Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Out-of-order processors breaks up the processing of instructions into these steps:
 Instruction fetch.
 Instruction dispatch to an instruction queue (also called instruction buffer or reservation stations).
 The instruction waits in the queue until its input operands are available. The instruction is then allowed to leave the queue before earlier, older instructions.
 The instruction is issued to the appropriate functional unit and executed by that unit.
 The results are queued (Re-order Buffer).
 Only after all older instructions have their results written back to the register file, then this result is written back to the register. This is called the graduation or retire stage.

In the examples outlined above, the OoO processor avoids the stall that occurs in step (2) of the in-order processor when the instruction is not completely ready to be processed due to missing data.

Related pages
 Parallel computing
 Instruction-level parallelism
Other websites 
 "Implementation of precise interrupts in pipelined processors", a paper by Smith and Pleszkun (1985).

Computer science
In computer science, speculative execution is the execution of code, before being sure if the result will be needed.

The technique is used in most high-performance microprocessors to execute a complete instructions or parts of instructions before being sure whether this execution is required

In the context of functional programming, the term "speculative evaluation" is used instead.

Other websites 
"Speculative computation in Multilisp." 

Computer science
In computer architecture, a branch predictor is the part of a processor that determines whether a conditional branch (jump) in the instruction flow of a program is likely to be taken or not. This is called branch prediction. 

Branch predictors are important in today's modern, superscalar processors for achieving high performance. They allow processors to fetch and execute instructions without waiting for a branch to be resolved.

Almost all pipelined processors do branch prediction of some form, because they must guess the address of the next instruction to fetch before the current instruction has been executed.  

Many earlier microprogrammed CPUs did not do branch prediction because there was little or no performance requirements; for this reason there is no need for altering the flow of the instruction stream.
Other websites
Seznec et al. (1996). "Multiple-Block Ahead Branch Predictors " – demonstrates prediction accuracy is not impaired by indexing with previous branch address.
Seznec et al. (2002). "Design Tradeoffs for the Alpha EV8 Conditional Branch Predictor " – describes the Alpha EV8 branch predictor. This paper does an excellent job discussing how they arrived at their design from various hardware constraints and simulation studies.
Jimenez (2003). "Reconsidering Complex Branch Predictors " – describes the EV6 and K8 branch predictors, and pipelining considerations.
Agner Fog. Branch Prediction in the Pentium Family

Microprocessor design
A.K.A, AKA, Aka or aka may refer to:

a.k.a. or aka ("also known as"), used to describe author pseudonyms, aliases, nicknames, stage names, working names, legalized names, pen names, maiden names, etc.
 also means "red" in Japanese
Key exchange is any method in cryptography by which cryptographic keys are exchanged between users, allowing use of a cryptographic system.

If two parties wish to exchange encrypted messages, each needs to know how to decrypt received messages and to encrypt sent messages. The information they require to do so depends on the encryption technique they might use. If they use a code, both will require a copy of the same codebook. If they use a cipher, they will need appropriate keys. If the cipher is a symmetric key cipher, both will need a copy of the same key. If an asymmetric key cipher with the public/private key property, both will need the other's public key.
The key exchange problem is how to exchange whatever keys or other information needed so, in such a way, that no one else can obtain a copy. Usually, this required trusted secure channel. With the arrival of (public key / private key) cipher algorithms, the encrypting key (aka, the public key) could be made public, since (at least for "high quality" ciphers) no one without the decrypting key (aka, the private key) could decrypt the message.

In principle, then, the only remaining problem was to be sure that a public key actually belonged to its claimed owner, this is not a problem easy to solve; specially when the two users involved have never met and know nothing about each other.
In 1976, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman published a cryptographic protocol, (Diffie-Hellman key exchange), which allows users to establish secure channels in order to exchange keys, even if an attacker is monitoring that communication channel. However, Diffie-Hellman key exchange did not address the "identity authentication" problem of being sure of the actual identity of the person or an entity.

Public key infrastructures have been proposed go around the problem of "identity authentication". In their most usual implementation, each user applies to a "certificate authority" for a digital certificate which serves for other users as a correct (termed: non-tamperable) authentication of identity.
In contrast, the web of trust system, which do not use central "certificate authority" at all. Each user is responsible for verifying any certificate from another user before using that certificate to communicate with the user who claims to be associated with the particular public key in a certificate, (see digital signatures).

The problem of key exchange has not yet been solved. In particular, it has not yet been solved for the modern situation of two previously unknown users attempting to communicate electronically, as, for instance, in electronic commerce. Some of the existing work-around designs work, more or less, but are not fully satisfactory.

Related pages
 Key (cryptography)
 Symmetric-key cryptography
 Public-key cryptography

Cryptography
In cryptography, a secure channel is a way of transferring data that is very difficult (called resistant) to overhear or copy (called interception) and understand (called decrypt) or change (called tampering).

A confidential channel is a way of transferring data that is resistant to interception, but may not be resistant to tampering and may not be resistant to impersonation by someone else (called spoofing).

An authenticatable channel is a way of transferring data that is resistant to spoofing but may not be resistant to interception or tampering.

Cryptography
Terminology is the study of terms and their use. Terminology studies the "labelling or designating of concepts" in one or more subject fields or areas of human activity. Terms are words and compound words that are used in specific contexts.  Terminology studies among other things how such terms of art come to be and their interrelationships within a culture.

Overview
Work on terminology consists mainly of:
 analyzing the concepts in a field of activity
 identifying the terms given to the concepts
 establishing correspondences between terms in different languages
 putting the terminology onto a database
 creating new terms, as required

Related pages 
Concept
Jargon
There are 261 communes in the Vaucluse department in France, all included in the following list:

Vaucluse
Althen-des-Paluds is a commune of 1988 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Ansouis is a commune of 1,105 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Apt is a commune of 11,229 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Subprefectures in France
Aubignan is a commune of 3,877 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Aurel is a commune of 158 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Auribeau is a commune of 59 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Le Barroux is a commune of 615 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
La Bastide-des-Jourdans is a commune of 964 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
La Bastidonne is a commune of 677 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Le Beaucet is a commune of 352 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Beaumes-de-Venise is a commune of 2,070 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Other websites

Communes in Vaucluse
Beaumettes is a commune of 197 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Beaumont-de-Pertuis is a commune of 934 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Beaumont-du-Ventoux is a commune of 286 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Bédarrides is a commune of 5,110 people (as of 1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Bédoin is a commune of 2,609 people (as of 1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Blauvac is a commune of 337 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Bollène is a commune of 13,835 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Bonnieux is a commune of 1,417 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Brantes is a commune of 65 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Other websites

Communes in Vaucluse
Buisson is a commune of 264 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Buoux is a commune of 112 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Cabrières-d'Aigues is a commune of 819 people (2006). It is in the  Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Vaucluse department in south France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Cabrières-d'Avignon is a commune of 1,705 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
The national flag of Oman () has three stripes (white, green and red) with a red bar on the left that contains the national emblem of Oman.  The white stands for peace and prosperity, the green for fertility and the Green Mountains, and the red for battles against foreign invaders.  The red is also the colour of the former flag of the nation when it was known simply as the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman.
Oman
National symbols of Oman
Cadenet is a commune of 3,950 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Caderousse is a commune of 2,496 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
The National Emblem of Oman () consists of a khanjar dagger in a sheath that is superimposed upon two crossed swords. This is the traditional symbol of Oman. It is found on numerous flags as well as the currency of Oman and on the planes of the Omani Air Force, among other locations.

National symbols of Oman
Oman
Cairanne is a commune of 850 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Camaret-sur-Aigues is a commune of 3,553 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Caromb is a commune of 3,117 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Carpentras is a commune of 27,249 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Subprefectures in France
Caseneuve is a commune of 355 people (1999). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in south France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Castellet is a commune of 106 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Caumont-sur-Durance is a commune of 4,253 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Cavaillon is a commune of 24,563 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Châteauneuf-de-Gadagne is a commune of 2,838 people (as of 1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Châteauneuf-du-Pape is a commune of 2,078 people (as of 1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Cheval-Blanc is a commune of 3,524 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Courthézon is a commune of 5,364 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Crestet is a commune of 432 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Crillon-le-Brave is a commune of 398 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Cucuron is a commune of 1,828 people (2004). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Entraigues-sur-la-Sorgue is a commune of 6,612 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Entrechaux is a commune of 1,008 people (2007). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Vaucluse department in south France.

References 

Communes in Vaucluse
Faucon is a commune of 380 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

References

Other websites

Communes in Vaucluse
Flassan is a commune of 341 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France. It is at the bottom of Mont Ventoux.

Communes in Vaucluse
Fontaine-de-Vaucluse is a commune of 610 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Gargas is a commune of 196 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Gignac is a commune of 48 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Gigondas is a commune of 648 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Gordes is a commune of 2,092 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Goult is a commune of 1,285 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Grambois is a commune of 1,113 people (as of 1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Grillon is a commune of 1,686 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue is a commune of 16,971 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Jonquerettes is a commune of 1,236 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Jonquières is a commune of 3,926 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France. It is also very slippy.

Communes in Vaucluse
Joucas is a commune of 317 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lacoste is a commune of 408 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lafare is a commune of 97 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lagarde-d'Apt is a commune of 26 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lagarde-Paréol is a commune of 297 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lagnes is a commune of 1,674 people (2007). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lamotte-du-Rhône is a commune of 416 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lapalud is a commune of 3,267 people (1999). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in south France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lauris is a commune of 3,102 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lioux is a commune of 248 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Loriol-du-Comtat is a commune of 1,871 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Lourmarin is a commune of 1,119 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Malaucène is a commune of 2,669 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Malemort-du-Comtat is a commune of 1,203 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France. During the time of the Roman Empire, the village was called "Calvia." The name Malemort means "bad death" and was probably used after the destruction of the village by the Franks. Comtat means "county", the land belonging to a count. Wine making has been carried out in region for at least 2,400 years. When wine making started again in medieval times, the Archbishop of Carpentras gave his monks a vineyard in Malemort du Comtat in 882.

The village is in the mountains, surrounded by olive and cherry trees. The city was protected by high walls and eleven towers which were built in the 12th century. Three of the gateways in the wall are still standing. The church, Notre Dame de l’Assomption, was built in the 13th century.

References

Communes in Vaucluse
Maubec is a commune of 1,581 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Mazan is a commune of 4,943 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Ménerbes is a commune of 1,157 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Mérindol is a commune of 1,923 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France. The town has a Mediterranean climate with hot and dry summers and mild winters. It does not rain very often and snow is rare. Protected by the Luberon, a mountain range, the town is sheltered from the mistral, a cold dry wind that blows from the north. The town was first built on a hill which was easy to defend. After the town was destroyed in 1545, it was rebuilt on the plain, near the river.

History
A ferry was in use to cross the Durance River in the year 1240. Mérindol was abandoned, probably because of plague, in the 15th century.
In 1540, de Roma arrested a flour miller from Mérindol, took his mill, and then burned the man at the stake. On November 18 1540, 19 more people were sentenced to death by burning at the stake, and the town was ordered to be completely destroyed. A group from the town went to the king to save the people and the village. He gave them until 1545 AD to give up their religion and rejoin the Catholic Church. On April 18 1545, the village was completely burned and about 12 of the Vaudois still living there were killed. Over one week there were attacks on 11 other small villages, and it is thought that about 3000 people were killed. Many of the Vaudois from Mérindol were able to escape and ran away to Switzerland.

The Path of Memory

In 1977, members of Vaudois organizations in Germany, France and Italy built a path in memory of the people who had been killed for their religious beliefs. The path leads to the ruins of the Vaudois church.

References

Communes in Vaucluse
Méthamis is a commune of 397 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Mirabeau is a commune of 907 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.

Communes in Vaucluse
Voice over Internet protocol (or VoIP) is a term used for a number of protocols that are used to carry voice data over packet switched networks. Before, telephony used a dedicated line that was only for calls. This was known as PSTN (or "public switched telephony network"). Using VoIP will reduce costs, as the "dedicated line" for telephony (and fax) is no longer needed.
There are a number of technical problems that must be solved first, though:
 Carrying voice data needs service guarantees (mostly in the form of "throughput", and "response time"). Not having this will result in a loss of signal (or in "hiccups")
 Most telephony networks provide the possibility to operate a phone, even when the power is lost in the area. This is done so that emergency calls can still be made. VOIP usually does not provide this possibility.
 The LAN is now used both for voice and data, and becomes a single point of failure. If there are problems with the LAN, this can also affect VOIP calls. 
 The encoding schemes used for voice calls are not good choices for fax or other uses of the telephony network.

The vast majority of VoIP systems rely on two main protocols:
H.323 :- This protocol has become the international standard for all communication over packet-switched networks. This includes LAN, WAN and even the general internet networks we all connect to. H.323 is considered an umbrella that includes all types of standards, which is what the internet is based on. H.323 focuses on voice, video, and data communications, designed specifically to operate over IP networks. At this point, this protocol has become the world market leader for voice and voice communications over IP networks. H.323 was developed by the international telecommunications union, which is the organization responsible for building the public telephone network.

References

Telephone
Internet protocols
The Vaucluse () is a department in the southeast of France in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. Its prefecture is Avignon.

It is named after a famous spring, in the commune Fontaine-de-Vaucluse. The name Vaucluse comes from the Latin Vallis Clausa ("closed valley") as the valley here ends in a cliff from which rises a spring.

History
Vaucluse was not one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created on 12 August 1793 with  four districts: Apt, Orange, Ouvèze (Carpentras), Vaucluse (Avignon); its capital was Avignon.

In 1800, with the creation of the arrondissements in France, the districts were changed into arrondissements: Avignon, Apt, Carpentras and Orange.

After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), the department was occupied by the Austrian army from June 1815 to November 1818.

On 10 September 1926, the arrondissement of Orange was eliminated and the subprefecture of Apt was moved to Cavaillon but went back to Apt in 1933.
Geography
Vaucluse is part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, in southeast France, with an area of . The department has an exclave to the north, the canton of Valréas, surrounded completely by Drôme department.

The department borders with 3 regions and 6 other departments:
 Occitanie region
 Gard (west)
 Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region
 Drôme (north)
 Ardèche (northwest)
 Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region
 Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (east)
 Var (southeast) ( a short distance)
 Bouches-du-Rhône (south)

The are several chains of mountains in the Vaucluse department, mainly in the eastern half; from northeast to southeast, they are:
 Dentelles de Montmirail, a small chain of small mountains; the highest point is Crête de Saint-Amand,  high.
 Vaucluse Mountains (). The highest peak in the Vaucluse department is Signal de Saint-Pierre,  high.
 Luberon Massif, in the souhteast of the department; the highest point is Mourre Nègre,  high. The chain is in the Regional Natural Park of Luberon ().
The highest mountain in the department is Mont Ventoux () that is  high. It stands alone to the north of the Luberon range, separated by the Vaucluse Mountains, and just to the eastern base of the Dentelles de Montmirail.

There are several valleys and plain in the department. The main important plain is the plain of Comtat where is most of the population of the department. It is to the south and the west of the Mont Ventoux and has the Rhône river to the west, the Durance river to the south and the Vaucluse Mountains to the east.

The main rivers are the Rhône and the Durance, tributary of the Rhône. Other rivers are tributaries of those two rivers.

Climate 
The climate in Avignon, at an altitude of , is of the subtype Csa (Mediterranean climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

The average temperature for the year in Avignon is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .
The average amount of precipitation for the year in Avignon is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with  of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is January with an average of .

Administration
Vaucluse is part of the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. The department is managed by the Departamental Council of the Vaucluse in Avignon.

Administrative divisions
There are 3 arrondissements (districts), 17 cantons and 151 communes (municipalities) in Vaucluse.

The following is a list of the 17 cantons of the Vaucluse department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

 Apt (8401)
 Avignon-1 (8402)
 Avignon-2 (8403)
 Avignon-3 (8404)
 Bollène (8405)
 Carpentras (8406)
 Cavaillon (8407)
 Cheval-Blanc (8408)
 L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue (8409)
 Monteux (8410)
 Orange (8411)
 Pernes-les-Fontaines (8412)
 Pertuis (8413)
 Le Pontet (8414)
 Sorgues (8415)
 Vaison-la-Romaine (8416)
 Valréas (8417)
Demographics
The inhabitants of Vaucluse are known, in French, as Vauclusiens (women: Vauclusiennes).

Vaucluse has a population, in 2014, of 554,374, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2. The arrondissement of Avignon, with 296,303 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Carpentras and Apt, have respectively 129,623 and 128,448 inhabitants.

The city with more people living in it is the capital, Avignon (92,209). The subprefectures of Carpentras and Apt have, respectively, 28,447 and 11,885 inhabitants.

Evolution of the population in Vaucluse

The 12 most important cities in the department are:

Economy 
Vaucluse has been always a rural department where farming is the main economic activity. The most important produces in the department are fruits (melons, cherries, strawberrys, apples, grapes and others) and vegetables (tomatoes).

Another important product of the region is wine, mainly those wines known as Côtes-du-Rhône.

Gallery
Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Vaucluse department
 Communes of the Vaucluse department

References

Other websites

 Departamental Council website 
 Prefecture website 

Vaucluse
The Diffie-Hellman key exchange (sometimes called an Exponential key exchange) is a protocol used to secretly share information with keys.

Background 
In 1976, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman invented a way for people to encrypt data and send it over an open channel. The idea was based on a concept by Ralph Merkle.

Diffie and Hellman wanted to make Transport Layer Security (TLS), a secure way of computers communicating, more safe to perform. For example, while you can use a password to keep a file safe, if you need to tell the password to somebody there is a risk of the password being seen by third parties. Diffie-Hellman key agreement itself is an anonymous (non-authenticated) key-agreement protocol: people involved in the trade do not need to prove who they are, but both people need to use their secret keys to fully decrypt the data.

Basic Example
Basic Example

 Alice and Bob agree on a public number (10), which is not hidden.
 Alice chooses a private number (15), which she keeps secret. She adds this to the public number (10 + 15 = 25) and sends 25 to Bob.
 Bob does the same, choosing a secret private number (30). He adds it to the public number (10 + 30 = 40) and sends 40 to Alice.
 With their results swapped, Alice and Bob now add their private numbers to what they receive:
 Alice has Bob's 40. She adds her private number: 40 + 15 = 55.
 Bob has Alice's 25. He adds his private number: 25 + 30 = 55.
Alice and Bob both start at the same number (10) and both do half of a sum, which means they both get the same result without seeing what the other person added (15 and 30). This is useful in cryptography because Alice and Bob do not share their private numbers, which means a third party cannot spy on the result (55) unless they can find both private numbers; even if a third party knows Alice sent 10 + 15 = 25, they don't know the result is 55 unless they also know Bob sent 30.

Since only Alice and Bob know their private numbers, this is a good way of sending secure information if the numbers are very big and the calculations are difficult. Since computers can use very complicated math to encrypt things, this stops people from trying a brute force attack to guess the numbers until it works. One example of how big calculations are made this way is the original version of Diffie-Hellman, which used both multiplicative group of integers modulo n and primitive root modulo n.
Risks
While very useful, Diffie-Hellman is at risk of a man-in-the-middle attack. Alice and Bob do not need to prove who they are to swap their information, which means there is a risk that Charlie can look at the information while it is being swapped, and can even pretend to be Alice or Bob to try and figure out their keys. One way this is avoided is to use authentication, where people perform extra steps to prove who they are.

Related pages
 Public-key cryptography
 Diffie-Hellman problem
 MQV
 Station-to-Station protocol
 Internet Key Exchange protocol
 Key-agreement protocol
 Password-authenticated key agreement
References
 Non-secret encryption using a finite field  MJ Williamson, January 21, 1974.
 Thoughts on cheaper non-secret encryption MJ Williamson, August 10, 1976.
 New directions in cryptography W. Diffie and M.E. Hellman, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol. IT-22, Nov. 1976, pp: 644-654.
  Martin E. Hellman, Bailey W. Diffie, and Ralph C. Merkle, U.S. Patent #4,200,770, 29 April 1980
 The History of Non-Secret Encryption  JH Ellis 1987 (28K PDF file) (HTML version )
 The first ten years of public-key cryptography Whitfield Diffie, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 76, #5, May 1988, pp: 560-577 (1.9MB PDF file)
Menezes, Alfred; van Oorschot, Paul; Vanstone, Scot 1997. Handbook of applied cryptography Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. . (Available online)
 Singh, Simon 1999. The Code Book: the evolution of secrecy from Mary Queen of Scots to quantum cryptography New York: Doubleday
An Overview of Public Key Cryptography  Martin E. Hellman, IEEE Communications Magazine, May 2002, pp:42-49. (123kB PDF file)
Other websites
Oral history interview with Martin Hellman, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.  Leading cryptography scholar Martin Hellman discusses the circumstances and fundamental insights of his invention of public key cryptography with collaborators Whitfield Diffie and Ralph Merkle at Stanford University in the mid-1970s.
 RFC 2631 -  Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement Method E. Rescorla June 1999.
 Summary of ANSI X9.42: Agreement of Symmetric Keys Using Discrete Logarithm Cryptography (64K PDF file) (Description of ANSI 9 Standards )
 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange – A Non-Mathematician’s Explanation  by Keith Palmgren
 Crypt::DH Perl module from CPAN
 Hands-on Diffie-Hellman demonstration
 C implementation using GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library 

Cryptography
The British royal family are the people who are relatives (family) of the monarch, currently Charles III, of the United Kingdom. They often attend events and help the monarch carry out their duty.

Members

King Charles III and Queen Camilla 

The Prince and Princess of Wales
Prince George of Wales
Princess Charlotte of Wales
Prince Louis of Wales
The Duke and Duchess of Sussex
Prince Archie of Sussex
Princess Lilibet of Sussex
The Princess Royal 
The Duke of York 
Princess Beatrice
Princess Eugenie
The Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh

The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester
The Duke and Duchess of Kent
Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy
Prince and Princess Michael of Kent

References
Royal Gov website Retrieved 3 July 2012\
https://www.ancestry.com/family-tree/person/tree/155209306/person/302050214240/story For HRH Blake Royall Shaner

 
British monarchy
House of Windsor
MQV (Menezes-Qu-Vanstone) is an authenticated protocol for key agreement based on the Diffie-Hellman scheme. MQV provides protection against an active attacker.

References
 Burton S. Kaliski Jr., An unknown key-share attack on the MQV key agreement protocol. ACM Trans. Inf. Syst. Secur. 4(3): pp275–288 (2001)
 Laurie Law, Alfred Menezes, Minghua Qu, Jerry Solinas, Scott A. Vanstone, An Efficient Protocol for Authenticated Key Agreement. Des. Codes Cryptography 28(2): pp119–134 (2003)
 Peter J. Leadbitter, Nigel P. Smart: Analysis of the Insecurity of ECMQV with Partially Known Nonces. ISC 2003: pp240–251
  A. Menezes, M. Qu, and S. Vanstone, Some new key agreement protocols providing implicit authentication, Preproceedings of Workshops on Selected Areas in Cryptography (1995).

Other websites
 Articles on MQV and ECMQV in Certicom's newsletter Code and Cipher.
 HMQV: A High-Performance Secure Diffie-Hellman Protocol by Hugo Krawczyk
 Another look at HMQV
 An Efficient Protocol for Authenticated Key Agreement
Cher is a department in the centre of France in the Centre-Val de Loire region. It is named after the Cher river, the most important river in the department.

Its prefecture is Bourges.

History
The department is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. The department was created from part of the former province of Berry.

The new department had seven districts: Aubigny, Sancerre, Sancoins, Saint-Amand, Châteaumeillant, Bourges and Vierzon. The capital (now prefecture) was Bourges.

In 1800, with the creation of the arrondissements in France, the seven districts were changed into three arrondissements: Bourges, Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond and Sancerre.

On 10 September 1926, the arrondissement of Sancerre was eliminated. In 1984, a new arrondissement was created: Vierzon.

Geography
Cher is part of the Centre-Val de Loire region. It has an area of .
The highest point of the department is Le Magnoux (), in the south end of the department in the commune of Préveranges, and that is   above sea level.

The department is bordered by 6 departments in 4 regions:
 Centre-Val de Loire region
 Loir-et-Cher (northwest)
 Indre (west)
 Loiret (north)
 Nouvelle-Aquitaine region
 Creuse (south)
 Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region
 Allier (southeast)
 Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
 Nièvre (east)

The main rivers are:
 Cher, a left tributary of the Loire; it is  long. The department is named after this river.
 Allier, also a left tributary of the Loire; it is  long.
 Indre, also a left tributary of the Loire; it is  long.
 Sauldre, a right tributary of the Cher; it is  long.

Climate 
The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Bourges is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Marine West Coast Climate) and of the subtype Cfb.
The average amount of precipitation for the year in Bourges is . The month with the most precipitation on average is November with  of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

The average temperature for the year in Bourges is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

Administration
The department is managed by the Departmental Council of the Cher in Bourges. Cher is part of the region of Centre-Val de Loire.

Administrative divisions
There are 3 arrondissements (districts), 19 cantons and 290 communes (municipalities) in Cher.

The following is a list of the 19 cantons of the Cher department, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:
Aubigny-sur-Nère (1801)
 Avord (1802)
 Bourges-1 (1803)
 Bourges-2 (1804)
 Bourges-3 (1805)
 Bourges-4 (1806)
 Chârost (1807)
 Châteaumeillant (1808)
 Dun-sur-Auron (1809)
 La Guerche-sur-l'Aubois (1810)
 Mehun-sur-Yèvre (1811)
 Saint-Amand-Montrond (1812)
 Saint-Doulchard (1813)
 Saint-Germain-du-Puy (1814)
 Saint-Martin-d'Auxigny (1815)
 Sancerre (1816)
 Trouy (1817)
 Vierzon-1 (1818)
 Vierzon-2 (1819)

Demographics
The inhabitants of Cher are known, in French, as Chériens (women: Chériennes) or Berrichons (women: Berrichonnes).

Cher has a population, in 2014, of 310,270, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2. The arrondissement of Bourges, with 173,889 inhabitants, is by far the largest.

Evolution of the population in Cher

The main cities in the department are:

Gallery

References

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Cher department
 Communes of the Cher department

Other websites

 Departmental Council website 
 Prefecture website 

Cher (department)
Corrèze () is a department in south-western France, named after the Corrèze river. It is in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region and its capital is the city of Tulle.

History
Corrèze is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created from parts of the old province of Limousin (the Bas Limousin).

The new department had four districts: Uzerche, Ussel, Tulle and Brive. The capital (now prefecture) was Tulle.

In 1800, with the creation of the arrondissements in France, the four districts were changed into three arrondissements: Tulle, Brive and Ussel.

On 10 September 1926, the arrondissement of Ussel was eliminated but, on 6 December 1943, it became again an arrondissement.

Geography
Corrèze is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region; it is to the west of the Massif Central. It has an area of .
The department is surrounded by 6 departments in 3 regions:
 Nouvelle-Aquitaine region
 Creuse department
 Dordogne department
 Haute-Vienne department
 Occitanie region
 Lot department
 Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region
 Cantal department
 Puy-de-Dôme department

The highest point of the department is the Mont Bessou,  high; the lowest point is in the valley of the Vézère river and is  high.

The main rivers in the department are the Dordogne, the Vézère and the Corrèze that gives its name to the deparment.

Climate
The climate in Brive-la-Gaillarde is an oceanic climate with template summers, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

The annual rainfall in Brive-la-Gaillarde is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with  of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .
The average temperature for the year in Brive-la-Gaillarde is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

Administration
The department is managed by the Departmental Council of the Corrèze in Tulle. Corrèze is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

Administrative divisions
There are 3 arrondissements (districts), 19 cantons and 283 communes (municipalities) in Corrèze.

The following is a list of the 19 cantons of the Corrèze department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:
Allassac (1901)
 Argentat (1902)
 Brive-la-Gaillarde-1 (1903)
 Brive-la-Gaillarde-2 (1904)
 Brive-la-Gaillarde-3 (1905)
 Brive-la-Gaillarde-4 (1906)
 Égletons (1907)
 Haute-Dordogne (1908)
 Malemort-sur-Corrèze (1909)
 Midi Corrézien (1910)
 Naves (1911)
 Plateau de Millevaches (1912)
 Saint-Pantaléon-de-Larche (1913)
 Sainte-Fortunade (1914)
 Seilhac-Monédières (1915)
 Tulle (1916)
 Ussel (1917)
 Uzerche (1918)
 L'Yssandonnais (1919)

Demographics
The inhabitants of Corrèze are known, in French, as Corréziens (women: Corréziennes).

Corrèze has a population, in 2014, of 241,340, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2. The arrondissement of Brive-la-Gaillarde, with 130,034 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Tulle and Ussel, have respectively 78,408 and 32,898 inhabitants.

Evolution of the population in Corrèze

The city with more people living in it is Brive-la-Gaillarde (46,961) and not the capitalː Tulle (14,325).

The main cities in the department are:

Gallery
Gallery

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Corrèze department
 Communes of the Corrèze department

References

Other websites

 Departmental Council website 
 Prefecture website 
 Official Corrèze tourism website
In computer science, runtime or run time describes the operation of a computer program, the duration of its execution, from beginning to termination.

The term runtime can also refer to a virtual machine to manage a program written in a computer language while it is running.

Run time is sometimes used to mean  runtime library, a library of basic code that is used by a particular compiler but when used in this fashion, runtime library is more accurate.

A runtime environment is a virtual machine state which provides software services for processes or programs while a computer is running.

Runtime activities include loading and linking of the classes needed to execute a program, optional machine code generation and dynamic optimization of the program, and actual program execution.
For example, a program written in Java calls for services from the Java Runtime Environment by issuing commands from which the expected result is returned by the Java Runtime. By providing these services, the Java Runtime Environment is considered the runtime environment of the program. Both the program and the Java Runtime Environment request services from the operating system. The operating system kernel provides services for itself and all processes and software running under its control. The Operating System may be considered as providing a runtime environment for itself.

Related pages
 Compile time and compiling
 Interpreter (computing)
 Run-time system

References
References 

 Jon Byous, Java technology: The early years. Sun Developer Network, no date [ca. 1998]. Retrieved April 22, 2005.
 James Gosling, A brief history of the Green project . Java.net, no date [ca. Q1/1998]. Retrieved April 29, 2007.
 James Gosling, Bill Joy, Guy Steele, and Gilad Bracha, The Java language specification, third edition. Addison-Wesley, 2005.  (see also online edition of the specification)
 Tim Lindholm and Frank Yellin. The Java Virtual Machine specification, second edition. Addison-Wesley, 1999.  (see also online edition of the specification).

Computer science
A Java virtual machine (JVM) is a set of computer software programs and data structures which use a virtual machine model for the execution of other computer programs and scripts.  The model used by a JVM accepts a form of computer intermediate language commonly referred to as Java bytecode. 

Java virtual machines operate on Java bytecode, which is normally (but not necessarily) generated from Java source code; a JVM can also be used to implement programming languages other than Java. 

The JVM is an important component of the Java Platform. Because JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms, Java can be both middleware and a platform in its own right – hence the expression "write once, run anywhere." The use of the same bytecode for all platforms allows Java to be described as "compile once, run anywhere", as opposed to "write once, compile anywhere", which describes cross-platform compiled languages.

References
References 

 Clarifications and Amendments to the Java Virtual Machine Specification, Second Edition includes list of changes to be made to support J2SE 5.0 and JSR 45
 JSR 45 – Specifies changes to the class file format to support source-level debugging of languages such as JSP and SQLJ that are translated to Java

Other websites
 The Java Virtual Machine Specification
 
 A decade after Java arrived, there have been improvements in the runtime performance of platform-independent virtual-machine based software. 
 Sun to build virtual machine for iPhone - ComputerWorld 

Computer science
The Station-to-Station (STS) protocol is a cryptographic (information-hiding) key agreement scheme based on the classic Diffie-Hellman key exchange that provides mutual key and entity (party) authentication.

In addition to protecting the established key from an attacker, the STS protocol uses no timestamps and provides perfect forward secrecy.  It also requires two-way explicit key confirmation, making it an Authenticated key agreement with Key Confirmation (Acronym: AKC) protocol.

STS was originally presented in 1987 in the context of ISDN security , finalized in 1989 and generally presented by Whitfield Diffie, Paul C. van Oorschot and Michael J. Wiener in 1992.

Cryptography