Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Ferns do not have waxes or special cells on their surface that keep water from evaporating. This means that they best live in a place where there is a lot of fog or has a lot of rainfall and is in a shade that protects them from direct sunlight. They do have roots, stems, and leaves. Their stems may form runners, called stolons above the ground, or rhizomes below ground. The leaves are green and large, and may have spores on the underside. Some ferns grow large in moist places. They can survive in more places than mosses, but not as much as seed plants.

During the Carboniferous period – from 350 million years ago – ferns lived everywhere on land. These ferns, called tree ferns grew up to 30 metres. There were huge forests of ferns and mosses, giant horsetails, full of giant insects, etc. Today, there are no large forests of tree ferns and tree ferns are not so large.

 Gallery 

 References
References 

 Further reading 
 Pryer, Kathleen M., Harald Schneider, Alan R. Smith, Raymond Cranfill, Paul G. Wolf, Jeffrey S. Hunt and Sedonia D. Sipes. 2001. Horsetails and ferns are a monophyletic group and the closest living relatives to seed plants. Nature 409: 618-622 (abstract here).
 Pryer, Kathleen M., Eric Schuettpelz, Paul G. Wolf, Harald Schneider, Alan R. Smith and Raymond Cranfill. 2004. Phylogeny and evolution of ferns (monilophytes) with a focus on the early leptosporangiate divergences. American Journal of Botany 91:1582-1598 (online abstract here ).
 Moran, Robbin C. 2004. A natural history of ferns. Portland, OR: Timber Press. .
 Lord, Thomas R. 2006. Ferns and fern allies of Pennsylvania. Indiana, PA: Pinelands Press. 
 Smith A.R., K.M. Pryer, E. Schuettpelz, P. Korall, H. Schneider & P.G. Wolf. 2006. A classification for extant ferns. Taxon'' 55(3):705–731.online available

Other websites
Other websites

 Tree of Life Web Project: Filicopsida 
 A classification of the ferns and their allies 
 A fern book bibliography
 Register of fossil Pteridophyta 
 L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (2004 onwards). The Ferns (Filicopsida) of the British Isles. 
 Non-seed plant images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu 

Pteridophyta
A horror movie is a movie made to scare the viewer. The main stories of horror movies often involve supernatural forces or characters of evil origin. Horror movies are often confused with thrillers, which are similar.

Popular horror movie characters usually include monsters. Early horror movies often took ideas from classic literature, such as The Mummy, Dracula and The Wolf Man.

Slasher movies                                
Slasher movies are a subgenre of horror movies. They are often also a type of thriller movie. Slasher movies normally have a psychopathic killer killing a sequence of people. This is usually in a very violent way. The genre may have been inspired by giallo, a similar movie genre originating in Italy.
While movies made as early as 1932 had aspects of slasher movies in them, the genre was not really defined until the late 1970s. The 1974 movie Black Christmas is considered the first slasher movie.. Halloween (1978),  Friday the 13th (1980) and Scream (1996) did very well at the box office and showed that slasher movies could make lots of money.

Psychological horror movies
Psychological horror movies are a subgenre of traditional horror movies which focuses more on the mental instability of its characters than on graphic violence, serial killers or monsters, for example. Most of the time this genre deal with the character's phobias, psychological traumas, paranoia, and etc. The genre often overlaps with psychological thriller as well. Dead Silence (2007), The Shining and Babadook (2014), are some examples of psychological horror movies.
Comedy horror movies
Those are movies which blends horror and comic elements in its plot. Unlike common, traditional horror movies, in this movie genre, the viewer may be scared and laugh at the same time. Most of time, the type of humour used in these movies is black comedy.

Some examples includes Zombieland (2009), The Raven (1963), Scary Movie (2000) and Shaun of The Dead (2004).

References

 
Movie genres
Laurence Fishburne III (born July 30, 1961) is an American actor of movies and theater, playwright, director, and producer. He was nominated for the Oscar, and won the Emmy and Tony Awards. He is famous for his roles in successful movies like Apocalypse Now and The Matrix. Fishburne was the first African-American actor to play Perry White in Man of Steel.

Fishburne was born in Augusta, Georgia and moved to Brooklyn, New York City during his childhood.

Filmography

Other websites 
 
 
 Laurence Fishburne  at the Internet Off-Broadway Database

1961 births
Living people
Actors from Georgia (U.S. state)
Actors from Brooklyn
American child actors
African-American movie actors
African American movie producers
African-American stage actors
African-American television actors
Drama Desk Award winners
Emmy Award winning actors
Movie producers from New York City
People from Augusta, Georgia
Tony Award winning actors
Writers from Brooklyn
Writers from Georgia (U.S. state)
Martin Sheen (born August 3, 1940) is a Spanish-Irish-American actor. He is best known for his role as Captain Willard in the film Apocalypse Now and, most recently, as President Josiah Bartlet on the acclaimed and long-running television drama series The West Wing. He won both the Emmy and Golden Globe Awards for his works. His mother was an Irish immigrant; his father was a Spanish immigrant.

Other websites 
 
 
 The Progressive magazine interview
 Martin Sheen: Catholic President on Prime Time  article at AmericanCatholic.org
 PBS interview with audio clips: Martin Sheen on Poverty, Faith and Social Activism
 2001 NPR Interview about his experiences filming Apocalypse Now

Actors from Dayton, Ohio
American activists
American movie actors
American Roman Catholics
American television actors
Emmy Award winning actors
Emmy Award winning directors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Movie producers from Ohio
1940 births
Living people
Marlene Dietrich ; (27 December 1901 – 6 May 1992) was a German-American actress, singer and entertainer. She was thought to have been the first German actress to become successful in Hollywood.

In her long career, starting as a cabaret singer, chorus girl and movie actress in Berlin in the 1920s. She became a Hollywood movie star in the 1930s. She was a World War II entertainer at the front of war during the 1940s. Her final job was as an international theatre show performer from the 1950s to the 1970s. Dietrich became one of the most important movie icons of the 20th century. The American Film Institute ranked Dietrich No. 9 amongst the Greatest Female Stars of All Time.

Dietrich was bisexual. She became an American citizen in 1937.
Movies 
 Im Schatten des Glücks (1919)
 Love Tragedy (1923)
 The Little Napoleon (1923)
 Man by the Wayside (1923)
 Leap Into Life (1924)
 Dance Mad (1925)
 The Bogus Baron (1926)
 Manon Lescaut (1926)
 Madame Doesn't Want Children (1926)
 A Modern DuBarry (1927)
 Chin Up, Charley! (1927)
 His Greatest Bluff (1927)
 Cafe Electric (1927)
 Princess Olala (1928)
 Dangers of the Engagement Period (1929)
 I Kiss Your Hand Madame (1929)
 The Woman One Longs For (1929)
 The Ship of Lost Men (1929)
 The Blue Angel (1930)
 Morocco (1930)
 Dishonored (1931)
 Shanghai Express (1932)
 Blonde Venus (1932)
 The Song of Songs (1933)
 The Scarlet Empress (1934)
 The Fashion Side of Hollywood (1935) (short subject)
 The Devil is a Woman (1935)
 I Loved a Soldier (1936) (unfinished)
 Desire (1936)
 The Garden of Allah (1936)
 Knight Without Armour (1937)
 Angel (1937)
 Destry Rides Again (1939)
 Seven Sinners (1940)
 The Flame of New Orleans (1941)
 Manpower (1941)
 The Lady in Willing (1942)
 The Spoilers (1942)
Pittsburgh (1942)
 Show Business at War (1943) (short subject)
 Follow the Boys (1944)
 Kismet (1944)
 Martin Roumagnac (1946)
 Golden Earrings (1947)
 A Foreign Affair (1948)
 Jigsaw (1949) (cameo)
 Stage Fright (1950)
 No Highway in the Sky (1951)
 Rancho Notorious (1952)
 The Monte Carlo Story (1956)
 Around the World in Eighty Days (1956) (cameo)
 Witness for the Prosecution (1957)
 Touch of Evil (1958)
 Judgment at Nuremberg (1961)
 Black Fox: The True Story of Adolf Hitler (1962) (documentary) (narrator)
 Paris, When It Sizzles (1964) (cameo)
 An Evening With Marlene Dietrich (I Wish You Love) (1972) London concert film
 Just a Gigolo (1979)
 Marlene (1984) (documentary)
References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Marlene Dietrich UK Website The Legendary, Lovely Marlene
 
 
 
 
 LEGEND : Marlene Dietrich's concert career. 
 The Hitmaker Archive of Dietrich's recordings associated with Burt Bacharach's musical direction 
 "Lost Marlene Dietrich Love Poem to Ronald Reagan Found" 
 Gay Great - Marlene Dietrich
 ABC Nightline (03/28/07): 'I Want to Kiss You Forever': Romance and Friendship Mix in Rare Dietrich, Hemingway Letters Set for First Public Viewing
 Marlene Dietrich's mascot dolls
 Marlene Dietrich Collection, Berlin (MDCB)
1901 births
1992 deaths
Actors from Berlin
American LGBT people
American movie actors
Singers from Los Angeles
American stage actors
Bisexual people
Deaths from renal failure
Disease-related deaths in France
German atheists
German LGBT people
German movie actors
German stage actors
German singers
LGBT actors
LGBT musicians
Naturalized citizens of the United States
American radio actors
Tony Award winning actors
American silent movie actors
Actors from Los Angeles
Northern Kurdistan (Kurdish: Bakurê Kurdistanê or Kurdistanê Bakur) or Turkish Kurdistan, refers to the eastern and southeastern part of Turkey where Kurds are majority people. According to Kurdish Institute of Paris, the total population of region is 14,2 million in 2016 and according to several surveys, 86% of them are Kurds.
Demographics 
In the first census of Turkey in 1927, Kurdish was the largest first language in the provinces of Ağrı (58%), Bitlis (75%), Diyarbakır (69%), Elazığ (53%), Hakkâri (89%), Mardin (61%), Siirt (74%, includes present-day Batman) and Van (77%). Moreover, Kurdish was the largest first language with a plurality in Şanlıurfa with 42%. 69% of the population in Muş Province had Kurdish as their first language in the census of 1935, the first census conducted there after the province was split from Bitlis earlier. Dersim's (Tunceli) language distribution is 69.5% Kurdish and Zaza in 1927. Bingöl Province was separated from Muş in 1935, while Tunceli Province was separated from Elazığ in 1936 and Kurdish was also the first language in these newly-established provinces in their first census in 1945 with 56% and 53%, respectively.

References

Sources 

  
  
 

Geography of Turkey

tr:Kürdistan#Türkiye Kürdistanı
Mount Etna is a volcano on the east coast of Sicily, part of southern Italy. It is the largest active volcano in Europe. Mount Etna erupts every few years.

Etna's most destructive eruption in historic times started on 11 March 1669. It produced lava flows that destroyed 10 villages and reached the town of Catania five weeks later, on 15 April. Many buildings were destroyed and few people were killed.

Major twentieth century eruptions occurred in 1928, 1949, 1971, 1983 and 1992, as well as the 2001 eruption. In 1971, it buried the Etna Observatory (built in the late 19th century) under lava. The 1992 eruption saw the town of Zafferana threatened by a lava flow, but successful diversion efforts saved the town with the loss of only one building a few hundred metres outside it.
In 2002–2003, the biggest series of eruptions for many years threw up a huge column of ash that could easily be seen from space and fell as far away as Libya, on the far side of the Mediterranean Sea. Seismic activity in this eruption caused the eastern flanks of the volcano to slip by up to two metres, and many houses on the flanks of the volcano were damaged.  The eruption also destroyed the Rifugio Sapienza, a ski resort on the southern flank of the volcano.

Related pages 
 List of volcanoes

References

Other websites 

 Mount Etna Live Webcam 
 Italy's Volcanoes: The Cradle of Volcanology, with detailed information of Italy's volcanoes, including Etna 
 Stromboli Online, with info on Etna, photo galleries and video clips of Etna's past eruptions including those of the 1990s and the 2000s
 Mount Vesuvius -Citizendium

Volcanoes of Italy
VEI-6 volcanoes
Sicily
Many people in Rojava are Kurds, but there are also many different ethnic groups living there, such as Turkmen,Arabs, Syriacs, Assyrians, and Yezidis. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group in Syria. Before the civil war, many human rights organizations such as Amnesty International said that the Syrian government treated the Kurds very poorly. Kurds in Syria are not allowed to officially use the Kurdish language, and also  not allowed to register children with Kurdish names, start businesses that do not have Arabic names, build Kurdish private schools, or publish any books or other materials written in Kurdish. But this is no longer enforced due to the civil war.
This gave the Kurds many reasons to support a revolution against the government. They also needed to organize an army to defend themselves from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) which almost took control of Rojava because the government could not defend it due to the civil war. ISIL is still at war with Rojava. As of 2017, there is a truce between Rojava and the Syrian government. The United States have given money and weapons to Rojava to help  defeat ISIL but some say that they are supporting ISIL.

Rojava is claiming to be a democracy. It has a constitution which says that women's rights and the rights of ethnic and religious minorities have to be respected. In the Middle East this is very unusual. There are two military organisations one for men, the YPG, and an army for women, the YPJ.

Other websites 

Syria
Eastern Kurdistan or Iranian Kurdistan is the part of Iran inhabited by Kurds, or the part of Kurdistan that is within Iran. Some of Iranian Kurdistan is in Iran's Kurdistan Province.

Iranian Kurdistan is next to the Iraqi Kurdistan. Further to the west are Turkish Kurdistan and Syrian Kurdistan.

Land 

Eastern Kurdistan is the name for the western and north-western regions of Iran. Iranian Kurdistan is between the central Zagros Mountains and the north-western international border of Iran. The lands of Kurdistan Province, West Azarbaijan Province, Kermanshah Province, Ilam Province are part of Iranian Kurdistan. The lands in parts of Hamadan Province where people speak Kurdish are also a part of Kurdistan. The area of Iranian Kurdistan is more than .
There are important rivers and forests and Kurdistan. At Kermanshah, there is an oil field. Lake Urmia is a salt lake that is the largest lake in Kurdistan. The mountains of Kurdistan have always been important for military strategy. The northern and central Zagros Mountains are where two important trade routes of the Silk Road economic system passed through Iran.

The most common crops in all of Kurdistan are cereals and tobacco. The most common livestock in Kurdistan are domestic sheep. Farmers grow strawberries and other fruits in southern Iranian Kurdistan. 

Saqqez can be one of the coldest places in all Kurdistan. It can be  in the winter at Saqqez.

Population 

Iran has the second-largest population of Kurds in the world. (Only Turkey has a larger Kurdish population.) Kurds are the third-largest ethnic group in Iran, and only the Persians and Azerbaijani people have larger populations. Iranian Kurdistan is next to Iran's international borders with Turkey, Armenia, and Iraq.
There are different estimates of how many Kurds are in Iran. In the Routledge Handbook on the Kurds, scholars write that there are about 7 million Kurds in Iran. The Kurdish population is about one tenth of Iran's whole population. In The Kurds: An Encyclopedia, there scholars write that there are between eight and ten million Kurds in Iran. The Kurdish population is between 11% and 15% of Iran's whole population.

Between five and seven million Kurds live in Iranian Kurdistan. Most are Sunni, but about 1.5 million are Shia Kermanshahi Kurds, who have not interest in Kurdistan becoming independent.
Kurds in Khorasan 
Not all of Iran's Kurds live in Iranian Kurdistan, and many Kurds live in Khorasan Province. There are Kurdish populations in the cities of Khorasan, where there are many Kurdish villages spread over . There may now be about two million Kurds in Khorasan, and many of them speak Kurmanji Kurdish. Most of the Kurds of Khorasan live in villages, but there are also populations in Nishapur, Mashhad, Sabzevar, Quchan, Bojnoord, and Esfarayen.

History 
In the past, the land of Kurdistan was in two parts. From the 17th century, one part was inside the Ottoman Empire, and the other part was Iranian Kurdistan. Iranian Kurdistan was inside Iran.
After the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911, the Kurds in Iranian Kurdistan's towns supported the new system of local government, but the Kurdish tribes in the countryside supported the shah (the king of Iran).
The armies of the Russian Empire took control of Iranian Kurdistan in World War I, during the Persian Campaign. The February Revolution in Russia meant that the Russian provisional government no longer wanted to control Iranian Kurdistan. Nikolai Baratov, a Russian army general acting for the government, made an agreement with the local Iranian Kurds. They would attack the Ottoman army and help the Russians, and the Russian government would help set up an independent Kurdish state.
When the Ottoman Empire fell apart after World War I, the British Empire and the French Empire took parts of Ottoman Kurdistan. Although the governments in Britain and France said that a Kurdish state could be set up in Turkish Kurdistan, they did not say that Iranian Kurdistan should join it. Britain and France did not want to anger Iran, and they made no plans for Iranian Kurds to be part of a new Kurdish state. Iran kept Iranian Kurdistan.

At a Kurdish congress, Sheikh Ubeydullah brought together Kurds from Iranian Kurdistan and Kurds from the parts of Kurdistan in the Ottoman Empire. Sheikh Ubeydullah worked for the unification of Iranian Kurdistan with Ottoman Kurdistan, and for political independence in Kurdistan.

Iran's Islamic Republic stopped letting foreign scholars travel into Iran in the 1980s. Because of this, people outside Iran do not know much about Kurds in Iran or about Iranian Kurdistan.
The Iranian government is fighting a slow battle with the Kurdistan Free Life Party (PJAK). The fighting has increased in 2005 and takes place around the Qandil Mountains and the international border with Iraq. The PJAK started as a branch of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) from Turkish Kurdistan.

The United Nations says that the Iranian government oppresses Kurds in Iran. The Iranian government assassinated Iranian Kurdish leaders living in Europe in the 1980s. Asma Jahangir told the United Nations Human Rights Council that almost half of all the political prisoners in Iran were Kurds. One fifth of all the people executed in Iran during 2016 were Kurds.

Languages and writing 

Kurds in Iran speak a number of Kurdish languages. Kurdish language is the most important sign of Kurdish cultural identity in Iran. Kurdish is an Iranian language and an Indo-European language like the Persian language, but people that speak Persian do not understand Kurdish.
Although Iran's constitution makes Persian the only official language, it also makes allowance for other languages to be taught and published as a political right. Until the 21st century however, there was a total ban on Kurdish in schools until the Ministry of Education gave approval to Kurdish language teaching in middle schools. In 2015, the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology gave its approval to a Bachelor of Arts academic degree programme at Sanandaj's University of Kurdistan.

There are Kurdish language magazine and newspapers, and there are local television programmes and radio programmes in some Kurdish dialects.
Religion 
Many Kurds in Iranian Kurdistan follow the religion of Yarsanism. About 37 percent of the two million people in Kermanshah Province follow Yarsanism. There may be one million followers of Yarsanism altogether. Around Kermanshah, some Kurds belong to Shia Islam. There are Faili Kurds who belong to Shia Islam in both Iranian Kurdistan and Iraqi Kurdistan. Starting in the 1960s, about 150,000 Faili Kurds were sent out of Iraq into Iran. These Faili Kurds could not prove they had citizenship in Iraq because Faili Kurds in the past had not wanted citizenship in the Ottoman Empire.
Before the 1950s, there were many Jewish people in Kurdistan. There were 19 Jewish communities in Iranian Kurdistan in 1948. Most Jewish people left Kurdistan after that time, but there is still a population of Jews in Iranian Kurdistan. Iranian Jewish Kurds were more integrated with local people than Jews in the rest of Iran were. In the 1950s, there were 3,000–4,000 Jewish Kurds in Iran. Most of the Jews in Iranian Kurdistan lived in the cities of Sanandaj, Kermanshah and Urmia. Many of them were physicians or merchants. After the Islamic Revolution in Iran, many Jews left Iranian Kurdistan.

There used to be many Christian people living in the plain around Urmia who belonged to the Assyrian Church of the East. They were in a lower position in society than the Kurds, the Turks, and the Persians. The plain of Urmia is one of the only places in Kurdistan where there is a large Christian population.

Most Kurds in Khorasan are Shia Muslims.

References

sv:Kurdistan#Kurdistans utbredning
John George Terry (born 7 December 1980) is an English former  football player and manager. Terry played as a defender. He was the captain for Chelsea in the English Premier League and Aston Villa in the EFL Championship. He was also a member of the England national team. He was a manager of Aston Villa from 2018 until 2021.

Terry is known as one of the best defenders in the world. He was voted best defender in the UEFA Champions League in 2005. He was also the only English player to be named in the group of best players for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. He wears the number 26 shirt for Chelsea and the number 6 shirt for England. Terry missed the penalty which could have won the Champions League 2008. He slipped when he was taking the penalty, giving Manchester United the title.

Career 
Terry was a Chelsea Youth player. Before he became a defender he was a midfielder in 1992. To help Terry get some first team experience he was loaned out to Nottingham Forest in 2000 until 2002, when he came back to Chelsea.
Personal life 
Terry is married to his childhood sweetheart Toni Poole. She who supported him financially when he was a Chelsea F.C trainee.  They married on 15 June 2007, in Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire. They have twins, Georgie and Summer, born in 2006.

Club career statistics
|-
|1998/99||rowspan="2"|Chelsea||rowspan="2"|Premier League||2||0||3||0||1||0||1||0||6||0
|-
|1999/00||4||0||4||1||1||0||colspan="2"|-||9||1
|-
|1999/00||Nottingham Forest||First Division||6||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||6||0
|-
|2000/01||rowspan="10"|Chelsea||rowspan="10"|Premier League|||22||1||3||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||26||1
|-
|2001/02||33||1||5||2||5||0||4||1||47||4
|-
|2002/03||20||3||5||2||3||0||1||1||29||6
|-
|2003/04||33||2||3||1||2||0||13||0||51||3
|-
|2004/05||36||3||1||1||5||0||11||4||53||8
|-
|2005/06||36||4||4||2||1||1||8||0||49||7
|-
|2006/07||28||1||4||0||2||0||10||0||46||1
|-
|2007/08||23||1||2||0||2||0||10||0||37||1
|-
|2008/09||34||1||2||0||1||0||11||2||48||3
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||||||
277||17||36||9||24||1||69||8||406||35
277||17||36||9||24||1||69||8||406||35
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|2003||6||0
|-
|2004||9||0
|-
|2005||6||0
|-
|2006||14||2
|-
|2007||7||1
|-
|2008||6||2
|-
|2009||10||1
|-
|2010||||
|-
!Total||58||6
|}

References
References 

1980 births
Living people
2006 FIFA World Cup players
2010 FIFA World Cup players
Chelsea F.C. players
Footballers from London
English football managers
People from Barking
Premier League players
"Umbrella" is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna. It features American rapper Jay-Z. It is the lead single from Rihanna's  third studio album, Good Girl Gone Bad. It was written by Jay-Z, Terius Nash and Christopher Stewart. It was released on March 29, 2007 as a single and digital download. It was very successful worldwide reaching number one in multiple countries. The song is 4 minutes and 35 seconds long.

Background and single release
The songwriters of "Umbrella" offered the song to a number of labels before Rihanna finally accepted and recorded it. The song was first offered by Britney Spears but she turned it down. Although it was released officially on March 29, 2007, it was released in some parts of the United States on March 28. In the United Kingdom, the single was released as a digital download on May 14 and as a physical single on May 28.
Music video
The music video for "Umbrella" was directed by Chris Applebaum on April 13, 2007. It premiered on April 26 at the thisisrihanna.com website. The video was released on May 11, and reached the number one spot for eight weeks.

The video features Jay-Z rapping in the beginning while in a rain of sparks. Rihanna is then shown singing in a steamy place. In the first chorus, Rihanna walks around en pointe while in the rain. In the second verse, she is seen dancing with an umbrella in a different place. Later, she is painted silver and posing in several positions while nude. At the end of the video, Rihanna is again dancing with an umbrella while in a shower of sparks falling like rain.

Remixes
A number of remixes were made for the song. Lil' Mama is featured in one remix. Chris Brown performed an answer song with different lyrics, called "Cinderella."
Chart performance
"Umbrella" reached the number one spot in a number of countries. It topped the charts in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Poland, Austria, Belgium, Norway and Switzerland at the same time. It peaked at the top spot in the United Kingdom for ten weeks in a row from May 20 to July 29, 2007. It was the longest running number one song since "Love Is All Around" by Wet Wet Wet in 1994 (that song spent 15 weeks). It was knocked off the number one spot in the UK by Timbaland's "The Way I Are".
The song's reign at number one in the UK happened when the country was hit by extreme rainfall and flooding, which led some people to jokingly suggest the two events were related, calling it the "Rihanna Curse". Interestingly in Greece (the single's worst performing market) "Umbrella" was released at a time when people were suffering through a summer of several heatwaves topping 45C/113F and the worst forest fires of modern history, killing 60. The song only reached number fourteen in the Greek singles chart. 

"Umbrella" was at number one in the American Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks and in the Australian ARIA Charts for six weeks.

Other websites
 
 

2007 songs
Rihanna songs
Jay-Z songs
Manic Street Preachers songs
McFly songs
Pop songs
Hip hop songs
R&B songs
Billboard Hot 100 number one songs
Shirley MacLaine (born April 24, 1934) is an American movie and theatre actress. She is famous for her acting as well as her strong belief in reincarnation. She is the writer of a many autobiographical works, some about her New Age beliefs, as well as her Hollywood career. She is the older sister of Warren Beatty. She won the Academy Award for "Best Actress" in 1983, and has also received many other awards, including the Emmy, Golden Globe and BAFTA Awards.

Other websites
 MacLaine's official website
 
 Shirley MacLaine interviewed by Ginny Dougary  (2005)

Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Richmond, Virginia
American movie actors
American television actors
BAFTA Award winning actors
Emmy Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
1934 births
Living people
A British crown dependency is a special type of state.  The head of state is the British monarch, who is represented by a Lieutenant-Governor.  Each dependency has a parliament, government and prime minister to make all laws, except laws about defence and foreign affairs.  Defence and foreign affairs are looked after by the British Government. 

But the British government in London has no power in the dependencies, unless the government of the dependency agrees.

British Overseas Territories, which were British colonies, also have a government, parliament and prime minister and can make laws, except laws about defence and foreign affairs; but they were created by the British government and can be taken over by the British government, without the agreement of the British Overseas Territory.

The crown dependencies are
The Isle of Man,
The Bailiwick of Jersey, and
The Bailiwick of Guernsey

References
The Lieutenancies Act 1997 (1997 c. 23) is an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom.

A Lord Lieutenant is the Queen's representative in a county or other area.

The Lieutenancies Act sets out the areas in which Lords-Lieutenant work in Great Britain. It came into force on 1 July 1997.  

These areas are usually called "ceremonial counties" or "preserved counties" in Wales.  In Scotland a Statutory Instrument (rule written by a minister) defines the size of the lieutenancy.  They are usually one local council area, but some council areas are too small or to large for one Lord Lieutenant.  

For a list of the areas in England see Ceremonial counties of England

Other websites 
Text of the act
 
1990s Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
1997 in the United Kingdom
A meristem is a tissue in plants made of dividing cells. They are in parts of the plant where growth can take place.

Plant cells which are differentiated generally cannot divide or produce cells of a different type. Therefore, cell division in the meristem is necessary to get new cells. This allows for the growth of tissues and new organs needed by the plant.

Meristematic cells have the same function for plants as stem cells have for animals. They are incompletely or not at all differentiated, and are capable of continued cell division.

The cells are small and protoplasm fills the cell completely. The vacuoles are extremely small.  The cytoplasm does not contain plastids (such as chloroplasts, but they are there in rudimentary form ('proplastids'). Meristematic cells are packed closely together without intercellular cavities. The cell wall is a very thin primary cell wall.

Apical meristem 

The apical meristem, or growing tip, is found in the buds and growing tips of roots in plants.
It begins growth of new cells in young seedlings at the tips of roots and shoots (forming buds, among other things). Specifically, an active apical meristem lays down a growing root or shoot behind itself, pushing itself forward. Apical meristems are very small, compared to the cylinder-shaped lateral meristems.

Primary meristems
Apical meristems may differentiate into three kinds of primary meristem:
 Protoderm – around the outside of the stem and develops into the epidermis.
 Procambium – just inside of the protoderm and develops into primary xylem and primary phloem. It also produces the vascular cambium, a secondary meristem.
 Ground meristem develops into the pith. It produces the cork cambium, another secondary meristem.

These meristems are responsible for primary growth, or an increase in length or height.
Secondary meristems 
These meristems cause secondary growth, or an increase in width. There are two types of secondary meristems:
 Vascular cambium – produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem, which may continue through the life of the plant. It is what gives rise to wood in plants. Such plants are called arborescent. It does not occur in plants which do not go through secondary growth, that is, herbaceous plants.
 Cork cambium – gives rise to the bark of a tree.

Related pages 
 Cork cambium
 Vascular cambium

References 

 Neil A. Campbell and Jane B. Reece Biology, 6th edition. Benjamin Cummings.
 Schoof et al. The stem cell population of Arabidopsis shoot meristems is maintained by a regulatory loop between CLAVATA and WUSCHEL genes. Cell 100: 635-644.

Other websites 
 Research on meristems: meristemania.org  

Plant anatomy
Plant tissues
The vascular cambium is a lateral meristem.

It is the source of both the secondary xylem (inwards, towards the pith) and the secondary phloem (outwards), and  is between these tissues in the stem and root. Only a few leaves even have a vascular cambium.

Vascular cambium is a type of meristem - a tissue consisting of embryonic (not specialized) cells which can produce other (and more differentiated) plant tissues originate. Primary meristems are the apical meristems on root tips and shoot tips. Another lateral meristem is the cork cambium, which produces cork, part of the bark.

Synonyms 
 wood cambium
 main cambium
 bifacial cambium

Related pages 
Meristem
Cork cambium

References

Other websites  
 Pictures of  Vascular cambium
 Detailed description - James D. Mauseth

Vascular tissue
Cork cambium is a tissue in many vascular plants as part of the bark (periderm). 

The cork cambium is a lateral meristem and is responsible for secondary growth that replaces the epidermis in roots and stems. It is found in woody and many herbaceous dicots, gymnosperms and some monocots, which usually have no secondary growth.

Cork cambium is one of the plant's meristems - the tissues that consist of embryonic (not specialized) cells from which the plant grows. It is one of the many layers of bark, between the cork and primary phloem. The function of cork cambium is to produce the cork, a tough protective material.
  
Synonyms for cork cambium are bark cambium, pericambium or phellogen.
Economic importance
 Commercial cork comes from the bark of the cork oak (Quercus suber). Cork has many uses including wine bottle stoppers, bulletin boards, coasters, hot pads to protect tables from hot pans, insulation, sealing for lids, flooring, gaskets for engines, handles for tennis rackets, etc. 
 Many types of bark are used as mulch.

Related pages
Meristem
Cork (material)

References
Junikka, L. (1994) Macroscopic bark terminology. IAWA Journal 15(1): 3-45
Trockenbrodt, M. (1990) Survey and discussion of the terminology used in bark anatomy. IAWA Bulletin, New Series 11: 141-166.

Plant anatomy
Plant tissues
Cork is a material that is harvested for commercial use primarily from the bark of the Cork Oak tree. As the cork is harvested.
Portugal produces 50% of cork worldwide. Cork is made up of suberin, a hydrophobic substance.

In general, cork is made up of suberin (average of about 40%), lignin (22%), polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicellulose) (18%), extractables (15%) and others.

Properties and uses
Cork's elasticity together with its near-impermeability makes it suitable as a material for bottle stoppers, especially for wine bottles. Cork stoppers represent about 60% of all cork based production. Cork's low density makes it a suitable material for fishing floats and buoys, as well as handles for fishing rods (as an alternative to neoprene). Cork is also used in the manufacture of musical instruments, particularly woodwind instruments, where it is used to fasten together different segments of the instrument and make the seams airtight.
Since cork has suberin in its cell walls, this makes the cells consist of sealed elements. And having sealed elements make it greater for acoustic insulation and even thermal insulation. Sealed elements are capable of trapping and absorbing sound. In short, suberin is mostly responsible for noise reduction! Also, lignin is another constituent of cork. It makes up about 22% of cork. One study says that it’s also associated with soundproofing and thermal insulation! 

The cork industry is generally regarded as environmentally friendly. The sustainability of its production and the easy recycling of cork products and by-products are two of its most distinctive aspects. 

Cork demand has increased due to a larger proportion of wine being sealed with cork rather than being sold in bulk. Top quality corks are quite expensive, so many cheaper brands have switched to lower quality cork, synthetic plastic stoppers, screwcaps, or other closures.

Related pages
 Cork cambium

References
References

Other websites 
 Cork Board Sheets Information 
 Cork Information
 Cork production
 Cork Supply USA 
 Instituto de Promoción del Corcho, Extremadura (Spain) 

Wood
The cork oak (Quercus suber) is a medium-sized, evergreen oak tree. It grows southwest Europe and northwest Africa.

It grows to up to 20 m, but in its native environment it is usually not that tall. The leaves are 4–7 cm long, dark green above, paler beneath, with the leaf margins often downcurved. The acorns are 2–3 cm long.

The tree forms a thick, corky bark. Over time this bark can develop considerable thickness and this is harvested every 10–12 years as cork. The harvesting of cork does not harm the tree and a new layer of cork regrows, making it a renewable resource. The tree is widely cultivated in Spain, Portugal, Algeria, Morocco, France, Italy and Tunisia. Cork oak forests cover approximately 2.5 million hectares in those countries. Portugal accounts for 50% of the world cork harvest. Cork oaks cannot legally be cut down in Portugal, except for forest management felling of old, unproductive trees.
Cork oaks live about 150–250 years. Virgin cork (or 'male' cork) is the first cork cut from generally 25-year-old trees. Another 10–12 years is required for the second harvest, and a tree can be harvested a dozen times in its lifetime. Cork harvesting is done entirely without machinery.

The European cork industry produces 340,000 tonnes of cork a year, with a value of €1.5 billion. 30,000 people work at it. Wine corks represent 15% of cork usage by weight but 66% of revenues.

Cork oaks are sometimes planted as individual trees. So they provide a small income to their owners. The tree is also sometimes cultivated for ornament. Hybrids with turkey oak (Quercus cerris) are regular, both in the wild in southwest Europe and in cultivation; the hybrid is known as Lucombe Oak Quercus × hispanica.

Some cork is also produced in eastern Asia from the related Chinese cork oak (Quercus variabilis).

Seed predation
Seed predation 

In many different species of trees seed predation is considered a problem for the continued growth and reproduction of trees, in this case Rabbits are affecting the cork oak tree. During the development of a plant species the seed / acorn stage in development is considered to be the most important yet most vulnerable stage. The cork oak tree encounters many challenges during its seedling stage.

 Predation from other species
 Diseases and pathogens
 Limited resources

Seeds are often found in the form of acorns that fall to the ground close by to the base of the tree. Those acorns become the beginning development of new trees, which develop over time. However many different species use those acorns as a source of food. When rabbits are living in the same area as the cork oak tree seed regeneration is not affected in a negative way.
An acorn that has partial damage is classified as only having damage to the non-vital parts of the propagule.  Therefore, when the acorn embryo is damaged the development of the seed is negatively affected. The affected development causes a difference in shoot and root biomass because the cotyledon is lost. The cotyledon is a necessity of plants and in this case becomes the leaves of the plant. In other cases it helps scientists determine which type of flowering plant it will later develop into. The cotyledons are also an essential source of energy for the development of the seed and plant.
Community interaction 
There are two common types of soil that are used in scientific studies, nutrient rich soil and nutrient poor soil. The predation of the seeds is not as important as the nutrient level of the soil. Different plants over time have adapted to grow in these different conditions over time. The acorns of the cork oak tree have better regeneration and development in nutrient rich soil. The smaller cotyledon acorns that grow in nutrient rich soil develop.

References

Other websites 

 APCOR – Associação Portuguesa de Cortiça (Portuguese Cork Association)
 Photograph of cork oaks in Portugal 
 Mancilla-Leytón J.M. et al Growth and survival of cork oak (Quercus suber) seedlings after simulated partial cotyledon consumption under different soild nutrient contents. Plant Soil. 370:380-392. 
 Mancilla-Leytón J.M.  et al The impact of the common rabbit on cork oak regeneration in SW Spain. Plant Ecology. 213:1503-1510.

Oak, Cork
Trees
The acorn is the fruit of the oak tree. It is a nut, and has a single seed (rarely two seeds), enclosed in a tough, leathery shell. Acorns vary from 1 – 6 cm long and 0.8 – 4 cm broad. Acorns take between about 6 or 24 months (depending on the species) to mature.

Acorns are one of the most important wildlife foods in areas where oaks grow. Creatures that make acorns an important part of their diet include birds, such as jays, pigeons, some ducks and several species of woodpeckers. Small mammals that feed on acorns include mice, squirrels and several other rodents. Such large mammals as pigs, bears, and deer also eat large amounts of acorns: they may constitute up to 25% of the diet of deer in the autumn. In some of the large oak forests in southwest Europe, traditionally called "dehesas", pigs are still turned loose in oak groves in the autumn, to fill and fatten themselves on acorns. 

Acorns contain tannins, which are toxic to some animals such as horses. The tannins can be soaked out, using water.
References

Other websites 
 Nutrition Facts for Acorn Flour
 Nupa Acorn Soup (Miwokan recipe)
 Cooking With Acorns: A Major North American Indian Food
 How to whistle an acorn

Nuts
The president of the Republic of Belarus (, ) is the head of state of Belarus. The office was created in 1994. A president is chosen by other Belarusians every five years in a national vote. Alexander Lukashenko is the only person who has been president.

List of presidents of Belarus (1991–present)

References

Politics of Belarus
Presidents of Belarus
The jays are several species of medium-sized, usually colorful and noisy birds in the crow family Corvidae.

Jays in culture

Slang
 The word "jay" has an archaic meaning in American slang meaning a stupid or dull person, from which is derived the term jaywalking

Organizational symbols
 The Toronto Blue Jays, a Major League Baseball team based in Toronto, Ontario.

Related pages
General licences under the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981

References

 Ericson, Per G. P.; Jansén, Anna-Lee; Johansson, Ulf S. & Ekman, Jan (2005): Inter-generic relationships of the crows, jays, magpies and allied groups (Aves: Corvidae) based on nucleotide sequence data. Journal of Avian Biology 36: 222-234. PDF fulltext

Other websites
Jay videos on the Internet Bird Collection

Corvids
Clubmosses are a group of plants in the Lycopodiophyta, which are the most ancient group of land plants. The clubmosses are an order Lycopodiales, (or a subclass Lycopodiopsida).

Clubmosses are thought to be structurally similar to the earliest vascular plants, with small, scale-like leaves, homosporous spores borne in sporangia at the bases of the leaves, branching stems (usually dichotomous), and generally simple form.

A powder known simply as lycopodium, consisting of dried spores of the common clubmoss, was used in Victorian theater to produce flame-effects. A blown cloud of spores burned rapidly and brightly, but with little heat. It was considered safe by the standards of the time.

Taxonomy 
The group is now split into two families:
Lycopodiaceae: the typical clubmosses. Their spores are on a club-like structure. Their typical chromosome count is n=34.
Huperziaceae: the firmosses. Their spore-bearing structures are in the axils of unmodified leaves. The family has a basal chromosome count of n=67.
Vascular plants
Plant taxonomy
937 was a common year.

Events 

 Battle of Brunanburh: King Athelstan of England defeats the Viking king of Dublin, the Scots, and Strathclyde.
 September 21 – Magdeburg becomes capital of the Holy Roman Empire.

Births 

 Duke William IV of Aquitaine
 Gu Hongzhong

Deaths 

 July 11 – King Rudolph II of Burgundy
 July 14 – Duke Arnulf I of Bavaria
930s
The horsetails are a class in the Pteridophyta (ferns). They were one of the most important plant groups in the Palaeozoic era.  

For over 100 million years they were varied, and dominated the understorey of late Paleozoic forests. They are seen in the coal measures of the Carboniferous period, and some were trees reaching up 30 metres. The group is now almost extinct, but one genus survives. They are vascular plants that reproduce by spores and not by seeds. The name horsetail came because the branched species somewhat look like a horse's tail.

Equisetum 
Modern horsetails first appeared during the Jurassic period.
Equisetum is the only living genus of horsetails. The name Equisetum comes from the Latin (equus = horse; and seta = bristle). The genus includes 15 species.
Horsetails are native on all continents except Australasia and Antarctica. They are perennial plants. They are either herbaceous (they die back in winter 
like most temperate species) or they are evergreen (some tropical species, and some temperate species). They mostly grow 0.2-1.5 m tall, though E. telmateia can reach 2.5 m, and the tropical American species E. giganteum 5 m, and E. myriochaetum 8 m.

In these plants the leaves are very small, in whorls joined together to make sheaths around the stem. The stems are green and photosynthetic, also distinctive in being hollow, jointed and ridged, usually with 6-40 ridges. There may or may not be whorls of branches at the nodes; when present, these branches are identical to the main stem except smaller.
The spores are borne under sporangiophores in strobili, cone-like structures at the tips of some of the stems. In many species the cone-bearing shoots are unbranched, and in some (e.g. E. arvense, field horsetail) they are non-photosynthetic, produced early in Springtime.

References 

Pteridophyta
Vascular plants

frr:Equisetales
Green algae are microscopic protists. One can find them in all sorts of natural water: salt water, freshwater and brackish water. The group is less used in classification today. Although most are descended from a common ancestor, some are not. Some of their descendants, the land plants are not included in the group, so the group is not monophyletic.

The green algae are the large group of algae from which the higher plants developed.

The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In the Charales, the closest relatives of higher plants, full differentiation of tissues occurs. There are about 6000 species of green algae. Many species live most of their lives as single-cells, other species form colonies or long filaments.

Related pages 
Algae
Brown algae
Euglena, a protist that includes a green alga within its cells
Seaweed

References

More reading
More reading

Other websites 
Green algae and cyanobacteria in lichens 
Green algae (UC Berkeley)
Monterey Bay green algae 

Algae
Brackish water (less commonly brack water) is salt water and fresh water mixed together. It is saltier than fresh water, but not as salty as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. 

Some human activities can produce brackish water, mostly certain civil engineering projects such as dikes and the flooding of coastal marshland to produce brackish pools for freshwater prawns. 

Technically, brackish water contains between 0.5 and 30 grams of salt per litre—more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand (ppt or ‰). Thus, brackish covers a range of salinity regimes and is not considered a precisely defined condition. It is characteristic of many brackish surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and/or time.

Etymology 
The term brackish water comes from the Low German word Brack, which is a small lake made when a storm tide breaks a dike and floods land behind the dike.

Brackish water habitats