Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Yosemite Decimal System (YDS) is a system that is used to rate the difficulty of walks, hikes, and climbs.  The system has three parts.  It is used mostly by mountaineers in the United States and Canada.

YDS Classes

The YDS system divides all hikes and climbs into five classes.

Classes 1-3 are used mainly in hiking and trail running.
If a trail is rated Class 1, a person can walk on the trail with very little chance of getting hurt.  Wearing hiking boots is a good idea.
If a trail is rated Class 2, a person can 'scramble' up the trail.  They may need to use their hands every now and then.  There is little chance of getting hurt.  Wearing hiking boots is important.
If a trail is rated Class 3, a person can still 'scramble' up the trail, but they need to be able to hold on with their hands.  If a person is just learning to climb, they should use a rope to make sure they are safe if they fall.  Falls from Class 3 trails could kill a person.
If a trail is rated Class 4, a person will have to do some simple climbing to get up the trail.  There is a lot of natural protection on the trail (like parts of a rock wall that are easy to step on or grab onto.)  Often, people use ropes for safety on Class 4 climbs, because falls from Class 4 climbs could easily kill a person.

The Class 5 part of the system is used mostly in rock climbing.  A person needs to use a rope for safety when they climb a Class 5 climb.  The person may use a belayer or other protection hardware for safety.  If a person falls from a Class 5 climb without being attached to a safety rope, they can be very badly hurt or killed.

In Class 6 climbs, people use equipment to help them climb.  This is called "aid climbing."  In aid climbing, people do not climb directly on the rock.  Instead, they climb using equipment placed into or onto the rock.  Class 6 is no longer widely used. Today aid climbing uses a separate scale from A0 through A5.
Class 5 divisions
Starting in the 1950s, Class 5 climbs were broken down into a decimal system.  As of 2022, this system rates climbs from 5.0 to 5.15d.  5.0 is the easiest type of Class 5 climb.  A 5.15d is the most difficult climb any human could do without using special equipment to help them climb.  

, only two climbs in the world were rated 5.15d.  The first climb is called Silence.  Adam Ondra first climbed this route in September 2017.  The second proposed 5.15d is DNA.  It was first climbed by Seb Bouin in April 2022. Neither climb has been repeated to confirm the grade.

History of the Class system
The Sierra Club originally created the Class system in the 1930s.  At that time, the system was called "the Sierra Club grading system."  The Sierra Club's goal was to classify hikes and climbs in the Sierra Nevada, based on how difficult those hikes and climbs were.
At first, the Sierra Club grading system compared certain hikes and climbs to others.  For example, they might rate Climb #3 as harder than Climb #1, but easier than Climb #2.  If a person had never done Climbs #1 or #2, this did not help them.  To make the system easier to use, the Sierra Club changed its system.  It started to rate hikes and climbs by numbers.  This was easier for people to learn and use.

Once it started classifying climbs by numbers, the Sierra Club started dividing the classes into decimals.  For example, the difficulty of a Class 4.5 route would be halfway between a Class 4 and a Class 5.

In the 1950s, members of the Rock Climbing Section of the Sierra Club's Angeles Chapter divided Class 5 into Classes 5.0 to 5.9.  At that time, people thought a 5.9 was the hardest climb a person could do.
In the 1960s, as people got better at rock climbing, and as rock climbing equipment got better, Class 5.9 climbs became easier for some people to do.  Classes of 5.11, 5.12, and 5.13 were added to classify harder climbs.

Later, people realized that a 5.11 climb is much harder than a 5.10.  Because of this, many climbs were classified as 5.10s, and some were much harder than others.  To fix this problem, the system divided 5.10, 5.11, 5.12, and 5.13 climbs even further.  They did this by adding the letters "a," "b," "c," and "d" to each grade.  Within each Grade, "a" is the easiest and "d" is the hardest.  For example, a 5.10a is the easiest possible 5.10 climb.  A 5.10d is the hardest possible 5.10 climb.

Climbs are classified based on the hardest single move on the rock climbing route.  For example, if just one move on a rock climbing route is difficult enough to qualify as a 5.10d, the entire route is classified as a 5.10d.

YDS grade
YDS grade 

The YDS grade system is optional (it does not have to be used).  It gives climbers information about how long a climb usually takes.

The grades are:

 Grade I: One to two hours of climbing.
 Grade II: Less than half a day.
 Grade III: A half-day climb.
 Grade IV: A full-day climb.
 Grade V: A two-day climb.
 Grade VI: A multi-day climb.
 Grade VII: A climb lasting a week or longer.

The Grade is mostly used in mountaineering and big wall climbing.  It is not often used when talking about short rock climbs.

YDS protection rating 

The YDS system also includes an optional protection rating.  This rating tells the climber how much protection is available on the climbing route for an experienced, skilled lead climber.  (In lead climbing, the rope is not fixed at the top of the route.  Instead, the lead climber goes first and hooks the safety rope into special equipment every few feet on the way up.)
When this rating system was created, the letter codes were the same as the American system for rating the content of movies:

 G: Good, solid protection.
 PG: Pretty good protection.  There are a few sections on the climb where there is very little protection, or no protection at all.
 PG13: Protection is okay.  Falls may be long, but will probably not cause serious injury.
 R: "Runout."  Some protection placements may be very far apart.  Falls may cause broken bones, even if a climber is using safety gear.
 X: There is no protection on the route.  These routes are extremely dangerous.  Falls may kill a climber, even if the climber is using safety gear.

The G and PG ratings are often left out, since they are typical of normal, everyday climbing.  R and X ratings are normally used to warn lead climbers who do not realize how dangerous a climb is.

Controversies
Controversies

There is some controversy (argument) over the exact definition of the YDS Classes.  Some rock climbing experts have suggested updated versions of these classifications.

The YDS classes are subjective.  This means they are based on individual opinions, not facts.  Traditionally, the first person to do a climb gives the climb its classification number.  Other climbers might not agree with that person's classification of the climb.  There is no official group of people who agree on which climbs get which classifications.  

Climbs may be classified differently in indoor rock climbing gyms, and in different types of outdoor rock climbing.  Climbs are also classified differently in different parts of the United States.

The Grade and Protection categories do not apply to every climb.  Use of protection ratings vary greatly from area to area, and from guidebook to guidebook.
, there is no formula that climbers can use to plan climbs based on the average climbing speed, the climb's Grade, the distance of the climb, and how high up it goes.

Related pages 

 Rock climbing

References 

Rock climbing
Function in biology is what a part of the body or cell does in relation to the whole. It is the reason some part or process occurred in a system which evolved by natural selection.

A similar definition is "the function of a component in an organism is the contribution it makes to that organism's fitness".

The term is used especially in physiology, in phrases like "the function of the kidneys is to excrete urea from the body" or "the function of the heart is to push blood around the body". It is incorrect to use the word 'purpose' instead of 'function', because the word 'purpose' implies forethought.

References 

Biology
Physiology
A British princess is a princess who has the title of a Princess of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. In Britain, the title "Princess" and the use of the style "Royal Highness" can only be used for these persons:

 the legitimate daughters of a British sovereign,
 the legitimate male line granddaughters of a British sovereign,
 the wife of a British prince.

Queen Elizabeth II issued Letters Patent dated 21 August 1996 stating that any woman divorced from a Prince of the United Kingdom would no longer be entitled to the style "Royal Highness". This has so far applied to Diana, Princess of Wales, and Sarah, Duchess of York.

List of princesses by birth since 1714

List of princesses by marriage since 1714

References 

 
Lists of British people
Ladhabhai Nakum Amar Singh  (4 December 1910 – 21 May 1940) was an Indian cricketer. His full name was Ladhabhai Nakum Amar Singh Lodha. He was a right arm fast bowler and an effective lower order batsman. Amar Singh was the first Indian to receive a Test cap. He was born in Rajkot, Gujarat on 4 December 1910.

Amar Singh played for the Indian cricket team, Hindus cricket team and various teams in the first class cricket matches. He took 28 wickets and scored 292 runs in 7 Test cricket matches, playing for the Indian cricket team.

Amar Singh died due to typhoid on May 21 1940 in Jamnagar, Gujarat.

References

Indian cricketers
1910 births
1940 deaths
Pietro Martorana  (1705 – 1759), was an Italian painter. He was a member of a family of artists from Palermo. He was one of the main representatives of the classic late Baroque painting in Sicily.
 
Martorana painted frescos in Palermo in the churches of Santa Rosalia, St. Chiara and St. Carlo. With Olivio Sozzi. He decorated the palace of Michele Gravina Branciforte, prince of Butera in Palermo.

Related pages 
 Baroque
 Gioacchino Martorana
 List of Italian painters

References 

1705 births
1759 deaths
18th-century Italian painters
People from Palermo
Mohamed Siad Barre was the President of the Somali Democratic Republic from 1969 to 1991.

In 1969 President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated. The military took power of the government. Major General Barre became the leader of the country. The new government used a form of socialism called scientific socialism. The country was renamed to the Somali Democratic Republic.

In 1991 Somalia had a civil war. Barre was removed as the leader. He tried to take back the city of Mogadishu but lost. He then went into exile. Barre died on 2 January 1995.

References

1919 births
1995 deaths
Presidents of Somalia

Former dictators
Roger Michael Humphrey Binny (born 19 July 1955) is a former Indian cricket all rounder. He is best known for his impressive bowling performance in the 1983 Cricket World Cup in which India won the cup. Binny took the most wickets in the 1983 Cricket World Cup  with 18 wickets.He was born in Bangalore, Karnataka on July 19, 1955. His full name is Roger Michael Humphrey Binny.

Binny's batting style is right arm batting. He bowling style is right arm fast bowling.

Binny's son Stuart Binny plays for an Indian cricket team. Roger Binny scored 830 runs in test cricket and 629 runs in One Day International matches. He took 47 wickets in test cricket and 77 wickets in One Day International matches.

References 

Indian cricketers
Living people
1955 births
Sportspeople from Bangalore
Mohammad Mosaddegh was an Iranian politician. He was elected Prime Minister of Iran from 1951 until 1953. He was also an author, administrator, lawyer, and parliamentarian.

On 19 August 1953 Mosaddegh was removed from office by the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Britain's MI6. This was called Operation Ajax in the West. In Iran it is called the 28 Mordad 1332 coup. The change in power was one reason for the Iranian Revolution in 1979.

Mosaddegh was named man of the year in 1951 by Time magazine. He remains one of the most popular people in Iranian history.

References

1882 births
1967 deaths
Prime Ministers of Iran
Time People of the Year
Writers from Tehran
Humanitarians
Politicians from Tehran
Iranian lawyers
Background 
At the beginning of 1862, President Abraham Lincoln wanted his generals to attack in force against the Confederacy. McClellan was massing his army for his Peninsula Campaign with the goal of capturing the Confederate capital of Richmond and ending the war. To do this McClellan had to weaken his forces protecting Washington, D.C.. This left only two Union forces to protect Washington. Besides Banks in the Shenandoah Valley, General Irwin McDowell had forces in Northern Virginia. Banks was to clear the Shenandoah Valley of Confederate forces then move up towards Washington so McDowell's force of 30,000 to move against Richmond from the north. Banks left General James Shields with a force of about 9,000 in the Valley while he would move east to Manassas, Virginia, to be closer to Washington, D.C.
Stonewall Jackson was given the task of keeping the Federal Army busy in the Valley so they could not join McClellan. Jackson's cavalry commander, Colonel Turner Ashby, learned that part of the Union forces were leaving the valley and only a small force remained.

Skirmish, March 22 
Jackson gave Ashby permission to attack while he moved the remainder of his forces up to join Ashby. Unfortunately, Ashley's information was bad. While the Confederates thought they were attacking only four regiments (totalling about 3,000 men), there were actually about three times that number of Union soldiers. The remaining Union troops remained out of sight during the skirmish. General Shields was wounded in the fighting and turned command of the Union division over to Colonel Nathan Kimball.
Battle, March 23 
At about nine o'clock on the morning of March 23, Ashby's cavalry attacked. Kimball was not certain if this was another skirmish or the start of a battle. But just in case, he placed his forces in a strong defensive position on Pritchard Hill. He placed his artillery there as well. On seeing this, Jackson concentrated his artillery on Sandy Ridge, west of Prichard Hill. At about three-thirty, Jackson could see from Sandy Ridge that what he thought was a small Union force was actually much bigger. Jackson told one of his officers "We are in for it."
Kimball, believing he was up against a much larger Confederate force, decided to silence the Confederate guns on Sandy Ridge. His attack was met with strong resistance from the Confederates and the battle soon became a stalemate. Jackson kept sending in more Confederate troops, but he could not drive the Union line back. Kimball still had fresh reserves he could send into the battle. By six o'clock the Confederates were running low on ammunition and were nearly exhausted. When one of his brigades ran out of ammunition completely, they had to withdraw from the battle. The Union army attacked through the gap they left and Jackson's entire force had to quickly retreat.

Notes

References

Other websites 
 First Battle of Kernstown

American Civil War battles
1862 in Virginia
March 1862 events
Jan Sokol (18 April 1936 – 16 February 2021) was a Czech philosopher, translator and politician. He was son of architect Jan Sokol. He was a member of parliament from 1990 to 1992. He was minister of education from January to July 1998. In 2003, he was candidate for President of the Czech Republic. He was a member of Charles University faculty.

Sokol died on 16 February 2021, aged 84.

References

Other websites

 Official website 

Czech politicians
Czech philosophers
Czech translators
1936 births
2021 deaths
Anastasio "Tachito" Somoza DeBayle was officially the 73rd and 76th President of Nicaragua. As the leader of Nicaragua's military he was really the leader of the country from 1967 to 1979.

Many people did not like Somoza as a leader. A group called the Sandinista National Liberation Front wanted to make Nicaragua a better country. They had support from inside and outside the country. In 1975 Somoza Debayle tried to stop the Sandinistas and anyone in Nicaragua who supported them. The Soviet Union and Cuba were giving the Sandinistas money to keep fighting the Somoza family. In 1979 the United States stopped supporting Somoza.

On 17 July 1979 Somoza quit the presidency. He fled to Miami but U.S. President Jimmy Carter would not allow him to enter the country. Somoza then went to Paraguay. 

On 17 September 1980 the Sandinistas assassinated Somoza DeBayle.

References

1925 births
1980 deaths
Presidents of Nicaragua
Assassinated people
Autism speaks was founded in February 2005 by Bob and Suzanne Wright. Their earlier groups were Cure Autism Now (founded in 1995) and the National Alliance for Autism Research (founded in 1994).

Autism Speaks is a controversial network. It used to view autism as a disease -- which caused controversy in the autistic community.

References

2005 establishments in the United States
Medical and health organizations in the United States
Non-profit organizations of the United States
Autism
Aubusson (Occitan auvergnat: Le Buçon, formerly Aubuçon) is a commune of the  Creuse department in central France, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region.

History
In 1790, when the departments were created, Aubusson was named as district of the Creuse department and an arrondissement in 1800.

Geography
The commune of Aubusson is in the southern part of the department, at the confluence of the Creuse river and its tributary the Beauze river. The city is at the northeastern end of the Millevaches plateau.

It has an area of , and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

The city of Aubusson is at about  from Bordeaux, at  from Toulouse, at  from Paris and at  from Lyon.

The communes that are around Aubusson are Blessac, Alleyrat, Saint-Maixant, Saint-Amand, Saint-Alpinien , Saint-Pardoux-le-Neuf, Moutier-Rozeille, Saint-Quentin-la-Chabanne and Saint-Marc-à-Frongier.
Aubusson has an oceanic climate with relatively hot summers, mild winters and abundant rainfall, Cfb in the Köppen climate classification.

Population
The inhabitants of Aubusson are known, in French, as Aubussonnais (women: Aubussonnaises).

The commune of Aubusson has a population, in 2014, of 3,591; its population density is of  inhabitants/km2.

Evolution of the population in Aubusson

Aubusson forms the urban area of Aubusson with a population of 3,679 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Aubusson, formed by 9 communes with a population of 6,386 inhabitants and an area of .

Administration 
Aubusson is the subprefecture of the Creuse department, the capital of the arrondissement of Aubusson and the administrative centre () of the canton of Aubusson, with 9,437 inhabitants (2014).

It is part of the intercommunality Creuse Grand Sud ().
Tapestry
Aubusson is well known for its tapestry and carpets, which have been famous throughout the world since the 14th century. Its origins were born with the arrival of weavers from Flanders, who moved to Aubusson around 1580. There is a famous collection of Aubusson tapestries at Vallon-Pont-d'Arc.

Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissement of Aubusson
 Communes of the Creuse department

References

Other websites

 Ville de Aubusson - official website 
 Conseil Départamental de la Creuse 
 Préfecture de la Creuse 
 Aubusson et Felletin Tourism website  

Subprefectures in France
Communes in Creuse
Institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l'environnement (Agro ParisTech, Paris Institute of Technology for Life, Food and Environmental Sciences) is a renowned graduate engineering school in France. It is in a campus of the University of Paris-Saclay (Northern France).

Its different curricula lead to the following French & European degrees :
 Ingénieur Agro ParisTeh (Agro ParisTech Graduate engineer Masters level program)
 Masters Recherche & Doctorat (PhD doctorate studies )
 Mastères Spécialisés (MS)

Academic activities and industrial applied research are performed mainly in French and English languages. Students of many nationalities participate to the different curricula at Agro ParisTech.
Research labs 
Research activities at Agro ParisTech relate to the following topics:
 Agronomy, Forestry, Water and Environmental Science and Technology
 Life Science and Health
 Science and Engineering for Food and Bioproducts
 Social science, Economics and Management
 Modeling: Mathematics, Informatics and Physics

References

Further reading 

 Official website

Technical colleges and universities in Paris
2007 establishments in France
Tiger Electronics is an American toy manufacturer which was founded in 1979. It makes entertainment products for children. Tiger is based in Vernon Hills, Illinois. In 1998, Tiger Electronics, Ltd., became a subsidiary of the toy manufacturer Hasbro. Tiger Electronics is probably best known for Furby toys, Giga Pets and the Game.com handheld game console.

References 

1979 establishments in the United States

American entertainment companies
Background 
At the beginning of 1862, President Abraham Lincoln wanted his generals to attack in force against the Confederacy. Major General George B. McClellan was massing his army for his Peninsula Campaign with the goal of capturing the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia and ending the war. To do this McClellan had to weaken his forces protecting Washington, D.C.. This left only two Union forces to protect Washington. Besides Banks in the Shenandoah Valley, General Irwin McDowell had forces in Northern Virginia. Banks was to clear the Shenandoah Valley of Confederate forces, then move up towards Washington so McDowell's force of 30,000 could move against Richmond from the north.
Confederate General Stonewall Jackson was given the task of keeping the Federal Army busy in the Valley so they could not join McClellan. Jackson was defeated at the First Battle of Kernstown on March 23, 1862. In spite of the loss, Jackson did gain a strategic victory. It kept Banks in the Valley and prevented McDowell from sending troops to McClellan's Peninsula Campaign.

On April 17, the weather cleared and Banks started moving south towards Harrisonburg. At about this time the strategic situation changed for the Confederacy. General Joseph E. Johnston had moved to the Peninsula taking 55,000 Confederate soldiers to defend against McClellan's 110,000 troops. Confederate general Richard S. Ewell's division was now between Johnson on the Peninsula and Jackson in the Valley and could support either as the need arose. So Jackson no longer needed to keep Union forces in the Valley from joining McClellan, he now wanted to force them out of the Shenandoah Valley completely.
The battle 
When Banks arrived at Winchester, he started organizing his defenses. On May 25, Jackson's first attack was thrown back. Ewell approached Winchester from the southwest with his division and attacked Camp Hill (now Overlook Park in the southeastern part of Winchester). At the same time Jackson's Louisiana Brigade outflanked, then overran the Union position on Bower's Hill (southwestern part of Winchester). With their flanks broken, the Union troops began a disorganized retreat through the city of Winchester. Even citizens of Winchester fired on the Union soldiers. Banks retreated across the Potomac River back into Maryland. This was the decisive victory for Jackson's Valley Campaign.

Aftermath 
Jackson lost about 68 killed and 329 wounded. Banks Union casualties were approximately 62 killed, 243 wounded and over 1,700 captured or missing.
Jackson's infantry was too tired to keep up with the retreating Union soldiers. His cavalry, led by Colonel Turner Ashby, was completely useless. They had started looting the abandoned and damaged Union wagons for supplies and had broken off from fighting. Confederate General J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry was attached to Ewell's forces. But they could not be found in time. Once they were located, Stuart refused Jackson's order and waited for the order to come through Ewell. Jackson won a victory at Winchester, but could not finish off his enemy.

The defeat of Banks caused great concern in Washington. President Lincoln ordered McDowell to send 20,000 men to help deal with the situation in the Shenandoah Valley. These were troops McClellan needed in his Peninsula Campaign. For the next few weeks, Jackson continued to defeat Union efforts at the Battles of Cross Keys and Port Republic in June 1862.

Notes

References 

American Civil War battles
1862 in Virginia
May events
Akasaka Station (赤坂駅,あかさかえき) is a railway station of Tokyo Metro in Tokyo, Japan.

Neighbor 
 Tokyo Metro
 Chiyoda Line
Nogizaka （C 05） - Akasaka （C 06） - Kokkai-gijido-mae （C 07）

Railway stations in Tokyo
This is a list of language regulators - organisations which guard the evolution of a language.

Natural languages

Auxiliary languages

References 

 
Language-related lists
The Cordillera department () is a department of Paraguay. The capital is the city of Caacupé. Its ISO 3166-2 code  is PY-03.

Geography
The Cordillera department is in the Oriental region. It has an area of , the largest of the Oriental region, with a population of 282,981 for a population density of .

Limits
 To the north: San Pedro department.
 To the east: Caaguazú department.
 To the south: Paraguarí and Central departments.
 To the west: Presidente Hayes department, separated by the Paraguay river.

Rivers
The main river in the department, and of Paraguay, is the Paraguay that makes the western border of the department.

The main lake is the Ypacaraí.

Districts
The department is divided in 20 districts:

Related pages
 Departments of Paraguay
 ISO 3166-2:PY

References

Other websites

 Gobernación de Cordillera website  
 Statoids - Departments of Paraguay

Departments of Paraguay
Zhao Ziyang was a high-ranking politician in China. He was the Premier of the People's Republic of China from 1980 to 1987, Vice Chairman of the Communist Party of China from 1981 to 1982 and General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1987 to 1989.

Zhao did not like Maoist policies. He received support from Deng Xiaoping after the Cultural Revolution. Zhao tried to stop corruption and to make general market economic changes. His views made him unpopular with important leaders including Premier Li Peng, former President Li Xiannian and Party elder Chen Yun. After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 Zhao was not allowed to be a politician. He was placed under house arrest.

References

1919 births
2005 deaths
General Secretaries of the Communist Party of China
Premiers of the People's Republic of China
Nikolai Ivanovich Ryzhkov (born 28 September 1929) is a former Soviet politician who served as the Premier of the Soviet Union during Mikhail Gorbachev's Rule from 1985 to 1991. He became a Russian politician after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Ryzhkov was Boris Yeltsin's leading opponent in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) 1991 presidential election.

Ryzhkov was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour twice, the Order of the October Revolution in 1971, the Order of Lenin twice, and the Order of Merit for the Fatherland, 4th class. He was named a National Hero of Armenia.

In March 2014, after the Crimean crisis, Ryzhkov was sanctioned by both the European Union and United States.

References

1929 births
Living people
Russian engineers
Heads of government of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Industrial engineers
Marga Marga Province () is one of eight provinces of the central Chilean region of Valparaíso (V). The city of Quilpué is the capital of the province.

The province of Marga Marga was created in 2010 with 2 communes of the Valparaíso province, Quilpué and Villa Alemana, and 2 communes of the province of Quillota, Limache and Olmué.

Geography
The Marga Marga province has an area of , the sixth largest province in the Valparaíso region; only the Quillota and Isla de Pascua provinces are smaller.

Marga Marga is a landlocked province (it does not border the ocean) and is bordered on the north by the Quillota province, on the east and south by Santiago Metropolitan region, and to the west by the Valparaíso province.

Population
 (last national census), there were 277,525 people living in the province, giving it a population density of  inhabitants/km².
The largest city of the province is Quilpué, its capital, with a population, in 2002, of 128,578 inhabitants. Other cities are Villa Alemana (95,623), Limache (39,219) and Olmué (14,105).

Administration
As a province, Marga Marga is a second-level administrative division, consisting of four communes (comunas). The city of Quilpué serves as the provincial capital. The province is administered by a governor.

Related pages
 Provinces of Chile

References

Other websites
 Territorial division of Chile 
 Gobierno Regional de Valparaíso  Official website 
 Province of Marga Marga website 

Provinces of Chile
Valparaíso Region
In the western-rite Church, the term Missal is used for a text that describes the different types of Mass there are, as well as how to celebrate a given type Mass. Pope Pius V published the first missal for the Roman Catholic Church 1570.

Christian genres
Wilderswil is a municipality in the administrative district of Interlaken-Oberhasli in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

References

Other websites

 Official Website 

Municipalities in Interlaken-Oberhasli
Background 
In 1860, no one expected any armed conflict would come from the Southern states secession from the Union. Or, if it did, it would be brief and mostly for show purposes. Southerners did not believe the North would mobilize an army against them. The U.S. Senator from South Carolina made the statement he would drink all the blood shed over the South declaring their independence from the Union. Then, as it became apparent that it would become a military confrontation, both sides believed it would not last very long. In 1861, when the Union Army entered the First Battle of Bull Run, they thought a quick victory would bring an end to the war. After the Union loss at Bull Run, the Confederates thought the Union would simply give up the idea re-uniting the North and South. Both were wrong.
During the 1850s there were a number of improvements in weapons, especially rifles. During the Civil War, both armies were equipped with rifles that could shoot farther, could reload faster and were much more accurate than the muskets used in the Mexican–American War. Yet the same military tactics were being used as the earlier war; close formations of men firing in volleys. The new rifles combined with obsolete tactics were responsible for up to 90% of all deaths in battle.

Death was only one of several ways a soldier could be listed as a casualty. During the Civil War a casualty was any soldier who could not perform his duties. This could be for any reason including being sick, wounded, captured, missing or killed. A single soldier could be listed as a casualty several times during the war.
The good death 
The mid-nineteenth century attitudes towards death and dying for a noble cause were considerably different than modern thinking. Men saw going to war as a chance for glory and honor. They thought that giving one's life for their country or cause was the highest calling. But dying of disease was considered a horrible way to die and most feared it more than dying in battle. War was presented to soldiers as a way to die "for God and country". It represented both Christian and nationalist reasons for going to war. As most were Christians, they were far better prepared to die than to kill. American society in general, and soldiers in particular, believed in the ars moriendi (the art of dying) or the "good death." These attitudes left soldiers to believe that a good death was glorious and at the same time a last act of redemption. Also, by dying well a person showed others how to die well.
Civil war medicine 
Another factor which contributed to the high death tolls was the status of medical care at the beginning of the Civil War. In 1861, medical knowledge, diagnostic procedures, equipment, and treatment protocols were very crude by modern standards. Because doctors were often unaware of what caused the diseases they were encountering, and because medical hygiene practices were poor compared with those practiced today, physicians often could do very little to treat their patients; in many cases, they even hastened soldiers' deaths by failing to wash their hands and instruments before moving from one patient to the next - simple protocols which did not begin to take hold until later in the war through the pioneering military medical management efforts of William A. Hammond and Jonathan Letterman. As a result, at times, a physician's treatment of wounds, infections and diseases did more harm than good.
In addition, camp hygiene was extremely poor. Inadequate sanitation facilities, and the lack of shelter, clothing, shoes and food, as well as contaminated water contributed to high death rates in the camps. Diarrhea and dysentery became the leading causes of death with casualty figures showing that roughly twice as many soldiers died from disease as from the most frequent type of battle injury - the gunshot wound (shown in Latin terminology on military medical records as Vulnus Sclopet).
Other ailments which affected Civil War soldiers included:
 brain, cardiac, kidney, and respiratory conditions (asthma, Bright's Disease, bronchitis, cardiac/heart disease, heatstroke/sunstroke, nephritis, pleuresy)
 dermatologic conditions (army itch, dermatitis, erysipelas, insect stings and bites)
 digestive complaints and other illnesses arising from poor food or water quality (constipation, scurvy)
 infectious diseases (abscesses, cholera, conjunctivitis, consumption/tuberculosis, diphtheria, malarial/intermittent fevers, measles, pneumonia, scarlet fever, smallpox/variola, syphilis and other venereal diseases, tetanus, typhoid fever, typhus fever, unidentified viral infections, yellow fever)
 musculoskeletal injuries (broken bones, dislocations, rheumatism, sprains)
 parasites.
parasites.
Soldiers who were captured by the enemy and held as prisoners of war (POWs) were, in a significant number of instances, housed in such miserable conditions that they faced a higher likelihood of contracting and succumbing to one of the medical conditions shown above; starvation also became a problem in POW camps as more soldiers were captured in battle and food shortages widened.
Even healthcare practitioners were not immune; nurses were particularly at risk of catching diseases from the soldiers they tended.

Poor records 
As many as half of the men killed in battle were not identified when they were buried. The records kept by each company were designed to keep track of how many men were in each unit, not to keep track of each soldier. Confederate military records are much fewer than Union records. When Richmond fell in 1865, records were destroyed, shipped south or left behind. Some of the records were kept by the Union Army and sent to the War Department in Washington, D.C.. The Adjutant General started a bureau for the “collection, safekeeping, and publication of Rebel Archives” in July of 1865. In 1903, the Secretary of War made an appeal to Southern Governors to lend the War Department any Confederate Army records in their possession so they could be copied.
Early death estimates 
Since about 1900, historians have quoted the numbers produced by Thomas L. Livermore of 618,222 Confederate and Union deaths during the war. Livermore's number was based on incomplete battle reports. It also made a crude guess as to how many died from disease and other causes. His book was titled Numbers and Losses in the Civil War in America, 1861-65.

Before Livermore, another Civil War veteran, William F. Fox, compiled his estimate the hard way. He went over every muster list, battlefield record and pension record he could find. In 1889 he wrote Regimental Losses in the American Civil War, 1861-1865. Fox came up with the round number of 94,000 dead. In addition to the number, Fox contributed information on the average Union soldier. For example, that he averaged 5 feet 8 ¼ inches tall and weighed 143 ½ pounds.
Modern death estimate 
Many historians are beginning to accept that the earlier death estimates were probably far too low. A demographic historian from New York's Binghamton University, J. David Hacker, has made a new calculation of Civil War deaths which is about 20% higher. The new estimate is 750,000 deaths and is based on digitized nineteenth century census data. The population of the United States in 1860 was just under 31.5 million. Approximately 2,000,000 men served in the Union forces while about 750,000 served in the Confederacy. About 75% of soldiers were born in America. Of the remaining 25% who were foreign born, many did not appear in any census records prior to the Civil War.

Wounded warriors
Wounded warriors 

Amputation was by far the most common surgery in the Civil War. During the war it is estimated that about 60,000 surgeries were performed. Of these, nearly 75% were amputations. There were several reasons why amputation was the main procedure. Bullet wounds made by the slow moving Minié ball caused major damage. They often shattered bones beyond repair. Another reason was to prevent gangrene and other complications. Men often lay unattended for a day or more before being brought to a surgeon. Perhaps the most important reason was that medics had too many wounded men and very little time to reconstruct damaged body parts. Lastly, if a man was wounded in the head, stomach or chest, he rarely lived long enough to be taken to a field hospital.
Where the wound was located on a limb affected the soldier's ability to survive after the Surgery. The closer a wound was to the body the higher the mortality rate. For example, Confederate General John Bell Hood was wounded in the leg at the Battle of Chickamauga. His leg was amputated just over  from his hip. This type of hip operation had an 83% mortality rate. Hood was among the 17% who survived. Arm wounds had a lower mortality rate of 24%. But Stonewall Jackson did not long survive the loss of his arm. The amputation process itself was done quickly. A cut was made around the arm or leg. Then the bone was sawed through. Nerves were pulled out as far as possible then cut off. The bloody stump was often left to heal by itself or a flap of skin was sewn over the stump. The surgeon had to move quickly to keep the patient from losing too much blood or going into shock. A leg amputation at the knee could be done in three minutes. In most cases anesthesia was used.
Men who survived an amputation needed to return to their work after the war. They needed a prosthesis to replace a missing arm or leg. In the case of North Carolina, it was the first of the former Confederate states to provide artificial legs to its veterans who needed them. In 1866, they passed a law providing artificial legs to their veterans. For those who could not use an artificial leg, the veteran amputee was given $70. North Carolina took care of 1,550 veterans who applied for help.

Notes

References

Other websites 
 
 

casualties
Tuncay Şanlı (born 16 January 1982) is a former Turkish football player. He has played for Turkey national team.

Club career statistics

References 

1982 births
Living people
Turkish footballers
Marko Podraščanin () (born 29 August 1987) is a Serbian volleyball player, a member of Serbia men's national volleyball team and Italian club Sir Safety Umbria Perugia. He has participated in two Olympic Games (Beijing 2008, London 2012), and is a bronze medalist of the World Championship 2010.

References

 FIVB profile 2012

1987 births
Living people
Serbian volleyball players
Sportsmen
Serbian Olympians‎
Andrea Sartoretti (born June 19, 1971) is an Italian former volleyball player. He has won two silver medals and a bronze medal in three Olympic Games between 1996 and 2004.

Clubs

References

 Sports-ref Profile 

1971 births
Living people
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Italian volleyball players
Sportspeople from Umbria
People from Perugia
Earvin N'Gapeth (born 12 February 1991) is a French volleyball player, a member of French national volleyball team and Italian club Modena. Ngapeth winner 2015 European Champion, a gold medalist of the 2015 World League, French Champion (2010), Italian Champion (2016).

References 
 FIVB profile 2015
 Highlight movie 

1991 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur
Competitors at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Volleyball players
People from Var
North Chungcheong Province, or Chungcheongbuk-do (Korean pronunciation: [tɕʰuŋtɕʰʌŋbukt͈o]), is a province in the centre of South Korea. It was formed in 1896 from the northeastern half of the former Chungcheong province. The provincial capital is Cheongju.

References

Provinces of South Korea
The Port of Amsterdam is a port located in the city of Amsterdam, in the Netherlands. Looking at the amount of cargo shipped, the port is the 4th most important in Europe. The port was created in the 13th century. It was one of the main ports of the Dutch East India Company, in the 17th century. Today, it is the second largest port in the Netherlands, after the port of Rotterdam. The North Sea Canal connects the port to the North Sea. The port of Amsterdam is mostly used for bulk cargo. In 2013, about 95 million tons of goods passed through one of the ports in Amsterdam. 79 millon tons of these were bulk cargo. About 60.000 people work in the port.

Amsterdam
13th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in the Netherlands
The Khalji dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic origin. It ruled large parts of South Asia between 1290 and 1320.

References 

1290 establishments
1320 disestablishments
Khalji dynasty
13th-century establishments in Asia
14th-century disestablishments in Asia
Lawrence Saltzman (September 28, 1926 – July 17, 1992), also known as Larry Roberts, was an American actor and comedian. He was best known for his role of playing the voice of Tramp in the 1955 Disney movie Lady and the Tramp. He was also well known for his roles in the 1950s TV series Lights, Camera, Action!.

Selected filmography
Lights, Camera, Action! (1950)
Lady and the Tramp (1955) - Tramp (voice)

References

Other websites

1926 births
1992 deaths
Actors from Cleveland
Deaths from AIDS
Infectious disease deaths in New York (state)
Bulk cargo is a type of cargo that is carried in big amounts. Bulk cargo can be gases, liquids, coal, and wheat.

Transport
A sepoy was an Indian footsoldier (of whatever religion) in the East India Company army or the British Indian Army. The term comes from the Persian language "Sipahi". The term sipahi was also used for cavalry soldiers in the army of the Seljuks and the Ottomans.

In the modern Indian Army, Pakistan Army, Bangladesh Army and Nepalese Army, it is still used for the rank of private soldier.

References 

Military ranks
Military of British India
Vicente Martín y Soler (2 May 1754 – 30 January 1806) was a composer from Spain. He wrote many operas and ballets.

He was born in Valencia, a city in Spain. He studied music in Bologna in Italy. His teacher in Bologna was Giovanni Battista Martini. His first opera was Il tutore burlato. It was performed in Madrid in 1775. Then he went to Italy. He worked as a composer for the Teatro di San Carlo in Naples from 1777 to 1785. Then he moved to Vienna in Austria. His operas in Vienna had much success. In 1788 Catherine the Great, the Empress of Russia, invited him to work for her. In Russia he wrote more operas and ballets. They were performed in the Empress's theater in Saint Petersburg. Martín y Soler died in Saint Petersburg.

Operas
Martín y Soler's most important operas were:
 Il burbero di buon cuore (1786)
 Una cosa rara (1786)
 L'arbore di Diana (1787)
 La capricciosa corretta (1795)

References

1754 births
1806 deaths
Spanish composers
Les Rodanes is a natural reserve in Valencian Community, Spain located into the municipal boundary of Vilamarxant, Valencia province. The territory occupies an area of .

Geography 
In 2002 was stated as nature reserve into the municipal boundary of Vilamarxant, Camp del Turia. It's located few kilometers at south of the River Turia. It has an area of 582,47 ha.

Its geology is formed by sandstones and argillites.

Fauna 
This place is the habitat of around 50 bird species as Buteo buteo, Falco tinnunculus, Tyto alba, Strigidae, Athene noctua and mammals as Mustela nivalis, Vulpini and Sus scrofa.

References

Other websites

Generalitat Valenciana - Paraje Natural Municipal "Les Rodanes"  (Valencian)

Forests of Europe
Province of Valencia
There are 4 arrondissements in the Indre department. The French departments, and in other countries, are divided into arrondissements, which may be translated into English as districts (in some cases, as boroughs).  The capital of an arrondissement is called a subprefecture.

If the prefecture (capital) of the department is in an arrondissement, that prefecture is the capital of the arrondissement, acting both as a prefecture and as a subprefecture.

Arrondissements are further divided into communes.

The arrondissements of Indre are:

History
Since its creation, the Indre department has had some changes:
 1790 : creation of the Indre department with six districts: Issoudun, Châteauroux, Argenton, Le Blanc, La Châtre and Châtillon-sur-Indre. Châteauroux was the capital of the department.
 1800 : creation of the arrondissements: Châteauroux, Le Blanc, La Châtre and Issoudun.
 1926 : the arrondissement of Issoudun was eliminated.
 1942 : Issoudun was made again an arrondissement.
Related pages
 Arrondissement of Le Blanc
 Arrondissement of Châteauroux
 Arrondissement of La Châtre
 Arrondissement of Issoudun
 List of arrondissements of France

References

Indre
A field hospital is a small mobile medical facility that takes care of casualties close to the battlefield, or in case of disasters, the scene of the natural or man-made catastrophe. The World Health Organization gives the definition of a field hospital as: "a mobile, self-contained, self-sufficient health care facility capable of rapid deployment and expansion or contraction to meet immediate emergency requirements for a specified period of time". The treatment of wounds received in war is an ancient art. The term "field hospital" is most often used as a military term.

History

Ancient warriors 
It has been the custom of removing wounded soldiers from the battlefield and caring for them since ancient times. They were taken to temporary shelters and given what care was customary for that time period.
In Homer's Iliad, it makes brief mention of Machaon and Podalirius. These are the earliest mention in literature of field surgeons who helped fallen soldiers. The Greeks and Romans were known to use nearby houses, stables and temples as field hospitals to care for wounded soldiers. Even then, Romans understood drainage and sewage systems helped keep field hospitals clean and get injured soldiers back to health again.

Middle Ages 
 
Among the men returning from the Crusades were many lame, blind and sick who needed care. The Church set up Religious orders to care for the sick and injured. One group who provided this care was called the Knights Hospitallers. They had set up field hospitals at Jerusalem and Acre from 1120 to 1291.
Early modern period 
Near the end of the 18th century, France began paying closer attention to the poor condition of its hospitals. In Paris, the Hôtel Dieu was full of disease and vermin. It had about 1,220 beds and up to six patients shared a bed. Others lay in halls on piles of straw in extremely dirty conditions. When doctors came to visit in the morning, they had to hold sponges dipped in vinegar over their faces because of the bad smell. The Hôtel-Dieu was not a military hospital, but was typical of most hospitals at the time. In 1788, the French Academy of Sciences made several recommendations to make hospitals cleaner and have better ventilation. It laid out the size the rooms should be, that they should contain 34 to 36 beds and have floor to ceiling windows. The committee borrowed several ideas from visiting England and seeing hospitals there.