Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
She was a judge on The Sing-Off in 2009 and 2010. She was a judge on The X Factor in the United States in 2011. She was also a judge on The X Factor in the United Kingdom from 2012 to 2017. Scherzinger is also a panellist on The Masked Singer.

will.i.am is the executive producer of her second album.

Discography

Solo singles

As featured performer

Album appearances

References 

1978 births
Living people
American adoptees
The Pussycat Dolls members
Writers from Louisville, Kentucky
Writers from Hawaii
Musicians from Hawaii
Musicians from Louisville, Kentucky
American pianists
People from Honolulu
Singers from Hawaii
Singers from Louisville, Kentucky
Television personalities from Kentucky
Interscope Records artists
Synth-pop singers
Electropop singers
Girls Aloud was a British girl group created by an ITV television show named Popstars: The Rivals in 2002. The group's members were Cheryl Cole (née Tweedy), Nadine Coyle, Sarah Harding, Nicola Roberts and Kimberley Walsh. Girls Aloud have become one of the most successful British pop groups of the 2000s, with a record-breaking twenty consecutive Top 10 singles (including four number ones), six platinum albums (including two number ones) and record sales of more than 4.3 million in the UK.  They have also been nominated for five BRIT Awards, winning Best Single in 2009 for The Promise. The Guinness Book of World Records list them as "the most successful reality TV group of all time".  In March 2013, the group announced that they were splitting up.

Albums 
 Sound of the Underground (2003)
 What Will the Neighbours Say? (2004)
 Chemistry (2005)
 Tangled Up (2007)
 Out of Control (2008)

Compilations 
 The Sound of Girls Aloud (2006)
 Ten (2012)
Singles 
 Sound of the Underground (2002)
 No Good Advice (2003)
 Life Got Cold (2003)
 Jump (2003)
 The Show (2004)
 Love Machine (2004)
 I'll Stand by You (2004)
 Wake Me Up (2005)
 Long Hot Summer (2005)
 Biology (2005)
 See The Day (2005)
 Whole Lotta History (2006)
 Something Kinda Ooooh (2006)
 I Think We're Alone Now (2006)
 Sexy! No No No... (2007)
 Call The Shots (2007)
 Can't Speak French (2008)
 The Promise (2008)
 The Loving Kind (2009)
 Untouchable (2009)
 Something New (2012)
 Beautiful 'Cause You Love Me (2012)

References

Other websites
Official website 

2002 establishments in England
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
2013 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
British girl groups
British pop music groups
 
Musical groups established in 2002
Musical groups disestablished in 2013
Musical groups from London 
Musical quintets
The Wulfila Bible (or Gothic Bible) is a translation of parts of the Bible into the Gothic language. It was done by a Christian Bishop, called Wulfila, in the 3rd century. It contains mainly a translation of the New Testament. The basis for the translation was a Greek version of the Bible. Up till then, the Goths had used runes to write. This was impractical, though. For this reason Wulfila also invented the Gothic alphabet. The Gothic alphabet is based on the Greek one.

Many copies of parts of the text still exist today. Most of them are from the 6th to 8th century. The Wulfila bible is the oldest written text of a Germanic language. It is very important for research.

Text of The Lord's Prayer in the Wulfilabible 
þ is pronounced like the English th in the.
atta unsar þu ïn himina
weihnai namo þein
qimai þiudi nassus þeins
wairþai wilja þeins
swe ïn himina jah ana airþai
hlaif unsarana þana sin teinan gif uns himma daga
jah aflet uns þatei skulans sijai ma
swaswe jah weis afletam þai skulam unsaraim
jah ni brig gais uns ïn fraistubnjai
ak lau sei uns af þamma ubilin
unte þeina ïst þiudangardi
jah mahs jah wulþus ïn aiwins
amen

Other websites 
 Full text of the Wulfilabible 
 Smaller gothic fragments

Bible versions
3rd-century works
The Plague of Athens was an epidemic which hit the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 BC), when an Athenian victory still seemed possible.  Many historians believe that it entered Athens through Piraeus, the city's port and sole source of food and supplies. The city-state of Sparta, and much of the eastern Mediterranean, was also struck by the disease.  The plague returned twice more, in 429 BC and in the winter of 427/6 BC.
References
 Gomme, A. W., edited by A. Andrewes and K. J. Dover.  An Historical Commentary on Thucydides, Volume 5. Book VIII  Oxford University Press, 1981.  .
 McNeill, William H. Plagues and People. New York: Anchor Books, 1976. .
 Papagrigorakis, Manolis J., Christos Yapijakis, Philippos N. Synodinos, and Effie Baziotopoulou-Valavani.  "DNA examination of ancient dental pulp incriminates typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens," International Journal of Infectious Diseases 10 (2006): 206-214.  ISSN 1201-9712.
 Pomeroy, Sarah B., Spartan Women Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. .
 Zinsser, Hans. Rats, Lice and History:  A Chronicle of Pestilence and Plagues.  Originally published in Boston in 1935, later edition in 1963.  Most recent edition 1996, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, New York.  .
Other websites 
Access to International Journal of Infectious Disease/Article
History of the Peloponnesian War ii, 47–55 .
 Live Science article Accessed January 23, 2006.
Women in Classical Athens 

Infectious diseases
Ancient Athens
Events 
 Plague of Athens an epidemic which hit the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian War.
 Euripides wrote the play Alcestis

Deaths 

 Zeno of Elea died about 430 BC
The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) was an Ancient Greek military conflict, fought by Athens and its allies, against the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. Athens was the greatest sea power, and Sparta the greatest land power in 5th century BC Greece.

In the first phase, the Archidamian War, Sparta launched repeated invasions of Attica, while Athens took advantage of its naval supremacy to raid the coast of the Peloponnese.

This period of the war ended in 421 BC, with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. That treaty was soon undermined by renewed fighting in the Peloponnese. In 415 BC Athens dispatched a large force, led by Alcibiades, to attack Syracuse in Sicily. The attack failed, with the destruction of the entire force, in 413 BC. This made Athens vulnerable.
The final phase of the war is called the Decelean War, or the Peloponnesian War. In this phase, Sparta, now receiving support from the Achaemenid Empire, supported rebellions in Athens' subject states in the Aegean Sea and Ionia, undermining Athens' empire.  Eventually, Athens lost its naval supremacy.  The destruction of the Athenian fleet in a battle in 405 BC effectively ended the war, and Athens surrendered in the following year.

Results 
The Peloponnesian War reshaped the Ancient Greek world. Athens, the strongest city-state in Greece before the war started, was reduced to a state of near-complete subjection. Sparta became the leading power of Greece.
The economic costs of the war were felt all across Greece; poverty became widespread in the Peloponnese, Athens was completely devastated, and never regained its pre-war prosperity.p488 The war also brought subtler changes to Greek society. The conflict between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta, each of which had friendly political factions in other states, made civil war a common occurrence in the Greek world.

Greek warfare was originally a limited and formalized form of conflict. It became an all-out struggle between city states, with atrocities on a large scale. The Peloponnese War shattered religious and cultural taboos, devastated the countryside, and destroyed whole cities. This marked the end to the fifth-century BC 'Golden age of Greece'.xxiii-xxiv

Related pages 
History of the Peloponnesian War

Further reading

Classical authors 
 Plutarch
 Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War
 Aristophanes, "Lysistrata"
Modern authors 
 Bagnall, Nigel. The Peloponnesian War: Athens, Sparta, And The Struggle For Greece. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2006 (hardcover, ).
 Cawkwell, G.L. Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War. London: Routledge, 1997 (hardcover, ; paperback, ).
 Hanson, Victor Davis. A War Like No Other: How the Athenians and Spartans Fought the Peloponnesian War. New York: Random House, 2005 (hardcover, ); New York: Random House, 2006 (paperback, ).
 Heftner, Herbert. Der oligarchische Umsturz des Jahres 411 v. Chr. und die Herrschaft der Vierhundert in Athen: Quellenkritische und historische Untersuchungen. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2001 ().
 Hutchinson, Godfrey. Attrition: Aspects of Command in the Peloponnesian War. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing, 2006 (hardcover, ).
 Kagan, Donald:
 The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969 (hardcover, ); 1989 (paperback, ).
The Archidamian War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974 (hardcover, ); 1990 (paperback, ).
 The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981 (hardcover, ); 1991 (paperback, ).
 The Fall of the Athenian Empire. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987 (hardcover, ); 1991 (paperback, ).
 The Peloponnesian War. New York: Viking, 2003 (hardcover, ); New York: Penguin, 2004 (paperback, ); a one-volume version of his earlier tetralogy.
 Kallet, Lisa. Money and the Corrosion of Power in Thucydides: The Sicilian Expedition and its Aftermath. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001 (hardcover, ).
 Krentz, Peter. The Thirty at Athens. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982 (hardcover, ).
 The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War, edited by Robert B. Strassler. New York: The Free Press, 1996 (hardcover, ); 1998 (paperback, ).
Other websites 

 LibriVox: The History of the Peloponnesian War (Public Domain Audiobooks in the USA - 20:57:23 hours, at least 603.7 MB)
 Richard Crawley: The History of the Peloponnesian War (Translation of Thukydides' books - in Project Gutenberg)
 Peloponnesian war

References 

Wars involving Europe
5th century BC
Battles of ancient Greece
Last updated February 2

Events

Deaths

Pericles or Perikles (ca. 495–429 BC), an important statesman of Athens. He also was an orator and a general.
Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg () was a country in what is today Thuringia, Germany.

It was formed in 1672 when Frederick Wilhelm III, the last duke of Saxe-Altenburg died and Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (who had married Frederick Wilhelm's cousin, Elisabeth Sophie) inherited his possessions.

The duchy was split up again after Ernest’s death in 1675, and the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg officially came into existence in 1680 when his eldest son, Frederick, took control of the parts of the country Gotha and Altenburg.

When the royal house of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha was given to Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Altenburg passed to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen. After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War, both Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg became part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.
Dukes of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg 
 Ernest I the Pious (1640-1675), inherited Saxe-Altenburg in 1675
 Frederick I (1675-1691), son of Ernest the Pious and the first to be called Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.
 Frederick II (1691-1732), son
 Frederick III (1732-1772), son
 Ernest II (1772-1804), son
 Emil (1804-1822), son
 Frederick IV (1822-1825), brother
Divided between Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Hildburghausen

House of Wettin
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
States of the Holy Roman Empire
Thuringia
Thucydides (; ; born around 460 BC, died around 400 BC) was an ancient Greek historian best remembered for his work on the Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Olorus.

References

Further reading 
 Herodotus, Histories, A. D. Godley (translator), Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1920).   .
 Pausanias, Description of Greece, Books I-II, (Loeb Classical Library) translated by W. H. S. Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918). . .
 Plutarch, Lives, Bernadotte Perrin (translator), Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. (1914).   .
 Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War. London, J. M. Dent; New York, E. P. Dutton (1910). .

Other websites 

 
 Short Bibliography on Thucydides  Lowell Edmunds, Rutgers University
 Perseus Project Thucydides, Table of Contents
 Thomas Hobbes' Translation of Thucydides

460s BC births
390s BC deaths
Ancient Greek historians
Piraeus is a port and municipality in Athens, Attica, Greece, in the south of the center of Athens.

The population of Piraeus is 163,688 (2011).

Population

Sister cities 
 Marseille, France 
 Worcester, Massachusetts, USA 
 Ostrava, Czech republic 
 Baltimore, Maryland, USA 
 Galaţi, Romania  since 1985
 Varna, Bulgaria 
 Vilnius, Lithuania
Famous residents 
 Polychronis Lembesis (1848-1913) painter
 Ioannis Koutsis (18601953) painter
 Gerasimos Vokos (1868-1927) journalist and writer
 Alexandros Christofis (1875-1957) painter
 Stylianos Miliadis (1881-1965) writer
 Yiorgos Batis (1885-1967) rebetiko musician
 Dimitris Pikionis (1887-1968) architect
 Michalis Oikonomou (1888-1933) painter
 Katina Paxinou (1900–1973) actress
 Markos Vamvakaris (1905-1972) musician and composer
 Emmanuel Kriaras (1906) philologist and lexicographer
 Yannis Tsarouchis (1910-1989) painter
 Dimitrios Gavriilidis (1914) artist
 Michalis Genitsaris (1917-2005) singer and composer
 Andreas Krystallis (1919-1951) painter
 Ektor Kaknavatos (1920) poet
 Nicola Zaccaria (1923-2007) opera singer
 Thanasis Veggos (1926) actor and film director
 Andreas Mouratis (1926) footballer
 John S. Romanides (1927-2001) priest and theologian
 Archbishop Anastasios of Albania (1929)
 Dimitris Papamichael (1931-2004)
Costas Simitis (1936) economist and politician, Prime Minister of Greece
 Jannis Kounellis (1936) sculptor
 Tolis Voskopoulos (1940) singer and actor
 Thodoris Dritsas (1947) politician
 George Dalaras (1949) singer
 Yiannis Kyrastas (1952-2004) footballer and football manager
 Eleftheria Arvanitaki (1956) singer
 Mando (1966) singer
 Grigoris Georgatos (1973) footballer 
 Spyros Paliouras (1957-1975) writer
 Nikolaos Pavlopoulos (1909-1990) sculptor and writer
 The Andrianopoulos brothers, founders of the Olympiacos sporting club
Mayors of Piraeus 

 Christos Agrapidis (1999-2006)
 Panagiotis Fasoulas (2007- )

Universities and technological institutes 
 University of Piraeus

References

Other websites 

 Municipality of Pireas 
 Piraeus Port Authority
 The Marble Lion of Piraeus 

Settlements in Greece
The Rhône is a river in France and Switzerland. It is 812 kilometers long. The river starts in Rhône Glacier, which is in Switzerland. Then, the Rhône River joints the Saône, in France (and other rivers) and ends in the Mediterranean Sea.

The River Rhône empties into the Mediterranean. Only the Nile brings more water into the Mediterranean. The river drains an area of 95.5500 m2. The usual amount of water is about 1.700 m3 per second (at Tarrascon). During floods, this value has reached over 12.000 m3 per second.

This river splits into two smaller rivers before it flows into the Mediterranean Sea.  The space between those rivers is named the Camargue, and many types of animals live there.

References

Rivers of Switzerland
Rivers of Occitanie
Rivers of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Rivers of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
Luis Egidio Meléndez (Naples, 1716-Madrid, 1780) was a Spanish painter. Although he received little acclaim or praise during his lifetime and died in poverty, Meléndez is recognized today as the greatest Spanish still life painter of the eighteenth century. His mastery of composition and light, and his remarkable ability to convey the volume and texture of individual objects enabled him to transform the most mundane (ordinary) of kitchen fare into powerful images.

1716 births
1780 deaths
Spanish painters
Artists from Naples
Augustine, Augustin, or Augustini can mean:
 Augustine of Hippo (354-430), the Church Father and patron of the Augustinians
 Augustine of Canterbury (d. 604), the first Archbishop of Canterbury
 Mar Augustine Kandathil (1874-1956): First Indian Archbishop and First Metropolitan of the Catholic St. Thomas Christians. 
 Norman Ralph Augustine (born 27 July 1935), American aviation engineer/businessman
Augustine Huy Viet Phan, Augustine Moi Van Nguyen, and Augustine Schoffler, three of the Vietnamese Martyrs

Augustin may also be:
 Augustin, a commune in Braşov County, Romania

Related pages
 St. Augustine
 Augustinians
 Augustine Volcano
 Augustine Inmerlo
Saxe-Hildburghausen was one of the Ernestine duchies of the House of Wettin.

History 
Although it was very small, Saxe-Hildburghausen was an independent duchy from 1680 to 1826. In 1684 the duchy changed its capital from Heldburg to Hildburghausen, and changed its name to Saxe-Hildburghausen.

In 1810, a Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen married Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, who became king of Bavaria 15 years later. The marriage is the reason for the Oktoberfest, held annually in Munich.

In 1826, the Ernestine duchies were reorganised after the last ruler of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg died without an heir. The duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen gave up his duchy in return for becoming Duke of Saxe-Altenburg. Hildburghausen was given to Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was not one of the duchies in the Imperial circle, Altenburg was, so by swapping his land the duke gained in social rank, even though the Holy Roman Empire no longer existed
In 1868, four districts were established in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was one of these districts, with boundaries very similar to those of the former duchy. It remained almost unchanged until 1993, when the former district of Suhl was dissolved and most of its municipalities joined the district.

Dukes of Saxe-Hildburghausen 
 Ernst II (1675 – 1715)
 Ernst Frederick I (1715 – 24)
 Ernst Frederick II (1724 – 45)
 Ernst Frederick III (1745 – 80)
 Frederick (1780 – 1825)
Incorporated into Saxe-Meiningen

House of Wettin
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
States of the Holy Roman Empire
Thuringia
Augustine of Hippo (; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a Catholic philosopher and theologian.

Early life
Augustine was born in the year 354. His mother is believed to have been of Berber origin.

After growing up, he began to learn and write a lot about Christianity, and became a bishop in Hippo Regius, which was in modern-day Annaba, Algeria. He was highly influenced by archbishop Ambrose. Later in life, Augustine moved to Italy, and over the next years his religious ideology grew stronger, and he became a teacher.
Works
Books:
 On Christian Doctrine, wrt397-426
 Confessions, 397-398
 The City of God, begun ca. 413, finished 426
 On the Trinity, 400-416
 Enchiridion
 Retractions: At the end of his life (ca. 426-428) Augustine revisited his previous works in chronological order and suggested what he would have said differently in a work titled the "Retractions", giving the reader a rare picture of the development of a writer and his final thoughts.
 The Literal Meaning of Genesis
 On Free Choice of the Will

Letters:

Related pages
 Free will
 Original sin
 Pelagianism
 Filioque clause
 Truth

References

 The Story of Thought, DK Publishing, Bryan Magee, London, 1998, 
 aka The Story of Philosophy, Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2001, 
(subtitled on cover: The Essential Guide to the History of Western Philosophy)
 g Saint Augustine, pages 30, 144; City of God 51, 52, 53 and The Confessions 50, 51, 52
 - additional in the Dictionary of the History of Ideas for Saint Augustine and Neo-Platonism
Bibliography 
 Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo.  Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.  
 Gareth B. Matthews.  Augustine.  Blackwell, 2005.  
 O'Donnell, James J. Augustine: A New Biography. New York:  HarperCollins, 2005. 
 Ruickbie, Leo. Witchcraft Out of the Shadows. London: Robert Hale, 2004. , pp. 57–8.
 Tanquerey, Adolphe. The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology.  Reprinted Ed. (original 1930).  Rockford, IL: Tan Books, 2000. , p. 37.
 von Heyking, John. Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World. Columbia:  University of Missouri Press, 2001.  
 Orbis Augustinianus sive conventuum O. Erem. S. A. chorographica et topographica descriptio  Augustino Lubin, Paris, 1659, 1671, 1672.
 
 
 René Pottier. Saint Augustin le Berbère. Fernand Lanore, 2006.  
   
     Preview from Google

Other websites
General:
 University of Pennsylvania, Augustine of Hippo - Texts, translations, introductions, commentaries (Webarchive), 2006-10-22
 EarlyChurch.org.uk Extensive bibliography and on-line articles.
 Life of St. Augustine of Hippo, from the Catholic Encyclopedia
 Augstine of Hippo  , at Centropian
 Texts by Augustine:
 
 In Latin, at The Latin Library: books and letters by Augustine
 At "Christian Classics Ethereal Library" Translations of several works by Augustine, incl. introductions
 Sant'Agostino - Vita, Scritti, Pensiero, Santità, Attualità Full Latin and Italian text resource
 At "IntraText Digital Library": Works by Augustine in several languages, with concordance and frequency list
 St. Augustine's Multilingual Opera Omnia
 Texts on Augustine:
 Augustine and 'other Catholics' 
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 "Augustine's Concept of Freedom: The Dynamic of Sin and Grace" from Grace Incarnate (1989) 
 Augustine's Heavenly City and the Western Mind Pgs 22-24
 On Music
 Augustine on Hymns
On Original Sin ask Dan Santos
 Augustine and Pelagius
 Augustine and Thomas Aquinas on Original Sin 
 Original sin: a disputation
 The Cambridge Companion to Augustine; 3 Augustine on evil and original sin  
 Links to the Augustinian Order
 Augustine's writings 
 Audio books
 City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine 
 Augustine and Orthodoxy
 Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church
 St Augustine the Bishop of Hippo Orthodox icon and synaxarion
354 births
430 deaths
Christian mystics
Christian saints
Doctors of the Church
Converts to Christianity
Ancient Roman philosophers
Berber people
Early Christian theologians
The House of Wettin was a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors (Kurfürsten) and kings that ruled in what is known today as the German states of Saxony and Thuringia for more than 800 years.  Members of the Wettin family were also kings of Poland, as well as forming the ruling houses of Great Britain, Portugal, Bulgaria, Poland, Saxony, and Belgium.  Today only the British and Belgian lines still rule their countries, but the last Tsar of Bulgaria, Simeon II, was Prime Minister of Bulgaria between 2001 and 2005.  Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is the only ex-king who has ever returned to his country as an elected leader.

Origins: Wettins of Saxony 
The oldest known member of the House of Wettin was Thiedericus (died 982). Around 1000, as part of the German conquest of Slavic territory, the family got Wettin Castle and changed their name.  It was usual for noblemen to change their name to the name of their territory. Wettin Castle is located in Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt in the Hosgau on the Saale River.
Branches of the House of Wettin 
The House split into two main branches, the Ernestine and the Albertine.  The descendants of Ernest often subdivided their land and ended up with a lot of small duchies, but one (Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) became very important.  Ernest's younger brother was Albert.  His descendants became Electors of Saxony, and in 1806, Kings of Saxony

The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 

Descendants of the Dukes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha have become:
 kings of Belgium (from 1831) and 
 Bulgaria (1908 - 1946)
and also husbands of the queens of 
 Portugal (Ferdinand II of Portugal) and 
 the United Kingdom (Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria).

The wife of the Emperor of Mexico (Carlota of Mexico) was also a member of the house of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. As such, the British, Portuguese, and for a time, Mexican, thrones became a possession of persons who belonged to the House of Wettin.
List of branches of the House of Wettin 
 Margraves of Meissen
 Dukes of Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia
 Electors of Saxony
 Dukes of Saxe-Coburg
 Dukes of Saxe-Altenburg (first line of Altenburg)
 Dukes of Saxe-Weimar
 Dukes of Saxe-Eisenach
 Dukes of Saxe-Gotha
 Dukes of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg (second line of Altenburg)
 Dukes of Saxe-Meiningen
 Dukes of Saxe-Hildburghausen, then Dukes of Saxe-Altenburg (third line of Altenburg)
 Dukes of Saxe-Coburg (Gotha later added)
 Kings and Queen of the United Kingdom (House of Windsor)
 Princes of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary
 Kings of Portugal (Saxe-Coburg-Braganza, last reigning Royal House of Portugal)
 Kings of Bulgaria (sometimes had been known as "Kohary" and as "Sakskoburggotski")
 Kings of Belgium
 Dukes of "Saxe-Dresden"
 Electors of Saxony
 Kings of Saxony, currently Prinz/ Prinzessin von Sachsen
 Saxe-Zeitz
 Saxe-Merseburg
 Saxe-Weissenfels
 Dukes of Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Dukes of Luxembourg
 Saxe-Landsberg
 Saxe-Lauenberg
Related pages
 Rulers of Saxony, a list containing many Wettins
 Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt, the city from which the Wettin dynasty originated

References

Other websites 
 The House of Wettin 
 Genealogy of the Wettin dynasty from Genealogy.eu
 Genealogical tables of the Saxony families  from An Online Gotha 

 
 
Holy Roman Empire
Durham is a city in the North East of England. It is within the County Durham local government district, and is the county town of the larger ceremonial county. It lies to the south of Newcastle upon Tyne, Chester-le-Street and Sunderland and to the north of Darlington.

Durham is well known for its Norman Cathedral and 11th-century  castle, and is home to Durham University. HM Prison Durham is also close to the city centre. Durham Castle and Cathedral is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

History

Early history
Archeological evidence shows settlement in the area since 2000 BC. The present city can clearly be traced back to AD 995, when a group of monks from Lindisfarne chose to settle there with the body of Saint Cuthbert, which had previously lain in Chester-le-Street.

Medieval history
Before the Reformation the shrine of Saint Cuthbert, behind the High Altar of Durham Cathedral, was the most important religious site in England until the martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury.
Despite a brief translation back to Holy Island during the Norman Invasion the saint's relics remain enshrined to the present day. Saint Bede's bones are also entombed in the cathedral, drawing the mediaeval pilgrim to the city.

Durham’s geographical position has always given it an important position in the defence of England against the Scots. The city has played an important part in the defence of the north and Durham Castle is the only Norman castle keep never to have suffered a breach. The Battle of Neville's Cross which took place near the city on 17 October 1346 between the English and Scots was the most famous battle of its age.

The city suffered from a number of plague outbreaks in 1544, 1589 and 1598.

Prince Bishops
Prince Bishops

As the north east was so far from Westminster the bishops of Durham enjoyed extraordinary powers. They had the ability to hold their own parliament, raise their own armies, appoint their own sheriffs and Justices, administer their own laws, levy taxes and customs duties, create fairs and markets, issue charters, salvage shipwrecks, collect revenue from mines, administer the forests and mint their own coins.

Basically, William the Conqueror delegated many powers to bishops in the furthest reaches of England. They were his men, and most had fought at the Battle of Hastings. This style of delegation ran for many centuries afterwards. This applied especially in the north and west of England, which were several days ride from London.
So far reaching were the bishop’s powers that the steward of Bishop Anthony Bek commented in 1299 AD: 
“There are two kings in England, namely the Lord King of England, wearing a crown in sign of his regality and the Lord Bishop of Durham wearing a mitre in place of a crown, in sign of his regality in the diocese of Durham”.
All this activity was administered from the castle and buildings surrounding the Palace Green.

Every Bishop of Durham from 1071 to 1836 was a Prince Bishop except for the first Norman-appointed Bishop Walcher who was styled an Earl-Bishop. The last Prince Bishop of Durham Bishop William Van Mildert founded Durham University. Henry VIII cut some of the Prince-Bishop's powers and, in 1538, ordered the destruction of the shrine of Saint Cuthbert.
Legal System
The Prince Bishops also had their own court system, most notably the Durham Court of Chancery. The county also had its own attorney general, whose authority to bring an indictment for criminal matters was tested by central government in the infamous case of Rex v. Mary Ann Cotton (1832). The courts and judicial posts for the county were finally abolished in 1873.

Composition of the Council 
The Council is made up of 50 councillors elected every four years (last elections 2007). In 2007, the council was made of Liberal Democrat (30), Labour (17), and Independent (3) members.

Liberal Democrats first took control of the council in the 2003 elections. Labour had held overall control of the City Council continually since the early 1980s.

Other websites 
 Local Government Committee for England Final Recommendations on electoral arrangements in Durham City
 Local History Publications from County Durham Books

References 

Durham, England
The Angelic Upstarts are an anti-fascist Oi! punk rock band who started in South Shields, North-East England in 1977.

Other websites 
 Official website

English punk bands
Anti-fascism is the opposition to fascist ideologies, organizations, governments and people. Anti-fascism started in Europe in the 1920s. At the same time, fascist political parties were getting popular in Europe. Anti-fascism was most popular during and after World War II, when fascist governments were very powerful in Europe. Many different kinds of political parties have believed in anti-fascism. Some of these parties have been Marxist, nationalist, anarchist, socialist, pacifist, social democratic, conservative, and liberal.

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The History of the Peloponnesian War tells the story of the Peloponnesian War in Ancient Greece. It was written by Thucydides, an Athenian general who served in that war. The war was fought between the Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta) and the Athenian league (led by Athens). The war lasted more than 20 years.

Many historians regard this History of  Thucydides as one of the earliest scholarly works of history.

Historical method
Thucydides' History made a number of contributions to early historiography. Many of his principles have become standard methods of history writing today, though others have not.
Chronology
One of Thucydides' major innovations was to use a strict standard of chronology, recording events by year, each year consisting of the summer campaigning season and a less active winter season. As a result, events that span several years are divided up and described in parts of the book that are sometimes quite distant from one another, causing the impression that he is oscillating between the various theatres of conflict. This method contrasts sharply with Herodotus' earlier work The Histories, which jumps around chronologically.

Speeches
Another feature of the work is that Thucydides writes dozens of speeches of the most important figures who were engaged in the war. Thucydides heard some of these speeches himself but some of the speeches he wrote without knowing exactly what was really spoken.

Neutral point of view
Thucydides wanted his writings "to last for ever" (1.22.4). Therefore he tried to be as neutral as possible though as a general of Athens that was difficult for him.
Role of religion
The gods play no active role in Thucydides' work. This is very different to Herodotus, who frequently mentions the role of the gods. Instead, Thucydides regards history as being caused by the choices and actions of human beings.

The History concentrates on the military aspects of the Peloponnesian War, but it uses these events as a medium to suggest several other themes as well, for instance to show degenerative effects of war on humanity itself. 
For the most part, the History does not discuss topics such as the art and architecture of Greece, but speaks of the development of military technologies
rather often. 

The History explains that the cause of the Peloponnesian War was the "growth in power of Athens, and the alarm which this inspired in Sparta" (1.23.6). The Spartans represent a more traditional and less expansive power.
Sources
Thucydides almost never names his informants. This is in contrast to Herodotus, who frequently mentions multiple versions of his stories and allows the reader to decide which is true.

Influence
Thucydides' History has been enormously influential in both ancient and modern historiography.
Outline of the Work
Book 1
The state of Greece from the earliest times to the commencement of the Peloponnesian War, also known as the Archaeology. 1.1-1.19.
Methodological excursus. 1.20-1.23.
Causes of the war (433-432 BC) 1.24-1.66.
The Affair of Epidamnus. 1.24-1.55.
The Affair of Potidaea. 1.56-1.66.
Congress of the Peloponnesian League at Lacedaemon. 1.67-1.88
The Speech of the Corinthians. 1.68-1.71.
The Speech of the Athenian envoys. 1.73-1.78.
The Speech of Archidamus. 1.80-1.85.
The Speech of Sthenelaidas. 1.86.
From the end of the Persian War to the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, also known as the Pentacontaetia. 1.89-1.117.
The progress from supremacy to empire.
Second congress at Lacedaemon and the Corinthian Speech. 1.119-1.125.
Diplomatic maneuvering. 1.126-1.139.
Excursus on Cylon. 1.126-1.127.
Excursus on Pausanias and Themistocles. 1.128-1.138
Pericles' first speech. 1.140-1.145.
Book 2 (431-428 BC)
War begins with Thebes' attempt to subvert Plataea. 2.1-2.6.
Account of the mobilization of and list of the allies of the two combatants. 2.7-2.9.
First invasion of Attica. 2.10-2.23.
Archidamus leads the Peloponnesian army into Attica. 2.10-2.12.
Athenian preparations and abandonment of the countryside. 2.13-2.14.
Excursus on Athenian synoikism. 2.15-2.16.
Difficult conditions in Athens for refugees from countryside. 2.17.
Archidamus ravages Oenoe and Acharnai. 2.18-2.20.
Athenian fury and anger at Pericles. 2.21-2.22.
Athenian naval counter-attacks along coast of Peloponnese and islands. 2.23-2.32.
Pericles' Funeral Oration. 2.34-2.46.
The plague of Athens. 2.47-2.54.
Second invasion of Attica and Athenian naval counter-attacks. 2.55-2.58.
Pericles' third speech, defending his position and policy. 2.59-2.64.
Thucydides' estimate of Pericles' qualities and the causes for Athens' eventual defeat. 2.65.
Diplomacy and skirmishes in Thrace, the islands, and the Northeast. 2.66-2.69.
Fall of Potidaea. 2.70.
Investment of Plataea. 2.71-2.78.
Naval victories of Phormio in the Northeast. 2.80-2.92.
Threat of raid on the Piraeus. 2.93-2.94.
Thracian campaign in Macedonia under Sitalces. 2.95-2.101.
Book 3 (428-425 BC)
Annual invasion of Attica. 3.1.
Revolt of Mytilene. 3.2-3.50.
Speech of Mytilenian envoys to Sparta at Olympia, asking for help. 3.9-3.14.
Sparta accepts Lesbos as an ally and prepares to counter the Athenians. 3.15.
Mytilene surrenders to Athens despite Spartan support. 3.28.
Mytilenian Debate. 3.37-3.50.
Fall of Plataea. 3.20-3.24, 3.52-68.
Some Plataeans escape. 3.20-3.24.
Plataea surrenders. 3.52.
Trial and execution of the Plataeans. 3.53-3.68.
Speech of Plataeans, 3.53-3.59.
Speech of the Thebans. 3.61-3.67.
Revolution at Corcyra. 3.70-3.85.
Thucydides' account of the evils of civil strife. 3.82-3.84.
Athenian campaigns in Sicily. 3.86, 3.90, 3.99, 3.103, 3.115-3.116.
Campaigns of Demosthenes in western Greece. 3.94-3.98, 3.100-3.102, 3.105-3.114.
Spartans establish Heracleia in Trachis. 3.92-3.93.
Athenians purify Delos. 3.104.
Book 4 (425-423 BC)
Annual invasion of Attica. 4.2.
Athenians en route to Sicily occupy Pylos in the Peloponnese. 4.2-4.6.
King Agis of Sparta cuts short the invasion of Attica to return to the Peloponnese. 4.6.
Concerted Spartan attack on the Athenian fort at Pylos. 4.8-4.15.
The Athenian general Demosthenes coordinates the defense of Pylos and rouses the troops with a speech. 4.9-4.10.
The Spartan commander Brasidas distinguishes himself for bravery. 4.11-4.12.
The Athenians defeat the Spartan assault on Pylos and cut off a garrison of Spartiates on the adjacent island of Sphacteria. 4.13-4.14.
The Spartans, concerned for the men on the island, conclude an immediate armistice and send an embassy to Athens to negotiate peace. 4.13-4.22.
The speech of the Spartan ambassadors offers to peace and alliance to Athens in exchange for the return of the men on Sphacteria. 4.17-4.20.
The Athenian Cleon, speaking in the Assembly, encourages the Athenians to demand the return of the territories surrendered by Athens at the conclusion of the First Peloponnesian War. 4.21-4.22.
Events in Sicily. 4.24-4.25.
Siege of the Spartiates on Sphacteria continues without result. 4.26-4.27.
Cleon takes command at Pylos. 4.27-4.29.
With the siege of Sphacteria yielding no results, the Athenians grow angry at Cleon for encouraging them to reject the Spartan offer of peace. 4.27.1-.4.27.3.
Cleon blames Nicias and the generals for ineptitude. 4.27.5.
Nicias yields command to Cleon. 4.28.
Battle of Sphacteria results in the capture of all the Spartiates trapped there. 4.29-4.41.
Nicias leads an Athenian attack on Corinth. 4.42-4.45.
End of Corcyraean revolution. 4.46-4.48.
Athenians capture Cythera, an island off the Peloponnese, and Thyrea, a town in the Peloponnese.  Sparta is hemmed in on all sides and desperate. 4.53-4.57.
Sicilian cities make peace in conference at Gela, frustrating Athenian designs on the island. 4.58-65.
Speech of Hermocrates at Gela. 4.59-4.64.
Athenian attack on Megara. 4.66-4.74.
Capture of Nisaea. 4.69.
Inconclusive engagements at Megara. 4.73.
Megara eludes Athenian capture. 4.74.
Invasion of Boeotia. 4.76, 4.89-4.101.2.
Athenians occupy temple at Delium. 4.90.
Battle of Delium results in Athenian retreat. 4.91-4.96.
Boeotians refuse to return Athenian dead until Athenians relinquish the shrine of Delium. 4.97-4.99.
Boeotians assault the Athenian in the temple and burn it down. 4.100.
Brasidas marches through Thessaly to Thrace and begins to cause Athenian subject cities to revolt. 4.78-4.88.
Speech of Brasidas to the Acanthians. 4.85-4.87.
Fall of Amphipolis to Brasidas. 4.102-4.108.
Continued successes of Brasidas in Thrace. 4.111-4.135.
Brasidas secures the revolt of the garrison of Torone. 4.110-4.116.
One-year armistice between Athenians and Spartans. 4.117-4.118.
Scione revolts from Athens to Brasidas. 4.120-4.123.
Truce breaks down. 4.122-4.123.
Athenians retake Mende and besiege Scione. 4.129-4.131.
Book 5 (422-415 BC)
Death of Cleon and Brasidas
Peace of Nicias
Feeling against Sparta in the Peloponnese
League of the Mantineans, Eleans, Argives, and Athenians
Battle of Mantinea and breaking up of the League
The Melian Dialogue
Fate of Melos
Book 6 (415-414 BCE)
The Sicilian Expedition
Affair of the Hermae
Departure of the expedition to Sicily
Parties at Syracuse
Story of Harmodius and Aristogiton
Disgrace of Alcibiades
Inaction of the Athenian army
Alcibiades at Sparta
Investment of Syracuse
Book 7 (414-413 BC)
Arrival of Gylippus at Syracuse
Fortification of Decelea
Successes of the Syracusans
Arrival of Demosthenes
Defeat of the Athenians at Epipolae
Folly and obstinacy of Nicias
Battles in the Great Harbour
Retreat and annihilation of the Athenian army
Book 8 (413-411 BC)
Revolt of Ionia
Intervention of Persia
The war in Ionia
Intrigues of Alcibiades
Withdrawal of the Persian subsidies
Oligarchical coup d'état at Athens
Patriotism of the Athenian army at Samos
Recall of Alcibiades to Samos
Revolt of Euboea and downfall of the Council of the Four Hundred
Battle of Cynossema
Notes

Internet Sources

Secondary Sources
 Connor, W. Robert, Thucydides. Princeton: Princeton University Press (1984). .
 Hornblower, Simon, A Commentary on Thucydides. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon (1991-1996).  (vol. 1),  (vol. 2).
 Hornblower, Simon, Thucydides. London: Duckworth (1987). .
 Orwin, Clifford, The Humanity of Thucydides. Princeton: Princeton University Press (1994).
 Romilly, Jacqueline de, Thucydides and Athenian Imperialism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell (1963). .
 Rood, Tim, Thucydides: Narrative and Explanation. Oxford: Oxford University Press (1998). .
 Strassler, Robert B, ed. The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War. New York: Free Press (1996). .

Translations
 Thomas Hobbes, 1628: full text
 William Smith, 1753
 Richard Crawley, 1874: full text 
 Benjamin Jowett, 1881: full text 
 Edgar C. Marchant, 1900
 Charles Forster Smith, 1919
 Rex Warner, 1954
 John H. Finley, Jr., 1963
 Walter Blanco, 1998

History books
Classical Greek literature
5th-century BC books
Historiography is about the writing of history and the use of historical methods. Thus it looks at authors, sources, interpretation, style, bias, and audience. It is sometimes called "the history of history". The word historiography can also refer to a body of historical work.

The history of written history
For thousands of years people have been telling stories about the past, and making written records of the actions of kings and prophets and other famous persons. After 500 BC, they began writing more organized histories.

Hellenic world
Hellenic world 

Written history appeared first with the ancient Greeks, whose historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. The very first historical works were The Histories composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC–ca.425 BC), who became later known as the 'father of history' (Cicero).  
Thucydides was the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, and his successor Xenophon (ca. 431–355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.

Roman world 
The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, becoming the first people to write history in a non-Greek language. The most famous writers are Julius Caesar's (100 BC–44 BC) Bellum Gallicum.
Livy (59 BC–AD 17) who records the rise of Rome from city-state to world dominion.
Plutarch (c. 46 - 127) and Suetonius (c. 69-after 130) introduced biography as a branch of history. Tacitus (c. 56–c. 117) criticizes Roman immorality by praising German virtues.

Medieval Europe
Medieval Europe

Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages.  They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, the Church and of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers.  In the Early Middles Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year but this style tended to hampered the analysis of events and causes.  An example of this type of writing are Anglo-Saxon Chronicles which were the work of several different writers and start during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century and one copy of which was still being updated in 1154.
History was written about states or nations during the Renaissance. The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Voltaire described the history of certain ages that were important according to him, instead of describing events in a chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (historia).
Modern era 
Modern historiography began with Leopold Ranke in the 19th century, who was very critical on the sources used in history. 
The French Annales School radically changed history during the 20th century. Fernand Braudel wanted history to become more scientific by demanding more mathematical evidence in history, in order to make the history discipline less subjective. Furthermore, he added a social-economic and geographic framework to answer historical questions. Other French historians, like Philippe Ariès and Michel Foucault described history of daily life topics such as death and sexuality. They wanted history to be written about all topics and that all questions should be asked.
Historical journals 
Historical journals for academic historians to exchange ideas started in the nineteenth century.  The early journals were similar to the academic journals used in the physical sciences, and were seen as a means by which history could be professionalised.  Journals also helped historians to establish various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was Annales. Économies. Sociétés. Civilisations. a publication instrumental in establishing the Annales School.
1840 Historisk tidsskrift (Denmark)
1859 Historische Zeitschrift (Germany)
1866 Archivum historicum, later Historiallinen arkisto (Finland, published in Finnish)
1871 Historisk tidsskrift (Norway)
1876 Revue Historique (France)
1881 Historisk tidskrift (Sweden)
1886 English Historical Review (UK)
1895 American Historical Review (USA)
1914 Mississippi Valley Historical Review (renamed 1964 the Journal of American History) (USA)	
1916 The Journal of Negro History
1916 Historisk tidskrift för Finland (Finland, published in Swedish)
1918 Hispanic American historical review
1928 Scandia (Sweden)
1929 Annales. Économies. Sociétés. Civilisations	
1952 Past & present: a journal of historical studies (Great Britain)	
1953 Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (Germany)	
1956 Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (Nigeria)	
1960 Journal of African History (Cambridge)		
1960 Technology and culture: the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology (USA)
1975 Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift für historische Sozialwissenschaft (Germany)	
1976 Journal of Family History
1982 Storia della Storiografia — History of Historiography — Histoire de l'Historiographie — Geschichte der Geschichtsschreibung  
1982 Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press)	
1986 Zeitschrift für Sozialgeschichte des 20.und 21. Jahrhunderts, new title since 2003: Sozial.Geschichte. Zeitschrift für historische Analyse des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts (Germany)
1990 Gender and history
1990 L'Homme. Zeitschrift für feministische Geschichtswissenschaft (Austria)	
1990 Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften (ÖZG)
1992 Women's History Review
1993 Historische Anthropologie
Approaches to history 
The question of how a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important questions within historiography. It is commonly recognised by historians that, in themselves, individual historical facts are not particularly meaningful. Such facts will only become useful when assembled with other historical evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood as a particular historiographical approach.

Some of the more common historigraphical approaches are:

Annales School
Deconstruction
Oral history
Determinism
Determinism means that historians view history as being caused more by certain factors than by other factors.  The two most common types of determinism are geographic determinism and economic determinism.  Geographic determinism means that historians think history is mostly caused by geography.  Frederick Jackson Turner was a proponent of geographic determinism.  Economic determinism means that historians think history is mostly caused by economics.  Charles Beard was a proponent of economic determinism.  Other historians believe that history is caused mostly by politics or mostly by a struggle for natural rights, but these are usually not labeled as determinism.

Bibliography