Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Looking directly at the bright surface of the Sun itself can hurt the retina of the eye greatly because of the radiation that comes from the Sun. It can even blind people. The retina does not feel pain, so damage may not be felt for hours.

The Sun is usually so bright that it is hard to look at it directly. However, when the Sun is covered in an eclipse, it is easier to look at it. Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is equally dangerous, except in the very short time when the Sun's surface is completely covered. Looking at the Sun's surface through binoculars, a telescope, or even a camera is extremely dangerous and can damage the eye in less than a second.

Looking at the Sun without an eclipse does not usually hurt the eye very greatly, because the pupil of the eye closes down and makes everything darker. If the Sun is almost completely covered, the pupil opens because there is not as much light. However, the parts of the Sun that can be seen are still equally bright, and can hurt the eye very much.
Related pages 
 Eclipse
 Lunar eclipse

References

Other websites 

Solar eclipse of January 15, 2010, Fred Espenak, NASA
Detailed eclipse explanations and predictions, Hermit Eclipse
Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site
 World Atlas of Solar Eclipse Paths , Fred Espenak
 Solar eclipse time sequence 
 NASA's Eclipse Home Page , Fred Espenak
 Animated maps of past and future solar eclipses 
 Search among the 11,898 solar eclipses over five millennium and display interactive maps
Looking Back at an Eclipsed Earth 1999 August 11 from Mir EO-27 - Astronomy Picture of the Day 10 June 2007
 Animated explanation of the mechanics of a solar eclipse , University of Glamorgan

 Eclipse Image Gallery at The World at Night

Eye safety 
Eye Safety During Solar Eclipses , F. Espenak (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center)
How to Watch a Partial Solar Eclipse Safely , A. M. MacRobert (Sky & Telescope magazine)
UK hospitals assess eye damage after solar eclipse, British Medical Journal, August 21, 1999, p. 319–469
Astronomical phenomena
Eclipses
Kate Fischer (born November 30, 1973) is an Australian model and actress.  She was a very famous model for a long time.  She had a job working on television on a cartoon program with a puppet called "Agro".  She was in a movie called Sirens with Elle Macpherson and Sam Neill.

Other websites 
Official website
Rotten Tomatoes - Kate Fischer 

 It Takes Two official website 

1973 births
Living people
Fischer, Kate
Actors from Adelaide
Australian models
Australian movie actors
Alton is a city in Madison County, Illinois, in the United States.  About 26,000 people lived in Alton as of the year 2020.

References

Other websites

 Official Website for the City of Alton

Cities in Illinois
Armenian may mean:

 Armenia, a country in South Caucasia (Transcaucasus)
 Armenians, the Armenian people
 Armenian language
 Armenian alphabet
 historical Armenian Kingdom:
 Orontid Dynasty, 6th Century BC to 200 BC
Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity) also known as Artaxiad or Arsacid Armenia, 190 BC to AD 387/428.
Kingdom of Armenia (Middle Ages) also known as Bagratid Armenia, AD 885 to 1045.
 Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, 1078 to 1375
 Armenian Apostolic Church
 Armenian Catholic Church
 Armenian Evangelical Church
 Armenian Quarter of Jerusalem
 Armenian Genocide
 Armenian Highland

Related pages
 Kingdom of Armenia
 Arminianism
Minneapolis is the largest city in Minnesota, and is next to St. Paul. St. Paul and Minneapolis are known as the Twin Cities because they are right next to each other. Minneapolis is the biggest city in Minnesota, with about 430,000 people. The Mississippi River runs through the city.

Etymology  
Minneapolis derives from the Dakota word for "water", mni, and the Greek word for "city" or polis. Thus, Minneapolis means "City of Waters." A nearby city called St. Anthony then joined with Minneapolis. The first mayor was Dorilus Morrison.
History 
The American Indians first lived in Minneapolis around Lake Calhoun and St. Anthony Falls waterfall. They are called the Dakota. They thought St. Anthony Falls was a spiritual place. Dakota hunted, fished, and planted food. The United States wanted the land in 1803 and bought it with the Louisiana Purchase. The army built Fort Snelling. Soon, people from the East Coast came to Minneapolis. They used the waterfall for their flour mills. They named the new city Minneapolis.

Land and weather 
Minneapolis is flat near the river and hilly away from it. The weather is like many places in America with hot summers and cold winters. The winter is very long, very cold, and there is a rainy but short spring. The summer, on the contrary, is humid, meaning a lot of water is in the air. Mosquitos are also common in the city.
People 
Minneapolis residents are sometimes known as "Minnesota Nice." That means that they are generally more polite than other people. Most residents of Minneapolis live in houses and apartments, and some now live in tall buildings like condos. Kids and parents work and play in the city. Many different people make up what is Minneapolis today. After the Dakota Indians were people from Britain, French Canada, and Spanish Mexico. They were followed by Scandinavians  from Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. Soon people from almost all parts of the world started arriving including Eastern Europe, Russia, and Asia. Today there are people from East Africa (Somali) and Southeast Asia (Hmong). Once, Minneapolis was even larger than it is today with 520,000 people. Later, many people moved away to the suburbs.
Work and Shopping 
Numerous large companies are located Downtown in skyscrapers. These include lawyers, doctors and bankers. They work near Nicollet Mall where there are restaurants and shops. Minneapolis also has neighborhoods. People there work in small stores too, like barber shops, grocery stores, hardware stores, and coffee shops. Internet is widely available in Minneapolis.

Theatre and Art 
There are lots of art and shows in the city. The biggest theater is the Guthrie Theater, and the Children's Theatre Company puts on productions directed at younger audiences. There are also art museums, such as the Minneapolis Institute of Arts and the Walker Art Center.

Sports 
Minneapolis hosts lots of sport teams for the state. The Minnesota Vikings play at US Bank Stadium. The Minnesota Twins at Target Field. Nearby is the Target Center where the Minnesota Timberwolves play.

References 

 
County seats in Minnesota
St. Louis is a large and major city in the U.S. state of Missouri. It is by the Mississippi River. It was founded by the French. It was named after King Louis IX of France, who is also a Saint. It is often called the "Gateway City" because it was important to settlers traveling out west. Its most famous landmark is the Gateway Arch.

Climate
St. Louis has a hot-summer continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification) and experiences four distinct seasons. Summers are often hot and humid with temperatures in July between 70 and 90 degrees.

Cuisine 
St. Louis is famous for a number of dishes made local such as toasted ravioli and pork steaks.

Sports 
St. Louis has two major sports both playing in the downtown area; the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, and the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League. St. Louis had a National Football League team from 1995 to 2015, named the St. Louis Rams, which moved back to Los Angeles, California after that season.
Education
There are many colleges and universities in and around St. Louis. Some of these are Washington University in St. Louis, Saint Louis University, Fontbonne University, and Lindenwood University.

References 
http://www.rssweather.com/climate/Missouri/St.%20Louis/

Other websites
 
 Built St. Louis
 St. Louis Convention & Visitors Bureau
 St. Louis Regional Chamber and Growth Association 
 City-data.com – St. Louis
 Washington University - About St. Louis
 The City of St. Louis, Missouri
 Historic maps of St. Louis in the Sanborn Maps of Missouri Collection  at the University of Missouri

County seats in Missouri
Missouri counties
Olympic cities
 
18th-century establishments in New Spain
1764 establishments
General Albert Coady Wedemeyer  (1897–1989) was an American army officer during World War II.

Wedemeyer was born in Omaha, Nebraska on July 9, 1897. He studied at the United States Military Academy in West Point and graduated in 1919. After the start of World War II, he was made a temporary Lieutenant Colonel in 1941. Between 1941 and 1943, he served as a staff officer in the war-plans division of the U.S. War Department. He was the chief author of the 1941 Victory Program which advocated the defeat of the German armies in Europe. When the U.S. entered the war this plan was adopted and expanded. He helped plan the invasion of Normandy.

In 1943, Wedemeyer was made Chief of Staff to Lord Mountbatten, the supreme Allied commander of the South East Asia Command (SEAC) in the Southeast Asian Theatre.
In 1948, as the Army Chief of Plans and Operations, Wedemeyer supported Lucius D. Clay's intention to create an airbridge during the Berlin Crisis. His expertise in this area was considerable as he had been U.S. Army theater commander in China during World War II and had been supplied by air over the mountains from India by army transport planes. This earlier operation had been commanded by Lieutenant General William H. Tunner, who was later named to head the Berlin Airlift operation.

Wedemeyer retired in 1951. He was promoted to general in 1954.  He died December 17, 1989 in Fort Belvoir, Virginia. His son Albert Dunbar Wedemeyer was a captain in the U.S. army and a Central Intelligence Agency operative.

Other websites 
 Arlington Cemetery biography 
 Photo 
 Berlin Airlift 
 Britannica biography 
 Fact Finding Mission to China: Report by Wedemeyer  (September 19, 1947)

American people of World War II
People from Omaha, Nebraska
1897 births
1989 deaths
Military people from Nebraska
Lt. General William H. Tunner (July 14, 1906 - April 6, 1983) was an American general.

After the Burma Road was cut by the advancing Japanese in early 1942, he organized the Allied logisitical airlift from India in to China over the Hump which was to support Chiang Kai-Shek's Chinese forces and the Flying Tigers until the opening of the Ledo Road. He was the organizer of the Berlin Airlift (1948-49). He was played by Heino Ferch in the film "Nur der Himmel war frei" (2005)

Related pages
 General Albert Coady Wedemeyer

1906 births
1983 deaths
Sarasota is a city on the West coast of Florida, in the United States. It is the place where the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus has its home. In 2020, 54,842 people lived there (US. Census 2020).  Many famous people have lived in the city, such as: Tom Cruise (actor), Brian Johnson (band singer), and Paul Reubens (the actor, "Pee-wee Herman").

Twin towns 
  Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland

References 

 
County seats in Florida
1902 establishments in the United States
1900s establishments in Florida
Paul Reubens (born Paul Rubenfeld; August 27, 1952 – July 30, 2023) was a Jewish American actor, writer, movie producer, game show host, and comedian, best known for portraying Pee-wee Herman. He was of Jewish descent. He appeared in many movies and television series in the late 1970s and early 1980s and worked with a group called "The Groundlings". Around this time, Reubens created Pee-Wee for a stage show, which was a parody of old kids programs. In 1985, he starred in a movie called Pee-wee's Big Adventure, which was very successful. The next year, he got his own television program, Pee-wee's Playhouse. It was very popular.

Early life
He was born in Peekskill, New York and grew up in Sarasota, Florida.

Personal life
In 1991, Reubens was arrested for masturbating in an adult movie theatre. This ended the Pee-Wee craze.
In 2010, he had the main role in a play on Broadway, in The Pee-wee Herman Show. In 2016, Reubens co-wrote and had the main role in the Netflix original film Pee-wee's Big Holiday, in the role as Pee-wee Herman.

Death
Reubens died on July 30, 2023 at the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California at the age of 70. The cause of death was respiratory failure caused by acute myeloid leukemia and lung cancer. His remains were cremated and will be buried at Hollywood Forever Cemetery.

Filmography

Movies

Television

Video games

References

Other websites

 Official website
1952 births
2023 deaths
Deaths from respiratory failure
Deaths from acute myeloid leukemia
Deaths from lung cancer
People from Peekskill, New York
Actors from New York (state)
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
American television personalities
American voice actors
Comedians from New York (state)
Jewish American actors
Jewish American comedians
Jewish American writers
Jewish businesspeople
Jewish screenwriters
Movie producers from New York (state)
Writers from New York (state)
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles
Peekskill is a city in the U.S. state of New York. It is the birthplace of New York Governor, George Pataki. Other famous people born there include Paul Reubens and Mel Gibson.

Cities in New York (state)
Małkinia Górna is a village in Małkinia Dolna Community, Ostrowian County (head town of the county: Ostrów Mazowiecka), Masovian Voivodeship, Poland. There is probably the greatest village in Europe (by population) and one of the greatest places without town status.

 Area: 6,97 km²
 Population (as of 2006): 6000
 Stanisław Tym (a famous Polish actor) birthplace
 Rail tracks Siedlce-Ostrołęka

Related pages
 Ostrów Mazowiecka
 Brok

Villages in Masovian Voivodeship
Ostrowian County (Poland)
John Caldwell Calhoun (March 18, 1782 – March 31, 1850) was the vice president of the United States for John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. Calhoun was vice president under two different presidents. George Clinton is the only other vice president to serve under two presidents. Calhoun's father was an Irish immigrant.

Calhoun is probably best remembered for his strong beliefs in slavery and nullification, which said any US state had the right to reject a federal law if it was unconstitutional. President Andrew Jackson hated nullification and this disagreement started a feud between them. Calhoun was the first vice president in U.S. history to resign from office, doing so on December 28, 1832. In 1844 and 1845 he was United States Secretary of State.

References

Other websites 
 John C. Calhoun -Citizendium

1782 births
1850 deaths
Politicians from South Carolina
United States Secretaries of State
United States Secretaries of War
19th-century American politicians
The pelvis (plural: pelves) is the part of the vertebrate body to which the legs attach. It has a very ancient history. This article is only about the human pelvis.

Pelvis can mean the lower part of the trunk of the human body, between the abdomen and the thighs. Or it can mean just the bones in that region.

The pelvis is at the lower end of the spine. The pelvic skeleton is, at the back, the sacrum and the coccyx. At the front and to the left and right sides, there is a pair of hip bones. The legs are attached at the pelvis.

The pelvis protects the organs used for digesting and for reproduction. It has many muscles attached. The muscles are mostly to do with keeping the body upright and with walking and running. Muscles attach to the bones with  tendons. The bones of the pelvis are attached to each other by and to the sacrum by ligaments.

The pelvis bones are symmetrical, the same on both sides.
1. The hip bone made of: 
 The top part is the ilium
 The middle part is called the pubis
 The lower part is called the ischium
2. The sacrum

3. The coccyx

Differences between the two sexes 
Male and female human pelves are different. The female pelvis is wider and more shallow than the male pelvis. There is not much difference in young children before puberty. After puberty, the female pelvis is significantly larger than in males. 

The function of this change is to make the female pelvis able to function in childbirth, when the foetus is born through the pelvis. The space is called the 'birth canal'. There are many variations between one female and another in the structure of the pelvis. These differences have been studied in detail. These days by using ultrasound, the pelvis of pregnant women can be assessed to see if natural birth is likely to go ahead with no problems. The study is part of the medical speciality known as obstetrics.

References 

Bones
Human body features
Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace is a science fiction movie released in 1999. This movie is the fourth movie that director George Lucas made in the Star Wars series but is the first movie chronologically.

Story 

A peaceful planet named Naboo has been blockaded by a fleet of spaceships belonging to a corrupt organisation called the Trade Federation. Two Jedi Knights, Master Qui-Gon Jinn and his apprentice Obi-Wan Kenobi, learn that the Federation is planning to invade Naboo with their army of droids (robots). In order to warn the people of Naboo, they transport themselves down to the planet on Trade Federation battleships.  

They reach the swamps of Naboo, separately. Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan meet Jar Jar Binks. They find the Queen, Padmé Amidala, who escapes with them to the Republic, but in the blockade, their ship's engine was damaged.
They barely had enough power to reach Tatooine, and still need new parts for the ship so as not to be stuck on the planet forever. Luckily, they meet Anakin Skywalker, a young slave boy, who helps them gain the money by participating in a very dangerous podracing event. 

Qui-Gon suspects that Anakin is strong with the Force, meaning that he has potential to become a Jedi. Qui-Gon manages to win Anakin's freedom and they take him with them, but his mother must stay behind.

Qui-Gon, Obi-Wan, Anakin, Padmé and her personnel make it to Coruscant, capital of the Republic. However, Padmé soon finds out that the Republic Senate is corrupt and she calls for a vote to elect a new Chancellor. A senator named Palpatine is elected, but nobody knows that he is secretly a Sith (evil Jedi) and he is the person who is controlling the Trade Federation.
The group returns to Naboo because the Republic is unwilling to help. Padmé and her guards manage to capture Nute Gunray, the head of the Trade Federation and they force him to surrender. Meanwhile, Qui-Gon is killed by Darth Maul, a Sith knight sent by Palpatine to kill the Jedi. Obi-Wan uses his lightsaber to cut Maul in half. Yoda and the other Jedi agree that Obi-Wan should be allowed to train Anakin in the ways of the Jedi.

Cast 
Liam Neeson as Qui-Gon Jinn
Natalie Portman as Padmé Amidala
Jake Lloyd as Anakin Skywalker
Ewan McGregor as Obi-Wan Kenobi
Ian McDiarmid as Senator Palpatine
Pernilla August as Shmi Skywalker
Ahmed Best as Jar Jar Binks
Kenny Baker as R2-D2
Anthony Daniels as C-3PO
Silas Carson as Nute Gunray and Ki-Adi-Mundi
Frank Oz as Yoda
Samuel L. Jackson as Mace Windu
Ray Park as Darth Maul
Terence Stamp as Chancellor Valorum
Oliver Ford Davies as Sio Bibble
Hugh Quarshie as Captain Panaka
Andy Secombe as Watto
Brian Blessed as Boss Nass
Lewis MacLeod as Sebulba

Other websites
Other websites

 
 
 
 Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menace The Movie Database

1999 movies
1999 science fiction movies
Movies composed by John Williams
Prequel movies
Phantom Menace, The
Movies directed by George Lucas
Movies with underwater settings
3D re-releases
The Cyprus Mail is a newspaper written in English based in Cyprus. It is made every day, except Monday. Some of its news can be found on its website.

Other websites 
 Official website

English-language newspapers published in Asia
Republic of Cyprus
A collision occurs when two objects come in contact with each other. All collisions have the same momentum before and after a collision. Examples of collisions include car crashes, bouncing a ball, and playing pool. Collisions are made from two smaller sections called elastic and inelastic collisions.

Elastic Collisions 

In the case of playing pool or bouncing a ball, an elastic collision occurs. An elastic collision generally occurs when an elastic or hard object experiences a collision that bounces off another elastic or hard object, where the kinetic energy and momentum are the same before and after the collision. In an experiment, a small amount of energy will still be lost because of the friction between the surface and the objects.
Inelastic Collisions 
In the case of a car crash, an inelastic collision occurs. An inelastic collision generally occurs when a soft object experiences a collision that does not result in a bounce. Kinetic energy is lost during this type of collision because the energy is transformed into other forces. The momentum is the same before and after the collision.

Two Dimensional Collisions 
In the case of a two dimensional collision, the rules in elastic and inelastic collision are still the same, but vectors are used to find the momentum before or after a collision.

Sources 
Duncan, Tom. Advanced Physics for Hong Kong: Volume 1 Mechanics & Electricity. John Murray Ltd, 1995.
Wai, Loo Kwok. Longman A-Level Course in Physics: Volume 1. Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd, 2003.

Mechanics
Belgrade is the capital city of the country of Serbia. Before the wars of the 1990s, it was the capital of Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1992 after the Kingdom of Serbia collapsed in 1918 along with Austria-Hungary after World War 1.

Belgrade is also one of the most popular travel destinations in Southeastern Europe. It is famous for a very busy nightlife and a lot of entertainment activities.

The main tourist attractions in Belgrade are:
 Kalemegdan Fortress
 Knez Mihailova Street
 Belgrade Zoo
 Memorial Complex "Josip Broz Tito"
History 
The first settlements on the city's territory date back to Vinča cutlure. The city itself (under the name Singidunum) was founded by the Celtic Scordis tribe in the 3rd century BC. Then it was owned by the Romans, Byzantines, Avars, Slavs, etc. In 878 it was first mentioned as Belgrade. In 1403 it became the Serbian capital. In 1521, the city was conquered by the troops of the Ottoman Empire. In 1815 it again became the capital of Serbia. From 1918 to 2003 it was the capital of Yugoslavia. In 2003-2006, Belgrade was the unofficial capital of the confederal union of the two states of Serbia and Montenegro.

Related pages 
 Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra

Other websites 

 WorldFlicks in Belgrade: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps 

 
3rd-century BC establishments
Puncknowle is a village in Southwest Dorset, England, United Kingdom. In 2001, 491 people lived in it.

Villages in Dorset
A hydrogen economy is a hypothetical future economy in which the primary energy used for automobiles and other vehicles as well as creating electricity comes from hydrogen and renewable energy sources, like windmills and solar panel.

Purpose 
The reason to use this is to replace the use of petroleum. It would also stop the use of fossil fuels which causes carbon dioxide along with many other greenhouse gases, such as carbon monoxide and methane, to be created. These float up into the atmosphere, damaging it. This is bad for the ecology.

Hydrogen
Energy
Sustainable development
Brachiosaurus (meaning "Arm lizard") was a herbivorous dinosaur genus that lived in the Upper Jurassic period. The name comes from the fact that the Brachiosaur's front legs were longer than its back legs. Most other dinosaurs had back legs that were longer than their front legs or arms. Brachiosaurus was about 25 m (82 feet) long and 13 meters (42 feet) tall. It was one of the biggest dinosaurs.

Brachiosaurus was a sauropod. Its fossils were found in North America and Asia. At full stretch, Brachiosaurus could reach heights of up to 16 meters (52 feet). The Brachiosaurus skeleton in the Humboldt Museum in Berlin, Germany is both the tallest and largest complete sauropod skeleton. This means that it is also the tallest and largest complete dinosaur skeleton.

Jurassic dinosaurs
Brachiosaurs
A barnacle is a cirripede, a kind of crustacean. It is covered with hard plates of calcium carbonate, and lives stuck to hard surfaces.

It does not look like a crustacean, and for many centuries it was thought to be a mollusc. In the 1830s, J.V. Thompson found their larvae, and followed their development through to their adult form. They have a nauplius larva, typical of crustaeans. Later Charles Darwin, who spent eight years working on barnacles, found that Thompson had been right.

Barnacles grow on hard surfaces like piers, boats, rocks, and on other animals such as turtles and whales. Barnacles are a different group from crabs and shrimps. They are considered a nuisance to the shipping industry and private boat owners.
Life-style 
Barnacles are suspension feeders, sweeping small food into their mouth with their curved 'feet'. They are cemented to rock (usually), and covered with hard calcareous plates, which they shut firmly when the tide goes out. The barnacles reproduce sexually, and produce little nauplius larvae which disperse in the plankton. Eventually, the larvae change into cypris form, and attach on other hard surfaces to form new barnacles. Their comparative anatomy was worked out in detail by Charles Darwin.

Reproduction 
Barnacles have the largest penis to body size ratio of the animal kingdom. A few forms have become fully parasitic on larger crustacea.

Barnacles are by far the commonest animals on rocky sea shores. Their numbers on a shore in the Isle of Man have been estimated as a thousand million (109), and they produce body material of 12 hundrededweight (~600 kg) of tissue, weighed after drying. Each year they let go a huge number of larvae, estimated as a million million (1012).p110
Darwin's work 
Darwin set his work out in four parts: There were the barnacles on stalks (pedunculated), and those that sat on hard substrate (the sessile barnacles). Each of these was divided into living and fossil barnacles.
1851: A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with figures of all the species. The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes. Living barnacles. 
1851: A Monograph on the Fossil Lepadidae, or, Pedunculated Cirripedes of Great Britain. Fossil barnacles. 
1854: A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with figures of all the species. The Balanidae (or Sessile Cirripedes); the Verrucidae, etc. 
1854: A Monograph on the Fossil Balanidæ and Verrucidæ of Great Britain

Gallery

References 

Crustaceans
An international organization is an organization, active in more than one country. These organizations can not command countries and citizens in a way a government can. Many are intergovernmental organizations meaning that rather than having people as members, they have individual countries as members. They make rules that the different governments follow. The United Nations is such an organization. 

Some International organizations operate in many countries but do not have governments as members. The Red Cross is that kind of organization.

Other page 
Cosmopolitan
International law
International relations
Non-governmental organization
Weapons of mass destruction are weapons that can cause a lot of damage to many people. In general, people see the following as weapons of mass destruction:
Chemical weapons, like poisonous gases (e.g. nerve gases)
Biological weapons. Those are usually germs, or other small living things that may cause a disease. E.g. Smallpox or Anthrax.
Nuclear weapons

Related pages 
 CBRNE (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive) weapons

Weapons
Port Arthur is a small town on the Tasman Peninsula, in Tasmania, Australia. It is about 80 km south east of the state capital, Hobart. It was settled as a penal colony (a very large prison for convicts). Port Arthur is now one of Australia's most important historic areas. In 2010 it was included on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites as one of the Australian Convict Sites. It is officially Tasmania's top tourist attraction. In 1996 the worst mass murder in Australian history took place here.

At the 2006 census, Port Arthur and the local area had a population of 499.

History

Australia's largest penal colony
Port Arthur was named after Van Diemen's Land lieutenant governor George Arthur. It started as a place to cut down timber from the forests in 1830. It is best known for being a penal colony. From 1833, until 1853, criminals from United Kingdom and Ireland were sent to Port Arthur as convicts. The prisoners were kept busy ship with jobs including building the prison, shoemaking, smithing, timber and brick making. In the 1840s there were more than 1100 prisoners. In 1842 the prisoners built a hospital and a big flour mill and grain store. At the time it was built, it was the biggest building in Australia. This was later turned into a cell block. After 1853 convicts from other prisons in Australia were sent to Port Arthur if they did more crimes, or would not behave properly.

In 1864 they started building the Asylum to hold the prisoners who had become insane. During the 1860s and 1870s the prisoners left at the prison were either too old, too sick, or insane to keep working. The prison closed in 1877.
For many years, researchers could not work out whether or not the fossils discovered at Port Arthur were remnants of the dinosaur era.

The Separate Prison
Port Arthur has the best example of a "Separate Prison" system. This system was started at Pentonville prison in London. The Separate Prison (sometimes called the Model Prison) was started in 1848, finished in 1853 and made bigger in 1855. It has 80 prison cells built in the shape of a cross. In the centre is a hall and a chapel. There are exercise yards built between the arms of the cross. The Separate system was a change in the way that prisoners were treated. Instead of physical punishment the system used psychological (mind) punishment. It was thought that physical punishment, such as whippings, only made prisoners worse. It did not turn bad people into good people. In the Separate prison they used the "Silent System". Prisoners wore a hood over their heads. They were not allowed to talk or make any noise. The guards wore special shoes and walked on mats so they wouldn't make any noise. Even in the chapel, each prisoner was kept in a separate wooden box where they could only see the altar
. The prisoners were supposed to use the quiet time to think about the bad things they had done. Port Arthur was seen as the best prison in Australia.
An Inescapable Prison
Port Arthur was a natural prison. It is on the Tasman Peninsula which is almost completely surrounded by the sea. It is joined to the rest of Tasmania by a small narrow piece of land about 30 metres wide. This is called Eaglehawk Neck. The Neck had a fence, prison guards, and savage dogs to stop prisoners from leaving. There was no contact between visiting seamen and prisoners. Ships had to give the guards their sails and oars when they arrived to stop people leaving without permission. A semaphore message system was also set up between Port Arthur and Hobart. Messages could be sent in just 15 minutes.
Escape from Port Arthur was said to be impossible, like Alcatraz Island in the United States. Some prisoners did try to escape. One prisoner, George "Billy" Hunt, covered himself with a kangaroo skin and tried to get across the Neck. The hungry guards on duty tried to shoot him to make an extra meal. When he saw them pointing their guns, Hunt gave himself up. He was whipped 150 times. Bushranger Martin Cash successfully escaped along with two others.

The Boys' Prison
The Boys' Prison

The British Empire's first boys' prison was built on Point Puer, 3 km across Opossum Bay from Port Arthur. Puer is the Latin word for boy. It was for young boys, some as young as 9, like James Lynch, arrested for stealing toys. The boys were kept away from the main convict area.  About 3,500 boys were sent to Point Puer. Like the adults, the boys were given hard work such as stone cutting and building. There was also a school run by 2 ex-convicts. One prisoner was James Gavagan. When he was 11 he stole some umbrellas. He was sent to Tasmania for 7 years. He arrived at Point Puer in 1835. When he turned 17, he was sent to the main prison at Port Arthur. He was released in March 1842. There is only a few stones left to mark the site of the boys' prison. Point Puer Excavation

The Church
The Church

The convicts built one of Australia's first non-denominational churches, built in a gothic style. All prisoners had to go to the church every Sunday. People who did not like the new prison system said that this did not seem to make the prisoners into good people.

Isle of the Dead

Port Arthur was seen as a much better prison, and would make the convicts better people. But life at Port Arthur was just as hard and brutal as other penal colonies. Some critics might even say that its use of psychological punishment, together with no hope of escape, made it one of the worst. Some stories say that prisoners would murder others to escape the prison. Murder would be punished by death. Isle of the Dead is a small island in the bay near Port Arthur. Everyone who died at the penal colony was buried on the island. There are 1646 graves on the island, but only 180, mainly those of prison staff, have a headstone.
Convict Railway
The first railway in Australia was a human powered railway at Port Arthur. The railway was built in 1836. The line ran from the beach at Taranna, Tasmania for 7 kms to Port Arthur. It carried both people and supplies. It meant that ships from Hobart could unload in the calm water and not have to travel right around Cape Raoul to Port Arthur through rough seas. The carriage was pushed along the tracks by 4 convicts. Very little sign of the railway has survived. The State Library of Victoria has a drawing of the convict railway.

Convicts to Tourists
When the penal colony closed in 1877 the area was renamed "Carnavon". During the 1880s the was sold and a small town was started. Many buildings were pulled down and the bricks sent to make new buildings in Hobart. Fires burned the area in 1895 and 1897 and ruined many of the old prison buildings. Some buildings were changed for the new town to make a post office and town hall.
Tourism started as soon as the prison closed. This brought money into the new town. Some of the old convicts gave guided tours of the prison. In 1927 tourism had grown so much the area's name was changed back to Port Arthur. 1916 saw the start of the Scenery Preservation Board (SPB) which looked after the Port Arthur site. By the 1970s the National Parks and Wildlife Service took over the site.

In 1979 the government gave money to protect the site as a tourist area, because of its historical importance. The post office and town hall of Port Arthur were moved to nearby Nubeena. Several grand sandstone buildings, built by convicts were cleaned up. These buildings include the Separate Prison, the Round Tower, the church, and the remains of the main prison building. The buildings are surrounded by green grass.

The mass graves on The Island of the Dead also attract visitors. The air about the small bush-covered island is described as being sad and peaceful by visitors.
Tourists can either walk around the area themselves, or go on a guided tours. There are also late night "ghost tours". There is a museum, with written records, tools, clothing and other interesting things from convict times.

Since 1987 the site has been managed by the Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority, paid for by the Tasmanian Government.

Massacre
On 28 April 1996, Martin Bryant killed 35 people and hurt 37 others at Port Arthur. He was captured by the police. This is now called the Port Arthur massacre. This led to a national ban on semi-automatic shotguns and rifles. It also made a link between the Port Arthur and Dunblane, a Scottish town which also had a shooting that year.

References

Further reading
 Barrington R (n.d.) Convicts and Bushrangers, View Productions, Sydney
 Kneale, Matthew, (2000) English passengers London: Hamish Hamilton. 
 Smith R (1987) The Birth of a Nation: Australia's Historic Heritage — from Discovery to Nationhood, Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood,
Other websites 

 Official Port Arthur website
 The Interactive Tour of Tasmania website
 Port Arthur Archaeology Blog

History of Australia
Towns in Tasmania
Prisons in Australia
World Heritage Sites in Australia
Australian Convict Sites
Museums in Australia
Open air museums
1830 establishments
1830s establishments in Australia
In Greek mythology, Odysseus was the great-grandson of the Greek god Hermes. He was the king of the island Ithaca. He was married to Penelope. Odysseus and Penelope had a son called Telemachos. Odysseus is a major character in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.

Odysseus fought in the Trojan War. He invented the Trojan Horse, which helped the Greeks win the war. After the war, his adventurous journey home took 10 years. The story of that journey is told in the Odyssey. Odysseus angered Poseidon, the god of seas, when he half blinded his cyclops son Polyphemos. In anger, Poseidon stopped him from leaving the island. The Latin name for Odysseus is "Ulysses".

There have been many movies about Odysseus, because of his heroic and intelligent battle strategies.

Other websites

Odysseus
Cast iron is an alloy of iron. The term is usually used for grey cast iron. There are two main types of cast iron: grey cast iron and white cast iron. The differences between the two are mainly based on the amount of silicon in the alloy. All cast iron has about 95% iron in it. Grey cast iron has 3% silicon and 2% carbon. White cast iron has less silicon.

The silicon in grey cast iron causes the carbon to change into graphite. This causes it to have a dark grey or almost black color. With less silicon, the carbon in white cast iron changes to cementite or iron carbide (Fe3C). This causes white fractures to form on the surface and give white cast iron the name.

Grey cast iron is very good at conducting heat. Because of this, it is often used to make cookware.  

Alloys
Iron
Incest means sexual intercourse between people who are closely related. Usually, this means members of the same family. In many societies, it is forbidden by law and religion. Which relatives it is forbidden to have sex with depends on the law, religion and culture.

Incest is now regarded as bad for the genetic health of the offspring, and it is often forbidden by present-day religions and laws. The fundamental reason has to do with genetics. Incestual societies will have a high rate of birth defects, significant enough for it to be noticed even when little was known about the cause. To some extent this is a surmise, because ancient societies had no knowledge of genetics as such. But they must have noticed some connection between birth defects and the relationship between parents. We think this because widespread bans on closely related persons marrying came long before the understanding of modern genetics.
In history (as far as we know it) there were societies which allowed incestual marriages and individual acts of incest. Famously, the ancient Egyptian royal family practised incest, though not exclusively. It is thought that the frequency of early non-trauma deaths (such as Tutankhamun) was due to the effect of incest. We do know that incest was practised in their royal family. Cleopatra was married to her brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV. Roman records show that marriages between close siblings were common in Ancient Egypt.

So, if pregnancy is a risk, there is a reason based on health. Children that result from incest between blood relatives are more likely to have birth defects.
Terminology and scope 
The exact definition of the incest relationship varies. In some societies it is immediate relations, such as parents and their children; or brothers and sisters of the same parents. It sometimes includes extended family like aunts, nephews, nieces and uncles. That way, intercourse between cousins is legally permitted in the large majority of the world, but is disliked in many countries. In some U.S. states, such as Texas, the legal definition of incest includes first cousins, but not second cousins. A person who engages in incest may be called an incestophile or incestualist.

Other societies define it much more widely, to include all "blood relatives", or all who live in the same household, or belong to the same clan. Some religions say that sex between people related by marriage is incest. For example, the Old Testament forbids sex between siblings-in-law. In South Africa, sex between a parent-in-law and child-in-law is illegal.
Types 
There are different types of incest:
 Between an adult family member, and a child. This is usually a form of child sexual abuse. It often involves a form of threat, or the adult abuses his or her position of power. The most commonly-reported form in the Western world is father-daughter incest. This form has been shown to cause one of the worst forms of childhood trauma, a trauma that often causes serious and long-term psychological damage, especially in the case of parental incest. Stepparents are more likely to abuse stepchildren than biological parents are to abuse their children, because people typically care about their own children more than they care about their stepchildren  the Cinderella effect. It is suggested that the Westermarck effect prevents a person being attracted to anyone whom he lived in the same house as during his childhood. For this reason, most people are never sexually attracted to their siblings or parents.
Between children who are related. It is thought, that incest between siblings is widespread, but that it is rarely reported. If one sibling forces the other, or there is no consent, this is likely the same case as sexual abuse of children.
 Between consenting adults.Incest between consenting adults is very rare, or rarely reported. Willing incest between adults is a crime in most countries. It is seen by some as a victimless crime. A reason why it is prohibited is because severely handicapped children are often born to parents who are blood-related. Other reasons for it being illegal are religion and to try to prevent sexual predation.
The term is often used to apply to less serious sexual relationships between related people. It is difficult to say how frequent incest is, but researchers have estimated that between 10% and 15% of people have at least one "incest experience" (this means some kind of sexual relationship falling short of actual incest). Less than 2% of these involve intercourse or attempted intercourse. Among women, research by Russell (1986) and Wyatt (1985) has given estimates as high as twenty percent (for such 'incest experience'). In a survey of women in San Francisco, of those who had grown up with a stepfather, 17% (1 in 6) said that he sexually abused her. In the same study, 2.5% (1 in 40) of the women said that they had been sexually abused by their father.

Summary 
Most societies have some form of incest avoidance.
The incest taboo is and has been one of the most common of all cultural taboos, both in current nations and many past societies, with legal penalties imposed in some jurisdictions. Most modern societies have legal or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages. However, in some societies, such as that of Ancient Egypt, brother–sister, father–daughter, and mother–son relations were practiced among royalty.

Inbreeding 
Many royal houses have suffered inbreeding. This is caused in most cases by apparently natural marriages between persons who are actually closely related. Cases have appeared which are explained, and sometimes even proved, as being dues to inbreeding. The classic examples are the European royal houses (see Hapsburg) and the Egyptian pharaohs.

References 

 
Sexuality
Marriage
The Canterbury Tales is a book of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer. It was written in the 14th century. It was one of the first books to be written in Middle English. The book is about a group of pilgrims travelling from London to Canterbury. As they travel along, each person tells a story to pass the time. Chaucer planned to write 120 stories, with each person telling two stories on the way there and two on the way back. However, only 23 were completed, and one was partially finished. Two of the stories are written in prose. The others are written in verse. They were so popular that he was invited to read his stories to the king and royal court.

Background

Canterbury Cathedral
The Canterbury Tales is about a group of people who are pilgrims. They are travelling to an important sacred site. In the Middle Ages, many Christian people went on pilgrimages to Jerusalem, Rome, Santiago de Compostela and Canterbury. Canterbury Cathedral was a famous pilgrimage site because it contained the shrine (a place for remembering) of Saint Thomas Becket.

Thomas Becket
Thomas Becket had been the Archbishop of Canterbury in the 1100s. He had an argument with his old friend, King Henry II, and in 1170 he was murdered by some of the King's knights on order from the King. The King felt very sad and guilty. He had a magnificent tomb built for his old friend.
People began to visit the tomb. Soon, some people said that Thomas Becket was a saint, and that his bones could work miracles. He is regarded as a martyr for the Christian faith and as a saint by both the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. In the late Middle Ages his shrine made Canterbury one of the four most important pilgrimage places in Europe.

Pilgrims
Many pilgrims used to meet together in London. The Canterbury Tales tells of the meeting of a group at an inn in Southwark, which was a village south of the Thames River and now making up part of London. This was a good place to meet because people from the north could cross the Thames River by London Bridge.

Canterbury is in the south-east of England. Pilgrims used to gather in groups because it was dangerous to travel alone. In the days before modern banking, every traveller had to carry a lot of money to pay for food and accommodation (a place to sleep). Robbers often attacked people along the roads.
When pilgrims gathered in a group, the group could be made up of many different kinds of people, both rich and poor, noble and humble. The groups often contained a number of religious people such as priests, monks and nuns. In Chaucer's story, the most noble person is a knight.

The tales 
The Canterbury Tales begins with a Prologue (which means "a few words to begin"). In the prologue Chaucer describes the time of year, which is April, when the weather begins to get warmer after winter. He says that it is at this time that people begin to go on pilgrimage. Chaucer tells the reader about the people who are gathered at the inn. He describes the people so clearly that many of them have become famous characters in English Literature, and have often been shown in paintings. Chaucer describes how each person tells a story to entertain the other as they travel along.
The Tales are:
 The General Prologue it introduces each of the Pilgrims
 The Knight's Tale the Knight tells of two friends duel with one another over the love of a woman
 The Miller's Prologue and Tale the drunken Miller tells a vulgar tale of how a foolish Reeve was made a Cuckold by his unfaithful wife and a lodging scholar
 The Reeve's Prologue and Tale the Reeve tells a nasty tale of how a cheating miller was beaten and his arrogant wife humiliated and his daughter seduced by a pair of students he had tried to steal and cheat from
 The Cook's Prologue and Tale the drunken cook tells a vulgar tale of how a lazy apprentice is let go by his master to dance and revel
 The Man of Law's Prologue and Tale the Man of law tells how a virtuous princess goes through many trials
 The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale the Wife of Bath tells of how a Knight must find out what women most desire-or be executed