Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Sculpture is a type of art. It must be three-dimensional (meaning it must have height, width, and depth like a cube). There are many kinds of sculptures from different parts of the world, like China and India, or from different time periods, like the Renaissance and modern times. The pictures below are of sculptures:

Examples

Related pages
 Hologram
 Pottery
 Glass blowing
 Costume
 Mask
 Doll
 Relief
 Statue
Charles V (24 February 1500  21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1519, King of Castile and Aragon from 1516, and Lord of the Low Countries as Duke of Burgundy from 1506. 

Philip the Handsome (son of Maximilian I of Austria and Mary of Burgundy) and Joanna the Mad  (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile) were his parents. He ruled Austria, Spain, Two Sicilies, Sardinia, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, Hungary, Bohemia, Croatia, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela.

His Majesty or His Imperial Majesty was first used when he was king. His Empire became large and was known as "in which the sun does not set". He was also known as "The Emperor of Universal Dominion."

He divided his empire between his brother Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II of Spain.

1500 births
1558 deaths
Holy Roman Emperors
Kings and Queens of Spain
Kings and Queens of Italy
Counts and countesses of Flanders
16th century in Germany
The Renaissance is a period in European history that followed the Middle Ages and ended in the 17th century. “Renaissance” is a French word for “cultural rebirth.” During this period, there was a “rebirth” of classical learning. People started relearning the teachings of scholars from Ancient Greece, Rome, and other ancient societies. The Renaissance is often said to be the start of the "modern age"

During the Renaissance, there were many advances in art, literature, the sciences, mathematics, and culture. Many famous artists, writers, philosophers, and scientists lived during this period. A person who is clever at a great number of things is sometimes called a "Renaissance man". The most famous Renaissance man is Leonardo da Vinci, who was a painter, a scientist, a musician and a philosopher.
The Renaissance started in Italy, but soon spread across the whole of Europe. In Italy, the period is divided into three parts:
 the Early Renaissance
 the High Renaissance
 the Late Renaissance  <ref></ref> (also called the Mannerist period)

Following the Mannerist period was the Baroque period, which also spread across Europe starting around 1600. Outside Italy, it can be hard to tell where the Renaissance period ends and the Baroque begins.

 Causes of the Renaissance  

 Reading and printing 
In the Middle Ages, most artistic, legal, and historical production took place in and around books. Monasteries, churches, universities, and people who could afford them produced and owned books. Books were produced entirely by hand, which is why they were called manuscripts; illuminated manuscripts include hand-colored, drawn, and gilded pictures.
Most books at that time were written in Latin, Greek, and Roman, which was used in the Catholic Church. Only priests and well-educated people read Latin then. People were forbidden by law from translating the Bible into Italian, English, German, French, or other "local" languages.

Around 1440 the first printed books were made in Europe. The printing press made it possible to print copies of large books like the Bible and sell them cheaply. It took 300 calf skins or 100 pig skins to print the Bible. Printers soon began to print everything that they thought was interesting: Ancient Greek and Roman writings, poetry, and plays; stories about the lives of the saints; mathematics textbooks; medical textbooks; Christian stories; erotic stories; books about animals and monsters; maps of the world; and advice to princes about how to rule their people.
Before the invention of the printing press, knowledge had belonged to priests, monasteries and universities. Suddenly many thousands of people, even merchants, could learn far more than they ever could before.

 Ancient Roman things 
From about 400 B.C. to about 400 AD, Europe experienced a Golden Age. In Ancient Greece and Rome, there were many philosophers, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and mathematicians. Things were beautiful, well-organized and well-run.

However, by the year 1400, the city of Rome was in ruins. Inside the broken walls that had been smashed in 410 AD were the remains of huge temples, sports arenas, public baths, apartment blocks and palaces. Nearly all of them were half-buried and ruined, so they could not be used. Many were pulled down to use as building stone.
Among the ruins of this once-great city, the people of Rome lived in cottages. They still went to church in the huge churches (basilicas) built by the first Christian Emperor, Constantine the Great, in the 4th century. They still held market day in the Ancient Roman market place of Campo dei Fiori ("Field of Flowers").

In 1402, Filippo Brunelleschi and a teenage Donatello came to Rome. They were probably the world's first archaeologists. They were fascinated by everything that they saw. They measured ancient ruined buildings, drew things, and dug around for weeks looking for bits of broken statues and painted pottery that they could put back together. By the time they went back home to Florence, they knew more about Ancient Roman architecture and sculpture than anyone had known for about a thousand years. Brunelleschi became a very famous architect and Donatello became a very famous sculptor.

 Cash and politics
The Renaissance really began in the city of Florence. In those days, Italy was not one single country. It was made of many little states, all governed in different ways. These states were constantly making alliances and fighting with each other.

Rome was politically powerful, because Rome had the Pope, the person in control of the Roman Catholic Church. Because of his very great importance as a spiritual leader, most people and most cities did not want to argue with any pope. After a pope died, a new pope was elected. Everyone who was rich and powerful hoped a member of their family would be chosen. It was always a good idea to have several young men in the family trained as priests, just in case. It also helped to be good friends with other rich families. One way to do this was to have lots of daughters and get them to marry rich powerful men from different cities. This was the way that politics worked.
There were other powerful cities in Italy too. Venice had a large and powerful navy. Milan controlled trade with Northern Europe and was very rich. Genoa was also very rich, because it controlled trade with France and Spain. Florence, where many people say the Renaissance started, was another important city.

Florence’s strength did not come from a strong army, a strong fortress, or control over trade. It came from banking. The Medicis were an important banking family. They helped to make Florence a powerful city and the centre of Renaissance learning.

Capture of Constantinople

 List of important events of the Renaissance 
 In art 
[[File:Sandro Botticelli - La nascita di Venere - Google Art Project - edited.jpg|thumb|The Birth of Venus' by Sandro Botticelli]]
1401: Lorenzo Ghiberti wins a competition to create the Florence Baptistry Doors. Over the next 21 years, he creates two famous bronze doors with relief sculptures showing religious scenes.
 1420s: Masaccio and Masolino paint the Brancacci Chapel in Florence.
 1440s: Donatello makes the statue of Gattamelata on Horseback in Padua.
 1470s: Botticelli paints the Birth of Venus in Florence.
 1490s: Leonardo da Vinci paints The Last Supper and the Mona Lisa in Milan.
 1508-1512: Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel Ceiling in Rome.

 In architecture 

 1420: Workers begin to build The Dome of Florence Cathedral, using Brunelleschi's design.
 1420s: Brunelleschi designs the church of Church of San Lorenzo in Florence.
 1444: Michelozzo designs the Medici-Riccardi Palace for Cosimo de' Medici.
 1471: Alberti designs the Church of Sant' Andrea in Mantua.
 1506: Work begins on the new St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.
 1550: Palladio designs the Villa Rotunda near Vicenza.
In science and technology 
 Early 1300s: The first guns are made.
 1455: Johannes Gutenberg uses the printing press he invented to create the first printed book in Europe.
 Late 1400s: The quadrant was developed to help sailors find their way at sea.
 1480s: Leonardo da Vinci studies human anatomy.
 1550s: Peter Henlein of Nuremberg makes the first watches.
 1608: Hans Lippershey of Holland makes the first telescope.
 1618, William Harvey discovered that the heart pumps blood.
In thinking 
(See illustration above: Raphael's "School of Athens")
 Early 1300s: Petrarch publishes writings based on the works of St. Augustine and other classical writers.
 Mid 1400s: The Humanist Academy is created to discuss ancient writings and modern ideas. The Medici family supports the academy financially.
 1511: Desiderius Erasmus publishes In Praise of Folly, which satirizes the traditions of the Catholic Church.
 1532: Machiavelli publishes The Prince by Machiavelli, which says that people who wish to have political power often do wicked things to get it.

 In religion
In religion 

 1382: John Wycliffe first translates the Bible from Latin into English. This begins a movement to translate the Bible into many other European languages.
 1454-1455: Johannes Gutenberg prints his famous Bible. The mass production of Bibles begins.
 1517: On the door of Wittenberg Castle, Martin Luther posts The Ninety-Five Theses (his ideas about problems in the Church). This is an important event in the Reformation.
 1534: Henry VIII splits the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church
 1545: Pope Paul III calls the Council of Trent so that Catholic leaders can meet and discuss the problems that the Reformation has caused for to the Catholic Church. This is the beginning of the Counter Reformation.
 1559: John Calvin starts the Geneva Theological Academy to teach people new (Reformation) ideas about Christian faith.
In writing 
 Early 1300s: Dante Alighieri writes The Divine Comedy in Italy.
 1348: Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian, starts writing a collection of stories called The Decameron. 1477: William Caxton publishes The Canterbury Tales, which was written in the 1300s by Geoffrey Chaucer. This is the first important book written in the English language.
 1532 and 1534: Francois Rabelais writes Pantagruel and Gargantua in France.
 1550: Giorgio Vasari, an Italian, publishes "Lives of the Great Architects, Painters and Sculptors of Italy".
 1590-1612: William Shakespeare writes his 37 plays in England.
 1605 and 1616: Miguel de Cervantes publishes the tale of Don Quixote, Man of La Mancha in Spain.
In exploration 
 1487-1488: Bartholomeu Dias sails down the coast of Africa to the Cape of Good Hope.
 1492: Christopher Columbus sails from Spain across the Atlantic Ocean to the West Indies.
 1497-1499: Vasco da Gama sails from Portugal to India by going around Africa.
 1519-1522: Ferdinand Magellan leads an expedition to sail around the world. The expedition is completed under the command of Juan Sabastian del Cano.
 1577-1580: Sir Francis Drake completes the second voyage around the world.

 Related pages 
 Renaissance music
 List of Renaissance artists
 Medical Renaissance
 Duecento
 Trecento

 References 

 Ilan Rachum, The Renaissance: an Illustrated Encyclopedia, Octopus, 
 Edmond Wright, Ed., The Medieval and Renaissance World, Chartwell Books, Inc. 
 Margaret Aston, The Fifteenth Century, Tames And Hudson, 
 Denys Hay and John Law, Italy in the Age of the Renaissance, Longman, 
 John T. Paoletti and Gary M. Radke, Art in Renaissance Italy, Laurence King Publishing, (2005),
Other websites 
 Links for Middle School students from the Courtenay Middle School Library Collection''

Renaissance
Lava is magma, hot molten rock that flows through holes in the Earth's crust and onto the surface. Like magma, lava can be either viscous (~thick) or fluid (~thin). Blocky lava is so thick and slow that it barely moves along the ground. Other types of lava, like pahoehoe, aa, and pillow lava, are thinner and flow faster. Lava sometimes sets things on fire. Sometimes it even destroys towns.

Types of lava

Blocky lava 
Blocky lava is cool, stiff lava that cannot travel far from where it was erupted. Blocky lava usually oozes out from a volcano only after an explosion has let out lots of the gas pressure from the place where there is magma. Blocky lava makes jumbled piles of sharp chunks.

Pahoehoe 
Pronounced pah HOY HOY, pahoehoe gets its name from the Hawaiian word for "ropy" because its surface looks like coils of rope. Pahoehoe lava flows slowly, like wax dripping down from a candle, making a glassy surface with round wrinkles.
Aa 
Aa is a Hawaiian word that is pronounced AH-AH. This lava that has a sharp, jagged surface. This stiff lava pours out quickly and makes a crust that breaks easily. The crust is torn into sharp pieces as the hot lava underneath still moves.

Pillow lava 
Pillow lava is made when lava erupts underwater. It makes round lumps that are the size and shape of pillows. Pillow lava has a round shape because the lava cools very quickly when it touches water.

They occur wherever mafic or intermediate lavas push out under water. This happens along marine hotspot volcano chains and the constructive plate boundaries of mid-ocean ridges. Pillow lavas occur in the oldest preserved volcanic sequences on earth, the Isua and Barberton greenstone belts. This shows that large bodies of water were on the Earth's surface early in the Archaean. Pillow lavas are used generally to show volcanism occurred underwater in metamorphic belts. Pillow lavas are also found where volcanoes were under ice early before an eruption.
Lava tube 
A lava tube is a natural channel formed in flowing lava. The lava continues flowing under the tube's upper surface. Later, when the lava is cooled and solid, the tube remains as a feature in the landscape.

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Volcanic landforms of Hawaii
 USGS definition of Pāhoehoe

Volcanology
Greenwich Village is an area on the western part of southern/downtown Manhattan. It is sometimes called The Village. The Village is mainly residential.

Greenwich Village is bordered by Broadway to the east, Hudson River to the west, Houston Street to the south and 14th Street to the north.

Originally, Greenwich Village was a hamlet separate to New York City.  The grid plan for its streets is less orderly than in parts of Manhattan that were built later.

History 

The village is located on what used to be marshland. In the 16th century, Native Americans called it Sapokanikan which means tobacco field. In the 1630s, it was turned into pasture by the Dutch, who called it Noortwyck. In 1664, when the English captured the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, and Greenwich Village developed as a hamlet.
In 1712, it officially became a village, and was named Grin'wich in the 1713 Common Council records. Following a yellow fever epidemic in 1822, many New York residents moved to the healthier air of Greenwich; where many stayed. In the 19th century, it was known as Washington Square.

Other websites 
 New York Architecture Images- Greenwich Village
 Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation
 Village Voice
 Greenwich Village, by Anna Alice Chapin, 1919, from Project Gutenberg

Manhattan
Neighborhoods of New York City
is a Japanese musician. He is a co-founder of the Japanese band rock X Japan.  He also founded an independent record label Extasy Records. X Japan ended in 1997.  They got back together in 2007 and are currently touring worldwide.

Yoshiki's solo career includes two classical studio albums: Eternal Melody (1993), and Eternal Melody II (2005).

References

Musicians from Chiba Prefecture
Living people
1965 births
Aragon is an autonomous community in the northeast of Spain. In the various dialects of Spain it is: in ; in ; in .

Aragon covers the area of the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. It is named after the Aragón river, a tributary of the Ebro.

Aragon has three provinces (from north to south): Huesca, Zaragoza and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza (sometimes called Saragossa in English).

Geography
Aragon is one of the 17 Spanish autonomous communities. It has a surface area of , 9.4 percent of the territory of Spain. By area, it is the fourth largest Spanish autonomous community after Castile and León, Andalusia and Castile-La Mancha.

Aragon is bordered to the north by France (Nouvelle-Aquitaine region). Within Spain, the community is bordered to the east by Catalonia (Lerida and Tarragona provinces), to the south by Valencian Community (Castellón and Valencia provinces) and Castile-La Mancha (Cuenca and Guadalajara provinces), and to the west by Castile and León (Soria province), La Rioja and Navarre.
Relief
Most of Aragon has an altitude of . The highest point is the Aneto peak with  high; it is the highest mountain of the Pyrenees.

The lowest point in Aragon is on the Ebro river, close to Zaragoza, with an altitude of  high.
The three main geographical regions of Aragon are:
 The Aragonese Pyrenees has the highest points of this range that separates Spain from France. The main mountains are Aneto (3,404 m), the highest in the range, Posets Peak (3,375 m), Monte Perdido (3,355 m), Perdiguero (3,222 m), Cotiella (2,912 m), among others. The main Pyrenean valleys, formed by the rivers that are born there, are Ansó (Veral river), Hecho (Aragon Subordán river), Canfranc (Aragón river), Tena (Gállego river) and Broto-Ainsa-Benasque (Ara, Cinca and Ésera rivers). The Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park lies above these valleys.
 Further south, the Ebro valley, irrigated by the Ebro river, is a rich and fertile agricultural area covered with vast fields of wheat, barley and other fruit and vegetable crops. Many beautiful and little-known settlements, castles and Roman ruins are found here.
South of Zaragoza and the Ebro valley, the elevation rises again into the Sistema Ibérico, a complex system of mountain ranges that separates the Ebro valley from the Meseta Central and plains of Castile-La Mancha. The highest mountain in this range is the Moncayo with .
Rivers
Most of the Aragonese rivers are tributaries of the Ebro, Spain's largest river in volume and which divides Aragon into two. Some important tributaries on the left side of the river (rivers that come from the Pyrenees) are the Aragón, born in Huesca but flows into the community of Navarre, the Gállego and Cinca, which joins the Segre just before ending up in the Ebro. Right tributaries are the rivers Jalón, Huerva and Guadalupe.

On the Ebro, near the border with Catalonia, lies the Mequinenza Reservoir, with a length of about 110 km, and that is popularly known as the Sea of Aragon.

Climate
Climate

Climatically, Aragon can be divided into three areas:
 Continental Mediterranean. The Ebro valley. One of the severest climates in Spain and a daily and winter-summer temperature range. Low levels of rainfall which decrease as clouds move east towards Catalonia.
 Alpine-mountain climate. Short summers and very cold winters, though with big differences depending on altitude and orientation.
 Continental. The Calatayud-Daroca-Teruel region with mountains to the west and east that block the humid winds from the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea. Low rainfall: . Hot summers and very cold winters.

In the middle of Aragon, which is only  above sea level, the annual average temperature is around . To the north and south of the Ebro valley, where the elevation rises to  above sea level, the temperature drops by two degrees. In the mountains, between , the temperatures are between .
Administrative divisions
Aragon consists of three provinces named after their capitals: Huesca, Teruel and Zaragoza. Each province is divided in comarcas (a comarca is a local administrative division) and these are divided in municipalities.

Population
Aragon has a population, in 2013, of 1,347,150, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2, one of the lowest in Spain. The most densely populated areas are around the valley of the Ebro river, particularly around Zaragoza, and in the Pyrenean foothills (the hills at the base of the Pyrenees), while the areas with the fewest inhabitants tend to be those that are higher up in the Pyrenean mountains, and in most of the southern province of Teruel.

The province of Zaragoza is the one with more inhabitants, with 978,638 people living there, representing % of the population of Aragon.

The city with more people living in it is the capital, Zaragoza (620,419). The other provincial capitals Huesca and Teruel have, respectively, 47,923 and 31,506 inhabitants.
Most important cities
The 10 most important cities in the department are:

Language

Spanish is the native language in most of Aragón. The only official language, it is understood and spoken by virtually everyone in the region.Also, Aragonese is still spoken, in several local varieties, in the mountainous northern counties of the Pyrenees, particularly in western Ribagorza, Sobrarbe, Jacetania and Somontano. In the easternmost areas of Aragón, along the border with Catalonia, varieties of Catalan are spoken, including the comarcas of eastern Ribagorza, La Litera, Bajo Cinca, Bajo Aragón-Caspe, Bajo Aragón and Matarraña.

References

Other websites

 Government of Aragon 
Senderos de Aragón Aragon government tourism site
Guide to the Aragon Pyrenees Mountains 
Maps of Aragon
The Aragonese language is a Romance language spoken in the north of Aragon by 10,000 people.

It is similar to nearby languages: Spanish, Catalan and Occitan. Also, many Aragonese words are similar to Basque words.

History 
Aragonese, which developed in parts of the Ebro basin, can be traced back to the High Middle Ages. It spread throughout the Pyrenees to areas where languages almost the same as modern Basque might have been spoken before. The Kingdom of Aragon (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) expanded to the south from the mountains. It pushed the Moors farther south in the Reconquista and spreading the Aragonese language.
The union of the Catalan counties and the Kingdom of Aragon which formed the 12th-century Crown of Aragon did not merge the languages of the two areas; Catalan continued to be spoken in the east and Navarro-Aragonese in the west. The Aragonese Reconquista in the south ended when James I of Aragon gave Murcia to the Kingdom of Castile as dowry for an Aragonese princess.

The best-known writer in Aragonese was Johan Ferrandez d'Heredia, the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes at the end of the 14th century. He wrote a lot of works in Aragonese and translated several works from Greek into Aragonese (the first in medieval Europe).

The spread of Spanish, the Castilian origin of the Trastámara dynasty, and the similarity between Spanish and Aragonese helped the decline of the latter. A turning point was the 15th-century coronation of the Castilian Ferdinand I of Aragon, also known as Ferdinand of Antequera.
In the early 18th century, after the defeat of the allies of Aragon in the War of the Spanish Succession, Philip V ordered the prohibition of the Aragonese language in the schools and the institution of Spanish as the only official language in Aragon. This was ordered in the Aragonese Nueva Planta decrees of 1707.

In recent times, Aragonese was mostly seen as a group of rural dialects of Spanish. After the 1978 Spanish transition to democracy new books and studies of the language have been published.

References
Events 
 Bartholomew Iscanus becomes Bishop of Exeter.

1161
Events 
 December 22 – Afraid that Old Cairo would be captured by the Crusaders, its Caliph orders the city set afire. The city burns for 54 days.
 Prince Richard of England becomes duke of Aquitaine. He later becomes King Richard I of England.
 Emperor Takakura ascends to the throne of Japan.
 King Valdemar I of Denmark conquers Arkona on the Island of Rügen, the strongest pagan fortress and temple in Northern Europe.
1178 was a common year.

Events 
 June 18 – Five Canterbury monks see what was possibly the Giordano Bruno crater being formed
 The Sung Document written detailing the discovery of "Mu-Lan-Pi" (suggested by some to be California) by Muslim sailors
 The Chronicle of Gervase of Canterbury written
 The Leaning Tower of Pisa begins to lean as the third level is completed
251 (CCLI) was .

Births
Anthony the Great

Deaths
Saint Agatha of Sicily
Year 1280 (MCCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events 
 Construction on the northern section of the Grand Canal of China begins.
 The final stage of the Lincoln Cathedral is completed.
 King Edward I of England forms the Court of King's Bench. The Bench hears petitions for justice instead of the king hearing them himself.
 The Wolf minimum of solar activity begins (approximate date).
 The Asen dynasty of tsars of Bulgaria ends.
 Syria tries to leave from the Mamluk sultanate of Egypt. Qalawun defeats the rebels and keeps Syria in the Egyptian sultanate.
 The second of two main surveys of the Hundred Rolls is completed. It began in 1279.
 Turin is conquered by Thomas III of Savoy. It becomes the capital of the House of Savoy.
 Osman starts to rule.

Births 
 Birger of Sweden (d. 1321)
 Wu Zhen, Chinese painter (d. 1354)
Deaths 
 May 9 – Magnus VI of Norway
 August 22 – Pope Nicholas III (b. 1218)
 November 15 – Albertus Magnus, German theologian
675 was a common year.

Deaths 
 Saint Colman, bishop of Lindisfarne
 Wulfhere, king of Mercia
 Saint Amand
1195 (MCXCV) was .

Events 
 July 18 – Battle of Alarcos, great victory of Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur over the Castilian King Alfonso VIII.
 Priory of St Mary's, Bushmead, founded.
 Alexius III Angelus overthrows Isaac II and becomes emperor of Byzantium.

Births 
 August 15 – Anthony of Padua, Portuguese preacher and saint (died 1231)
 Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence (died 1245)
 Roger de Quincy, 2nd Earl of Winchester (died 1265)

Deaths 
 August 6 – Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. 1129)
 December 17 – Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut (born 1150)
 Gualdim Pais – Great Master of the Templars in Portugal (born 1118)
 Hugh de Puiset, bishop of Durham
1106 was a common year.

Events 
 September 28 – Henry I of England defeats his older brother Robert Curthose, duke of Normandy, at the Battle of Tinchebrai, and imprisons him in Devizes castle; Edgar Atheling and William Clito are also taken prisoner.
 Balaguer, Spain, is captured from the Moors by the count of Urgell.
 Boleslaus III of Poland begins a war against his brother Zbigniew for control of Poland.
525 was a common year.

Events 
Bernicia settled by the Angles.
Ethiopia conquers Yemen.
The Daisan river, a tributary of the Euphrates, floods Edessa and within a couple of hours fills the entire city except for the highest parts. Eventually the pent-up waters break through the city walls. The Shroud of Turin was discovered during the rebuilding of the city.
Byzantine emperor Justin I rebuilds Anazarbus and renames it Justinopolis.
Dionysius Exiguus produces his tables for computing the date of Easter.
Events 
September 8th - Battle of Kulikovo.

Deaths 
 January 5 – Philippa Plantagenet, Countess of Ulster (born 1355)
 April 29 – Catherine of Siena, Italian saint (born 1347)
 July 26 – Emperor Komyo of Japan (born 1322)
 September 16 – King Charles V of France (born 1338)
 Bertrand du Guesclin, Constable of France
 Dafydd ap Gwilym, Welsh poet
 Haakon VI of Norway (born 1340)
 Nissim of Gerona, rabbi (born 1320)
Year 303 (CCCIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.

Events

By place

Roman Empire 
 Great Persecution: Emperor Diocletian launches the last major persecution of Christians in the Empire. Hierocles is said to have started the fierce persecution of the Christians under Galerius. They are forbidden to worship in groups, and thousands of them are killed in the next 10 years.
 February 24 – Galerius publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the Empire.
 September 25 – On a voyage preaching the gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France.
 November 28 – Diocletian makes a visit to Rome. The Augusti and the Caesars are united for the first time to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Diocletian's accession.
 The Triumphal Arch of Maximian is erected in Salonica.

Asia 
 Sassanid Shah Hormizd II succeeds Narseh.

America 
 In Mexico the civilization of Teotihuacan flourishes.

By topic
By topic

Religion 
 March 4 – Martyrdom of Saint Adrian of Nicomedia.

Births 
 Magnentius, Roman usurper (d. 353)
 Wang Xizhi, Chinese calligrapher (d. 361)

Deaths 
 April 23 – Saint George, soldier of the Roman Empire
 September 25 – Saint Fermin, Roman Catholic saint
 Acacius of Byzantium, centurion in the Roman army and martyr
 Adrian of Nicomedia, Christian saint
 Anthimus of Rome
 Cao Huan, last emperor of the Kingdom of Wei
 Cessianus, Roman Catholic saint and martyr
 Crescentinus, patron saint of Urbino
 Erasmus of Formiae
 Expeditus, Roman commander and martyr
 Felix and Adauctus, Christian martyrs
 Lu Ji, Chinese writer and literary critic
 Romanus of Caesarea, martyr 
 Saint Cyriacus
 Saint Devota
 Saint Pantaleon
 Victor Maurus, Christian martyr
 Vitus, Christian saint from Sicily

303
Events 
 December 15 – Sergius succeeds Conon as Pope
 King Theuderic III of Neustria is defeated by Pepin of Herstal, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia. Austrasia and Neustria are combined again; Pepin becomes de facto ruler of both areas.
 Egica succeeds Erwig as king of the Visigoths.
 Construction of the Dome of the Rock is started.
 Adamnan visits the Northumbrian court of Ecgfrith to ransom Irish captives.
1221 was a common year.

Deaths 
 August 6 – Saint Dominic, Spanish founder of the Dominicans (born 1170)
 October 4 – William III Talvas, Count of Ponthieu (born 1179)
 October 21 – Alix of Thouars, Duchess of Brittany (born 1201)
 Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of Norfolk
1304 (MCCCIV) was .

Events 
 20 July – Fall of Stirling Castle: Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold in the Wars of Scottish Independence.
 James II of Aragon reconquers Villena, Spain.
 Holland and Zeeland are occupied by duke John II of Brabant and Guy of Dampierre. Count John II recovers the counties.
1156 was a leap year.

Events 
 Establishment of the Carmelite Order
 Hogen Rebellion in Japan
 January 20 – According to legend, freeholder Lalli slays English crusader Bishop Henry with an axe on the ice of the lake Köyliönjärvi in Finland.
 The Privilegium Minus elevates Austria to the status of a duchy ruled by the Babenburgs family. (see History of Austria).
 Mosan artists create the Stavelot Triptych, a masterpiece of goldsmithing, as a reliquary to house purported pieces of the True Cross.
1226 was a common year.

Deaths 
 March 7 – William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, English military leader
 October 3 – Francis of Assisi, Italian saint (born 1181)
 November 8 – King Louis VIII of France (born 1187)
 November 14 – Frederick of Isenberg, German politician (executed) (b. 1193)
 December 11 – Robert de Ros, English baron (born 1177)
 Pandulph, Roman ecclesiastical politician
Events 
 Jayavarman VII defeats the Cham and assumes control of the Khmer kingdom.
 The word Albigensians first used by chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois to describe the inhabitants of Albi, France.
 September 1 — Pope Lucius III succeeds Pope Alexander III as the 171st pope.
 Chinese and Japanese astronomers observe what has since come to be understood as a supernova. One of only eight supernovae in the Milky Way observed in recorded history, it appeared in the constellation Cassiopeia and was visible in the night sky for about 185 days. The radio source 3C58 is thought to be the remnant from this event.
 Beginning of the Yowa era in Japan. The era is marked by famine.

Births 
 Saint Francis of Assisi, Italian founder of the Franciscan Order (died 1226)
 Saint Teresa of Portugal
 Jayavarman VII, king of the Khmer (died 1219)
Deaths 
 January 30 — Emperor Takakura of Japan (b. 1161)
 March 17 — Henry I of Champagne
 June 30 — Hugh de Kevelioc, 3rd Earl of Chester, English politician (b. 1147)
 August 30 — Pope Alexander III (b. c. 1100–1105)
 Taira no Kiyomori, Japanese warlord (b. 1118)
 As-Salih Ismail al-Malik, ruler of Syria (b. 1163)

1181
1219 was a common year.

Events 
 Saint Francis of Assisi introduces Catholicism into Egypt, during the Fifth Crusade
 The Flag of Denmark fell from the sky during the Battle of Lyndanisse
1711 was a common year.

Events 
 John Shore invents the tuning fork.
 Alexander Pope publishes An Essay on Criticism.

Births 
 April 26 - David Hume, Scottish philosopher (d. 1776)
 September 11 - William Boyce, English composer
 October 15 - Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine, Queen of Sardinia
 December 11 - Bárbara of Portugal, Portuguese princess

Deaths
 April 14 - Louis, le Grand Dauphin, son of Louis XIV of France (b. 1661)
1765 (MDCCLXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar.

Events 
 The first true restaurant opens in Paris, where a tavern-keeper named Boulanger sells cooked dishes at an all-night place on the Rue Bailleul
 Nicholas Cugnot pioneers the automobile with a three-wheel gun tractor
 James Watt supersedes the 1705 Newcomen engine with a more effective steam engine
 In Lisbon, the auto-da-fé parade (often an excuse for violence against Jews or Christian 'heretics') is abolished
 Josef II becomes Holy Roman Emperor
 Horace Walpole publishes The Castle of Otranto
 The birth of Mary Bryant, one of the first successful escapees from the fledging Australian penal colony.
1590 was a common year.

Events 
 March 14 – Battle of Ivry – Henry IV of France again defeats the forces of the Catholic League under the Duc de Mayenne.
 May – August – Unsuccessful siege of Paris by Henry IV of France. Henry is forced to raise the siege when the Duke of Parma comes to its relief with a Spanish army.
 May 17 – Anne of Denmark is crowned queen of Scotland.
 August 18 – John White, the governor of the Colony of Roanoke, returns from a supply-trip to England and finds his settlement deserted.
 September 15 – Pope Urban VII succeeds Sixtus V.
 December 5 – Pope Gregory XIV succeeds Urban VII.
 Coptic Pope Gabriel VIII succeeds Yoannis XIV.
 Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Meletius I succeeds Silvester.
 Japan is united by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
1628 was a leap year.

Events 
 March 1 – writs were issued in February 1628 by Charles I of England that every county in England (not just seaport towns) pay ship tax by this date.
 August 10 – The Swedish 64 gun sailing ship Vasa sinks on her maiden voyage in the Stockholm harbor
 September 6 – Puritans settle Salem which will later become part of Massachusetts Bay Colony.
 October 28–Siege of La Rochelle ends with the surrender of the Huguenots.
 Charles I reconvenes the English Parliament and accepts the Petition of Right as a concession to gain his subsidies.
 Island of Santorini explodes.
 John Felton assassinates George Villiers, duke of Buckingham.
 William Harvey publishes his findings about blood circulation.
 The Collegiate School, today the oldest educational institution in North America, is established.
 Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus, by William Harvey, is published.
1105 was a common year.

Events 
 Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor deposed by his son, Henry V
 Tamna kingdom annexed by Korean Goryeo Dynasty.
Events 
 March 8 – Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery).
 May 23 – The Second Defenestration of Prague – Protestant noblemen throw three representatives of Ferdinand II out of a window. The event began the Thirty Years' War.
 July 20 – Pluto reached, according to sophisticated mathematical calculations, its second most recent aphelion. The next one occurred in 1866, and the following one will occur in 2113.
 August 29 – Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius are imprisoned by Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange
 October 29 – English adventurer, writer, and courtier Sir Walter Raleigh is beheaded for allegedly conspiring against James I of England.
The margraves of Brandenburg is granted Polish approval to inherit Ducal Prussia.
 November 13, the Synod of Dordrecht has its first meeting.
 Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mustafa I (1617-1623) to Osman II (1618-1622).
 The 3000 seat Teatro Farnese, the first permanent proscenium theatre, was built into the Great Hall of the Palazzo della Pilotta in Parma, Italy in 1618.
1622 was a common year.

Events 
 January 1 – In the Gregorian calendar, January 1 is declared as the first day of the year, instead of March 25.
 February 8 – King James I of England disbands the English Parliament.
 March 22 – In the Jamestown massacre, Algonquian Native Americans kill 347 English settlers around Jamestown, Virginia (1/3 of the colony's population) and destroys the Henricus settlement.
 May 13 — the Eendracht, Dutch VOC sailing ship and the second recorded European ship to make landfall on Australian soil, is wrecked off the western coast of Ambon Island, Dutch East Indies.
 Étienne Brûlé is the first European to see Lake Superior.
 Portugal loses control of the island of Ormus, after 107 years.
 Albertus Magnus is beatified by the Roman Catholic Church.
 Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora de Atocha sinks off the Florida Keys, while carrying copper, silver, gold, tobacco, and indigo. (Wreck discovered 1985).
Levi Eshkol (born Levi Shkolnik, October 25, 1895 – February 26, 1969) was the 3rd Prime Minister of Israel from 1963 until his death in 1969. He is buried in Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.

1895 births
1969 deaths
Burials at Mount Herzl
Members of the Knesset
Government ministers of Israel
Israeli political leaders
Jewish Israeli politicians
Mapai politicians
Naturalized citizens of Israel
Prime Ministers of Israel
Ukrainian Jews
Events 
March 1 – Michel de Montaigne signs the preface to his most significant work, Essays. They are published later the same year.
June 11 – Juan de Garay founds Buenos Aires.
June 25 – Publication of the Book of Concord, a collection of Lutheran confessional documents.
July 12 – Publication of the Ostrog Bible, the first complete printed Bible in a Slavic language.
September 26 – Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe
1580-1764 First session of Jewish Waad (Sejm of 4 countries) in Lublin, Poland. 70 delegates of Jewish local kahals met to discuss taxations and other issues important to Jewish communities.
Portugal loses independence to Spain following the death without heirs of king Henry of Portugal. The Habsburg rule would last until 1640.
Yermak entered Siberia with a band of 1636 men. Russia begins the conquest of Siberia.
 Khorasan Wars were fought between Abbas the Great and his father king Mohammed Khodabandeh.
Sidney Sheldon (February 11, 1917 - January 30, 2007) was an American screenwriter and novelist. He wrote the screenplays for twenty-three motion pictures including Easter Parade and Annie Get Your Gun. He also created four long-running television series. He is also included in the Guinness Book of Records as, "The Most Translated Author".

Novels 
His novels include:
 The Naked Face (1970) 
 The Other Side of Midnight (1973) 
 A Stranger in the Mirror (1976) 
 Bloodline (1977) 
 Master Of The Game (1983)
 Windmills of the Gods (1987) 
 The Sands of Time (1988) 
 Memories of Midnight (1990) 
 The Doomsday Conspiracy (1991) 
 The Stars Shine Down (1992) 
 Nothing Lasts Forever (1994) 
 Morning, Noon and Night (1995) 
 The Best Laid Plans (1997) 
 Tell Me Your Dreams (1998) 
 The Sky is Falling (2001) 
 Are You Afraid of the Dark? (2004)
 If Tomorrow comes
 Rage of the Angels

Other websites 
 Sidney's Official Website
 Sidney on CNN

1917 births
2007 deaths

American screenwriters
writers from Chicago
Sir Mackenzie Bowell, PC, KCMG (27 December 1823–10 December 1917) was the fifth Prime Minister of Canada from 21 December 1894 to 27 April 1896.

Early life 
Bowell was born in Rickinghall, Suffolk, England to John Bowell and Elizabeth Marshall. In 1832 his family moved to Belleville, Ontario. He started work helping the printer at the town newspaper, The Intelligencer. He became printer and editor with that newspaper, and later its owner. He was a Freemason and an Orangeman, becoming Grandmaster of the Orange Order of British North America, 1870 – 1878. In 1847 he married Harriet Moore (1829 – 1884). He had four sons and five daughters.
Politics 
Bowell was elected to the House of Commons in 1867, as a Conservative, for North Hastings, Ontario.  In 1878 he became Minister of Customs. In 1892 he became Minister of Militia and Defence. He was a skilled and hardworking administrator. He later became Minister of Trade and Commerce. He was elected to the Senate. His visit to Australia in 1893 led to the first meeting of British colonies and territories. It was held in Ottawa in 1894. He became Leader of the Government in the Senate on October 31 1893.

In December 1894 the Prime Minister Sir John Thompson died suddenly. Bowell was the most senior Cabinet minister and was appointed Prime Minister by the Governor General. Bowell was the second of two Canadian Prime Ministers to serve in the Senate rather than the House of Commons. (The first was John Abbott.)
As Prime Minister, Bowell faced the difficult Manitoba Schools Question. In 1890 Manitoba stopped giving money to Catholic schools. This was the opposite of an earlier law called in the Manitoba Act of 1870. Bowell other political leaders could not solve the problem. It had divided the country, the government, and even Bowell's own Cabinet. He could not make up his own mind on how to fix the problem. As a Senator he could not speak in the arguments in the House of Commons. Bowell supported a law that would have forced Manitoba to restore funding the Catholic schools. His Cabinet did not agree. Normal government activities stopped. His Cabinet decided he did not have the ability to be Prime Minister and he was forced to resign. Seven government ministers resigned and stopped new people from being appointed. Bowell called them "a nest of traitors". After ten days, the Governor General stepped in and the problem was solved. Six of the ministers went back to their jobs
. Charles Tupper was the person who was seen as the real leader. Tupper had been Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom. He had been asked to come back and taker over from Bowell. Bowell resigned at the end of the parliamentary session.
Bowell was the Conservative leader until 1906. He stayed in the Senate until his death. He died of pneumonia in Bellville, just before he turned 94. He was buried in the Belleville Cemetery. His funeral was attended by a full group of the Orange Order.

Bowell's descendants live in Hertfordshire, England.

Supreme Court appointments 
 Désiré Girouard (September 28, 1895 – March 22, 1911) was appointed to the Supreme Court by Bowell

References

Other websites 
 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
 Political Biography from the Library of Parliament 

1823 births
1917 deaths
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Politicians from Ontario
Prime Ministers of Canada
Privy Councillors (Canada)
The Rugby World Cup is the most important tournament in the sport of rugby union. The first one was in 1987.  The cup happens every four years.  The competition is one of the biggest sporting events in the world (along with the FIFA World Cup and the Olympics).

There are only 20 spots available in a Rugby World Cup, so teams must compete for them in a qualifying competition. Teams that reached the knockout stages of the previous tournament automatically qualify for the next tournament.

The 2011 match was held in New Zealand, and the 2015 England. The 2019 competition will be held in Japan.

The current champions are South Africa.

Results by nation

Other websites 

 – official site
World Rugby

Rugby union
The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by the People's Republic of China to influence domestic United States politics during the 1996 federal elections. The Chinese government denied all accusations.  Twenty-two people were eventually convicted of fraud or for funneling Asian funds into the United States elections, and others fled U.S. jurisdiction.
In late 1996, the Justice Department opened a task force to investigate allegations of illegal donations to the Clinton/Gore re-election campaign and to Clinton's legal defense fund. Ultimately, Justice Department prosecutors secured the conviction of several fund-raisers for various offenses. John Huang served 500 hours of community service and paid a $10,000 fine. Johnny Chung served 3000 hours of community service. Charlie Trie served four months of in-home detention. Maria Hsia served 90 days of home detention and paid a $5,300 fine. Indonesian billionaire James Riady was fined $8.6 million. Ernest Green served three months home detention. Michael Brown served 150 hours of community service and paid a $5000 fine. In all, the Justice Department task force secured criminal convictions against 22 people by 2001.

References 

1996 in the United States
1990s in China
1008 (MVIII) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the eighth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.

Events 
 Olof, king of Sweden, is baptized by saint Sigfrid.
 Bruno of Querfurt and others try to establish a mission among the Prussians.
 Oldest known mention of the city of Gundelfingen.
 Mohammed II succeeds Hisham II as Caliph of Cordoba.
 Unification of Georgia under king Bagrat III.
 King Æthelred II (the Unready) orders a new fleet of warships built, organized on a national scale. It is a huge undertaking, but is completed the following year.

Births 
 May 4 – King Henry I of France, French royal (died 1060)

References
Events 
 Emperor Go-Reizei ascends the throne of Japan.
 Harold Godwinson becomes Earl of Wessex.
 Edward the Confessor marries Edith of Wessex.
 Edward the Confessor begins construction on Westminster Abbey.
 Pope Benedict IX sells the Papacy to Pope Gregory VI.
 Movable type printing is invented by Bi Sheng in China.

Births 
 Stephen I, Count of Blois (died 1102)

Deaths 
 June – Rainulf Drengot, Norman adventurer.
In hand-to-hand combat, in martial arts and sports, a kick is a blow with the foot, the knee or the leg. It is used in combat as an attack. Generally, the kicks are slower than the punches although stronger than the blows with hands.

The kicks are a fundamental part in many martial arts. The examples are: wushu, karate, kickboxing, tangsudo or taekwondo; whereas other arts do not use any kick, as it is in the case of judo or of boxing. Other martial arts can use kicks, although they limit them to attacks to the legs and to the lower parts of the body of the opponent.

There exists a great number of kicks, and a lot of them have typical names for each one. Frequently the same movement has different names in different martial arts. This is obvious especially when comparisons are done between western arts and oriental arts.

Example in kickboxing
Usual kicks 
 Front kick: hips facing the target. It is in "penetrating" form, in "pushing" form (Push kick, Pushing kick) or in "snapping" form (Front snap kick).
 Side kick or lateral kick: hips directed sideways to the target - It is in "penetrating" form.
 Semicircular kick: also roundhouse kick of 45 degrees. Kick of the category of the techniques named circular kicks. They are performed with the hips facing the target from a pendulum movement of the lower member all around of the hip (movement of closing of the thigh on the trunk) which can be combined a live extension of the knee. To the image of the roundhouse kicks, takes into consideration usually the side targets of the body.
 Roundhouse kick or circular kick: in low line or low kick , of middle height (level of the trunk) or middle kick and in high line (level of the head) or high kick.
 Hook kick: hips facing the target or directed sideways to the target.
 Back kick: hips with back towards the target.