Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Social democracy is a type of socialism that attempts to mix parts of socialism with capitalism. In this system, despite there still being private property, the government generates tax revenue, typically from the wealthiest in the society and corporations, and distributes it to the poor, or even everyone in the society, via in the form of social programs. These programs range from single-payer healthcare, to other welfare programs such as expanding SNAP benefits. While the intentions of social democracy and socialism can be similar or shared, social democracy keeps the capitalist system intact, and tries to reform it. Achieving socialism would mean completely getting rid of the capitalist system. Social democracy is often confused with democratic socialism due to the similar names and having the same short-term goals. The biggest difference is social democrats want to stop reforming capitalism when they think their reforms are good enough, but democratic socialists will not stop until capitalism is gone
. Some examples of social democracies are the Scandinavian countries.
In social democracies, some services and industries are subsidized (given subsidy money to help them run even if they are failing), partly controlled by the government, or both. For example, education, health care, housing, utility companies and public transportation are some industries that might be owned/supported by the government in a social democracy. For the most part, people working in these industries are paid by the government, with money paid by the people as taxes. A strong Welfare system is key to social democracy.

Utopian socialism
Utopian socialism is the first form of modern socialism. Unlike other forms of socialism, utopian socialism doesn't include belief in the necessity of class struggle.
Anarcho-socialism
Anarcho-socialism, also called anarchist socialism, libertarian socialism or free socialism is the thought that believes in a socialist society where the state does not exist. Anarcho-socialists believe that both the state and the bourgeois class (the class that owns the means of production in capitalism) oppresses the workers and a stateless mutual aid society should be established through a revolution. Mutual aid is the belief that people in a community (for example city districts or towns and villages) should help each other when necessary.

Anarcho-socialism is very similar to anarcho-communism, and many anarcho-socialists are anarcho-communists

Other 
Many people and countries see socialism differently. The Socialist International is an organization dedicated to the cause of promoting socialist ideals, and has ties with many socialist parties, especially Social Democratic parties.

History
History 

The followers of a Welshman, Robert Owen, began calling themselves socialists in 1841. Owen is seen as a founder of the Co-operative Movement in Britain. He said that workers should own the companies they worked for. The workers would then share the profits among themselves. He set up a new model factory in New Lanark, Scotland.

Karl Marx is the most well-known creator of the theory of socialism, and of communism. He wrote a book about capitalism, socialism, and communism, called "A critique of the social economy". Friedrich Engels co-wrote the book, and paid for much of Marx's work and research.

Many socialist political parties were formed during the 19th century and early part of the 20th century. During the decolonization movement in the 20th century, many armies fighting for independence planned to establish socialist countries.

Related pages
 Capitalism
 Communism
 Social democracy

References

Forms of government
Leninism is a way of thinking about how the communist party should be organized. It says it should be a dictatorship of the proletariat (the working class holds the power). It is thought to be one of the first steps towards socialism (where the workers own the factories, etc.). It is one part of Marxism–Leninism, which emphasizes the transition from capitalism to socialism.

Beliefs
Vladimir Lenin was a Russian Marxist. He had a set of ideas based on Marxism. Lenin's development of Marxism has become known as Leninism. These ideas include:
Democratic Centralism, also known as an idea of the vanguard party.  Like other communists,  Lenin wanted to see a socialist revolution led by the working class.  But he thought the workers needed strong leadership in the form of a Revolutionary Party based on Democratic Centralism.  Lenin wanted Communist political parties in every country to lead the revolution.  He thought the vanguard party would need to have strong discipline, or it would fail.
 The idea that capitalism is the cause of imperialism (empire-building). He thought that imperialism was the "highest stage" of capitalism.
 Accepting the idea that the oppressed ethnic minorities (smaller groups of people) should get to have Nationalism and decide how they should be governed.
 Teaching the proletariat (working class) about politics, especially Marxism.

References
References

Other websites 
 Books by Vladimir Lenin
 What Is To Be Done?.
 Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism.
 The State and Revolution.
 "The Lenin Archive".
 "First Conference of the Communist International".

 Other similar links
 "Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy" .
 "An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky".
 Rosa Luxemburg. "Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy".
 Karl Korsch. "Lenin's Philosophy".
 "Cyber Leninism".
 "Leninist Ebooks" .
 Anton Pannekoek. "Lenin as a Philosopher".
 Paul Mattick. "The Lenin Legend".
 Paul Craig Roberts. "Dead Labor: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered".

Communism
Marxism
A Bolshevik was a Russian communist in the early 20th century. They are also called the Bolshevik Communists. The majority of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was a Marxist political party.
 

At the party congress in 1903, members disagreed with each other. The party divided into two groups, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. They were called Bolsheviks because it means "those who are more." Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik group. The more moderate group, the Mensheviks (meaning "those of the minority") were led by Julius Martov. Although the Bolsheviks were called "those who are more", before 1917 there were more Mensheviks. Many of Lenin's opponents were afraid that he liked to control things too much.

In 1905 the Bolshevik group became a separate political party, the RSDLP(B) the 'b' in brackets standing for 'Bolshevik'.
Revolution 
After the February Revolution, some of the Mensheviks took positions in the Russian Provisional Government. Lenin said socialists must oppose the Provisional Government. The government began to weaken and Lenin started to have more authority. Because of this, many Mensheviks joined the Bolsheviks.

The Bolsheviks led the October Revolution in Russia in 1917. They said they created the world's first Workers' State. The Mensheviks opposed the government led by the Bolsheviks. Many ended up in prison or were killed. After that, they opposed the Bolsheviks from outside Russia, in exile. 

After the Revolution, the Bolshevik Party was called the Russian Communist Party.

Russian Revolution
Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who was fifth president of Iraq, from July 1979 to April 2003. He was 58th and 61st prime minister of Iraq, serving respectively from July 1979 to March 1991 and from May 1994 to April 2003.

He was removed from his position during the War in Iraq led by the United States. He ran a repressive authoritarian government, often described as totalitarian, which is a disputed label.

Childhood 

Saddam Hussein was born in the village of Al-Awja, in the Tikrit in Iraq. He never knew his father, Hussein 'Abd al-Majid, who disappeared five months before Saddam was born. Shortly before Saddam was born, Saddam's twelve-year-old brother died of cancer, leaving his mother very depressed in the final months of the pregnancy. She tried to kill herself near the end of the pregnancy and did not want to care for Saddam when he was born. Saddam was sent to the family of an uncle, Khairallah Tulfah, until he was three.
At 10, Saddam ran away from the family to return to live with his uncle, who was a devout Sunni Muslim, in Baghdad. According to Saddam, in 1957, at the age of 20, Saddam became part of the Ba'ath Party. The Ba'ath party is an Arab political party that supports socialism.

In 1958, Hussein was arrested for killing his brother-in-law because he was a communist activist. He spent six months in prison.

Rise in the Ba'ath party 

A year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abdul Karim Qassim got rid of Faisal II of Iraq. The Baathists were against the new regime, and in 1959, Saddam was involved in the attempted murder of Prime Minister Qassim. Saddam was shot in the leg, but managed to get away to Syria. Later, he moved to Egypt. He was sentenced to death. In exile, he attended the University of Cairo law school.
Army officers, including some with the Ba'ath party, came to power in Iraq in a military coup in 1963. However, the new regime was kicked out quickly. Saddam returned to Iraq, but was imprisoned in 1964 when an anti-Ba'ath group led by Abdul Rahman Arif took power. He escaped from jail in 1967 and became one of the leading members of the party.

Gaining power 
In 1976, Saddam was made a general in the Iraqi army. He quickly became the most important person of the regime. He slowly began to gain more power over Iraq's government and the Ba'ath party. As Iraq's weak, old President, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, became more unable to do the duties of his office, Saddam began to take on an more important role as the head of the Iraqi government. He soon became the creator of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations.
Conflict with Iran 
In 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown by the Islamic Revolution, giving way to an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini. The influence of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam grew in the region, particularly in countries with large Shi'ite populations, especially Iraq. Saddam was afraid that radical Islamic ideas were quickly spreading inside his country among most of the Shi'ite people. He worried that these ideas would go against his leadership.
There had also been a rivalry between Saddam and Khomeini since the 1970s. Khomeini was exiled from Iran in 1964. He began living in Iraq, at the Shi'ite holy city of An Najaf. There, he became involved with Iraqi Shi'ites and gained many religious and political followers throughout the world. Under pressure from the Shah, who had agreed to a rapprochement between Iraq and Iran in 1975, Saddam agreed to kick Khomeini out in 1978. After the Islamic Revolution, Khomeini thought defeating Saddam's government may have been the second most important thing to do, only behind keeping his power in Iran.

The Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988 
After Khomeini gained power, small battles between Iraq and revolutionary Iran happened for ten months. The two countries were fighting over who controlled the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which divides Iran and Iraq.
Iraq and Iran officially went to war with each other on September 22, 1980. Saddam used the disagreement over the waterway as an excuse to go to war with Iran. However, the war was more likely an attempt by Saddam - supported by both the United States and the Soviet Union - to have Iraq stop radical revolutions like the one in Iran from spreading any further.

In the first days of the war, there was heavy ground fighting around major ports as Iraq launched an attack on Iran's oil-rich, Arab-populated province of Khuzestan. After making some gains, Iraq's troops began to suffer losses from human-wave attacks by Iran. By 1982, Iraq was looking to end the war.

Chemical warfare 
During the war, Iraq used chemical warfare against Iranian forces and Kurdish separatists. On March 16, 1988, Saddam ordered Iraqi troops to stop a Kurdish uprising. Iraq attacked the Kurdish town of Halabjah with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents, killing 5000 people, mostly women and children.
Saddam reached out to other Arab governments for cash and political help. The Iranians, hoping to bring down Saddam's non-religious government and start a Shi'ite rebellion in Iraq, refused a cease-fire until 1988.

End of the war 
The eight-year war ended in a tie. There were hundreds of thousands of casualties. Perhaps 1.7 million died on both sides. Both economies, previously healthy and growing, were left in ruins.

Saddam was also stuck with a debt of roughly $75 billion. Borrowing money from the U.S. was making Iraq into its client state, embarrassing a strongman who had sought to define and dominate Arab nationalism. Saddam also borrowed a large amount of money from other Arab states during the 1980s to fight Iran. Faced with rebuilding Iraq's infrastructure, Saddam desperately sought out cash once again, this time for postwar reconstruction.
After the war: Tensions with Kuwait 
Saddam was pressuring Kuwait to forgive its share of his debt, some $30 billion. (This would mean Iraq would not have to pay back Kuwait's $30 million.) Saddam argued that the struggle with Iran had been fought for the benefit of the other Persian Gulf Arab states as much as for Iraq. Because of this, he said, a share of Iraqi debt should be forgiven.

Saddam had pushed oil-exporting countries to raise oil prices and cut back production. Not only did Kuwait refuse to do this; they also helped support OPEC's opposition to the production cuts that Saddam had requested. Kuwait was pumping large amounts of oil, and keeping prices low, when Iraq needed to sell high-priced oil from its wells to pay off a huge debt.

The fact that Kuwait had so much oil made the region even more tense. Even though Kuwait had fewer people, it had about as much oil in reserve as Iraq. Together, Iraq and Kuwait had 20 percent of the world's known oil reserves.
The Kuwaiti monarchy made Saddam even angrier by drilling oil out of Iraqi wells. At the time, Saddam's regime was not disliked by most of the world. Saddam complained about the drilling to the United States State Department. Although this had gone on for years, Saddam now needed oil money to get rid of a looming economic crisis. Saddam still had an experienced and well-equipped army, which he used to influence regional affairs. He later ordered troops to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border.

As Iraqi-Kuwaiti relations rapidly grew worse, Saddam was getting different information about how the United States would respond to an invasion. The United States had been working on starting a good relationship with Iraq for roughly a decade. The Reagan administration gave Saddam roughly $40 billion worth of arms in the 1980s to fight Iran, nearly all of it on credit. The U.S. also sent billions of dollars of food and arms to Saddam to keep him from forming a strong alliance with the Soviets.
The U.S. ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, met with Saddam in a meeting on July 25. Saddam said he wanted to keep talks going. U.S. officials tried to take a calm, relaxing tone with Iraq. They explained that neither President George H.W. Bush or Secretary of State James Baker wanted military force to be used. However, they also said that they would not take any position on the Iraqi-Kuwaiti dispute and did not want to become involved.

Later, Iraq and Kuwait met for a final negotiation session, which failed. Saddam then sent his troops into Kuwait.

The Gulf War 1990-1991 

In August 2, 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, causing an international crisis. The invasion of Kuwait gave Iraq, with its own substantial oil fields, control of 20 percent of the Persian Gulf oil. The U.S. helped Saddam Hussein in the war with Iran, but with Iraq's take over of the oil-rich emirate of Kuwait in August of 1990, the United States led a United Nations force that drove Saddam from Kuwait in February 1991.
Because the United States and the Soviet Union were cooperating in the United Nations Security Council, the Security Council was able to pass resolutions. These resolutions gave Iraq a deadline to leave Kuwait.

Saddam ignored the Security Council deadline. On January 16, 1991, coalition of U.S. and Security Council troops launched missile attacks on Iraq. The United States and a group of allies it had quickly gathered, including Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia, made Saddam's army move from Kuwait in January 1991.

Israel, though Saddam attacked it with Iraqi missiles, did not fight back. It did not want to anger Arab states into leaving the coalition. But Saddam had focused attention on the Palestinian problem by promising to make his forces leave from Kuwait if Israel would leave the West Bank, the Golan Heights, and the Gaza Strip. Saddam's proposal further split the Arab world, pitting U.S. and Western-supported Arab states against the Palestinians.
175,000 Iraqis were taken prisoner and about 85,000 died. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to get rid of all poison gas and germ weapons, and to allow UN observers to inspect the sites.

After the war 
All of the different religions and the violence the war had created caused after-war rebellions. After the war, fighting between Shi'ite Muslims, Kurds, and dissident military units was bad. This was a problem to Saddam's rule. Saddam acted by stopping all rebellions in their tracks, especially in the North.

Before the war ended, the United States had encouraged Iraqis to rise up against Saddam. However, when the Shi'ites, Kurds, and dissidents did rise up against Saddam, the United States did not support them.
Without United States support for these rebellions, Saddam survived them. He was then left completely in control of Iraq. The country's economy and army never recovered from the Gulf War. However, Saddam often claimed that Iraq had won the Gulf War, and the United States had lost. This made Saddam popular in many parts of the Arab world.

Saddam liked to show himself as a strict Muslim. This was to calm down the religious parts of the society. He brought back some parts of Sharia law. This included the 2001 law that said homosexuality could be punished by the death penalty. The phrase "Allahu Akbar" ("God is great"), in Saddam's handwriting, was added to the Iraq national flag.
1991-2003 
Relations between the United States and Iraq remained tense after the Gulf War. In 1993, the United States decided to attack Iraq, because it thought evidence showed Iraq had sponsored a plan to kill former President George H.W. Bush. On June 26, 1993, the United States launched a missile attack aimed at Iraq's intelligence headquarters in Baghdad.

The United Nations placed a trade embargo on Iraq, blocking Iraqi oil exports. This caused hardship in Iraq and almost destroyed the Iraqi economy and state infrastructure. Only smuggling across the Syrian border, and humanitarian aid kept Iraq from crisis. Later, limited amounts of income from the United Nations oil-for-food program started flowing into Iraq. On December 9, 1996, the United Nations allowed Baghdad to begin selling limited amounts of oil for food and medicine.
U.S. officials continued to accuse Saddam of violating the Gulf War's cease-fire agreement, by developing weapons of mass destruction and other banned weapons, and by violating the UN-imposed sanctions and "no-fly zones." Isolated military strikes by U.S. and British forces continued on Iraq, the largest being Operation Desert Fox in 1998.
After two years of intermittent activity, U.S. and British warplanes struck harder at sites near Baghdad in February 2001.
Saddam's base of Tikriti tribesmen, family members, and other supporters was divided after the war and in the following years. This added to the regime's increasingly repressive and arbitrary nature. Domestic repression inside Iraq grew worse, and Saddam's sons, Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein, became increasingly powerful and carried out a private reign of terror. They likely had a leading hand when, in August 1995, two of Saddam Hussein's sons-in-law, who held high positions in the Iraqi military, defected to Jordan. Both were killed after returning to Iraq the following February.

2003 invasion of Iraq
In 2003, the United States led an invasion of Iraq. The main reason for the invasion was President George W. Bush's claim that Saddam had weapons of mass destruction. Bush argued that this made Saddam a major threat to Western allies, such as oil-rich Saudi Arabia and Israel; to Western oil supplies from the Persian Gulf states; and to Middle East stability in general. The President before Bush, Bill Clinton (1993-2001), maintained sanctions and made occasional air strikes in the "Iraqi no-fly zones" or other restrictions, in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by his many political enemies. However, this never happened.

Things changed in the United States after the September 11, 2001 attacks. In his January 2002 State of the Union Address to the United States Congress, President Bush said that Iraq, Iran, and North Korea were an "axis of evil." Bush also argued that Iraq had supported Al-Qaeda, the terrorists who attacked the United States on September 11.
As the war was looming on February 24, 2003, Saddam Hussein talked with CBS News anchor Dan Rather for more than three hours—his first interview with a U.S. reporter in over ten years. CBS aired the taped interview later that week.

The Iraqi government and military collapsed within three weeks after the beginning of the U.S.-led invasion on March 20. The United States tried at least twice to kill Saddam with targeted air strikes, but both failed to hit their target. By the beginning of April, Coalition forces controlled much of Iraq. The resistance of the much-weakened Iraqi Army either crumbled or shifted to guerrilla tactics, and it appeared that Saddam had lost control of Iraq. He was last seen in a video which showed him in the Baghdad suburbs surrounded by supporters. When Baghdad fell to the Coalition on April 9, Saddam was nowhere to be found.

Pursuit and capture
Even when Baghdad was taken over, and most of the fighting had stopped, people still did not know where Saddam was. For a few weeks, some people said they saw Saddam, and some videotapes of Saddam talking came out, but still nobody knows if they were true or not.

Although Saddam was placed at the top of the "most-wanted list," he could not be found, even when the other leaders of the Iraqi regime were arrested. His sons and political heirs, Uday and Qusay, were killed in July 2003 in a clash with U.S. forces after a tip from an Iraqi.

On 14 December 2003, the Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA) of Iran first reported that Saddam Hussein had been arrested. These reports were soon confirmed by other members of the Governing Council, by U.S. military sources, and by British Prime Minister Tony Blair.
Shortly afterwards, the U.S. Civil Administrator in Iraq, Paul Bremer, held a press conference in Baghdad. He officially announced Saddam's capture by saying, "Ladies and gentlemen, we got him!" United States soldiers found Saddam around 8:30 PM Iraqi time on 13 December, in what was called Operation Red Dawn. Saddam was hiding in an underground "spider hole" at a farmhouse in ad-Dawr, near his hometown of Tikrit.

The first photos taken of Saddam after the soldiers found him did not look like the photos taken when he was President of Iraq. He had grown long hair and a long beard. Later on, he shaved his beard to confirm his identity. DNA tests proved that he really was Saddam Hussein. People who talked with him after the soldiers found him said he was healthy, and wanted to talk to people and do what they told him to do. Paul Bremer said that Saddam would have a trial, but that he did not know yet what kind of trial.

Trial
Trial 

The Iraqi Special Tribunal was in charge of Saddam Hussein's trial, and the trials of some people that helped him to be President of Iraq.

In November 2006, Saddam Hussein was found guilty of 148 murders. 

Critics viewed the trial as a show trial that did not meet international standards on the right to a fair trial. Amnesty International stated that the trial was "unfair". Human Rights Watch judged that Saddam's execution "follows a flawed trial and marks a significant step away from the rule of law in Iraq." Several months before the trial took place, Salem Chalabi, the former head of the Iraq Special Tribunal (which was established to try Hussein), accused interim Iraqi Prime Minister Iyad Allawi of pushing for a hasty show trial and execution, stating: "Show trials followed by speedy executions may help the interim government politically in the short term but will be counterproductive for the development of democracy and the rule of law in Iraq in the long term."

Execution
Execution 

He was put to death in 2006. The hanging was recorded by officials of the government. A witness also secretly recorded the hanging with a cell phone camera, which included sound. The recording showed Saddam being calm as he was prepared for his final moments. Witnesses and executioners could be heard teasing Saddam as the rope was placed on his head, and he was put on the trap door. He was in the middle of a prayer when the trap door beneath him opened, and he was killed. Later, pictures and live video of Saddam's taunting and execution, and of his dead corpse were shown on many Internet sites.

Saddam was buried in his hometown, Al-Awja, Iraq, the next day.
Saddam was scheduled to die on Thursday night, 28 December 2006. Because of last-minute legal appeals in Iraq's Supreme Court of Appeals, Saddam's execution came about 40 hours later. Saddam Hussein was hanged on 30 December 2006 at 6:05 AM, Iraqi time. Saddam refused to wear a hood. He was pronounced dead at 6:10 AM Baghdad time. Baghdad had curfews on those days, which required people to be off the streets by evening.

Personal Life 

Saddam had been married three times. His first marriage was to his first cousin, Sajida Talfah. She was the oldest daughter of Saddam's uncle, Khairallah Talfah. Together, Saddam and Sajida had two sons, Uday Saddam Hussein and Qusay Hussein, and three daughters, Rana, Raghad and Hala.
In early 1997, Sajida was put under house arrest, along with her daughters Raghad and Rana, because they were suspected of being involved in an attempted assassination on Uday on 12 December 1996. General Adnan Khairallah Tuffah, who was Sajida's brother and Saddam Hussein's boyhood friend, was allegedly executed because of his growing popularity.

Saddam Hussein also married two other women. The second was Samira Shahbandar, whom he married in 1986 after forcing her husband to divorce her. She was said to have been his favorite wife. His third wife was Nidal al-Hamdani, the general manager of the Solar Energy Research Center in the Council of Scientific Research, whose husband apparently was also persuaded to divorce his wife.
In August 1995, Rana; her husband, Hussein Kamel al Majid; Raghad; her husband, Saddam Kamel Majid; and their children defected to Jordan. They returned to Iraq when they were promised that Saddam Hussein would pardon them. Within three days of their return in February 1996, both of the Majid brothers were executed.

Saddam's daughter Hala is married to Jamal Mustafa, the deputy head of Iraq's Tribal Affairs Office. Neither has been known to be involved in politics. Another cousin was Ali Hassan al-Majid, also known in the United States as "Chemical Ali," who was accused of ordering the use of poison gas in 1988.

In 2000, a romance book titled Zabiba and the King was released and later became a bestselling book. It was later revealed that Hussein was the author of the book.

Notes
Notes 

2 See PBS Frontline (2003), "The survival of Saddam: secrets of his life and leadership: interview with Saïd K. Aburish" at .
3 From Elisabeth Bumiller's interview of Jerrold M. Post, the founder of the Center for the Analysis of Personality and Political Behavior at the CIA in the New York Times' (May 15, 2004) on the importance of events during Saddam Hussein's youth. It can be read online at  .
8 The full text of Bush's 2002 State of the Union address can be read online (BBC News) at .

Other websites 
 The Saddam Hussein Sourcebook  - Provided by the National Security Archive.

1937 births
2006 deaths
Former dictators
Iraqi generals
Iraqi murderers
Iraqi Muslims
People executed by hanging
Presidents of Iraq
Prime Ministers of Iraq
People from Tikrit
Vice presidents of Iraq
War criminals
This is a list of traditional names for stars, mostly from Arabic and Latin.

To find out more about any of these stars, look them up in the SIMBAD international database:
 SIMBAD online



A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

P

R

S

T

U

V

W

Y

Z

Related pages
 List of stars

Other websites 
 Jim Kaler's star page 

Lists of stars
This is a list of the biggest tectonic plates on Earth. Including small ones, there are about a hundred  tectonic plates. These are only the

Primary plates 
These seven plates make up most of the seven continents, and the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

 African plate
 Antarctic plate
 Indo-Australian plate 
 North American plate
 Pacific plate
 South American plate
 Eurasian plate

Secondary plates 
These plates are generally shown on major plate maps, with the exception of the Arabian and Indian plates, which are smaller than the others.

Arabian plate
Caribbean plate
Cocos plate
Juan de Fuca plate
Indian plate
Nazca plate
Philippine Sea plate ( also known as the Filipino plate)
Scotia plate
 Somali plate
Panama Plate

Tertiary plates 
These are parts of major plates, and bits and pieces of ancient plates that became broken up. 

 Agean plate

Related pages
Plate tectonics

Other websites 
Bird, P. (2003) An updated digital model of plate boundaries  also available as a large (13 mb) PDF file
This list of oil fields includes major fields of the past and present.

(Amounts in parentheses are estimated reserves, in barrels.)
China
 Daqing Field, Heilongjiang (40 billion)
 Brazil
 Campos Basin
 Iran
 Aghajari Field (14 billion)
 Ahwaz Field (17 billion)
 Gachsaran Field (15 billion)
 Marun Field (16 billion)
 Iraq
 Kirkuk Field (16 billion)
 Rumaila Field (20 billion)
 Kazakhstan
 Tengiz Field (15-26 billion)
 Kashagan Field, Caspian (~50 billion)
 Kuwait
 Burgan Field (66-72 billion)
 Mexico
 Cantarell Field
 Chicontepec Field
 Nigeria
 Niger Delta Field (34 billion)
 Russia
 Samotlor Field (20 billion)
 Romashkino Field (16-17 billion)
 Saudi Arabia
 Abqaiq Field (12 billion)
 Berri Field (12 billion)
 Faroozan-Marjan Field (10 billion)
 Ghawar Field (75-83 billion)
 Manifa Field (11 billion)
 Safaniya-Khafji Field, Neutral Zone (30 billion)
 United Arab Emirates
 Zakum Field, Abu Dhabi (12 billion)
 United States
 Prudhoe Bay, Alaska (10 billion)
 Wilmington Oil Field, California (0.3 billion)
 Venezuela
 Bolivar Coastal Field

Geography-related lists
Petroleum
Anarchism is a radically revolutionary idea that says no one should be forced into any kind of hierarchy. For example, anarchism says that the government is harmful and not needed. However, that does not mean no form of order should not exist. Municipalities and autonomy are familiar terms in Anarchism It also says that people's actions should never be forced by other people. Anarchism is also a  and is called a libertarian type of socialism. It is not a political stance.

The word "anarchism" is from the Greek word "αναρχία", which means "no rulers" or "no government". But that doesn't have to mean no rules at all. People often use the word "anarchy" to mean chaos and crime. But anarchists usually do not want this. They say anarchy is just a way of relations between people. They believe that, once put into place, these relations work on their own. Anarchists are usually opposed by the systems they wish to remove.

Principles
Principles 

Individual freedom, voluntary association, and being against the state are important beliefs of anarchism. There are also big differences between anarchist philosophies on things like whether violence can be used to bring about anarchy; the best type of economy; the relationship between technology and hierarchy; the idea of equality; and the usefulness of some organization. The word "authority" is not clear, but anarchists are not against some types of authority (e.g. the authority of someone skilled in self-defence over someone that wants to learn self-defence), they are only against control by force.

Examples

Related pages 
 Anti-capitalism
 Anti-fascism

References
This is a list of countries by total area. The total area is the sum of all land and Inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers). Data is taken from the United Nations Statistics Division.

Sovereign states and dependent territories by area

References

Notes

Area
This article consists of a list of countries by continent, along with their capitals.

There are multiple continent classification systems in use. The first continent system is the seven continent system consisting of Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania/Australia, North America, South America and Antarctica.

The six-continent system is essentially the same as the seven-continent system, the only difference being two continents are merged. There are two versions of the six continent system, one merging Europe and Asia to create Eurasia, and the other merging North and South America to create The Americas.

The five-continent system is applying Eurasia and The Americas together. All other continents remain the same.

Finally, the four-continent system is the same as the prior. However, Africa joins Eurasia to become Afro-Eurasia, leaving only Oceania and Antarctica as separate continents.
The only variable in these systems is Antarctica. As Antarctica has no permanent population it isn't uncommon for it to be removed from these classification systems.

The most common system used varies from country to country.

There is no universally accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there are. One option is to consider the 193 member states of the United Nations. However, there are many more constituent, de facto and self-proclaimed independent states that are typically added to that list. Additionally, certain highly autonomous first-level administrative divisions fall under the definition of the word country.

The list below follows the seven continent system and predominantly includes only U.N. member states unless otherwise stated.

Africa
Africa

Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area and 20% of its land area, accounting for about a fifth of the world's land. With 1.3 billion people as of 2018, it accounts for about 16% of the world's human population. It is surrounded by large areas of water. There are 54 fully recognized and independent countries in Africa, and 14.7% (1.216 billion) of the world's population lives there. It is thought to be the continent where the first humans evolved.
Algeria - Algiers
Angola - Luanda
Benin - Porto Novo, Cotonou
Botswana - Gaborone
Burkina Faso - Ouagadougou
Burundi - Gitega
Cameroon (also spelled Cameroun) - Yaoundé
Cape Verde - Praia
Central African Republic - Bangui
Chad (Tchad) - N'Djamena
Comoros - Moroni
Republic of the Congo - Brazzaville
Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire) - Kinshasa
Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) - Yamoussoukro
Djibouti - Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea - Malabo
Egypt (Misr) - Cairo
Eritrea - Asmara
Ethiopia (Abyssinia) - Addis Ababa
Gabon - Libreville
The Gambia - Banjul
Ghana - Accra
Guinea - Conakry
Guinea-Bissau - Bissau
Kenya - Nairobi
Lesotho - Maseru
Liberia - Monrovia
Libya - Tripoli
Madagascar - Antananarivo
Malawi - Lilongwe
Mali - Bamako
Mauritania - Nouakchott
Mauritius - Port Louis
Morocco (Al Maghrib) - Rabat
Mozambique - Maputo
Namibia - Windhoek
Niger - Niamey
Nigeria - Abuja
Réunion (territory of France)
Rwanda - Kigali
São Tomé and Príncipe - São Tomé
Senegal - Dakar
Seychelles - Victoria
Sierra Leone - Freetown
Somalia - Mogadishu
South Africa -  Pretoria
South Sudan - Juba
Sudan - Khartoum
Eswatini (Swaziland) - Mbabane
Tanzania - Dodoma
Togo - Lome
Tunisia - Tunis
Uganda - Kampala
Western Sahara - El Aaiún (disputed)
Zambia - Lusaka
Zimbabwe - Harare
Western Sahara (Listed in Sl No.54 above /*Africa*/) is not a UN Member as of 18/07/2021

Antarctica 
Antarctica is Earth's southernmost continent. It contains the geographic South Pole and is in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle. It is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,000,000 square kilometres (5,400,000 square miles), it is the fifth-largest continent. For comparison, Antarctica is near twice the size of Australia. 

About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice. However, there is a large part where the ice does not cover land: the ice shelves. There are important geographical features covered by the ice. The huge Lake Vostok has been covered by ice for at least 15 million years. There is a massive rift valley and a huge mountain range, both of which are covered at present.
Asia 
Asia is the largest and most populous continent and is a continent in the seven continent system. Asia consists of forty-eight countries as per the United Nations along with many other highly autonomous regions and disputed areas that are often generalised as countries of their own.
Afghanistan - Kabul
Armenia - Yerevan
Azerbaijan - Baku
Bahrain - Manama
Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) - Dhaka (ঢাকা)
Bhutan - Thimphu
Brunei - Bandar Seri Begawan
Cambodia (Kampuchea) - Phnom Penh
China - Beijing
East Timor (Timor Leste) - Dili
Georgia - Tbilisi
India - New Delhi
Indonesia - Jakarta
Iran - Tehran
Iraq - Baghdad
Israel - Tel Aviv
Japan - Tokyo
Jordan (Al Urdun) - Amman
Kazakhstan - Nur-Sultan
Kuwait - Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan - Bishkek
Laos - Vientiane
Lebanon (Lubnan) - Beirut
Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur
The Maldives - Malé
Mongolia - Ulaanbaatar
Myanmar (Burma) - Naypyidaw
Nepal - Kathmandu
North Korea - Pyongyang
Oman - Muscat
Pakistan - Islamabad
Palestine - Ramallah
The Philippines - Manila
Qatar - Doha
Russia - Moscow (Russia is a part of Asia geographically, but, politically, it is a part of Europe)
Saudi Arabia - Riyadh
Singapore - Singapore
South Korea - Seoul
Sri Lanka - Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte (administrative), Colombo (commercial)
Syria - Damascus
Syria - Damascus
Taiwan - Taipei (China continues to maintain its sovereignty claim over the territory. Not a UN member, but has formal diplomatic relations with 12 of the 193 United Nations member states)
Tajikistan - Dushanbe
Thailand (Muang Thai) - Bangkok
Turkey (Türkiye) - Ankara
Turkmenistan - Aşgabat
United Arab Emirates - Abu Dhabi
Uzbekistan - Tashkent
Vietnam - Hanoi
Yemen - Sana'a
Europe 
Europe is the second smallest continent, but the third most populous. It is a continent in the seven continent system. In other systems, it is part of Asia, Eurasia or Eurafrasia. Below is the list of fully sovereign or de facto countries that are indisputably either entirely or partially situated within Europe. The 49 countries are:
Albania (Shqipëria) - Tirana
Andorra - Andorra la Vella
Austria (Österreich) - Vienna
Belarus (Беларусь) - Minsk
Belgium (Dutch: België, French: Belgique, German: Belgien) - Brussels
Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosna i Hercegovina) - Sarajevo
Bulgaria (България) - Sofia
Croatia (Hrvatska) - Zagreb
Cyprus (Κύπρος) - Nicosia
Czech Republic (Česko) - Prague
Denmark (Danmark) - Copenhagen
Estonia (Eesti) - Tallinn
Finland (Suomi) - Helsinki
France - Paris
Georgia - Tbilisi
Germany (Deutschland) - Berlin
Greece (Ελλάδα) - Athens
Hungary (Magyarország) - Budapest
Iceland** (Island) - Reykjavik
Republic of Ireland (Éire) - Dublin
Italy (Italia) - Rome
Kosovo** - Pristina (Serbia continues to maintain its sovereignty claim over Kosovo. Not a UN member, but has formal diplomatic relations with 101 of the 193 United Nations member states)
Latvia (Latvija) - Riga
Liechtenstein - Vaduz
Lithuania (Lietuva) - Vilnius
Luxembourg - Luxembourg City
North Macedonia (Македонија) - Skopje
Malta - Valletta
Moldova - Chisinau
Moldova - Chisinau
Monaco - Monte Carlo Quarter
Montenegro (Crna Gora, Црна Гора) - Podgorica
Netherlands (Nederland) - Amsterdam (Capital), The Hague (Government)
Norway (Norge) - Oslo
Poland (Polska) - Warsaw
Portugal - Lisbon
Romania - Bucharest
Russia** Moscow (Europe up to the Ural Mountains; Asia: the rest to Vladivostok)
San Marino - San Marino
Serbia (Србија) - Belgrade
Slovakia (Slovensko) - Bratislava
Slovenia (Slovenija) - Ljubljana
Spain (España) - Madrid
Sweden (Sverige) - Stockholm
Switzerland (German: Schweiz, French: Suisse, Italian: Svizzera, Romansh: Svizra) - Bern
Turkey (Türkiye) - Ankara
Ukraine (Україна) - Kyiv
United Kingdom - London
Vatican City** (Italian: Città del Vaticano, Latin: Civitas Vaticana) - Vatican City
There is no official boundary between Europe and Asia, as a result, the continental status of some countries is often disputed. However, Russia is considered to be European by the United Nations. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Cypres (Serial No.9 above) and Turkey (Serial no 45 above and listed in Serial no 43 in */Asia/*) are considered to be a part of Asia by the United Nations.

Kosovo is a highly recognised disputed territory with de facto independence.

Iceland sits on the European - North American tectonic plates. The Western half sits in North America, while the Eastern half sits on the European tectonic plate.

Vatican City State is a U.N. observer state and not a U.N. member.
North America
North America is the third largest continent and the fourth most populous. It is a continent in the 7 continents system, consisting of 23 countries and 22 dependent territories which are:
Canada - Ottawa
Mexico - Mexico City
United States of America - Washington, District of Columbia
Navassa Island - Washington, D.C. (territory of U.S.)
Puerto Rico - San Juan (territory of U.S.)
US Virgin Islands - Charlotte Amalie (territory of U.S.)
Dominican Republic - Santo Domingo
Cuba - Havana
Greenland (territory of Denmark)
Haiti - Port-au-Prince
Belize - Belmopan
Costa Rica - San José
El Salvador - San Salvador
Guatemala - Guatemala City
Honduras - Tegucigalpa
Guadeloupe (territory of France)
Martinique (territory of France)
Nicaragua - Managua
Panama - Panama City
Jamaica - Kingston
Bahamas - Nassau
Barbados - Bridgetown
Dominica - Roseau

South America
South America 

South America is the fourth largest continent and fifth most populous. It is a continent in the seven continent system. In other systems, it is part of The Americas. There are 13 countries and 3 dependent territories belonging to it as follows:

Brazil (Brasil) - Brasília
Argentina - Buenos Aires
Bolivia - Sucré
Chile - Santiago
Colombia - Bogotá
Ecuador - Quito
Falkland Islands - Stanley (territory of U.K.)
French Guiana - Cayenne (territory of France)
Guyana - Georgetown
Paraguay - Asunción
Peru - Lima
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands - (territory of U.K.)
Suriname - Paramaribo
Trinidad and Tobago - Port of Spain
Uruguay - Montevideo
Venezuela - Caracas
Oceania
Several terms are in use to describe the region of Australia and the nations of the Pacific Ocean. The term Oceania is usually preferred, and this is the term in use by the United Nations. The term Pacific Islands generally excludes the islands of New Zealand and the continent of Australia. The indigenous Māori of New Zealand is Polynesian people.

Historically, the region was called Australasia. This term is based more on natural history (geology, and geography) rather than on politics. This term means Australia, New Zealand and the whole of New Guinea, plus those islands which are geologically connected. 

The countries (14 total) are listed below according to their UN classification:
Australia - Canberra
Fiji - Suva
New Zealand - Wellington
Federated States of Micronesia - Palikir
Kiribati - South Tarawa
Marshall Islands - Majuro
Nauru - no capital; biggest city is Yaren
Palau - Ngerulmud
Papua New Guinea - Port Moresby
Samoa - Apia
Solomon Islands - Honiara
Tonga - Nuku'alofa
Tuvalu - Funafuti
Vanuatu - Port Vila

Australasia is not a politically designated region. It is a natural region of islands designated by its geology, geography, botany, and zoology. It is also an ecozone.

Australia
Flores
Lombok
Melanesia
New Caledonia
New Guinea
Sulawesi
Sumbawa
Timor

References

Other websites 
 http://www.world-gazetteer.com/home.htm 
 http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/
 http://ontheworldmap.com

Continents
Lists by continent
This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population.  The number shows how many people live in each country. Countries with the most people are at the top of the list. Countries with the fewest people are at the bottom.

Also see: List of countries, List of countries by area, List of countries by population density.

Method
Autonomous regions that form integral parts of countries are literally part of them. 

Not included in the list are other entities that are not sovereign states, such as the European Union or African Union.

Other territories that are rarely marked with an asterisk are territories that do not have permanent population, such as the British Indian Ocean Territory or United States Minor Outlying Islands.

Sovereign states and dependencies by population

Note: All dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of sovereign states are shown in italics and not assigned a numbered rank.

References 
e
 CIA, 9 August, 2005.
Notes

Population
This is a partial list of states that extract crude oil from oil wells.

Africa
Nigeria
Sudan
Equatorial Guinea

Asia
China
Russia
Indonesia
Malaysia

 Europe
Bulgaria
 North Sea oil:
United Kingdom
Norway
Denmark
Ireland

 North America
United States of America
Texas
Alaska
California
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Kansas
New York
Michigan
Pennsylvania (the birthplace of the U.S. oil industry)
Illinois
Canada
Alberta
Saskatchewan
Ontario (the birthplace of the Canadian oil industry)
Newfoundland
Mexico

 Persian Gulf
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Syria
United Arab Emirates
Yemen

 South America
Argentina
Barbados
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Ecuador
Guatemala
Peru
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela

Other websites 
 Table of oil producers
 http://www.ott.doe.gov/facts/archives/fotw125.shtml 
 http://www.ott.doe.gov/facts/archives/fotw117.shtml 
 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/reserves.html

Lists of countries
This is a list of forests in the United Kingdom.

England

Cumbria 
Whinfell Forest - Center Parcs

Derbyshire 
Darwin Forest

Hampshire 
New Forest

Norfolk 
Thetford Forest

Nottinghamshire 
Sherwood Forest

Staffordshire 
Cannock Chase

Sussex 
Ashdown Forest

Warwickshire 
Forest of Arden

Worcestershire 
Wyre Forest (part in Shropshire)

West Midlands 
Black Country Urban Forest

To be classified 
Bracknell Forest
Epping Forest
Forest of Avon
Forest of Mercia
Kielder Forest
Mersey Forest
National Forest
Royal Forest of Dean

Scotland

Dumfries and Galloway 
Forest of Ae

Fife 
Tentsmuir Forest

To be classified 
Arecleoch Forest
Argyll Forest Park
Carrick Forest
Carsphairn Forest
Changue Forest
Corriedoo Forest
Craik Forest
Dalbeattie Forest
Dundeugh Forest
Fleet Forest
Laurieston Forest
Mabie Forest
Penninghame Forest
Rowardennan Forest
Queen Elizabeth Forest Park
Strathyre Forest
Tairlaw Forest
Wauchope Forest

Wales 
Clocaenog Forest
Northern Ireland 
Ballypatrick Forest Drive
Castlewellan Forest Park
Drum Manor Forest Park
Ely Lodge Forest
Florence Court Forest Park
Glenariff Forest Park
Gortin Glen Forest Park
Gosford Forest Park
Lough Navar Forest Drive
Tollymore Forest Park