Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The French name for the fruit is papaye and papayer for the plant. In Portuguese, the fruit is called mamão, papaia or ababaia and the tree mamoeiro or papaeira. In Kerala it commonly known as Kapanga - കപ്പങ്ങ. In Spanish, there are other names besides papaya. In Cuba, it is called fruta bomba except in the eastern provinces where papaya is used. In the Dominican Republic, Los Llanos (Venezuela) and Eastern Central Colombia, the name is lechosa. In Argentina and Paraguay, the fruit is called mamón.

Other names and translations can be seen at Wiktionary.

Overview 

It is a large plant, like a tree, usually without branches; it is a herbaceous plant because the stem does not have much wood and remains soft and green until its death. The single stem grows from 5 to 10 m tall with all the leaves on the top. The leaves are large, 50–70 cm wide.

Some plants have perfect (with female and male organs) flowers but other plants have flowers with only one sex (female or male).
Generally, the fruit is oval to nearly round and, in some cases, like a big pear. Fruits are 15-50 cm long and 10–20 cm wide, and weigh up to 9 kg.

The skin of the fruit is thin and tough; it is not eaten because is too bitter. First, the skin is green but it changes to yellow in ripe fruits, ready to be eaten. In a ripe fruit, the pulp is yellow, orange, pink, and even light red. Inside the fruit, there are many small black seeds.

Uses 
Ripe papayas are eaten fresh, after taking out the skin and the seeds; sometimes, they are cut in small pieces and mixed with other fruits for a fruit salad. Papayas that are not completely ripe can be cut in pieces and cooked with sugar and eaten as dessert. In tropical regions, it is very popular to take papaya juice, after taking the skin and seeds out; this juice can be mixed with milk to make smoothies.
Green papayas, those that are not ripe, are eaten in some Asiatic countries in salads, curries and soups but they should be boiled before eating them. Young leaves and stems are also cooked as a vegetable. Green papaya is used in Thai cuisine, both raw and cooked.

The papaya is a source of iron and calcium; a good source of vitamins A, B and Riboflavin and an excellent source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid).

The latex (a sap like milk) from the green fruits, the leaves and the stem are rich in papain, an enzyme that breaks down tough meat fibers. Papain is a component in products (meat tenderizers) sold in shops and that is used to make meat softer before cooking it.

Papaya seeds have a peppery taste and are a great substitute for black peppercorns.

References 

7: https://www.achinhimanshujha-mylifeonweb.com/2021/09/papaya-leaves-health-benefits.html

Other websites
Other websites 

 Fruits of Warm Climates: Papaya and Related Species
 Carica papaya
 California Rare Fruit Growers: Papaya Fruit Facts .
 Papaya Fruit Nutrition
 Treating Livestock with Medicinal Plants: Beneficial or Toxic? Carica papaya
 Papaya Fruit - Internet Documentation 

Tropical fruit
Brassicales
National symbols of Malaysia
National symbols of Singapore
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits. Most land plants today are flowering plants (Angiosperm or Magnoliophyta). 

Together with the gymnosperms they make up the seed plants. They differ from the gymnosperms in that angiosperms have flowers, and have enclosed ovules. Gymnosperms have naked seeds on cones or open structures.

Typical adaptations
Angiosperms have a number of derived characters, which evolved as they split off from the gymnosperms.
 Flowers
Flowers, the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from other seed plants. Flowers, with their colour and their nectar, attract pollinators, which are mostly insects and birds. 95% of flowering plants in tropical lowlands rely on animals for pollination or dispersal of seeds. Although in general, this is true, it is not true of one great group of angiosperms: the grasses. The reason is not clear, but grasses dominate several of the largest land areas: in North America, Asia, and in Africa. They are all wind-pollinated.
Gymnosperms were and are almost entirely wind-pollinated, but early flowers were probably all insect-pollinated. Some present-day flowering plants are wind-pollinated, but that is a secondary feature.p182
 Fruits
The fertilized angiosperm ovule develops into a seed, and the ovary develops into the fruit. The fruit is often a way to use animals to spread the seeds far and wide. The fruit is made out of the carpel and some tissue around it. The carpel carries structures called ovules, inside which egg cells form.
 Endosperm
In general, endosperms form after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears.
 Sexual parts
Sexual parts
Specialized sexual parts have led to co-evolution in fertilization and seed dispersal. The stamens, and the male and female gametophytes, have been adapted in many ways to suit particular pollinators. The smaller pollen grain shortens the time between pollination and fertilization, which can be up to a year in gymnosperms. The small female gametophyte also allows rapid seed production, which led to annual herbaceous life-cycles.
Adaptations in these novelties allowed angiosperms to invade many habitats. They now dominate everywhere except the boreal forest or taiga, which is still composed almost entirely of gymnosperms, usually pines.

Phylogeny 
Molecular evidence indicates that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late Devonian, about 365 million years ago. They did not appear in the fossil record until the Mesozoic, almost two hundred million years later.

A whole genome duplication (doubling) at 160 million years ago (mya) may have started the ancestral line that led to all modern flowering plants. That event was studied by sequencing the genome of an ancient flowering plant, Amborella trichopoda. Amborella, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants. Studies suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants.
The earliest known fossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 mya in the Lower Cretaceous. Pollen probably of angiosperm origin takes the fossil record back to about 130 mya.
There are still some examples of Cretaceous angiosperms in the Daintree Rainforest: twelve primitive angiosperms (flowering plant) families: Cunoniaceae, Proteaceae (banksia and macadamia family), Winteraceae, Myrtaceae (eucalypt and Syzygium or lilly pilly), Monimiaceae, Rutaceae, Sapindaceae, Aquifoliaceae (holly family), Chloranthaceae, Trimeniaceae, Epacridaceae (heath family), Olacaceae. These families of angiosperms  have the longest continuous history with the Gondwanan landmass.
 
The phylogeny of Angiosperms is as follows: 
 Angiosperms (flowering plants)
 Amborella: one species only, from New Guinea.
 Nymphaeales: 80 species, mainly water lilies.
 Austrobaileyales: 100 species of woody plants from around the world.
 Magnoliids: about 9000 species, with trimerous (3-part) flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually branching-veined leaves.
Monocots about 7000 species, with trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leaves—for example grasses, orchids, and palms.
 Ceratophyllum, about six species of aquatic plants, familiar as aquarium plants;
 Eudicots, about 175,000 species, 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and usually branching-veined leaves—for example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks.
The territory is pretty much covered by three groups: the Magnoliids, the Monocots, and the Eudicots. The Eudicots outnumber all other groups put together. However, grasses are the food of most herbivores today. Their spread in the later Miocene and the associated reduction in forests caused the extinction of most browsers and their replacement by grazers.

Related pages 
Flower
Life timeline
Daintree Rainforest

References
Amanda Joy "AJ" Michalka (born April 10, 1991) is an American singer and actress from Torrance, California. Her parents are Carrey Begley-Michalka and Mark Michalka. Her older sister is actress Alyson Michalka. She and her sister are in the band 78violet. She starred with her sister in the Disney movie Cow Belles. She is of German-American ancestry.

Biography
Amanda Michalka was born in Torrance, California in 1991. Her older sister, Alyson "Aly" Michalka and their parents moved to Seattle, Washington. There her parents made sure they were exposed to all varieties of music. They then moved back to Southern California, where they still live.
Career
Michalka was in a number of WORD Music Productions at her church in Southern California as a young child. Michalka plays a variety of instruments such as acoustic guitar, electric guitar, piano, and bongos. She used to be a model for catalogs. In March 2006, she made her first appearance on the Disney Channel in the Disney Channel Original Movie Cow Belles, as "Courtney Callum", along with sister Aly, as "Taylor Callum". She has also made appearances on shows such as Oliver Beene, Six Feet Under, The Guardian, and General Hospital. She also appeared with her sister in the MTV movie, Super Sweet 16: The Movie.

Albums
 Insomniatic (2007)
 Acoustic Hearts of Winter (2006)
 Into The Rush (2005)

Filmography

Feature movies
 The Lovely Bones (2009) - Clarissa, Susie’s best friend.

Television movies
 Super Sweet 16: The Movie (2007) - Sara Conners
 Cow Belles (2006) - Courtney Callum
Television series
 Aly & AJ: Sister Act (2007) - Herself
 Kitty's Dish (2005) - Kitty
 Six Feet Under (2004) - Ashley
 General Hospital (2004) - Ashley B.
 Oliver Beene (2003-2004) - Bonnie
 The Guardian (2002-2004) - Shannon Gressler
 Birds of Prey (2002-2003) - Young Dinah

Guest appearances
 Fox & Friends (2007) - Herself
 Live with Regis and Kelly (2007) - Herself
 Punk'd (2007) -  Herself
 Total Request Live (2006) - Herself
 Live with Regis and Kelly (2006) - Herself
 Good Morning America (2006) - Herself
 America's Got Talent (2006) - Herself
 MTV Cribs (2006) - Herself
 The Megan Mullally Show (2006) - Herself

References

Other websites 
 
 Hollywood Records's Aly & AJ Bio
American television actors
American rock guitarists
Singers from Los Angeles County, California
1991 births
Living people
Actors from Torrance, California
Actors from Seattle
American Christians
American child actors
American child singers
American composers
American movie actors
American pianists
American pop singers
American stage actors
American voice actors
Musicians from Seattle
Singer-songwriters from California
A salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) is a type of fruit. It is a bramble in the rose family Rosaceae. It is native and widespread in areas of Alaska, predominantly the southeast. It is also widespread in Washington State. They come in red and orange varieties. They fruit in early summer and are used by many to make jams, juices, and other such products. They are considered to be a weed and reproduce and spread rapidly. The berries can be eaten raw, straight from the source. They co-exist with huckleberries, blueberries, thimbleberries, and other such plants in the Tongass National Forest.  This fruit is related to the rose and are native to the west coast of North America from Alaska to Idaho.

Rubus
A grape tomato is a small, usually oblong tomato.  They are similar in size to a small cherry tomato and they both have a similar taste, but the grape tomato also has the similar oblong shape of a plum tomato.  The tomatoes were introduced to the United States market in 1997 by grower Andrew Chu, who got them from Taiwan's Known-You Seed Co, though the majority of the production is by a company called Procacci Brothers, who market them as "Santa Sweets". They are considered a difficult crop to grow, as they do not produce as heavily as many cherry tomato varieties.

It is believed that the tomatoes originated in Southeast Asia.  They are eaten as bar snacks in some parts of Thailand.

Tomatoes
Adolf von Henselt (born Schwabach, Bavaria, May 9 1814; died Warmbrunn (now Cieplice), Silesia, October 10 1889) was a German pianist and composer.  He had piano lessons from Hummel in Weimar.  When he was a young man he played in concerts all over Germany.  Then he went to Russia where he was very successful and he settled there to live.  He became pianist at the court of the tsar and taught the tsar’s children how to play the piano.

Henselt was known for his beautiful playing of the music of Chopin.  He was very good at playing widely spaced arpeggios and could make them sound very smooth (legato) even if he was not using the pedal.

As a composer he is mostly remembered today for a few of his short works which are often quite sentimental, e.g. Frühlingslied (Spring Song) and Si oiseau j’étais (If I were a bird).

19th-century German composers
Romantic composers
German pianists
1814 births
1889 deaths
The cherry tomato is a type of tomato that is a fruit. This type of tomato was originally developed in Israel.

Israeli scientists Haim Rabinowitch and Nachum Kadar from the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot bred one of the varieties of cherry tomatoes in 1973.

Notes 

Tomatoes

de:Kirschtomate
A binary star is two stars which orbit around each other. For each star, the other is its companion star. Many stars are part of a system with two or more stars. The brighter star is called the primary star, and the other is the secondary star.

Binary stars are important in astrophysics because looking at their orbits allows scientists to find out their masses. From this, scientists found the the mass–luminosity relationship, and used it to find the masses of single stars.
Binary stars are not the same as line-of-sight optical double stars, which look close together but are not connected by gravity. Optical double stars may actually be far apart in space, but binary stars are quite close together. The first person to discover and prove true binary stars was the Anglo-German astronomer William Herschel. He published the first catalogue of binary stars, and his son John Herschel found several thousand more and updated the catalogue. John Michell first suggested that double stars might be physically attached to each other when he argued in 1767 that the probability that a double star was due to a chance alignment was small.  William Herschel began observing double stars in 1779 and soon after that he published catalogs of about 700 double stars.
Modern definitions 
By the modern definition, the term binary star is generally restricted to pairs of stars which revolve around a common centre of mass. Binary stars which can be resolved with a telescope or interferometric methods are known as visual binaries. For most of the known visual binary stars one whole revolution (complete circle) has not been observed yet, they are seen to have travelled along a curved path or a partial arc.

Some stars appear to be in orbit around empty space, and appear not to have a companion. In this case, the companion star is either very small and faint, or it is a neutron star or a black hole. The best-known example of a star with an invisible companion is Cygnus X-1, in which the visible star's companion appears to be a black hole.
The more general term double star is used for pairs of stars which are seen to be close together in the sky. This distinction is rarely made in languages other than English. Double stars may be binary systems or may be merely two stars that appear to be close together in the sky but have vastly different true distances from the Sun. The latter are termed optical doubles or optical pairs.

Visual binaries 
A visual binary star is one for which the separation of the two stars can be seen with a telescope. The brighter star is the primary and the fainter star is the secondary. Visual binaries take a long time to orbit one another, in the area of hundreds or even thousands of years.
Spectroscopic binaries
A spectroscopic binary is one in which the two stars cannot be seen separately even with a telescope. They are very close together and move around each other very quickly, over a period of a few weeks or even a few days. However, they can be seen to be two separate stars by using a spectroscope, which is able to record the Doppler change in the color of the light sent out by stars moving quickly toward or away from the Earth.

Eclipsing binaries
Some spectroscopic binaries have an orbit that is edge-on to Earth. When this happens, the stars will take turns passing in front of and eclipsing the partner star, in what is called an eclipsing binary. In this case, the amount of light we see from the double dims slightly during the time one star is in front of the other.
Astrometric binaries
An astrometric binary is one where only one companion can be seen. For astrometric binaries fairly near the Earth (up to about 10 parsecs), it may be possible to see the visible companion "wobble" as it moves around its invisible companion. By making measurements over a long period of time, it may be possible to calculate the mass of the visible star and how long its orbit takes. This method is also used to detect the presence of large planets orbiting a star; as of 2007, over two hundred planets have been discovered in this way.

System properties 

Most binaries are detached binaries. Except for their gravitational pull on one another, they have no effect on each other.
Some binaries are so close to one another that one or both stars is able to pull material from the other. Contact binaries share the same stellar atmosphere, and as friction slows them over a long period, they may merge into one star. This violent event temporarily makes them shine more brightly, brighter than a nova but less bright than a supernova.

Formation
Though it could be possible that binary stars may form when one star passes very close to another, it is highly unlikely (since it would actually take three stars close to one another before two could join), and would occur only in places where stars are densely packed together. Our present understanding is that almost all binaries are formed together in the dense gas clouds where stars are born.
Runaways and novae
It is possible (though not likely) that a passing star will disrupt a binary system and provide enough gravitational force to split the binary. Such separated stars go on to live lives as ordinary single stars. Sometimes, though, enough gravitational force is involved that the two companions speed away from each other at great speeds, resulting in what is known as runaway stars.
Sometimes a star is in orbit around a white dwarf star. If it is large enough and close enough to the white dwarf, the dwarf may suck gasses from its companion's atmosphere. Over a period of time, a great deal of gas may collect on the white dwarf. As this gas is compacted by the white dwarf's gravity, it will eventually undergo nuclear fusion, resulting in a very bright outburst of light, known as a nova. In some cases, the white dwarf may gather so much gas that the explosion completely destroys it, in what is called a supernova. Such an event may also result in runaway stars, as the larger star no longer has a heavy companion which keeps it in orbit.
X - Ray Binaries 
X - Ray Binaries produce great amounts of X-ray radiation. They result from a massive star eating a less massive star. The lesser star becomes a donor and its matter is drained out and falls into the more massive (but more compact) star, the accretor. This releases high energy photons, for example in the X-Ray range of wavelengths. The X-Rays also come from the consumption of material on the surface of the more massive star in a process called thermonuclear burning. This can make 10 second bursts.

References

Other websites 

 Pictures of binaries at Hubblesite.org
 Chandra X-ray Observatory
 Binary Stars at Open Directory 
 An extensive simulation for the Algol system by North Carolina State University

 
Types of stars
The Imperial units or the Imperial system is a collection of measurement units. An Act of Parliament in 1824 created it from traditional English units. The United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries (which were once part of the British Empire as British colonies) used this system from 1824 until they changed to the metric system in the second part of the 20th century. The Imperial system is very similar to the American system but there are some differences.

Length 

The British nautical mile used to be 6080 feet. In 1970 the UK adopted the international definition of 1852 metres.

Measures of area

Volume 

The full table of British apothecaries’ measure is:

For a comparison to the United States customary units see the article on Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems.

Mass and weight

Related pages
 International System of Units

Other websites 
 Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72 
 British Weights And Measures Association 
 Jacques J. Proot's Anglo-Saxon weights & measures  page.
The imperial and U.S. customary systems are similar, but there are some differences between them.

Volume 
The main difference is in units of volume. The American system has two gallons: a wet and a dry one. The imperial gallon is bigger than each of these. However, the imperial fluid ounce is slightly smaller than the American one.

Length 
The international yard is exactly 0.9144 metres. This definition was agreed upon by the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand in 1959. However, the United States continued to use its old length units for surveying purposes. The US survey foot is exactly 1200/3937 metre.

Weight 
Another difference is in units of mass. In Britain people often use the stone. One stone is 14 pounds. Eight stones are one hundredweight (112 lb). Twenty hundredweights are one ton. So one British ton is 2240 pounds. It is very close to the tonne of the metric system.
In the United States people do not use the stone. They usually use a hundredweight of 100 pounds. This hundredweight is also called a short hundredweight. Twenty short hundredweights are one short ton. The British hundredweight is also called the long hundredweight and the Britsh ton is also called the long ton.

Related pages
 Imperial units
 United States customary units
 International System of Units
 Metric system

Measurement
The stone is a unit for measuring mass in the Imperial system. It is equal to fourteen pounds. 160 stone make up a long ton. In the metric system, 1 stone = 6.35029318 kilograms.

The short way of writing stones is st.

Mass

Usage 
The stone was outlawed in Ireland and the United Kingdom, in 1983 and 1985 respectively. However stones and pounds are both commonly used in non-official cases, most commonly when stating the weight of a person. Often in American-British boxing matches, the contenders  weight is stated in pounds then stones and pounds. The same in horse racing. 

Imperial units
Units of mass
Maccabi Haifa Football Club (, Moadon HaKaduregel Maccabi Haifa) is an Israeli football team from the city of Haifa, a section of Maccabi Haifa sports club. The club has won 11 championships, five State Cups and four Toto Cups. The club was founded in 1913, and it is one of the country's most successful teams in Europe, being the first Israeli club to qualify for the group stage of the UEFA Champions League.

History

First seventy years of obscurity
Maccabi Haifa Football Club was established in 1913 in the port city of Haifa. It was a small, struggling club that spent most of its time between the Liga Leumit and the lower leagues.
The club was overshadowed by their city rivals Hapoel Haifa, who were then the darling club of the city of Haifa and especially of then mayor Abba Hushi. But even in its first years the club adapted a very adventurous and offensive style of play based on technique and short passes. In 1942, the club reached the Israel State Cup final, but was humiliated 12-1 by Beitar Tel Aviv in the final, which is the club's worst defeat ever. In 1962, the club won its only honour until the 80s, when the team defeated Maccabi Tel Aviv 5-2 in the State Cup final. In 1963 they reached the final again, but failed to defend their title losing to arch-rivals Hapoel Haifa 1-0.

Maccabi Haifa F. C. is a professional football (soccer) club in Israel. Founded in 1913, it is Israel's most successful club both domestically and in European competitions.

Club Titles
Leagues Won
 Israeli Premier League - 15 Times Won
Cups Won
 Israeli Cup - 6 Times Won
 Toto Cup - 4 Times Won
Famous Players ever in Maccabi Haifa F.C.
Avi Ran, 
Adoram Keisi, 
Eyal Berkovic,
Yaniv Katan,
Yossi Benayoun,
Reuven Atar and
Alon Mizrahi

Best Club Records 
Most Goals in season - 1993/1994

Most Games played without losing strike - 46 Games (From Seasons 1993-1995)

Most Away Undefeated Strike - 30

Most Points in a Year - 96 Points

Fan Organization 
Maccabi Haifa has three  fan organizations. One of them and the biggest one, is the Green Apes, founded in 2002. Second, is Inferno Verde, which means The Green Hell, founded in 2010. Third, is Ultra Boys.

The Green Apes (aka: The Ultras) consist of 2,400 people, while Inferno Verde includes 100.

Squad
As of September 1 2009.

References 

Israeli football clubs
Haifa
1913 establishments in Asia
1910s establishments in Israel
In physical geography, tundra is where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term "tundra" comes from tūndâr which means 'uplands, tundra, treeless mountains.

There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra, Antarctic tundra, and alpine tundra. In all of these types, the plants are mostly grass, moss, and lichens. Trees grow in some of the tundra. The boundary between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline.The area itself encircles the Arctic Ocean of the Northern Hemisphere. The climate in a tundra biome consists of freezing cold and dryness in the winter and cold summers. The tundra ground is a barren place, often covered with rocks.
Most water on the tundra is frozen within the soil. The permanent frozen soil is called permafrost. Permafrost and fierce winds prevent large trees from growing deep roots. Plants in the tundra are small and grow close to the ground. Plants called cushions grow in tight clumps in the tundra, but lichens are the dominant plants. Lichens cover the rocks. The few trees that do grow on the tundra are dwarf willows and birch.

The deep and cold snow makes life in the tundra very difficult. Every animal must adapt in order to survive. Some have thick fur that turns white during the winter. Others find places to hibernate during the winter months. Some examples of animals that live in the tundra are: rodents, hares, sables, caribou, wolves, arctic foxes, bears, walruses, seals, and snowy owls.

References

Other websites
Other websites 

WWF Tundra Ecoregions 
The Arctic biome at Classroom of the Future
British Antarctica Survey
Antarctica: West of the Transantarctic Mountains
Tundra Food Chain | How The Tundra Food Chain Works? 

Biomes
There are several types of tree lines defined in ecology and geology:
 Arctic tree-line The farthest north in the Northern Hemisphere that trees can grow; farther north, it is too cold.
 Antarctic tree-line The farthest south in the Southern Hemisphere that trees can grow; farther south, it is too cold as well.
 Alpine tree-line The highest height where trees grow: higher up, it is too cold, or snow covers the ground for too much of the year. The climate above the tree-line is called an alpine climate.
 Exposure tree-line On coasts and isolated mountains, the tree-line is often much lower than in corresponding altitudes inland and in larger, more complex mountain systems, because of strong winds reduce tree growth.
 Desert tree-line The places where trees cannot grow as there is too little rainfall.
Toxic tree-line The environment is too extreme for trees to grow. This can be caused by molten lava or hot rock (infrared radiation), any of several kinds of fumarole (steam, sulfur, acid), soil pH, low oxygen conditions, salt concentrations (as near the Dead Sea or Great Salt Lake), sulfate levels, other natural causes, or by man made pollution.
 Wetland tree-line The wettest ground on the margins of muskegs and bogs that trees can grow in, below which the ground is too saturated with water, excluding oxygen from the soil that tree roots need to grow. However, no such line exists for swamps, where trees, such as Bald cypress and the many mangrove species, are adapted to growing in permanently waterlogged soil.
At the tree line, tree growth is often not clear with the last trees forming low bushes. If it is caused by wind, these are known as krummholz, from the German for 'twisted wood'.

The tree line, like many other natural lines (lake boundaries, for example), appears well-defined from a distance, but upon close inspection, it is not that clear. Trees grow shorter until they simply stop growing.

Typical tree-line species 

Some typical tree-line tree species (note the predominance of conifers):
 Dahurian Larch (Larix gmelinii)
 Foxtail Pine (Pinus balfouriana)
 Great Basin Bristlecone Pine (Pinus longaeva)
 Rocky Mountains Bristlecone Pine (Pinus aristata)
 Potosi Pinyon (Pinus culminicola)
 Macedonian Pine (Pinus peuce)
 Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis)
 Swiss Pine (Pinus cembra)
 Mountain Pine (Pinus mugo)
 Hartweg's Pine (Pinus hartwegii)
 Subalpine Larch (Larix lyallii)
 Arctic White Birch (Betula pubescens subsp. tortuosa)
 Snow Gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora)
 Antarctic Beech (Nothofagus Antarctica)
Alpine tree-lines 
The alpine tree-line at a location is dependent on local variables, such as aspect of slope, rain shadow and proximity to either geographical pole. Given this caveat, here is a list of average tree-lines from locations around the globe:

Arctic and Antarctic tree-lines 
Like the alpine tree-lines shown above, polar tree-lines are heavily influenced by local variables such as aspect of slope and degree of shelter; trees can often grow in river valleys at latitudes where they could not grow on a more exposed site. Maritime influences such as ocean currents also play a major role in determining how far from the equator trees can grow. Here are some typical polar treelines:
References 
 Arno, S. F. & Hammerly, R. P. 1984. Timberline. Mountain and Arctic Forest Frontiers. The Mountaineers, Seattle. 
 Ødum, S. 1979. Actual and potential tree-line in the North Atlantic region, especially in Greenland and the Faroes. Holarctic Ecology 2: 222-227.
 Ødum, S. 1991. Choice of species and origins for arboriculture in Greenland and the Faroe Islands. Dansk Dendrologisk Årsskrift 9: 3-78.
 Beringer, J., Tapper, N. J., McHugh, I., Lynch, A. H., Serreze, M. C., & Slater, A. 2001. Impact of Arctic treeline on synoptic climate. Geophysical Research Letters 28 (22): 4247-4250.

Trees
Ecology
The lift force, lifting force or simply lift is the sum of all the forces on a body that force it to move perpendicular to the direction of flow. 

The most common type of lift is that of a wing of an aircraft.  But there are many other common uses such as propellers on both aircraft and boats, rotors on helicopters, fan blades, sails on sailboats, and wind turbines.

While the common meaning of the term "lift" suggests an "upwards" action, lift can be in any direction. For instance, for a sail the lift is horizontal, and for the wing on a race car the lift is down.

There are a number of ways of explaining the production of lift; some are more complicated than others, some have been shown to be false. The simplest explanation is that the wing deflects air downward, and the reaction pushes the wing up.
Other websites 
 How Airplanes Fly: A Physical Description of Lift
 NASA tutorial, with animation, describing lift 
 Description on one very common incorrect explanation of lift 
 Discussion of the apparent "conflict" between the various explanations of lift 
 Explanation of Lift with animation of fluid flow around an airfoil
 A treatment of why and how wings generate lift that focuses on pressure.

Force
Aerospace engineering
Fluid mechanics
The tropics are the region of the Earth near to the equator and between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N) in the northern hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S) in the southern hemisphere. This region is also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone.

This area includes all the areas of the Earth where the sun reaches a point directly overhead at least once a year. The word "tropics" comes from Greek tropos meaning "turn", because the apparent position of the Sun moves between the two tropics within a year.
The word Tropical specifically means places near the equator. The word is also sometimes used in a general sense for a tropical climate, a climate that is warm to hot and moist year-round. This includes tropical rainforests with lush vegetation. However, there are mountains in the tropics that are anything but "tropical" in this sense, with even alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mt. Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Argentina. Places in the tropics which are hot and dry include the Atacama Desert, Sahara Desert, Central Africa, most parts of Western Africa and Northern Australian Outback.

Some parts of Eurasia are also in the tropical zone.
People in some tropical places call their seasons "dry"/"hot" and "rainy"/"wet", especially where the seasons are made by monsoons. Tropical cyclones form in tropical ocean areas, and some move from there into the temperate zone. Tropical plants and animals are native to the tropics or the Torrid zone.

Regions
Kilimanjaro (or Kilimanjaro, which means "shining mountain" in Swahili), formerly Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze, is a mountain in northeastern Tanzania. Kilimanjaro is the tallest free-standing mountain rise in the world, rising 4600 meters (15,000 ft) from the base, and is the highest peak in Africa at 5,895 meters (19,340 ft). It gives a dramatic view from the surrounding plains.  Almost 85% of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared from October 1912 to June 2011.

Kilimanjaro is also a strato-like volcano. It has explosive eruptions. The last major eruption was about 100,000 years ago. killimanjaro is 5895 meters tall.

Climbing and acclimatization 
There are 6 routes up Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Machame, Marangu, Umbwe, Rongai and Northern Circuit.
Since there are big differences in height, climbers can feel Altitude sickness. 7-, 8- and 9-day routes are recommended (especially for beginners), as on them it will be easier to adapt to less oxygen in the air. The more time is spent being on the slope, the easier it is to acclimatize.

References 

Mountains of Africa
Geography of Tanzania
A tropical climate is a type of climate typical in the tropics. It is a humid climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures above 18°C (64.4 °F). Some tropical areas have rainfall throughout the year, usually in the afternoon. Others have a wet season and a dry season, for example because of monsoon.  The usual tropical climate is hot, humid and wet.  Cold weather things like frost, and cold weather precipitation like snow never happen in a tropical climate. One famous area of tropical climate is the Amazon rainforest, which has high biodiversity.  

Some tropical areas are dry, which makes them savannas. A few places near the equator, such as Mount Kilimanjaro, are high mountains and cold for that reason.

Examples of tropical climates 
 Rainforests
 Savanna
 Semi-arid

Köppen climate classifications
In physical geography, an alpine tundra, alpine habitat, alpine zone, or alpine biome is in the mountains.  The alpine habitat is too high up for trees to grow but not so high that the snow and ice never melt.  There are alpine places all over the Earth.  There are tropical alpine places and arctic alpine places.  Many alpine places are 3000 meters (10,000 feet) above sea level, but they can be higher or lower depending on how far from the equator and ocean they are.

Plants

Alpine plants grow slowly and stay short their whole lives.  There are many reasons for this:

Alpine places are usually very windy, so the plants that live there are usually short and strong.  They are also very cold and dry.  This high up, there is not much carbon dioxide in the air, which also makes it harder for plants to grow.  Alpine plants grow slowly.  When living things die in alpine places, their bodies break apart slowly.  This means that the soil in alpine places is not very good.
Tropical alpine plants can be different from alpine plants in colder places.  Their bodies stop them from losing too much water.  They can have wax on their leaves to hold water in.  They can have hairs to block sunlight or silver color to reflect sunlight.  This keeps them from photosynthesizing so fast that they lose too much water and die.

Important alpine plants:

Tussock grasses
Lichen
Sedges
Dwarf forms of trees
Shrubs
Bristlecone pine tree

Animals
Animals

There is more ultraviolet light in alpine places than closer to sea level.  Mammals can live in alpine places because they are warm-blooded.  They can grow fur or fat to protect themselves from the cold.  Many of them sleep in the winter.  Other animals walk or climb lower down in the hills for the winter.  Alpine animals usually have smaller ears, legs, and tails than other animals so they do not lose heat through them.  Because there is less oxygen in alpine places, alpine animals sometimes have larger lungs and more blood cells than other animals.  Few insects live in alpine places because they are so cold.  Few birds live in alpine places all year, but many fly there during warm weather and fly away during the winter.  Almost no amphibians or reptiles live in alpine places.
Tropical alpine animals can be different from animals in other places.  Mammals tend to hide a lot and have dull colors.  Because the air is so thin, birds tend to have smaller bodies and longer, wider wings than other birds.

Important alpine animals:

Wild sheep and goats
Chinchillas
Snowshoe hares
Voles
Pika
White-tailed ptarmigan
Big-winged birds, for example vultures and condors
Tiny birds, for example hummingbirds and sunbirds.
Rock wren
Pollinating insects, for example bumblebees and butterflies
Digging insects, for example springtails

Name

It is named after the mountain range the Alps, but there are alpine habitats all over the world.

History
History

Alexander von Humboldt was one of the first scientists to write about alpine places.  He was from Germany.  In the 1800s, he went to South America and climbed the Andes mountains.  He wrote papers and drew drawings about the mountains and their plants and animals.  In 1889, another scientist, C. Hart Merriam, wrote about "life zones" that he saw in mountains in Arizona.  He put plants, animals, and places in groups and saw that, the further south he looked, the higher up the place had to be to have the same kinds of plants and animals.  His ideas work well in North American mountains, but they do not work well in tropical places.

References

Other websites 

Biomes

Ecozones
A fumarole (Latin fumus, smoke) is an opening in the crust of the Earth, often in the neighborhood of dormant volcanoes, where steam and gases come out, for instance carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen sulfide.

Etymology
The name solfatara (from the Italian solfo, sulfur), is given to fumaroles with sulfurous gases.

Geology
The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems.  It was developed by Wladimir Köppen, a German climatologist, around 1900 (with several further modifications by himself, notably in 1918 and 1936).  It is based on the concept that native vegetation is the best expression of climate, thus climate zone boundaries have been selected with vegetation distribution in mind.
System
Group A is tropical. The average temperature in the coolest month must be at least 18° C.
Group B is arid - desert and steppe/semi-arid. The average precipitation must be less than a certain amount that depends on the temperature.
Group C is mesothermal, the subtropical and temperate climates. The warmest months must have an average greater than 10° C and the coldest month must have a temperature between 0 or -3° C and 18° C. This group includes humid subtropical, Mediterranean, highland, and oceanic.
Group D is microthermal or continental (hot/warm summers and cold winters) and subarctic (short warm summers and cold winters). The warmest months must have an average greater than 10° C and the coldest months must have an average of less than 0 or -3° C.
Group E is polar and alpine. The warmest month must have an average temperature less than 10° C.

Related pages 
 Climatology

References

Climate
Unkel is a city in the district of Neuwied, Rhineland-Palatinate, in the country of Germany. It is on the Rhine River.

References

Other websites
Relative can refer to:
 Kinship, If two people are connected by birth, they are said to be relatives

Physics
 Relativity, an idea in physics (for example Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity)
 Relative angular momentum, astronomy
 Relative density
 Relativity drive, propulsion
 Relative humidity, meteorology/physics
 Relative decibel, acoustics
 Relative effectiveness factor, demolitions
 Relative intensity noise, optics
 Relative motion, kinematics
 Relative permeability, fluid dynamics
 Relative pressure
 Relative thermal resistance
 Relative velocity
 Relative viscosity
 Relative wind, aeronautics

Math
 Relatively complemented lattice, lattice theory
 Relative risk, statistics and epidemiology
 Relative standard deviation, statistics
 Grothendieck's relative point of view, category/scheme theory

Topology
 Relatively compact subspace
 Relative homology
 Relative interior

Philosophy
 Knowledge relativity, relativity as a philosophical concept, opposed to absolute
 Relativism
Economics/Finance
 Relative deprivation, socioeconomics
 Relative investment performance
 Relative price
 Relative strength index
 Relative valuation
 Relative value

Music
 Relative key
 Relative pitch

Popular culture
Film and television
 Relatively Speaking (play), 1965 British play
 Relatively Speaking, late 1980s television game show
 Everything's Relative, 2000 Japanese anime Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters episode
 Relative Values, 2000 film
 It's All Relative, 2003-4 comedy television series

Literature
 The Relativity of Wrong, 1988 Isaac Asimov essay
 Relative Heroes, 2000 DC comic book series
 Time and Relative, 2001 Doctor Who book
 Relative Dementias, 2002 Doctor Who book series

Music
 Relative Degree, late 1990s rock band of Linkin Park members
 Friends & Relatives, 1999 compilation album
 Dead Relatives, 2000 music album by Canadian Emm Gryner
 Relative Ways, 2001 music album by ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead
 Relative Theory Records, 2003 record store in Norfolk, Virginia, USA
Other
 Positive relative accommodation, ophthamalogy
 Relative bearing indicator, aviation
 Relative addressing, computer science
 Relative dating, archaeology, geology
 Relative direction, orientation
 Relative gain (international relations)
 Relative location, geography
 Luminance (relative)
 Relative survival, epidemiology

Related pages
 Relativity
A polar circle is either the Arctic Circle or the Antarctic Circle. On Earth, the Arctic Circle is at a latitude of 66˚ 33' 38" N, and the Antarctic Circle is at a latitude of 66˚ 33' 38" S. Areas between each polar circle and its pole (North Pole, or South Pole) will each year have at least one 24 hour period when the sun is continuously above the horizon and at least one 24 hour period when the sun is continuously below the horizon.

Related pages
Antarctica

Other websites
Wolfram Mathworlds Polar circle calculation formula.

Lines of latitude
Walk or walking is the way people or animals travel on their legs.  It is slower than running, and only one foot is off the ground at any time.  If a person goes out walking, it is said that he or she 'went for a walk'.  Walking quickly or for a long time is known as a healthy exercise.

Related pages
Race walking
Hiking

Notes

Basic English 850 words
Land transport
Sports
Fitness
Animal locomotion
The horizon (from Greek orizein, to limit) is the line that separates earth from sky. But at many places the true horizon cannot be seen as there are trees, buildings, mountains and so forth. The line is then called visible horizon.

Other websites 

 Derivation of the distance to the horizon

Astronomical phenomena
The muon is an elementary particle. It has a negative electric charge and half spin. Its symbol is "μ-". It is a type of lepton.

The muon has an average life time of 2.2 micro-seconds or 0.0000022 seconds.
A muon is like an electron, but it is 200 times heavier. Unlike an electron, it decays into other particles. The superparticle of a muon is called a "smuon."

How are muons made? 
Muons can be made in particle accelerators with energy levels above 105.7 MeV. Cosmic rays from the Sun also make muons:
 The photons in the cosmic rays crash into air molecules.
 Pions are made in the crash
 The pions undergo atomic decay into neutrinos and muons.

Muon decay
Muon decay

Muons are unstable elementary particles. They are heavier than electrons and neutrinos but lighter than all other particles. They decay via the weak interaction. Because the total of the lepton numbers of the starting and ending particles must be the same, one of the product neutrinos of muon decay must be a muon-type neutrino and the other an electron-type antineutrino. Because charge must be kept the same, one of the products of muon decay is always an electron of the same charge as the muon. So, all muons decay to at least an electron, and two neutrinos. Sometimes, besides these necessary products, additional other particles that have a net charge and spin of zero (e.g., a pair of photons, or an electron-positron pair), are produced.
The dominant muon decay mode (sometimes called the Michel decay after Louis Michel) is the simplest possible: the muon decays to an electron, an electron-antineutrino, and a muon-neutrino. Antimuons, in mirror fashion, most often decay to the corresponding antiparticles: a positron, an electron-neutrino, and a muon-antineutrino.

Other websites
 Muon anomalous magnetic moment and supersymmetry
 g-2 (muon anomalous magnetic moment) experiment
 muLan (Measurement of the Positive Muon Lifetime) experiment 
 The Review of Particle Physics
 The TRIUMF Weak Interaction Symmetry Test
 The MEG Experiment (Search for the decay Muon → Positron + Gamma) 

Elementary particles
Magnoliopsida or dicotyledons is the name of  a class of plants in taxonomy. They are also called dicots. It is the biggest group of flowering plants. Seedlings in this group have two seed leaves. Monocots have one seed leaf.

Examples of the group
Oaks
Sunflowers
Roses
Blackberries
 Blueberry
 Bilberry

Flowering plants

tr:Çift çenekliler
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a set of actions that should be done if a person stops breathing, or if their heart stops.  The goal of CPR is to force blood and oxygen to keep flowing through the body.  Every part of the body needs blood and oxygen to survive.  CPR does not start a person's heart again.  However, it can keep pushing blood and oxygen around the body long enough that sometimes, it can keep the body from getting damaged by not having enough oxygen.