Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
These forests were on the equator, and the wetlands, which are always low-lying, stretched across the supercontinent of Laurussia. This included what is now North America in the west, through what is now Europe to China in the east. The river plain which was the heart of the wetland stretched 5000 km from eastern Canada to Ukraine, and was 700 km wide.p6

In the Carboniferous, the great tropical rainforests of Euramerica supported towering lycopodiophyta, and a mix of vegetation, as well as a great diversity of animal life: giant dragonflies, millipedes, cockroaches, amphibians, and the first amniotes.
This kind of climate and geography has no exact parallel today, but the peat swamp forests in Indonesia and Malaysia, the Amazon Basin, the Mississippi River system and the Okefenokee swamp give some idea. The swamps were dominated by giant clubmosses, including Lepidodendron. They were the earliest trees, later replaced by conifers and flowering plants. Sometimes other plants from the levee got swept down by the river, such as horsetails, ferns and tree-like pteridosperms.

The wetland forest climates shifted when the land level was raised by the pressure of the Gondwana continent against Laurussia. This caused the zone of contact between the continents to rise. The end of the coal measures marks the end of the Carboniferous period. China was too far away to be affected. There, the wetland forests continued for another 50 million years, into the Permian.p30

References 

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The Mesozoic Era was the geological era in which dinosaurs lived, as well as the first mammals. It lasted about 186 million years, starting 252.2 mya (million years ago) with the P/Tr extinction and ending 65 mya with the K/T extinction (the one that killed all dinosaurs except birds).

Dinosaurs appeared around 231 mya (21 million years after the beginning of the Mesozoic). They evolved from the reptiles called archosaurs. Modern birds and crocodiles are part of that group.

Although mammals originated in the Upper Triassic, they did not live like dinosaurs. Mammals spent most of the long Jurassic and Cretaceous periods as small nocturnal animals living mainly in forests. Most lost their color vision. Mammals today have some color vision. Most have red-green color blindness, with only two types of cone cells. Some primates evolved a third type of cone cell, which gives them trichromacy. Color is needed in forests to spot ripe fruit.
The Mesozoic is the middle of the three eras that make up the Phanerozoic eon. Before the Mesozoic was the Palaeozoic era. The K/T extinction in 65 mya also marks the beginning of the Cenozoic era, the one we live in.

The three Mesozoic periods were:

 Triassic (252–201 mya)
Lower Triassic (252–247 mya)
Middle Triassic (247–237 mya)
Upper Triassic (237–201 mya)
 Jurassic (201–145 mya)
Lower Jurassic (201–176 mya)
Middle Jurassic (176–161 mya)
Upper Jurassic (161–145 mya)
 Cretaceous (145–66 mya)
Lower Cretaceous (145–100 mya)
Upper Cretaceous (100–65 mya)

Ecology 
The ecology of this world was quite different to that of the Pleistocene, the era when humans evolved. For much of human history we lived in a cold world with quite a sharp difference between land and sea.

The Mesozoic was a much warmer world, with a higher temperature, and a high water stand. There was little or no ice at the poles and the continents had large areas covered with shallow continental seas.
Moreover, the continents were all quite near each other, or actually touching. Many land animals could walk or swim to other continents. Actually, the Mesozoic starts off with all the continents together in Pangaea. They stayed pretty close for the rest of the Mesozoic.

Textbooks have always described how the Mesozoic was the age of the dinosaurs, which has even more sense now that we know birds descended from land dinosaurs. It was the age, too, of extraordinary marine reptiles. Mammals were mainly small nocturnal animals which scurried around in the night-times of the great forests. We know from their loss of color vision (which is trichromatic in fish and reptiles) that mammals lived a nocturnal life.
Plants 
For most of the Mesozoic, the plants were different from those of today. Only in the Upper Cretaceous do we find flowering plants of the modern kind. Before then ferns, cycads and conifers covered the land. They were the typical food of the huge vegetarian dinosaurs. Horsetails like Equisetum formed the understory of the huge conifer forests.

References 

Mesozoic
The Palaeozoic (or Paleozoic) era is the earliest of the three eras of the Phanerozoic. Its name means early life. It lasted from about 541 to 252 million years ago (mya), and ended with the greatest extinction event, the Permian–Triassic extinction event.

Beginning
The Palaeozoic began with an explosion of life forms. The Cambrian explosion marks the era with thousands of new life forms in the ancient seas. The era saw many important events, including the development of most invertebrate groups, life's conquest of land, the evolution of fish, reptiles, synapsids (the ancestors of mammals), amphibians, insects, and plants, the formation of the supercontinent of Pangea, and at least two distinct ice ages. The earth rotated faster than it does today so days were shorter, and the nearer moon caused stronger tides.

Oxygen and CO2 levels
At the start of the long Carboniferous period oxygen was low and carbon dioxide was high. The huge growth of trees and other plants during this time reversed these data. The carbon dioxide level dropped throughout the Carboniferous, and the oxygen level rose continuously until it dropped in the Permian. 

Oxygen reached a peak of about 30% about 280 million years ago. That is much higher than today's 21%.

Periods
The six periods of the Palaeozoic are:
Permian
Carboniferous
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian

References
Blackjack (Twenty-one, pontoon or Vingt-et-un) is a kind of card game which usually involves gambling. It is often played in casinos. There is a dealer, who deals cards from a special device called a 'dealer's shoe' or a 'shuffling machine'. The dealer has one to eight decks. When there are one or two decks, the dealer usually holds the decks instead of dealing from a shoe.

It is a 'dealer versus players game'. Each player has their own game against the dealer. Cards are dealt in succession, and bets placed for each hand. Players win if their cards add up to more than the dealer's hand to a limit of 21. Hands which add up to more than 21, called busted hands, lose. Face cards count as 10. Aces can count as one or eleven.
'Blackjack', an ace and a face card or ten, is the top scorer. Blackjack usually pays a bonus. Five cards adding to 21 or fewer is the next ranking hand. Apart from that, unbusted hands rank by total add-up. Hands below the dealer's hand lose unless the dealer goes over 21 (busts). Hands equal to the dealer's keep their chips. If both the player and dealer bust, the dealer wins.

Players have a choice whether or not to get extra cards. Stand means to get no more cards and hit means to ask for another card. To stand, wave your hand back and forth. To ask for another card, wave your hand toward you. You can ask for any number of cards unless you bust. The dealer has rules as to when he takes extra cards for himself (or herself). In the UK, the dealer must stand on 16. These rules are set by the casino and cannot change after the game has started. In some states or countries, the rules are set by the government.
Over the years the origin of Blackjack, like many other games, has eluded researchers for a long time and which continues to be hotly debated to this day. Till date there has been no clear consensus, but most agree it probably originated in French casinos around 1700, where it was called Vingt-et-Un, which translated means twenty-one. Most believe it was probably derived from the French card games, Chemin de Fer, and French Ferme, which were in popular at that time. Another version was prevalent in Spain, called One and Thirty. The basic rule of the Spanish version was to reach 31 with a minimum of three cards. Another theory is that Blackjack was an invention by the Romans. It is believed that Romans used to play this game with wooden blocks of different numerical values. This theory holds some weight as Romans loved gambling, but that by no means confirms the theory. Among the various versions of the game, Vingt-et-Un or 21 continued to grow in popularity and reach
. It gradually spread to North America thanks to French colonists and soon after was played throughout the continent. The rules of Blackjack were then different from those of modern Blackjack. The game was still termed '21' when it gained popularity in Nevada in 1931 when the State first chose to make gambling legal. Its origin is disputed, but it is certainly related to several French and Italian gambling games. To draw more people to the game, some casinos then offered a special bet: A hand featuring either of the black jacks (the Jack of Spades or that of Clubs) plus the Ace of Spades would pay 10-to-1 odds on the lucky player's bet. Although casinos later discontinued this payout, the name blackjack remained, as the game is known today. Blackjack played today was not created by any one person at one definite point of time, but has changed over centuries, and continues to change. Fueling its popularity the online casino industry has developed various versions of the game which has truly revolutionized it.
Blackjack example 

This is an example of a Blackjack game. Players are named by gambling chip colour: white, brown, blue and black.

The dealer has given two cards each to the four players who are betting. One of the dealer's two cards is face-up so all the players can see it (an Ace), and the other is face down.
Black gets an Ace and 2 which is worth either 13 or 3, and asks for a hit and gets a King (worth 10) which takes black to 13; black hits again, gets 16 and decides to stand.
 Blue gets a King and Jack which are worth 20 together and of course chooses to stand. (Splitting a K and J may be possible in some games although it is unusual to split a 20 because it is such a high hand)
 Brown gets a 10 and 4, and asks for a hit, gets 2 which takes brown to 16. Another hit and they get a 10, which means they are bust at 26 and the dealer takes the chips. Normally the cards would be taken away immediately with the bet.
 White gets two 5s, so they double the bet and split the cards, the dealer gives them a 5 and a 7 for each. They ask for hits in both cases and get a 9 and 6, taking them to 21 and 16 respectively.

The dealer turns their card over and gets a 6, together with the Ace takes them to 17, and stands because the dealer must stand on 17. (In this case the dealer must stand on a "soft" 17). Results:
Black loses their chips because the dealer's 17 beats black's 16
 Blue is paid the same amount of chips they bet because blue's 20 beats the dealer's 17
 Brown has already lost their chips when they went bust
 White's 21 is paid at 2:1, which means that white receives double and a half the amount of chips white bet for one of the splits, however white loses the other half of chips bet on the 16 which is beaten by the dealer's 17. Most games do not pay 2:1 for a hand of 21 however. The strongest scoring 21 would be an ace card and any other 10-point card. You can actually get to 21 in many different ways, but the ace and 10-point card combination will beat those variations.

Variations
Variations 

 Base (American): with one dealer's open card and one hole card. With an open ace or a dozen (in some variations only with ace), the dealer looks at the hidden card and, if the blackjack dealer, the game ends.
 European: the dealer takes the second card after all players finish the set. In the case of a blackjack dealer, the players are returned all additional bets (except for "insurance"),
 On the basis of Blackjack, numerous versions have been created, with their own names such as Blackjack in the open (Double Exposure), 3-Card Blackjack, Blackjack Switch, Spanish 21, Caribbean 21, Super Fan 21, Pontoon, etc.

References 

Card games
The Phanerozoic eon is the current eon on the geologic timescale. It is the one in which abundant animal life has existed. It covers about 541 million years, and goes back to the time when hard-shelled animals first appeared. It was once thought that life began in the Cambrian, the first period of this eon. 

The time before the Phanerozoic, formerly called the Precambrian, is now divided into the Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic eons.

Details
Details 

The exact time of the boundary between the Phanerozoic and the Proterozoic is slightly uncertain. In the 19th century, the boundary was set at the first abundant metazoan fossils. But several hundred kinds of Proterozoic metazoa have been discovered in the Ediacaran. Study of the Ediacaran biota started in the 1950s. There are three dividing points at the Proterozoic-Phanerozoic boundary. It might be where the first trilobites and archaeocyatha appear; or at the first appearance of signs of burrowing; or at the first appearance of the 'small shelly fauna'. The three different dividing points are within a few million years of each other.
In the Phanerozoic biodiversity increased hugely: 
the rapid emergence of animal phyla;
the evolution of these phyla into diverse forms; 
the emergence of terrestrial plants; 
the development of complex plants; 
the evolution of fish; 
the emergence of terrestrial animals; and 
the development of modern faunas. 
During the period covered, continents drifted about, eventually collecting into a single landmass known as Pangea and then splitting up into the current continental landmasses.

The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References 

Phanerozoic
Skip-Bo is a children's card game. You try and match numbers, colours, etc. It is similar to the card game Uno.

Card games
The Ordovician is the second period of the Paleozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon. It lasted from about 485.4 million years ago (mya) to 443.4 mya. It follows the Cambrian period and is followed by the Silurian period.

The Ordovician was named after the Welsh tribe of the Ordovices. It was defined by Charles Lapworth in 1879. He recognized that the fossils in the disputed strata were different from those of the Cambrian or the Silurian. Therefore, he reasoned, they should be placed in a period of their own.

Recognition of the Ordovician period was slow in Britain, but elsewhere it was quickly accepted. In 1906 it was adopted as an official period of the Paleozoic era by the International Geological Congress.

The Ordovician ended with a series of extinction events that, together amount to the second greatest extinction of the Phanerozoic. This was the EndOrdovician extinction event.

Geology
Geology

Palaeogeography 
Sea levels were high during the Ordovician. Shallow (<50 metres) inland seas were the greatest for which evidence is preserved in the rocks.

During the Ordovician, the southern continents collected into a single continent called Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole. Early in the Ordovician, the continents Laurentia (present-day North America), Siberia, and Baltica (present-day northern Europe) were still independent continents.

Geochemistry 
The Ordovician was a time of calcite sea geochemistry in which low-magnesium calcite was the main marine precipitate of calcium carbonate.

Fauna
Fauna 

 
For most of the Ordovician, life continued to flourish, but near the end of the period the EndOrdovician extinction event seriously affected planktonic forms like conodonts, graptolites, and some groups of trilobites. Brachiopods, bryozoans and echinoderms were also heavily affected, and the cone-shaped nautiloids died out completely, except for rare Silurian forms.

The extinctions may have been caused by an ice age that occurred at the end of the Ordovician period: the end of the Ordovician was one of the coldest times in the last 600 million years of earth history.

Fauna 
On the whole, the fauna that emerged in the Ordovician set the scene for the rest of the Palaeozoic. The fauna was dominated by suspension feeders, mainly with short food chains. The ecological system reached a new level of complexity far beyond that of the Cambrian fauna.
Though less famous than the Cambrian explosion, the Ordovician featured an adaptive radiation, which was no less remarkable. Marine genera increased fourfold, resulting in 12% of all known Phanerozoic marine fauna.  Another change in the fauna was the strong increase in filter feeding organisms. The articulate brachiopods, cephalopods, and crinoids took over. Articulate brachiopods, in particular, largely replaced trilobites in shelf communities. This illustrates the greatly increased biodiversity of carbonate shell-secreting organisms in the Ordovician compared to the Cambrian. Although solitary corals date back to at least the Cambrian, reef-forming corals appeared in the early Ordovician.

Molluscs, which appeared during the Cambrian or even the Ediacaran, became common and varied, especially bivalves, gastropods, and nautiloid cephalopods. Now-extinct marine animals called graptolites thrived in the oceans. Some new cystoids and crinoids appeared.
It was long thought that the first true vertebrates (fish — Ostracoderms) appeared in the Ordovician, but recent discoveries in China show they probably originated in the Lower Cambrian. The very first Gnathostomata (jawed fish) appeared in the Upper Ordovician.

During the Middle Ordovician there was a large increase in bioeroding (shell and rock-boring) organisms. This is known as the Ordovician Bioerosion Revolution. It is marked by a sudden abundance of hard substrate trace fossils.

In the Lower Ordovician, trilobites were joined by many new brachiopods, bryozoans, planktonic graptolites and conodonts, and many types of molluscs and echinoderms, including the ophiuroids ("brittle stars") and the first sea stars. Nevertheless the trilobites remained abundant, with all the Late Cambrian orders continuing, and being joined by the new group Phacopida. The first evidence of land plants also appeared.
Trilobites in the Ordovician were very different from their predecessors in the Cambrian. Many trilobites developed bizarre spines and nodules to defend against predators such as primitive sharks and nautiloids. Other trilobites evolved to become swimming forms. Some trilobites even developed shovel-like snouts for ploughing through muddy sea bottoms. Some trilobites such as Asaphus kowalewski evolved long eyestalks to assist in detecting predators whereas other trilobite eyes in contrast disappeared completely.
Recent discovery of Burgess Shale types 
The renowned Burgess Shale fauna disappears in the Middle Cambrian. It is now known that it did not go extinct, but survived, and thrived where the circumstances were right. A recently discovered lagerstätte (a deposit of exceptionally preserved fossils) has been found in the Fezouata Formation, Morocco. The site contains remarkable fossils of soft-bodied animals from a muddy ocean floor. The fauna also includes some hard-bodied animals such as horseshoe crabs. Probably low oxygen conditions kept predators and scavengers to a minimum.

References 

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The Silurian was the period from the end of the Ordovician, about 443.4 million years ago (mya) to the beginning of the Devonian period, about 419 mya. It is the third period of the Paleozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon and the shortest period in the Paleozoic.

As with other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the period's start and end are well identified, but the exact dates are uncertain by several million years. The beginning of the Silurian is set at a major extinction when 60% of marine species were wiped out, the End-Ordovician extinction event.

First terrestrial biota 
The Silurian was the first period that produced fossils on land that are macroscopic. That means you can see them without using a microscope. These fossils are moss forests along lakes and streams, and millipedes and scorpions on land later in the period. The fossil record of Eurypterids (sea scorpions) reached its greatest extent in the middle Silurian, about 430 million years ago.
The first fossil records of vascular plants, appeared in the second half of the Silurian period. The earliest known representatives of this group are the Cooksonia (mostly from the northern hemisphere) and Baragwanathia (from Australia). A primitive Silurian land plant with xylem and phloem but no differentiation in root, stem or leaf, was much-branched Psilophyton. This plant reproduced by spores and respired through stomata on every surface, and probably photosynthesized in every tissue exposed to light. 

Some evidence suggests the presence of primitive predatory arachnids and myriapods in later Silurian rocks. Predatory invertebrates would indicate that simple food webs were in place which included non-predatory prey animals.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References 

Palaeozoic
The Devonian is the fourth period of the Paleozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon. It lasted from about 419 million years ago (mya) to about 359 mya. It is named after Devonshire, England, where rocks from this period were first studied.

Sea levels were high, and there was a great variety of fish and other marine organisms. The Devonian fish included the Agnatha (jawless fish), the Acanthodii (spiny fish), the Placoderms (armoured fish), the Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish), and the early Osteichthyes (bony fish). The Devonian strata are divided into lower, middle and upper subdivisions.

During the Devonian the evolution of fish into tetrapods occurred. Various terrestrial arthropods also became established. The first seed-bearing plants spread across dry land, forming huge forests.

The supercontinent of Gondwana was to the south, and the continent of Siberia to the north. The early form of the small continent of Euramerica was in between. The supercontinent Pangaea was just starting to form.
By the late Devonian, the land had been colonized by plants and insects. In the oceans, massive reefs were built. Euramerica and Gondwana were beginning to converge into what would become Pangaea.

Period ended with extinctions 
Tectonic and volcanic activity was high. A series of extinction events occurred towards the end of the Devonian, including a major event at the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in the Late Devonian, about 364 mya. 

A major extinction occurred at the start of the last phase of the Devonian period, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, about 372.2 mya. Almost all the fossil agnathan fishes suddenly disappeared. A second strong extinction closed the Devonian period. The late Devonian extinction was one of five major extinction events in the history of the Earth. The cause or causes are not known.

References 

Palaeozoic
Devonian
The Proterozoic eon comes before the Phanerozoic. It was a period before the first abundant complex life on Earth. The name Proterozoic comes from the Greek "earlier life". The Proterozoic Eon extended from 2500 million years ago (mya) to 541 mya. It is the most recent part of the former Precambrian.

The Proterozoic consists of 3 geologic eras, from oldest to youngest:
 Palaeoproterozoic: 2500 to 1600 million years ago
 Mesoproterozoic: 1600 to 1000 mya
 Neoproterozoic: 1000 to 542 mya
The well-identified events were:
Several glaciations, including the Snowball Earth during the Cryogenian period in the late Neoproterozoic.
Rapid crustal segments collect into continents. Supercontinents Laurentia (Palaeoproterozoic) and Rodinia (Neoproterozoic) form.
Early plate tectonics.
Oxygenation of the atmosphere, the Great Oxygenation Event.
Clean (unchanged by metamorphosis) sand and carbonate deposits occur for the first time.
First eukaryote fossil at 2.1 billion years.p57 
The Ediacaran period (635 to 542mya) which is characterized by the evolution of abundant soft-bodied multicellular organisms.

Study of these rocks shows that the eon featured massive, rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and mountain building.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References
The Cainozoic (Cenozoic) is the current geological era. It began 66 million years ago and continues today. Before it was the Mesozoic.

During the Cainozoic the continents moved into their present positions. The climate started warm, but cooling continued steadily. Finally ice ages occurred. 

The word Cainozoic is derived from Greek kainos = "new", and zoe = "life". 'Cainozoic' may be spelled 'Cenozoic'. It has three periods, and the periods are split into stages. 

 Cainozoic 
 Palaeogene
 Palaeocene
 Eocene
 Oligocene
 Neogene
 Miocene
 Pliocene
 Quaternary
 Pleistocene
 Holocene

Previously, what is now the Cainozoic was divided into two periods, the Tertiary and the Quaternary. The Tertiary corresponded to the Palaeogene+Neogene. Now, the term 'Tertiary' is not used. Officially, it is 'deprecated'.
Biota 
On land, the Cainozoic is the era of mammals, and of birds and flowering plants. Grassland became a major habitat. Aquatic mammals took over the roles of predatory reptiles like the mosasaurs and plesiosaurs. As a result, the ecological landscape of the Cainozoic has become quite different from the Mesozoic.

References
William Clyde Elliott (born October 8, 1955) is an American racecar driver. He drove in the Sprint Cup Series He won the 1988 Sprint Cup, and was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2007. In 2014, Elliot was voted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame. He was inducted into the Hall of Fame in January of 2015.

References

NASCAR drivers
American racecar drivers
1955 births
Living people
Dolhasca is a town in southeastern Bukovina, in Suceava County, Romania.  11,000 people were living in Dolhasca as of 2002.  It became a town in 2004.

Other websites

Towns in Suceava County
Siret is a town of Suceava County in northeast Romania.  The town is found on the right bank of the Siret River.  Ukraine borders Siret to the north. 9,358 people were living in Siret as of 2002.

Towns in Suceava County
A default gateway is the IP address used to get out of your network.

Networks
Computer networking
Token passing is a communication protocol used in telecommunications. The system uses a signal called a token to limit when a device can transmit on the network. Only the device with the token can transmit. When that device is done, the token is sent to the next device. With large transmissions, the token may move to the next station before the transmission is finished. The device has to wait until it gets the token back before it can continue to send data. The most well known examples of token passing are token ring and ARCNET.

The rules of the system say how long a device may keep the token, how long it can transmit for and how to create a new token if there is not one in use.

Computer networking
Telecommunications
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a Media Access Control (MAC) protocol.  When transmitting on a medium that is shared by many transmitters, the transmitter first checks to see that nothing else is already transmitting.  Examples of shared transmission medium include an electrical bus, or part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

"Carrier Sense" means that a transmitter uses feedback from a receiver to know if the medium is already in use before trying to send. That is, it tries to find a signal from another station before trying to transmit. If a signal is found, the station waits for that transmission to end before starting its own transmission.

"Multiple Access" means that many stations send and receive on the medium. Transmissions are usually received by all other stations using the medium.

Related pages 
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection

Telecommunications
The Archaean (or Archean) eon is the geological period after the Hadean and before the Proterozoic. It is one of the four main time periods (eons) of Earth history. The Archaean lasted from 4,000 million years ago (mya) to 2,500 mya. It contains the first sedimentary rocks, and the first fossil life forms, which were cyanobacteria, and acritarchs.

Most of the rocks which survive are volcanic (igneous) and metamorphic in origin. Volcanic activity was everywhere. When the Archaean began, the Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today. It was still twice the current level when the Archaean ended, 2,500 mya. This high level of heat flow may have made plate tectonics more vigorous than today. The question of when plate tectonics began is a major research area. The large supercontinent Vaalbara formed in the Archaean. There were oceans already, before the Archaean.
The atmosphere almost entirely lacked free oxygen, and instead, it was mostly methane and CO2.
Fossil bacterial mats, called stromatolites, are found throughout the Archaean after about 3,500mya. These were formed by cyanobacteria, which used photosynthesis and gave off oxygen as a by-product. Initially, this oxygen was absorbed by combining with iron ions in solution. Not until much later did oxygen build up in the atmosphere.

Fossil raindrop marks have been found in the later Archaean, 2,700 mya. The rocks were discovered in Ventersdorp in the North West Province of South Africa in the 1980s.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References 

Archaean
Line 1, shortened to L1 and known as "Hospital de Bellvitge - Fondo", coloured red and often simply called Línia vermella ("Red Line"), is the second oldest metro line in Barcelona, after L3. It is operated by Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB).

Chronology

1926 - Bordeta-Catalunya section opened.
1932 - Bordeta-Santa Eulàlia and Catalunya-Arc de Triomf sections opened.
1933 - Arc de Triomf-Marina section opened.
1951 - Marina-Clot section opened.
1952 - Clot-Navas section opened.
1954 - Navas-Fabra i Puig section opened.
1968 - Fabra i Puig-Torras i Bages section opened.
1983 - Torras i Bages-Santa Coloma and Santa Eulàlia-Torrassa sections opened. Bordeta station closed.
1987 - Torrassa-Avinguda Carrilet section opened.
1992 - Santa Coloma-Fondo section opened.

Technical details

Stations

Stations or lines shown in italics are under construction.
Hospital de Bellvitge 
Bellvitge 
Av. Carrilet  (L8)
Rambla Just Oliveras  (RENFE)
Can Serra 
Florida 
Torrassa  (L9, L10) 
Santa Eulàlia 
Mercat Nou 
Plaça de Sants  (L5)
Hostafrancs 
Espanya  (L3, L8)
Rocafort 
Urgell 
Universitat  (L2)
Catalunya  (L3, L6, L7, RENFE)
Urquinaona  (L4)
Arc de Triomf  (RENFE)
Marina  (T4)
Glòries  (T4)
Clot  (L2, RENFE)
Navas 
Sagrera  (L5, L9, L10)
Fabra i Puig  (RENFE)
Sant Andreu  (RENFE)
Torras i Bages 
Trinitat Vella
Baró de Viver 
Santa Coloma 
Fondo  (L9)

Other websites

Trenscat.com

1
The Hadean is the geological eon before the Archaean. It began at the Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, and ended 4 billion years ago. The name "Hadean" comes from Hades, Greek for "Underworld", due to the conditions on the Earth at the time. The geologist Preston Cloud first used the term in 1972. Meteorite bombardment, volcanism and high temperatures were very widespread on the early Earth.

There are no sedimentary rocks from the Hadean at all. The earliest geological objects on Earth are some zircons, dated to about 4,400 million years ago (mya). Oceans would probably have formed as soon as the temperature allowed. It is thought that constant bombardment kept the Earth in a molten state until about the end of the eon. 

Early in Earth history, the Moon was torn out by a massive collision with a proto-planet. The evidence for this giant impact hypothesis is:
the remarkable similarity between the Earth's crust and the Moon's composition,
the low iron concentration in the Moon's centre, and
the high angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system.

An explanation for the general lack of Hadean rocks (older than 3800 mya) is the large amount of rocky and icy debris present in the early Solar System. After the eight planets formed, large numbers of leftover protoplanets, asteroids, and comets pursued eccentric orbits throughout our system, bombarding the early Earth and the other planets and moons until approximately 3800 mya. This activity may have prevented any large crustal fragments from forming by literally shattering the early protocontinents. A barrage of particularly large impacts known as the Late Heavy Bombardment represents the climax of this violent era. 

No life forms are known from this eon. The early atmosphere contained carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen, but almost no oxygen.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References
The Permian is a geological period which started about 299 million years ago (mya), and ended about 252 mya. It is the sixth and last period of the Paleozoic era and the sixth period in the Phanerozoic eon, and ended in the largest mass extinction known to science.

Data 
Oxygen content of atmosphere: 23% (115% of modern level).
Average CO2 content: 900 ppm (3 times pre-industrial level)
Average surface temperature: ~16oC (2oC above modern level)
Sea level: 60 metres above present day level; plummeting during the middle Permian to a constant minus 20 m in the late Permian.

Climate 
The climate in the Permian was quite varied. At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still at the grip of an Ice age from the Carboniferous. Glaciers receded around the mid-Permian period as the climate gradually warmed, drying the continent's interiors.  In the late Permian period, the drying continued although the temperature cycled between warm and cool cycles.
Life 
During the Permian, tetrapod life, (amphibians, Sauropsids and Synapsids) which evolved in the Carboniferous, became widespread and diverse. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.

Insects 
The Permian was also a period of adaptive radiation in insects. Beetles (Coleoptera) appeared; so did flies (Diptera). 22 out of a total of 36 known orders of insects are known from the Permian. Some became extinct in the end-Permian event, but more radiation followed in the Mesozoic. Insects were probably, by the end of the Permian, the largest phylum, in terms of number of species.

Early relatives of cockroaches (Blattopterans) were the most common insects. and dragonflies ruled the air. True Odonata appeared in the Permian.
Pangaea 
All the major land masses were collected together in the super-continent Pangaea. At the end of the period, the greatest flood basalt lava flows in the Phanerozoic raised world temperatures, and damaged the environment. These formed the extensive Siberian traps. The causes of the Permian/Triassic extinction event are not yet agreed between scientists. Trilobites, once a dominant life-form in the ocean, became extinct, together with 90% of all marine species.

References 

Palaeozoic
Acts 
There are many different acts in circuses. Some people do acrobatics and gymnastics. Often a group of gymnasts will finish up standing on top of one another in a pyramid. The gymnasts may also do jumping acts on trampolines. Some people are jugglers, throwing things in the air and catching them. There may be people who walk on stilts or who ride on unicycles. They may perform magic which may include swordswallowing, knife throwing or fireeating. There are always clowns who do funny things to make people laugh. They trip over things and fall over, throw buckets of water over one another or put custard pies into one another’s faces. Sometimes these clowns are also very skilful acrobats, musicians or jugglers. They may pretend to be stupid at first, but they often show that they are very clever.

Animal acts
Animal acts 

During the last two centuries, and until recently, the modern circus used many kinds of animals. There were wild animals such as lions, tigers or bears. There may also have been camels, horses, elephants, sea lions and domestic animals such as dogs. In recent years people have changed their ideas. They think that it is unkind to make wild animals perform tricks that are unnatural to them. Many of their trainers used cruel methods to teach these animals to do tricks, e.g. hitting the animals, giving them electric shocks or causing pain in other ways. The animals were always touring around, living in tiny cages. Many countries now do not want to see wild animals in circuses.

History
History 

In Ancient Rome the circus was a round or oval building for showing horse and chariot races, horse shows, staged battles, acts with animals, jugglers and acrobats. The Roman circus had tiered seats. The important people sat at the bottom, near the action. The Latin word circus comes from the Greek word kirkos, meaning “circle" or "ring”.

The first circus in Rome was the Circus Maximus, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills. At first it was made of wood. It was rebuilt several times; the last building of the Circus Maximus could seat 250,000 people.
After the period when Rome was powerful, Europe did not have a circus tradition. In China there were shows with acrobatic performances, but they did not influence the Western circus, which started to be popular towards the end of the 18th century. In London there were circuses with horse-riding. These were started in 1768 by Philip Astley. A “Royal Circus” was set up in Lambeth, London by John Hughes. Circuses grew in size and had lots of animals. They were a bit like a zoo. They had wild animals such as lions and elephants. In 1793 a circus building was opened in Philadelphia, USA. Circuses became popular in the USA, especially the circus of Dan Rice. In 1840 Thomas Cooke brought his circus with horses from the USA to England. The circus started to become popular in many countries all over the world. The Barnum & Bailey Greatest Show On Earth toured from 1897 to 1902. They showed animal acts and human acts. There were even shows with freaks (people who were physically unusual, e.g. dwarfs and giants)
. dwarfs and giants). During most of the 20th century this is what circuses were mostly like.
In 1919, Lenin, head of the USSR, said he wanted the circus to be treated as a serious art form, just like opera and ballet. The Moscow Circus School, which was started in 1927, is still one of the best circuses today. The artists are very skilful acrobats, gymnasts etc. Chinese circuses also have artists who are some of the world’s best gymnasts.

Notes

References 
 Children’s Britannica 1973;
Markham, Ontario is a city in Regional Municipality of York, in the Greater Toronto Area of Southern Ontario, Canada. There are twice as many people there as in 1990. 261,573 people live in Markham. It is the 4th largest town in the Greater Toronto Area, after Toronto, Mississauga, and Brampton.

References 

Towns in Ontario
Matthew Stajan ( ; born December 19, 1983) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre.

Before playing in the NHL, Stajan played 3 seasons with the Belleville Bulls of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). He was drafted with the 57th overall pick by the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft. On January 31, 2010, the Maple Leafs traded Stajan along with Niklas Hagman, Ian White and Jamal Mayers in exchange for Dion Phaneuf, Fredrik Sjöström and Keith Aulie.

He is married to his wife Katie and they live in Calgary. Their first child named Emerson, died on March 3, 2014 shortly after birth.

References

Other websites 

1983 births
Calgary Flames players
Canadian ice hockey centres
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
St. John's Maple Leafs players
Toronto Maple Leafs players
American Hockey League players
Ontario Hockey League players
Cajvana is a town of Suceava County in the southern part of Bukovina in Romania.

Towns in Suceava County
Mount Athos is a mountain in the Greek province of Macedonia. It is also commonly referred to as the Self-governed Monastic State of the Holy Mountain, which is an autonomous part of Greece. There are twenty Eastern Orthodox monasteries inside this state.

Spiritually, Mount Athos comes under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.

The peninsula is the easternmost "leg" of the larger Halkidiki peninsula. It protrudes into the Aegean Sea for some  at a width between 7 and 12 km and covers an area of , with the actual Mount Athos and its steep, densely forested slopes reaching up to . The seas around the end of the peninsula can be dangerous.
The peninsula is only accessible by boat. There is a limit on the number of visitors. People visiting need to get a special permit. Only men are allowed to enter. Monks call Mount Athos the "Garden of the Virgin"-. Orthodox Christians take precedence in the permit issuing procedure. Only males over the age of 18 who are members of an Eastern Orthodox Church are allowed to live on Athos (?). A large number of Albanian Muslims work in the Holy Mountain. There is a small number of unarmed, religious guards (Σερδάρηδες), who are not monks, for keeping order. Police and Coast Guard presence is very discreet. Any other people not monks are required to live in the peninsula's capital, Karyes (?) Most workers live at the place where they work. Small low class hotels exist at Karyes (administrative center) and Dafni (main port). The 2001 Greek national census recorded a population of 2,262 inhabitants.

References 

Mountains of Greece
Line 9 (Línia 9 in Catalan) is the newest line in the Barcelona Metro network, currently under construction, with only five complete stations, all in Santa Coloma de Gramenet. These first five stations opened on 13 December 2009. The complete line is a railway project to build a subway line with two branches spanning a good deal of the metropolitan area of Barcelona through Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Badalona, l'Hospitalet de Llobregat and El Prat de Llobregat. TMB is the company operating the line and handled by the division line in two: Line 9 and Line 10.

List of stations
List of stations 

El Prat area
 Aeroport-T1 (Barcelona International Airport, RENFE)
 Aeroport Terminal de Càrrega
 Aeroport-T2 (Barcelona International Airport, RENFE)
 Mas Blau
 Parc Nou
 Cèntric
 El Prat Estació (L1, RENFE)
 Les Moreres
 Mercabarna
 Parc Logístic
 Fira (L2)
 Europa  Fira (L8)
Central branch, shared with L10
 Can Tries
 Torrassa (L1, RENFE)
 Collblanc (L5)
 Camp Nou (T1, T2, T3)
 Zona Universitària (L3)
 Campus Nord
 Manuel Girona
 Prat de la Riba
 Sarrià (L6)
 Mandrí
 El Putxet (L7)
 Lesseps (L3)
 Muntanya
 Sanllehy
 Guinardó - Hospital de Sant Pau (L4)
 Maragall
 La Sagrera (L1, L4, RENFE)
 Estació de la Sagrera (L4, RENFE-AVE)
 Onze de Setembre
 Bon Pastor
Besòs area
 Can Peixauet
 Santa Rosa
 Fondo (L1)
 Església Major
 Singuerlín
 Can Zam

References 

9
Line 10 (La Sagrera - Gorg and ZAL | Riu Vell - Collblanc) is the name of one of the two branches of the Barcelona metro extension line 9, currently under construction and to be operated by TMB.

Overview 
It links the Zona Franca with Badalona, through Barcelona proper, sharing a good deal of the area covered by L9. L9/10 will be the deepest line in the network, and the longest line in Europe. Originally expected to be ready by 2008, ongoing problems with its construction are going to delay its completion until as late as 2013.

List of stations 
(Keep in mind all of them are currently under construction)
Zona Franca area
 Polígon Pratenc
 Zona Franca ZAL
 Zona Franca Port
 Zona Franca Litoral
 Motors
 Foc Cisell (L2)
 Foneria
 Ildefons Cerdà (L8)
 Provençana
Central branch, shared with L9
 Can Tries
 Torrassa (L1, RENFE)
 Collblanc (L5)
 Campus Sud (T1, T2, T3)
 Zona Universitària (L3)
 Campus Nord
 Manuel Girona
 Prat de la Riba
 Sarrià (L6)
 Mandrí
 El Putxet (L7)
 Lesseps (L3)
 Muntanya
 Sanllehy
 Guinardó (L4)
 Maragall
 Sagrera-Meridiana (L1, L4, RENFE)
 Estació de la Sagrera (L4, RENFE-AVE)
 Onze de Setembre
 Bon Pastor
Besòs area
 Llefià
 La Salut
 Gorg (L2, T5, T6)

Other websites 
 Avui article, part 1
 Avui article, part 2

10
Line 2, also known by the names of its termini, currently Paral·lel - Badalona Pompeu Fabra, is a metro line in Barcelona operated by TMB, coloured purple and sometimes simply called línia lila.

Chronology
1995 - Sant Antoni-Sagrada Família section opened.
1996 - Sant Antoni-Paral·lel section opened.
1997 - Sagrada Família-La Pau section opened.
2002 - La Pau-Pep Ventura section moved from L4 to this line.
2010 - Pep Ventura - Badalona Pompeu Fabra section opened.

Technical details
 Colour on map: Purple
 Number of stations: 18
 Type: Conventional metro
 Length: 
 Rolling stock: 2100, 5000 and 9000 series
 Journey time: 24 minutes
 Track gauge: 
 Traction: Electricity
 Power supply: Rigid overhead wire
 Open-air sections: No
 Mobile phone coverage: Partial
 Depots: Verneda (Triangle Ferroviari)
 Operator: TMB
Stations
Station and line names shown in italics are planned or under construction additions.
Terminal D (L9)
Ciutat Aeroportuària (L9)
Terminals A-B-C (L9)
Sant Cosme (L9)
El Prat Centre (L9)
Estació del Prat (L1, L9, RENFE)
Centre Direccional (L1, L9)
Verge de Montserrat (L9)
Mercabarna (L9)
Parc Logístic (L9)
Fira 2-Pedrosa (L9)
Foc Cisell (L10)
INEF
Fira 1
Poble Sec (L3)
Paral·lel  (L3, Funicular de Montjuïc)
Sant Antoni 
Universitat  (L1)
Passeig de Gràcia  (L3, L4, RENFE)
Tetuan 
Monumental 
Sagrada Família  (L5)
Encants 
Clot  (L1, RENFE)
Bac de Roda 
Sant Martí 
La Pau  (L4)
Verneda 
Artigues-Sant Adrià 
Sant Roc (T5)
Gorg  (T5, L10)
Pep Ventura 
Badalona Pompeu Fabra (L1)
Casagemes
Canyadó
Morera (L13)

Other websites
Trenscat.com

2
Sam Cooke (January 22, 1931–December 11, 1964) was an American soul singer and songwriter. He was born Sam Cook but later changed the spelling of his name. He was very important and influential in the beginning of soul music. He had many hit songs in America. Some of his most famous songs were "You Send Me", "A Change Is Gonna Come", "Chain Gang", "Wonderful World", and "Bring It on Home to Me".

Cooke started his own record label and publishing company. He was an important part of the Civil Rights Movement, helping African-American people to get civil rights.

Cooke died in 1964. He was shot and killed by hotel manageress named Bertha Franklin. She told the police that she shot Cooke in self-defense. Sam was buried in Glendale, California.

Other websites
Hear Sam Cooke on the Pop Chronicles

References
References

African American musicians
American guitarists
American singer-songwriters
American soul musicians
American R&B singers
American gospel musicians
American pop musicians
American soul singers
American pop singers
Musicians from Mississippi
1931 births
1964 deaths
American gospel singers
Catherine Morland is the principal character in Jane Austen's book Northanger Abbey. She enjoys reading the mysterious and frightening gothic novels that were popular in her time. She often has a tendency to blur the lines between fiction and reality, which causes her a great deal of trouble. She is the neighbor of Mr. Allens, a rich man, and goes with him to Bath, a city in Northeastern Somerset, England. Jane Austen used her to mock the obvious classics where the perfect heroes fall in love with the heroines, and they marry and live "happily ever after".

Jane Austen, in the beginning of Chapter Two, describes her as having a heart that "was affectionate (loving)", a "disposition (character) cheerful and open, without conceit (pride) or affectation".

Childhood
Childhood 

The book Northanger Abbey begins with, "No one who had ever seen Catherine Morland in her infancy, would have supposed her born to be an heroine." Her father, Richard, is a clergyman (pastor) who, even though he is not rich, is not poor; her mother is "a woman of useful plain sense, with a good temper, and, what is more remarkable, with a good constitution." Catherine is called "plain" when she is young, with "a thin awkward figure, a  skin without colour, dark  hair, and strong features..." She likes to play boy's games more than playing with dolls, and does not like lessons, though she does like stories and fables. Catherine likes "tinkling the keys of the old  spinnet (piano)," but she hates learning music, and "the day which dismissed (sent away) the music-master was one of the happiest in Catherine's life." She does not draw well; she did not like writing, or accounts, or French. However, she is usually nice to her brothers and sisters, and listens to her parents.

Adulthood