Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Operant behavior is the opposite of respondent behavior. Operant behavior is voluntary and can be changed. A person has control over their own operant behavior. They decide which behaviors they want to do. Respondent behavior cannot be controlled like operant behavior. ABA studies operant behavior more than respondent because it can be controlled. If a behavior can be controlled then it can be changed.
Three-term contingency is a concept for understanding operant behavior that was first used by B.F. Skinner. It is still used in ABA. The three-term contingency says that every behavior has an antecedent and a consequence. An antecedent is what happens right before the behavior. The antecedent can change the chance that a behavior will happen. Some antecedents make a behavior more likely to happen. Other antecedents make a behavior less likely to happen. The consequence is what happens after the behavior. It is the response to the behavior. ABC data can be used to find things that may be causing behavior. Then these causes can be tested using experimental variables.
An operational definition tells people exactly what a target behavior looks like. The target behavior is the behavior that is trying to be changed. The operational definition of the target behavior needs to be very good. People that have not seen the target behavior before should be able to tell when it happens based only on the operational definition. A good operational definition makes the study of behavior better.
 Reinforcement: When something increases the likelihood of a response happening again it is called a reinforcement. A reinforcement is often thought of as a reward. A reward is anything that is given after a response happens. A reward can only be a reinforcement if it increases the rate of response in the future. If it does not increase the rate of response then it is not a reinforcement. All reinforcers do not work for all people. So it is important to try different types of reinforcers to find out what works best for a person.
Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that fill a biological need. The four primary reinforcers are food, water, warmth and sex. Reinforcers that do not fill biological needs are called secondary reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers are not naturally reinforcing. A person needs to learn that they are reinforcing. They learn that they are reinforcing because they are paired with other things that are known to be reinforcing. They are also called conditioned reinforcers.

A discriminative stimulus (SD) is something that tells a person that reinforcement is available. The presentation of a SD should cause a response.

Positive reinforcement  
Positive reinforcement (SR+) is when the addition of a stimulus leads to an increase in responding. There are four different types of positive reinforcement:
Tangible reinforcers are things that can be held. Toys or food would be tangible reinforcers. Tangible reinforcers can be expensive. They should not be the first choice for positive reinforcement.
 Social reinforcement is one of the best types of positive reinforcement. It is good because it is not expensive. It is also easy to use. Social reinforcers are things that have social value or meaning. Examples of social reinforcers would be awards, praise, or compliments. Social reinforcement can be very effective.
 Activity reinforcers are any events that a person can earn. Examples of some activities would be getting to play games, go to the movies, or earning a break. Activity reinforcers can work really well if the person really wants to earn the activity. But activity reinforcers may not be able to be earned right after the behavior happens. This would result in a delay of reinforcement. The reinforcer will be less effective if it is given a long time after the behavior happens.
Token reinforcers are any neutral stimulus that can be traded for an object or activity. The objects or activities they can trade tokens for are known as back-up reinforcers. The tokens do not have value by themselves. They are only valuable because the person knows that they can trade them for something they want to earn.
Negative reinforcement 
Negative reinforcement (SR-) happens when the removal of a stimulus increases the likelihood a person will do a behavior in the future. In this case the term negative does not mean bad. The stimulus that is removed from the environment is something aversive. This means that the person does not like it. People will want to do a behavior if they know that something they do not like will be taken away.

Reinforcement schedules 
Reinforcements are given based on schedules of reinforcement. The schedule will explain the ways reinforcement is earned. Behavior analysts decide which reinforcement schedule is best. Different schedules are useful for different things. The schedule used depends on the person. It also depends on the behavior that is being reinforced.
Continuous reinforcement schedules 
Continuous reinforcement schedules (CRF) reinforce a person every time they do the target behavior. There are a few problems with CRF schedules though. The rates of behavior are not long-lasting. If the person stops being reinforced they may stop doing the target behavior. Another issue is satiation. If the person becomes satiated it means that they do not want the reinforcer anymore.

Intermittent reinforcement schedules 
These schedules of reinforcement only reinforce the target behavior sometimes. The four most common types of intermittent schedules are:
Fixed-ratio schedules (FR) give reinforcement after a certain number of responses.
 Variable-ratio schedules: With variable-ratio (VR) schedules the amount of responses needed for reinforcement changes. The number of responses needed for reinforcement will be different every time.
 Fixed-interval schedules:  With fixed-interval (FI) schedules reinforcement is delivered for the first response that happens after a fixed amount of time passes.
 Variable-interval schedules (VI) give reinforcement after an variable amount of time passes.
Differential reinforcement 
A discriminative stimulus (SD) is something that tells a person that reinforcement is available. The presentation of a SD should cause a response. Differential reinforcement teaches a person the difference between a SD and a non-discriminative stimulus (S-delta). A SD signals that reinforcement is available. A S-delta does not tell the person anything about the availability of reinforcement. A S-delta is not likely to produce responses because there is reinforcement is not given.

It is also used to decrease problem behavior. There are four types of differential reinforcement that can be used to decrease a problem behavior.
DRL stands for differential reinforcement of a "low-rate" of response. DRL is helpful when trying to decrease a behavior but not get rid of it completely.
DRO stands for differential reinforcement of "other" behavior. With DRO, a person gets a reinforcer if they do not do the problem behavior for a set amount of time.
DRI stands for differential reinforcement of "incompatible" behavior. A DRI program reinforces behavior that is incompatible with the problem behavior. An incompatible behavior would stop them from being able to do the problem behavior.
DRA stands for differential reinforcement of "alternative" behavior. For a DRA program the person is taught an alternative behavior that they can do instead of the problem behavior.

Extinction 
Extinction is a way to decrease rates of problem behavior. A DRA program should be used at the same time as an extinction program. This will make the extinction program more effective.
Punishment 
Reinforcement is always the first thing that is tried when trying to change a behavior. Reinforcement produces long-lasting results and is better for the person. However reinforcement does not always reduce problem behavior. If reinforcement does not work it may be necessary to try punishment. Punishment is effective but it can have bad consequences. It can cause emotional harm if it is not used correctly.
Punishment is any response to a behavior that "decreases" the likelihood of a behavior happening in the future. Punishment of a problem behavior should be used with reinforcement of the appropriate behavior. Appropriate behavior should always be reinforced even when using punishment for problem behavior. Just like reinforcement, punishment can be both positive and negative. Positive punishment is the addition of an stimulus that decreases the chances of future responses. This stimulus that is added is something aversive. Negative punishment is the removal of a stimulus that decreases the chance of future behaviors happening. The stimulus that is removed is something that the person likes.

Prompting 
Prompting increases the likelihood that a behavior will be done the right way. Using prompts will make the learning process easier and quicker. Someone that is teaching a new behavior can use prompts to help the person that is learning the behavior. The two broad categories of prompts are stimulus and response.
Examples of stimulus prompts would be: lists or pictures that help the learner remember what the correct response is.

Response prompts do not involve a change in the antecedent. There are three types of response prompts.

The first type is verbal prompts.  
The second type of response prompt is a gestural prompt. The most common gestural prompt is pointing to the correct response. 
The third type of response prompt is a physical prompt. A physical prompt is when the teacher touches the learner in order to help them perform the correct behavior. Physical prompts are often used when teaching new skills that involve movement of the body.

Fading 
Fading prompts is a way to increase the independence of the learner. Once the learner can do the behavior on their own they will not need the help of the teacher. However, if a teacher stops using prompts quickly it may confuse the learner. So prompts should be decreased slowly. The process of gradually decreasing prompting is called 'fading'.
Shaping 
Shaping is a way to teach new behaviors or improve behaviors that have already been taught. It involves reinforcing steps towards a target behavior.

Chaining  
Complex behaviors are made up of smaller simple behaviors. This is what the concept of behavior chains is based on. A behavior chain is when smaller behaviors are combined to form a complex behavior. These smaller behaviors are done in a certain order. Each of the smaller behaviors is a step in the behavior chain. Each step in a behavior chain is a response on its own. There are three different ways to teach a behavior chain:
Forward chaining is the most common way to teach a behavior chain. The chain is taught starting with the first step. Once the learners can do the first step they move on to the second step. This continues until they have completed all of the steps. 
Backward chaining is the opposite of forward chaining. With backward chaining the last step is taught to the learners first. Once they can do the last step they move on to the second to last step. This continues until they make it to the first step. 
Total task presentation is the third way to teach a behavior chain. With forward and backward chaining only one step in the behavior chain is taught at one time. But with total task the learner completes every step in the chain every time they do the program. They should complete every step in the correct order. Total task requires the learner know how to do all of the steps in the chain before they start the program.
Analyzing behavior 
ABA relies on data to make decisions about behavior. Behavior analysts are always collecting data about a person's behavior.

Data collection 
Direct observation is when behavior is watched and recorded. Indirect measures compare one person's behavior to other people's behavior. An example would be an intelligence test. One person's score is compared to the scores that other people got.

There are three common methods of data collection. They are frequency, interval, and time sampling. These methods are used for direct observation.
Frequency is how often a behavior happens. So frequency recording just counts the number of times a behavior happens.
Interval recording breaks the observation time into smaller pieces. The total time is divided into smaller intervals. If the behavior happens at any time during one of the smaller intervals it is recorded.
Time sampling methods are a little different from frequency and interval methods. The observer will only look to see if the behavior is happening every once in a while. If the behavior is happening when the observers looks it gets recorded. But if the behavior happens any other time it does not get recorded. So the behavior is only recorded sometimes.
Functional analysis 
A functional analysis (FA) is done to find the reason for problem behavior. The reason for problem behavior must be known before a behavioral intervention can be done. Behavior analysts came up with the idea of a functional analysis in 1982. Since then it has become an important part of ABA. The behavior analyst is tries to find the situations that cause the highest rates of problem behavior. The situations that cause the highest rates of problem behavior tell the behavior analyst the reason for the behavior. Once the reasons for problem behavior are known treatment can begin.

Treatments based on the results of a FA are more effective than without a FA.

Use for treatment of autism  
Applied behavior analysis is commonly associated with autism. This is because ABA is the only treatment for autism that has been scientifically proven to be effective.

References  

Human behavior
Psychology
The Queen Elizabeth Islands are a group of islands in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.  They are split between Nunavut and Northwest Territories.  

In the past the islands were called Parry Archipelago or Parry Islands.  They were named after British Arctic explorer Sir William Parry.  In 1953 the islands were renamed after Elizabeth II.

According to the Atlas of Canada there are 34 large and 2,092 small islands in the archipelago. Many of the islands are among the largest in the world.  The largest island in the archipelago is Ellesmere Island.

Less than 400 people live on the Queen Elizabeth Islands.

Islands of Canada
Arctic islands
Juan Cristobal Tapia de Veer also known as Cristo, is a film and television score composer, arranger, producer and multi-instrumentalist based in Montreal, QC, Canada. He is mostly known for his music to the British 6-part drama UTOPIA for which he won an RTS Craft Award in the best original score category in 2013.

Early life 
Cristo was born during the military coup d'état in Chile. First, his parents fled to Paris, France. While his father decided to stay there, his mother took him back to Chile. Life under Pinochet's dictatorship still proved impossible, so they found political refuge in Québec, Canada.

Career 
He obtained a master's degree in Classical Music (specialization in percussion) from the Conservatoire de musique du Québec. In 2001 he got signed to Warner Music with his pop-band One Ton, putting a hold on his classical career. The trio won the Canadian Dance Music Award (SOCAN) in 2003 with the electro-dance single "Supersex World". It was Cristo who produced the album.
Movie & TV scoring 
In 2011, his music for the Victorian 4-part drama The Crimson Petal and the White (dir: Marc Munden, BBC2) totally surprised the audiences.

Matthew Gilbert, The Boston Globe, U.S.:

"The soundtrack ranges from gnawing electronic hums to choral ecstasy. It's all brilliantly, effectively, appropriately jarring, even if it sends the Masterpiece crowd to the medicine cabinet for Dramamine."

His latest work is in the conspiracy thriller UTOPIA created by Dennis Kelly, that aired on Channel 4. A second series has already been commissioned.

The Royal Television Society awarded him a Craft & Design Awards for "best original music" in November 2013.

He wrote music for a new TV-show called Série Noire, written and directed by the writers of "Les Invincibles", released in January 2014 on Radio-Canada.

References

Other websites 

Cristobal Tapia de Veer on soundcloud

1973 births
Living people
Multi-instrumentalists
Canadian composers
Musicians from Santiago
Canova is a town in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota. It is located in Miner County, and 105 people lived there at the 2010 census. Canova became a town in 1898.

References

Towns in South Dakota
1898 establishments in the United States
1890s establishments in South Dakota
Monroe is a town in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota. It is located in Turner County, and 160 people lived there at the 2010 census. Monroe became a town in 1901.

References

Towns in South Dakota
1901 establishments in the United States
1900s establishments in South Dakota
Eruption was a popular disco, R&B and soul band in the 1970s and 1980s. It was created by German producer Frank Farian.

Discography

Albums
 1977: Eruption
 1978: Leave a Light
 1980: Fight Fight Fight
 1983: Our Way
 1994: Gold 20 Superhits
 1995: I Can't Stand The Rain

Singles
 "Let Me Take You Back In Time" (1976)
 "I Can't Stand The Rain" / "Be Yourself"  (1977)
 "Party Party" (1978)
 "Leave A Light" (1978)
 "One Way Ticket" / "Left Me In The Rain"  (1979)
 "Sweet Side" (1979)
 "Go Johnnie Go" / "Call My Name" (1980)
 "Runaway" / "Good Good Feeling" (1980)
 "You (You Are My Soul)" (1981)
 "Up And Away" (1982)
 "In A Thousand Years" / "We Don't Need Nobody" (1983)
 "I Can't Help Myself" / "It's The Same Old Song" (1983)
 "Joy To The World" / "Time" (1983)
 "Where Do I Begin" (1984)
 "I Can't Stand The Rain '88" (1988)
 "One Way Ticket '94" (1994)

1970s music groups
1980s music groups
Disco groups
Survivor Series (2006) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view show made by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held on November 26, 2006 at the Wachovia Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was the twentieth Survivor Series event held by the WWE.

Matches

References

Other websites
Official Survivor Series 2006 website

2006 in American television
2006 in professional wrestling
Sports in Philadelphia
Survivor Series
2000s in Philadelphia
2006 in the United States
"One Way Ticket" is song which was recorded by Eruption. 

The song was reached #1 on Austria and Switzerland music charts. 

This song is a cover version of song One Way Ticket (To The Blues) by Neil Sedaka.

1978 songs
Elitserien () is the men's bandy top division of Sweden since the 2007–2008 season. It consist of 14 teams, and is followed up by the Swedish championships playoffs, ending with one single final game.

Season structure
The season starts with a regular season comprising 14 teams and 26 rounds. The first eight teams qualify for the quarter finals, the eleventh and twelfth plays a relegation round robin tournament against teams from the Allsvenskan and the last two teams are relegated.

Other websites
 Swedish Bandy Association

2007 establishments in Sweden
Bandy in Sweden
Allsvenskan () is since the 2007–2008 the second highest division of men's bandy in Sweden. It is made up of 24 teams in two regional groups.

Other websites
 Swedish Bandy Association

Bandy in Sweden
Allsvenskan is the highest league of Swedish association football for men.

Allsvenskan (the all Swedish) is also the name of several Swedish sport leagues:

 Damallsvenskan, highest women's association football league
 Allsvenskan (bandy), highest bandy league for since the 2007–08 season
 Allsvenskan and Elitserien (bandy), highest bandy leagues until the 2007–08 season
 Allsvenskan (men's handball), second highest men's handball league
 Allsvenskan (women's handball), second highest women's handball league
 Allsvenskan (rugby), highest rugby league
 Hockeyallsvenskan, second highest ice hockey league
 Superallsvenskan, defunct ice hockey league
 Allsvenskan play-offs, a Swedish association football cup held to decide the Swedish football champions between 1982 and 1990
The European Cup is an annual bandy club competition between teams from Europe. The first edition of the tournament was held in 1974.

Winners

Other websites
Swedish bandy association - European Cup 

1974 establishments in Europe
Bandy
Sports competitions
Sweden women's national football team () represents Sweden on the women's side in association football. Sweden won the 1984 UEFA European Championship. In the FIFA World Cup, the team ended up second in 2003, and won the bronze medals in 1991 and 2011.

Other websites
 Sweden women's national team
 Sweden women's national team

European women's national association football teams
Football in Sweden
National sports teams of Sweden
A homeless shelter is a place for homeless people to take refuge. Shelters provide safety and protection from exposure to the weather. These shelters also provide food, warmth, and the basic needs for any person.

Homelessness
The determinant of a square matrix is a scalar (a number) that indicates how that matrix behaves. It can be calculated from the numbers in the matrix.

The determinant of the matrix  is written as  or  in a formula. Sometimes, instead of  and , one simply writes  and .

Interpretation
There are a few ways to understand what the determinant says about a matrix.

Geometric interpretation

An  matrix can be seen as describing a linear map in  dimensions. In which case, the determinant indicates the factor by which this matrix scales (grows or shrinks) a region of -dimensional space.For example, a  matrix , seen as a linear map, will turn a square in 2-dimensional space into a parallelogram. That parallellogram's area will be  times as big as the square's area.<p>In the same way, a  matrix , seen as a linear map, will turn a cube in 3-dimensional space into a parallelepiped. That parallelepiped's volume will be  times as big as the cube's volume.
The determinant can be negative or zero. A linear map can stretch and scale a volume, but it can also reflect it over an axis. Whenever this happens, the sign of the determinant changes from positive to negative, or from negative to positive. A negative determinant means that the volume was mirrored over an odd number of axes.

"System of equations" interpretation
One can think of a matrix as describing a system of linear equations. That system has a unique non-trivial solution exactly when the determinant is not 0 (non-trivial meaning that the solution is not just all zeros).

If the determinant is zero, then there is either no unique non-trivial solution, or there are infinitely many.

Singular matrices
A matrix has an inverse matrix exactly when the determinant is not 0. For this reason, a matrix with a non-zero determinant is called invertible. If the determinant is 0, then the matrix is called non-invertible or singular.
Geometrically, one can think of a singular matrix as "flattening" the parallelepiped into a parallelogram, or a parallelogram into a line. Then the volume or area is 0, which means that there is no linear map that will bring the old shape back.

Calculating a determinant
There are a few ways to calculate a determinant.

Formulas for small matrices

For  and  matrices, the following simple formulas hold:

For  matrices, the formula is:One can use the Rule of Sarrus (see image) to remember this formula.

Cofactor expansion
For larger matrices, the determinant is harder to calculate. One way to do it is called cofactor expansion.

Suppose that we have an  matrix . First, we choose any row or column of the matrix. For each number  in that row or column, we calculate something called its cofactor . Then .

To compute such a cofactor , we erase row  and column  from the matrix . This gives us a smaller  matrix. We call it . The cofactor  then equals .
Here is an example of a cofactor expansion of the left column of a  matrix:

As illustrated above, one can simplify the computation of determinant by choosing a row or column that has many zeros; if  is 0, then one can skip calculating  altogether.

Related pages
Invertible matrix
Volume

References 

Linear algebra
Philip the Arab ( 204 – September 249) was Roman emperor from 244 to 249 AD.

Early life 
Philip () was born in around 204. He got the name "Philip the Arab" ( or ). (The Chronicon Paschale, a Greek chronicle, and the Latin historian Aurelius Victor each have different dates for Philip's birth.) He was the son of Julius Marinus. Philip was probably born in the city he later named Philippopolis, in the Roman province of Arabia Petraea (now the city of Shahba, Syria).

Emperor

244–245 
Philip became emperor at the start of 244. (The Justinianic Code's writing means that Philip became emperor after 13 January 244 and before 14 March the same year.) Philip's wife, Marcia Otacilia Severa, became augusta (empress) early in 244. After Philip became emperor, the Romans and the Sasanian Empire made peace. With this success, Philip got the name  (or ) in the middle of 244. Philip came to Rome in 244, probably in early summer.
245–247 
In 245, Philip was Roman consul for the first time. That year, the Romans went to war with the Carpi. On 12 November 245, Philip was at Aquae in Dacia (Vidonac, Serbia). Wars against the Carpi and Germanic peoples continued into 247. In 247, Philip was Roman consul for the second time. In late summer 247, Philip held a triumph in Rome. For his military success against the Carpi, Philip probably got the name  at the end of 247.

247–249 
In 248, Philip was Roman consul for the third time. In April 248, Philip held a festival for the one thousandth anniversary of Rome, a thousand years since Romulus became the first king of Rome. (The chronicle of the Latin historian Cassiodorus says that this started on 21 April and ended on the 23 April 248.)

John Chrysostom wrote that unlike other pagan rulers of the Romans, Philip was tolerant to the Christians and let them practise their faith openly. Eusebius wrote Philip and his wife received letters from Origen.
Death 
Some time before 11 September 249, soldiers in the Roman army killed Philip in a battle against the army of Decius. The battle was probably near Verona on the Italian Peninsula. Philip, Philip II, and Marcia Otacilia Severa may all have had damnatio memoriae on them, and the Romans removed their names from some inscriptions.

The Latin historian Eutropius says that Philip and Philip II were both deified (made into gods). This is probably not true. Where Philip's grave was is unknown.

Family 
Philip married Marcia Otacilia Severa before 238. At the start of 244, Marcia Otacilia Severa became augusta (empress) and got the Latin title: . Marcia Otacilia Severa probably died in 248.
They had a son, Philip II. The Latin history Epitome de Caesaribus says that Philip II was born in 236 or 237. Only the Greek historian John of Antioch says Philip had other sons. Philip made his son Philip II his caesar (junior emperor) in July or August 244.  After July or August 244, Marcia Otacilia Severa also had the title . In July or August 247, Philip made his son his augustus (co-emperor).

Philip's father, Julius Marinus, died while his son was emperor. After that, people in Philippopolis in Arabia (Philip's home town) worshipped Julius Marinus as a god. However, the Roman Senate probably did not deify Julius Marinus, and he probably did not become one of the official gods.

Philip had a brother, Gaius Julius Priscus. He was a governor of Roman Mesopotamia () and then a praetorian prefect and governor of the East ().

References 

3rd-century Roman emperors
200s births
249 deaths
Loneliness is a sad emotion that a person can feel if they are isolated or feel a sense of lack of friends and family members. Loneliness can make people feel anxious.

People can feel lonely even if they are surrounded by a lot of other people. Loneliness can occur even to people in marriages, relationships, families and successful jobs. One cause of loneliness is a lack of friends during childhood and teenage years. Loneliness can also be caused by chronic depression. Loneliness can also be caused when a relationship or marriage ends. 

Moreover, in the scenarios where you are the only who understands the whole picture, the person might learn few techniques and read self-help guides that can help in coping up with loneliness. 

Loneliness is a theme in literature, going back to the Epic of Gilgamesh.
Related pages 
Social isolation
 Belyaev, Igor A. and Lyashchenko, Maksim N. (2020) “Socio-cultural determinacy of human loneliness”, Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities and Social Sciences, vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 1264–1274, DOI: 10.17516/1997-1370-0640.

References

Emotions
Fuzz bass (also called "bass overdrive" or "bass distortion") is a style of playing the electric bass. When a person plays fuzz bass, the bass sounds buzzy and distorted. Fuzz bass is created by turning up the volume on a bass amplifier very high, or by using an electronic fuzz pedal.  In the mid-1960s, some bass players began to play fuzz bass. The Beatles' 1965 song "Think for Yourself" (from Rubber Soul) has fuzz bass. The 1965 Rolling Stones song "Under My Thumb" has fuzz bass.

Music technology
String instruments
Redirect may refer to:
 Redirection (computing), a capability of command-line interpreters.
 Redirect examination, in law
 URL redirection, techniques on the World Wide Web for making a web page available under many URLs.
The Primulaceae are a family of herbaceous flowering plants. It has about 24 genera. It includes some garden plants and wildflowers. It is also called the primrose family.

References

Plant families
The SOCATA TB700 is a light transport aircraft. It is used by both civilian and military operators. It is built in Tarbes, France by SOCATA. It is a single-turboprop aircraft built in all-metal. More than 600 were sold. TBM-850 is a modern variant.

Civil aircraft
French military aircraft
The Great Gatsby is a drama movie released in 2013. It is based on the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald.

The movie was an Australian-American production. It was directed by Baz Luhrmann. The screenplay was written by Luhrmann and Craig Pearce.

The main actors in it are Leonardo DiCaprio, Tobey Maguire, Carey Mulligan, Joel Edgerton and Isla Fisher. This movie also has Bollywood actor Amitabh Bachchan in a cameo appearance.

Sources

2013 romantic drama movies
American romantic drama movies
Australian drama movies
Australian romance movies
Movies set in New York City
Movies set in the 1920s
Warner Bros. movies
Movies directed by Baz Luhrmann‏‎
The Siege of Tobruk was a battle in Libya during the North African Campaign of World War II. It lasted for 241 days. The battle was between Axis and Allied Forces. The battle started on 11 April 1941, when Tobruk was besieged by an Italian and Nazi German force commanded by Lieutenant General Erwin Rommel. The siege continued for 240 days up to 27 November 1941. On that date, the Allied 8th Army took control of Tobruk.

The reason that both sides wanted to control Tobruk is that it had a deep protected harbour.  This made it a good place for ships to seek shelter.  As well, the Italians had built fortifications.  There were also escarpments and cliffs near Tobruk, which helped to protect the town from attack.
The Allies wanted to control Tobruk so that they could defend Egypt and the Suez Canal.   When the Axis armies could no longer use the port at Tobruk, they had to bring in supplies at the distant port of Tripoli.  This required the Axis armies to bring the supplies by truck through  of desert.  After the Allies won Tobruk, the Axis armies continuted fighting to take it back.  The Axis armies fired many artillery shells at Tobruk and dropped many bombs on the town.

References 

Tobruk
1941
20th century in Libya
Tobruk
Tobruk is a port city on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast. It is near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District. In 2011, it had a population of about 120,000. There was once an ancient Greek colony at Tobruk. Later, the Romans built a fortress there.  By 1911, Tobruk had become an Italian military base. During World War II, in a battle called the Siege of Tobruk, Allied forces captured the town. After the war, Tobruk was rebuilt. During the 1960s, a port terminal was built at Tobruk.

Cities in Libya
Ports and harbours
The Battle of Berlin was the British bombing raid on Berlin during the Second World War from November 1943 to March 1944. British bombers had new navigation aids to help them, such as the new H2S radar, and Bomber Command made 16 attacks on the city.

Although the bombings were mostly done by British bombers, Australian and Canadian bombers also flew to Germany.

The Battle of Berlin was considered a failure for the Royal Air Force (RAF). It lost 1,047 bombers, with 1,682 more damaged, and over 7,000 air crew members. Also, the bombings did not cause the Germans to give up but left 450,000 of them homeless.

1943 in Europe
1944 in Germany
1940s in Berlin
Berlin (air)
Berlin (air)
Berlin (air)
Berlin (air)
Berlin (air)
Berlin (air)
The First Battle of Guam was a battle fought during the Pacific War in World War II. It took place on 8 December 1941 on Guam in the Mariana Islands. The battle was between Japan and the United States. The American forces on Guam were defeated by Japanese forces. The Japanese forces then occupied the island until the Second Battle of Guam in 1944.

Guam (1941)
1941
1940s in Oceania
History of Guam
Survivor Series (2005) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view show made by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held on November 27, 2005 at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, Michigan. It was the nineteenth Survivor Series event held by the WWE.

Matches

*Orton replaced Eddie Guerrero in the match when Guerrero died.

References

Other websites
Official Survivor Series 2005 website

2005 in American television
2005 in professional wrestling
Sports in Detroit
Survivor Series
2000s in Detroit
Bohol is the tenth-largest island of the Philippines and the main island of the Bohol province. It is part of the Region VII (Central Visayas) in the Visayas island group.

The Philippine Tarsier, one of the smallest primate in the world, is one endemic animal of southern Philippines, including the island of Bohol.

Geography
The island of Bohol has an oval shape and is surrounded by 73 smaller islands; the larger of these small islands are Panglao, in the southwest in front of the city of Tagbilaran, and Lapining, in the northeast.

The main island of Bohol has an area of  and a coastline of . It lies southeast from Cebu Island across the Cebu Strait (sometimes called Bohol Strait) and southwest from Leyte, separated by the Camotes Sea and Canigao Channel. Bohol is also located north of Mindanao with the Bohol Sea or Mindanao Sea between them.

The terrain of Bohol is basically hilly and about half the island is covered in limestone. The interior is a large plateau.
In the centre of the island, mainly in the municipalities of Sagbayan, Batuan and Carmen, are the Chocolate Hills, over 1,270 hills cone-shaped hills over an area of .

The main mountain range of the island is Sierra Bullones that is along the south coast. It begins near Loboc, goes to the east and then to the northeast to end near Candijay.  The highest point of this range and in the entire province is Mount Mayana ().

Rivers
There are four main rivers that flow through Bohol:
 Loboc flows from the centre of the island to the southeastern coast.
 Inabanga, the largest river of the island, runs in the northwestern part of the province.
 Abatan flows in the southwest; and
 Ipil river flows in the north.

Climate
The climate of the island of Bohol is a warm tropical climate (Köppen climate classification Af); it is typically hot and wet throughout the year and rainfall is both heavy and frequent.

Gallery

References

Related pages
 Central Visayas

Other websites
Other websites

 Visayan Silent Gardens - Bohol Island 
 Bountiful Bohol
 Bohol, Philippines - Tourism informations

Islands of the Philippines
The Congressional Record is the official record of the United States Congress. It is published by the United States Government Printing Office. It is issued when the United States Congress is in session. Indexes are printed about every two weeks. At the end of a session of Congress, the daily editions are assembled into bound volumes creating permanent editions. The Congressional Record is similar to Hansards, which report on the parliamentary debates in the UK's Westminster system of government.

References 

Legislative branch of the United States government
Exclusionary zoning is the use of zoning laws to exclude certain types of people from a community. Exclusionary zoning laws began to be used in the United States in the late 19th century. Exclusionary zoning rules are still used today across the country. A common type of exclusionary zoning rule is a minimum lot size rule. This type of rule makes it hard for poor families to build a house on a small lot that they could afford. Exclusionary zoning rules make it hard for poor families to find housing in a community.

Urban planning
Discrimination
Urban geography
The Battle of the Coral Sea was a battle fought from May 4, 1942 to May 8, 1942. It was a major naval battle in the Pacific Ocean during World War II. The battle was between the Japanese Navy and Allied naval and air forces from the United States and Australia. The battle was the first battle between aircraft carriers. It was also the first naval battle in which the warships of neither side actually saw the warships of the other side. Instead, each side sent planes to attack the ships of the other side.

Japanese forces made a plan to invade and occupy Port Moresby in New Guinea and Tulagi in the Solomon Islands. When the U.S. discovered this plan, it sent two Navy aircraft carrier groups and a combined Australian–American cruiser force.

On 3–4 May, Japanese forces invaded and occupied Tulagi. The Japanese aircraft carriers entered the Coral Sea to try to destroy the Allied naval forces.
On 7 May, the carrier forces from the two sides sent planes to attack the ships of the other side. The first day, the U.S. sank the Japanese light carrier Shōhō, while the Japanese sank a U.S. destroyer. The next day, the Japanese carrier Shōkaku was badly damaged, and the U.S. carriers Lexington and the Yorktown were damaged. Since both sides suffered heavy losses in aircraft and carriers, the two fleets stopped the battle.

The Japanese sank more ships than the U.S. However, the battle was considered a victory for the Allies because the Japanese forces were not able to capture the locations they were hoping to occupy.  As well, the Japanese carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku were not able to fight in the Battle of Midway, which helped the U.S. to win there.  Japan's losses of carriers meant that they could not invade Port Moresby.  Two months later, the Allies launched the Guadalcanal Campaign.

Background
Background

Japanese expansion
On 7 December 1941, using aircraft carriers, the Japanese attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack destroyed most of the U.S. Pacific Fleet's battleships. It also started a state of war between the two nations. The Japanese wanted to destroy American navy ships, capture land with natural resources, and obtain military bases to defend their empire.

At the same time that they were attacking Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attacked Malaya. This caused the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand to join the United States as Allies in the war against Japan (Australia had joined World War 2 in 1939 when Germany invaded Poland). The goals of the Japanese battles in the war were to remove British and Americans from the Netherlands Indies and the Philippines.
In the first few months of 1942, Japanese forces attacked and captured the Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, the Netherlands East Indies, Wake Island, New Britain, the Gilbert Islands, and Guam. They also destroyed a lot of Allied land, naval, and air forces. Japan planned to use these lands to defend its empire.

Shortly after the war began, Japan's Naval General Staff wanted to invade Northern Australia. The goal was to prevent Australia from being used as a base to threaten Japan's defenses in the South Pacific.

The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) said it did not have the forces or ships to invade Australia. Vice Admiral Shigeyoshi Inoue, commander of the IJN's 4th Fleet (also called the South Seas Force) had the idea of capturing Tulagi in the southeastern Solomon Islands and Port Moresby in New Guinea.

This  would put northern Australia within range of Japanese land-based aircraft. Japan decided to capture New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa. This would make it hard for the United States to supply Australia.
In April 1942, the army and navy developed a plan called Operation MO. The plan was to invade Port Moresby by 10 May. The plan also included capturing Tulagi on 2–3 May. This would give the navy a base for attacks against Allied territories and forces in the South Pacific.

When MO was done, the navy planned to do Operation RY. This was a plan to capture Nauru and Ocean Island for their phosphate deposits on 15 May.

Further attacks against Fiji, Samoa and New Caledonia were planned. There was a damaging air attack by Allied aircraft on Japanese naval forces invading the Lae-Salamaua area in New Guinea in March. Inoue requested carriers to provide airplanes. Inoue was worried about Allied bombers at air bases in Townsville and Cooktown, Australia.

Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander of Japan's Combined Fleet, was planning an attack for June. He wanted to try to destroy the U.S. Navy's carriers. None were damaged in the Pearl Harbor attack.
Allied response
Unknown to the Japanese, the U.S. Navy had decoded Japanese secret codes. By March 1942, the U.S. was able to figure out up to 15% of the IJN's code. By the end of April the Americans were reading up to 85% of the messages in code.

In March 1942, the U.S. first noticed the MO operation in messages. On 13 April, the British decoded an IJN message telling Inoue that the Fifth Carrier Division, consisting of the fleet carriers  and , was being sent. The British sent the message to the Americans. They also said that Port Moresby would probably be attacked in the MO plan.

Admiral Chester Nimitz, the new commander of Allied forces in the Pacific, and his staff thought the Japanese were planning an attack in early May on Port Moresby. The Allies saw Port Moresby as an important base for attacking the Japanese. Nimitz's staff also thought that the Japanese might attack Allied bases in Samoa and at Suva.
Nimitz sent all four of the Pacific fleet's aircraft carriers to the Coral Sea. By 27 April, Japanese messages helped the allies to know most targets of the MO and RY plans.

On 29 April, Nimitz sent his four carriers and their supporting warships towards the Coral Sea. Task Force 17 consisted of the carrier , three cruisers and four destroyers. It was supported by two oilers and two destroyers.

Task Force 11 consisted of the carrier  with two cruisers. TF 16 included the carriers  and the USS Hornet, but they were too far away.

Nimitz put Fletcher in command of Allied naval forces in the South Pacific area until Halsey arrived Halsey was told to command all three task forces once TF 16 arrived in the Coral Sea area (Lundstrom, Pearl Harbor to Midway, p. 167).

The Japanese thought that all but one of the U.S. Navy's carriers were in the central Pacific. The Japanese did not know the location of the other carrier, but they did not expect an American carrier response to MO until the attacks had begun.
Battle

Prelude
During late April, the Japanese submarines  and  searched the area where landings were planned. The submarines explored Rossel Island and the Deboyne Group area and the route to Port Moresby. They did not see any Allied ships and returned to Rabaul on 23 and 24 April.

The Japanese Port Moresby Invasion Force, commanded by Rear Admiral Kōsō Abe, included 11 transport ships carrying about 5,000 soldiers from the IJA's South Seas Detachment plus 500 more troops.

This included one light cruiser and six destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Sadamichi Kajioka. Abe's ships departed Rabaul for the  trip to Port Moresby on 4 May and were joined by Kajioka's force the next day. The ships, planned to arrive at Port Moresby by 10 May.

The Allied forces at Port Moresby had 5,333 men, but only half of these were infantry and all had poor equipment and little training.
Leading the invasion of Tulagi was the Tulagi Invasion Force. It was commanded by Rear Admiral Kiyohide Shima. It consisted of two minelayers, two destroyers, six minesweepers, two subchasers, and a transport ship carrying about 400 troops. Supporting the Tulagi force was the light carrier , four heavy cruisers, and one destroyer, commanded by Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō.

There was a separate force commanded by Rear Admiral Kuninori Marumo. It consisted of two light cruisers, the seaplane tender , and three gunboats. Inoue directed MO from the cruiser . He arrived on 4 May.

Gotō's force left Truk on 28 April and stayed near New Georgia Island. Marumo's support group left New Ireland to establish a seaplane base on 2 May to support the Tulagi attack. Shima's invasion force left Rabaul on 30 April.
The Carrier Strike Force with carriers Zuikaku and Shōkaku, two heavy cruisers, and six destroyers left from Truk on 1 May. The strike force was commanded by Vice Admiral Takeo Takagi (flag on cruiser ).  Rear Admiral Chūichi Hara, on Zuikaku, commanded the carrier air forces.

The Carrier Strike Force was to enter the Coral Sea south of Guadalcanal. Once in the Coral Sea, the carriers were to provide airplanes for the invasion forces, destroy Allied airplanes at Port Moresby, and destroy any Allied naval forces in the Coral Sea.

Takagi's carriers were to deliver nine Zero fighter aircraft to Rabaul. Bad weather during two attempts to make the delivery made the aircraft to return to the carriers. One of the Zeros crashed in the ocean.
To find out if any Allied naval forces were coming, the Japanese sent submarines to wait southwest of Guadalcanal. Fletcher's forces got into the Coral Sea area before the submarines arrived and the Japanese did not see them. Another sub was sent to explore around Nouméa. It was attacked by Yorktown aircraft on 2 May.

On the morning of 1 May, Fletcher sent TF11 to refuel. TF 17 completed refueling the next day. Fletcher took TF 17 northwest towards the Louisiades and ordered TF 11 to meet TF 44 on 4 May. TF 44 was a joint Australia–U.S. warship force under MacArthur's command. It was led by Australian Rear Admiral John Crace. It was made up of the cruisers , , and .

Tulagi
Early on 3 May, Shima's force arrived off Tulagi and the naval troops began to occupy the island. Tulagi was undefended. The small guard of Australian commandos and a Royal Australian Air Force group left before Shima's arrival. The Japanese forces built a seaplane and communications base.
At 17:00 on 3 May, Fletcher was told that the Japanese Tulagi invasion force had been seen.  TF 17 went towards Guadalcanal to launch air attacks against the Japanese forces at Tulagi.

On 4 May, from a position  south of Guadalcanal (), 60 aircraft from TF 17 launched three attacks against Shima's forces off Tulagi. Yorktowns aircraft sank the destroyer Kikuzuki () and three of the minesweepers, damaged four other ships, and destroyed four seaplanes. The Americans lost one dive bomber and two fighters. Even though the Japanese forces were harmed by the carrier strikes, they kept building the seaplane base. They began flying from Tulagi by 6 May.

Takagi's Carrier Striking Force was north of Tulagi when it learned of Fletcher's strike on 4 May. Takagi sent  planes to search for the American carriers, but the planes found nothing.