Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Cagliari () is a city in the region of Sardinia in Italy. It is also the capital of the Province of Cagliari. Cagliari has one of the biggest ports in the Mediterranean Sea and an international airport.

There are 149,575 people living in the city. With an area of , its population density is of  inhabitants/km². It is bordered by the comuni of Assemini, Capoterra, Elmas, Monserrato, Quartu Sant'Elena, Quartucciu, Selargius and Sestu.

It is also the seat of the University of Cagliari from 1607 and the Primate Roman Catholic archdiocese of Sardinia, from the 5th century AD.

Cagliari has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa in the Koeppen climate classification).

The metropolitan area of Cagliari
The urban area of Cagliari, with a total area of , has a total population of about 420,000 inhabitants, of which 36.57% of them are in the city of Cagliari.

The metropolitan area of Cagliari is formed by the city of Cagliari and by 15 comuni.
Twin cities
The city of Cagliari has, as twin cities, the following cities:
 Buenos Aires, Argentina
 Nanyuki, Kenya
 Pisa, Italy
 Vercelli, Italy
 Padua, Italy
 Biella, Italy

References

Other websites

 Official website of the commune 

Communes of the Metropolitan City of Cagliari
Phoenician colonies
Regional capitals in Italy
Foggia is a city in the region of Apulia, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Foggia.

References

Cities in Foggia
Capital cities in Italy
Rimini is a city in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy. It is also the capital of the Province of Rimini. About 138,000 people live in Rimini.

Rimini is a popular seaside resort known for its bars and nightclubs. It has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification).

References 

 
Capital cities in Italy
Syracuse (, ) is a city in the region of Sicily in Italy. It is also the capital of the Province of Syracuse. About 125,000 people live in Syracuse. Syracuse is famous for being the place where Archimedes lived.

Capital cities in Italy
Cities in Sicily
Settlements in Syracuse
Into the Blue is an American action movie made in 2005.

Plot 

The movie is about four scuba divers who find a sunken ship filled with drugs. The divers help the police catch the people who put the drugs there.

American adventure movies
2005 movies
English-language movies
2005 adventure movies
Autofocus is a procedure for finding the correct position of the lens for a scene. The autofocus feature can be provided in a system which includes a movable optical element, a motor, an image sensor and a processing unit. The autofocus procedure is done by changing the lense position and image quality measurements in each position. The position that provides the image with the best quality will be used as the best focus.

The image quality may be estimated using image gradients. To speed-up the autofocus procedure, the autofocus is done in two steps: the first run over the full range of the lenses movement with a significant step will provide the estimated position which will be improved in the second run over the small range with a small step. Interpolation between the few best positions may improve the results accuracy.

Optics
The Shiba Inu is a breed of dog from Japan. It looks like a smaller version of the Akita Inu, and was first bred for hunting. Shiba Inu is one of seven Japanese dog species recognised as natural symbols of the country.

There are two types of Shiba. Aka-Shiba has red hair, and Kuro-Shiba has black hair. Shiba is a popular among breeders in Japan.

Shiba inu are faithful to their owners and are wary of strangers. They are popular as guard dogs. They are also the subject of an internet meme called Doge.

Other Japanese dogs
 Akita Inu 
 Kai Inu also called the Kai Ken
 Kisyu Inu
 Tosa Inu
 Hokkaido Inu
 Koshi-no-inu (extinct since 1971)

Dog breeds originating in Japan
FCI breeds
Lyric could mean:

 Lyric poetry is a form of poetry that expresses a subjective, personal point of view
 Lyric, from the Greek language, a song sung with a lyre
 Lyrics, the composition in verse which is sung to a melody to constitute a song
 Lyric is a classification of the human voice in European classical music.  The adjective describes a specific vocal weight and a range at the upper end of the given voice part, e.g. lyric soprano; see voice type
 Lyric Opera House in Baltimore, Maryland, locally referred to as just "the Lyric"
 Lyric FM, a Radio Telefís Éireann radio station
 Lyric (R&B), an R&B girl group briefly signed to J Records from 2002–2003; known for the song, "Young and Sexy".
 Lyric, a single released in June 2003 by the "indie supergroup" Zwan.
 Lyrics, an ESRB content rating advisor
 Lyric, a video vixen
Historic military alliances 
Medic Wars
Hellenic League - Athens, Lacedemonia, Macedon, others
Peloponnesian War
League of Delos - Athens, Chios, Samos, Lesbos, others
Peloponnesian League - Lacedemonia, Corinth, Elis, others
Wars of Scottish Independence
Auld Alliance - Scotland, Norway, France
Italian Wars
League of Cambrai - The Papal States, France, Aragon, Holy Roman Empire
Catholic League (Italian) - The Papal States, Venice, England, Aragon, Holy Roman Empire
Schmalkaldic War
Schmalkaldic League - German Protestant States
Anglo-Portuguese Alliance -  England (succeeded by the United Kingdom) and Portugal, since 1373
 Luso-Islamic War
Ethio-Portuguese Treaties - Portugal, Ethiopia
 Thirty Years' War
 Catholic League (German) - Bavaria, other Catholic German States
 Protestant Union - Protestant German States
War of the Grand Alliance (Nine Years War)
League of Augsburg - The Netherlands, Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Austria, other German states
War of the Spanish Succession
The Quadruple Alliance of 1718
Napoleonic Wars
 The Quadruple Alliance of 1814/15 
 First through Seventh Coalitions
The Quadruple Alliance of 1834
Anglo-Japanese Alliance - United Kingdom and Japan
 World War I
the Entente and the Allies - United Kingdom, France, Serbia, New Zealand, Australia, Russia (to 1917), Romania (from 1916), United States (from 1917)
the Central Powers - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria
 World War II
the Axis - Germany, Japan, Italy,and many others.
the Allies - United Kingdom and the Commonwealth, France, United States, Soviet Union, Republic of China, many others.
 Cold War
 Western European Union (WEU) - currently in process of merging into CFSP and ESDP (see below)
 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) -- United States, Canada, most of Western Europe (still an active alliance)
 Warsaw Pact - Soviet Union,  East Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania
Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) - United States, United Kingdom, France, Australia, Burma, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, Philippines
 Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO) - United States, United Kingdom, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan
 ANZUS - United States, Australia, New Zealand (still an active alliance)
 Five Powers Pact - Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore, United Kingdom (still an active alliance)
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) - United States, United Kingdom, Canada, most of Western Europe and Central Europe, parts of Eastern Europe, and Turkey.
 Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) - Russia, Belarus, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan
 Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) of the European Union.
 Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) - United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Singapore.
 ANZUS Treaty (ANZUS) - United States, Australia, New Zealand.
 ECOMOG of Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group.
 Council for Peace and Security in Central Africa (COPAX) of Economic Community of Central African States.
 Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Pact) - Most of the countries of the Americas.
North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) - United States and Canada. NORAD and other defense agreements (such as the Permanent Joint Board on Defense) form the most extensive defense alliance in the world.
 Regional Security System (RSS) - several Eastern Caribbean countries.
 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), political, economic and military organisation - China, Russia, India, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan.
Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa (BRICS) - economic and military assistance.
References 

Military alliances
Jugiong is a small village on the bank of the Murrumbidgee River in New South Wales, Australia. It is 344 km south west of Sydney on the Hume Highway. The first people to live in the area were indigenous Australians, the Wiradjuri people. The first Europeans were the explorers Hamilton Hume and William Hovell on their trip in 1824.
Henry O'Brien, an Irishman, started farming sheep in 1825. His farm, called the Jugiong Run, was 125,000 acres. Explorer Charles Sturt reached the Murrumbidgee at Jugiong in 1829 at the start of his travels down the river.

Tavern
Tavern

In 1845 another Irishman named John Philip Sheahan (1816–December 9, 1877) built the Sir George Tavern (an hotel) which made Jugiong an important resting place on the new road, the Great Southern Road, to Melbourne. The building was destroyed in a flood in 1852. The flood also destroyed the buildings at the town of Gundagai. Sheahan rebuilt the hotel with walls up to 500 mm thick and it is still in use; remaining in the family throughout the preceding years. It is the oldest family owned hotel in Australia.

The Village
The first blocks of land at Jugiong were sold at auction in 1853. Three years later a post office was opened. In 1858 a police station was built, and work started on a catholic church, St.John the Evangelist. About 120 people were living at Jugiong by 1862. An Anglican church was started in 1872. The Jugiong Public  school opened in 1883 with 56 students. Australian cricket player Richie Benaud started his schooling at Jugiong in 1935.
Bushrangers
On 15 November 1864  bushrangers (thieves) stopped all traffic including the mail stagecoach (a cart pulled by horses) 5 km south of Jugiong. Over 60 people were stopped by the bushrangers. They wanted to steal (take with force) gold, money and other valuables. The bushrangers were Ben Hall, John Gilbert and John Dunn. In the attack one policeman, Sergeant Edmund Parry was shot dead by John Gilbert.

Song
A song called The Road to Jugiong  with words by Robert John Cassidy (1880–1948) and music by James A.Steele was published by Allans, Melbourne, in 1940.

Bypass
In 1995, the new Hume Freeway, went around the village. In 1996 a new rest and picnic area was built to help travelers take a break on their journey. Facilities at Jugiong include:
 a hotel
 a cafe, the Long Track Pantry Cafe ,
 a motel
 a wine shop
 a fruit and vegetable shop
 a petrol station
 a swimming pool
 churches
 school
 a hotel

References
The Egerton Gospel is a set of papyri that are now in the British Museum. The papyri have been dated to the second century. The text they contain may have been written 50-100 AD. It is one of the oldest known fragments of any gospel, or any codex. Soon after the British Museum acquired it in the summer of 1934, it was printed in 1935. It is also called the Unknown Gospel, as no ancient source makes reference to it, in addition to being entirely unknown before its publication.

The surviving fragments include four stories:
 a controversy similar to John 5:39-47 and 10:31-39;
 curing a leper similar to Matt 8:1-4, Mark 1:40-45, Luke 5:12-16 and Luke 17:11-14;
 a controversy about paying tribute to Caesar analogous to Matt 22:15-22, Mark 12:13-17, Luke 20:20-26;
 an incomplete account of a miracle on the Jordan River bank, perhaps carried out to illustrate  the parable about seeds growing miraculously.
The last story has no equivalent in canonical Gospels:

References
References

Other websites
The PAPYRUS EGERTON 2 Homepage  Detailed description of the manuscript, with many images. Greek and English text and reconstruction.
Early Christian Writings website: text, commentary, links.

Manuscripts
The Gospel of Thomas (or the Gospel according to Thomas, Coptic: p.euaggelion p.kata.cwmas) is a text written during the era of the New Testament. It is considered to be an apocryphon. It was found in Nag Hammadi, Egypt in 1945. 

The text is in the form of a codex, bound in what today is known as Coptic binding. It is almost complete. Unlike the other texts, it is not a narrative, but a collection of sayings and short dialogues attributed to Jesus. There are 114 sayings in the text. Most are compatible with the other gospels. They can also be found in one of the other gospels. Some were unknown to scholars before the codex was found. None of the big Christian groups accepts the Gospel of Thomas as canon.

Other websites 

 Hypertext interlinear of Thomas; by Paterson Brown 
 Gospel of Thomas with detailed comparisons with canonical sayings 
 Gospel of Thomas Commentary

Gnosticism
Thomas, Gospel of
Rubik's Cube is a puzzle cube, and the world's biggest selling toy of all time with over 300,000,000 (300 million) sold. It was invented in 1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik. In a classic Rubik's Cube, each of the six faces is covered by nine stickers, each of one of six solid colours: white, red, blue, orange, green, and yellow. In currently sold models, white is opposite yellow, blue is opposite green, orange is opposite red, and some might replace blue with black or purple. The goal of the puzzle is to make all 6 faces have the same color.

Types of Cubes 
The standard Rubik's Cube is 3x3x3. 3 blocks across, 3 blocks down, and 3 blocks deep. Cubes can be made in 2x2, 4x4, or larger versions.  the largest cube is 33 x 33, which is also 3d printed.
Cuboids are cubes with uneven sides. Some options are the 3x2x2 or 3x5 or 4x3. Some cuboids can shapeshift or jumble. That means the cube goes out of its original shape. To solve a shapeshifting cube it must return to the original shape before it is considered solved.

Gear cubes include gears which cause both sides of a cube to turn.

Other versions include the Megaminx, Pyraminx, Rubik's clock, Mirror Cube, and Square 1.

Structure 

A Rubik's Cube is a cube split into a number of smaller cubes with different colored faces attached to a rotating piece of metal in the middle. Total, there are 26 small cubes. The Rubik's Cube have six sides with 9 little cubes attached to it and each side has one color. Red, yellow, blue, orange, white and green are the most common colors.
The cubes can be rotated and twisted along rows and faces. The aim of the puzzle is to make each face of the cube have the same color. Solving a Rubik's Cube requires logic and thinking. There are many different ways to learn how to solve a Rubik's cube.

Methods 
There are many methods that people use to solve a Rubik's Cube. The most simple and easiest one is called the Beginner Method. In this method first the white cross is solved. Then the white layer is solved, followed by the middle layer. Finally, the yellow cross is solved, then the yellow corners. Today the most common method is called CFOP, also called the Fridrich Method, named after the popularizer Jessica Fridrich. It starts with the white cross, then F2L (First 2 Layers) followed by OLL (Orientation of the Last Layer) and PLL (Permutation of the Last Layer). Other methods include Petrus,  ZZ, Roux, Keyhole and others.
Records 
The record for one Rubik's Cube solve is 3.13 by Max Park. The record for an average of 5 solves is 4.48 By Yiheng Wang.

According to Guinness World Records, the fastest time a robot has solved a Rubik's Cube is 0.637 seconds. This was done by the robot "Sub1 Reloaded", created by Albert Beer. However, a faster time of 0.38 seconds was claimed by a robot built at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

The shortest solutions 
Every single rubik's cube configuration can be solved in 20 moves or less if half turns count as 1 move.
If half turns count as 2 moves the number would be 26.

Related pages
Pocket Cube
Rubik's Revenge
Professor's Cube

References

Other websites 

 Rubik's cube World Record by Patrick Ponce
 The Rubik's Cube's solver application
 The Rubik's Cube's solution guide
 The Rubik's Cube's wiki
 Simple solving manual 
 The Rubik's Cube's official website

Puzzles
The flag of Sierra Leone was created in 1961.

Sierra Leone
National symbols of Sierra Leone
The flag of Scotland is a white X-shaped cross (a saltire), which represents the cross of the patron saint of Scotland, Saint Andrew on a blue sky. The flag is called Saint Andrew's Cross or the Saltire.

History 

According to legend, in 832 A.D. King Óengus (II) (or King Angus) led the Picts and Scots in battle against the Angles near modern-day Athelstaneford in East Lothian. King Angus and his men were surrounded and he prayed for deliverance. During the night Saint Andrew, who was martyred on a saltire cross, appeared to Angus and assured him of victory. On the following morning a white saltire against the background of a blue sky appeared to both sides. The Picts and Scots were heartened by this, but the Angles lost confidence and were defeated. According to the legend, this saltire design has been the Scottish flag ever since.
Material evidence of the saltire's use dates from many centuries later. In 1385 the Parliament of Scotland decreed that Scottish soldiers should wear a saltire as a distinguishing mark. The earliest surviving Scottish flag consisting solely of the saltire dates from 1503: a white cross on a red background.  By 1540 the legend of King Angus had been altered to include the vision of the cross against a blue sky.  Thereafter, this saltire design in its present form became the national flag of Scotland.

Flying the flag

Scottish Parliament 

There are five flagpoles outside the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh. The flag of Scotland is flown every day, alongside the Union Flag and the flag of Europe. The fourth flagpole is used for special occasions such as Commonwealth Day and United Nations Day. The fifth pole is used for the Royal Standard of Scotland.

Edinburgh Castle
Edinburgh Castle 

Edinburgh Castle is managed by Historic Scotland, and has a military garrison of the British Army. Like all British Army bases, it flies the Union Flag (in ratio3:5) and the Army flies it every day from the Clock Tower. The Saltire is flown every day at the Half Moon Battery.

The flying of the Union Flag at Edinburgh Castle has sometimes caused controversy. In 2001, a group of 20 Scottish National Party MSPs called for the Union Flag to be replaced by the Saltire.

Scottish Government 
The Scottish Government has decreed that the flag of Scotland will fly on all its buildings every day from 8 am until sunset. An exception is made for "national days". On these days, the Saltire shall be lowered and replaced with the Union Flag. These days are the same as the flag days of the United Kingdom with the exception of 3 September (Merchant Navy Day), which is a specific flag day in Scotland and during which the Red Ensign may also be used.
Another difference with the rest of the UK's days is that on Saint Andrew's Day, the Union Flag will only be flown if the building has more than one flagpole – the Saltire will not be lowered to make way for the Union Flag if there is only one flagpole. This difference arose after Members of the Scottish Parliament complained that Scotland was the only country in the world that could not fly its national flag on its national day.

Others 
The flag can be flown at any time by any individual, company, local authority, hospital or school. There is no need to get consent to fly the flag from a vertical flagpole. The flagpole itself may need planning permission. 

In recent years, embassies of the United Kingdom have flown the Saltire to mark St Andrew's Day.

Most local authorities in Scotland fly the Saltire. Glasgow City Council fly the flag from the City Chambers building in George Square, while the City of Edinburgh Council fly the flag from their own city chambers.
In 2007 Angus Council led by Robert Myles decided to change the Saltire for a new Angus flag. This move led to public outcry across Scotland with more than 7,000 people signing a petition opposing the council's move, leading to a compromise whereby the Angus flag would not replace but be flown alongside the Saltire on Council buildings.

Colour and dimensions 

At various times throughout history colours as light as sky blue or as dark as dark navy blue have been used (a selection apparently motivated by which colour of blue dye was available at the time). When incorporated as part of the Union Flag, the navy blue colour used was that of the Blue ensign belonging to the historic 'Blue Squadron' of the British Royal Navy. Dark blue was primarily used for reasons of expediency—it suffered less from the effects of fading resulting from prolonged exposure to the elements (namely sunlight and salt spray).
In 2003, a committee of the Scottish Parliament met to examine a petition that the Scottish Government adopt the Pantone 300 colour as a standard. (Note that this blue is of a lighter shade than the Pantone 280 of the Union Flag). Having taken advice from a number of sources including the office of the Lord Lyon King of Arms, the committee recommended that the optimum shade of blue for the Saltire should be Pantone 300 (that is, 0, 101, 189 in the RGB colour model, or #0065BD as hexadecimal web colours). Recent versions of the Saltire have therefore largely converged on this official recommendation, though dark blue has continued in use.  

The flag's proportion is not fixed, but is generally taken as 1:2, 2:3, 3:5 or 4:5. The bars in the cross should be 1/5 (i.e., 20%) the width of the flag.

Outside Scotland
Outside Scotland 

Inverse representations (blue saltire on a white field) of the Scottish Saltire are also used outside Scotland. In Canada, an inverse representation of the Saltire, combined with the shield from the Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland, forms the modern flag of the Canadian Province of Nova Scotia, the first colonial venture of the Kingdom of Scotland into the Americas. 

In Russia, during the period before and after the Soviet Union, the naval ensign of the Russian Navy has been an inverse representation of the Cross of Saint Andrew. (Saint Andrew is also a patron saint of Russia). The very same Saltire was also flown as the flag of Galicia in Spain until 1891, when Russia requested the Galician flag to be modified in order to avoid confusion between Galician ships and Russian Navy ships. The current Galician flag is actually the original blue-over-white saltire but without one of the arms of the cross.
The U.S. state of Alabama's flag is officially "a crimson cross of St. Andrew on a field of white," but the reference is used only to describe the shape without using the vexillological term saltire as that flag's origins are from either or both of the Confederate Battle Flag or the Cross of Burgundy Flag, both of which have saltires and are associated with the history of that state. Similarly, the Spanish island of Tenerife and the remote Colombian islands of San Andrés and Providencia also use the saltire on their flags.

The Scottish Saltire is also used unofficially by students and graduates of Xavier University because of the university's blue and white official colors and the resemblance of the flag to the letter "X". It is also the flag for St. Andrew's Scots School, Argentina (founded in 1838) and its "spinoff" university Universidad de San Andrés.

The Dutch municipality of Sint-Oedenrode, named after the Scottish princess Saint Oda, also uses the Saltire as the basis of its flag.
Incorporation into the Union Flag 
The Scottish Saltire and field is one of the key components of the Union Flag. The Union Flag has been used in a variety of forms since 1606, when the flags of the Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of England were first merged to symbolise the Union of the Crowns. (The Union of the Crowns having occurred in 1603.) In Scotland, and in particular on Scottish vessels at sea, historical evidence suggests that a separate design of Union Flag was sometimes flown to that used in England. Following the Acts of Union of 1707, which united the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England, the standard Union Flag became the national flag of the new United Kingdom of Great Britain.
From 1801, in order to symbolise the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, a new design was adopted for the Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The 1801 design did not change with the partition of Ireland in 1921 and creation of the Irish Free State, and is the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland today.

Lion Rampant 

The Royal Standard of the King of Scots, also known as the Royal Flag of Scotland or the Lion Rampant, is the flag used historically by the King of Scots. It remains the personal banner of the monarch and use of this flag is restricted under the Act of the Parliament of Scotland 1672 cap. 47 and 30 & 31 Vict. cap. 17.

Despite the legal restrictions concerning the use of this flag, it is often regarded as a second, albeit unofficial, national flag for Scotland, most often seen at sporting events.

References
References

Other websites 
 Information on the Saltire from the soc.culture.scottish FAQ
 Petition Number 512  
 Saint Andrew in the National Archives of Scotland 

Flags of the United Kingdom
National symbols of Scotland
How it works
The STM is called a microscope because it makes pictures of tiny objects. But it is different -- it doesn't have anything to look into with our eyes. It is similar to feeling the shape of objects on a table in a dark room: you can draw a picture of the shape even though you did not seen it with your eyes. The STM does this for very tiny objects. It works by scanning a sharp metal needle back and forth across a surface, and uses electric current instead of force to sense the shape. When the tip of sharp metal needle is brought very close to the surface of a thing being studied, a voltage between the two causes electrons to flow through the space between them. The electrons cross this space by a process called quantum tunneling, which gives the STM its name. This tiny current of electrons flows when the tip is almost touching the surface. The current changes as the probe moves along the surface. This change is recorded by a computer, which makes it into a picture that we can see.
The surface and the tip must conduct electrons, so they must be made of a metal or semiconductor. A related kind of microscope senses the force instead of the electric current. This kind of microscope is called an atomic force microscope.

STM is a hard thing to do, because it needs a very clean surface and a very sharp needle tip. The STM usually works in a vacuum to keep the air molecules from disturbing the surface, but it can also work in air or water.
Ways it can make a picture
First, the tip is brought very close to the surface of thing being studied. This distance is about half of a nanometer. Then the tip is moved very carefully back and forth across the surface. The electrical current is measured while the tip is moved back and forth (constant height method). The STM can also work by adjusting the tip so the tunnel current stays the same (constant current method). Using the constant-height method is faster. Using constant-current method helps avoid bumping the tip into things on the surface, so it can study things that are rougher.

Moving atoms
The STM can move an atom (or a molecule) to a new place on the surface. To move an atom, the tip is moved so it touches the atom. Then the tip pulls or pushes the atom to a new place. Moving atoms allows scientists to arrange them into tiny objects, so they can test their properties and try out new ideas.

Parts of the STM
Parts of the STM

The parts of an STM are: scanning tip, something that moves the tip, something that stops it from vibrating, and a computer that controls the tip and makes the picture.

Related pages
 Atomic Force Microscope
 Microscope

References

Other websites 

 Scanning Electron Microscope is filming a STM  (mpeg movie 3MB)
 Zooming into the Nanoworld  (Animation with measured STM images)
 SPM - Scanning Probe Microscopy Website 
 STM Gallery at Vienna University of technology
 Build a simple STM with a cost of materials less than $100.00 excluding oscilloscope 
 Nanotimes Simulation engine download page 
 Structure and Dynamics of Organic Nanostructures discovered by STM
 Metal organic coordination networks of oligopyridines and Cu on graphite investigated by STM
 Surface Alloys discovered by STM
Literature 
 Tersoff, J.: Hamann, D. R.: Theory of the scanning tunneling microscope, Physical Review B 31, 1985, p. 805 - 813. 
 Bardeen, J.: Tunnelling from a many-particle point of view, Physical Review Letters 6 (2), 1961, p. 57-59.
 Chen, C. J.: Origin of Atomic Resolution on Metal Surfaces in Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, Physical Review Letters 65 (4), 1990, p. 448-451

 G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel, Phys. Rev. Lett. 50, 120 - 123 (1983)
 G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 57 - 61 (1982)
 G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel, Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 40, Issue 2, pp. 178-180 (1982)
 R. V. Lapshin, Feature-oriented scanning methodology for probe microscopy and nanotechnology, Nanotechnology, volume 15, issue 9, pages 1135-1151, 2004

Microscopes
This article is about orbital (electron) energy levels.  For compounds' energy levels, see chemical potential.

Simply defined as the different states of potential energy for electrons in an atom. A quantum mechanical system can only be in certain states, so that only certain energy levels are possible.  The term energy level is most commonly used in reference to the electron configuration in atoms or molecules. In other words, the energy spectrum can be quantized (see continuous spectrum for the more general case). 

As with classical potentials, the potential energy is usually set to zero at infinity, leading to a negative potential energy for bound electron states. 

Energy levels are said to be degenerate, if the same energy level is obtained by more than one quantum mechanical state. They are then called degenerate energy levels.

The following sections of this article gives an overview over the most important factors that determine the energy levels of atoms and molecules.

Atoms
Atoms

Intrinsic energy levels

Orbital state energy level
Assume an electron in a given atomic orbital. The energy of its state is mainly determined by the electrostatic interaction of the (negative) electron with the (positive) nucleus. The energy levels of an electron around a nucleus are given by : 

 ,

where  is the Rydberg constant (typically between 1 eV and 103 eV), Z is the charge of the atom's nucleus,  is the principal quantum number, e is the charge of the electron,  is Planck's constant, and c is the speed of light.

The Rydberg levels depend only on the principal quantum number .

Fine structure splitting
Fine structure arises from relativistic kinetic energy corrections, spin-orbit coupling (an electrodynamic interaction between the electron's spin and motion and the nucleus's electric field) and the Darwin term (contact term interaction of s-shell electrons inside the nucleus). Typical magnitude  eV.
Hyperfine structure
Spin-nuclear-spin coupling (see hyperfine structure). Typical magnitude  eV.

Electrostatic interaction of an electron with other electrons
If there is more than one electron around the atom, electron-electron-interactions raise the energy level. These interactions are often neglected if the spatial overlap of the electron wavefunctions is low.

Energy levels due to external fields

Zeeman effect

The interaction energy is:  with

Zeeman effect taking spin into account
This takes both the magnetic dipole moment due to the orbital angular momentum and the magnetic momentum arising from the electron spin into account. 

Due to relativistic effects (Dirac equation), the magnetic moment arising from the electron spin is  with  the gyro-magnetic factor (about 2). 

The interaction energy therefore gets .

Stark effect
Interaction with an external electric field (see Stark effect).
Molecules
Roughly speaking, a molecular energy state, i.e. an eigenstate of the molecular Hamiltonian, is the sum of an electronic, vibrational, rotational, nuclear and translational component, such that:

where  is an eigenvalue of the electronic molecular Hamiltonian (the value of the potential energy surface) at the equilibrium geometry of the molecule.  

The molecular energy levels are labelled by the molecular term symbols.

The specific energies of these components vary with the specific energy state and the substance. 

In molecular physics and quantum chemistry, an energy level is a quantized energy of a bound quantum mechanical state.

Crystalline materials
Crystalline materials are often characterized by a number of important energy levels. The most important ones are the top of the valence band, the bottom of the conduction band, the Fermi energy, the vacuum level, and the energy levels of any defect states in the crystals.
Related pages
 Electron configuration
 Computational chemistry
 Spectroscopy

Mechanics
Spectroscopy
The nucleus is the center of an atom.  It is made up of nucleons called protons and neutrons and is surrounded by the electron cloud.  The size (diameter) of the nucleus is between 1.6 fm (10−15 m) (for a proton in light-weight hydrogen) to about 15 fm (for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium).  These sizes are much smaller than the size of the atom itself by a factor of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen).  Although it is only a very small part of the atom, the nucleus has most of the mass.  Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Only a small amount of mass is from the orbiting electrons.
Neutrons have no electric charge and protons are positively charged. Because the nucleus is only made up of protons and neutrons it is positively charged. Things that have the same charge repel each other: this repulsion is part of what is called electromagnetic force. Unless there was something else holding the nucleus together it could not exist because the protons would push away from each other. The nucleus is actually held together by another force known as the strong nuclear force.

The word nucleus is from 1704, meaning “kernel of a nut”. In 1844, Michael Faraday used nucleus to describe the “central point of an atom”. The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The use of the word nucleus in atomic theory, however, did not happen immediately. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell".
Composition 
The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons (two types of baryons) joined by the nuclear force. These baryons are further made up of sub-atomic fundamental particles known as quarks joined by the strong interaction. The nucleus is more or less a spheroid and may be somewhat prolate (long) or oblate (flat) or otherwise not entirely round.

If the nucleus can be considered to have a radius of the order of 5 fm (= 10 × 10-15 m), this means its cross-section is of the order of 10-28 m2, and its volume is about 10-42 m3.

Isotopes and nuclides 

The isotope of an atom is based on the number of neutrons in the nucleus.  Different isotopes of the same element have very similar chemical properties.  Different isotopes in a sample of a chemical can be separated by using a centrifuge or by using a mass spectrometer.  The first method is used in producing enriched uranium from regular uranium, and the second is used in carbon dating.
The number of protons and neutrons together determine the nuclide (type of nucleus).  Protons and neutrons have nearly equal masses, and their combined number, the mass number, is about equal to the atomic mass of an atom. The combined mass of the electrons is very small when compared to the mass of the nucleus; protons and neutrons weigh about 2000 times more than electrons.
History 
The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson was the first sign that the atom had internal structure. At the turn of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model in which the atom was a large positively charged ball with small negatively charged electrons embedded inside of it. By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three types of radiation coming from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments in 1911 by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energies that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it indicated that energy was not conserved in these decays. The problem would later lead to the discovery of the neutrino (see below).
In 1906 Ernest Rutherford published "Radiation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through Matter".  Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done passing α particles through air, aluminum foil and gold foil.  More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Marsden and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger, In 1911-2 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.
In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert L. Becker, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a massive particle that he called the neutron. In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that neutrons were in fact spin 1/2 particles and that the nucleus contained neutrons and that there were no electrons in it, and Francis Perrin suggested that neutrinos were not nuclear particles but were created during beta decay. To cap the year off, Fermi submitted a theory of the neutrino to Nature (which the editors rejected for being "too remote from reality"). Fermi continued working on his theory and published a paper in 1934 which placed the neutrino on solid theoretical footing. In the same year Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together.
With Fermi and Yukawa's papers the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).

The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the most important of which is the standard model of particle physics which unifies the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces.

Modern nuclear physics
A nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons  which means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.

Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert-Mayer. Nuclei with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126, ...) are particularly stable, because their shells are filled.
Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of American footballs) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator.
Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark-gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.

Topics in nuclear physics

Nuclear decay
Nuclear decay 

If a nucleus has too few or too many neutrons it may be unstable, and will decay after some period of time. For example, nitrogen-16 atoms (7 protons, 9 neutrons) beta decay to oxygen-16 atoms (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created.  In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is turned into a proton and an electron by the weak nuclear force.  The element of the atom changes because while it previously had seven protons (which makes it nitrogen) it now has eight (which makes it oxygen).  Many elements have multiple isotopes which are stable for weeks, years, or even billions of years.

Nuclear fusion
When two light nuclei come into very close contact with each other it is possible for the strong force to fuse the two together.  It takes a great deal of energy to push the nuclei close enough together for the strong force to have an effect, so the process of nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high densities.  Once the nuclei are close enough together the strong force overcomes their electromagnetic repulsion and squishes them into a new nucleus.  A very large amount of energy is released when light nuclei fuse together because the binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up until nickel-62.  Stars like our sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos.  The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway
. Research to find an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction is currently being undertaken by various research establishments (see JET and ITER).
Nuclear fission 

For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones. This splitting of atoms is known as nuclear fission.

The process of alpha decay may be thought of as a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. This process produces a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.
For a neutron-initiated chain-reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the element present in a certain space under certain conditions (these conditions slow and conserve neutrons for the reactions). There is one known example of a natural nuclear fission reactor, which was active in two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain-reactions.

Production of heavy elements
As the Universe cooled after the big bang  it eventually became possible for particles as we know them to exist.  The most common particles created in the big bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons (hydrogen) and electrons (in equal numbers).  Some heavier elements were created as the protons collided with each other, but most of the heavy elements we see today were created inside of stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process.
Progressively heavier elements are made during the evolution of a star.
Since the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron, energy is only released in fusion processes occurring below this point. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion costs energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture.  Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus.  The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron capture process (the so-called s process) or by the rapid, or r process.   The s process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth.  The r process is thought to occur in supernova explosions because the conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter are present
.  These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers).  The r process duration is typically in the range of a few seconds.
Related pages
 Radioactivity
 Nuclear fusion
 Nuclear fission
 Nuclear medicine
 Nuclear physics
 Atomic number
 Atomic mass
 Isotope
 Liquid drop model

References

Other websites 
 The Nucleus - a chapter from an online textbook 
 - Study of the NUCLEAR STRUCTURE by R. Kolessin

Nuclear physics
Matter
The governor of Florida is the head of state and government of the U.S. state of Florida and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor is also the head of the executive branch of the state government and is the chairman of the gubernatorial cabinet.

Ron DeSantis is the 46th and current governor of Florida, in office since January 2019.

History 
Florida had been a French and then a Spanish colony. It came under British control and then returned to Spanish control again after the American Revolution. It had many and multiple governors during these colonial periods of time. The British divided the state into East Florida and West Florida, each with its own head of state.

There were also five military governors during the colonial period time such as, William P. Duval, John Eaton, Richard K. Call, Robert R. Reid, and John Branch.
Powers and Duties 
The governor has the power to enforce state laws and the duty to either approve or veto bills passed by the Florida Legislature or the Florida Senate to assemble the legislature and grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment.

Eligibility & requirements 
Section 5 of the state's constitution states for a person to serve as governor must:

 be at least thirty years old.
 be a permanent resident in Florida for at least seven years.

Election process and gubernatorial terms 
The governor is elected by the people through the popular election to a four-year term, along with the lieutenant gubernatorial candidate or the incumbent lieutenant governor of Florida as their running mate. The gubernatorial candidate or incumbent governor must have the majority of the popular vote in order to win the election.

Under Section 5 of the state's constitution forbids anyone from being elected governor more than twice.