Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Race and ethnicity have no place in biology, and are simply social constructs embedded in the collective works psyche. That said, some people find racial constructs culturally beneficial. The following is a discussion by other authors defining these socially constructed and institutionally perpetrated constructs. I find it important to verity to mention there’s actually only one race within the human species, which is known to science as Homo Sapien Sapiens. Biological race within a species is defined when the two distinct populations of a species are genetically incapable of producing fertile offspring. This occurs nowhere within anatomically modern hominin.
Furthermore, in response to serious misses and distortions by other authors; I must point out that genetics have shown that there’s more genetic diversity within any population of humans you try to identify than there is between any various population. Making it impossible to imply any pure population anywhere on the planet that does not indeed have “ancestors who came from somewhere else”. Humans have historically been well adapted to be able to migrate and the origins of our singular human race is in the African continent. Nothing I’ve said prefacing the other authors’s discussion on race and ethnicity is in dispute by the modern field of biological anthroplogy, nor could it be disputed scientifically with any veracity.
There are many different ethnic groups in the United States. Most people in the United States have ancestors who came from somewhere else, often from multiple places. Some people say their ancestry is "American"; often these are people from the Southern United States whose families have been living in America since before the American Revolution.

There are several races in the United States:
White is the most common race in the United States.  It usually refers to people from Europe or the Middle East (such as Germany, England, and Syria)
 Black or African-American refers to people from most parts of Africa.
 Asian refers to people from countries in Asia (such as China, Japan, South Asia, or the Philippines). 
 Native American or American Indian refers to people who are part of Native American groups that have lived for thousands of years in the lands now controlled by the U.S. These are the only people who did not come to the United States during or after Europe learned of the Americas.
 Hispanic Americans, such as Mexican, are often of this category.  Hispanics can also be any other of the other races listed above. Hispanic is an ethnicity, not a race.
 Other refers to people who are an unlisted ethnic group such as Serbian People.
The race is not the same as ethnicity, however. Here are the top three ethnic groups in the United States. Since many Asian and Hispanic people are classified differently, most of the groups listed are white.

 The most common is German-American, which 42.8 million Americans identify with. Many people came to the U.S. from Germany in the 19th and early 20th centuries. German American is the most common ethnic group in over half the states. The largest number of Germans are found in the Midwest, West, and Pennsylvania.
 Irish-American is the second-largest ethnic group found in the United States, with 30.5 million people.
The third-largest ethnic group is African-American, at 24.8 million people. The largest number of African-Americans are found in the South.

References

Other websites
Ferrari hold the record for the most Grands Prix victories. They have won 216 times. McLaren are second with 173 wins, and Williams are third with 113 wins. British teams have won the most Grands Prix. Twelve British teams have won a total of 499 races between them. Italian teams are second with 237 wins between five teams. French teams are third with 53 Grands Prix wins between three teams.

By constructor 
All figures correct as of 26 June 2011

Key

By nationality 
List of races won by nationality of constructor.

Related pages
List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions
List of Formula One constructors
List of Formula One Grand Prix winners
Notes 
A.  Renault held a French licence from 1977 to 2010 and a British licence from 2011 to present.
B.  Benetton held a British licence from 1986 to 1995 and an Italian licence from 1996 to 2001.
C.  Only one of Benetton's 27 wins were scored with their Italian licence. All the others count towards the British totals.
D.  Renault's first 35 wins were with their French licence.

References 

Grand Prix winners
Formula One lists
Maylene and the Sons of Disaster are an American rock band. The band formed in 2004 in Birmingham, Alabama. The bend members at the moment are Dallas Taylor (lead singer), Brad Lehman (bassist, backing vocals), Kelly Scot Nun (guitarist), Chad Huff (guitarist), Matt Clark (drummer) and Jake Duncan (guitarist, backing vocals). 

2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American heavy metal bands
Christian rock bands
Nu metal bands
Post-hardcore bands
Metalcore bands
Musical groups from Alabama
Entertainers from Birmingham, Alabama
The South African Grand Prix was first run as a Grand Prix motor racing handicap race in 1934 at the Prince George Circuit at East London, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. 

The races were stopped because of World War II. It was started again in 1962 as part of the Formula One circuit. It was a popular F1 event. It was stopped again after the 1985 race. Some nations began boycotting (not participating) South African events because of racial segregation policy of apartheid. 

After apartheid was ended in 1991, there were two more races held in 1992 and 1993.

Winners of the South African Grand Prix

Repeat winners (drivers) 
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Repeat winners (constructors) 
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Repeat winners (engine manufacturers) 
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

* Built by Cosworth
By year
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Broadcasting

United Kingdom

References

Resource 
ChicaneF1 

Formula One Grands Prix
Seaside Heights is a borough in Ocean County, New Jersey. According to a 2000 Census, the borough population was 3,155.  Summer population explodes upwards to thirty thousand persons because the city is a resort community with beaches, bars, and clubs. The Seaside Heights Boardwalk received exposure through shows on MTV, such as Jersey Shore.

Boroughs in New Jersey
Ocean County, New Jersey
Tumblr is a blogging site that began in New York City in 2007. David Karp and Marco Arment began it. The site allows users to post text, images, videos, links, quotes and audio to a short-form blog, called a tumbleblog. Users can follow other users, or choose to make their tumblelog private. Tumblr focuses on being easy to use. The site has about 91.7 million posts a day and gains about 15,000 new users on a day on average. In 2013, Yahoo bought Tumblr for $1.1 billion. After the sale to Yahoo, David Karp remained as CEO.

It is the 25th most popular website in the world.

Famous people with Tumblr accounts include President Obama, Beyoncé, and Lady Gaga.

References

Other websites
 

2007 establishments in the United States
Organizations in New York City
Websites established in 2007
Margaret Cushing Whitman (born August 4, 1956) is an American billionaire and politician.  She is the president and chief executive officer of Hewlett-Packard.  

She was CEO of the online auction site eBay from 1998 to 2008.  She also worked for DreamWorks, Procter & Gamble, and Hasbro. In 2010, she ran for Governor of California as a Republican.  Her campaign was paid for mostly by millions of her own money.  Even though she spent over $100 million, she still lost to Jerry Brown.

On December 8, 2021, Joe Biden nominated Whitman to serve as United States ambassador to Kenya. On July 14, 2022, her nomination was confirmed in the Senate by voice vote. She was sworn-in on August 5, 2022.

References

1956 births
Living people
American billionaires
Politicians from California
Republican Party (United States) politicians
Politicians from New York (state)
Businesspeople from New York (state)
Businesspeople from California
American chief executives
People from Atherton, California
Ambassadors of the United States
Onika Tanya Maraj-Petty (born December 8, 1982), known professionally as Nicki Minaj (), is a Trinidadian rapper, singer, songwriter, actress and model based in the United States. She is known for her strange style, funny voices, colorful wigs and costumes, and characters she uses in her music.

Nicki Minaj became the first and only female rapper to be listed on Forbes''' Hip Hop Cash Kings list.

 Background 
Nicki Minaj moved to Queens, New York City at age five. Her father went to rehab for alcoholism in 2012. Minaj claimed he burned down their house in her youth. As a teenager, Nicki Minaj had an abortion, which is referenced in her song "All Things Go" from The Pinkprint.

Career
Career

 2009 - 2011: Beginnings and Pink Friday 
In August 2009, Nicki Minaj signed to Young Money Entertainment with distribution from Universal Motown. Her debut album, Pink Friday, was released on November 9, 2010. It climbed to number one on the US Billboard 200 album chart and contained the singles "Your Love", "Moment 4 Life" (featuring Canadian rapper Drake), "Super Bass", "Did It on 'Em", and "Fly" (featuring Barbadian singer Rihanna). The first, second, and fifth singles reached the top 20 in the US, while "Super Bass" managed to peak at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and peaked in the top ten around the world. The song has been certified 8× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for combined shipments and streams of 8 million copies in the US alone. Minaj was also featured with Kesha on a remix of Britney Spears' song "Till the World Ends".
2012 - 2013: Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded and The Re-Up 
Nicki Minaj released a single, "Starships", on Valentine's Day of 2012, before releasing her second studio album, Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded, on April 3, 2012. This album contained more pop- and dance-leaning songs, with some songs produced by RedOne (known for working with Jennifer Lopez and Lady Gaga) and Dr. Luke.  "Starships" reached number one in Scotland and the top five in the US, UK, and Canada. Minaj released two more singles from the album, "Pound the Alarm" and "Va Va Voom", which both reached the top 25 of the Billboard Hot 100. She was featured on David Guetta's single "Turn Me On", which reached the top ten worldwide. Minaj re-released Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded later in the year as Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded - The Re-Up that contained songs like "Va Va Voom" and "Freedom".

From 2012 to 2013, she was featured as a judge on the music competition series American Idol alongside Keith Urban, Mariah Carey, and Randy Jackson.
2014 - 2017: The Other Woman, The Pinkprint, and other projects 
In 2014, she was featured in the film The Other Woman. She released her third studio album, The Pinkprint, in December of that year. It was preceded by the singles "Anaconda", which samples the 1992 hit single "Baby Got Back" by Sir Mix-a-Lot, and "Only". "Anaconda" reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Minaj's highest-peaking song in the United States up until 2022. Nicki Minaj performed "Anaconda" at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards.She was featured on Guetta's single "Hey Mama" alongside Bebe Rexha and Afrojack, along with Ariana Grande's "Side to Side".

On March 10, 2017, Nicki Minaj released three singles: "No Frauds", "Regret in Your Tears", and "Changed It". "No Frauds" became a top 20 hit in the US. Minaj took a break from social media at the end of the year to focus on new songs.

 2018 - 2019: Queen
On April 13, 2018, Nicki Minaj released two singles: "Chun-Li" and "Barbie Tingz". The first reached number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was picked as the lead single from Minaj's fourth studio album, Queen. "Barbie Tingz" reached number 25 in the US but was later removed from the track list for Queen, except as a Target edition bonus track. The promotional single "Rich Sex", featuring American rapper Lil Wayne, was also released from the album. Minaj was featured on the single “Fefe” by rapper 6ix9ine which reached number three on the Hot 100 in both the US and Canada.

Nicki Minaj released a new single, "Megatron", on June 21, 2019.

2020 - present:  Hiatus and upcoming fifth studio album

After a social media hiatus, Nicki Minaj returned to Twitter and Instagram on January 30, 2020. The following day she appeared in the music video for Meghan Trainor's single, “Nice to Meet Ya” which also featured Minaj. On February 7, Nicki Minaj released her first single of 2020, titled “Yikes”.
Nicki Minaj was featured in two remixes of the song “Say So” by American rapper Doja Cat. The song would go on to become her first US number-one hit. On June 12 Nicki Minaj featured on the song “Trollz” by rapper 6ix9ine. The song went on to become Minaj’s second US number one.

In 2021, she released the song Boyz (feat. Nicki Minaj) with Jesy Nelson.

In 2022, Nicki Minaj released her first greatest-hits album, Queen Radio: Volume 1. It featured the single "Super Freaky Girl", which became her third US number-one single when it debuted atop the Hot 100.

 Personal life 
In 2011, her cousin Nicholas Telemaque was murdered in Brooklyn, New York. In November 2017 her brother Jelani Maraj was convicted of raping a child. In January 2020, he was sentenced to 25 years in prison.
Nicki Minaj had dated Safaree Samuels for 12 years and later dated rapper Meek Mill from 2015 till 2017.  In November 2018, Nicki Minaj began dating Kenneth "Zoo" Petty. She has known him since her teenage years. Petty is a registered sex offender. They married in October 2019, after just one year of dating. After the marriage, Minaj changed her surname to Maraj-Petty.

On July 20, 2020, Nicki Minaj announced that she is expecting a child. On October 16, 2020, Nicki Minaj announced that her child with Petty, a boy, had been born last September 30. The son was named Papa Bear.

 Discography 
Studio albums
 Pink Friday (2010)
 Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded (2012)
 The Pinkprint (2014)
 Queen (2018)

MixtapesPlaytime Is Over (2007)Sucka Free (2008)Suck Free (2009)

Re-releases
 Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded - The Re-Up (2012)

Compilations
 Queen Radio: Volume 1'' (2022)

Filmography

References

Other websites
1982 births
Living people
Rappers from New York (state)
American hip hop musicians
American R&B musicians
American dance musicians
Musicians from Queens
Singers from New York City
Trinidad and Tobago musicians
Pop rappers
The Red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea), also known as the red-billed weaver or red-billed dioch, is a small passerine bird of the Ploceidae family. It is found only in Africa.

There are more quelea than any other wild bird species in the world: they number over 1.5 billion. Single colonies may have as many as 30 million. Queleas can migrate as far as 2,000 kilometres (1,243 miles). Single flocks can destroy as much as 50 tons of grain a day. Queleas have destroyed over US$22 million of grain in a single year.

Males grow to a length of about 4.75 inches (12 cm) with a 1.75 inch (4.45 cm) tail and weigh 19.47 grams (0.69 oz).  Females are a little smaller growing to about 4.60 inches (11.68 cm) with a 1.70 inch (4.32 cm) tail and weigh 18.34 grams (0.65 oz).
Nests are built by the males and take about seven days to complete. Males defend the nest while building it and become very angry when something gets too close.  After it is complete, females lay 3 to 7 eggs. Eggs hatch in about two weeks. Males continue to defend the nest after the eggs hatch.

Footnotes

References

Other websites 

Passeri
Birds of Africa
The Portuguese Grand Prix (Grande Prémio de Portugal) was a motor racing event held for several years, starting in the 1950s. It was a Formula One race between  and  and between  and .

The first event was held on the Boavista street course in Porto on 17 June 1951. The Grand Prix was moved to Monsanto Park, Lisbon, in 1954 as a one time event. The first Formula One race was held in 14 August 1958. The first three F1 races were held in both Boavista and Monsanto. 1960 was the last Formula One race for more than 20 years.

The Portuguese Grand Prix returned to the calendar in 1984 to the Autódromo do Estoril in 1984. After the deaths of Ayrton Senna and Roland Ratzenberger at Imola in 1994, the Estoril track was changed. A new chicane was built in place of the tank curve, as a safety measure. But Estoril was considered an unsafe and outdated track. The last Portuguese Grand Prix was in Estoril on 22 September 1996.

Broadcasting

United Kingdom

References 

Formula One Grands Prix
The Argentine Grand Prix was Formula One Grand Prix motor race. It was held off and on from  to . Argentine president Juan Perón was the driving force behind the creation of the circuit, after seeing the success of the country's own Juan Manuel Fangio. 

The circuit was built just outside of Buenos Aires on swampland in 1952.In 1953, the Autodrome hosted the first ever Formula One race held outside Europe. The exile of Perón in 1955 lead to an unstable government. The Argentine Grand Prix left the F1 calendar in 1961 for over a decade.

In  the Argentine Grand Prix returned to the World Championship. Carlos Reutemann became the new homegrown hero.  Reutemann took pole position in his world championship debut. He become only the second driver to do this.  The Grand Prix remained in Argentina through , but the 1982 event was canceled.
A private group purchased the track in 1991 and began to upgrade it. The modernized Argentine Grand Prix returned in . Because of financial problems, the  race was the last running of the Argentine Grand Prix.

Winners

Repeat winners (drivers)

Repeat winners (constructors)

Repeat winners (engine manufacturers) 

* Designed and built by  Cosworth, funded by Ford

By year 

A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Broadcasting

United Kingdom

Argentine
In typesetting by hand compositing, a sort, otherwise referred to as a type, is a block representing a specific letter, digit or other symbol cast from a matrix mould and assembled with other sorts bearing additional symbols into lines of type to make up a forme from which a page is printed.

Related pages
 Sort - other uses of the word
 Typeface
 Typography

References
 Nesbitt, Alexander The History and Technique of Lettering (c) 1957, Dover Publications, Inc. , Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 57-13116. The Dover edition is an abridged and corrected republication of the work originally published in 1950 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. under the title Lettering: The History and Technique of Lettering as Design.

Other websites
Typowiki , a type wiki at typophile.com 
Metal Type - For Those who Remember Hot Metal Typesetting

Typography
Typesetting
In probability theory and applications, Bayes' theorem shows the relation between a conditional probability and its reverse form. For example, the probability of a hypothesis given some observed pieces of evidence, and the probability of that evidence given the hypothesis. This theorem is named after Thomas Bayes ( or "bays") and is often called Bayes' law or Bayes' rule.

Formula 

The equation used is:
Where:
 P(A) is the prior probability or marginal probability of A. It is "prior" in the sense that it does not take into account any information about B.
 P(A|B) is the conditional probability of A, given B. It is also called the posterior probability because it is derived from (or depends upon) the specified value of B.
 P(B|A) is the conditional probability of B given A. It is also called the likelihood.
 P(B) is the prior or marginal probability of B, and acts as a normalizing constant.
In many scenarios, P(B) is calculated indirectly using the formula , which simply states that the probability of B is the sum of the conditional probabilities based on whether A has occurred or not.

Example 

A simple example is as follows: There is a 40% chance of rain on Sunday. If it rains on Sunday, there is a 10% chance of rain on Monday. If it did not rain on Sunday, then there is an 80% chance that it will rain on Monday.
"Raining on Sunday" is event A, and "Raining on Monday" is event B.
 P( A ) = 0.40 = Probability of rain on Sunday.
 P( A` ) = 0.60 = Probability of no rain on Sunday.
 P( B | A ) = 0.10 = Probability of rain on Monday, if it rained on Sunday.
 P( B` | A ) = 0.90 = Probability of no rain on Monday, if it rained on Sunday.
 P( B | A` ) = 0.80 = Probability of rain on Monday, if it did not rain on Sunday.
 P( B` |A` ) = 0.20 = Probability of no rain on Monday, if it did not rain on Sunday.

The first thing we would normally calculate is the probability of it raining on Monday:
This would be the sum of the probability of "Rain on Sunday and rain on Monday" and "No rain on Sunday and rain on Monday":
 chance

However, we were asked to calculate the probability that it rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, then this is where Bayes' theorem comes in. It allows us to calculate the probability of an earlier event, given the result of a later event.

The equation used is:
In our case, "Rain on Sunday" is event A, and "Rain on Monday" is event B.
 P(B|A) = 0.10 = Probability of rain on Monday, if it rained on Sunday.
 P(A) = 0.40 = Probability of rain on Sunday.
 P(B) = 0.52 = Probability of rain on Monday.

So, to calculate the probability it rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, we use the formula:

or:

In other words, if it rained on Monday, then there is a 7.69% chance it rained on Sunday.

Intuitive explanation
To calculate the probability of it having rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, we can take the following steps:
 We know that it rained on Monday. Therefore, the total probability is P(B).
 The probability it rained on Sunday is P(A).
 The probability it rained on Monday, given that it rained on Sunday is P(B|A).
 The probability of raining on Sunday and raining Monday is P(A)*P(B|A).
 Therefore, the total probability of it having rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, is the chance of it raining on Sunday and Monday divided by the total chance of it having rained on Monday.
Therefore,

Another way to see this, which shows where Bayes' theorem comes from, is to consider the probability P(AB) that it rains on both Sunday and Monday. This can be calculated in two different ways, which give the same answer for P(AB):

In this regard, Bayes' theorem is just another way to write that equation.

Related pages 

 Bayesian probability
 Bayesian network

References 

Probability theory
Salisbury Plain is in the central southern England covering . It largely lies within the county of Wiltshire, with a little in Hampshire. 

The Plain is famous for its rich archaeology, including Avebury and Stonehenge, which are a joint World Heritage Site. The Plain is sparsely populated and is the largest remaining area of calcareous grassland in north-west Europe. The Plain also has arable land, and a few small areas of  beech trees and coniferous woodland.

On the Plain is the British Army's largest training ground in England. It is suitable terrain for tank manoeuvres; buildings such as Imber are used for urban warfare training.
Boundaries 
The boundaries of Salisbury Plain have never been defined, and there is some difference of opinion as to its exact area. The river valleys surrounding it, and other downs and plains beyond them loosely define its boundaries.  To the north the scarp of the downs overlooks the Vale of Pewsey, and to the north west the  Avon. The River Wylye runs along the south west, and the River Bourne runs to the east.

Google satellite map centered on Stonehenge: 
Access to military site:

References 

Wiltshire
Plateaus
Hot pants, or 'short shorts', are a fashion item from the 1960s which is still popular today. They first appeared as a design item in so-called 'Swinging London'. The trend for shorter, brighter shorts for young women was started by designers in London such as Mary Quant.

Running or gym shorts are worn by girls as normal wear in some places. Many gym shorts have an inlay made of a comfortable fabric such as cotton, similar to swim shorts (swimming trunks). These are designed to be worn without underwear.

If a person cuts off the legs of a pair of jeans, that's known as a 'cut-off'.

The character Daisy Duke from The Dukes of Hazzard was known for wearing low cut blue jeans. The popularity of the character led to the term "Daisy Dukes" being used for short shorts.

References 

1960s
Trousers and shorts
The mini-skirt, or miniskirt, is a skirt well above the knees, close to the buttocks. If the top and skirt are all-in-one, then it is a minidress. Microskirts are extremely brief, and usually worn only for publicity events.

Mini-skirts were invented by Mary Quant, who also invented, or promoted, hot pants. There is disagreement as to who came up with the idea first; some say André Courrèges or John Bates. The short- and ever-shorter skirt was evolving already among fashion-minded young women: the designers who adapted it just helped spread the style. In Quant's case, she gave it the name. Mary Quant named the mini-skirt after her favorite make of car, the Mini. She loved the car so much, she had one designed especially for her.

Gallery

References 

1960s
Bottoms (clothing)
The Austrian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race. The first event was held in 1964 at a race track on the Zeltweg Airfield. The track was deemed too dangerous. It was narrow and very bumpy. Spectators complained of poor viewing areas. The FIA removed the race from the F1 calendar until a better circuit was built.

From 1970 until 1987, the event was held at the Österreichring, near Zeltweg. In 1975, it was called the European Grand Prix. In 1987, the FIA decided that the circuit was too dangerous. The race was dropped for a decade.

In 1995 and 1996, the track was modified and brought up to modern standards. The race returned to F1 in 1997. The circuit was renamed the A1-Ring, after a sponsor. Most of the new track is in Spielberg. Spielberg was now used as the location of the Grand Prix. The final Austrian Grand Prix was held in 2003. The Grand Prix returned to the Formula One calendar in 2014.

Winners of the Austrian Grand Prix
Repeat winners (drivers) 
Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

* Shared win with Kurt Ahrens, Jr.

Repeat winners (constructors) 
Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Repeat winners (engine manufacturers) 
Manufacturers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

* Built by  Cosworth, funded by Ford (except 1967)

** Between 1998-2001 built by  Ilmor, funded by Mercedes

*** Built by  Porsche

Year by year 

A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Broadcasting

United Kingdom
United Kingdom

Austrian Grand Prix records 
Driver
Most wins - Alain Prost, 3
Most podiums - David Coulthard, 5
Most points - David Coulthard, 39
Most poles - René Arnoux, Nelson Piquet & Niki Lauda, 3 (tied)
Most grands prix - Jacques Laffite, 12
Team
Most wins - McLaren, 6
Most podiums - Ferrari, 20
Most points - Ferrari, 142.5
Most poles - Ferrari, 7
Most grands prix - Ferrari & McLaren, 25 (tied)

References

Formula One Grands Prix
Lucretia Coffin Mott (January 3, 1793 – November 11, 1880) was an advocate for women's rights in the United States. She was one of the first people in the U.S. to do so. She also spoke on ending slavery in the United States. She was one of the leaders of the anti-slavery movement in Philadelphia. She was a Quaker, and was a minister for several years. She was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts. She helped with women's involvement and the Seneca falls convention.

1793 births
1880 deaths
People from Massachusetts
Quakers
The Luxembourg Grand Prix () was a Formula One motor race for two years in the 1990s. The FIA created the Luxembourg GP to keep a race at Nürburgring, and allow the European GP to be held in another country.

The FIA only allowed one Formula One per country. They would allow a second race within a country if it had a different Grand Prix name. For several years, the German Grand Prix had been held at Hockenheimring, and the European Grand Prix at Nürburgring. There was unease that the Nürburgring was being given a monopoly for the European GP. The border of Luxembourg lies about 50 miles away from the Nürburgring track.

Winners of the Luxembourg Grand Prix 
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Broadcasting

United Kingdom

References

Formula One Grands Prix
The Mexican Grand Prix (Gran Premio de Mexico) is a Formula One motor race held at the Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez in Mexico City.  It first appeared as a non-championship event in 1962 before being held as a championship event from 1963-1970, 1986-1992 and since 2015.

Winners of the Mexican Grand Prix

Repeat winners (drivers) 

 Shared win with Trevor Taylor
Active drivers are in bold.
Event that were not part of the Formula One World Championship have a pink background.

Repeat winners (constructors) 

Active constructors are in bold.
Event that were not part of the Formula One World Championship have a pink background.

By year

Event that were not part of the Formula One World Championship have a pink background.

Broadcasting

United Kingdom

Formula One Grands Prix
1962 establishments in North America
1960s establishments in Mexico
1992 disestablishments
1990s disestablishments in North America
20th-century disestablishments in Mexico
The Moroccan Grand Prix was a Grand Prix motor racing event. It began in 1925 in Casablanca, Morocco. The official name was "Casablanca Grand Prix".

In 1930, the race was moved to the new Anfa Racecourse. There was no race in 1933. There were no races between 1935 and 1953. When it returned in 1954, it was held on a circuit at the city of Agadir for sports cars.

A new circuit at Ain-Diab near Casablanca was ready for the 1957 Moroccan Grand Prix Formula One race. This race did not counttoward the World Championship. The only World Championship F1 race was in 1958. The race was marred by the death of Stuart Lewis-Evans. This was the last Grand Prix organized in Morocco.

Winners of the Moroccan Grand Prix

Repeat winners (drivers) 
No driver won the Moroccan Grand Prix more than one time.

 Repeat winners (constructors) 

Active constructors are in bold.Event that were not part of the Formula One World Championship have a pink background.
By year Event that were not part of the Formula One World Championship have a'' pink background.

Formula One Grands Prix
Casablanca
1925 establishments
20th-century establishments in Morocco
1958 disestablishments
20th-century disestablishments in Africa
Typesetting is the making of block-printed writing which is formed by using types grouped from sorts.

Typesetting uses the earlier steps of designing a font and storing it in some manner. Typesetting is the taking of the stored letters (called "sorts" in mechanical systems and "glyphs" in digital systems) and the ordering of them in the manner of a language's orthography for showing them on a page.

Letterpress era
During the letterpress era, moveable type was composed by hand for each page. Cast metal sorts were grouped into words and lines of text and tightly bound together to make up a page image called a forme. All letter faces were set to the same height, to form an even surface of type. The forme was mounted in a machine press, inked, and an impression made on paper.

The diagram at right shows a cast metal sort: a face, b body or shank, c point size, 1 shoulder, 2 nick, 3 groove, 4 foot. Wooden printing sorts were in use for centuries in combination with metal type.
Hand composing was rendered commercially obsolete by continuous casting or hot-metal typesetting machines, such as the Linotype machine and Monotype at the end of the 19th century. The Linotype, invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler, enabled one machine operator to do the work of ten hand compositors by automating the selection, use and replacement of sorts, with a keyboard as input. Later advances, such as the typewriter or computer, pushed the state of the art even farther ahead. Still, hand composition and letterpress printing did not fall completely out of use. Since the introduction of digital typesetting, it has seen a renewal as an artisanal pursuit. However, it is a very small niche within the larger typesetting market.

Phototypesetting
Phototypesetting

Phototypesetting or "cold type" systems first appeared in the early 1960s and rapidly displaced continuous casting machines. These devices consisted of glass disks (one per font) that spun in front of a light source which selectively exposed characters onto light-sensitive paper. Originally they were driven by pre-punched paper tapes. Later they were hooked up to computer front ends.
One of the earliest electronic photocomposition systems was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor. The typesetter typed a line of text on a Fairchild keyboard that had no display. To verify correct content of the line it was typed a second time. If the two lines were identical a bell rang and the machine produced a punched paper tape corresponding to the text. With the completion of a block of lines the typesetter fed the corresponding paper tapes into a phototypesetting device which mechanically set type outlines printed on glass sheets into place for exposure onto a negative film. Photosensitive paper was exposed to light through the negative film, resulting in a column of black type on white paper, or a galley.  The galley was then cut up and used to create a mechanical drawing or paste up of a whole page.  A large film negative of the page is shot and used to make a plates for offset printing.
Digital era
Before the 1980s, almost all typesetting for publishers and advertisers was done by specialist typesetting companies. These companies performed keyboarding, editing and production of paper or film output, and formed a large component of the graphic arts industry. In the United States, these companies were in rural Pennsylvania, New England or the Midwest where labor was cheap, and paper produced nearby, but still within a few hours' travel time of the major publishing centers.
In 1985, desktop publishing became available, starting with the Apple Macintosh, Aldus PageMaker (and later QuarkXPress) and PostScript. Improvements in software and hardware, and rapidly-lowering costs, popularized desktop publishing and enabled very fine control of typeset results at much lower cost than the minicomputer-based systems. At the same time, word processing systems such as Wang and WordPerfect revolutionized office documents. They did not, however, have the typographic ability or flexibility required for complex book layout, graphics, mathematics, or advanced hyphenation and justification rules (H and J).

By the year 2000, this industry segment had shrunk because publishers were now capable of integrating typesetting and graphic design on their own in-house computers. Many found that the cost of maintaining high standards of typographic design and technical skill made it more economical to out-source to freelancers and graphic design specialists.
The availability of cheap, or free, fonts made the conversion to do-it-yourself easier but also opened up a gap between skilled designers and amateurs. The advent of PostScript, supplemented by the PDF file format, provided a universal method of proofing designs and layouts, readable on major computer and operating systems.

SCRIPT variants
IBM created and inspired a family of typesetting languages with names that were derivatives of the word "SCRIPT". Latter versions of SCRIPT included advanced features such as automatic generation of a table of contents and index, multi-column page layout, footnotes, boxes, automatic hyphenation and spelling verification.

SGML and XML systems
SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) was based upon GML (IBM Generalized Markup Language). GML was a set of macros on top of IBM SCRIPT.
Troff and successors
During the mid-1970s Joseph Ossanna, working at Bell Laboratories, wrote the troff (said as "tee-roff") typesetting program to drive a Wang C/A/T phototypesetter owned by the Labs; it was later enhanced by Brian Kernighan to support output to different equipment such as laser printers and the like. While its use has fallen off, it is still included with a number of Unix and Unix-like systems and has been used to typeset a number of high-profile technical and computer books. Some versions, as well as a GNU work-alike called groff, are now open source.

TeX and LaTeX

The TeX system, developed by Donald E. Knuth at the end of the 1970s, is another widespread and powerful automated typesetting system which has set high standards, especially for typesetting mathematics.

Related pages
 Hot metal typesetting
 Justification (typesetting)
 Printing
 Printing press
 Sort (typesetting)
 Technical writing
 Typeface
 Typography

References
References

Other websites
Metal Type - For Those who Remember Hot Metal Typesetting
TeX Users Group
The Lout Document Formatting System
XML page at www.W3C.org
SGML page at www.xml.org

Typography
Typesetting
Swinging London is a catch-all term applied to the fashion and cultural scene which flourished in London, in the 1960s.

It was a phenomenon which emphasized the young, the new and the modern. It was a period of optimism and  hedonism, and a cultural revolution. One catalyst was the recovery of the British economy after post-World War II hard times had lasted through much of the 1950s. Journalist Christopher Booker, a founder of the satirical magazine Private Eye, recalled the "bewitching" character of the swinging sixties: "There seemed to be no one standing outside the bubble, and observing just how odd and shallow and egocentric and even rather horrible it was".
"Swinging London" was defined by Time magazine in its issue of 15 April 1966, and celebrated in the name of the pirate radio station, Swinging Radio England, that began shortly afterward. However, "swinging" in the sense of hip or fashionable, had been used since the early 1960s. In 1965, Diana Vreeland, editor of  Vogue magazine, said "London is the most swinging city in the world at the moment".

Although The Beatles came from Liverpool, The Rolling Stones,  and the rest of the new culture was London-based. Most of the new fashion designers, models and photographers were young, and packed into a small area in Soho around Carnaby Street, W1., and another area round the King's Road, Chelsea.

Fashion & symbols
During the time of Swinging London, fashion and photography were featured in Queen magazine, which drew attention to fashion designer Mary Quant.
The model Jean Shrimpton was another icon and one of the world's first supermodels. She was the world's highest paid and most photographed model of the time. Shrimpton was called "The face of the '60s", in which she has been considered by many as "the symbol of Swinging London", and the "embodiment of the 1960s". Other popular models of the era included Veruschka, and Twiggy. Twiggy was called "the Queen of Mod", a label she shared with others, such as Cathy McGowan, who hosted the television rock show, Ready Steady Go! from 1964 to 1966.

Mod-related fashions such as the miniskirt stimulated fashionable shopping areas such as Carnaby Street and the Kings Road, Chelsea. The fashion was a symbol of youth culture.

The British flag, the Union Flag, became a symbol, assisted by events such as England's home victory in the 1966 World Cup. The Mini car (launched in 1959) was used by a fleet of mini-cab taxis highlighted by advertising which covered their paintwork.

References
References 

1960s in the United Kingdom
Fashion
20th century in London
English culture
Tosca is an Italian opera in three acts by Giacomo Puccini. It was first performed in Rome on January 14, 1900. The libretto was written by Giuseppe Giacosa and Luigi Illica. It was based on Victorien Sardou's play La Tosca. Tosca was a great success.

Plot

Setting 
The story happens in Rome in the year 1800. Some years before, Rome was ruled by the pope. But Napoleon invaded Rome and made it a republic. This republic was ruled by seven men called "consuls". But Napoleon had problems with Austria and the French had to leave, so Rome was conquered by people from Naples. Because of that, the new government decided to arrest people from the previous government. In 1800 Napoleon decided to return to Rome because he had just defeated the Austrian army in the north. The battle they fought was called the "Battle of Marengo".
Act 1 
On the 17th of June, 1800, Scarpia, general of the secret police, is sending republicans to prison. One of the republicans, Angelotti, flees prison and gets inside the church of Sant' Andrea della Valle. Angelotti used to be one of the consuls. In this church, he meets another republican called Cavaradossi. Cavaradossi hides Angelotti in a secret place.

Later, Scarpia enters the church. Scarpia can’t find Angelotti, but meets a woman called Tosca there. She is the singer, and Cavaradossi's lover. Scarpia tricks Tosca into going to Cavaradossi’s house, and has his soldiers follow her.

Act 2 
Scarpia hears that his soldiers can’t find Angelotti, but have arrested Cavaradossi. Scarpia then tortures Cavaradossi, but Cavaradossi doesn’t confess where Angelotti is. So Scarpia calls Tosca, and shows her her lover’s tortured state. Tosca tells him where is the secret place Angelotti was hidden.
Then, a message comes saying that Napoleon has won the Battle of Marengo. Cavaradossi is happy, because there will be a new republican government. Scarpia is furious  and condemns Cavaradossi to death.

Tosca begs Scarpia to save her lover's life. Scarpia demands that Tosca gives herself to him in exchange. As Scarpia goes to touch Tosca, she stabs him to death with a knife from the table.

Act 3 
Tosca runs to Cavaradossi in the prison at the castle Sant'Angelo. But, the firing squad shoot Cavaradossi. When Scarpia’s soldiers try to arrest Tosca for Scarpia's murder, she kills herself by jumping from the castle.

Principal roles
 Floria Tosca - soprano
 Mario Cavaradossi - tenor
 Baron Scarpia - baritone
 Cesare Angelotti - bass
 Sacristan - bass
 Spoletta - tenor
Discography
 1919: Valentina Bartolomasi (Tosca), Attilio Salvaneschi (Cavaradossi), Adolfo Pacini (Scarpia), Guido Fernandez (Angelotti), Ubaldo Ceccarelli (Sagristano), Gaetano Mazzanti (Spoletta); Coro e Grande Orchestra Sinfonica di Milano, Carlo Sabajno - (La Voce del Padrone)
 1929: Bianca Scacciati (Tosca), Alessandro Granda (Cavaradossi), Enrico Molinari (Scarpia), Salvatore Baccaloni (Angelotti), Aristide Baracchi (Sagristano), Emilio Venturini (Spoletta); Coro e Orchestra del Teatro alla Scala di Milano, Lorenzo Molajoli - (EMI Classics)
 1930: Carmen Melis (Tosca), Piero Pauli (Cavaradossi), Apollo Granforte (Scarpia), Giovanni Azzimonti (Angelotti), Antonio Gelli (Sagristano), Nello Palai (Spoletta); Coro e Orchestra del Teatro alla Scala di Milano, Carlo Sabajno - (Arkadia)
1938: Maria Caniglia (Tosca), Beniamino Gigli (Cavaradossi), Armando Borgioli (Scarpia), Ernesto Dominici (Angelotti), Giulio Tomei (Sagristano), Nino Mazziotti (Spoletta); Coro e Orchestra del Teatro Reale dell'Opera di Roma, Oliviero De Fabritiis - (EMI Classics)
 1952: Renata Tebaldi (Tosca), Giuseppe Campora (Cavaradossi), Enzo Mascherini (Scarpia), Dario Caselli (Angelotti), Fernando Corena (Sagristano), Piero De Palma (Spoletta); Orchestra e Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, Alberto Erede - (Decca)
 1953: Maria Callas (Tosca), Giuseppe di Stefano (Cavaradossi), Tito Gobbi (Scarpia), Franco Calabrese (Angelotti), Melchiorre Luise (Sagristano), Angelo Mercuriali (Spoletta); Coro e Orchestra del Teatro alla Scala di Milano, Victor de Sabata - (EMI Classics)
1957: Zinka Milanov (Tosca), Jussi Björling (Cavaradossi), Leonard Warren (Scarpia), Leonardo Monreale (Angelotti), Fernando Corena (Sagristano), Mario Carlin (Spoletta); Coro e Orchestra del Teatro dell'Opera di Roma, Erich Leinsdorf - (RCA Victor)
 1957: Antonietta Stella (Tosca), Gianni Poggi (Cavaradossi), Giuseppe Taddei (Scarpia), Ferruccio Mazzoli (Angelotti), Leo Padis (Sagristano), Piero De Palma (Spoletta); Coro e Orchestra del Teatro di San Carlo di Napoli, Tullio Serafin - (Philips)
 1959: Renata Tebaldi (Tosca), Mario Del Monaco (Cavaradossi), George London (Scarpia), Silvio Maionica (Angelotti), Fernando Corena (Sagristano), Piero De Palma (Spoletta); Orchestra e Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, Francesco Molinari-Pradelli - (Decca)
 1962: Leontyne Price (Tosca), Giuseppe di Stefano (Cavaradossi), Giuseppe Taddei (Scarpia), Carlo Cava (Angelotti), Fernando Corena (Sagristano), Piero De Palma (Spoletta); Wiener Staatsopernchor, Wiener Philharmoniker, Herbert von Karajan - (Decca)
1966: Birgit Nilsson (Tosca), Franco Corelli (Cavaradossi), Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau (Scarpia), Silvio Maionica (Angelotti), Alfredo Mariotti (Sagristano), Piero De Palma (Spoletta); Orchestra e Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, Lorin Maazel - (Decca)
 1967: Gwyneth Jones (Tosca), James McCracken (Cavaradossi), Robert Merrill (Scarpia), Ezio Flagello (Angelotti), Giovanni Foiani (Sagristano), Ugo Benelli (Spoletta); Orchestra e Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, Lamberto Gardelli - (Decca)
 1973: Leontyne Price (Tosca), Plácido Domingo (Cavaradossi), Sherrill Milnes (Scarpia), Clifford Grant (Angelotti), Paul Plishka (Sagristano), Francis Egerton (Spoletta); John Alldis Choir, New Philharmonia Orchestra, Zubin Mehta - (RCA Records)
1976: Montserrat Caballé (Tosca), José Carreras (Cavaradossi), Ingvar Wixell (Scarpia), Samuel Ramey (Angelotti), Domenico Trimarchi (Sagristano), Piero De Palma (Spoletta); Chorus and Orchestra of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, Colin Davis - (Philips)
 1976: Galina Vishnevskaya (Tosca), Franco Bonisolli (Cavaradossi), Matteo Manuguerra (Scarpia), Antonio Zerbini (Angelotti), Guido Mazzini (Sagristano), Mario Guggia (Spoletta); Chœurs de Radio France, Orchestre National de France, Mstislav Rostropovich - (Deutsche Grammophon)
 1977: Virginia Zeani (Tosca), Corneliu Fanateanu (Cavaradossi), Nicolae Herlea (Scarpia), Gheorghe Grasnaru (Angelotti), Constantin Gabor (Sagristano), Nicolae Andreescu (Spoletta); Chorus and Orchestra of the National Opera of Bucharest, Cornel Trailescu - (Carlton Classics)
1978: Mirella Freni (Tosca), Luciano Pavarotti (Cavaradossi), Sherrill Milnes (Scarpia), Richard Van Allan (Angelotti), Italo Tajo (Sagristano), Michel Sénéchal (Spoletta); London Opera Chorus, National Philharmonic Orchestra, Nicola Rescigno - (Decca)
 1979: Katia Ricciarelli (Tosca), José Carreras (Cavaradossi), Ruggero Raimondi (Scarpia), Gottfried Hornik (Angelotti), Fernando Corena (Sagristano), Heinz Zednik (Spoletta); Chor der Deutschen Oper Berlin, Berliner Philharmoniker, Herbert von Karajan - (Deutsche Grammophon)
 1980: Renata Scotto (Tosca), Plácido Domingo (Cavaradossi), Renato Bruson (Scarpia), John Cheek (Angelotti), Renato Capecchi (Sagristano), Andrea Velis (Spoletta); Ambrosian Opera Chorus, Philharmonia Orchestra, James Levine - (EMI Classics)
 1984: Kiri Te Kanawa (Tosca), Giacomo Aragall (Cavaradossi), Leo Nucci (Scarpia), Malcolm King (Angelotti), Spiro Malas (Sagristano), Piero De Palma (Spoletta); Welsh National Opera Chorus, National Philharmonic Orchestra, Georg Solti - (Decca)