Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
This article contains information about the series of books written by C.S. Lewis. For information about the film series, see The Chronicles of Narnia movie series.
The Chronicles of Narnia is a series of seven fantasy books, written by British author C. S. Lewis. They have been published since 1954 and have sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages. The books were written by Lewis between 1949 and 1954, they were also illustrated by Pauline Baynes. In 2005, 2008 and 2010, the first three books were made into movies.

The seven books
The seven books

The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe 
Completed by the end of March 1949 and published by Geoffrey Bles in London on 16 October 1950, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe tells the story of four ordinary children: Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy Pevensie, who have been evacuated to the English countryside from London in 1940 following the outbreak of World War II. They discover a wardrobe in Professor Digory Kirke's house that leads to the magical land of Narnia. The Pevensie children help Aslan, a talking lion, save Narnia from the evil White Witch, who has reigned over the land of Narnia for a century of perpetual winter. The children become kings and queens of this new-found land and establish the Golden Age of Narnia, leaving a legacy to be rediscovered in later books.
Prince Caspian 
This book is set 1300 years after The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Narnia is ruled by the Telmarines, a very mean people. The Pevensie children are called to Narnia by Susan's horn, which is blown by Prince Caspian. There is a big war between the Telmarines and Narnians. At the end of the book, Peter and Susan are told that they will not be able to come back to Narnia. The book was published in 1951.

The Voyage of the Dawn Treader 
In the third book, Lucy and Edmund return to Narnia with their cousin, Eustace. They travel on a ship with Caspian, now King of Narnia. They are looking for seven lords who were sent away from Narnia by Caspian's uncle, Miraz. This book was published in 1952.

The Silver Chair 
Eustace returns to Narnia with Jill, a friend from school. He finds Caspian very old. Aslan tells Jill to find Rillian, Caspian's son, who has been missing for many years. A Marsh-Wiggle named Puddleglum travels with them. This book was published in 1953.
The Horse and His Boy 
This book is set during the rule of the Pevensies. Shasta, is a young boy living in the country of Calormen. He decides to run away when he finds out he is not the son of Arsheesh.  He heads north to Narnia with a talking horse, Bree, a Calormene noblewoman, Aravis, and her talking horse, Hwin. It was published in 1954.

The Magician’s Nephew 
This book is set before any of the others. It tells about a boy, Digory, and his friend, Polly. They travel to Narnia through the experiments of Digory's uncle, Andrew. It describes the creation (beginning) of Narnia and the first King and Queen. It also shows the beginning of Jadis, who is called the White Witch in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. The book was published in 1954.
The Last Battle 
Completed in the spring of 1953 and published in 1956, The Last Battle tells about the end of the world of Narnia. Jill and Eustace return to save Narnia from Shift, an ape, who tricks Puzzle, a donkey, into pretending to be the lion, Aslan. The Pevensie children (without Susan, who has decided that Narnia was just part of a game they played as children), along with their parents and friends, die in a train crash and lived in Narnia forever with Aslan.

Adaptations 

The Chronicles of Narnia have been made into several movies, TV films, video games, and stage plays.

The Chronicles of Narnia movie series
The first was The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, which was released in 2005, made a worldwide total of $744,783,957. The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian, released on May 16 2008, is the second of seven movies to be released by Disney Pictures. Disney also had plans to create the third book in the series, The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, which was released in 2010. 

The New Yorker reported in July 2023 that Barbie (2023) director Greta Gerwig had been hired by Netflix to write and direct two film adaptations of the books.

Video games 
 2005 - The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (Released for Xbox, PlayStation 2, Microsoft Windows, Nintendo DS, GameCube, Game Boy Advance)
 2008 - The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian (Released for PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii, Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, Nintendo DS)
 2010 - The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (Released for Mobile, iPhone, iPod Touch)
References

Other websites 
 
 

 
British fantasy books
1950s books
Asatru (Icelandic: Ásatrú) is a religion which involves the worship of ancient Germanic and Scandinavian Viking spirits and gods. It received official legal establishment in 1970s in Iceland through the efforts of Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson and other Icelanders. The current recognized national organization of Asatru in Iceland is Ásatrúarfélagið. The name is derived from two Old Norse words. It means "faith in the Æsir," the Old Norse gods.

A person who practices Asatru is called an Asatruar, and is sometimes referred to as a Heathen. Asatru is also called Wodanism, Wotanism or Germanic paganism.

Common books that describe the knowledge in depth include the Sagas and the Eddas.

Gods and Goddesses 
Asatru is a polytheistic religion in which various goddesses and gods are worshiped. The most prominent are Thor, Odin, Freyja, Frigg, Freyr, Tyr, Loki, and Heimdall.

References
 

Paganism
Otherkin are people who believe that part of them is not human inside. They say that, inside themselves, they feel more like another animal than a human. That other animal can be, for example, a wolf, a dragon or an alien. Some otherkin say that they are vampires and are usually acting like them, for example by drinking blood.

Otherkin may also say they feel a special connection to other natural elements, for example minerals, the likes of fire, water, and wind, or plants.

Otherkin is a neologism—a new word—and it is usually used only by people who say they are otherkin. The definition can change depending on who uses the word. Some otherkin say that their souls or minds are not human, that they were another species in a past life, or that being not-human is part of their religion. (Otherkin practice many different religions, however.) A few of them say that their physical bodies are not human, either, but there is no proof either for or against that.

References 

Lifestyles
Illusions
Pedro Romeiras was a Portuguese principal ballet dancer born 3 July 1961, in Lisbon. He was the gold medal winner of the II Prix Français de la Danse 1982.

1961 births
Living people

Romeiras, Pedro
People from Lisbon
A bonfire or balefire is a large controlled outdoor fire made from bales of straw or wood. The word is believed to come from "bone fire". In the time of the Celts, there were midsummer festivals where animal bones were burnt to ward off evil spirits.

What it means in Great Britain
In Great Britain, bonfires are particularly associated with Guy Fawkes Night. This night is  also known as fireworks night or bonfire night. On this night, people celebrate that the Gunpowder Plot  was discovered. This discovery took place on 5 November 1605. They do this celebration each year. (It is called an annual celebration.)

In Northern Ireland, bonfires are associated with celebrations on the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne.

What it means in Japan
In Japan, large fires called bon-bi are set to welcome the return of the spirits of the ancestors.  Though the two terms are not etymologically or historically related, they serve similar purposes and indicate the universal importance of large fires.
Use of bonfires for rituals
Bonfires were also used for rituals. The idea was that the fire would purify. It was used to consecrate things, or people, that is to make them sacred, in some way. In ancient times, cattle were important symbols of wealth and status. Such cattle were led through the smoke of a bonfire. Couples who were to be wed on May Day would leap through the flames of the bonfire to seal their vows. Coals from a bonfire would be taken home to light the fires in family hearths.  This practice was thought to bring good fortune. People also believed that the residents of the Faery realm were incapable of producing fire themselves; embers of bonfires would be carried to the underworld and tended there.

Neopagan and Wiccan beliefs
Along with the Maypole, the bonfire is an important component of the Wiccan and Neopagan celebration of Beltaine, also known as May Day.
Nine woods are placed into a traditional Wiccan balefire.  These woods are rowan, dogwood, elder, poplar, oak, juniper, holly, cedar, and apple.  Occasionally, pine is also used instead of holly or elder, as are a handful of other woods.  In some regions, superstition, religious belief, or tradition prohibits the cutting of certain trees.

Pictures

Related pages
Walpurgis Night
Pyre

Other websites

Dancing May Day Through History 

Festivals
Fire
Bic Runga (born January 13, 1976) is a singer from New Zealand. She was born in Christchurch. She has sold lots of albums in New Zealand.

The names of her albums are:
Drive
Beautiful Collision
Live in Concert (With the Christchurch Symphony)
Birds

1976 births
Living people
New Zealand singers
Pop musicians
People from Christchurch
The Sputnik programme was a Soviet Union spacecraft programme. Sputnik 1, the first satellite in the programme, was launched on October 4, 1957. This was the first man-made satellite ever to enter orbit.

The United States was very surprised when the Soviet Union sent Sputnik 1 into space. It did not want to fall behind. So, it began spending more money on science and education. This was when the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States began.

Etymology 
The word Sputnik comes from the ,
 or , not .

References

Other websites 

 Sputnik, Citizendium

Soviet spacecraft
Satellites
1950s in the Soviet Union
1950s in spaceflight
Carnival is a public festival which takes place in many cities and towns in many countries around the world. It was traditionally in February or March each year. Carnival can sometimes last for several weeks. In some places there is only one day of celebration. There are often street parades, bands, costumes and many people wear masks. Carnival is linked to religious traditions in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, and it is also linked to local customs.

Background
Background

Lent 
Many Christian churches have a 40-day "season" of fasting called Lent, in which Christians prepare for Easter which is one of the two most important feasts in the Christian year (the other being Christmas). Easter is in late March or April. Lent always begins on a Wednesday, which is called Ash Wednesday in February or March. On that day, many people go to church and have some ash smeared on their forehead as a sign of sorrow for their sins. Then for 40 days, they try to work hard on improving themselves and thinking about the teachings of Jesus. It is usual for people to "give up" something for Lent. They might stop smoking or stop watching TV so they can spend more time reading the Bible or talking with the family. Many people give up all their favourite foods and have no cake, wine, beer, chocolate, ice cream or other luxury foods.
The name "carnivale" comes from Italian and means "putting aside the flesh". This means that during Lent people were not to think about their "flesh" (their bodies) but do things that were good for their souls. The word "flesh"" also means "meat" so many people would eat no meat during Lent.

Mardi Gras 

Mardi Gras means "Fat Tuesday". This was the day just before Lent. The first day of Lent was called Mecredi Meagre meaning "Mean Wednesday". ("Mean" used to mean "poor" and "thin" rather than "nasty".)

During the Middle Ages in Europe, it was normal for people to have a big feast on the Tuesday before the Lenten fast started. In many towns this developed into a big public party, with entertainment in the town square. There is a famous painting by Pieter Bruegel dating from the 1550s and showing the "Battle of Carnival and Lent". (See top of page)

About Pieter Bruegel's famous painting
In this picture by Pieter Bruegel, a man representing Carnival is pushed on a barrel by people in costumes and masks. He is about to do battle with Lent. His weapon is a skewer covered with pieces of roast meat. He balances a blackbird pie on his head. Lent, who is very skinny, fights him with two little fish on a bread-board. The person at the front wears a mask and plays a very noisy instrument called a rummelpott.

Modern celebrations of Carnival 

Nowadays many cities and towns around the world celebrate Carnival for a week or more. The final day of the celebration was traditionally Mardi Gras, when there is often a parade. In some cities the Mardi Gras parade is held on the weekend before Lent begins, rather than on the Tuesday, so as not to disturb the business and traffic of the town.
In some towns such as the Belgian town of Binche the preparations for the Carnival are complex and start many weeks before Carnival takes place, with most of the town's people taking part in some way. The Carnival of Binche is listed with UNESCO as an event of great historic importance because it has been held there in almost the same way for more than 500 years.

Carnival is celebrated differently around the world, but there are some things that are similar: 
 There is often dressing-up in fancy costumes, which often include masks. 
 There is usually a street parade of people and musicians. There may also be floats which are decorated vehicles. 
 There is often loud noises, bright colours and scary faces. These are to frighten evil spirits away while people are fasting. A traditional reason that the performers wear masks is so that the evil spirits do not know who they are.
In the Carnival of Rio de Janeiro, which is one of the biggest and most famous in the world, a major feature is the glamorous costumes as both men and women wear bright colours and wonderful headdresses to dance down the street to the sound of many bands. In Rio there are many very large and expensive decorated floats.

In New Orleans the bands are one of the most important parts of the Carnival celebrations. In Düsseldorf in Germany, one of the features of the Carnival parades are the enormous models of politicians and other well-known people. In Sydney, the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardis Gras which started out as a parade for Sydney's homosexual community, now includes exhibitions, live theatre and competitions, and stretches over two weeks.
Uruguay
The country of Uruguay in South America is a fun place to be during Carnival. In Uruguay, Carnival has its own special musical performance. During February and March, it is summer in Uruguay. Everybody goes into the streets, from old people to children. There are people dancing, singing, and playing a special kind of music. This kind of dance and music is called murga. People do murga performances in groups. The biggest groups have 17 people. They wear funny clothes with lots of colors. They play the drums and sing. The members of the groups are not professional singers or dancers. They are people with other jobs. Each group prepares and practices their own dance and songs for months. Then, they try to be the best group at the festival. Each group's dance and songs last about 45 minutes. The songs are stories about important people or events in the news, so people think watching murga is like watching a play at the theater.
Different uses of the word "carnival" 

Although the word "carnival" still has its old meaning, it is often used to mean public entertainments of different kinds. Some towns have carnivals that have nothing to do with Lent and are at different times of year. Nowadays there are all sorts of different carnivals. Some of these carnivals, like the Notting Hill Carnival in London and the Melbourne Cup Racing Carnival in Australia are very famous.

The word "carnival" is now used for festivals, parades and competitions of all sorts. There are school sports carnivals, folk carnivals, multi-cultural carnivals, horse racing carnivals, wine and food carnivals and boating carnivals.

Related pages
 Christianity 
 Advent 
 Christmas 
 Epiphany (holiday)
 Ash Wednesday
 Lent
 Easter 
 Pentecost 
 Carnival of Blacks and Whites

Festivals
Fasting is a kind of abstinence. It is when someone does not eat or drink for some specified period of time. It is only the case if the person does so of his or her own will. It may also be that the person only eats and drinks certain kinds of food. Most often, fasting is done for religious reasons. Depending on the tradition, fasting practices may forbid sexual intercourse, (or any sexual desire), masturbation, as well as refraining from eating certain types or groups of food (e.g. meat).

Fasting for religious and spiritual reasons has been a part of human custom since pre-history. It is mentioned in the Qur'an, in the Mahabharata, in the Upanishads, and in the Bible, in both the Old and New Testament. In Buddhism it is also taught as a way to getting Nirvana. 

In almost all cases, there are exceptions for observing the fasting. These are made for the following groups of people
children
pregnant women
Those who have a disease, or are recovering from one
In some cases, old people

Politics
Politics 

Fasting as a form of protest is called a hunger strike.

Intermittent fasting 
Timed fasting is known as Intermittent fasting. It is sometimes used for weight loss.

There are different ways to time your fast. You can:

 Not eat for 16 hours
 Not eat for 20 hours
 Not eat for one day and feast on the next day and repeat
Eat one meal a day

Religious behavior and experience
Food and drink
Walpurgis Night (Valborgsmässoafton in Swedish, Vappu in Finnish, Volbriöö in Estonian, Valpurģu nakts or Valpurģi in Latvian, Walpurgisnacht in German), Čarodějnice in Czech is a holiday celebrated on April 30 or May 1, in Finland, Sweden, Bohemia (Czech Republic), Estonia, Latvia and Germany.

Origins
The festival is named after Saint Walburga (known in Scandinavia as "Valborg"; alternative forms are "Walpurgis", "Wealdburg", or "Valderburger"), born in Wessex in 710 a niece of Saint Boniface. According to legend, she was a daughter to the Saxon prince St. Richard. Together with her brothers she travelled to Württemberg, Germany where she became a nun and lived in the convent of Heidenheim, which was founded by her brother Wunibald. Walburga died on 25 February 779 and that day still carries her name in the Catholic calendar. However she was not made a saint until 1 May in the same year, and that day carries her name in the Swedish calendar.
Historically the Walpurgisnacht is derived from Pagan spring customs, where the arrival of spring was celebrated with bonfires at night. Viking fertility celebrations took place around April 30 and due to Walburga being declared a saint at that time of year, her name became associated with the celebrations. Walburga was worshipped in the same way that Vikings had celebrated spring and as they spread throughout Europe, the two dates became mixed together and created the Walpurgis Night celebration.

Germany
In Germany, Walpurgisnacht, the night from April 30 to May 1, is the night when allegedly the witches hold a large celebration on the Blocksberg and await the arrival of Spring. When the travel to that mountain is too far, they may also chose another hill in the region they live.  
"Walpurgis Night (in German folklore) the night of April 30 (May Day's eve), when witches meet on the Brocken mountain and hold revels with their Gods..."
"Brocken the highest of the Harz Mountains of north central Germany. It is noted for the phenomenon of the Brocken spectre and for witches' revels which reputably took place there on Walpurgis night. 
The Brocken Spectre is a magnified shadow of an observer, typically surrounded by rainbow-like bands, thrown onto a bank of cloud in high mountain areas when the sun is low. The phenomenon was first reported on the Brocken." 

—Taken from Oxford Phrase & Fable.

Paganism
Avian influenza (bird flu,  or grippe of the birds), is an illness caused by a virus. The virus, called influenza A or type A, usually lives in birds. Sometimes it infects mammals, including humans. 

There are many types of influenza A, which was first found in a bird in Italy in 1878. Most types have weak symptoms, such as breathing problems, similar to the common cold.

But some types kill birds, and a few kill humans and other mammals. One type of bird flu, called Spanish flu, killed 50 to 100 million people  in 1918/1920. Another type, called Asian Flu killed one million in 1957, and another one, called Hong Kong Flu, also killed one million people in 1968.
A subtype, called H5N1, killed six people in Hong Kong in 1997, but did not kill again until 2003, this time in China. Until the middle of 2005, it was primarily found in southeast Asia but since then has spread to parts of Africa and Europe. It has killed tens of millions of birds and resulted in the slaughter of hundreds of millions of other birds to limit its spread. So far it is mostly a bird disease and rarely infects humans. The concern about H5N1 is that it is constantly evolving at a very fast rate. It might create a human flu pandemic. Governments around the world are spending money to deal with this problem: studying H5N1, creating vaccines, conducting pandemic practice exercises, stockpiling useful flu medication, and many other activities.

References 

Diseases caused by viruses
Zoonoses
The Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy is a controversy about a series of cartoons. They were first published in a Danish newspaper. The publication led to an outcry, and sparked violent protests in the Islamic world, with many people dying. The cartoons were drawn and created by Kurt Westergaard.

The crisis began after cartoons depicting the Islamic prophet Muhammad were published in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten on September 30, 2005. Danish Muslim organizations staged protests in response. As the controversy has grown, some or all of the cartoons have been reprinted in newspapers in more than fifty other countries. The protests got worse when fake cartoons were released.

One of the cartoons showed Muhammad with a bomb in his turban. Some people thought this was saying that all Muslims are terrorists. But other cartoons made fun of the Jyllands-Posten newspaper. One insulted the editors of the newspaper, by using the language Farsi.
Critics claims that the cartoons are culturally insulting, Islamophobic, blasphemous, and intended to humiliate a "marginalized" minority. However, supporters of the cartoons claim they illustrate an important issue and their publication exercises the right of free speech. They have also claimed that similar cartoons are made relative to other religions, arguing that Islam and its followers have not been targeted in a discriminatory way.

Related pages
Jesus with erection

References

Other websites
 The page that contains Muhammad cartoons

Controversies
History of Islam
2005
Blasphemy is a word that means speaking badly about a religion, or insulting a god. Some religions see blasphemy as a religious crime. Many countries witha state religion have laws that make blasphemy a crime. For example, blasphemy can be punished with the death penalty in Saudi Arabia or Pakistan. In other countries, the punishment for the crime is a fine, or imprisonment.

Some countries do not have laws against blasphemy. For example, after the French Revolution, France made blasphemy legal to make sure people would have freedom of religion and the freedom of the press.

The United States, Canada, and many European countries, have laws to protect people who speak badly about religion. Sometimes people do this in a satirical way, like with a movie that makes fun of a religion. In these countries, profanity is often protected by freedom of speech as well.

Related pages
Heresy
Profanity
Sacrilege

References
References 

Maledicta: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression  (ISSN US 0363-3659)
Levy, L. Blasphemy. Chapel Hill, 1993.
Dartevelle, P., S Borg, Denis, Ph., Robyn, J. (eds.). Blasphèmes et libertés. Paris: CERF, 1993
Plate, S. Brent Blasphemy: Art that Offends (London: Black Dog Publishing, 2006) []

Other websites
Catholic Encyclopedia: Blasphemy
Jewish Encyclopedia: Blasphemy
 Comprehensive academic study comparing global legal approaches to blasphemy in light of the Jyllands-Posten controversy
The Rational Response Squad: The Blasphemy Challenge
A More4 news film report on how insulting the prophet Mohammed in Pakistan is a capital offence, and defiling the Koran carries life imprisonment.

Theology
Events and trends 
 September 1, 1181 - Pope Lucius III becomes 171st pope
 June 25, 1183 - Frederick I and the Lombard League sign the Peace of Constance
 1183 - Saladin takes over Syria and becomes sultan
 November 25, 1185 - Pope Urban III becomes 172nd pope
 October 21, 1187 - Pope Gregory VIII becomes 173rd pope
Brie is a type of soft cheese with a yellowish interior and a white layer (the "rind") on the outside of the cheese. 

The rind is eaten as well as the inside of this cheese. Like other cheeses, Brie is a dairy product made from cows' milk. Brie cheese may be served with fruit as a dessert at the end of a meal, or with a relish.

The cheese is sometimes served slightly melted or baked, in a round, lidded ceramic dish, and topped with nuts or fruit, or both.

How it is made 
Brie is a French cheese, and protected by AOC (Appellation d'origine contrôlée). This means only this cheese from this region (near Paris) can properly call itself "brie". This is ignored by some countries outside Europe, but the system of AOC is used in the wine business, so many parts of the world do honour it, and have similar arrangements.
The milk of soft cheeses (à pate molle in French) is not heated during the production of the cheese. Talleyrand said about this kind of cheese that it was the king of cheeses. He said that in the 19th century. This kind of cheese has been made for at least 1000 years.

In Europe this cheese is usually not treated chemically, so it might change in consistency or color. It will go bad if it is not kept cool. If that means it is kept in a refrigerator, note that it should not be eaten that cold. It is best eaten when it is somewhat below normal room temperature. In most countries, brie-style cheeses are made with Pasteurized milk.

Brie can be aged, that is, carefully treated for up to a year. Then it has a darker colour and a stronger taste. This is rarely seen outside of France.

Types of Brie

The following kinds of Brie exist:

 Brie de Meaux, from Champagne (region), AOC since 1986. The 1998 production was 7683 tonnes.
 Brie de Melun, from Ile-de-France, AOC since 1980. 264 tonnes produced in 1998.
Other French Bries are:

 Brie fermier, Île-de-France
 Brie de Melun bleu
 Brie petit moulé
 Brie laitier
 Brie de Coulommiers

Bries from outside France:

 Somerset Brie, England
 Brie Manoir, Québec
 Bleubrie, Québec

Brie de Meaux
Cheeses are made into round loaves, of about 36 cm in diameter. The cheeses then weight about 2.5 kilograms. It is best tasted from April to October, after a ripening period of 8 to 10 weeks. About 2% of the production occurs on farms.

Brie de Melun
The Brie de Melun is smaller than the Brie de Meaux, but more salt is added to it. The ripening period is 10 weeks. It is best consumed April to September, but it can be found March to November, in some locations. About 5% of production occurs on farms.
What Brie should look like
When people buy Brie, they should make sure that it has the following traits:
It is soft.
Brie is covered in a white layer. There may be reddish patches in the layer.
The interior of the cheese should be yellowish.
The cheese has a distinct smell which is often considered to be good.
It should taste slightly nutty.

French cheeses
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (February 2, 1754 - May 17, 1838) was a French diplomat. 

He was a bishop and worked successfully for Louis XVI. He changed sides and served the French Revolution and Napoleon I. When Napoleon started losing his wars, Talleyrand changed sides again and served  Louis XVIII. He represented France at the Congress of Vienna. He changed sides once more and served Louis Philippe I. Since the beginning of the 19th century he was known simply as Talleyrand. He is widely seen as one of the most pragmatic and influential diplomats in European history. He was known to accept bribes from other European powers, especially while he served under Napoleon.

Related pages
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
 Mary Wollstonecraft

Other websites 
 Charles Maurice de Talleyrand Perigord 1754-1838
 Society of friends of Talleyrand 
 Career of Mme Grand, Talleyrand's wife

1754 births
1838 deaths
French diplomats
Pasteurization (or pasteurisation) is a process of heat processing a liquid or a food to kill pathogenic bacteria to make the food safe to eat and to preserve longer. It involves heating the food to kill most harmful microorganisms. Producers pasteurize dairy and other foods to make them safe to eat. The process is named after Louis Pasteur. He was the first person to learn how to do it successfully. The first pasteurization was done by Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard on 20 April 1862.

Unlike sterilization, pasteurization is not intended to kill all microorganisms in the food. Instead, pasteurization  gets a "log reduction" in the number of microorganisms. It  brings their number down so they are unlikely to cause disease if the product is kept in the refrigerator and consumed before its sell-by date. Commercial sterilization of food is not common, because it tends to destroy the flavour of the food.
Milk pasteurization 
Pasteurization is usually done to milk, which was first suggested by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886. There are two popular ways to pasteurize milk. First, high temperature/short time (HTST), and second, ultra-high temperature (UHT). HTST is the most common method. Milk only labeled pasteurized (or past) is usually treated with the HTST method, whereas milk labelled ultra-pasteurized or UHT must be treated with the UHT method. HTST is when the milk is at a temperature of 72 degrees Celsius (or 161.5 degrees Fahrenheit) for at least 15 seconds. UHT is when the milk is at a temperature of 138 °C or 280 °F for at least two seconds.
Pasteurization rules are usually set by national food safety agencies (like the USDA in the United States and the Food Standards Agency in the United Kingdom). These agencies say milk has to be HTST pasteurized to have the "pasteurized" label. There are different rules for different dairy products, depending on the fat content and what they will be used for. For example, the pasteurization rules for cream are different than the rules for fluid milk, and the standards for pasteurizing cheese are designed to keep the phosphatase enzyme fresh, which helps in making the cheese.

HTST pasteurized milk normally has a refrigerated shelf life of two or three weeks, but ultra pasteurized milk can last much longer when refrigerated, sometimes two or three months. When UHT pasteurization is mixed with safe handling and container technology, it can even be stored unrefrigerated for even longer periods of time.
The pasteurization of milk allowed it to be kept and stored in homes. People began to purchase milk in order to drink it more often.

Alternative pasteurization standards and raw milk 
In addition to the standard HTST and UHT pasteurization standards, there are other lesser-known pasteurization techniques. The first technique, called "batch pasteurization", involves heating large batches of milk to a lower temperature, typically . The other technique is called higher-heat/shorter time (HHST), and it lies somewhere between HTST and UHT in terms of time and temperature. Pasteurization causes some irreversible and some temporary denaturization of the proteins in milk.
 
In most legislations, double pasteurization is not allowed. A heat treatment at a lower temperature or for a shorter time is sometimes performed. Possibly, such milk could be called "raw milk" or, confusingly, "unpasteurized milk". It cannot be called "pasteurized", even though a significant number of pathogens are destroyed during the process.
In recent years, there has been some consumer interest in raw milk products, due to perceived health benefits. Advocates of raw milk maintain, correctly, that some components survive in milk that has not been pasteurized. Specifically, raw milk contains immunoglobulins and the enzymes lipase and phosphatase, which are inactivated by heat. Raw milk also contains vitamin B6 of which up to 20% may be lost on heat treatment. It is also claimed to contain beneficial bacteria which aid digestion and boost immunity. 

Commercial distribution of packaged raw milk is not allowed in most US states.

Some doctors (and some raw milk advocates) acknowledge that certain people should not drink raw milk, including pregnant or breast-feeding mothers, those undergoing immunosuppression treatment for cancer, organ transplant, or autoimmune diseases; and those who are immunocompromised due to medical conditions such as AIDS.
In fact, some doctors suggest that babies and breast-feeding mothers avoid all but UHT pasteurized dairy products. 

In Africa, it is common to boil milk whenever it is harvested. This intense heating greatly changes the flavor of milk, which the people in Africa are accustomed to.

Unpasteurized milk 

Milk pasteurization standards have been subject to increasing scrutiny in recent years, due to the discovery of pathogens that are both widespread and heat resistant (able to survive pasteurization in significant numbers). Researchers have developed more sensitive diagnostics, such as real-time PCR and improved culture methods, that have enabled them to identify pathogens in pasteurized milk.
One bacterium in particular, the organism Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), which causes Johne's disease in cattle and is suspected of causing at least some Crohn's disease in humans, has been found to survive pasteurization in retail milk in the U.S., the U.K., Greece, and the Czech Republic. The food safety authorities in the U.K. have decided to re-evaluate pasteurization standards in light of the MAP results and other evidence of harmful, pasteurization-resistant pathogens.
The USDA (which is responsible for setting pasteurization standards in the U.S.) has not re-evaluated their position on pasteurization adequacy. They do not dispute the studies, which are at this point accepted by the scientific community, but maintain that the presence of MAP in retail pasteurized milk must be due to post-pasteurization contamination. However, some researchers within the FDA, which is responsible for food safety in the U.S., have begun pushing for a re-evaluation of these results. There is a small but growing body of criticism directed at these agencies by Crohn's disease sufferers, scientists, and doctors. Some have suggested that the U.S. dairy industry has been successful in suppressing the agencies' response to a potential health crisis, for fear of consumer panic which would lead to a decrease in milk consumption
. It is worth noting that while MAP has not been definitely proven to be harmful in humans, all other mycobacteria are pathogenic, and it has been definitively shown to cause disease in cattle and other ruminants.
A newer method called flash pasteurization involves shorter exposure to higher temperatures, and is claimed to be better for preserving color and taste in some products.

The term cold pasteurization is used sometimes for the use of ionizing radiation (see food irradiation) or other means (e.g. chemical) to kill bacteria in food. Food irradiation is also sometimes called "electronic pasteurization".

Products that are commonly pasteurized 

 Beer
 Canned food
 Dairy products
 Eggs
 Juices
 Milk
 Syrups
 Vinegar
 Water
 Wines

References 
 Rosenau, M.J., The Milk Question, Haughton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1913.

Food preservation
Soft cheese (in French: Fromage à pate molle) is any kind of cheese that does not get heated during production.

An example of soft cheese would be Brie.

Cheeses
A cult is a group of people who have a religion or a set of beliefs. In modern times the term "cult" usually does not mean a mainstream religion, but a group set up "in opposition to a centre of established authority". New Age religions were often called cults because they were thought to be deviant social movements.

The word cult originally meant a system of ritual practices. It was first used in the early 17th century to mean homage paid to a divinity. It came from an ancient Latin word cultus meaning "worship".
A cult is often a small, newly started religious movement. Cults have beliefs or practices that many people think of as being odd, or that have practices that most people in the world do not practice.  More than that, cults have often been led by people who are not elected, and control the group according to their own wishes. Some cult leaders have been dangerous criminals (Charles Manson; Peoples Temple) or even lunatics. Killings and mass suicides have occurred in cults (Order of the Solar Temple; Heaven's Gate). Of course, a "suicide" enforced by armed guards carrying sub-machine guns (Peoples Temple; Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God) is not a simple suicide as generally understood. It is at least an assisted and coerced suicide.
Whether a religious group is or is not a cult can be a hard question to answer. What is at one point in time considered a cult may later be accepted as a religion and what at one point of time is considered an accepted religion may later become a cult.

Treatment of cult members

Mind control 
Some form of persuasion or mind control can be used to recruit and maintain members. The objective is to prevent the faithful from thinking critically, and making choices in their own best interest. 
"I will state that coercive persuasion and thought reform techniques are effectively practiced on naïve, uninformed subjects with disastrous health consequences. I will try to give enough information to indicate my reasons for further inquiries as well as review of applicable legal processes".
The following methods have been used in some or all cults studied:
 People are put in physically or emotionally distressing situations;
 Their problems are reduced to one simple explanation, which is repeatedly emphasized;
 They receive what seems to be unconditional love, acceptance, and attention from a charismatic leader or group;
 They get a new identity based on the group;
 They are subject to entrapment (isolation from friends, relatives and the mainstream culture) and their access to information is severely controlled.

This view is disputed by some. Society for the Scientific Study of Religion stated in 1990 that there was not sufficient research for a consensus, and that "one should not automatically equate the techniques involved in the process of physical coercion and control with those of nonphysical coercion and control".
Management style of cults 
An oft-repeated criticism of cults is that their management style is dictatorial and exploitative. The following is one example:
"The beliefs of all these cults are absolutist and non-tolerant of other systems of beliefs. Their systems of governance are totalitarian. A requirement of membership is to obey absolutely without questioning. Their interest in the individual’s development within the cult towards some kind of satisfactory individual adult personality is by their doctrines, very low or nonexistent. It is clear that almost all of them emphasize money making in one form or another, although a few seem to be very much involved in demeaning or self denigrating activities and rituals. Most of them that I have studied possess a good deal of property and money which is under the discretionary control of the individual leaders".
Use of violence 
Ownership of weapons and violence has occurred in some cults. The Branch Davidians under the direction of David Koresh used violence against Federal agencies, with tragic results for both sides. The later FBI report reveals the extent of their arms stockpile.
The People's Temple included guards armed with submachine guns. These guards killed the visiting U.S. Congressman Ryan, and stood around the believers as they committed suicide. Members of the Manson Family were convicted of several murders.

Related pages 
Sect
Religion

References
References

Further reading 
Jenkins, Philip 2000. Mystics and messiahs: cults and new religions in American history. Oxford University Press. 
Snow, Robert L. 2003. Deadly cults: the crimes of true believers. Praeger/Greenwood. 
Tobias, Madeleine Landau; Lalich, Janja and Langone, Michael 1994. Captive hearts, captive minds: freedom and recovery from cults and abusive relationships. 
Wohlforth, Tim & Dennis Tourish 2000. On the edge: political cults left and right. Sharpe. 
Barrett D.V. 2001. The new believers: a survey of sects, cults and alternative religions. London: Cassell. 
Zellner W.W. & Petrowsky  Marc 1998. Sects, Cults, and Spiritual Communities: A Sociological Analysis
Dawson, L. Lorne 2006. Comprehending cults: the sociology of new religious movements
The Cult are a English rock band. They formed in 1982 under the name Death Cult and later renamed to Southern Death Cult in 1983, then was again renamed to their current name The Cult.

Studio albums 
 Dreamtime (1984)
 Love (1985)
 Electric (1987)
 Sonic Temple (1989)
 Ceremony (1991)
 The Cult (1994)
 Beyond Good and Evil (2001)
 Born into This (2007)
 Choice of Weapon (2012)
 Hidden City (2016)

English hard rock bands
English heavy metal bands
English punk bands
1028 (MXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday when the Julian calendar was used. It was the twenty-eighth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.

Events 
 November 12 – Dying Emperor Constantine VIII of the Byzantine Empire marries his daughter Zoe of Byzantium to his chosen heir Romanus Argyrus.
 November 15 – Romanus Argyrus becomes Eastern Roman Emperor as Romanus III.
Events 
 Anselm of Canterbury leaves Italy.
 Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, becomes King of Germany.
 Ottokar, Count of Steyr, becomes Margrave of the Karantanian March, later known as Styria
James Albert Michener ( or ; February 3, 1907 – October 16, 1997) was an American writer. His books include Tales of the South Pacific, Hawaii, The Drifters, Texas, and Poland. Most of his 40 books are very large sagas. They are about the lives of many generations in a particular place. His non-fiction writings include the 1992 book The World is My Home and Sports in America.

Michener wrote that he did not know who his parents were or exactly when and where he was born. He was raised by an adoptive mother, Mabel Michener, in Doylestown, Pennsylvania. Some have argued that Mabel was his birth mother. He graduated from Swarthmore College, where he played basketball, in 1929. He later studied at the Colorado State Teachers College. He taught there for several years. He also taught at Harvard University.
His writing career began during World War II. He was assigned to the South Pacific Ocean as a naval historian. He used his time there as the basis for Tales of the South Pacific, his first book. This book was the basis for the musical South Pacific.

Michener met his wife Mari while in Japan. His novel Sayonara is autobiographical.

On January 10, 1977, he was given the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Gerald R. Ford.

In his final years, he lived in Austin, Texas, where he died of kidney failure on October 16, 1997 at the age of 90.
Books by James A. Michener 
 Alaska
 The Bridge at Andau
 The Bridges at Toko-Ri
 Caravans
 Caribbean
 Centennial
 A Century of Sonnets
 Chesapeake
 Collectors, Forgers - And A Writer: A Memoir
 The Covenant
 Creatures of the Kingdom
 The Drifters
 The Eagle and The Raven
 The Fires of Spring
 The Floating World
 Hawaii
 Iberia
 Japanese Prints
 Journey
 Kent State: What Happened and Why
 Legacy
 Literary Reflections
 Mexico
 Miracle in Seville
 The Novel
 Pilgrimage: A Memoir of Poland and Rome
 Poland
 Presidential Lottery
 The Quality of Life
 Rascals in Paradise
 Recessional
 Return to Paradise
 Sayonara
 Six Days in Havana
 The Source
 Space
 Sports in America
 Tales of the South Pacific
 Texas
 The World is My Home
 This Noble Land
 Ventures in Editing
 The Voice of Asia
 Years of Infamy

References 

1907 births
1997 deaths
Writers from Pennsylvania
Writers from Hawaii
Writers from Austin, Texas
Harvard University faculty
Events 
 King Sverker I of Sweden is killed and succeeded by Eric IX of Sweden.
 Eric IX of Sweden tries to conquer Finland 
 The first fire insurance policy is issued. It is in Iceland.
 Church of Ireland starts obeying the Pope.
 Eleanor of Aquitaine marries Henry II of England and brings the province of Aquitaine to English control.

Births 
 Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 Alfonso II of Aragon

Deaths 
 Suryavarman II, Khmer king, builder of Angkor Wat
 King David I of Scotland
The War of 1812 was fought between the British Empire and the United States from 1812 to 1815 on land in North America and at sea. The British forces were helped by Canadian militia (volunteers) and Native Americans because British soldiers were busy fighting Napoleon I in Europe.

In nearly every battle, the British defeated the attacking American forces.  The war increased nationalism in both Canada and the United States.

Causes 
One reason given by Americans for declaring war was that the British were bothering American ships. The British claimed to be looking for British sailors who had deserted. Many British sailors deserted from the
miserable conditions and the harsh discipline. Originally, many of the sailors had been pressed into service. It was the practice of the British to arrest any man they found on a street and to force him to serve on their ships. Many British sailors who escaped signed on as crew aboard American merchant ships. The British claim was somewhat true.
In 1807, an American ship was boarded and then fired on, which created outrage among the American public. The British were also seizing American sailors at sea and forcing them to serve in the navy.

The numbers of American seamen pressed into British service is not well known and may have been greatly exaggerated. The British were also sponsoring Native American territories in the Midwest to stop the United States from expanding westward. That made 10,000 Native Americans fight for the British.

Napoleon I started the French invasion of Russia in 1812, just as the war started in North America. The Americans thought that the British would be busy fighting the French during the Napoleonic Wars to do much in North America.
The war 
Fighting began when the United States started to attack the Canadian provinces in 1812. However, the British and the Canadians successfully defended their borders. In 1813, British and American ships fought in the Battle of Lake Erie. Americans under Oliver Hazard Perry won, which gave them control of Lake Erie. American forces raided and burned Toronto, which was then called York.

In 1814, Napoleon I abdicated the French throne. That freed up experienced British troops to be sent to North America. They burned the unfinished Washington, DC, and also attacked Baltimore. An American lawyer, Francis Scott Key wrote a poem about the Battle of Baltimore. The poem was later used to give the words to a song that later became the US national anthem: "The Star Spangled Banner." The war ended in 1815. The British attacked New Orleans but were stopped by the Americans under General Andrew Jackson.