Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
However, by early 1975, thirty states had passed new death penalty laws that they thought would satisfy the Supreme Court.  They did.  In Gregg v. Georgia (1976), the Supreme Court ruled that Georgia's new death penalty law was constitutional.  It ruled that capital punishment was not always cruel and unusual punishment, as long as it was done fairly.  This meant that states could start executing people again, as long as they had rewritten their death penalty laws like Georgia did, to say that the death penalty would be applied fairly.  In 1977, executions began again in the United States.

Limitations

In two major cases, the Supreme Court has limited who may be executed.  In Atkins v. Virginia (2002), the Court decided that executing people with intellectual disabilities is cruel and unusual punishment, and is against the Eighth Amendment.  Before this decision, between 1984 and 1992, forty-four people with intellectual disabilities were executed in the United States.
Also, in Roper v. Simmons (2005), the Supreme Court made it illegal to execute a person who was younger than 18 when they committed their crime.

Number of executions

In 2004, two researchers named M. Watt Espy and John Ortiz Smykia put together a list of executions that became known as "The ESPY File."  The Espy File says that between 1608 and 1991, in the American colonies and then the United States, 15,269 people were executed.  The Espy File is "the most often cited and used list of America's legal executions."  However, in a 2011 study, two researchers criticized The Espy File.  They wrote that researchers should not use the File as a complete source of information about executions.

According to the United States Department of Justice, between 1930 and 2002, the United States executed 4,679 people.  About two-thirds of these people (about 3,100 people) were executed between 1930 and 1950.
Between 1916 and 1955, the United States military executed 135 soldiers.  The military has not executed anyone since 1955.

In 2016, only 5 of 50 or 10% of US states had executions. They were Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Missouri and Texas.

Methods

Throughout American history, different methods of execution have been used.  During colonial times, cruel and painful methods like burning or crushing people to death were sometimes used.  However, since 1776, all but a few executions have been carried out in one of five ways: hanging, firing squad, the electric chair, the gas chamber, or lethal injection.

Since the Bill of Rights was added to the United States Constitution in 1791, "cruel and unusual punishment" has been against the law in the United States.  This means that even if a person commits a terrible crime, the Constitution says their punishment cannot be painful or cause suffering on purpose.

Hanging
Hanging

Until the beginning of the 20th century, hanging was the most common method of execution in the United States.

However, hanging did not always work the way it was supposed to.  If the rope and noose were not put in the correct position, a person could be decapitated.  If the rope was not long enough, the person could slowly die of strangulation.  People started looking for more 'civilized' ways to execute people.

Electric chair

After Thomas Edison discovered direct current (DC) electricity in 1882, his company showed how powerful it was by using it to kill animals.  The idea of using electricity to kill humans grew out of this.  New York built the first electric chair, and first used it to execute a prisoner on August 6, 1890.  Other states also adopted the electric chair as a method of execution, believing that it was a less painful way to die than hanging.
However, it became clear, even to some members of the Supreme Court, that dying in an electric chair was very painful.  Also, even up until the 1990s, electric chairs would work incorrectly, causing prisoners to catch fire or be awake while they were being electrocuted.  Around the 1980s, most states began to use lethal injection instead.

Gas chamber

Still looking for a more "humane" methods of execution, in 1924, Nevada prison officials tried to secretly pump cyanide gas into death row prisoner Gee Jon's cell to kill him while he slept.  This did not work, and they had to build a gas chamber.  On February 8, 1924, Jon became the first person to be executed by gas chamber.
From 1924 to 1972, the United States executed about 600 people in gas chambers.  Most states used hydrogen cyanide gas.  However, by the mid-1970s and 1980s, many people had started to criticize the use of gas chambers.  Death from hydrogen cyanide poisoning can be long and painful, and in some executions, prisoners suffered long deaths.  After one of these executions, a federal court in California ruled that "execution by lethal gas under the California protocol is unconstitutionally cruel and unusual punishment."

Also, according to sociologist Clifton Bryant, the way it is used in the United States, "the gas chamber is ... the most dangerous, most complicated, and most expensive method of administering the death penalty."  By the late 20th century, most states had switched to using lethal injection.

Lethal injection
Lethal injection

In the 1970s, Oklahoma passed the first law that allowed executions by lethal injection.  This was a practical decision: Oklahoma's old electric chair would need expensive repairs, and building a gas chamber would cost over $200,000.  However, executing a person by lethal injection would only cost $10 to $15 per person.  Lethal injection grew more and more popular in death penalty states.  It was viewed as less painful, with less suffering, than the electric chair or gas chamber.  Texas was the first state to execute someone by lethal injection, in 1982.  Over the next 30 years, all of the death penalty states passed laws making lethal injection their first-choice (or only) method of execution.
However, in the 2010s, American prisons started having trouble getting enough of the medications used to carry out lethal injections.  The states had been using three medications for lethal injections:
 Sodium thiopental (an anesthetic to put the prisoner to sleep)
 Pancuronium bromide (to paralyze the prisoner)
 Potassium chloride (to stop the prisoner's heart)

Then, in 2011, Hospira, the only American company that made sodium thiopental, stopped making the drug.  The European Union makes other anesthetics, like propofol.  However, since the European Union is against the death penalty, they made it illegal to export any product that could be used in an execution.  Another anesthetic, pentobarbital, is also only made in the European Union, and the company that makes it has put limits on selling it to U.S. government customers.  A few states have tried mixtures of other drugs, but those executions have not gone well.
As of 2016, many death penalty states have temporarily stopped using lethal injection until they can find a solution to this problem.

Other options

As of January 1, 2016, fifteen states have laws that allow them to use a method of execution other than lethal injection.  Before the lethal injection drug shortages, these other methods were rarely used.  From 1976 to March 23, 2016, there were 1,431 executions:
 1,256 (88%) were by lethal injection
 158 (11%) were by electric chair
 11 (0.8%) were by gas chamber 
 3 (0.2%) were by hanging
 3 (0.2%) were by firing squad

However, since they stopped being able to get lethal injection drugs, some states have thought about going back to other methods of execution.  Here are the states whose laws allow them to use other methods, as of January 1, 2016:
Laws
This table shows the death penalty laws in 49 of the 50 states; Washington, D.C.; the federal government; and the United States military, as of January 1, 2016.  Under the category "Status," there are four possibilities:
 Abolished.  This state no longer uses the death penalty.
 Legal.  This state still uses the death penalty.
 Moratorium.  This means the death penalty law has been temporarily stopped.
 De facto moratorium.  This means the death penalty is still officially legal.  However, the state has not executed anyone in at least five years (except for people who ask to be executed).

Click on the little triangle at the top of each header box to sort the information in this table by a certain category.
Sentencing
In some areas, prosecutors ask for the death penalty, and judges grant the death penalty, more often than in other areas.  Also, once people are convicted and are on "death row," how quickly they are executed depends on the state they are in.  On average, in 2004, death penalty states had executed about 10% of the people on their "death rows."  However, California had executed only 1% of its prisoners who are sentenced to death.  Texas executed 40% of theirs.

Among races
One of the controversies about the death penalty is whether it is given unequally to people of different races.

In a report in 1983, David Baldus and others wrote a famous report that looked at whether the death penalty was applied equally to people of different races in Georgia.  They found that:
 People are more likely to be sentenced to death for killing whites than for killing blacks
 Black defendants are more likely to get the death penalty than whites
In 1987, the Supreme Court decided a case called McCleskey v. Kemp.  McCleskey's lawyers showed that in Georgia, where McCleskey lived, black people convicted of killing whites were four times more likely to get the death penalty than people convicted of killing non-whites.  The Supreme Court accepted this, but ruled against McCleskey.  They wrote: "[inequalities] in sentencing are an inevitable part of our criminal justice system."  Since then, judges have not allowed lawyers to argue that racial bias plays a part in the death penalty.

Anti-death penalty groups like Amnesty International say:
 As of 2003, African Americans made up 41% of death row inmates, but only 12.6% of the United States population
 34% of the people executed since 1976 have been African American
 About the same number of blacks and whites are murdered.  However, 80% of the people executed since 1977 were convicted of murdering white people
The United States Department of Justice says that between 1980 and 2008, African Americans committed 52.5% of the murders in the United States; whites committed 45.3%; and Native Americans and Asians committed 2.2%. This means African Americans are less likely to be executed on a per capita basis.  The Department of Justice also says that as of 2009, Hispanic or Latino people make up 17.4% of the United States population, but only 13.5% of death row prisoners.

A 2012 study found that non-white soldiers in the United States military are twice as likely as white soldiers to be given the death penalty.  Of the 16 soldiers the military has sentenced to death between 1985 and 2012, 10 (62.5%) were non-whites, one of the study's authors said.
Among sexes
The death penalty is definitely given much more often to men than women.  As of October 1, 2014:
 98.12% of the people currently on death row are men (2,978 men); 1.88% (57) are women
 98.92% of the people executed since 1976 have been men (1,374 men); 1.08% (15) have been women

Exoneration

The University of Michigan Law School keeps a list of people who have been exonerated from death row.  The list counts "exonerations" as cases where "a person who has been convicted of a crime is officially cleared based on new evidence of innocence."
According to the list, between 1989 and 2015, 116 people have been exonerated from death row.  The most common reasons why these people were exonerated were:
 The person was convicted at least partly because police, prosecutors, judges, or other government officials abused their power (88 people were exonerated at least partly for this reason.  This is about 76% of the 116 exonerated people.)
 Somebody lied in court or lied when they accused the person of the crime: (85 people  73%)
 The person was convicted based on forensic evidence that was wrong, exaggerated, not proven to be good science, or was fake: 32 people (28%)
 The person's lawyer gave the person an "inadequate legal defense" (the lawyer did not give the person even a basic defense, or made very serious errors during the trial): 31 people (27%)

DNA evidence proved that 25 of these people  about 22%  were innocent of the crimes they were sentenced to death for.
Of the 116 people who were exonerated, 62 (about 53%) were black, 43 (37%) were white, 9 (8%) were Hispanic, and two were members of other races (2%).  In the 88 cases where a government official abused their power, 51 of the exonerated people (about 58%) were black; 29 were Caucasian (33%); and 8 (9%) were Hispanic.  Seventeen of the 31 people who received an "inadequate legal defense" (about 55%) were black; 12 (about 39%) were white; and two (about 6%) were Hispanic.

Arguments
The death penalty is a very controversial topic in the United States.  People have argued about it since before the Thirteen Colonies became the United States.  There are many different arguments for and against the death penalty.  This list does not include all of them, just some of the most common ones.

Possibility of mistakes
People who do not agree with the death penalty (death penalty opponents) say our trial system is not perfect.  Judges and juries make mistakes.  One study done by Columbia Law School found that there were serious mistakes in two-thirds of all capital trials.  In these trials, the defendants were sentenced to death anyway.  However, when their cases were appealed, over 80% of the defendants were not sentenced to death; 7% were found not guilty.

Opponents argue that because mistakes are so common in capital trials, people can be executed even though they were innocent.  As proof, they point the 116 people who were exonerated from death row between 1989 and 2015.

People who support the death penalty (death penalty supporters) say that mistakes are very rare, especially since new laws were made in the 1970s to add protections for death row inmates.  For example, Steve Stewart, Deputy Prosecuting Attorney for the Clark County, Indiana, Fourth Judicial Court, says:
Preventing other crimes
Death penalty supporters say that capital punishment is a deterrent.  This means that people are scared of the death penalty and are less likely to commit a capital crime if they know they could get the death penalty.

Supporters also argue that the next most serious punishment for capital crimes is life in prison.  In some states, this means the person could be let out of prison someday.  Also, even being in prison for life does not keep killers from killing more people in prison.  Executing people is the only way to make sure they will never kill another person.
Opponents argue that nobody has ever proved that capital punishment is more of a deterrent than a long prison sentence.  They point out that most states and countries that do not have the death penalty have lower murder rates than death penalty states.  They also say that the death penalty is not a deterrent because people often commit murders when they are very upset and are not thinking about what might happen in the future.

Among scholars and researchers, there is no agreement about whether capital punishment is more of a deterrent than any other punishment.  Some researchers have done studies that say the death penalty is a deterrent.  Other studies have found that the death penalty is not a deterrent  in the United States, or in other countries.
Whether the death penalty is applied unfairly
Opponents argue that defendants who are poor and/or non-white are more likely to get the death penalty than whites, even if they have committed the same crimes.  Supporters say that opponents misuse statistics and exaggerate the situation.  For more information, see the section on Sentencing: Among races farther up on this page.
Whether the death penalty is cruel and unusual punishment
Death penalty debaters argue about whether capital punishment is "cruel and unusual punishment" (which would be unconstitutional).  Even the people on the Supreme Court have disagreed on this issue.  In 2004, the Court ruled in Baze v. Rice that even if an execution causes pain, that does not make it cruel and unusual.  However, in his dissenting opinion in Gregg v. Georgia, Justice William Brennan wrote that the death penalty is "an unusually severe punishment, unusual in its pain... [it] is today a cruel and unusual punishment prohibited by the ... Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments."

The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), an anti-death penalty group, adds that capital punishment is "unusual" because:
 The United States is the only western nation that uses the death penalty; and
 Only a very small number of murderers in the United States get the death penalty.

Morals and religions
Religion plays a complicated role in death penalty arguments.  To support the death penalty, some people quote from the Old Testament of the Bible, which says: "An eye for an eye, a life for a life."  This means that if you take a life, you should pay with your own life.  However, others use parts of the New Testament, where Jesus talks about forgiveness and nonviolence, to oppose the death penalty.  They say that no one has the right to take a life but God  even if that person has taken a life himself.

In 1999, a group of Jewish rabbis and Catholic Bishops had this to say:

Opponents also point out:

Graphs and charts

Notes

References

Other websites
 Basic arguments for and against the death penalty (in Simple English)  from BBC

 
17th century in the Thirteen Colonies
18th century in the United States
19th century in the United States
20th century in the United States
21st century in the United States
Controversies in the United States
A half life of a substance is the amount of time it takes to decay into half of its activity. Usually, this refers to the body's getting rid of a substance. This happens by the function of kidneys and liver as well as excretion.

Related pages 
Half-life (element)

Physiology
Der Barbier von Bagdad (The Barber of Baghdad), is an German comic opera with music and libretto by Peter Cornelius. It is based on "The Tale of the Tailor" and "The Barber's Stories of his Six Brothers" in One Thousand and One Nights. It was first performed in Weimar, on December 15, 1858. By far Cornelius' most successful work and his only opera still regularly performed.

Principal characters

 Nureddin - tenor
 Bostana - mezzo-soprano
 Abdul Hassan Ali Ebn Bekar, the barber - bass
 Margiana - soprano
 Baba Mustapha, the Cadi - tenor
 The Caliph - baritone
Discography
 1952: Rudolf Schock (Nureddin), Hilde Rössl-Majdan (Bostana), Gottlob Frick (Abdul Hassan), Sena Jurinac (Margiana); Chor und Orchester Radio Wien, Heinrich Hollreiser - (Melodram)
 1956: Nicolai Gedda (Nureddin), Grace Hoffmann (Bostana), Oskar Czerwenka (Abdul Hassan), Elisabeth Schwarzkopf (Margiana); Philharmonia Chorus and Orchestra, Erich Leinsdorf - (EMI Classics)
 1973: Adlabert Kraus (Nureddin), Trudeliese Schmidt (Bostana), Karl Ridderbusch (Abdul Hassan), Sylvia Geszty (Margiana); Chor des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Münchner Rundfunkorchester, Heinrich Hollreiser - (RCA Records)
 1974: Horst R. Laubenthal (Nureddin), Marga Schiml (Bostana), Hans Sotin (Abdul Hassan), Helen Donath (Margiana); Kölner Rundfunkchor, Kölner Rundfunk-Sinfonieorchester, Ferdinand Leitner - (Profil)

Sources

 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993. 

1850s operas
Marcelo Martins Moreno (born 18 June 1987 in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia), known as Marcelo Martins or Marcelo Moreno, is a Bolivian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Cruzeiro and the Bolivia national football team.

Honours

Club
Vitória
Campeonato Baiano: 2005, 2007

Cruzeiro
Campeonato Mineiro: 2008, 2014
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: 2014

Shakhtar Donetsk
UEFA Cup: 2008–09
Ukrainian Premier League: 2010–11

Flamengo
Copa do Brasil: 2013

Individual
Copa Libertadores de América Top Goalscorer: 2008

1987 births
Living people
Bolivian footballers
CRISPR is a term in DNA research. It stands for clustered regularly-interspaced short palindromic repeats. These are part of the genetic code in prokaryotes: most bacteria and archaea have it. It is their defence against attack by viruses. Its structure and function was discovered in the 21st century.

CRISPR has a lot of short repeated sequences. These sequences are part of an adaptive immune system for prokaryotes. It allows them to remember and counter the bacteriophages which prey on them. They work as a kind of acquired immunity for bacteria.

They can modify the genes of almost any organism. They are used by researchers as a tool to cut and insert genes in genetic modification (GM). Work is under way to find how they can be used to attack virus diseases in humans (gene therapy).
How it works 
Each repetition is followed by short segments of "spacer DNA". These come from previous exposures to a bacterial virus or plasmid. CRISPR spacers recognize and cut up the foreign genetic elements in a manner like RNA interference in eukaryotic organisms.

In effect, the spacers are fragments of DNA from viruses that have previously tried to attack the cell line. The foreign source of the spacers was a sign to researchers that the CRISPR/cas system could have a role in adaptive immunity in bacteria.

The actual cutting is done by a nuclease called Cas9. Cas9 has two active cutting sites, one for each strand of the DNA's double helix. Cas9 does this by unwinding foreign DNA and checking whether it is complementary to the 20 basepair spacer region of the guide RNA (the spacer region RNA). If it is, the foreign DNA gets chopped up.

Applications 
CRISPR is an anti-viral defensive system which originated in bacteria and archaea. Gene editing is a human exploitation of CRISPR.
The technology has been used to switch off genes in human cell lines and cells, to study Candida albicans, to modify yeasts used to make biofuel and to genetically modify crop strains.

The CRISPR-Cas9 system cuts DNA, but can do more. It can turn gene expression on and off, and can be used to fluorescently tag particular sequences.

Nobel award 
The understanding and development of the CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technique won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2020. The prize was awarded jointly to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna.

Anti-CRISPR 
Anti-CRISPR is a group of proteins in some phages. It inhibits the normal activity of CRISPR-Cas, the immune system of many bacteria. Phages with anti-CRSPR avoid having their genomes destroyed by the prokaryotic cells that they infect.

References 

Genetic engineering
Immunology
Prokaryotes
DNA
Tayap is a small village in Cameroon. It is  from Yaoundé, the capital city. It is  from Douala, the biggest city of the country.

The climate is equatorial. It is usually hot, . It is often wet. There are four different seasons.

In 2005, 272 people lived in Tayap. The village has a primary school. It has 4 classrooms.

Most people work in agriculture. They produce manioc, bananas, oranges, mangoes, vegetables, peanuts, cocoa and palm oil.

The village is surrounded by a large forest but deforestation is a major problem in this area.
 
Since 2011 Tayap focuses on biodiversity and ecology. It tries to develop new activities such as tourism.

References

Other websites 

 Agripo

Settlements in Cameroon
Villages in Africa
Ordinary least squares or linear least squares is a method for estimating unknown parameters in statistics. It is a method used in linear regression. The goal of the method is to minimize the difference between the observed responses and the responses predicted by the linear approximation of the data. A smaller difference means that model fits the data better. Ordinary least squares is a special case of a method commonly called least squares.  The resulting estimator can be expressed by a simple formula.

Statistics
Mathematical approximation
A justice of the peace (JP) is a judicial officer, elected or appointed to a local court that has limited jurisdiction. In some locations a JP deals with traffic violations, parking tickets and may have the authority to perform marriages ceremonies. In many places they are the entry-level courts that most criminal cases pass through. JP courts were popular in early history, but are now found mostly in rural areas. Otherwise people would have to travel longer distances to other courts of law.

History 
In 1195, a proclamation of Richard I of England local knights were appointed to keep order. In 1264, "Keepers of the Peace were appointed in every county to serve the king. Such men were called "Justice of the Peace" beginning in about 1362. When colonists came to British North America they brought with them the common law system that included JPs. In France, "Lords of the Court" administered justice. After 1789, justices of the peace were elected.
Requirements 
While the requirements vary from one jurisdiction to another, generally, to become a JP there are few if any educational requirements. An application is filled out and usually there is a fee. Justices may be chosen by their qualifications and references. Many have law degrees while others may have taken a few law classes.

References

Other websites 
 Justice of the Peace, Texas Association of Counties
 How to Become a Justice of the Peace in Canada
 Justice of the Peace in Australia
 Becoming a Magistrate in England and Wales

Law enforcement
Garry Emmanuel Shandling (November 29, 1949 – March 24, 2016) was an American comedian, actor, writer, producer and director. He was best known for his work in It's Garry Shandling's Show and The Larry Sanders Show.

Early life
Shandling was born Garry Emmanuel Shandling in Chicago, Illinois on November 29, 1949. He was raised in Tucson, Arizona. He studied at the University of Arizona.

Career
Shandling began his career in 1975. He started writing for sitcoms such as Sanford and Son and Welcome Back, Kotter. He began his career in comedy when he was on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and was on the show many times.
Shandling was for a thought to replace Carson (other hopefuls were Joan Rivers, David Letterman and David Brenner). In 1986, he created It's Garry Shandling's Show, for the pay cable channel Showtime. It was nominated for four Emmy Awards (including one for Shandling) and lasted until 1990. His second show, The Larry Sanders Show, which began airing on HBO in 1992, was even more successful. 

Shandling was nominated for 18 Emmy Awards for the show and won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series in 1998, along with Peter Tolan, for writing the series finale. In movies, Shandling had the same role as Senator Stern in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, appearing in Iron Man 2 and Captain America: The Winter Soldier, as well as a voice in DreamWorks Animation's Over the Hedge.

His last movies were Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2015) and The Jungle Book (2016).
Personal life
Shandling was in a relationship with Linda Doucett from 1987 through 1994. He lived in Los Angeles, California.

Death
Shandling died in Los Angeles from a pulmonary embolism caused by thrombosis in his leg on March 24, 2016. He was aged 66.

Awards
During his career, Shandling was nominated for 19 Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards, along with many other awards and nominations. He served as host of the Grammy Awards four times and as host of the Emmy Awards three times.

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 Garry Shandling on Charlie Rose  via Google Video (2006)
  in 2002
 AllMovie.com: Garry Shandling
 Museum of Broadcasting: It's Garry Shandling's Show / The Larry Sanders Show 
 Filmbug.com: Garry Shandling
1949 births
2016 deaths
Actors from Chicago
Actors from Tucson, Arizona
American movie actors
American television actors
American television directors
American television presenters
American television producers
American television writers
American voice actors
Comedians from Arizona
Comedians from Chicago
Writers from Tucson, Arizona
Writers from Chicago
Emmy Award winners
Deaths from pulmonary embolism
Deaths from thrombosis
Mount Kenya is the highest mountain in Kenya. It is  high. It is the second highest mountain in Africa. It is an extinct volcano. It is on the equator. It is  northeast of Nairobi.

References

Geography of Kenya
Mountains of Africa
A flame fougasse (fougasse or foo gas) is a type of mine or improvised explosive device. It uses an explosive charge to put burning liquid onto a target.

The flame fougasse was developed in Britain as an anti-tank weapon in the World War II invasion crisis of 1940. During that period, about 50,000 flame fougasse barrels were put in some 7,000 batteries. Most were in southern England and some in Scotland. Although never used in combat in Britain, the design saw action later in Greece.

References 

Weapons
World War II
Fougasse may mean

Fougasse (bread)
Flame fougasse
Katzenbach v. McClung, 379 U.S. 294 (1964), is a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. The Court held that Congress acted within its power under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution in forbidding racial discrimination in restaurants as this was a burden to interstate commerce. The ruling was a 9–0 decision in favor of the plaintiff—the United States government. It was also a test case of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In particular,

Background 
Ollie's Barbecue was a family-owned restaurant that operated in Birmingham, Alabama, that seated 220 customers. It was located on a state highway and was 11 city blocks from an interstate highway. In a typical year, approximately half of the food it purchased from a local supplier came from out-of-state. It catered to local families and white-collar workers. However, they refused to serve African American customers in the restaurant. About 24 of the 36 employees of the restaurant were black.
Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawing segregation in American schools and public places. One section of the act, Title II, was specifically intended to grant African-Americans full access to public facilities such as hotels, restaurants,  and public recreation areas. On the same day, the Supreme Court heard challenges to Title II from a motel owner and from Ollie McClung. Both claimed that the federal government had no right to impose any regulations on small, private businesses. Both ultimately lost. Ollie McClung had won in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Alabama when he received an injunction preventing the Government from enforcing Title II against his restaurant. But then U.S. Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach, appealed this decision to the U.S. Supreme Court.
Opinion of the Court 
McClung argued that the Civil Rights Act was unconstitutional, at least as applied to a small, private business such as his. McClung further argued that the amount of food purchased by Ollie's that actually crossed state lines (about half of the food at Ollie's) was so small that Ollie's effectively had no effect on interstate commerce (although McClung admitted that a significant amount of Ollie's business was to interstate travelers). Because of this, McClung argued that Congress had no power to regulate Ollie's Barbecue under the Commerce Clause.

The court ruled unanimously that the Civil Rights Act is constitutional and that it was properly applied against Ollie's Barbecue.
Justice Clark wrote the majority opinion, with concurrences by Justices Black, Douglas, and Goldberg. In section 2 of the opinion, the Court agreed with McClung that Ollie's itself had virtually no effect on interstate commerce. In section 4 of the opinion, the Court held that racial discrimination in restaurants had a significant impact on interstate commerce, and therefore Congress has the power to regulate this conduct under the Commerce Clause. The Court's conclusion was based on extensive Congressional hearings on the issue.

Later developments 
After decades in operation, Ollie's Barbecue moved to the suburb of Pelham in 1999 and closed in 2001.

Notes

References 

United States Supreme Court cases
1964 in the United States
Case citation is a system used by legal professionals to identify past court case decisions. These are found either in series of books called reporters or law reports, or in a neutral style that identifies a decision regardless of where it is reported. Case citations are formatted differently in different jurisdictions, but generally contain the same key information.

A legal citation is a "reference to a legal precedent or authority, such as a case, statute, or work, that either agrees with or contradicts a given position". Where cases are published on paper, the citation usually contains the following information:
 Report title
 Volume number
 Page, section, or paragraph number
 Publication year
In some report series, for example in England and Australia, volumes are not numbered independently of the year. So the year and volume number (usually no greater than 4) are required to identify which book of the series has the case reported within its covers. In such citations, it is usual in these jurisdictions to apply square brackets "" to the year (which may not be the year that the case was decided, For example, a case decided in December 2001 may have been reported in 2002).

The Internet brought with it the opportunity for courts to publish their decisions on websites. Decisions of many courts from all over the world can now be found through the website WorldLII and its member institutes.
Most court decisions are not published on paper. The large number of court decisions found online  resulted in a flood of information. The result was that a medium-neutral citation system was adopted.  This usually contains the following information:
 Year of decision
 Abbreviated title of the court
 Decision number (not the court file number)
Rather than utilizing page numbers for "pinpoint references", which would depend upon particular printers and browsers, pinpoint quotations refer to paragraph numbers.

The conjunction "versus" is abbreviated to "v" in Commonwealth countries and to "v." in  the United States.

Pronunciation of case titles

In common law countries with an adversarial system of justice, the names of the opposing parties are separated in the case title by the abbreviation v. The abbreviation represents the Latin word versus, which means against. When case titles are read out loud, the v. can be pronounced, depending on the context, as and, against, versus, or vee.

References
Barisal Zilla School is a boys school located in Barisal, Bangladesh. It is one of the oldest and top ranked high schools in the country and the first high school in Barisal Division.

It was founded by an Englishman, N. W. Garret, on 23 December 1829 with only 8 students. Now it has more than two thousand students.

Notable alumni 
Barisal Zilla School produced many leading local reformers, politicians, statesmen, educationists, philosophers, poets-writers, and sportsmen. Those notable persons include:

 Sher-e-Bangla A. K. Fazlul Huq, Bengali nationalist and statesman 
 Abdul Jabbar Khan, former speaker
 Abdur Rahman Biswas, former president of Bangladesh
 Altaf Mahmud, music composer
 Sardar Fazlul Karim, scholar, academic, philosopher and essayist
 Buddhadeb Guha, writer 
 Lieutenant General Hasan Mashhud Chowdhury, ex-chief of Army staff

References

Barisal
1829 establishments
19th-century establishments in Asia
Schools in Bangladesh
Boynton v. Virginia, , was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. On December 20, 1958, Bruce Boynton, a senior at Howard Law School, left Washington, D.C. on a bus to go home for Christmas to Montgomery, Alabama. At the bus terminal in Richmond, Virginia he entered the restaurant and sat in the "white only" section.  For refusing to leave, he was arrested and convicted for violating a Virginia statute making it illegal for anyone "without authority of law" to remain after being forbidden to do so. He then appealed the conviction to the Supreme Court of Virginia. He maintained “that his conviction violated the Interstate Commerce Act and the Equal Protection, Due Process and Commerce Clauses of the Federal Constitution.” But the state Supreme Court upheld his conviction.He next petitioned the United States Supreme Court for certiorari. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed the conviction of the lower court
. The Court held that Boynton “had a federal right to remain in the white portion of the restaurant” as the Interstate Commerce Act “forbids any interstate common carrier by motor vehicle to subject any person to unjust discrimination.” Justice Hugo Black delivered the majority opinion.
The decision 
The court ruled in a 7-2 decision in favor of Boynton. It held that interstate passengers were protected by the Interstate Commerce Act and the terminal's restaurant was a part of that facility. In part the decision read:

Effects of "Boynton" 
Justices Tom C. Clark and Charles Evans Whittaker dissented in the 7-2 decision. It was the first time since 1946 the court had split over matters of racial segregation. 

Boynton v. Virginia paved the way and inspired the Freedom Riders to test the new ruling. Black and white riders rode together on Southern racially segregated buses beginning in 1961. After six months of protests and press coverage of the Freedom Riders, The Interstate Commerce Commission outlawed racial discrimination in seating passengers on interstate busses. It ordered the removal of "whites only" signs from all interstate bus terminals.

References

Other websites 
 Boynton v. Virginia,  The 1961 Freedom Rides 
 The Freedom Rides of 1961, Testing Boynton v. Virginia
United States Supreme Court cases
United States law
1960 in the United States
American civil rights
20th century in Virginia
Gregg v. Georgia, Proffitt v. Florida, Jurek v. Texas, Woodson v. North Carolina, and Roberts v. Louisiana,  were a group of landmark cases that the United States Supreme Court decided together in 1976.  They had to do with capital punishment in the United States.

In these cases, the Court ruled that the states could use capital punishment (the death penalty), but only if they followed certain rules.  If the states did not follow these rules when they sentenced people to death, they would be violating the Constitution of the United States by giving out a cruel and unusual punishment.

In 1972, the Court had ruled that the way Georgia was using the death penalty was unconstitutional.  After this decision, all of the states stopped using the death penalty while they changed their capital punishment laws.  Because of this, there were no executions in the United States between 1972 and 1976.
However, in Gregg v. Georgia, the Court ruled that Georgia's new death penalty law was constitutional, and they gave the state permission to execute Troy Leon Gregg.  This ended the temporary stop on executions in the United States.  It made it clear to the states that as long as they followed the rules set out in the Gregg decision, they could start using the death penalty again.

History: Furman v. Georgia

The Gregg case happened because of another Supreme Court case called Furman v. Georgia, which the Court decided In 1972.  In this case, three different men who had been sentenced to death argued that Georgia was giving them a cruel and unusual punishment.  This is against the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution, which makes cruel and unusual punishments illegal.

The Supreme Court agreed that when Georgia gave the death penalty to these three men, the state violated the Eighth Amendment.  Different Supreme Court Justices said Georgia's death penalty was 'cruel and unusual' for different reasons.
The death penalty was "arbitrary"

Some Justices said that Georgia's use of the death penalty was arbitrary.  This meant that Georgia's courts gave the death penalty to some people and not to others, even when they committed the same crime, for no good reason.
 Here is an example of arbitrary punishment: Twenty people in twenty different parts of Georgia commit murder.  They are tried in twenty different courts.  A few get the death penalty, and the rest get sent to prison.  There is no legal reason why some people got the death penalty and the others did not.  Since there is no good reason why some people got the death penalty while others did not, this punishment is arbitrary.

The death penalty was "discriminatory"
Other Justices said Georgia's use of the death penalty was discriminatory.  They wrote that black defendants seemed more likely to get the death penalty than whites.  This would violate the Fourteenth Amendment, which says that the states must give every person "the equal protection of the laws."  If a certain group, like black people, is more likely to get the death penalty just because of their race, they are not being treated equally under the laws.

The death penalty stops

After Furman, all of the states stopped using the death penalty so they could change their capital punishment laws.  They wanted these new laws to make sure the death penalty would not be given in an arbitrary or discriminatory way.  By early 1975, thirty states had passed new death penalty laws that they thought would satisfy the Supreme Court and let them use the death penalty in a constitutional way.
Background of the case
Gregg started out as five separate cases in five different states: Gregg v. Georgia, Proffitt v. Florida, Jurek v. Texas, Woodson v. North Carolina, and Roberts v. Louisiana.

After the Furman decision, the states of Georgia, Florida, Texas, North Carolina, and Louisiana changed their death penalty laws to obey the Supreme Court's decision in Furman.  After this, the five defendants in these cases  Troy Leon Gregg, Charles William Proffitt, Jerry Jurek, James Tyrone Woodson, and Stanislaus Roberts  were each convicted of murder.  Each was sentenced to death.  Each defendant appealed to their state's Supreme Court.  Each of the five state Supreme Courts said the death sentences were fair and legal.
Next, the defendants asked the United States Supreme Court to decide whether their death sentences were constitutional.  In Furman, the Court had ruled that the death penalty was sometimes cruel and unusual punishment.  These five defendants were asking the Supreme Court to rule that the death penalty was always cruel and unusual punishment.  If the Court ruled this way, it would make the death penalty unconstitutional in the entire United States.  The death penalty would be illegal in every state in the country.

The Supreme Court agreed to hear the cases, but they combined them all into one case.  This one case is usually called Gregg v. Georgia, because the entire name of the case is very long.
Legal questions
The United States Supreme Court was trying to answer a few legal questions in Gregg.  The most important were:
 Does the death penalty always violate the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments?  Is it always cruel and unusual punishment?  
 If not, what laws do the states have to have to protect defendants' rights?  What did states need to include in their laws to make sure they were not using the death penalty in cruel and unusual ways?
 The Court planned to use the new death penalty laws written by Georgia, Florida, Texas, North Carolina, and Louisiana as examples.  
 Did these laws set out rules for who could get the death penalty, and why?  Were these rules fair and legal?
 Would these rules make sure the death penalty was not used in cruel, unusual, or unfair ways?
Decision
The Court ruled 7-2 that the death penalty is not always cruel and unusual punishment.  (The two Justices who disagreed, William Brennan and Thurgood Marshall, had already said in Furman that they thought capital punishment was always cruel and unusual.)

The Court set out two rules that state laws have to include to make sure their death penalty sentencing laws are constitutional:
 There have to be objective criteria for when the state can and cannot use the death penalty.  All death sentences have to be reviewed by appeals courts.  These courts will help make sure each death sentence was based on objective criteria (like facts and evidence).
 Death sentences cannot be mandatory (required for anyone who commits a certain crime).  Each judge or jury has to be able to decide whether their individual defendant deserves the death penalty.  When the judge or jury decides this, they must be able to think about things like details of the individual defendant's crime and their behavior.
Specifically, the Court said that Georgia's, Florida's, and Texas's new death penalty laws met these requirements.  This meant these laws were constitutional, and these states could go back to executing people.  

The Court ruled that North Carolina's and Louisiana's new laws did not meet the requirements, because they made the death penalty mandatory (required in all cases) for some crimes.  This meant these laws were still unconstitutional.

Importance
The Supreme Court's ruling in Gregg was important for several reasons:
 It made it clear that the death penalty would remain legal in the United States
 However, it set rules for how the death penalty had to be given
 It also added extra protections for defendants
 It allowed states to start using the death penalty again

Notes

Related pages
 Capital punishment in the United States
 Cruel and unusual punishment
 Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution

References
References

1976 in the United States
Capital punishment in the United States
United States law
United States Supreme Court cases
A proof-of-work (POW) system is a system where finding a solution to a given problem is difficult and/or expensive, but verifying the solution to the given problem is simple and/or cheap.

Example

Find the positive integer whose sha256 hash value is:

 c75cb66ae28d8ebc6eded002c28a8ba0d06d3a78c6b5cbf9b2ade051f0775ac4

To find this integer, you must compute the sha256 value for every integer starting with zero until you find the right value. While each individual computation is trivial and cheap, cumulatively the work adds up and becomes time consuming and expensive. To successfully reproduce the given hash value, you must do some work.

Find some data whose sha256 hash value begins with at least 8 leading zeros:

 000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f
In the first example, the problem required the original value as proof that work had been done. In this example, it does not matter what the data is, only that it produces a hash value with the given constraints. Finding this data is difficult, but once found, it is trivial to verify by running it through sha256.

Cryptography
University of Barisal (  also known as Barisal University or simply BU), is a public university located in Barisal, a city in southern Bangladesh. It is the only general public university in Barishal division and the country's 33rd public university. It was established in 2011 and started educational activities on 25 January 2012.

References

Barisal
Colleges and universities in Bangladesh
2011 establishments in Asia
21st-century establishments in Bangladesh
Ineffective assistance of counsel means that a lawyer (counsel) did not help their client defend themselves during a trial.  "Ineffective assistance of counsel" is a complaint that a person can make if they have been convicted of a crime, and they want to argue that their trial was not fair.

"Ineffective" means that something, or someone, did not work the way it should have.  "Assistance" means "help."  "Counsel" is a legal word for "lawyer."  So by making a complaint of "ineffective assistance of counsel," a person is saying "my defense attorney did not help me enough."

The right to a lawyer

The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution says: "the accused shall enjoy the right ... to have the assistance of counsel for his defence."  When a person says they had ineffectiveness of counsel, they are saying their lawyer was so bad that they did not receive this right to a lawyer.