Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Dennis Allen, oldest member of the Pettingill family. (d. 1987)
 Garry David, (d. 1993), also known as Garry Webb, responsible for the Community Protection Act 1990
 Peter Dupas, Australian serial killer
 Keith Faure, Convicted of murdering Lewis Caine and Lewis Moran with Evangelos Goussis during the Melbourne gangland killings. He was also the basis for the character of Keithy George in the film Chopper
 Christopher Dale Flannery, also known as "Mr Rent–a–Kill", hitman.
 Kevin Albert Joiner, murderer, shot dead trying to escape in 1952.
 Ned Kelly, bushranger
 Julian Knight, murdered seven people in the Hoddle Street Massacre
 Eddie Leonski, the Brownout Strangler
 Craig 'Slim' Minogue, Russell Street Bomber
 Clarrie O'Shea, trade unionist
 Frank Penhalluriack
 Victor Peirce, member of the Pettingill family, acquitted of the 1988 Walsh Street police shootings. Killed in 2002.
 Harry Power, bushranger
 Mark "Chopper" Read, Gang leader
Gregory David Roberts, Author of Shantaram, escapee of Pentridge who fled to India
 Ronald Ryan – The last person to be executed in Australia.
 Maxwell Carl Skinner, constant escapee, who used a tram in one of his escapes 
 William Stanford, sculptor
 Stan Taylor, actor and convicted Russell Street bomber
 Squizzy Taylor, gangster
 John Zarb, first person to be found guilty of having failed to comply with his call up notice during the Vietnam War
Timeline 
 1850's 'F' Division opened
 1870's 'G' Division opened as an Industrial Reformatory School
 1894 Female prison at Pentridge ('D' Division)
 1951 Last woman executed in Australia, Jean Lee is hanged.
 1967 Last execution in Australia – Ronald Ryan (between 1842 and 1967, 186 prisoners were executed)
 October 1987 – Five prisoners die in a fire in Jika Jika during riots over prison conditions. Craig Minogue and three other inmates survived the fire.
 1 May 1997 – Pentridge Prison is closed.
 Present day – Redeveloped as a housing estate.
Escapes
1899 Pierre Douar  – Suicided after recapture
1901 Edward Sparks – never heard of again
1901 John O'Connor – Caught in Sydney two weeks later
1926 John Keith Monson, also known as "Stokesbury" and "Richard Morrenci", caught several weeks later in W.A.
1939 George Thomas Howard – caught after two days
1940 Kevin R. Jones – Caught in Sydney two weeks later
1951 Victor Franz – caught next day.
1952 Kevin Joiner – Shot dead during an escape
1952 Maxwell Skinner – pushed off prison wall while fighting with a warder and broke his leg
1957 Willam O'Malley – caught after 15 minutes
1957 John Henry Taylor – caught after 15 minutes
1961 Maurice Watson – caught next day
1961 Gordon Hutchinson – caught next day 
1965 Ronald Ryan – caught in Sydney 19 days later
1965 Peter Walker – caught in Sydney 19 days later
1972 Dennis Denehy – 
1972 Gary Smedley – 
1972 Alan Mansell – 
1972 Henry Carlson – 
1973 Harold Peckman –  caught next day
1974 Edward "Jockey" Smith
1974 Robert Hughes
1974 George Carter –
1976 John Charles Walker – 
1977 David Keys – 
1980 Gregory David Roberts (at the time known as Gregory Smith) – escaped in broad daylight with Trevor Jolly and subsequently went to India after a brief period in New Zealand 
1980 Trevor Jolly – 
1982 Harry Richard Nylander – 
1987 Dennis Mark Quinn –  Recaptured in New Zealand 19 days later
Usage in media
 The front gate showing the "HM Prison Pentridge" sign is featured on the cover of Australian band Airbourne's debut album Runnin' Wild.
 Episode 2, Homecomings of the 1976 ABCTV adaption of Frank Hardy's Novel Power Without Glory features John West picking his brother Frank West up from Pentridge Prison after serving 12 years for rape.
 The 1988 John Hillcoat and Evan English film "Ghosts... Of The Civil Dead" was largely based on events which occurred  in Pentridge Prison's infamous Jika Jika Maximum Security prison during the lead up to the 1987 fire.
 The 1994 Australian film Everynight ... Everynight details prison life inside Pentridge's H Division.
 The 2000 Andrew Dominik film "Chopper" was partially filmed in H Division.

References

Other websites 

http://www.forbidden-places.net/urban-exploration-h-m-melbourne-s-pentridge-prison
Prisons in Australia
Buildings and structures in Melbourne
Law enforcement in Australia
1851 establishments
1997 disestablishments
1850s establishments in Australia
20th-century disestablishments in Australia
Michael Chabon (born May 24, 1963) is an American author. His first novel was called The Mysteries of Pittsburgh  and published in 1988. Chabon was 25 years old. The book made him famous among writers. He has also written genre fiction. Chabon published The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay in 2000. It won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2001.

Biography

Early years
Michael Chabon was born in Washington, DC to Robert Chabon, a physician and lawyer, and Sharon Chabon, a lawyer. He knew he wanted to be a writer when he was a child.  He studied at Carnegie Mellon University for a year before transferring to the University of Pittsburgh. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree there in 1984. Then Chabon went to graduate school at the University of California, Irvine and earned a Master of Fine Arts in creative writing.

Personal life
In 1987, Chabon married the poet Lollie Groth. They divorced in 1991, and he married the writer Ayelet Waldman in 1993.

Works
Works

Novels 
 The Mysteries of Pittsburgh (1988)
 Wonder Boys (1995)
 The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay (2000)
 The Final Solution (2004)
 The Yiddish Policemen's Union (2007)
 Gentlemen of the Road (2007)
 Telegraph Avenue (2012)

Young-adult fiction 
 Summerland (2002)

Children's books 
 The Astonishing Secret of Awesome Man (2011) (illustrator: Jake Parker)

Short story collections 
 A Model World and Other Stories (1991)
 Werewolves in Their Youth (1999)

Essay collections 
 Maps and Legends (2008)
 Manhood for Amateurs (October 2009)
As contributor or editor 
 McSweeney's Mammoth Treasury of Thrilling Tales (editor and contributor) (2003)
 JSA All Stars #7, "The Strange Case of Mr. Terrific and Doctor Nil" (writer) (2004)
 McSweeney's Enchanted Chamber of Astonishing Stories (editor) (2004) 
 Michael Chabon Presents: The Amazing Adventures of the Escapist (comic book series published by Dark Horse Comics) (2004–2005) (Numbers 1–8; the first six are also collected in three books, two numbers per volume)
 The Best American Short Stories 2005 (editor, with Katrina Kenison) (2005)
 The Escapists (six-issue comic book limited series published by Dark Horse Comics) (2006)

References

Writers from Washington, D.C.
Living people
1963 births
Pulitzer Prize winners
Amit is a common given name. It is common in India, Nepal, Israel, Pakistan, Iran, Middle East, and Bangladesh.It is not a popular name in the United States (Amit is not in the top 1000 names for any year of birth beginning with 2000).

In Hindi and Bengali, Amit () means infinite or immeasurable or boundless. It is one of the 108 names of the Hindu God Shri Ganesha. It also means an eternal friend of everyone in Hindi, Nepali and Sanskrit.

In Hebrew, Amit () means colleague, friend.

In Arabic, Amit () means being highly praised, beloved and victorious. In Islam Amit refers to the traditional Arabian gesture. During battles the Muslim army yelled "Yā manṣūr Amit!" and attacked.

PEOPLE 

 Amit Shah, Indian politician
 Amit Mitra, Indian politician

References

Given names
was an old province of Japan in the area of Osaka Prefecture on the island of Honshū.

History
Izumi Province was created during the reign of Empress Genshō. 

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  Maps of Japan and Izumi Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Shrines and Temples

Ōtori Shrine was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Izumi.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Osaka Prefecture
was a old province of Japan in the area of Hyōgo Prefecture and Osaka Prefecture on the island of Honshū. 

The ancient capital city of the province was Osaka.

History

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  Maps of Japan and Settsu Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Shrines and Temples
Sumiyoshi taisha was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Settsu.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Osaka Prefecture
Chloris ("Khloris" or Χλωρίς, from "Khloros" or χλωρός, meaning "greenish-yellow," "pale green," "pale," or "fresh") refers to several figures in Greek mythology. Some stories refer to different characters. Others refer to the same Chloris, but have different details.

Chloris (Nymph)
Chloris was a Nymph. She represented spring, flowers and new growth. Her Roman equivalent was the goddess Flora. She was kidnapped by and later married Zephyr.

Chloris (Meliboea)
Meliboea was one of Niobe and Amphion's fourteen children, and the only one not killed when Artemis and Apollo killed the children as revenge. Meliboea was so scared by this that she turned permanently pale. She changed her name to Chloris ("pale one").

She later married Neleus and became queen in Pylos.

Chloris (Mother of Mopsus)
Chloris married the seer Ampyx (son of Elatus). She had a child called Mopsus, who also became a famous seer and later joined the Argonauts.

Related pages

Greek mythology
Portable Network Graphics (often shortened to PNG) is a bitmapped image format that uses lossless data compression.

Their most common use is within transparent images, as it does support an alpha channel along with a 16-bit color channel.

References 

Computer file formats
Data compression
Curaçao is an island country in the Caribbean Sea. It is one of the ABC islands and is just a short distance north of the Venezuelan Paraguaná Peninsula, and it forms a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Willemstad is the capital of Curaçao.

People

The largest ethnic group belongs to the Afro-Caribbean group with about 85% of the entire population (also includes mulattos). The remaining 15% are people of mainly European (mainly Dutch) descent, but there are also Indonesians, Colombians, Venezuelans, and others.

Languages
Papiamentu, Dutch, and English are the three official languages of Curaçao. Papiamentu is by far the most spoken language while sizable minorities speak the other two official languages.
Climate 
Curaçao has a tropical climate. The temperatures are usually constant. The trade winds bring cool breeze during the day and the same trade winds bring warmth during the night. The coolest month is January with an average of 26°C in temperature and the warmest month is September with an average temperature of 28.9 °C (84 °F). The year's average maximum temperature is 31°C. The year's average minimum temperature is about 25°C.

The island broke off from the Netherlands Antilles in 2010. It has a very long history set all the way back to the 1800s.

References 

Dependent territories
 
Caribbean Community
Ox Mountain () is a story by the Chinese philosopher Mencius.  In his time this mountain was in very bad shape, and everybody knew how it looked. Here is the story:

Mencius said, "The woods on Ox Mountain were once beautiful! On account of its being on the edge of a large country, it had been attacked with axes and hatchets, and then how could it remain beautiful? The refreshing breezes of day and night, and the moisture provided by rain and fog, did not fail to give rise to sprouts of vegetation. But cows and sheep have been repeatedly pastured there, and for that reason it has remained desolate. People observe its denuded state and assume that it never had any good resources.  But how could this state be the true nature of this mountain?" — Mencius, 6A:8
Mencius argued that "bad" human natures were produced just as the bad condition of Ox Mountain had been produced, so the answer to "bad" humans was to protect and nurture them from birth. He also thought that punishment does not do much good. It does not cure the root of the problem.

Chinese literature
4th-century BC works
A human zoo was an exhibition that showed people from other cultures. Very often, this was done in similar ways than animals are shown in zoological gardens today. Most such exhibitions were done between 1870 and 1940. Human zoos attracted many people in Europe. They were often based on the idea of unilinealism, scientific racism and social Darwinism. Unilinealism or unilineal evolution is the idea that evolution happens only in one direction; some animal will be "at the peak" of evolution. Because of these ideas, some human zoos placed indigenous people (particularly Africans) in a continuum somewhere between the great apes and humans of European descent. Ethnographic zoos have since been criticized as highly degrading and racist.

Usually, these exhibitions were made to follow stereotypes. These used ideas from racism.

Cultural anthropology
Colonialism
Rye Beach is a community in the U.S. state of New Hampshire. It used to be called Pannaway. It is along the Atlantic Ocean. It is in Rye, New Hampshire, United States. It is along New Hampshire Route 1A, near the south of a town named "Rye". 

In the community, there is a hostel. It is called the "Ocean house" and it was built in 1884. When it was built, it was small, but over time, it reached 4 stories and it had room for 250 guests. It was called the Philbrick Hotel when it was first built, but an Admiral called David Farragut visited the hotel, so it sometimes was called "Farragut House".

References 

Settlements in New Hampshire
Unincorporated communities in the United States
1884 establishments in the United States
1880s establishments in New Hampshire
Daniel Clive Wheldon (22 June 1978 – 16 October 2011) was a British motor racing driver. He was the 2005 Indy Racing League IndyCar Series champion. He was also the winner of the Indianapolis 500 in 2005 and 2011. He was killed at the age of 33, in a 15-car crash at the IZOD IndyCar World Championship.

Early life and start of career
Wheldon was born in Emberton, near Olney, Buckinghamshire, England. He started go-kart racing at the age of four. At the beginning of his career in open wheel racing, he had a rivalry with Jenson Button before he left the United Kingdom to start racing in the United States. He moved to the U.S. because he thought the chance for success there were greater than in the UK. He moved to the United States in 1999. He spent many years racing in lower open-wheeled circuits like the U.S. F2000 Championship Series, the Toyota Atlantic series and the Indy Lights series before moving to a higher series.
IRL IndyCar Series
In 2002, Wheldon moved up to the IRL IndyCar Series for two races. He drove for Panther Racing with his teammate Sam Hornish Jr. In 2003, he joined Andretti Green Racing, winning the Rookie of the Year award. In 2004, he won his first IRL race at Twin Ring Motegi in Japan. He finished the 2004 season second in points with three wins.

In 2005, Wheldon won the Indianapolis 500. He finished the season first in points winning the IndyCar Series championship. He won six races during the season, breaking the record for most victories in one season. In November 2005, it was made known that Wheldon would be driving for Chip Ganassi Racing in the IndyCar Series in 2006. He went on to drive for Chip Ganassi Racing in the 24 Hours of Daytona, winning the race with Ganassi teammates Scott Dixon and Ganassi NASCAR driver Casey Mears.
Wheldon began the 2006 IndyCar season by winning the race at Homestead–Miami Speedway. This was a sombre race, as Paul Dana had died earlier while practising for the race. At the end of the 2006 IndyCar season, he and Sam Hornish Jr. were tied for the lead in the points. They both had 475 points. Hornish had four wins for the 2006 season, and Wheldon only had two. Because Hornish had more wins than Wheldon, he was made the 2006 Indy Car Champion.

The BMW Sauber Formula One team gave Wheldon the chance to drive for them, but he turned down their offer. They could not give him a ride for the whole season, so he decided to continue to focus on Indy.

On 22 June 2008, Wheldon won his 15th IndyCar Series race in the Iowa Corn Indy 250. He donated all of the money he won to help the victims of the tornadoes and flooding which had just happened in Iowa.
Death
On 16 October 2011, Wheldon was part of a 15-car wreck on lap 11 of the IZOD IndyCar World Championship at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. His car went into the air and hit the catch fence. He was taken by helicopter to the hospital. When he was taken to the hospital, he was declared dead from blunt force trauma to the head. He was 33. He is buried at the Calvary Catholic Cemetery in Clearwater, Florida.

Other appearances
Wheldon was a guest star in the voice cast for the TV series Hot Wheels Battle Force 5.

Personal life
Wheldon married his long-time personal assistant, Susie Behm, in 2008. The couple had two sons, Sebastian (born 1 February 2009) and Oliver (born 19 March 2011). His family lives in St. Petersburg, Florida.

Motorsports career results

IndyCar Series
IndyCar Series

 a Wheldon lost the title on the tiebreaker. Wheldon won only two races while Sam Hornish Jr. won four, giving him the championship.
 1 Run on same day
 2 Non-points race
 3 Event cancelled after a 15-car incident on Lap 11 involving Wheldon, who later died from his injuries.

 ** Podium (non-win) means 2nd or 3rd place finishes.
 *** Top 10s (non-podium) means 4th through 10th place finishes.

Indianapolis 500

References

Other websites

  
 Dan Wheldon at Driver Database
 Dan Wheldon at Racing-Reference
 
 

1978 births
2011 deaths
Accidental deaths in the United States
Deaths in sport
English racecar drivers
Sportspeople from Buckinghamshire
IndyCar Series drivers
was an old province of Japan in the area of modern Mie Prefecture on the island of Honshū.  

The province had borders with Iga, Kii, Mino, Ōmi, Owari, Shima, and Yamato.

When the province was created in 646, its capital city was Uji-Yamada.

History

Before Nara period, Ise Shrine, the holiest Shinto shrine was established in this province and here is introduced by a word Kamukaze in  waka rhetorics in the Nara period. In the Edo period, the Tōkaidō road was the main route between the Imperial capital at Kyoto and the main city of the Tokugawa Shogunate.  The road passed through Ise.

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Ise Province were reformed in the 1870s.

The World War II Japanese battleship Ise was named after this province.

Temples and Shrines
Tsubakiōkamiyashiro (Tusbaki jinja/Nakato jinja) was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) for the province.
Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Mie Prefecture
was an old province of Japan in the area of Mie Prefecture on the island of Honshū. It was sometimes called . 

The province had borders with Ise, Ōmi, Yamato, and Yamashiro.

The capital city of the province was Ueno, also called Iga-Ueno.

History

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Iga Province were reformed in the 1870s.

Geography
Iga is a small mountain ringed basin (the Ueno basin) in the center of the Kansai region.

Shrines and Temples
Aekuni jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Iga.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
Mie Prefecture
Curing salt (or pink salt or Prague powder #1) is mixture of salt and sodium nitrate that is used to preserve or cure meats or in the making of sausages. It contains 93.75% table salt and 6.25% sodium nitrite. The sodium nitrite in curing salt is used to stop the growth of Clostridium botulinum in order to prevent botulism. Curing salt may be dyed pink preventing it from being confused with table salt.

Related pages
Pickling salt
Table salt

References

Food ingredients
Ferdinand VI (Fernando; 23 September 1713 – 10 August 1759) was a King of Spain July 1746 until his death in 1759 aged 49 He was the fourth son of the previous monarch Philip V and his first wife Maria Luisa of Savoy. The third Bourbon to rule Spain, he died childless and his half brother Charles became king.

Infancy
Born at the Royal Alcazar (Royal Palace) of Madrid, he was the youngest son of Philip V of Spain and his wife Queen Maria Luisa. His parents enjoyed a loving relationship, Ferdinand being their fourth child. However, his mother died in 1714 and the king married again, this time to Elisabeth Farnese, a niece of the Duke of Parma. Queen Elisabeth was a domineering woman who ruled her husband. As such, the new queen would have a further seven children including Ferdinand's own successor Charles III. Ferdinand was by temperament melancholy, shy and distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented on his shooting, he replied, "It would be hard if there were not something I could do." Shooting and music were his only pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous singer Farinelli, whose voice soothed his melancholy. As the younger son, his brother Louis, Prince of Asturias was heir to the throne. However, Louis died aged sixteen in 1724 having reigned for a mere eight months
. As such Ferdinand became Prince of Asturias and heir to the throne.
Marriage

On 20 January 1729, Ferdinand married Barbara of Portugal, daughter of John V of Portugal and Maria Anna of Austria. This marriage further cemented a union with Portugal who had engaged Barbara's brother to Ferdinand's half sister. The very homely looks of his wife were thought by observers to cause the prince a visible shock when he was first presented to her. Yet he became deeply attached to his wife, and proved in fact nearly as adoring of her as his father was of Queen Maria Luisa.
Reign
When he came to the throne, Spain found itself in the War of the Austrian Succession which ended without any benefit to Spain. He started his reign by getting rid of the influence of the widow Queen Elisabeth and her Italian courtiers. As king he followed a firm policy of neutrality in the war between France and Britain, and refused to be tempted to join the war by the offers of either. The most important tasks during the reign of Ferdinand VI were carried out by the Marquis of Ensenada, the Secretary of the Treasury, Navy and Indies. He suggested that the state help modernise the country. To him, this was necessary to maintain a position of outward strength so that France and Great Britain would consider Spain as an ally without supposing Spain's renunciation of its claim to Gibraltar. Plans for modernising Spain included a new Treasury; the stimulation of commerce in the Americas; modernising the Navy; improving relations with the church and ensuring cultural progress.
The death of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who carefully abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between the date of her death in August 1758 and his own in August 1759, he fell into a state of prostration in which he would not even dress, but wandered unshaven, unwashed and in a nightgown around his park. He was buried at the Convent of the Salesas Reales, Spain.

Titles and styles

23 September 1713 – 31 August 1724 His Royal Highness The Infante Don Fernando of Spain
31 August 1724 – 9 July 1746 His Royal Highness The Prince of Asturias
9 July 1746 – 10 August 1759 His Majesty The King of Spain

Other websites

1713 births
1759 deaths
People from Madrid
Kings and Queens of Spain
Princes and Princesses of Asturias
Spanish House of Bourbon
The Neue Wache () is a building in central Berlin, the capital of Germany. It is located on the north side of the Unter den Linden. The Neue Wache was designed by the architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, was built in 1816 and is a leading example of German neoclassicism. Originally it was built as a guardhouse for the troops of the Crown Prince of Prussia, the building has been used as a war memorial since 1931.

King Frederick William III of Prussia ordered the construction of the Neue Wache as a guard house for the nearby Palace of the Crown Prince, to replace the old Artillery Guard House. He commissioned Schinkel, the leading exponent of neoclassicism in architecture, to design the building: this was Schinkel's first major commission in Berlin.

Other websites
Other websites 

 "The National Memorial to the Victims of War and Tyranny: From Conflict To Consensus", lecture with handout and bibliography by Harold Marcuse, covers history since 1816.
 Neue Wache travel photos by Galen Fry Singer, of facade, sculpture and inscriptions.

Buildings and structures in Berlin
Transitivity in grammar is about whether a verb has an object or not. A transitive verb has an object; an intransitive verb does not.p1051 Examples:
Transitive: 
We really enjoyed the trip.
She read the book.
What did you throw?

Intransitive: 
She relaxed.
She travels.
She slept.
A transitive verb is an action verb. It expresses something doable (something possible to do). The direct object is something or someone who is the receiver of the action (verb). In the first two examples above, the 'trip' and the 'book' are the direct objects. 'Enjoyed' and 'read' are the transitive verbs.

References 

Grammar
Audio description is an additional track of narration. It is targeted at visually impaired or blind consumers of television, dance, opera, movies or other visual art. In these tracks, a narrator talks through presentation and makes a description about what's happening during natural pauses in audio. Descriptive video service (DVS) is used for the DVDs of certain movies as part of the audio description.

References 

Audio technology
Teak is the common name for the tropical hardwood tree Tectona grandis and its wood products. Tectona grandis is native to south and southeast Asia and grows in many countries. It has been introduced to Africa and the Caribbean. Burma produces nearly one third of the world's total teak.

The word teak comes from the Malayalam word theka or tekka. This tree is mentioned in the seventh-century literature of the Tamil language known as the Tevaram.

Tectona grandis is a large deciduous tree that is dominant in mixed hardwood forests. It has small, fragrant white flowers and papery leaves that are often hairy on the lower surface.

References

Lamiaceae
Trees
Reel-to-reel tape recorders (often called R2R, open reel decks, etc.) were used during the 20th century, mostly in professional studios from the 1940s and quickly spread into people’s homes in the 1950s and 1960s. Popularity peaked in the 1970s, probably because people needed higher quality recordings. This technology was like a revolution, because everyone could record any kind of sound (vinyl records, radio broadcast, voice and music), then play it many times without the quality getting worse, and they could overwrite it many times. This technology has some weak points though: size of reels, sensibility, durability; but still, it has certain advantages over today’s “digital media formats.” Also, some famous bands and artists used reel to reel technology as a musical instrument  or even as a separate band.
Technical information 
These reel to reel decks are usually analogue sound devices using a magnetic tape of ¼ inch (i.e. 6.25 cm) width. This plastic tape is covered by a special magnetic substance which is being made into magnetic domains when it is being recorded. The tape recorder must have a record, playback and an erase head which transfer the signal onto the tape. The more expensive tape decks have three or six separate heads. Tape recorders combine knowledge both on mechanics and electronics. There must be very precise motors and moving parts, but also a complicated circuit board. It has to contain transistors, amplifiers etc.

The usual functions of tape recorders are:

Playback (play)
Stop
Rewind
Fast forward
Pause

These functions can be handled mechanically (system of rubber belts and metal levers), or electronically (magnets, coils, integrated circuits).
Tape speed 
The tape speed  is one of the things that finds out the playback time. This table gives information on tape speed and the playback time with an 18 cm reel.

Major producers 
There were many producers during the era of tape recorders, such as Sony, Akai, Revox, Teac, Pioneer, Technics, Tesla and many others. These producers usually had several product series', which were different in price and functions. The best ones had digital programmable counters, reverse mechanic, electronic buttons, they could use big reels (such as 26.5 cm). There was also a big selection of tape producers – Maxell, Basf (Emtec), Quantegy, Agfa, etc.
Reel-to-reel tape recorders in Czechoslovakia 
There were only a few producers of tape recorders in Czechoslovakia. The most important was Tesla, n.p. The main development was realized in Tesla Pardubice, but the mass production was held in Tesla Přelouč. Product numbers were in thousands pieces and tens of model lines. One of the most popular decks was monophonic Tesla Sonet Duo (1959). It was compact, portable and reliable. The collectors of Tesla decks agree that probably the most progressive model was Tesla B73 Hi-Fi Stereo (1978) which provided the principles to the later models. The supreme models were Tesla B115, B116 (1981) and Tesla CM130, CM160  (1986) which were able to compete with similar models made by world’s producers. Still, there were (political) restrictions, so the best ideas and solutions could not be realized. The manufacture finished in 1990 as this technology turned out to be out-of-date.

Use with computers
In the 1960s and 1970s, tape recorders were used to store programs and data. They record data as a sequence of tones of certain frequency. Nowadays, this method is used only to create backups, because the data rate of magnetic tape is very low.

References 

Magnetic tape
Gym Class Heroes are an American hip hop band from Geneva, New York. They are associated with other musicians, including but not limited to Patrick Stump and Adam Levine of Maroon 5. On their album As Cruel as School Children is the song Cupid's Chokehold, which samples Breakfast in America by Supertramp. The band's lead singer is Travie McCoy.

1997 establishments in the United States
1990s American music groups
1990s establishments in New York (state)
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American rap music groups
Hip hop bands
Musical groups established in 1997
Musical groups from New York (state)
Artificial cranial deformation, also known as head flattening or head binding is when the skull of a human is changed forever, and on purpose. It is done by changing how a child's skull grows by putting force on the skull. Flat shapes, long shapes and round shapes can be used to do this. It is done on young children. This is because the skull is easier to shape at this time. Usually, the shape that will be used to change the skull is attached about a month after the baby is born. It stays on for around six months after this.

The practice has been most often used in native societies in the Americas, but there are examples from Asia and Europe. The Toulouse deformation was caused by wrapping the head of the newborn, possible to protect it from damage. In pre-modern societies the practice was surprisingly common. 
In most cases the reasons for the practice is not known.

Related pages 
Foot binding

References 

Traditions
Body art
The Convention defines what racial discrimination is, so that every country in the treaty can agree on how to define discrimination. In Article 1 (the first agreement in the treaty) that racial discrimination is:  "any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying [getting rid of] or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life."
Article 4 of the Convention forbids encouraging any type of racism including hate speech and discrimination. If a country agrees to the Convention, they must make hate speech and participation in hate groups illegal. To make sure that countries follow this rule, the Convention also introduced Article 14, which allows complaints of discrimination to be heard by a committee. Article 14 gives a person, or group of people, from any country who have suffered any discrimination against them because of their race, the right to submit a claim to a committee of the United Nations. These complaints can influence the law in the countries of the people making complaints.

Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination is a body of human rights experts who monitor the implementation of the Convention.  Eighteen independent human rights experts are members. They are elected for four-year terms, with half the members elected every two years.  Nations that joined the treaty elect members by secret ballot. Each nation is allowed to nominate someone from its nation to run for election to the Committee.

Nations that have joined the treaty must submit regular reports to the Committee telling the legislative [legal], judicial [court-based], policy and other measures they have taken to give effect to the Convention.  The first report is due within a year of the Convention being used in a country; afterwards, reports are due every two years or whenever the Committee requests.  The Committee carefully reads each report and discusses its concerns and recommendations to the nation in the form of "concluding observations."
The Committee typically meets every March and August in Geneva.

Related pages
Racism
Racial segregation
Discrimination
International human rights law

References

Other websites 
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Office of United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights)

History of the United Nations
Human rights
1965
Politics of South Africa
20th century in South Africa
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is a treaty made by the United Nations. It is to help civil rights get better.

The rights are listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It is one of the most important treaties in international human rights law. The Covenant was adopted on 16 December 1966 with the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It was put into force in 1976. The United Nations set up the Committee on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR) to carry out the treaty.
Main contents 
Article 1. Right to self-determination.
Article 6. Right to life and on Genocide Convention.
Article 7. Free from torture and any inhuman treatments.
Article 8. Free from slavery and unfree labour.
Article 9. Right to personal security and protection from arbitrary arrest and detention. Right to demand remedy if proved innocent.
Article 10. The right to be treated with humanity and repected dignity while in detention.
Article 12. Freedom of movement, freedom to leave and to enter one's own country. 
Article 14. The right to a fair trial and to be regarded as innocent until found guilty.
Article 16. Right to be recognized as a person before law.
Article 17. Right to privacy and protection from attack of honour.
Article 18. Freedom of thought, conscience and freedom of religion.
Article 19. Freedom of expression and freedom of speech but with special duty and responsibility not to harm others.
Article 20. prohibition of propaganda of war and any inciting of hatred and discrimination.
Article 21. Freedom of assembly.
Article 22. Right to association and trade union.
Article 23. Right to family and marriage with free will of each person (against forced marriage).
Article 25. Right to free and fair voting.
Article 26. Equality before law and protection from all discriminations by law.
Article 27. Right to minority groups and ethnic group and to use their own language.
Optional protocols 
This Covenant has two optional protocols. One of them is to allow a citizen whose rights have been violated to claim before the CCPR. The other is to prohibit the death penalty. There are countries which ignore, or do not agree with, the optional protocols.

Related pages
Civil and political rights
Civil rights
International human rights law
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Human rights

Other websites 
International Covenant on Civil and political Rights

References 
United Nations
Human rights
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is a treaty made by the United Nations to ensure that the 
economic, social and cultural rights are affirmed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It is one of the most important treaties on the international human rights law. This Covenant was adopted in 1966 together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and entered into force in 1976.
Main contents 
Article 2. Right to enjoy all human rights in this Covenant without any discrimination
Article 5~7. Right to work with decent conditions and to equal payment for equal work.
Article 8. Right to join a trade union and to strike action for decent conditions, including fair payment and holiday leave. 
Article 9. Right to Social Security.
Article 10. Right to marriage and to form a family with especial protection for mothers.
Article 11. Right to an adequate standard of living, including food, clothing and the housing.
Article 12. Right to the best possible standard of health.
Article 13. Right to education; free primary education for all and equal access to secondary and higher education, which should also be as free as possible. Education should aim to allow everyone to develop their personality as much as possible, and respect for human rights, tolerance and peace.
Article 15. Right to enjoy culture and science.
Related pages
Economic, social and cultural rights
International human rights law
Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Other website 
International Convenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

United Nations
Human rights
Economic, social and cultural rights are a part of human rights. In an important United Nations treaty called The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the countries in the United Nations agreed that every person in the world should have these rights.  Some examples of these rights include:
 The right to education (school)
 The right to work, with good pay, in a good, safe place to work
 The right to strike (when workers strike, they decide together that they will not work any more until their bosses make things at work better - like giving them enough pay to live on, or making the work safer)
 The right to housing
 The right to Social Security
 The right to be healthy
 The right to an adequate standard of living (meaning a person has everything they need to survive, including water, food, clothing, enough money to pay for what they need, and somewhere safe to live).
A separate Covenant specifically on economic, social, and cultural rights was done for a reason.  These rights were not included in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. These two Covenants were kept separate because civil rights are thought to be protected strongly than economic, social and cultural rights.  A separate Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights was done to make it clear how important these rights are.

As the Vienna Declaration says, all human rights must be protected equally because "all human rights are universal and cannot be divided."

Related pages
Human rights
Civil rights
Digital rights
International human rights law

Human rights
The Vickers machine gun (also known as the Vickers gun) was a machine gun that was used by the British Army from 1912 to 1968. It was made by Vickers Limited. The gun was very reliable. It was one of the most commonly used weapons in the first world war.

References 

Medium machine guns
Albania at the Olympics is a history which began in 1972.

The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Albania is ALB.

History
The Albanian team did not take part in the next games between 1976 and 1988. They returned for the 1992 games in Barcelona. They have took part in all Olympic Games since then. They first took part in the Winter Olympic Games in 2006.

Albania usually takes part in events that have swimming, athletics, weightlifting, shooting and wrestling. Albania has won an Olympic medal at the 1972 Olympics in weightlifting (gold, Ymer Pampuri).

Statistics

Albania at the Summer Olympic Games

Albania at the Winter Olympic Games

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites
  Albania profile at London2012.com 

Nations at the Olympics
Olympics
American Samoa at the Olympics is a history which includes 8 games in 8 countries and 20+ athletes. Since 1988, American Samoa has contributed to the growth of the "Olympic Movement".

The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for American Samoa is ASA.

History
The National Olympic Committee for American Samoa was formed in 1987; and it was recognized by the International Olympic Committee the same year.

Teams from American Samoa have take part in Summer Olympic Games.  Samoan athletes went to two of the Winter Olympic Games.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes
American Samoa
Summer Olympic Games
Winter Olympic Games

References

Other websites 
  American Samoa profile at London2012.com 
 

Nations at the Olympics
Sports in American Samoa
Andorra at the Olympics is a history which includes 20 games in 25 countries and 50+ athletes. Since 1988, Andorra has contributed to the growth of the "Olympic Movement".

The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Andorra is AND.

History
The National Olympic Committee for Andorra (Comitè Olímpic Andorrà) was formed in 1971; and it was recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1975.

Athletes from Andorra first took part in the Olympic Games in 1976. They have taken part in all Olympic Games since then.

Andorra have never won a medal before. They usually take part in events like cycling, swimming, athletics, shooting, and judo.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites 
 Andorra profile at London2012.com 

Nations at the Olympics
National sports teams of Andorra
Victoria Davey "Tori" Spelling (born on May 16, 1973) is an American actress, television writer and producer.

Personal life 
From 2004 to 2006 Tori was married to actor and playwright Charlie Shanian (b.1965). 

Tori has been married to actor Dean McDermott (b.1966) since May 7, 2006 after they were dated for 8 months. The spouses have four children together: son Liam Aaron McDermott (b.March 13, 2007), daughters Stella Doreen McDermott (b.June 9, 2008) and Hattie Margaret McDermott (b.October 10, 2011), and another son — Finn Davey McDermott (b.August 30, 2012). Spelling also has a step-son Jack Montgomery McDermott (b.1998) from McDermott's 1st marriage to actress Mary Jo Eustace.

Other websites 

Actors from Los Angeles
American movie actors
American movie producers
American television actors
American television producers
American television writers
American voice actors
Writers from Los Angeles
1973 births
Living people
The earliest recorded use of the Lion rampant as a royal emblem in Scotland was by Alexander II in 1222; with the additional embellishment of a double border set with lilies occurring during the reign of Alexander III (1249–1286). This emblem occupied the shield of the  royal coat of arms of the ancient Kingdom of Scotland which, together with a royal banner displaying the same, was used by the King of Scots until the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI acceded to the thrones of the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Ireland. Since 1603, the Lion rampant of Scotland has been incorporated into both the royal arms and royal banners of successive Scottish then British monarchs in order to symbolise Scotland; as can be seen today in the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom. Although now officially restricted to use by representatives of the Sovereign and at royal residences, the Royal Standard of Scotland continues to be one of Scotland's most recognisable symbols.

National Flag of Scotland
The Flag of Scotland, also known as the Saint Andrew's Cross or more commonly The Saltire, is the national flag of Scotland. The Saltire is the correct flag for everyone to fly in order to show both their loyalty and Scottish nationality. It is also, where possible, flown from Scottish Government buildings every day from 8am until sunset, with certain exceptions; for example United Kingdom National Days.

References

Flags of the United Kingdom
13th century in Scotland
1222 establishments
Establishments in Scotland
1220s establishments in Europe
Lions
National symbols of Scotland
Flower of Scotland () is a Scottish song, used mostly at special occasions and sporting events. Although Scotland has no official national anthem,  Flower of Scotland is one which is used, along with the older Scots Wha Hae, Scotland the Brave and Highland Cathedral. It was written by Roy Williamson of the folk group The Corries, and presented in 1967, and refers to the victory of the Scots, led by Robert the Bruce, over England's Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.

Lyrics

English
1. O Flower of Scotland,
When will we see your like again
That fought and died for
Your wee bit hill and glen.
And stood against him,
Proud Edward's army,
And sent him homeward
To think again.

2. The hills are bare now,
And autumn leaves lie thick and still
O'er land that is lost now,
Which those so dearly held
That stood against him,
Proud Edward's army
And sent him homeward
To think again.
3. Those days are past now
And in the past they must remain
But we can still rise now
And be the nation again!
That stood against him
Proud Edward's army
And sent him homeward
To think again.

4. O Flower of Scotland,
When will we see your like again
That fought and died for
Your wee bit hill and glen.
And stood against him,
Proud Edward's army,
And sent him homeward
To think again.

Scots
1. O Flouer o Scotland,
Whan will we see
Your like again,
That focht and dee'd for,
Your wee bit Hill an Glen,
An stuid agin him,
Prood Edward's Airmy,
An sent him hamewart,
Tae think again.

2. The Hills is bare nou,
An Autumn leafs
Lies thick an still,
Ower land that is lost nou,
That thae sae dearly held,
That stuid agin him,
Prood Edward's Airmy,
An sent him hamewart,
Tae think again.

3. Thir days is past nou,
An in the past
They maun remain,
But we can aye rise nou,
An be the nation again,
That stuid agin him,
Prood Edward's Airmy,
An sent him hamewart,
Tae think again.
4. O Flouer o Scotland,
Whan will we see
Your like again,
That focht an dee'd for,
Your wee bit Hill an Glen,
An stuid agin him,
Prood Edward's Airmy,
An sent him hamewart,
Tae think again.

Scottish Gaelic
1. O Fhlùir na h-Alba,
cuin a chì sinn
an seòrsa laoich
a sheas gu bàs 'son
am bileag feòir is fraoich,
a sheas an aghaidh
feachd uailleil Iomhair
's a ruaig e dhachaidh
air chaochladh smaoin?

2. Na cnuic tha lomnochd
's tha duilleach Foghair
mar bhrat air làr,
am fearann caillte
dan tug na seòid ud gràdh,
a sheas an aghaidh
feachd uailleil Iomhair
's a ruaig e dhachaigh
air chaochladh smaoin.

3. Tha 'n eachdraidh dùinte
ach air dìochuimhne
chan fheum i bhith,
is faodaidh sinn èirigh
gu bhith nar Rìoghachd a-rìs
a sheas an aghaidh
feachd uailleil Iomhair
's a ruaig e dhachaidh
air chaochladh smaoin.

4. O Fhlùir na h-Alba,
cuin a chì sinn
an seòrsa laoich
a sheas gu bàs 'son
am bileag feòir is fraoich,
a sheas an aghaidh
feachd uailleil Iomhair
's a ruaig e dhachaidh
air chaochladh smaoin?
Related pages
 Ireland's Call
 La Marseillaise
 Waltzing Matilda

References

Other websites 
 Flower of Scotland  – The website "Cantaria" has a page dedicated to the song, featuring the lyrics and an MP3 file of the song sung by Wild Mountain Thyme.
 The Flower of Scotland – The website "Modern History Sourcebook" also has a page on the song, featuring midi files.

National anthems
British anthems
National symbols of Scotland