandalf Award in 1979 and the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America Grand Master Award in 2003. She got eighteen Locus Awards, more than any other writer. Her book The Farthest Shore won the National Book Award for Children's Books in 1973.

Le Guin was the Professional Guest of Honor at the 1975 World Science Fiction Convention in Melbourne, Australia. She got the Library of Congress Living Legends award in the "Writers and Artists" area in April 2000 for her additions to America's cultural history. In 2004, Le Guin was the was given the Association for Library Service to Children's May Hill Arbuthnot Honor Lecture Award.

Her agent was Virgina Kidd.
Death
Le Guin died on January 22, 2018, at her home in Portland. She was 88 years old. Her son said that she had been sick for several months. He said that she probably had a heart attack. There was a private memorial service for her in Portland. There was also a public memorial service in June 2018. At this service, many writers gave speeches, including: Margaret Atwood, Molly Gloss, and Walidah Imarisha

Beliefs and values

Political Freedom

In 1975, Le Guin won a Nebula Award for her story "The Diary of the Rose." She did not accept the award. This was a protest against the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America. The SFWA had recently canceled Stanisław Lem's membership in the group. Le Guin believed they kicked Lem out because he criticized American science fiction and chose to live in the Soviet Union, She said she could not take an award for a story about an unfree society from a writers' group that did not protect freedom.
Religion
Le Guin said she was did not learn any religion and was not taught to be religious as a child. But, she became very interested in Taoism and Buddhism. She said that Taoism was a tool to help her understand her life as a teenager and young adult. In 1997 she published a translation of the Tao Te Ching.
Author's rights
In December 2009, Le Guin quit the Authors Guild. She did this to protest the Guild's agreement with the Google's book digitization project. "You decided to deal with the devil", she wrote in her letter when she quit. She wrote that they had given control over authors' rights and copyright to a company for nothing. Le Guin made a speech at the 2014 National Book Awards. She explained that Amazon's control over the publishing industry was bad and dangerous. She was especially concerned about how Amazon blocked the Hachette Book Group from selling all books because the companies disagreed about how to sell ebooks. National Public Radio broadcast the speech twice. Many other news organizations reported on it around the world.

Writing career
Le Guin's first published work was in her fictional country called Orsinia. These were a poem and a short story. The poem, "Folksong from the Montayna Province," was published in 1959. The short story was "An die Musik", in 1961. Between 1951 and 1961 she also wrote five novels that all happened in Orsinia. But, publishers did not want them because they thought they were hard to read or understand. Some of her poetry from the 1950s was published in 1975 in a book called Wild Angels. Le Guin was rejected by many publishers. Then she turned to science fiction because she knew that clearly labeled SF would sell well. Her first professional SF publication was the short story "April in Paris" in 1962 in Fantastic Science Fiction. Seven more stories followed in the next few years, in Fantastic or Amazing Stories. One of them was "The Dowry of the Angyar", which introduced the fictional Hainish universe, Two more were "The Rule of Names" and "The Word of Unbinding". These introduced the world of Earthsea
. Most critics ignored these stories.
Le Guin published her first novel in 1966. It was called Rocannon's World. Ace Books published it. Two more Hainish novels, Planet of Exile and City of Illusions were published in 1966 and 1967. These three books became the Hainish trilogy. The first two were each published as half of an "Ace Double": two novels bound into a paperback and sold as a single low-cost volume. City of Illusions was published as a standalone volume. Le Guin was getting greater name-recognition. Critics paid more attention to these books  than to Le Guin's short stories. Several science fiction magazines reviewed them, but the critical response was still muted. The books had many themes and ideas also present in Le Guin's better known later works, including the "archetypal journey" of a protagonist who undertakes both a physical journey and one of self-discovery, cultural contact and communication, the search for identity, and the reconciliation of opposing forces.
Getting more attention
Le Guin's next two books in 1968 and 1969 brought her much more attention and praise. The Wizard of Earthsea in 1968 was a young adult fantasy novel. The Left Hand of Darkness in 1969 started her Hainish universe, explored sexuality, and won awards. These two books changed Le Guin's career and made her a major writer. The important critic Harold Bloom called A Wizard of Earthsea and The Left Hand of Darkness Le Guin's masterpieces.

Le Guin had not planned to write for young adults. But, the editor of Parnassus Press asked her to write a novel for young people. He thought they could sell many books to that group. He published A Wizard of Earthsea in 1968. It was a fantasy coming of age story for teenagers. In the book, Le Guin created a fictional archipelago called Earthsea. She also created the first wizarding school. Readers and reviewers in the US and the UK liked the book very much.
Her next novel was The Left Hand of Darkness in 1969 and showed the strength of her writing and won awards. It was in her Hainish universe on a fictional planet where humans sex changes. Le Guin explored experiences of gender and sexuality. The book was Le Guin's first about feminist issues. The book shocked and surprised science fiction critics. It won both the Hugo and the Nebula Awards for best novel. Le Guin was the first woman to win these awards.

For the next couple of years in the 1970s, Le Guin continued and extended the work she had started. Le Guin continued to develop themes of equilibrium and coming-of-age in the next two installments of the Earthsea series, The Tombs of Atuan and The Farthest Shore, published in 1971 and 1972. Both books were praised for their writing, while the exploration of death as a theme in The Farthest Shore also got praise.
She won the Hugo Award again in 1973 for The Word for World is Forest. Le Guin's anger over the Vietnam War was important to this novel. She wrote about colonialism and militarism: Le Guin later said it was the most  political statement in her fiction.

Her 1974 novel The Dispossessed again won both the Hugo and the Nebula awards for best novel. She became the first person to win both awards for each of two books. Also set in the Hainish universe, the story explored anarchism and utopianism. Scholar Charlotte Spivack said Le Guin was making her science fiction writing more about discussing political ideas.
Several of her speculative fiction short stories from the period, including her first published story, were later anthologized in the 1975 collection The Wind's Twelve Quarters. The fiction of the period 1966 to 1974, which also included The Lathe of Heaven, the Hugo Award-winning "The Ones Who Walk Away From Omelas" and the Nebula Award-winning "The Day Before the Revolution", was the time of Le Guin's best-known work.

Exploring

Later writing
The Annals of the Western Shore was a series of three books: Gifts (2004), Voices (2006), and Powers (2007). Each book has a different main character and happens in a different place. But, the books all share some characters and places.Gifts won the PEN Center USA 2005 Children's literature award. Powers won the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 2009. Le Guin published the novel Lavinia in 2008. Lavinia is a character from Virgil's Aeneid,
Near the end of her life, Le Guin wrote less fiction. She wrote essays, poems, and some translations. Her last publications included the non-fiction collections Dreams Must Explain Themselves and Ursula K Le Guin: Conversations on Writing. She also wrote a book of poetry called So Far So Good: Final Poems 2014–2018. These were released after she died.

About the writing

Influences
Many other writers influenced Le Guin. Cultural anthropology was important to her writing. Carl Jung's archetypes are in her work. Taoism was part of Le Guin's life and work.

Genre and style

Themes

Gender and sexuality

Moral development
Moral development

Political systems
The story of The Dispossessed happens on twin planets called Urras and Anarres. Urras was richer than Anarres. But Anarres is more advanced ethically and morally. Sttlers from Urras planned the Anarres society. It is an anarcho-socialist society that is an "ambiguous utopia". Anarres society is neither perfect nor static, unlike classical utopias. The main character, Shevek, travels to Urras to do research. Urras society is authoritarian, hierarchical, and misogynistic. But these the anarchists on Anarres do not have those problems. In their society cooperation and individual liberty are most important.

Responses to her work
Reception
Le Guin became popular and got good reviews quickly after publishing The Left Hand of Darkness in 1969. She was very well known among SF writers by the 1970s. Readers bought millions of her books. And, her writing was translated into more than 40 languages. Some of her books stayed in print many decades after their first publication. Academics studied her work carefully  and discussed it often. Later in her career, mainstream literary critics wrote positively about her work. In an obituary, Jo Walton said that Le Guin "was so good that the mainstream couldn't dismiss SF any more".
Le Guin earliest work stayed the most popular and got the most recognition. A reviewer in 2018 said that she often lectured the reader in her later works. John Clute, wrote in The Guardian, that she felt responsible for explaining important things clearly, and that this was difficult for her. Some critics disliked some of her work. The Compass Rose had a mixed reaction. Even the critically well-received The Left Hand of Darkness was criticized by some feminists,.
Academic and author Joyce Carol Oates highlighted Le Guin's "outspoken sense of justice, decency, and common sense", and called her "one of the great American writers and a visionary artist whose work will long endure". China Miéville described Le Guin as a "literary colossus", and wrote that she was a "writer of intense ethical seriousness and intelligence, of wit and fury, of radical politics, of subtlety, of freedom and yearning".

Praise for Le Guin frequently focused on the social and political themes her work explored. The New York Times described her as using "a lean but lyrical style" to explore issues of moral relevance. In the introduction to an interview in 2008, Vice magazine described Le Guin as having written "some of the more mind-warping sf and fantasy tales of the past 40 years".

Awards and recognition
Le Guin won many annual awards for individual works. She was nominated for Hugo Awards twenty-four times and won seven times. She won six Nebula Awards from eighteen nominations. Four of her Nebula Awards were for Best Novel, more than any other writer. Le Guin won twenty-two Locus Awards. Her third Earthsea novel, The Farthest Shore, won the 1973 National Book Award for Young People's Literature, She was a finalist for ten Mythopoeic Awards, nine in Fantasy and one for Scholarship. Her 1996 collection Unlocking the Air and Other Stories was one of three finalists for the 1997 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Other awards won by Le Guin include three James Tiptree Jr. Awards, two World Fantasy Awards, and three Jupiter Awards. She won her final Hugo and Locus awards in the year of her death, for the essay collection No Time to Spare: Thinking About What Matters, and an anthology of the Hainish cycle, respectively.
Later in her career Le Guin was also recognized her contributions to literature more generally. In April 2000 the U.S. Library of Congress made Le Guin a Living Legend in the "Writers and Artists" category for her significant contributions to America's cultural heritage. The American Library Association granted her the annual Margaret Edwards Award in 2004, and also selected her to deliver the annual May Hill Arbuthnot Lecture. The Edwards Award recognizes one writer and a particular body of work: the 2004 panel cited the first four Earthsea volumes, The Left Hand of Darkness and The Beginning Place. The panel said that Le Guin "has inspired four generations of young adults to read beautifully constructed language, visit fantasy worlds that inform them about their own lives, and think about their ideas that are neither easy nor inconsequential". At its 2009 convention, the Freedom From Religion Foundation awarded the Emperor Has No Clothes Award to Le Guin
. A collection of Le Guin's works was published by the Library of America in 2016, an honor only rarely given to living writers. The National Book Foundation awarded Le Guin its Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters, stating that she had "defied conventions of narrative, language, character, and genre, and transcended boundaries between fantasy and realism to forge new paths for literary fiction". The American Academy of Arts and Letters made her a member in 2017.
Legacy and influence
Le Guin strongly influenced the field of speculative fiction. Jo Walton argued that Le Guin was important in both making the genre more open and accepting of new ideas, and in helping genre writers get mainstream success. A Wizard of Earthsea introduced the idea of a "wizard school", which would later be made more famous by the Harry Potter series of books, and with popularizing the trope of a boy wizard, also present in Harry Potter.

In 2022, Le Guin's son, Theo Downes-Le Guin, announced a new prize named for his mother. The Ursula K. Le Guin Prize for Fiction gives money to a writer. They must write a full-length book of "imaginative fiction."
Le Guin created the word "ansible" for an instantaneous interstellar communication device in 1966. Several other writers, including Orson Scott Card and Neil Gaiman, used the word later. The notion that names can exert power is also present in Hayao Miyazaki's 2001 film Spirited Away; critics have suggested that that idea started with Le Guin's Earthsea series.

Adaptations of her work
Le Guin's works have been adapted for radio, film, television, and theater.

Movies
Her 1971 novel The Lathe of Heaven has been adapted twice, in 1979 by WNET with Le Guin's participation, and the in 2002 by the A&E Network. In a 2008 interview, she said 1979 adaptation is "the only good adaptation to" a movie of her work to date. In the early 1980s Hayao Miyazaki asked to create an animated adaptation of Earthsea. Le Guin, who was unfamiliar with his work and anime in general, initially turned down the offer, but later accepted after seeing My Neighbor Totoro. The third and fourth Earthsea books were used as the basis of Tales from Earthsea, released in 2006. Miyazaki's son, Gorō Miyazaki directed the movie, not Hayao Miyazaki himself. Le Guin was disappointed by the change. Le Guin was positive about how the movie looked. She wrote that "much of it was beautiful", but she did not like the moral sense of the movie. She disliked the  physical violence, especially the death of a villain as the movie's ending
. In 2004 the Sci Fi Channel adapted the first two books of the Earthsea trilogy as the miniseries Legend of Earthsea. Le Guin was highly critical of the adaptation, calling it a "far cry from the Earthsea I envisioned", objecting to the use of white actors for her red-, brown-, or black-skinned characters.
Theater

Le Guin's novel The Left Hand of Darkness and novella Paradises Lost have both been adapted for theater. In 1995, Chicago's Lifeline Theatre presented its adaptation of The Left Hand of Darkness. Reviewer Jack Helbig at the Chicago Reader wrote that the "adaptation is intelligent and well crafted but ultimately unsatisfying", mainly because it is extremely difficult to compress a complex 300-page novel into a two-hour stage presentation. She also said she was better pleased with stage adaptations, including Paradises Lost, than screen adaptations of her work till date. In 2013, the Portland Playhouse and Hand2Mouth Theatre produced a stage adaptation of The Left Hand of Darkness, directed and adapted by Jonathan Walters, with text adapted by John Schmor. The play opened May 2, 2013, and ran until June 16, 2013, in Portland, Oregon.
Opera
Paradises Lost was adapted into an opera at the University of Illinois. The opera was composed by Stephen A. Taylor; the libretto has been attributed both to Kate Gale and to Marcia Johnson. Adapted in 2005, the opera premiered in April 2012. Le Guin described the effort as a "beautiful opera" in an interview, and expressed hopes that it would be picked up by other producers.

Books

Earthsea (fantasy) 
 A Wizard of Earthsea, 1968
 The Tombs of Atuan, 1971
 The Farthest Shore, 1972 (Winner of the National Book Award)
 Tehanu: The Last Book of Earthsea, 1990 (Winner of the Nebula Award)
 The Other Wind, 2001
 Tales from Earthsea, short story collection, 2001 (winner of Endeavour Award)
Hainish Cycle (science fiction) 
x
 Rocannon's World, 1966
 Planet of Exile, 1966
 City of Illusions, 1967
 The Left Hand of Darkness, 1969 (winner of the Hugo Award and Nebula Award)
 The Dispossessed: An Ambiguous Utopia, 1974 (winner of the Hugo Award and Nebula Award)
 The Word for World is Forest, 1976 (winner of the Hugo Award)
 Four Ways to Forgiveness, 1995 (Four Stories of the Ekumen)
 The Telling, 2000 (winner of Endeavour Award)

Miscellaneous novels and story cycles 
 The Lathe of Heaven, 1971 (made into TV movies, 1980 and 2002)
 The Eye of the Heron, 1978 (first published in the anthology Millennial Women)
 Malafrena, 1979
 The Beginning Place, 1980 (also published as Threshold, 1986)
 Always Coming Home, 1985
 Lavinia, 2008

The Catwings Collection 
 Catwings, 1988
 Catwings Return, 1989
 Wonderful Alexander and the Catwings, 1994
 Jane on her Own, 1999
Nonfiction 
 The Language of the Night, 1979, revised edition 1992
 Dancing at the Edge of the World, 1989
 Revisioning Earthsea, 1992 (a published lecture - essay)
 Steering the Craft, 1998 (about writing)
 The Wave in the Mind, 2004

References

Other websites
 Ursula K. Le Guin Blog

1929 births
2018 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
American children's writers
American essayists
American novelists
American poets
American science fiction writers
Hugo Award winning writers
Nebula Award winning writers
American short story writers
Writers from Berkeley, California
Writers from Portland, Oregon
Jan van Eyck or Johannes de Eyck () (before c. 1395 – before 9 July 1441) was an early Dutch painter active in Bruges. He is thought to be one of the best Northern European painters of the 15th century. He was interested in art since he was a child and was encouraged in this career by his older brother, Hubert.

Other websites 
Web Gallery of Art
Jan van Eyck Gallery at MuseumSyndicate 

1380s births
1441 deaths
Dutch painters
European diplomats
Flemish painters
Awana (an acronym for Approved Workmen Are Not Ashamed, from 2 Timothy 2:15), is an international evangelical non-profit organization. It was founded in 1950. Its headquarters is in Streamwood, Illinois. It was founded by Baptist minister Arthur Rorheim in 1950.

References

Other websites 
Awana Clubs International

Christian organizations based in the United States
Youth organizations
Acronyms
Dwight Lyman (D.L.) Moody (February 5, 1837 – December 22, 1899) was an American evangelist and publisher. He started the Moody Church, Northfield School and Mount Hermon School in Massachusetts (now the Northfield Mount Hermon School), the Moody Bible Institute and Moody Publishers.

Related pages
 Horatio Spafford - Spafford, a friend of Moody, wrote the words to the hymn It Is Well with My Soul.

Other websites 
 Moody Bible Institute
 Moody Church
 Sermons by D. L. Moody

1837 births
1899 deaths
American Evangelicals
American Christian hymnwriters
American Christian clergy
Writers from Massachusetts
American publishers
Fletcher Christian (September 25, 1764 - 1793) was an English seaman on HMS Bounty when it sailed to Tahiti to collect breadfruit trees in 1787. He led a mutiny (take over) to stop Lieutenant William Bligh returning to England. (See Mutiny on the Bounty). He left Bligh and 18 seaman in a small boat, and went back to Tahiti in the Bounty. Christian and some of the other sailors then sailed to Pitcairn Island to live. Christian was later killed in a fight between the Tahitian men and the seamen.
Early life 
Christian was born in 1764 at the family home of Moorland Close, near Brigham, Cumbria. He was one of 10 children of Charles Christian and Ann Dixon. He could trace his ancestry back to William the Conqueror. The name Christian is an English way of saying the Manx name "McCrystyn". Fletcher's mother came from Cumberland and he was named after his grandmother, Mary Fletcher. After his father died, Christian went to sea. He was 18 years old. He was a sailor on the ship 'Cambridge'. William Bligh was also on the ship. Christian later sailed on two trips with Bligh to Jamaica on the ship 'Britannia'.
After the mutiny 
After the mutiny, Christian wanted to settle on the island of Tubuai. The sailors were scared of the natives who lived on the island. The sailors went back to Tahiti. Christian married Maimiti, the daughter of one of the chiefs on June 16, 1789. He then left Tahiti with 8 of the mutineers, 13 Tahitian women and six men. They sailed to the remote Pitcairn Island. Sixteen sailors from the Bounty stayed at Tahiti. At Pitcairn they took everything they could from the Bounty. After that Matthew Quintal set it on fire. The sexual imbalance (more men than women) and the slavery of the Tahitian men by the mutineers led to fighting and the deaths of most of the men. Fletcher Christian was killed in the fighting. He had a son with Maimiti, Thursday October Christian and two additional children.

Related pages
 Mutiny on the Bounty
 Pitcairn Island

References 

1764 births
1793 deaths
British military people
Mutiny on the Bounty
Ichthyosaurs are an extinct order of marine reptiles from the Mesozoic era.

The earliest fossils are from the early Triassic of 250 million years ago. This is just after the Permian mass extinction.

By the Upper Triassic they were similar in shape to dolphins and to fast predatory fish like tuna (convergent evolution). They are found in marine strata from the earliest Triassic to the Cretaceous. After transitional Triassic types like Mixosaurus and Cymbospondylus, they have essentially the same body shape. Californosaurus was one of the first to have the typical dolphin-like body shape.

Although isolated ichthyosaur vertebrae are quite common, the first fossil which showed the ichthyosaur form was found by Mary Anning (1799–1847) and her brother Joseph. Mary Anning was an early British fossil collector, dealer and paleontologist. Many of her finds may be seen today at the Natural History Museum, London.
Early discoveries 
The genus Ichthyosaurus was first described in 1699 from fossil fragments discovered in Wales. The first fossil vertebrae were published twice in 1708. The first complete ichthyosaur fossil was found in 1811 by Mary Anning in Lyme Regis, along the Jurassic Coast. She later discovered three separate species.

The first major find 
Mary Anning's first great discovery was made shortly after her father's death when she was just twelve. In 1810 her bother Joseph found what he thought was a crocodile skull, but the rest of the animal was not in evidence. Mary kept searching and a year later a storm weathered away part of the cliff and exposed part of the rest of the skeleton of the 17 ft (5.2m) long creature, which she was able to dig out of the cliff and collect with help from local quarrymen.p33–41 Anning later discovered three more species.
Interpretation 
In 1821 William Conybeare and Mary’s old friend Henry De la Beche, published a paper which analyzed the specimens found by Mary and others. They concluded that ichthyosaurs were a previously unknown kind of marine reptile, and they decided there had been at least three species.

Anatomy 
Ichthyosaurs were reptiles that evolved fish-shaped body outlines. Some of their characteristics were unique: they had enormous eyeballs, sometimes more than 25 cm in diameter. They had large hands (manus) with up to 20 bones in a single digit, and up to 10 digits per manus.
They had streamlined form, paddles, fish-like tail, and no neck. Ichthyosaurs averaged about 2–4m (6–13 ft) in length; a few were smaller, and some species grew much larger. They had a porpoise-like head and a long, toothed snout. Built for speed, like modern tuna, some ichthyosaurs appear also to have been deep divers, like some modern whales. It has been estimated that ichthyosaurs could swim at speeds up to . Like modern cetaceans such as whales and dolphins, they were air-breathing.

Weight 
According to weight estimates by Ryosuke Motani, a  Stenopterygius weighed around  whilst a  Ophthalmosaurus icenicus weighed 930–950 kg (1.03–1.04 short tons).
Body size and metabolism 
Scientists have wondered whether ancient reptiles like ichthyosaurs were warm-blooded or cold-blooded.  Experts from the University of Plymouth studied many animals that dive and hold their breath, from insects to whales. They found that larger animals can hold their breath longer than smaller animals because they can store more oxygen for their size, and they found this difference was much bigger for warm-blooded animals than for cold-blooded animals.  They said this could be why modern whales became so large.  They concluded that the large size of ichthyosaurs, like whales, meant they were more likely to be warm-blooded than cold-blooded.

Largest ever 
An article in New Scientist suggested that if there were a really large ichthyosaur it would be in the Triassic. From the Triassic has come Shonisaurus sikanniensis at about 21 meters long. It was found in the Luning Formation of Nevada, USA. This formation is from the later Triassic period, about 237–227 million years ago.
Convergent evolution 

Biologist Stephen Jay Gould said the ichthyosaur was his favourite example of convergent evolution. Its similarities to fish are not homologous, caused by common descent, but analogous, caused by selection in the same environment:

"This sea-going reptile with terrestrial ancestors converged so strongly on fishes that it actually evolved a dorsal fin and tail in just the right place and with just the right hydrological design. These structures are all the more remarkable because they evolved from nothing – the ancestral terrestrial reptile had no hump on its back or blade on its tail to serve as a precursor".

Eyes
Eyes 

The eyes of ichthyosaurs are large in comparison to the size of the body, suggesting they hunted by sight even in dimly-lit waters or at night. In fact, ichthyosaurs hold the record for eye size: the largest was 264mm in diameter (~10.4 inches), from the species Temnodontosaurus platyodon. This is the largest eye ever recorded for any vertebrate, though the colossal squid eye is larger still. The eyes of ichthyosaurs are protected by sclerotic rings. These are circlar bony plates inside the outer edges of the cornea of the eye. Their function is mechanical support of the eye. They are well preserved in fossil ichthyosaur skulls.

Fins
Fins 

At first, the downward-pointing tail bones were hard to interpret. Then, later in the 19th century, a remarkable find was made. Some specimens of Mixosaurus and Stenopterygius were well preserved in the black mudstones of Germany. These fossils were preserved in such fine sediment that the fossils were almost perfect, with only a few bones disturbed or missing. The outline of the body shape could be seen as a thin carbon film.p10 Even though the soft parts had rotted away long ago, they left their imprint behind. For the first time, scientists could see clearly that the tail of ichthyosaurus was shaped like the tail of a fish. And on its back, like a shark, there was a dorsal fin.

Live birth
Live birth 

Live birth was always assumed for ichthyosaurs, because with their paddles they could never have manoeuvred on land to lay eggs as turtles do. As reptiles, they produced cleidoic eggs, but they were entirely aquatic and their eggs developed inside the mother. Once more, evidence came from the early Jurassic of Germany, where several fine examples clearly show embryos inside the rib cage of the adult. Other examples exist of the young actually being born.p125 They came out tail first. No doubt, some complication of birth had killed both mother and offspring together.
A recent study of the earliest ichthosaur, Chaohusaurus, from the Lower Triassic shows an early example of live birth. A remarkable feature was a baby close to emerging head-first. The authors comment:
"Its headfirst birth posture... strongly indicates a terrestrial origin of viviparity, in contrast to the traditional view. The tail-first birth posture in derived ichthyopterygians, convergent with the conditions in whales and sea cows, therefore is a secondary feature". They comment "obligate marine amniotes appear to have evolved almost exclusively from viviparous land ancestors".

In other words, ichthyosaurs gave live birth when they were still land dwellers. Then, later, they adapted to an aquatic life.

Extinction
Extinction 

Ichthyosaurs became extinct during the Upper Cretaceous, about 30 million years before the K/T extinction event. There was an ocean anoxic event at the Cenomanian–Turonian stage boundary. The deeper layers of the seas became anoxic and poisoned by hydrogen sulphide (H2S). As life died off in the lower (benthos) levels of the sea, so did the predators at the top of the food chain. The last pliosaurs and ichthyosaurs became extinct.p251

Ichthyosaurs had been dwindling in numbers for some time: they were no longer the force they once were in the Upper Triassic and Lower Jurassic. By the middle Jurassic, it was thought thought they all belonged to the single clade, the Ophthalmosauridae. By the Cretaceous it was thought that only three genera survived. For the last 50+ years it has been thought that only one genus, Platypterygius, was known at the time of the anoxic event in the Upper Cretaceous.
However, a recent review looked at the main collections in western European museums. This review found evidence for four genera of ichthyosaur only a few million years before the extinction event.

These genera occupied various "feeding guilds". They were:
Platypterygius: a top predator
Sisteronia: a "pierce-oriented" feeder on soft and small prey
Cetarthrosaurus, a generalist
 an undertermined Ophthalmosaur: a generalist feeder

This means that there was still diversity in ichthyosaurs a few million years before the extinction event. They may have survived right up to the extinction event.
It is true, though, that the ichthyosaurs had declined from their peak. By the Cretaceous they certainly had more competitors than in the Triassic, and more elusive prey. The adaptive radiation of teleost fish meant their new prey were fast swimming and highly evasive. The teleosts also included fast-swimming predatory fish, which must have been competitors. From what we know now, the ocean anoxic event must have ended the last ichthyosaurs.

The ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs were replaced in the marine ecology by the giant mosasaurs. The mosasaurs were probably ambush hunters, whose sit-and-wait strategy apparently proved most successful.

References

Ellis, Richard 2003. Sea Dragons: predators of the prehistoric oceans. University Press of Kansas.
McGowan C. & Motani R. 2003. Ichthyopterygia. Handbook of Paleoherpetology, Part 8, Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil.
Motani R. 2000. Rulers of the Jurassic seas. Scientific American vol.283, #6.

 
Fossils
Ichthyosaurus was an extinct marine reptile from the Lower Jurassic. It was the first member of the order Ichthyosauria to be discovered. The first complete skeleton was discovered in the early 19th century (1810/11) by Mary Anning in the Dorset Jurassic Coast. Many more specimens were found in Europe, especially from the limestone quarries in Holzmaden, southern Germany.

Ichthyosaurus lived from about 199 to 189 million years ago (mya).
This sleek animal could perhaps swim at speeds up to 25 mph (40 kph).

Mode of life

Live birth 
Ichthyosaurus bore live young. This we know from fossil evidence. It was thought at first that Ichthyosaurus laid eggs on land, but fossil evidence shows that the females gave birth to live young. Because they did, their life habit could be entirely aquatic. They were well-adapted to life as fully pelagic organisms because they never needed to come onto land. The babies were born tail first to prevent them from drowning in the water.
Hundreds of well-preserved, fossilised skeletons have been found in Jurassic rock at Holzmaden. Some of the bones were still articulated. Some fossils still had baby specimens inside them, indicating that Ichthyosaurus was viviparous. Similar finds in the related Stenopterygius also show this.

Fins 
The German fossils also featured the outline of Ichthyosaurus skin, showing it had a fleshy dorsal fin on its back and a large caudal fin. Other ichthyosaur fossils proved this feature was not limited to Ichthyosaurus.

Sense organs 
Ichthyosaurus ear bones were solid, probably transferring water vibrations to the inner ear. Still, hunting by sight was the creature's main feeding activity; it had huge, sensitive eyes, protected by bony shields.

Feeding 
Coprolites (fosillized excreta) of Ichthyosaurus show its diet consisted of fish and squid.

References 

Ichthyosaurs
Stenopterygius was a typical, dolphin-shaped ichthyosaur of the Lower Jurassic. It is like the poster reptile of the ichthyosaur family, Ichthyosaurus, but with slightly narrower flippers  and a smaller head. Its name means "narrow wing".

Stenopterygius was more streamlined than the earlier ichthyosaurs of the Triassic period, and likely swam faster in pursuit of prey.

Some Stenopterygius fossils have been found with the remains of juveniles inside--clearly instances of mothers dying before they could give birth. As with other ichthyosaurs, Stenopterygius females gave birth to live young. Their eggs developed internally before birth.

Related pages 
 Chaohusaurus

Ichthyosaurs
Temnodontosaurus was an ichthyosaur from the early Jurassic, some 196 to 190 million years ago. It was found in England by Mary Anning, and later in Germany. It was, in fact, her first ichthyosaur. Her brother found the skull, and she found the rest of the skeleton, in about 1810. It was described in 1814. 

There are four or five species of Temnodontosaurus. They grew to killer whale size, about 30 to 40 feet.

This huge ichthyosaur cruised the shallow seas hunting. But hunting what? A discussion by Christopher McGowan suggests that other reptiles might have been on the menu. McGowan also mentions that in the museum collections are some teeth and bones which suggest even larger ichthyosaurs existed.

Eye size 
Ichthyosaurs hold the record for eye size: the largest was 264mm in diameter (~10.4 inches), from the species Temnodontosaurus platyodon. This is the largest eye ever recorded for any vertebrate; the colossal squid eye is larger still. The eyes are surrounded by sclerotic rings, a kind of bony support.
References 

Ichthyosaurs
Californosaurus was an ichthyosaur, an extinct marine reptile. It was 10 feet (3 m) long. It had four paddle-shaped flippers and sharp teeth in long, pointed jaws (looking a bit like a dolphin). 

Californosaurus lived during the late Triassic period in seas that covered what is now California. It fed on fish and other small marine creatures. Like other ichthyosaurs it probably never came onto dry land, and gave birth in the water.

It is the most basal known true ichthyosaur, shaped more or less like a dolphin. The long-snouted head is small in comparison with the rest of the body, as in basal ichthyosaurs such as Mixosaurus and Cymbospondylus. The tail is sharply turned downwards, in common with more advanced ichthyosaurs, with a small vertical fluke. It may have had a small dorsal fin. 

Ichthyosaurs
Cymbospondylus (meaning "boat vertebrae") was a large, primitive Triassic ichthyosaur of the Middle and Upper Triassic. It had a long eel-like body up to 10 meters or more in length.

Cymbospondylus is known from both Germany and Nevada. No doubt, like other large marine reptiles and present-day aquatic mammals, it had a wide oceanic distribution.

Palaeobiology 
 
Cymbospondylus was one of the largest ichthyosaurs. Fossils ranging from  long. It was also one of the least fish-like of the ichthyosaurs, lacking a dorsal fin and fluked tail. It did, however, have an elongated snout like other ichthyosaurs.

The one metre long head of Cymbospondylus, with large jaws, contained rows of teeth adapted for catching and holding on to fish, belemnites, and cephalopods such as ammonites. The long tail would have been excellent for swimming, and allowed Cymbospondylus to move at fast speeds and efficiently hunt down shoals of swimming fish.
Adult Cymbospondylus probably spent much of their time hunting in deep offshore water, only coming into shallow water to breed or to catch seasonally available prey. Like other ichthyosaurs, Cymbospondylus probably gave birth to live young, as it had no way to lay eggs. These, on reaching adult size, probably had few, if any, predators that could harm them.

The eel-like tail of Cymbospondylus made up almost half the total body length, and it is possible that the tail was used as a primary swimming mechanism. Like present day sea snakes, Cymbospondylus probably swam by wriggling its body from side to side.

References 

Ichthyosaurs
Mixosaurus was a small, common and cosmopolitan Triassic ichthyosaur. It was only about a meter in length. Fossils are known from Alaska, Canada, China, Timor, Indonesia, Italy, Nevada, New Zealand, Spitsbergen, and Svalbard. Thus it lived in the Tethys Sea but also ventured further afield.

Mixosaurus seems to have been a transitional form between the more primitive eel-shaped icthyosaurs such as Cymbospondylus and the more advanced Shatsasaurs and Euichthyosaurs (the latter including the familiar dolphin- or porpoise-shaped icthyosaurs).

Ichthyosaurs
Ophthalmosaurus was an ichthyosaur of the Upper Jurassic (165 to 150 million years ago), named after its large eyes. Well-preserved skeletons, ranging in age from juveniles to adults, have been found in Europe, North America and Argentina.

Ophthalmosaurus had the largest eyes of any vertebrate relative to its body size. Its eyes, 4 inches in diameter, occupied most of the space in the skull. They were protected by bony plates (sclerotic rings), which most likely assisted to maintain the shape of the eyeballs against water pressure at depth.
The size of the eyes and the sclerotic rings suggests that Ophthalmosaurus hunted at a depth where there is not much light or that it may have hunted at night when a prey species was more active. Its snout was long and thin, perfect for snapping at fast, maneuverable, prey.
Calculations suggest that a typical Ophthalmosaurus could stay submerged for approximately 20 minutes or more. The swimming speed of Ophthalmosaurus has been estimated at 2.5 metres per second or greater. Even assuming a conservative speed of 1 m/s, an Ophthalmosaurus would be able to dive to 600 meters and return to the surface within 20 minutes.

The family Ophthalmosauridae continued into the Upper Cretaceous, but this genus became extinct at the end of the Jurassic period.

References 

Ichthyosaurs
A valve is a device that it is used to decrease or stop the flow of a fluid (like gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries). It can be installed for example in a pipe or a vessel.

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Hardware (mechanical)
A valve is a device that regulates the flow of fluids.

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Philip Carteret (22 January 1733 – 21 July 1796) was an English officer in the Royal Navy. He sailed as a lieutenant on John Byron's circumnavigation (sailing around) of the world in 1764. He went around the world again as part of the Royal Navy's exploration in 1766.

Early life
Carteret joined the Royal Navy in 1747, at the age of 14. He first served on the Salisbury, And he  worked with / sailed with the British admiral, John Byron. Carteret worked with John from 1751, to 1755. after finishing work on the Salisbury, he set off on a world wide trip with John Bryon, and this trip lasted for 2 years. From 1764, to 1766.
Discoveries 
As soon as he had returned from his first trip, Carteret was put in charge of HMS Swallow to go on a second circumnavigation with Samuel Wallis who sailed in the HMS Dolphin. The two ships were separated sailing around Cape Horn, so Carteret continued on alone. He discovered Pitcairn Island on 2 July 1767. He did not land on the island. He also discovered the Carteret Islands, Mururoa, and the Duke of Gloucester Islands. He got back to England in 1769. The Swallow was in bad condition and the success of the long trip shows Carteret's courage and skill.