Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was the first virus to be discovered. That is to say, it was the first to be known as a virus.

It is a single stranded RNA virus which infects many plants, especially tobacco and other members of the family Solanaceae.  The infection causes "mosaic"-like discolouration on the leaves. Although it was known from the late 19th century that an infectious disease was damaging tobacco crops, it was not until 1930 that the infectious agent was known to be a virus.

History
In 1886, Adolf Mayer first described the tobacco mosaic disease that could be transferred between plants, similar to bacterial infections. 

In 1892, Dmitri Ivanovsky gave the first concrete evidence for the existence of a non-bacterial infectious agent. He claimed that infected sap remained infectious even after filtering through finest filters.
In 1898, Martinus Beijerinck independently replicated Ivanovsky's filtration experiments and then showed that the infectious agent was able to reproduce and multiply in the host cells of the tobacco plant. Beijerinck coined the term of "virus" to indicate that the causal agent of tobacco mosaic disease was of non-bacterial nature. 

Tobacco mosaic virus was the first virus to be crystallized. It was achieved by Wendell Meredith Stanley in 1935 who also showed that TMV remains active even after crystallization. For his work, he was awarded 1/3 of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1946, The first electron microscopical images of TMV were made in 1939.
In 1955, Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley Williams showed that purified TMV RNA and its capsid (coat) protein assemble by themselves to functional viruses, indicating that this is the most stable structure (the one with the lowest free energy).
The crystallographer Rosalind Franklin worked for Stanley for about a month at Berkeley, and later designed and built a model of TMV for the 1958 World's Fair at Brussels. In 1958, she speculated that the virus was hollow, not solid, and hypothesized that the RNA of TMV is single-stranded.  This conjecture was proved correct after her death. 

The investigations of tobacco mosaic disease and subsequent discovery of its viral nature were instrumental in the establishment of the general concepts of virology.

References 

Viruses
Diseases and disorders of plants
A business school is a university-level school that offers degrees in a variety of business-related subjects. It may often be a department or institution within a university or it can be a separate school. Instead of a general education, business schools prepare students to enter into the business world. ESCP Europe is considered to be the world's oldest business school.

Subjects 
A business school teaches topics that include: 
accounting
administration
business strategy
economics
entrepreneurship
finance
human resources management
information systems
logistics
marketing
organizational psychology
organizational behavior
public relations
research methods
real estate

References

Other websites 
 Best Business Schools 2015 
 The 50 best business schools in the world (2015)
Colleges and universities
Tertiary education

Business organizations
Martinair is currently a cargo airline from The Netherlands. It started in 1958. In 1991, Martinair started flying cargo. KLM became the only shareholder of Martinair in December 2008. Originally, Martinair flew passengers. On October 30, 2011, Martinair stopped flying passengers and now only flies cargo.

Gallery

References

1958 establishments in Europe
Airlines of the Netherlands
20th-century establishments in the Netherlands
Close Encounters of the Third Kind is an 1977 American science fiction movie written and directed by Steven Spielberg, and starring Richard Dreyfuss, Teri Garr, Melinda Dillon, Bob Balaban, Cary Guffey, and François Truffaut. The movie tells the story about Roy Neary, an everyday blue-collar worker in Indiana, whose life changes after an encounter with an undentified flying object (UFO).

Made on a production budget of $19.4 million, Close Encounters was released in a limited number of cities on November 16, 1977 and November 23, 1977 before expanding into wide release the following month. It was a critical and commercial success, grossing over $300 million worldwide. The movie received numerous awards and nominations at the 50th Academy Awards, 32nd British Academy Film Awards, the 35th Golden Globe Awards and the 5th Saturn Awards, and has been widely acclaimed at the American Film Institute.
1977 movies
1977 science fiction movies
American science fiction movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by Steven Spielberg
Movies composed by John Williams
Columbia Pictures movies
Alcide Amedeo Francesco De Gasperi (3 April 1881 – 19 August 1954) was an Italian politician who started the Christian Democracy party, and helped to start the Council of Europe and the European Coal and Steel Community.

He was the Prime Minister of Italy for eight years, between 1945 and 1953. That is longer than any other Italian prime minister except Benito Mussolini, who was a dictator.

De Gasperi was born in Austria-Hungary, and did not become an Italian citizen until after the First World War. In 1927, he was put in prison for one and a half years because he did not support Mussolini's Fascist government. Mussolini released him from prison because the Pope asked him to.

References 

1881 births
1954 deaths
MEPs for Italy
Presidents of the European Parliament
Prime Ministers of Italy
A water tower is a building that is used to hold and give out water. It is almost always built on a high place. It works because a pump gives water to the tower, and gravity makes the saved water go out to the places that need water. Those places are connected to the tower by pipes. A water tower is good when there is no power because it uses gravity to send out the water.

Water infrastructure
A notary is a person who has learned some laws and has been appointed by a government to do some certain things using those laws. A notary is most often used to witness signatures on legal papers. A notary does this to help stop fraud and to help a person prove that they are who they say they are. Notaries in some locations can also perform marriage ceremonies.

Related pages 
Authentication

Law occupations
Gaheris is a legendary character, a member of the Knights of the Round Table in Arthurian legend. He was a nephew of King Arthur. He was the third son of Arthur's sister Morgause and her husband Sir Lot. He was described as being valiant, agile, handsome, and his left arm was shorter than his right arm.  He was killed by Lancelot in the Prose Lancelot He was Sir Gawain's brother. 

Arthurian legend
Fictional knights
S7 Airlines is a Russian airline. It is the second largest airline. It was created in May 1992. Originally, it was named Siberia Airlines. In 1994, the airline joined IATA. The airline's name was changed to S7 Airlines in 2005. In 2010, the airline joined Oneworld. S7 Airlines stopped flying Soviet planes in 2008. As of 2015, the airline has Airbus A319s, Airbus A320s, Airbus A321s, Boeing 737s and Boeing 767s.

Gallery

References

1992 establishments in Russia
Airlines of Asia
Airlines of Russia
Crispus Attucks (circa 1723 – March 5, 1770) was the first person to die in the Boston Massacre.  This made him the first American to die in the American Revolutionary War.  After being killed at the Boston Massacre, Attucks became a martyr of the American Revolution.  He also became a symbol for the abolitionist (anti-slavery) movement, both in the 18th century and the 19th century.

Attucks had a big impact on important historical events like the American Revolution and the abolitionist movement.  However, he continues to have an impact on American culture today.  Even 250 years after his death, modern songs, stories, and television shows still talk about Attucks.  Children go to schools that are named after him.  In 2002, Attucks was named one of the "100 Greatest African Americans" in United States History.
Early life 
Aside from how he died, historians do not know much about Attucks' life.  His father, Prince Yonger, was a slave who had been born in Africa; his mother, Nancy Attucks, was a Wampanoag Native American.  One of Crispus Attucks' ancestors was John Attucks of Massachusetts, who was hanged during King Philip's War.

Attucks himself may have been a freeman, or may have escaped slavery.  However, some evidence suggests that Attucks was born a slave in Framingham, Massachusetts, but escaped from slavery.  In 1750, William Brown, a slave-owner in Framingham, put out an advertisement about a runaway slave named Crispus. In the advertisement, Brown offered a reward of 10 pounds to whoever found and returned Attucks to him. The description in the advertisement fit Crispus Attucks.  This suggests that Attucks was a runaway slave.  Still, people have argued for decades about whether Attucks was a free black man or a runaway slave.
Attucks may have worked as a dockworker or a merchant seaman.  He definitely became a sailor and spent most of the rest of his life at sea.  He often worked on whalers, which involved long trips at sea. Many historians also believe that he went by the alias "Michael Johnson" in order to avoid being caught and sent back to slavery. He may only have been temporarily in Boston in early 1770, having recently returned from a voyage to the Bahamas. He was due to leave shortly afterwards on a ship for North Carolina.

Reaction and trials
John Adams successfully argued that most of the accused British soldiers fired their guns in self-defense.  He got all but two of the soldiers acquitted of murder (found not guilty). Two of the soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter. They were punished by being branded (burned) on their thumbs.  While defending the British soldiers, Adams called the crowd "a motley rabble of saucy boys, negros and molattoes, Irish teagues and outlandish Jack Tarrs." In particular, he accused Attucks of having decided "to be the hero of the night," and of having started a conflict with his "mad behavior."

The five people killed in the Massacre were buried as heroes in the Granary Burying Ground, which also contains the graves of Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and other important people.
Importance in history
After being killed in the Boston Massacre, Attucks was held up as the first martyr of the American Revolution.  The deaths of Attucks and four other Americans enraged the American people and helped trigger the start of the American Revolution.

Attucks also became a symbol of the abolitionist (anti-slavery) movement in the 18th century.  In the early 19th century, as the abolitionist movement gained strength in Boston, supporters praised Attucks as an African American who played a heroic role in the history of the United States.  Because Attucks was of mixed African and Native American heritage, he also became an important figure in Native American history.

Legacy and honors
1858: Boston-area abolitionists, including William Cooper Nell, created "Crispus Attucks Day" to honor Attucks.
 1888: A monument honoring Attucks and the other victims of the Boston Massacre was created on Boston Common. It is over 25 feet high and about 10 feet wide. It shows the Boston Massacre, with Attucks lying in the foreground. Under the scene is the date: March 5, 1770. Above the scene stands a female figure, Free America, holding the broken chain of oppression in her right hand. Beneath her right foot, she crushes the royal crown of England. At the left of the figure is an eagle. Thirteen stars are cut into one of the faces of the monument. Beneath these stars in raised letters are the names of the five men who were killed that day: Crispus Attucks, Samuel Gray, James Caldwell, Samuel Maverick, and Patrick Carr. Some men died a day later.
In 1888, the Massachusetts Historical Society and the New England Historic Genealogical Society did not want the Attucks memorial to be created.  However, since the 20th century, both organizations have acknowledged his importance in history, and have created museum exhibits about black history and genealogy.
 1998: The United States Treasury released "The Black Revolutionary War Patriots Silver Dollar" featuring Attucks' image.  Funds from sales of the coin were intended for a proposed Black Revolutionary War Patriots Memorial in Washington, DC.
 2002: The Afrocentrist scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Crispus Attucks as among the 100 Greatest African Americans.
In popular culture 
 "First man to die for the flag we now hold high was a black man" is a line from Stevie Wonder's song "Black Man".
 "Crispus Attucks, the first blasted" is a line from Nas's song "You Can't Stop Us Now".
 The poet John Boyle O'Reilly wrote the following poem when the monument was finally unveiled:
And to honor Crispus Attucks who was the leader and voice that day: The first to defy, and the first to die, with Maverick, Carr, and Gray. Call it riot or revolution, or mob or crowd as you may, such deaths have been seeds of nations, such lives shall be honored for aye...
 Melvin Tolson begins his poem "Dark Symphony" with the lines: 
 "Black Crispus Attucks taught / Us how to die / Before white Patrick Henry’s bugle breath / Uttered the Vertical / Transmitting cry: / 'Yea, give me liberty or give me death.'”
Martin Luther King, Jr. spoke about Attucks in the introduction of Why We Can't Wait (1964), as an example of a man whose contribution to history provided a strong message of moral courage.
 In an unsourced, popular book about Attucks, James Neyland wrote his appraisal of the man's significance:
He is one of the most important figures in African-American history, not for what he did for his own race but for what he did for all oppressed people everywhere. He is a reminder that the African-American heritage is not only African but American and it is a heritage that begins with the beginning of America.
 Attucks is discussed at length in the book "Rush Revere and the First Patriots" by Rush Limbaugh. The book is second in a series celebrating "Exceptional Americans."
 Nat King Cole mentions Crispus Attucks in the spoken introduction to his Capitol Records recording of "We Are Americans, Too".
References

1723 births
1770 deaths
People from Massachusetts
African-American people
Murdered African-American people
American revolutionaries
Slaves
Native American people
Murdered Native American people
Deaths by firearm in the United States
Glenn Lewis Frey () (November 6, 1948 – January 18, 2016) was an American singer, songwriter, producer and actor. He was best known as a founding member of rock band the Eagles. 

During the seventies, Frey played guitar with the band, as well as piano and keyboards. Frey was one of the primary singers of the Eagles, he sang lead vocals on songs such as "Take It Easy", "Peaceful Easy Feeling", "Tequila Sunrise", "Already Gone", "Lyin' Eyes", "New Kid in Town", and "Heartache Tonight".

On January 18, 2016, Frey died in New York City at the age of 67 from rheumatoid arthritis, acute ulcerative colitis, and pneumonia. He had been recovering from intestinal surgery.

References

Other websites
Other websites

Grammy Award winners
1948 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from surgical complications
Deaths from pneumonia
Deaths from arthritis
American singer-songwriters
American guitarists
American rock musicians
American country musicians
American painters
American movie actors
Musicians from Detroit
Singers from Detroit
Writers from Detroit
Actors from Detroit
Michel Tournier (19 December 1924 – 18 January 2016) was a French writer. He has won awards such as the Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française in 1967 for Friday, or, The Other Island and the Prix Goncourt for The Erl-King in 1970. He was a member of the Académie Goncourt. His autobiography has been translated and published as The Wind Spirit (Beacon Press, 1988). He had been named as a contender for the Nobel Prize in Literature. He was born in Paris, France.

Tournier died on 18 January 2016 in Choisel, France at the age of 91.

References

1924 births
2016 deaths
Writers from Paris
A viral envelope is the outermost layer of a virus. It protects the virus when it moves between host cells as part of its life-cycle. Not all viruses have envelopes.

The envelopes are made from parts of the host cell membranes (phospholipids and proteins), but include some viral glycoproteins. They may help viruses avoid the host immune system. Glycoproteins on the surface of the envelope help to identify and bind to receptor sites on the host's membrane. The viral envelope then fuses with the host's membrane, allowing virus genome to enter and infect the host.

Some enveloped viruses also have a capsid. This is another protein layer, between the envelope and the genome.
The cell from which a virus buds often dies or is weakened. The lipid bilayer envelope of these viruses is sensitive to desiccation, heat, and detergents This makes it easier to sterile these viruses than non-enveloped viruses. They can not survive for very long outside host environments, and usually need to move directly from host to host. They are very adaptable and can change in a short time in order to evade the immune system. Enveloped viruses can cause persistent infections.

Examples of enveloped viruses 
There are several classes of enveloped viruses that can infect humans and cause illness:

 DNA viruses
 Herpesviruses
 Poxviruses
 Hepadnaviruses
 Asfarviridae
 RNA viruses
 Flavivirus
 Alphavirus
 Togavirus
 Coronavirus
 Hepatitis D
 Orthomyxovirus
 Paramyxovirus
 Rhabdovirus (Rabies)
 Bunyavirus
 Filovirus
 Retroviruses
 Retroviruses

References

Other websites 

 
Virology
Bulworth is a 1998 American political comedy movie. Warren Beatty plays the title character. Halle Berry plays Nina. Don Cheadle plays L.D.. Paul Sorvino plays Graham Crockett. Christine Baranski plays Constance Bulworth.

Plot
In the movie, California Senator Jay Bulworth is losing his bid for re-election to a fiery young populist. His socialist views, formed in the 1960s and 1970s, have lost favor with voters. He has changed to more conservative politics. He also accepts donations from big corporations. Furthermore, he and his wife have been having affairs for years, with each other's knowledge.

Bulworth is tired of politics. He is also unhappy with his life in general and planning to commit suicide. He negotiates a $10 million life insurance policy with his daughter as the beneficiary. Knowing that a suicide will void his daughter's inheritance, he plans to have himself murdered in two days' time.
Bulworth turns up in California extremely drunk. He also smokes marijuana and raps in public. His frank and offensive remarks make him an instant media darling and re-energize his campaign. Along the way he becomes romantically involved with a young black activist named Nina. Nina tags along with him on his campaign stops. As the movie progresses, he gets pursued by paparazzi, his insurance company and the public.

Cast
 Warren Beatty as Senator Jay Billington Bulworth
 Halle Berry as Nina
 Oliver Platt as Dennis Murphy
 Don Cheadle as L.D.
 Paul Sorvino as Graham Crockett
 Jack Warden as Eddie Davers
 Isaiah Washington as Darnell
 Christine Baranski as Constance Bulworth
 Amiri Baraka as Rastaman
 Joshua Malina as Bill Feldman
 Sean Astin as Gary
 Barry Shabaka Henley as the bartender
 Helen Martin as Momma Doll
Cameos
 William Baldwin as Constance's lover
 Larry King as himself
 Michael Clarke Duncan as Bouncer
 George Hamilton as himself
Reception
Bulworth made a great deal of controversy. However, it received a positive reception from movie critics. It has a 75% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.

Box office
The movie was released on May 15, 1998. It did extremely well in limited release. It took in more than $29 million in the box office.

References

1998 comedy movies
American comedy movies
Hip hop
20th Century Fox movies
Political movies
Paul Sorvino (April 13, 1939 – July 25, 2022) was an American actor. He often played authority figures on both sides of the law. He played Paulie Cicero in the 1990 gangster movie Goodfellas. He also played NYPD Sergeant Phil Cerreta in Law & Order. He was the father of actress Mira Sorvino.

Sorvino was born in Brooklyn, New York City.

On July 25, 2022, Sorvino died of natural causes at the Mayo Clinic in Jacksonville, Florida at the age of 83.

References

1939 births
2022 deaths
American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from New York City
American voice actors
Businesspeople from New York City
Singers from New York City
Writers from New York City
Isaiah Washington IV (born August 3, 1963) is an American actor. He has been in several movies made by Spike Lee. Between 2005 and 2007, he played Dr. Preston Burke on ABC's Grey's Anatomy. He also played Vic in the 1994 drama movie Crooklyn.

Washington was born in Houston, Texas.

Filmography

References

American television actors
American movie actors
Actors from Houston
1963 births
Living people
A stock, also known as a shoulder stock, a buttstock, or simply a butt is a part of a rifle or other firearm, to which the barrel and firing mechanism are attached. It is held firmly against the shooter's shoulder when firing the gun. Stocks are also found on crossbows, though a crossbow stock is properly called a tiller. The stock provides a means for the shooter to firmly support the device and easily aim it. The stock also transmits recoil (the shock of firing the weapon) into the shooter's shoulder. The term stock dates to 1571 and comes from the Germanic word stoc, meaning tree trunk. This refers to the wooden nature of the gunstock.

References 

Firearm components
At both the federal and state levels, the law of the United States is largely based on the common law system of English law. This was the system of law that was in force at the time of the Revolutionary War. However, American law has changed from its English ancestor both in terms of substance and procedure. American law also borrows ideas from civil law.

References 

 
United States Constitution
Ninja Kiwi, which was previously known as Kaiparasoft Ltd, is a mobile and online video game developer founded in Auckland, New Zealand. It was founded in 2006 by brothers Chris and Stephen Harris. 

Ninja Kiwi's first game was a browser based game called Cash Sprint, developed on the Adobe Flash Platform. Since then, they have produced more than 60 games across platforms including Adobe Flash, Android, iOS, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS, and more recently, Steam. They are most known for producing the Bloons and Bloons Tower Defense games. 

In 2012, Ninja Kiwi purchased Digital Goldfish, a Dundee, Scotland-based developer, for an undisclosed sum. After merging Digital Goldfish to Ninja Kiwi, this increased the total number of Ninja Kiwi employees to 35. By 2021, the total number of employees increased to 70.
Ninja Kiwi has a virtual currency known as NK Coins. Players make purchases of games and in-game purchases by using NK Coins. About eighteen months before Mochi Media's parent company disappeared, Mochi Media discontinued its virtual currency (Mochi Coins), and it was replaced with Ninja Kiwi's virtual currency.

Ninja Kiwi was bought by Modern Times Group on 24th March 2021.

References

Video game companies
2006 establishments
Companies of New Zealand
Joseph Patrick "Joe" Kenda (born November 14, 1946) is an American television presenter and retired police detective. He is the former Colorado Springs Police Department detective who solved nearly 400 murders in his career. He is featured on the Investigation Discovery television show Homicide Hunter, where he recounts stories of homicides he solved.

Kenda was born in Herminie, Pennsylvania. He studied at the University of Pittsburgh.

References

Other websites
Joe Kenda at the Internet Movie Database
Homicide Hunter  on Investigation Discovery

1946 births
Living people
American police officers
American television presenters
People from Pennsylvania
Jane O’Meara Sanders (born January 3, 1950) is an American civil servant and educator. She is the former President of Burlington College and the wife of United States senator of Vermont and Democratic 2016 Presidential candidate Bernie Sanders. In 1996, she earned a doctorate from Union Institute & University.

Sanders was born in Brooklyn, New York. She studied at Goddard College. Sanders was married to David Driscoll until they divorced. They had three children. Sanders met Bernie in 1981 when Bernie was elected mayor of Burlington, Vermont. They were married in 1988.

Sanders was named President of Burlington College in 2004. She resigned as president in 2011.

References

1950 births
Living people
Academics from Vermont
American civil servants
Bernie Sanders
People from Brooklyn
People from Burlington, Vermont
Ilse Koch (22 September 1906 – 1 September 1967), was the wife of Karl-Otto Koch.  (Before getting married, Koch's maiden name was Margarete Ilse Köhler.)  During World War II, Karl-Otto Koch was the Commandant (commander) of the Nazi concentration camps at Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald, and finally Majdanek.  In 1947, Ilse Koch became one of the first important Nazis to be tried by the United States Military.

Mass media around the world covered Ilse Koch's trial.  People who had survived the Buchenwald and Majdanek camps talked about how she enjoyed abusing prisoners at the camps.  For example, they said she used to like beating prisoners with her riding crop, and that she used to make prisoners do exhausting exercise because she liked watching them suffer.   In Germany after the war, Koch was seen as "the concentration camp murderess."  She was accused of having prisoners with interesting tattoos murdered so she could take their skin as souvenirs.
The prisoners at the concentration camps called Koch Die Hexe von Buchenwald ("The Witch of Buchenwald") because of she would act cruelly and sexually towards prisoners at the same time.  In English, she has also been called "The Beast of Buchenwald," the "Queen of Buchenwald," the "Red Witch of Buchenwald," the "Butcher Widow," and, most often, "The Bitch of Buchenwald."

Early life
Koch was born Margarete Ilse Köhler on 22 September 1906 in Dresden, Germany.  Her father was a factory foreman.  In elementary school, she was known as a polite and happy child.  At age 15, she started school to become an accountant.  Later, she went to work as a bookkeeping clerk.  Germany's economy had been ruined when Germany lost World War I, and at the time that Koch worked in bookkeeping, the economy still had not recovered.
In 1932, Koch became a member of the Nazi Party, which was getting more and more popular.  Through some friends in the Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS), she met Karl-Otto Koch in 1934.  They got married two years later.

War crimes

In 1936, Koch began working as a guard and secretary at the Sachsenhausen concentration camp near Berlin, which her fiance, Karl-Otto, commanded.  They got married the same year.  In 1937, Koch went to Buchenwald when Karl-Otto was made Commandant there.  While at Buchenwald, Koch helped with an experiment by picking out tattooed prisoners to be murdered and skinned, so the tattooed parts of their skin could be kept.  Koch later said she did this to help a prison doctor, Erich Wagner, in his study of tattooing and crime.
In 1940, Koch built an indoor sports arena, which cost over 250,000 reichsmarks (equal to about $62,500 at the time).  She had stolen most of this money from prisoners at the camp.  In 1941, Karl-Otto Koch was transferred to Lublin, where he helped create the Majdanek concentration and extermination camp.  Ilse Koch stayed at Buchenwald until 24 August 1943.  On that day, she and her husband were arrested.  The Kochs were charged with embezzlement; stealing huge amounts of money and valuables from prisoners to make themselves rich; and murdering prisoners to keep them from talking about what the Kochs were doing.

Ilse Koch was put in prison until 1944, when she was found not guilty because there was not enough evidence against her.  However, her husband was found guilty and sentenced to death by an SS court in Munich.  He was shot to death in Buchenwald in April of 1945.
After her husband was executed, Ilse Koch went to live with her surviving family in the town of Ludwigsburg.  She was arrested there by United States officials on 30 June 1945.

First trial

Koch and 30 other Nazis were arraigned before the American military court at Dachau in 1947.  She was charged with "participating in a criminal plan for aiding, abetting and participating in the murders at Buchenwald."  This meant she had been part of a plan to murder people at Buchenwald, and had helped with the murders in some way.
In the courtroom, Koch said that she was pregnant.  She was telling the truth; she was eight months pregnant.  Koch already had a reputation for having sex with many different men.  The Buchenwald Report said there were rumors that Koch was having relationships with Waldemar Hoven, the chief medical doctor at Buchenwald, and Hermann Florstedt, the Deputy Commandant, at the same time.  In his book Innocent at Dachau, the Dachau tribunal court reporter, Joseph Halow, wrote that rumors said Koch had relationships with many SS officers, and even with some of the prisoners at the Buchenwald concentration camp.  Still, Koch's pregnancy surprised the court because she was 41 years old at the time.  She was also being kept by herself in prison, and saw no men except the Americans who questioned her; most of them were Jewish. In his book, Halow also says he was shocked to learn that Koch may have turned to other men because her husband was a homosexual
.  Records at Buchenwald showed that he had been treated for syphilis.
On 19 August 1947, Koch was sentenced to life in prison for "[breaking] the laws and customs of war."

Lighter sentence
On 8 June 1948, General Lucius D. Clay, the temporary military governor of the American Zone in Germany, decreased Koch's life sentence to four years in prison.  He gave the reason that "there was no convincing evidence that she had selected inmates for [murder] in order to secure tattooed skins, or that she [had anything] made of human skin."

A biography of General Clay, written by Jean Edward Smith, says that years later, the General said:

However, the General also said: 

News of the change in Koch's sentence did not become public until 16 September 1948.  Many people were furious about the change, but General Clay did not change his mind.
Second trial
Because people were so upset about her lighter sentence, Koch was re-arrested in 1949 and tried before a West German court. The trial started on 27 November 1950 and lasted seven weeks.  During this time, 250 witnesses testified, including 50 who defended Koch.  Koch collapsed and had to be carried from the court in late December 1950, and again on 11 January 1951.  At least four separate witnesses for the prosecution testified either that they had seen Koch choose tattooed prisoners, who were then killed; or that they had seen or helped make human-skin lampshades from tattooed skin.  However, prosecutors dropped this charge when they could not prove lampshades or any other items were actually made from human skin.
On 15 January 1951, the Court gave its verdict in a 111 page-long decision.  Koch was not in court for the verdict.  The Court decided that it could still try Koch, even though she had already been tried in 1944 and 1947, because it was charging her with different crimes than the other trials did.  Because of this, trying Koch again would not be double jeopardy.  Koch was convicted of charges of incitement (encouraging others) to murder, attempt to murder, and hurt other people badly.  On 15 January 1951 , Koch was sentenced to life in prison, and her civil rights were taken away forever.

Koch appealed the Court's decision, but the appeal was denied on 22 April 1952 by the Federal Court of Justice of Germany.  Koch later tried several times to get a pardon.  However, the Bavarian Ministry of Justice refused all of her requests.  Koch also protested her life sentence to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, but got no help from them.
Family
Karl and Ilse Koch had a son named Artwin and two daughters named Gisele and Gudrun (Gudrun died as a baby).  Their son killed himself after the war.  Ilse Koch had another son, Uwe, conceived in her prison cell at Dachau by an unknown father.  Uwe was born in the Aichach women's prison near Dachau where Koch was sent to serve her life sentence.  Right away, he was taken away from her.  At the age of 19, Uwe Köhler learned that Koch was his mother and began visiting her regularly at Aichach.

Death
Koch killed herself at Aichach prison on 1 September 1967, at age 60, by hanging herself with her bedsheets.

Ilse Koch’s husband’s SS ranks 1934-1937
SS-Obersturmfuhrer ; Lieutenant,SS-Haupsturmfuhrer ; Captain  (1934)

SS-Sturmbannfuhrer ; Major,SS-Obersturmbannfuhrer ; Lieutenant-Colonel (1935-1936)

SS-Standartenfuhrer ; Colonel (1937)
 The Holocaust
 Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps
 Buchenwald concentration camp
 Nazi Germany

References
References

1906 births
1967 deaths
German war criminals
Holocaust perpetrators
Nazis who committed suicide
People from Dresden
People who committed suicide in prison custody
Suicides by hanging
Suicides in Germany
A per mille is a sign which means parts per thousand. Per mil should not be confused with parts per million (ppm).

It is written ‰, which looks like a percent sign (%) with an extra zero in the divisor.

References 

Mathematics
Benadryl is a brand name for a number of different medications sold by Johnson & Johnson to relieve allergies and coughs. It usually contains antihistamine diphenhydramine. In the United Kingdom, it contains either the antihistamine acrivastine or the long-acting antihistamine cetirizine. Benadryl products are sold in Australia and New Zealand as a cough medicine and do not contain any antihistamine.

References

Antihistamines
Robert Merlin "Bob" Carter (9 March 1942 – 19 January 2016) was a British-born Australian palaeontologist and stratigrapher. He was best known for his strong doubt about the state of climate change in Australia. He was professor and head of the School of Earth Sciences at James Cook University from 1981 to 1998.

Carter was born in England on 9 March 1942. He moved to New Zealand in 1956. He graduated at the University of Otago in 1963 and the University of Cambridge in 1968. He was married to Anne Carter.

Carter died from problems caused by a heart attack on 19 January 2016 in Townsville, Queensland. He was 73.

References

1942 births
2016 deaths
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Australian academics
Australian scientists
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Disease-related deaths in Queensland
British geologists
British palaeontologists
A gunshot is the discharge of a firearm. It produces a mechanical sound effect and a chemical gunshot residue. The term can also refer to a gunshot wound caused by the bullet. Multiple discharges of a firearm or firearms are referred to as gunfire. The word can mean either the sound of a gun firing, the projectiles that were fired, or both.  For example, the statement "gunfire came from the next street" could either mean the sound of discharge, or it could mean the bullets themselves.  It is better to be more specific while writing however. "The sound of gunfire" or "we came under gunfire" would be more descriptive and prevent confusion.
Gunfire characteristics
There are three things that characterize gunfire and allow a person to detect and locate gunfire and similar weapon discharges:
 An optical flash (called muzzle flash) that occurs when an explosive charge is ignited when firing the weapon.
 A muzzle blast that occurs when a weapon is fired. A typical muzzle blast generates a sound wave with a sound pressure level (SPL) of 140dB or louder.
 A “snap” or “crack” caused by the sonic boom that occurs as a projectile moves through the air at supersonic speeds.

Gunfire can be confused with other sounds that can sound similar. These include firework explosions and cars backfiring. The sounds may be heard at greater distances in the direction of bullet travel than behind or to either side of the firearm.
Suppressors 
A suppressor, sometimes called a "silencer", can be attached to the muzzle of a firearm to reduce the sound of firing the weapon. Suppressors attached to the muzzle will not reduce the sound of high velocity gas released from other locations like the gap between the cylinder and barrel of a revolver. A muzzle silencer is also ineffective in reducing the snap of a supersonic bullet, or the noise produced by the mechanical action of a self-loading firearm. Use of silencers is rare in United States crimes. A 2007 study estimated unlawful silencers were involved in only 0.05 percent (1 in 2,000) federal criminal prosecutions. Also, these include cases where the silencer was not used, but simply in the possession of the defendant for 92% of prosecutions involving a silencer.

References

Other websites 
 Gunshot sound effect, YouTube

Firearms
The Hartheim Killing Facility () was a killing centre that Nazi Germany used to kill people with disabilities during World War II.  The Nazis' ideas about eugenics said that people with disabilities were "life unworthy of life.  Hartheim was one of six "euthanasia centres" the Nazis set up for their T4 Euthanasia Programme. Their goal was to get rid of all of Germany's people with disabilities. The killing centre was housed in Hartheim Castle in Alkoven, near Linz, Austria.
Hartheim statistics 
In June 1945, after the United States took over Austria, an American soldier found the Hartheim statistics in the Castle.  This was a 39-page report written about the T-4 Euthanasia Programme (Aktion T4).  It was meant to be seen by other Nazis in the program only.  In the report were monthly counts of how many people with mental and physical disabilities were "disinfected" (gassed to death) in the Nazis' six euthanasia centres.  In 1968 and 1970, an ex-employee said that he had to put together the material at the end of 1942.  The Hartheim statistics included a page that said that "disinfecting [killing] 70,273 people with a life expectation of 10 years" had saved food in the value of 141,775,573.80 Reichsmarks.

Numbers killed in the first extermination phase in Hartheim 

According to the Hartheim statistics, between May 1940 and 1 September, 1941, a total of 18,269 people were killed in the gas chamber at Hartheim:
These statistics only cover the first extermination phase of the Nazi's euthanasia programme, Action T4.  Hitler officially ended that program because of protests, but secretly he kept killing people with disabilities. He also kept killing people he did not like right up to the end of the war.

In all it is estimated that a total of 30,000 people were executed at Hartheim. Among those killed were sick prisoners, prisoners with disabilities, and prisoners from concentration camps.  The killings were carried out by carbon monoxide poisoning.

14 f 13 "Special Treatment" programme 
Just three days after the formal end of Action T4, a lorry arrived at Hartheim with 70 Jewish inmates from Mauthausen concentration camp.  The inmates were killed at Hartheim. The Hartheim killing centre achieved a special reputation, because it was where the largest number of patients, and the most concentration prisoners, were gassed.  Their numbers are estimated at 12,000.
Prisoners at Mauthausen who were no longer able to work, especially in the quarries, and "politically undesirable" prisoners were brought to Hartheim to be executed.  These victims included:
 "German-haters" (people who did not agree with what the Nazis were doing)
 "Communists
 "Polish fanatics"

From 1944 on, T4 doctors no longer picked out sick, elderly, or disabled prisoners to be killed.  Instead, the Nazis' new goal was to free up space in the Mauthausen camp quickly, so they would send groups of women to Hartheim to be killed.  Other transports came from the concentration camp of Gusen, and probably also from Ravensbrück, during 1944.  These transports were made most of women with tuberculosis and women who had been labeled mentally ill.

Doctors
Doctors

Adolf Hitler's order from 1 September 1939 approving the start of the T4 Programme only mentioned doctors.  Because of this, the Action T4 organisers, Viktor Brack and Karl Brandt, ordered that only medical doctors could execute sick patients.  Doctors controlled the poison gas in the euthanasia centres.  Many doctors used fake names in records about the people they killed.

From 1940 to 1945, Rudolf Lonauer was the head doctor at Hartheim, and Georg Renno was the Deputy head doctor.

Niedernhart holding station 
The Action T4 Euthanasia Centres had temporary holding stations for victims.  For example, many trucks carrying victims to Hartheim would stop at the Niedernhart Mental Institute in Linz, where Rudolf Lonauer was the senior doctor, as he was at Hartheim.  At Niedernhart, victims were mainly killed by starvation or medical overdose (by giving deadly amounts of medicine).  Patients would be put into categories.  Some would be chosen and taken to Hartheim to be killed.

Victims
Victims

People with disabilities
The Nazis thought that many different groups of people, but especially people with disabilities, were "life unworthy of life."  They killed children and adults in their Euthanasia Centers.  These victims included:
 People with medical problems, like epilepsy and muscular dystrophy
 People with physical disabilities
 People with mental illnesses, like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder
 People with intellectual disabilities (what was then called mental retardation or "feeble-mindedness")
 People who were deaf or blind

Clergy

Almost 350 priests were killed at Hartheim.  These victims included 310 Polish priests, seven Germans, six Czechs, four Luxemburgians, three Dutch, and two Belgians.  Many of them were taken from the Priest's Block in Dachau concentration camp.
Dachau's chaplain, Hermann Scheipers, was also moved to the camp's invalid's block, so he could be taken to Hartheim as well.  Scheipers' sister—who had kept in touch with Schiepers by mail—tracked down Dr. Bernsdorf, who was in charge of the clergy imprisoned in the Priest's Block.  She told him that, in Münsterland, many people knew that imprisoned priests were sent to the gas chambers.  After the conversation, Bernsdorf telephoned the commandant's office at Dachau.  Scheipers reported that on that same day, 13 August 1942, he and three other German clergymen were saved from being sent to Hartheim.  They were moved from the invalid's block, where the Schutzstaffel (SS) sent prisoners when they were going to be sent to another camp.  The four clergymen were sent back to the priest's block.

Related pages
 Nazi eugenics
 The Holocaust
 Nazi Germany

References

The Holocaust
Euthanasia
Upper Austria
20th-century establishments in Austria
Gunshot residue (GSR) is one of the results of firing a gun. When a bullet leaves the barrel of a firearm, it is accompanied by gases that include both burned and unburned particles of gunpowder. It also includes traces of metal from the firearm, the ammunition and the primer including the signature components of gunshot residue: lead, barium and antimony. GSR is usually found on the skin and clothing of the person who fired the gun. It may also be found in the entrance wound of the victim. This depends on how close the victim was to the gun when it was fired.

Forensic science of GSR 
When a gun is fired, a plume of gas—including GSR particles—is ejected from the barrel and any other openings in the gun. The gunshot residue is deposited on objects that are close to the fired gun including the gun itself.
Crime scene specialists collect GSR from people and objects when there is reason to believe it may be there. The collected samples are then taken to a laboratory where they are examined. Forensic scientists can also use GSR residue to determine the distance between the barrel of the fired weapon and the target. The farther from the weapon the less the gunshot residue. Collection of GSR is time sensitive in many cases. After 4 to 8 hours it may wear off people's hands. It can remain for longer periods on a dead body or other objects. A number of advancements have been made in gunshot residue examinations in recent years. One improvement is in the use of scanning electron microscopes.

Recently, a test for finding GSR when the ammunition used was "green" or lead-free. In the past lead was required to be in the sample to identify it as GSR. Now a new test can identify GSR as small as a single particle.
The presence of GSR 
In addition to the person who fired a weapon, finding GSR can show:
 A person was standing near the firearm when it was fired.
 A subject may have handled a firearm or ammunition.
 A subject may have touched a surface that had GSR.

GSR may not be present for a number of reasons:
 The subject did not fire the weapon.
 No GSR was found on the area selected for sampling.
 GSR was removed by washing or wiping hands or clothing.
 Samples were taken more than 4 hours after the shooting.

References

Other websites 
 Composition of gunshot residue 
 Forensic Lab Technicians

Firearms
Forensics
The list of essential medicines is a listing of drugs compiled by the WHO. The list contains a number of drugs, which cover the basic  needs of a society. The drugs on the list should be easy to get, and affordable. The list was first published in 1977. It is reviewed every two years. In 2003, 156 countries have joined the effort. As of 2016, over 300 different drugs and vaccines are on the list. About 95 percent of the drugs and substances on the list are not covered by patents, which means that generic drugs using the substance indicated can be produced easily.
There are two major problems with the list: First, there are a number of diseases which mainly occur in developing countries. Many people there cannot afford to pay high prices for drugs, which means pharmaceutical companies are not interested in developing new drugs for such diseases. Examples for such diseases are malaria or tuberculosis. The second problem is that certain drugs on the list are patented, and they are often expensive. Examples for the second kind of drugs are those used to treat AIDS.

According to a study done by the world bank, about a third of the world's population does not have access to these drugs.

References

the List, english version

Drugs
Berkshire County is a county in the U.S. state of Massachusetts.  As of the 2010 Census, the county had a population of 131,219. The county seat and largest city is Pittsfield.

References

 
1761 establishments
1760s establishments in Massachusetts
Rogerson is an unincorporated community in Twin Falls County, Idaho, United States. Rogerson is part of the Twin Falls, Idaho Micropolitan Statistical Area.

Twin Falls County, Idaho
Unincorporated communities in Idaho
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (pronounced  ) or CJD is a neurological disease.  It is degenerative (it gets worse over time); it cannot be cured, and it always causes death. CJD is sometimes called a human form of "mad cow disease" (bovine spongiform encephalopathy, or BSE).  BSE is actually a cause of one rare type of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease; the two are not the same disease.

CJD is caused by an infectious agent called a prion.  Prions are proteins that are folded wrong.  Prions make copies of themselves by changing correctly folded proteins into misfolded shapes.  CJD causes brain tissue to become unhealthy very quickly.  As the disease destroys the brain, the brain develops holes.  The brain's texture changes and becomes like a kitchen sponge.

Types and causes of CJD
Types of CJD include:
variant (vCJD):
This type of CJD may be caused by eating food that has prions in it, like meat from cows that have BSE ("mad cow disease").  However, this is a very uncommon cause of CJD.