Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Modern physics 
As scientists researched particles, they discovered what classical mechanics could not explain. Classical mechanics predicted that the speed of light varied, but experiments showed the speed of light stayed the same. This was predicted by Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity. Einstein predicted that the speed of electromagnetic radiation through empty space would always be the same. His view of space-time replaced the ancient idea that space and time were quite separate things.

Max Planck came up with quantum mechanics to explain why metal releases electrons when you shine a light at it, and why matter emits radiation. Quantum mechanics applies for very small things like the electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up an atom. People like Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, and Paul Dirac continued to work on quantum mechanics and eventually we got the Standard Model.

Definition
Definition 

Physics is the study of energy and matter in space and time and how they are related to each other. Physicists assume the existence of mass, length, time and electric current and then define (give the meaning of) all other physical quantities in terms of these basic units. Mass, length, time, and electric current are never defined but the standard units used to measure them are always defined. In the International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French Système International), the kilogram is the basic unit of mass, the metre is the basic unit of length, the second is the basic unit of time, and the ampere is the basic unit of electric current.
In addition to these four units, there are three other ones: the mole, which is the unit of the quantity of matter, the candela which measures the luminous intensity (the power of lighting) and the kelvin, the unit of temperature.
Physics studies how things move, and the forces that make them move. For example, velocity and acceleration are used by physics to show how things move. Also, physicists study the forces of gravity, electricity, magnetism and the forces that hold things together.

Physics studies very large things, and very small things. For instance, physicists can study stars, planets and galaxies but could also study small pieces of matter, such as atoms and electrons.They may also study sound, light and other waves. As well as that, they could examine energy, heat and radioactivity, and even space and time. 
Physics not only helps people understand how objects move, but how they change form, how they make noise, how hot or cold they will be, and what they are made of at the smallest level. In short, physics is the branch of science that deals with properties of matter and energy along with the interaction between them.
Physics and mathematics
Physics is a quantitative science because it is based on measuring with numbers. Mathematics is used in physics to make models that try to predict what will happen in nature. These predictions are compared to the way the real world works. Physicists are always working to make their models of the world better.

Branches 

Classical mechanics contains major topics such as Newton's laws of motion, Lagrangian mechanics, Hamiltonian mechanics, kinematics, statics, dynamics, chaos theory, acoustics, fluid dynamics, continuum mechanics.  Classical mechanics is all about forces acting on a body in nature, balancing forces, maintaining equlibrium state, etc . 

Electromagnetism is study of charges on a particular body.  It contains subtopics such as Electrostatics, electrodynamics, electricity, magnetism, magnetostatics, Maxwell's equations, optics .
Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics are related with temperature.  It includes main topics such as Heat engine, kinetic theory.  It uses terms such as heat(Q), work(W), and internal energy (U).  First law of thermodynamics gives us the relation them by the following equation (ΔU = Q − W)

Quantum mechanics is the study of particle at the atomic level taking into consideration the atomic model.  It includes subtopics Path integral formulation, scattering theory, Schrödinger equation, quantum field theory, quantum statistical mechanics.

Relativity

Advanced knowledge
Advanced knowledge

General description 
Physics is the science of matter and how matter interacts. Matter is any physical material in the universe. Everything is made of matter. Physics is used to describe the physical universe around us, and to predict how it will behave. 
Physics is the science concerned with the discovery and characterization of the universal laws which govern matter, movement and forces, and space and time, and other features of the natural world.

Breadth and goals of physics 
The sweep of physics is broad, from the smallest components of matter and the forces that hold it together, to galaxies and even larger things. There are only four forces that appear to operate over this whole range. However, even these four forces (gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force associated with radioactivity, and the strong force which holds protons and neutrons in an atom together) are believed to be different parts of a single force.
Physics is mainly focused on the goal of making ever simpler, more general, and more accurate rules that define the character and behavior of matter and space itself. 
One of the major goals of physics is making theories that apply to everything in the universe. In other words, physics can be viewed as the study of those universal laws which define, at the most basic level possible, the behavior of the physical universe.

Physics uses the scientific method 
Physics uses the scientific method. That is, data from experiments and observations are collected. Theories which attempt to explain these data are produced. Physics uses these theories to not only describe physical phenomena, but to model physical systems and predict how these physical systems will behave. Physicists then compare these predictions to observations or experimental evidence to show whether the theory is right or wrong.
The theories that are well supported by data and are especially simple and general are sometimes called scientific laws. Of course, all theories, including those known as laws, can be replaced by more accurate and more general laws, when a disagreement with data is found.

Physics is quantitative 
Physics is more quantitative than most other sciences. That is, many of the observations in physics may be represented in the form of numerical measurements. Most of the theories in physics use mathematics to express their principles. Most of the predictions from these theories are numerical. This is because of the areas which physics has addressed work better with quantitative approaches than other areas. Sciences also tend to become more quantitative with time as they become more highly developed, and physics is one of the oldest sciences.
Fields of physics 
Classical physics normally includes the fields of mechanics, optics, electricity, magnetism, acoustics and thermodynamics. Modern physics is a term normally used to cover fields which rely on quantum theory, including quantum mechanics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, particle physics and condensed matter physics, as well as the more modern fields of general and special relativity, but these last two are often considered fields of classical physics as they do not rely on quantum theory. Although this difference can be found in older writings, it is of little new interest as quantum effects are now understood to be of importance even in fields that before were called classical.

Approaches in physics 
There are many ways to study physics, and many different kinds of activities in physics. The two main types of activities are the collection of data, and the development of theories.
Some other fields in physics like astrophysics and geophysics are mostly observational sciences because most of their data has to be collected passively instead of through experimentation. Galileo, for example, could only look at Jupiter and discover that it has moons. However, observational programs in these fields use many of the same tools and technology that are used in the experimental subfields of physics. 
 
Theoretical physics often uses quantitative approaches to develop the theories that attempt to explain the data. In this way, theoretical physicists often use tools from mathematics. Theoretical physics often can involve creating quantitative predictions of physical theories, and comparing these predictions quantitatively with data. Theoretical physics sometimes creates models of physical systems before data is available to test and support these models.
These two main activities in physics, data collection, theory production and testing, use many different skills. This has led to a lot of specialization in physics, and the introduction, development and use of tools from other fields. For example, theoretical physicists use mathematics and numerical analysis and statistics and probability and computer software in their work. Experimental physicists develop instruments and techniques for collecting data, using engineering and computer technology and many other fields of technology. Often the tools from these other areas are not quite appropriate for the needs of physics, and need to be changed or more advanced versions have to be made.

It is frequent for new physics to be discovered if experimental physicists do an experiment that current theories cannot explain, or for theoretical physicists to generate theories which can then be put to the test by experimental physicists.
Experimental physics, engineering and technology are related. Experiments often need specialized tools such as particle accelerators, lasers, and important industrial applications such as transistors and magnetic resonance imaging have come from applied research.

Physicists

Prominent physicists
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695)
Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813)
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827)
Joseph Fourier (1768–1830)
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796–1842)
William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865)
Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888)
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
J. Willard Gibbs (1839–1903)
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)
Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853–1928)
Henri Poincaré (1854–1912)
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)
Max Planck (1858–1947)
Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
Milutin Milanković (1879–1958)
Emmy Noether (1882–1935)
Max Born (1882–1970)
Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961)
Louis de Broglie (1892–1987)
Satyendra Nath Bose (1894–1974)
Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958)
Enrico Fermi (1901–1954)
Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976)
Paul Dirac (1902–1984)
Eugene Wigner (1902–1995)
Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967)
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga (1906–1979)
Hideki Yukawa (1907–1981)
John Bardeen (1908–1991)
Lev Landau (1908–1967)
Anatoly Vlasov (1908–1975)
Nikolay Bogolyubov (1909–1992)
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995)
John Archibald Wheeler (1911–2008)
Richard Feynman (1918–1988)
Julian Schwinger (1918–1994)
Feza Gürsey (1921–1992)
Chen Ning Yang (1922– )
Freeman Dyson (1923–2020 )
Gunnar Källén (1926–1968)
Abdus Salam (1926–1996)
Murray Gell-Mann (1929– )
Riazuddin (1930– )
Roger Penrose (1931– )
George Sudarshan (1931– )
Sheldon Glashow (1932– )
Tom W. B. Kibble (1932– )
Steven Weinberg (1933– )
Gerald Guralnik (1936–)
Sidney Coleman (1937–2007)
C. R. Hagen (1937–)
Ratko Janev (1939– )
Leonard Susskind (1940– )
Michael Berry (1941– )
Bertrand Halperin (1941–)
Stephen Hawking (1942–2018 )
Alexander Polyakov (1945–)
Gerardus 't Hooft (1946– )
Jacob Bekenstein (1947–)
Robert Laughlin (1950–)
Related pages
 American Physical Society
 Astronomy
 Energy
 Matter
 Time

References

Other websites 

 Units and Measurements Question
Politics is the way that people living in groups make decisions. 
Politics is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in groups such as tribes, cities, or countries. In large groups, such as countries, some people may spend a lot of their time making such agreements. These people are called politicians. Politicians, and sometimes other people, may get together to form a government. The study of politics in universities is called political science, public affairs, government, political studies, or public administration.

In everyday life, the term "politics" refers to the way that countries are governed, and to the ways that governments make rules and laws to manage the human society properly. Politics can also be seen in other groups, such as in companies, clubs, schools, and churches.
Government 
The government  tries to lead the whole group. Governments do things such as:
 Decide which people get which pieces of land
 Decide which people can tell other people what to do
 Decide whether to go to war with another country
 Create money
 Build things for the use of the whole group, such as roads, hospitals, libraries, and docks.
 Educate people, either for their own good, or to teach them what the government wants them to know
 Take care of the very young, the sick, or the very old
 Manage the welfare of the country and manages the money available for spending on services (Hospitals, Schools, etc.)
The government can also control people and what happens in a country in other ways besides making laws.
 For example, how the government spends its money makes a big difference in what people will do or what will happen to people. If the government spends a lot of money on hospitals and nurses, the people will probably become healthier.
 Also, if people like their government, or think that their government is wise, they may do something just because their government says it is a good thing to do. Governments often make posters or television advertisements that encourage people to stop smoking cigarettes or eat more fruits and vegetables.
Politics is often compared to ethics (ideas about right and wrong). Ethics is a more abstract study of right and wrong. Ethics is usually more concerned with principle than law or politics or diplomacy, so many people think ethics is not practical. But without some agreement on ethics, there is probably no way to even have a debate, laws or an election. There is always some agreement on ethics and personal conduct in a political system.

Political parties 
In most countries, people have formed political parties to put forward their ideas. There is usually some disagreement between people within a party, but they work together because they feel that they agree on enough things, and they will have more power if they join together. They agree to take the same position on many issues, and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties. Some examples of parties are the Liberal party, the Labor party and the Greens.
History 
The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote that humans are a political animal and that ethics and politics are closely linked.
	
Niccolò Machiavelli wrote, in his 1532 book, The Prince, that politics was firstly about having and keeping power. He said that without power, a leader could do nothing.

In 1651, Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan, a book about politics. Hobbes wrote that people living in groups often give up some of their rights in exchange for some protections from a government. This is the basis of the social contract theory.
	
In the 1800s, John Stuart Mill developed the "liberal" idea of politics. Mill said that democracy is the most important political development of the 1800s. He said that there should be more protection for individual rights against the government. 

Bernard Crick wrote a list of the political virtues, which were about best practices of politics itself.
International politics 
There are also disagreements between different countries. Attempts to solve the problem with meetings are called diplomacy. This is politics between nations instead of politics within nations. If the problems are not resolved by diplomatic meetings they can lead to war or terrorism.

Related pages 
 Constitution
 Geopolitics
 Horseshoe Theory
 Identity politics
 Political polarization
 Political economy
 Political philosophy

Other websites 

 Politics -Citizendium
A value (or principle) usually means an abstract rule, one that can be seen to apply in many experiences, or can be applied by choice in a lot of situations. It can also mean a moral choice one makes often and consistently, for example, some Buddhists avoid eating meat as a matter of principle.

Many groups of people agree on lists of principles. They may also try to agree on the order in which they are to apply, that is, which principles should be violated before which other ones. They might also try to list best practices which reflect the principles in the right order, and provide more practical (less abstract) instruction.

Culture
Profanity, also known as swearing, are words which are considered to be rude, inappropriate or offensive. The adjective is profane. Profanities can also be called curse ("cuss") words, swear words, dirty words, bad words, foul language, strong language, obscenity, obscene language, or expletives. It can be called swearing, although this also has a normal meaning of making a "solemn promise". A profanity usually refers to religion, sex, or bodily functions. These are things that people feel very strongly about. In some languages, such as French, there is more profanity about religion than most other topics. This is the original meaning, from a Latin word meaning "before the temple".
Religious profanity is called blasphemy. The verb is to blaspheme and the adjective is 'blasphemous'. Saying “God!” or “Jesus Christ!” as an expression of surprise or annoyance is considered by many to be blasphemy, mostly because one of the Ten Commandments says not to use God's name "in vain" (without substance or without relevance). Swearing oaths can also be considered wrong by some who follow Jesus' teaching against swearing oaths in the Gospels (such as Matthew 5:34).

A profanity can be a word or gesture or some other form of behavior.

Different words can be profane to different people, and what words are thought of as profanity in English can change over time.

Whether a word is a profanity will always depend on the way people think. Some people will be offended by something, while others will not be. Words which should not be used are taboo words. Using such words is thought by some people to be a sin. For example, some Christians and some Muslims believe that swearing is a sin.
Opinions on profanity 
Some people call profanity "crude," but some say that it is no cruder to say "damn" or "crap" than it is to use "hate" (a word that is about a very strong emotion, but not a swear word). People who use profanity do not always mean to make anybody feel bad, and tolerance for different forms of profanity can vary widely, from person to person. Most often, using profanity is a verbal outlet for strong feelings (usually unpleasant ones), that might otherwise cause a physical reaction. At other times, some people may use profanity as humor.

Coprolalia 
Coprolalia is a mental condition that makes people use profanity constantly. It is different from Tourette syndrome. Tourette syndrome is actually a group of symptoms that only includes coprolalia 15% of the time. The condition can be made worse by stress.
Examples of profanity 
Several of these words come from Anglo-Saxon or old Norse names for body parts, and bodily functions. They came to be thought of as profanity mostly after the Normans brought French and Latin words for them to England.  

Ass (Arse in the United Kingdom)

Means the buttocks.    
 
Asshole (Arsehole in the United Kingdom)

Means the anus. Also used as an insult for an unpleasant or foolish person.

Bastard 

A term which used to be for a child who was born to unmarried parents, now used as an insult for an unpleasant person.    

Bitch 

A female dog. Also used as an insult for a disliked woman.

Cock (Dick in the United States)

These terms refer to the penis, and/or as an insult for a unpleasant or foolish person.

Cunt (Pussy in the United States)

A vagina. Also used as an insult for a disliked person.

Fuck 

A verb, meaning to have sex.

Piss

Urine; also a verb, meaning to urinate. 

Shit (Shite in the United Kingdom) 

Feces; also a verb, meaning to defecate.
Profane gestures 
These are mostly performed while facing another person and can be meant toward them, or about them. These gestures are considered as strong as profane words in most cases.

 Biting one's thumb
 Performed by placing the tip of a thumb under the front teeth, then pulling the thumb slightly forward, with the fingers closed. Mocks the "thumbs up" gesture. Can be taken to mean "bite me", though it predates the common use of this phrase.

Grabbing one's own crotch
Also an invitation to "bite me", or to perform oral sex in a  way.

 Pretending to give fellatio
 One pokes out a cheek with the tongue while rocking a closed hand toward the mouth, at the same time. Indicates something or someone is a waste of time.

Pretending to masturbate
Indicates something or someone is a waste of time, or performs poorly.

Showing one's middle finger ("flipping the bird")
Understood generally to mean "fuck you" or "fuck off".

Showing a reversed "V" sign
Understood generally to mean "fuck you" or "fuck off".
Thumbing (or "fluting") one's nose
Performed by placing the tip of a thumb against the tip of the nose, then wiggling the fingers. Expresses , or thinking that someone is foolish.

"Up yours"
One turns a forearm horizontally while swinging the other fist and forearm around it. Suggests something being shoved into a person's . If the middle finger is shown, it is a stronger form of "fuck you", or a suggestion of anal sex.

References

 
Human communication
Obscenity
Proof could mean: 
 An argument, including:
 Mathematical proof
 Proof theory, a branch of mathematical logic
 Logical argument
 Evidence (law), tested evidence or a legal proof
 Proof (alcohol), measure of an alcoholic beverage's strength
 Proofing (baking technique), how a yeast-leavened dough rises
 Proofreading
 Artist's proof, a single print taken during the printmaking process
 Proof coinage, a coin made as an example of a particular strike
 Proof test, for a firearm
 Galley proof, an early version of a publication
 Homeopathic proving, testing a substance's effect on the body

In entertainment:
 Proof (1991 movie), an Australian movie by Jocelyn Moorhouse
 Proof (play), a play by David Auburn
 Proof (2005 movie), a movie directed by John Madden, based on the play
 "Proof", a song by Paul Simon from his 1990 album The Rhythm of the Saints
 Proof (rapper) (1973-2006), American rapper, a member of the group D12
In the SARs, the central government is responsible for defense and foreign affairs but not daily operations for 50 years. PRC claims Taiwan as one of its many provinces. However, PRC does not have control of Taiwan. It has an entirely different political system and is officially known as the Republic of China.

History 
 
China has one of the world's oldest civilizations and has the oldest continuous civilization. It has archaeological evidence over 5,000 years old. It also has one of the world's oldest writing systems (and the oldest in use today), and is viewed as the source of many major inventions.

Ancient (2100 B.C. - 1500 A.D.) 
Ancient China was one of the first civilizations and was active since the 2nd millennium BC as a feudal society.
Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing, with the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley civilization, the Maya civilization, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt. It reached its golden age during the Tang Dynasty (c. A.D. 10th century).  Home of  Confucianism and Daoism, it had great influence on nearby countries including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam in the areas of political system, philosophy, religion, art, and even writing and literature. China is home to some of the oldest artwork in the world. Statues and pottery, as well as decorations made of jade, are some classic examples.
A new age 
While China achieved many things in the First millennium and early 2nd millennium, it became an isolationist country in the 15th century C.E. This was because Spain found a lot of silver in the newly explored continents of North and South America. Silver was the main currency (money) in China and Europe at the time, and China did not want to be bought by the foreigners.
While China was never actually taken over by Europeans, many European countries, such as Britain and France built spheres of influence in China.  Since China had cut itself off from the world over the previous few centuries, by the Qing Dynasty, it had fallen behind other countries in technology, and was helpless to stop this from happening.  This had become clear when it lost the Opium Wars to Britain in the 19th century.

In 1912, the Qing dynasty was overthrown by the Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang, a nationalist party, and the Republic of China established. Over time, Marxist ideas grew popular and the Communist party was formed.
The Chinese Civil War later started between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Communists of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Communists wanted to make China like the Soviet Union, whereas the other side wanted to keep China in its current state at the time. The Communists were led by Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Liu Shaoqi and others. Later Liu lost influence with Mao and his death to this day remains unresolved. The Communists eventually won the war. The Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai-shek) fled to the island of Taiwan and set up their new capital city in Taipei. After the Chinese Civil War, the Communist leader Mao Zedong declared a new country, the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Beijing on October 1, 1949.

In 1927, the Chinese Civil War began as the Kuomintang, led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communists fought one another.
Amidst the turmoil brewing between the Nationalist and Communist parties who were vying for control of China at the time, Japan had launched an invasion of Manchuria in 1934 and began to creep steadily inland.  China, the Nationalist party in particular, owed Japan immense amounts of money, which they could not pay whilst infused in their own civil war. The Treaty of Versailles promised the Japanese government land in China in return for forgiveness of their debt. This ended up not being a popular sentiment and was rallied against all over the country, and most famously during the May 4th Movement in Beijing in 1919. When the Chinese did not readily give up their rights to their land, Japan tried to take it by force. This was the beginning of World War II in the Pacific Theater.

By 1949, the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party had gained control over mainland China and Mao Zedong announced the creation of the People's Republic of China. Chiang Kai-shek and the other nationalists fled to Taiwan.
During this time period, the People's Republic of China did not get along with the capitalist countries of the Western world. Beginning in the 1960s, relationships between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union also became increasingly unfriendly in the Sino-Soviet Split. In 1972, to counter the power of the Soviet Union, Chairman Mao and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai met with US President Richard Nixon in Beijing. This began to improve relationships between China and the Western world.

After Mao's death, there was a power struggle between the Gang of Four and Chinese Premier Hua Guofeng, the man Mao had chosen to be the next leader of China. Eventually, Deng Xiaoping, one of the veterans of the revolution, took power. He began a "Reform and Opening Up" () campaign. These reforms tried to make the People's Republic of China a modern, industrial - but still socialist - nation by moving towards a market system. Deng's policies would be known as "socialism with Chinese characteristics."
Although Deng's policy helped loosen restrictions on citizens, the People's Republic of China continues to have problems with the amount of control the government has over citizens' private lives. In 1979, the one-child policy, which limits most couples to one child, was created because of the overpopulation problem in the People's Republic of China. This policy is highly controversial and many Westerners have criticized it. News and Internet sites are also censored by the government.

In 1989, the Chinese Communist Party used soldiers and tanks to stop a protest in Beijing's Tiananmen Square organized by students seeking political reform. This action received worldwide criticism and led to economic sanctions being placed on the Chinese government.

In August 2008, China hosted the Summer Olympics for the first time.

Geography
Geography 

The People's Republic of China is the third- or fourth-largest country in the world after Russia, Canada, and (in some sources) the United States and the second-largest by land area. China has every kind of climate in the northern hemisphere except the polar climate. It is also the largest country without any land north of the Arctic Circle. China borders 14 nations, which is more than any other country in the world. It borders Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan in South Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; a small section of Russian Altai and Mongolia in Inner Asia; and the Russian Far East and North Korea in Northeast Asia.

China has two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. There is also the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert.
The world's highest point, Mt. Everest (8848m), is on the border between China and Nepal. The country's lowest point, and the world's fourth-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154m).

Biodiversity 

China is one of 17 megadiverse countries. It is in two of the world's major ecozones: the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. In the Palearctic zone, mammals such as the horse, camel, tapir, and jerboa can be found. Among the species in the Indomalaya region are the Leopard Cat, bamboo rat, treeshrew, and various monkey and ape species. Some overlap is between the two regions; deer, antelope, bears, wolves, pigs, and many rodent species can all be found in China's environments. The famous giant panda is found only in a limited area along the Yangtze River. China has a continuing problem with trade in endangered species. There are now laws to stop such activities.
China also has a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests cover most of the north of the country. The forest have animal species such as moose and the Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species. Moist conifer forests can have thickets of bamboo. It is replaced by rhododendrons in higher montane stands of juniper and yew. Subtropical forests, which are mostly in central and southern China. These support as many as 146,000 species of flora. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, have a quarter of all the plant and animal species found in China.

Politics 
China is a one-party state wherein the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (CPC) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the paramount leader. The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012 and was re-elected on 25 October 2017.
The President is the titular head of state, elected by the National People's Congress. The current president is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's Paramount leader. The Premier is the head of government, heading the State Council alongside with four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The current premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the CPC, China's de facto top decision-making body.

Military 

The PRC Armed Forces, also known as the People's Liberation Army (PLA), is one of the most powerful armies in the world. Nowadays PRC is among the atomic powers in the world. It also has the largest standing army in the world of over 2 million soldiers on active duty.
People and culture 
There are 56 recognized ethnic minority groups in China. Han is the largest ethnic group in China. Mandarin Chinese is the main spoken language.

China is the origin of Eastern martial arts, called Kung Fu or Wushu. China is also the home of the well-respected Spa Monastery and Wudang Mountains. Martial art started more for the purpose of survival, defense, and warfare than art. Over time some art forms have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese characteristics.

China has had renowned artists including Wong Fei Hung and many others. Art has also co-existed with a variety of paints including the more standard 18 colors. Legendary and controversial moves like Big Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture.
China has many traditional festivals, such as the Chinese New Year, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and so on. The most significant is Chinese New Year. Another important holiday is the National Day celebration around October.  Weekends are moved around to make sure everyone has a week-long holiday for it, just like during the lunar new year.
Chinese New Year lasts fifteen days, including one week as a national holiday. It starts with the first day of the Chinese lunar year and ends with the full moon fifteen days later. It is always in the middle of winter, but is called the Spring Festival in Chinese because Chinese seasons are a little different from English ones. On the first day of the Chinese New Year, people call on friends and relatives. Because most people watch the special performances on CCTV all the night on New Year's Eve and don't go to bed until 12:00 AM, they usually get up later in the next day. The fifth day of the Chinese New Year is the day to welcome the god of Wealth (Chinese:财神爷), many people make and eat dumplings (Chinese:饺子.  Pinyin: Jaozi). They believe that dumplings can hold the god of Wealth and bring luck.  The last day of the Chinese New Year is the Lantern Festival. On this day, the moon becomes the full moon. People go out and watch the lantern festivals everywhere
. After that, they eat sweet dumpling (Chinese:汤圆,元宵), a kind of dumpling which is round and looks like the full moon.
Dragon Boat Festival is celebrated to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan, a patriotic poet of the State of Chu during the Warring States period. He persuaded his emperor not to accept Qin's diplomats's offers several times but his emperor did not listen to him. He was very sad and ended up jumping into the river to end his life. The people loved him so much that they did not want the fish to eat his corpse. They made and threw rice dumplings into the river. They hope the fish eat these dumplings instead of the poet's corpse. They also rowed dragon boats in the river to get rid of the fish.  Eating rice dumplings and holding dragon boat races, became what the Chinese do in this festival nowadays.
Held on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, the Mid-Autumn Festival is a festival for families. Now when the festival sets in, people sit together to eat moon cakes, appreciate the moon and the moon itself, celebrate the bumper harvest, and enjoy the family love and happiness. To the Chinese people, the full moon symbolizes family reunion, as do the moon cakes. Hence why the Mid-Autumn Festival is also called the Family Reunion Festival.

Transport 
Trains are commonly used for moving from one place to another, mainly for long distances. Bullet trains are faster and more common in the cities. China has more high-speed trains than any other country in the world. Buses and air transport are also very common.

Related pages 
 List of provinces of China
 Political problems of China

Notes

References

Other websites 
  Information, Links, History  and more of China  
  China Maps
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is the study of the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems of the human body. PNI takes an interdisciplinary approach.

The main interests of PNI are the interactions between the nervous and immune systems and the relationships between mental processes and health.

History
Interest in the relationship between psychiatric syndromes or symptoms and immune function has been a consistent theme since the beginning of modern medicine.

Claude Bernard, a French physiologist, founded the concept milieu interieur in the mid-1800s. In 1865, Bernard described the perturbation of this internal state “… there are protective functions of organic elements holding living materials in reserve and maintaining without interruption humidity, heat and other conditions indispensable to vital activity. Sickness and death are only a dislocation or perturbation of that mechanism." (Bernard, 1865)
Walter Cannon, a professor of physiology at Harvard University coined the term homeostasis in his book The Wisdom of the Body in 1932. In his work with animals Cannon observed that any change of emotional state in the beast, such as anxiety, distress, or rage was accompanied by total cessation of movements of the stomach (Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage, 1915). These studies into the relationship between the effects of emotions and perceptions on the autonomic nervous system, the  responses that led to the freeze, fight or flight response.
Birth of psychoneuroimmunology
In 1975 Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen advanced PNI with a demonstration of classic conditioning of the immune function, and coined the term "psychoneuroimmunology". Ader was investigating how long conditioned responses  might last in laboratory rats. The highly reproducible results showed that conditioned rats exposed to the conditioned stimulus were immuno suppressed. In other words, a signal via the nervous system (taste) was affecting immune function. This was one of the first scientific experiments that demonstrated that the nervous system can affect the immune system.
In 1981 David Felten, then working at the Indiana University of Medicine, discovered a network of nerves leading to blood vessels as well as cells of the immune system. The researchers also found nerves in the thymus and spleen terminating near clusters of lymphocytes, macrophages and mast cells, all of which help control immune function. This discovery provided one of the first indications of how neuro-immune interaction occurs.

Ader, Cohen and Felten went on to edit the groundbreaking book Psychoneuroimmunology in 1981, which laid out the underlying premise that the brain and immune system represent a single, integrated system of defense.
Link between stress and disease 
Stressors can produce profound health consequences. In one epidemiological study, for example, all-cause mortality increased in the month following a severe stressor – the death of a spouse. Theorists propose that stressful events trigger cognitive and affective responses which, in turn, induce sympathetic nervous system and endocrine changes. These ultimately impair immune function. Potential health consequences are broad, but include rates of infection, HIV progression, and cancer incidence and progression.

References 

Immunology
Branches of psychology
A political party is an organized group of people or bodies who seek to capture political power through an election in order to run the affairs of a country. It often puts forward candidates for public office. In a democracy, leaders must "run for office" in an election. In a dictatorship, there is generally only one party allowed, that can approve a new leader without non-members having a choice.

About 
A political party is similar to a faction, and can be the same thing. In some systems, members of one party in the legislature are all expected to vote the same way. The laws written by the party or faction with the majority of votes become adopted by the country, so this means whatever party is elected to over half the seats, gets to run the government. The next largest party is often called the "opposition". Sometimes when there are more than two parties with seats, no one party has over half of the seats. Then two or more parties might join to form what is called a "coalition".
Some parties are formed around a single issue or interest group. Others form policies to address all matters of government, known as a "platform".

Many political parties have a set of ideas and beliefs (called its "ideology"). People often describe these ideologies using words such as "conservative" and "liberal".

Common ideologies include environmentalism, socialism (ranging from social democracy to Marxism and Communism), conservatism, democracy, liberalism, and nationalism.

The law 

Political parties can be against the law in some places. When some parties get a lot of power, they can make all other political parties illegal. For example, the Nazi Party did this in Germany, and the Communist Party did it in several countries. Some countries make extreme-right parties illegal (such as Vlaams Blok in Belgium). At other times, countries have outlawed far-left parties. For example, West Germany banned the Communist Party in 1956.
A handful of countries like China, North Korea and Cuba still have one-party dictatorships. In a few other dictatorships, such as Saudi Arabia, all political parties are banned and there is no parliament at all.

Importance in all big democracies 

In all big democratic countries, parties are very important. But there are a few very small countries, such as the island of Jersey, where most politicians do not belong to any party and where parties do not matter much.

In some democracies, there are only two big political parties. For example, in the United States, there is the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Some other parties exist but are very small and do not hold seats in Congress.

In other countries there are larger numbers of parties. In the German federal Parliament (or Bundestag), six parties have seats. In the United Kingdom, there are two big parties, one medium-sized party, and many small ones.

Parties in each country
List of political parties in Australia
 List of political parties in Canada
 List of political parties in France
 List of political parties in Germany
 List of political parties in Malaysia
 List of political parties in New Zealand
 List of political parties in Pakistan
 List of political parties in the United Kingdom
 List of political parties in the United States
Usually, a page is a physical sheet of paper in a book, magazine, newspaper etc. When a page is not in a book (etc.) it is a sheet or piece of paper.
 When we talk about computers, a page is also a common abbreviation in net jargon for "webpage".  Here the page is not paper, it is a piece of information which we can see on a computer monitor at one time.  We can print it to make a real page.  But the information may not fit all on one page, and we can not change it when it is printed - we can change a web page.  So a webpage is not always the same even as a printed copy of that page.  This is a conceptual metaphor.  It can be confusing.  Someone who uses it is also likely to use other jargon.
 A page is also a boy or a young man who helps carry things and does small jobs for someone. Another word for this is a pageboy.
To page someone is to contact that person on their pager: this is a small electronic machine which makes a sound or gives someone a message. This is usually to call someone for a certain reason, for example: to call them down somewhere, or to ask them for something.
A pet is a domesticated animal that lives with people, but is not forced to work and is not eaten, in most instances. In most cases, a pet is kept to entertain people or for companionship. Some pets such as dogs and cats are placed in an animal shelter if there is no one willing to take care of them. If no one adopts it or the pet is too old/sick, the pet may be euthanized or in some cases even abandoned.

Dogs, cats, fish, rodents, lagomorphs, ferrets, birds, certain reptiles and amphibians, and a wide variety of arthropods such as tarantulas and hermit crabs are the most common pets in North America.  Horses, elephants, oxen, and donkeys are usually made to work, so they are not usually called pets.  Some dogs also do work for people, and it was once common for some birds (like falcons and carrier pigeons) to work for humans.

Rodents are very popular pets. The most common are guinea pigs, hamsters (especially Syrian and dwarf hamsters), mice and rats. Rabbits are also very popular pets.

Common Pets
Common Pets

Related pages
 Domestication
A product can mean a few things:

 Product (as a general idea) is anything which results from a process. 
 Product (mathematics) is the result of multiplication
 Product (consumer goods) in business
 Product (chemistry) is a result or something that is made in a chemical reaction.
A program or programme can be a plan of how to do something. It tells the steps that we think we need to do to make something happen. For example, a government might make a program to improve the health of the people in part of a country by giving the people better food, by helping to kill insects that carry diseases, and by bringing more doctors. 
A computer program is a set of computer instructions. A set of computer instructions is called Program and a set of program is called software. All software must have these three parts.
Television program(me) is a show that is on television.
Radio program is similar to a television program but it is on the radio.
Webcast is similar to a television program but it is shown on the Internet.
12-step program is a way people use to stop doing something. Examples would be to stop drinking alcohol, stop smoking tobacco or stop using drugs.
an event program is a thing that lists the what will happen during an event such as an opera or auction.
Platonic realism is the theory of reality developed by Plato, and explained in his theory of forms. Platonic realism states that the visible world of particular things is a shifting exhibition, like shadows cast on a wall by the activities of their corresponding universal Ideas or Forms. Whereas the visible world of particulars is unreal, the Forms occupy the unobservable yet true reality and are real.

Platonism is a similar, yet sometimes modified, view of reality.

Origin 

Among the natural philosophers in ancient Greece, the problem of universals was the mystery of where particular things derive their traits that we perceive as universals—for instance red or apple or good or woman or truth.

Plato explained that the particular things of the visible world are imperfect, transient copies of the universal Ideas that are the perfect, lasting Forms. Existing exist outside space and time, the Forms are the universals and act as templates from which particulars manifest.
In his Metaphysics, Aristotle, a student of Plato, explained that Socrates and his own student Plato held it significant that the world is in flux, much as Heraclitus had commented, "You cannot step into the same river twice", a theme of the Eleatics, a group of pre-socratic philosophers.

Influence

Plato's quest 
Plato considered that only the mind could access the timeless reality of truths, the realm of the Forms casting the visible world. Plato's metaphorical allegory of the cave—whereby humans only know reality as shadows of the real things they see interacting on a wall—suggests the practical consequences of Platonic realism as to natural philosophy in its endeavor to explain the natural world and as to values (theories of which often comprises ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy) in human society.