Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Andasol Solar Power Station is a large solar thermal power plant, near Guadix in Andalusia, in the province of Granada, one of the sunniest regions in Spain. The plant will cost 310 million euros and is currently under construction.

Andasol will have a generating capacity of 50 megawatts and liquid salt heat storage will allow for electricity to be generated for seven hours after the sun has gone down. Annual electricity production will be 179 gigawatt hours which will cover the electricity demands of 50,000 households or 200,000 people.

Andasol should be completed in mid-2008 and a second plant, Andasol 2, is planned.

Related pages
 List of Solar thermal power stations
 Renewable energy
 Solar power in Spain

References

Other websites 
 Pictures

Solar power plants
Buildings and structures in Spain
Province of Granada
2009 establishments in Europe
2000s establishments in Spain
The Atlantic slave trade was the selling of African slaves by Europeans in and around the Atlantic Ocean. It lasted from the 15th century to the 19th century. Most slaves were shipped from West Africa and brought over to the New World on a slave ship. The slaves on these ships lived in unhealthy conditions. Many died on the ships. The journey by ship was known as the Middle Passage.

Sources of slaves 
Some slaves were captured in battles or through raids and kidnapping. Some were sold into slavery as punishment or to pay a debt, usually by other Africans. Then they were shackled together and marched to the coast on journeys lasting weeks or months. When they arrived they were imprisoned in forts where they were purchased by Europeans. Most historians today think that 12 to 13 million Africans arrived in the New World.
The Dahomian army was involved and traded slaves for weapons to protect themselves. King Gezo of Dahomey said in the 1840s:
{{quote|The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth...the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery...}}

 Slave trade 
The slave trade is sometimes called the Maafa'' by African and African-American scholars. It means catastrophe in the Swahili language. Some slave ships worked a three-part economic cycle often called the triangular trade. It tied the economies of several regions and continents together. The main triangular trading countries were England, The Netherlands, France, Spain and Portugal. Other ships just worked the slave trade.
Christopher Columbus first came to the Americas in 1492 while seeking the West Indies. European countries started to build colonies in the Americas. This led to an economic reason for the Atlantic slave trade. Slaves were first imported in large numbers for mining and later to grow sugarcane in plantations. Slavery is much more ancient than the transatlantic trade. Slaves were used in many ancient societies.

Historians think that about 4.9 million slaves were brought to Brazil, 1.3 million to the Spanish colonies, and 400 thousand to mainland North America. About 3.9 million were brought to other parts of the Americans, mainly the Caribbean. Records show that only about 9000 slaves were brought to Europe.
Abolition and illegal trade 
In the 18th century, a small opposition developed against the slave trade in Britain, America, and some parts of Europe. In Britain and America, opposition to the trade was led by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and establishment Evangelicals such as William Wilberforce. People who protested against the trade were opposed by the owners of land in the Americas. After 1772, slaves became free upon entering the British Isles. Abolitionism became stronger in the 19th century.
Many slaves continued to be sent to Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico and Cuba and much of South America. The slave trade in Brazil was banned in 1831. But many people in Brazil thought it was necessary for their economy, so the country failed to stop it. Hundreds of thousands more slaves were brought to Brazil in the 1830s and 1840s until the British forced Brazil to end the slave trade.

Related pages
African slave trade
Middle Passage
Slave ship
Slavery
Arab slave trade

References 

Historic slave trade
The African slave trade was a trade in slaves and, like most of the world, has carried on for thousands of years in Africa. The first main route passed through the Sahara. After the Age of Exploration, African slaves became part of the Atlantic slave trade, from which comes the modern, Western type of slavery. Despite being against the law, slavery continues in all parts of the world, including Africa. In Mauritania, slavery was not made illegal until August 2007.

References 

History of Africa
Historic slave trade
The Pocking Solar Park is a 10-megawatt (MWp) solar photovoltaic plant which is among the largest in the world. Construction of the power plant started in August 2005 and was completed in March 2006. On the former military training area in the Lower-Bavarian town of Pocking, sheep are now grazing under and around the 57,912 photovoltaic modules.

Related pages
 Photovoltaics
 Renewable energy
 Solar cell
 Solar power station in Victoria
 Waldpolenz Solar Park in Germany

References

Buildings and structures in Bavaria
Power stations in Germany
Solar power plants
Fractional distillation is a process of separating a mixture of chemical compounds. This means that each part (called a "fraction") of the mixture can be kept apart from the other chemicals. Different chemicals have different boiling points. Fractional distillation is done by heating the mixture so that it evaporates and then each fraction condenses in its own separate compartment. The reason we don't use simple distillation is because for liquids that boil at less than 25°C from each other, some of the other liquid(s) may evaporate and so part of the separated liquid may have part of the other liquid(s).

It is a special type of distillation. Generally, the component parts boil at less than 25°C from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere (atm). If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25°C, a simple distillation is used. 

Fractionation is done by boiling a mixture in a fractionating column. The mixture evaporates at different times and is caught in a container as a pure compound.
Fractional distillation is the main activity of oil refineries, and is done in a large fractionating column known as a "fractionation tower".

Industrially, crude oil is heated and sent up along the fractionating column that has decreasing temperatures with height and several platforms at different levels to collect the condensate. Different components of crude oil have different boiling points. High molecular weight components have higher boiling points and condense at lower portions of the column while fractions with lower boiling points rise to the top of the column to condense.
    
The main fractions include refinery gases, gasoline (petrol), naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil, and a residue that contains bitumen. These fractions are mainly used as fuels, although they do have other uses too. Hydrocarbons with small molecules make better fuels than those with large molecules because they are volatile, flow easily and are easily ignited

References
References 

https://www.quora.com/Why-does-simple-distillation-not-give-pure-compounds

Other websites 
 Continuous distillation -Citizendium

Chemistry

de:Destillation#Fraktionierte Destillation
ja:蒸留#精留
The Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant in Spain has a generating capacity of 9.55 megawatts peak (MWp) and will generate 14 million kilowatt-hours of electricity per year.  It cost 65 million Euros [US$87 million]. 

The plant covers an area of 51 hectares on agricultural land near the locality of Milagro (Navarre) and contains 889 solar structures, of which 864 have automated solar tracking. The rest are fixed structures adapted to the terrain.

Related pages
Photovoltaics
Renewable energy
Solar power in Spain
Solar cell

References

Solar power plants
Buildings and structures in Spain by type
An odor or odour is a volatilized chemical compound, usually at a very low concentration, which humans and other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction.

Odors are also called smells, which can be used to describe both pleasant and unpleasant odors. The words fragrance, scent, or aroma are used mostly by the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and is sometimes used to refer to perfumes. On the other hand, the words stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe unpleasant odors.

Basics 

Odor is a sensation caused by molecules dissolved in air.
The widest range of odors are made up of organic compounds although some inorganic substances, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, are also odorants.
The perception of an odor effect is a two step process.
First, there is the physiological part; the sense of the stimulus by receptors in the nose.
After that the psychological part follows. The stimuli are processed by the region of the human brain which is responsible for smelling.
Because of this, an objective and analytical measure of odor is impossible.
While odor feelings are very personal perceptions, individual reactions are related to gender, age, state of health and private affectations. Common odors that people are used to, such as their own body odor, are less noticeable to individuals than external or uncommon odors.

For most people, the process of smelling gives little information concerning the ingredients of a substance. It only offers information related to the emotional impact. However, experienced people, such as flavorists and perfumers can pick out individual chemicals in complex mixes through smell alone.

Odor analysis 

The concentrations of odorant in Germany are defined by the “Olfaktometrie” since the 1870s. In this connection it's about the standard method to define the sense barrier of odors on basis the thinner of concentrated odor loaded assays. Following parameters are defined: odor substance concentration, intensity of odor and hedonism assessment.
Pheromones 

Pheromones are odors that are deliberately used for communication. A female moth may release a pheromone that can entice a male moth that is several kilometers away. Honeybee queens constantly release pheromones that regulate the activity of the hive. Workers can release such smells to call other bees into an appropriate cavity when a swarm moves in or to "sound" an alarm when the hive is threatened.

In mammals, some pathway of pheromones identification are in the vomeronasal organ and some in olfactory receptors.

Related pages
 Incense
 Olfaction

Other websites 
 Odors categorized by main chemical constituent and organized by odor class, percept, etc.

Chemistry
The European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is a kind of ash tree. It is found throughout Europe and not just Scandinavia. It is a deciduous tree that grows to a height of 20–35 metres.

Uses
Ash wood is very easy to bend. It is therefore the material of choice to make bows. Tennis rackets, and the long poles used for snooker are sometimes made from it.

Religion
In Norse mythology, the tree Yggdrasil was a European ash. The tree linked all the nine world, Niflheim and Asgard, amongst others. Below the tree resides Hel as well as the Well of Urd.

Gallery

Trees
Oleaceae
Spain is the fourth largest manufacturer in the world of solar power technology and exports 80 percent of this output to Germany. Spain is one of the most attractive countries with regard to the development of solar energy, as it has the greatest amount of available sunshine of any country in Europe.

The Spanish government wants to produce 12 percent of primary energy from renewable energy by 2010. That would mean a solar generating capacity of 400 megawatts.
Through a ministerial ruling in March 2004, the Spanish government removed economic barriers to grid-connection of renewable energy. The widely applauded Royal Decree 436/2004 equalises conditions for large-scale thermal and photovoltaic plants and guarantees feed-in tariffs.
Solar thermal power plants
In March 2007, Europe's first commercial concentrating solar power tower plant was opened near the sunny southern Spanish city of Seville. The 11 megawatt plant, known as the PS10 solar power tower, produces electricity with 624 large heliostats. Each of these mirrors has a surface measuring 120 square meters (1,290 square feet) that concentrates the Sun's rays to the top of a 115-meter (377 foot) high tower where a solar receiver and a steam turbine are located. The turbine drives a generator, producing electricity. PS10 is the first of a set of solar electric power generation plants to be constructed in the same area that will total more than 300MW by 2013. This power generation will be accomplished using a variety of technologies.
Solar thermal power plants designed for solar-only generation are ideally matched to summer noon peak loads in prosperous areas with significant cooling demands, such as Spain. Using thermal energy storage systems, solar thermal operating periods can even be extended to meet base-load needs. For example, the 50-MWe AndaSol solar trough power plants are designed with six to twelve hours of thermal storage, which increases annual availability by some 1,000 to 2,500 hours.

Photovoltaics 
Construction has started on a 20MW solar photovoltaics power system in Trujillo, Cáceres, in Spain. Costing €150m, the new plant will have double the output of the 10MW Bavaria Solar Park in Germany, the previous largest ever photovoltaic (PV) system. The project will use 200 100 kW units (120,000 PV modules in total), gaining the top feed-in tariff for this type of plant.
BP Solar has begun constructing a new solar photovoltaic (PV) solar cell manufacturing plant at its European headquarters in Tres Cantos, Madrid.
For phase one of the Madrid expansion, BP Solar is aiming to expand its annual cell capacity from 55 megawatts (MW) to around 300 MW. Construction of this facility is underway, with the first manufacturing line expected to be fully operational this year.

The new cell lines use innovative screen-printing technology. By fully automating wafer handling, the manufacturing lines will be able to handle the very thinnest of wafers available and ensure the highest quality.
 This is of particular importance since there has been a silicon shortage in recent years.

Since the beginning of 2007, Aleo Solar AG has also been manufacturing high-quality solar modules for the Spanish market at its own factory in Santa Maria de Palautordera near Barcelona.
New building codes
New building code laws in Spain are now mandating solar hot water for new and remodeled private residences, and photovoltaic to offset some power requirements for all new and remodeled commercial buildings. The new laws also reflect inceased awareness of the importance of better building insulation and the use of daylighting.

Research and Development
The Plataforma Solar de Almería (PSA) in Spain, part of the Center for Energy, Environment and Technological Research (CIEMAT), is the largest center for research, development, and testing of concentrating solar technologies in Europe.

Related pages
 Andasol 1 solar power station
 List of Solar thermal power stations

References

Other websites
 Spain pioneers grid-connected solar-tower thermal power 

Solar energy
Spain
A sensation is something that produces excitement. A new song or a new play might be termed a "sensation" or producing "sensation". A thrilling ride on a roller coaster might be described as "sensational".

Psychology 
In psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events:

It begins with a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ, which then leads to perception, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I see a uniformly blue wall."

A sensation that might lead to that statement could include the excitation of cone cells in the retina.
In the West, the human body's senses are divided into eight: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, cutaneous, kinesthetic, vestibular, organic. The ways in which these senses are divided from one another in concept, and combined in varying ratios in perceiving the world, differs based on individual physiology, social and cultural context, and physical surroundings. The whole sensory system, including both physical sensation and interpretation (or cognition) of information from the senses, is referred to as a sensorium.

Sensory  system 
The sensory system provides many ways to be aware of the world.
In the visual system Light enters the eyes through the cornea. It then passes through the pupil, and is refracted by the crystalline lens of the eyes. Light is then channeled through the vitreous humour and then on to the retina. In the retina, there are two kinds of cells, rods and cones. Rods see black-and-white colors, and are dominant in the night (because, as physics states, there are no colors in the night, because what we see is the colors reflected from the atmosphere). Cones then, see colored structures. Cones are exceptionally abundant in the fovea. Cones are reactive to the three colors of red, blue, and green. Other colours are sensed as combinations of these.
in the Auditory system Sound is received by the ear via the pinna, the outer ear structure, which then leads the sound inside through the external auditory meatus. After the sound passes through the meatus, it goes to the eardrum, or tympanus, then vibrates its way through the tiny ossicles, the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes), then to the cochlea. The cochlea converts vibration into electrical impulses which are transmitted to the brain.
Taste, or gustation, is the ability to detect sensory changes in the tongue, through the use of taste buds, situated deep into the papillae. Intriguingly, the sense called gustation is in fact comprised of varying ratios of multiple sensory systems, shifting in importance and attention as food is chewed, tasted and swallowed. These include the taste buds, the sense of touch in the structures of the mouth and digestive system, chemical sensation of irritation in the trigeminal nerve system, and unique receptors for sensing the properties of water located at the rear of the oral cavity.

 Smell, or olfaction, is received by the olfactory bulb and connected to the brain by the olfactory nerve, the first cranial nerve of the brain, just after the nasal turbinates of the nose warm, strain and filter the air.

 For touch Please see the skin article for more details.

 The kinesthetic sense is the sense of posture and movement. It is also referred to as proprioception.
The vestibular sense is the sense of balance. It is mediated by the action of the fluid inside the Semicircular canals.

 The organic sense, per se, refers only to sensation from the internal organs, or viscera, but can, however, be expanded to include certain physiological processes, such as hunger, thirst, drowsiness and air hunger. It is also referred to as interoception.

Psychology
Physiology
Instant soups are a kind of soup. They are produced on an industrial scale. Later they are treated in different ways to preserve them. Usually they are dried, canned, or treated by freezing.

Packaged instant soups come in two varieties:
 A packet of dry soup (like the ramen image below). These do not contain water. They are prepared by adding water and heating, or by adding hot water.
 A tin (or can) containing cold soup. To prepare those need to only be heated (for 3–5 minutes usually). There is another type of canned soup where the liquid is condensed and needs water added to it to make an edible soup.

Soups
Sensation may refer to any of the following:

Sensation, psychological term relating to perception
Sensation and perception psychology
Sensation (song), by The Who
The Sensations, an American musical R&B/pop quartet of the 1950s and early 1960s
The Sensations (television), a popular television show of the Philippines
Sensations of 1945, American film
Sensation (ship), Carnival Cruise Line ship
Sensation Comics, comic book series
Sensation (event), indoor dance event which includes:
Sensation Black
Sensation White
Sensation exhibition, controversial British art exhibition
Sensation novel, British literary genre
Sensation Animation, subsidiary group of the Walt Disney Corporation
Sensation play (BDSM), BDSM term
Walkers Sensations, Type of potato crisp

Related pages
Sense
In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of taking in, picking, organizing, and understanding sensory information. It includes collecting data from sense organs and interpreting it in the brain. Consider this: Light enters our eyes, and the brain works on this information to build up a mental picture of what is going on "out there". Perception is a lot more than just "information coming in". It is an active process.

There are many ways to study perception. There are biological or physiological approaches, psychological approaches through the philosophy of mind and experiments. There are studies by philosophers such as David Hume, John Locke, George Berkeley.

History of the study of perception 
The study of perception started with the study of sight. This makes sense because humans understand the world largely by looking at it.
Ancient Greece 
The first studies of perception happened in the years 460371 BC by the Greek philosopher Democritus. He believed the shapes we see were pictures which flew to our eyes, where our soul would then recognize them. The philosopher Plato (427–348 BC) later came up with a new idea, he believed the eyes worked by first making light and then scanning the world. Another Greek philosopher and student of Plato called Aristotle (384–322 BC) did not agree with these ideas. He presented a new theory :
 Light can only come from bright objects, like fire and the sun.
 Light is not something you can touch
 Light hits objects and then bounces off the object to hit our eyes
 Light moves through something that humans can't see

Aristotle's ideas were then accepted for hundreds of years.

10th & 11th Century 
Ibn al-Haytham wrote the first mathematical description of the visual process
17th Century 
Kepler explained what is inside of the eye. Descartes said that the way our physical senses see the world does not affect how we think about the world. Locke and Descartes both thought humans saw color because of the senses.

18th Century 
Kant suggested that humans can't know about things which our senses don’t see. Because of this he stated that a god and a soul were not possible.

19th Century 
New techniques were created and used to study the brain and perception. Many of these studies were paired with data on human behavior. The psychologist Wundt stated that perception could not just be explained by the way the body works and that psychology was needed too.

20th Century 
Gestalt psychology was formed. The idea behind this group of thinkers was that perception is more than the sum of our senses.

Process of Perception
Bruner's model of perception 
 When we see someone we don't know, we are looking for signs which will tell us things about them.
 As we pick up on some signs, we match this person to a group we have seen before.
 The search for signs that tell us about who they are becomes less broad.
 We now only search for signs that put this person into the group we have matched them to.
Saks and Johns model of perception 
 The perceiver : This is the person doing the observing and perceiving. There are three things that can have an effect on someone's perception. These are : How much experience someone has, how motivated this person is, and how they are feeling. Also, in some situations someone can use a "perceptual defense", this is when they only see what they want to see.
 The person who is being watched and perceived : The least the other person knows about them the more they will try to guess.
 The time and place this situation is happening at : This affects the amount of attention the perceiver gives to a situation.

Types of perception

Vision 
Vision is what you see. Seeing something happens when light enters the eyes. This light is turned into an electric message which travels to the brain and gets turned into a picture.

Sound 
Sound is what you hear. The ears catch movement from sound waves which move in every direction. The brain takes these in, creating what we hear.
Touch 
Touch is what you feel with your skin. The skin's top layer has receptors that take information in when touched. These receptors can sense pain, how hot or cold something is and how heavy something is. Receptors then send this information to our nervous system.

Taste 
Taste is the flavor of things we eat or drink. Our tongue has many little bumps which take in our food's flavor. These bumps then send a message to our brain for us to taste.

Smell 
The skin inside your nose has small cells which send messages to your brain when you breathe in. Your brain then senses the smell.

Theories of Perception 
Theories of perception can be sorted into two groups. The first group believes in Bottom-Up processing. This approach means that to perceive, humans only needs information from their senses. For example : light enters the eye, this light is sent to the brain and the brain turns it into something we see.
The second group is Top-Down processing. In this approach, perception starts off with something general and becomes specific. What we already know or expect has a big effect here. For example : if you see half of a cat, you will have an idea of what it looks like even though half of it is hidden. This is because you have seen a cat before. Top down processing helps humans quickly make sense of their environment without having to think too much.

Bottom-up processing

Gibson's Ecological Theory 
James Gibson (1904-1979) states that perception happens because of our human instincts. This means it can't be learned. He suggests that perception is needed for humans to stay alive. Neanderthals would have needed perception to escape danger, suggesting perception is the result of evolution. Gibson's theory is known as the "Ecological Theory" , because he says that perception can only be explained by our environment. To Gibson, Sensation = perception.

Top-down processing
Stephen E. Palmer 
Palmer states that people have ideas about how the world looks like, and they use that knowledge to figure out what things are. He did a study in 1975 to show this. In his study, people were shown groups of 4 pictures. One picture was a location, a kitchen for example. The other three pictures were one object you would find in a kitchen (bread), and two pictures that had no ties to the kitchen (an instrument and a mailbox). This was repeated with many different places and objects. His findings showed that people found it harder to recognize the objects that had no relationship to the location.
Evolutionary psychology 
This recognises how all animals have perception of some kind: because they are mobile they need senses which give them information about what is around them. Of course, primitive animals have simple sense organs, like Euglena does, whereas complex animals need much more information about their surroundings. Therefore, advanced animals do have advanced visual and other sensory systems.

This relates to perception. The main function of sense organs is to guide action.

References and more reading 

 
 Flanagan J.R., Lederman S.J. 2001.Neurobiology: Feeling bumps and holes, News and Views, Nature, 412(6845):389–91.
 
 Gregory R.L. 1981. Mind in Science: a history of explanations of psychology and physics. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson; USA: CUP. Paperback, Peregrine.
 
 Robles-De-La-Torre, G. The importance of the sense of touch in virtual and real environments . IEEE Multimedia 13(3), Special issue on Haptic User Interfaces for Multimedia Systems, pp. 24–30 (2006).
Other websites
 Online papers on perception , by various authors, compiled by David Chalmers
 Paradoxical haptic objects . An example of touch illusions of shape. See also the MIT Technology Review article:
 The Cutting Edge of Haptics, by Duncan Graham-Rowe.
 Theories of Perception
is a type of thin Japanese noodle. It is made from buckwheat flour. It is served either chilled with a dipping sauce, or in hot broth as a noodle soup. Moreover, it is not uncommon in Japan to refer to any thin noodle as soba in contrast to udon which are thick noodles made from wheat.

Because noodles made out of pure buckwheat can easily fall apart when boiled, the buckwheat flour is usually mixed with binders - often wheat flour. Under the Japan Agricultural Standards regulations, the noodles must contain at least 30% buckwheat in order to be called soba but noodles with a high buckwheat content are seen as more desirable. The raw noodles are made by making a dough out of buckwheat flour and binder. The dough is then spread out flat. After that, strands of noodles are sliced off with a special knife. The quality of noodles is highly dependent on the skill of the maker, especially for soba noodles with high buckwheat content. The raw noodles are boiled before being served hot or cold.
In Japan, soba noodles are served in a variety of situations. They are a popular inexpensive fast food at train stations throughout Japan, they are served by exclusive and expensive specialty restaurants, and they are also made at home. Markets sell dried noodles and men-tsuyu, or instant noodle broth, to make home preparation easy.
Some establishments, especially cheaper and more casual ones, may serve both soba and udon (thick wheat noodles) as they are often served in a similar manner. However, soba is traditionally the noodle of choice for Tokyoites. This tradition originates from the Edo period. At that time, the population of Edo (Tokyo) was much richer than the rural poor, were more susceptible to beriberi because of  their high consumption of white rice which is low in thiamine. They are thought to have made up for this by regularly eating thiamine-rich soba. Every neighbourhood had one or two soba establishments, many also serving sake, which functioned much like modern cafes where locals would drop by casually.

Serving soba
Soba is almost always eaten with chopsticks, and in Japan, it is traditionally considered polite to slurp the noodles noisily. This is especially common with hot noodles, as drawing up the noodles quickly into the mouth acts to cool them down.
Common soba dishes 
Like many Japanese noodles, soba noodles are often served drained and chilled in the summer, and hot in the winter with a soy-based dashi broth. Extra toppings can be added onto both hot and cold soba. Toppings are chosen to reflect the seasons and to balance with other ingredients. Most toppings are added without much cooking, although some are deep-fried. Most of these dishes may also be prepared with udon. Soba noodles often have a witdh of around 1.5 mm.

Cold
Chilled soba is often served on a sieve-like bamboo tray called a zaru, sometimes garnished with bits of dried nori seaweed, with a dipping sauce known as soba tsuyu on the side. The tsuyu is made of a strong mixture of dashi, sweetened soy sauce and mirin. Using chopsticks, the diner picks up a small amount of soba from the tray and swirls it in the cold tsuyu before eating it.  Wasabi, scallions, and grated ginger are often mixed into the tsuyu.
Mori soba  – Basic chilled soba noodles served on a flat basket or a plate.
Zaru soba  – Mori soba topped with shredded seaweed.
furikake soba– Cold soba served with various toppings sprinkled on top, after which the broth is poured on by the diner.  It may include:
tororo – puree of yamaimo (a Japanese yam with a slimy texture)
oroshi – grated daikon radish
natto – sticky fermented soybeans
okra – fresh sliced okra
Soba maki – Cold soba wrapped in nori and prepared as makizushi.

Hot
Soba is also often served as a noodle soup in a bowl of hot tsuyu. The hot tsuyu in this instance is thinner than that used as a dipping sauce for chilled soba. Popular garnishes are sliced scallion and shichimi toragashi (mixed chili powder).
Kake soba  – Hot soba in broth topped with thinly sliced scallion, and perhaps a slice of kamaboko (fish cake).
Kitsune soba (in Kanto) or Tanuki soba (in Kansai) – Topped with abura age (deep-fried tofu).
Tanuki soba (in Kanto) or Haikara soba (in Kansai) – Topped with tenkasu (bits of deep-fried tempura batter).
Tempura soba  – Topped with tempura, usually a large shrimp.
Tsukimi soba ("moon-viewing soba") – Topped with raw egg, which poaches in the hot soup.
Tororo soba – Topped with tororo, the puree of yamaimo (a potato-like vegetable with a slimy texture).
Wakame soba – Topped with wakame seaweed

Soba served on special occasions
Soba is traditionally eaten on New Years Eve in most areas of Japan, a tradition which survives to this day. In the Tokyo area, there is also a tradition of giving out soba to new neighbours after a house move, although this practice is now rare.

Varieties of soba noodles
The most famous Japanese soba noodles come from Nagano. Soba from Nagano is called Shinano Soba or Shinshu soba. Ni-hachi (two-eight) soba, consists of two parts of wheat and eight of buckwheat.

Sarashina soba – thin, light-colored soba, made with refined  buckwheat
Inaka soba – "country soba", thick soba made with whole buckwheat

By location
Shinshu soba – named after the old name of Nagano Prefecture. Also known as Shinano soba. (Shinano=Shinshu)
Etanbetsu soba – named after the central region of Hokkaidō (Asahikawacity)
Izumo soba – named after Izumo in Shimane
Izushi soba – named after Izushi in Hyogo
Miyako soba - named after the Miyako Island in Okinawa

By ingredients
Tororo soba or Jinenjo soba – flavored with wild yam flour
Cha soba – flavored with green tea powder
Mugi soba – flavored with mugwort
Hegi soba – flavored with seaweed
Ni-hachi soba – soba containing 20% wheat and 80% buckwheat
Towari soba or Juwari soba – 100% buckwheat soba
Other uses of the word soba
Soba is also the Japanese word for buckwheat. Roasted buckwheat kernels may be made into a grain tea called sobacha, which may be served hot or cold. Buckwheat hulls, or sobakawa, are used to fill pillows.

Soba is occasionally used to refer to noodles in general.  In Japan, ramen is sometimes called chūka soba or shina soba (both mean Chinese noodles).  Parboiled chūka soba is stir-fried to make yakisoba. Note that these noodles do not contain buckwheat.

In Okinawa, soba usually refers to Okinawa soba, a completely different dish of noodles made out of flour, not buckwheat. Okinawa soba is also quite popular in the city of Campo Grande (Brazil), due to influence of Japanese (Okinawan) immigrants. It is eaten at street markets or in special restaurants called "sobarias".

Related pages
Ramen
Udon
Japanese cuisine
Chinese cuisine

Other websites 

Tokyo soba chef making noodles by hand from scratch - illustrated article in English
A Soba and Tofu recipe  (with photo)

Noodles
Carmen Basilio (born April 2, 1927 – November 7, 2012) was an American boxer who held the welterweight and middleweight world championship. He won the welterweight title from Tony DeMarco in 1955. He then fought Sugar Ray Robinson for the middleweight title. He won the belt from Robinson in 1957, but lost it when they fought again.

He is the uncle of former welterweight boxing champion Billy Backus.

Other websites
 Boxing record

American boxers
Sportspeople from New York (state)
1927 births
2012 deaths
Deaths from pneumonia
Johnny Saxton (b. July 4, 1930 in Newark, NJ, d. October 4 2008) was an American boxer who won the welterweight championship.

Saxton beat Kid Gavilan in 1954 to become the welterweight champion.  The lost the title the following year to Tony DeMarco.  In 1956 he won the title again by beating Carmen Basilio, but lost the title in a rematch with Basilio later in the year.  He retired in 1958.

Other websites
 Boxing record

2008 deaths
American boxers
Sportspeople from Newark, New Jersey
1930 births
The Weber–Fechner law is a proposed relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the intensity or strength that people feel.

The case of weight 
In one of his classic experiments, Weber gradually increased the weight that a blindfolded man was holding and asked him to respond when he first felt the increase. Weber found that the response was proportional to a relative increase in the weight. That is to say, if the weight is 1 kg, an increase of a few grams will not be noticed. Rather, when the mass is increased by a certain factor, an increase in weight is perceived. If the mass is doubled, the threshold is also doubled.
The relationship between stimulus and perception is logarithmic. This logarithmic relationship means that if a stimulus varies as a geometric progression (i.e. multiplied by a fixed factor), the corresponding perception is altered in an arithmetic progression (i.e. in additive constant amounts). For example, if a stimulus is tripled in strength (i.e., 3 x 1), the corresponding perception may be two times as strong as its original value (i.e., 1 + 1). If the stimulus is again tripled in strength (i.e., 3 x 3 x 1), the corresponding perception will be three times as strong as its original value (i.e., 1 + 1 + 1). Hence, for multiplications in stimulus strength, the strength of perception only adds.

This logarithmic relationship is valid, not just for the sensation of weight, but for other stimuli and our sensory perceptions as well.

Related pages
 Stevens' power law
 Nervous system

References 

Psychology
Perception
A logarithmic scale is a scale used when there is a large range of quantities. Common uses include earthquake strength, sound loudness, light intensity, spreading rates of epidemics, and pH of solutions.

It is based on orders of magnitude, rather than a standard linear scale. The value of each mark on the scale is the value at the previous mark multiplied by a constant.

Logarithmic scales are also used in slide rules for multiplying or dividing numbers by adding or subtracting lengths on the scales.

The logarithmic scale can be helpful when the data cover a large range of values – the logarithm reduces this to a more manageable range. 

Some of our senses operate in a logarithmic fashion (multiplying the actual input strength adds a constant to the perceived signal strength, see: Stevens' power law). That makes logarithmic scales for these input quantities especially appropriate. In particular, our sense of hearing perceives equal multiples of frequencies as equal differences in pitch.
On most logarithmic scales, small multiples (or ratios) of the underlying quantity correspond to small (possibly negative) values of the logarithmic measure.

Examples 

Well-known examples of such scales are:

 Richter magnitude scale and moment magnitude scale (MMS) for strength of earthquakes and movement in the earth.
 bel and decibel and neper for acoustic power (loudness) and electric power;
 counting f-stops for ratios of photographic exposure;
 rating low probabilities by the number of 'nines' in the decimal expansion of the probability of their not happening: for example, a system which will fail with a probability of 10−5 is 99.999% reliable: "five nines".
 Entropy in thermodynamics.
 Information in information theory.
 Particle size distribution curves of soil

Some logarithmic scales were designed such that large values (or ratios) of the underlying quantity correspond to small  values of the logarithmic measure. Examples of such scales are:
pH for acidity;
 stellar magnitude scale for brightness of stars;

A logarithmic scale is also a graphical scale on one or both sides of a graph where a number x is printed at a distance c·log(x)  from the point marked with the number 1. A slide rule has logarithmic scales, and nomograms often employ logarithmic scales. On a logarithmic scale an equal difference in order of magnitude is represented by an equal distance. The geometric mean of two numbers is midway between the numbers. 

Logarithmic graph paper, before the advent of computer graphics, was a basic scientific tool. Plots on paper with one log scale can show up exponential laws, and on log-log paper power laws, as straight lines (see semilog graph, log-log graph).

Logarithms
Noodle soup is a kind of soup. It contains the normal soup stock, together with noodles, and sometimes other ingredients. This kind of soup is very popular in Asia, where it originally came from.  There are also many instant soups of this kind.

Some of the varieties are:

Beef noodle soup - popular in China; noodles in a beef soup
Ban mian - popular in China, Malaysia and Singapore; a noodle soup with flat noodles, egg, and usually vegetables.
Soba - popular in Japan; noodles are made of buckwheat
Udon - popular in Japan; noodles are made of wheat, toppings can be added, broth is usually dashi
Mie ayam - popular in Indonesia; a chicken noodle soup.
Ramen 

Soups
Noodles
The scale of a map shows the ratio between the distances on the map and the corresponding distances in reality. For example, a map of scale 1:50,000 shows a distance of 50,000 cm (or 500 m) as 1 cm on a map. A 1:25 scale model of a building with a height of 30 m has a model height of 1.20 m.

When a drawing or model or photograph of an object is larger or smaller than the original, the scale represents how much the object has been "grown" or "shrunk".

Scale bars 
Scale bars for microscopic or unusual objects are necessary. They help readers  to understand the diagram.

Related pages
 Proportionality
 Scale (map)

Measurement
Scale could mean:
Weighing scale Weighing scale used for measurement of weight (mass or force)
Scale (map)
Scale (ratio)
Scale factor
Scalability in computing
Scale (zoology)
Zoology: Scale insect, plant parasites which resemble animal scales
Scale parameter, probability and statistics
Logarithmic scale, mathematics
Order of magnitude
Architect's scale — (or draughtsman's scale) is a ruler-like device, which facilitates the production of technical drawings.
Engineer's scale
Zadok scale cereal development
Screen Actors Guild wage standards
Mizan or Balance is a comprehensive treatise on the contents of Islam written by Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar.

Astronomy
Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale
Torino Scale
Solar flare energy intensity
The constellation Libra (constellation) (Latin for scale) and the zodiac sign Libra (astrology)

Chemistry and physics

Electronegativity
Allred-Rochow scale
Mulliken scale
Pauling scale
Radiodensity
The Hounsfield Scale is a linear transformation of the original linear attenuation coefficient measurement into one in which the radio-density of distilled water at standard pressure and temperature (STP) is defined as zero Hounsfield units (HU), while the radiodensity of air at STP is defined as -1000 HU.

Relative density or specific gravity
The Baumé scale measures specific gravity or relative density.
Brix scale / Degrees Brix (symbol °Bx) is the sugar content of an aqueous solution. One degree Brix is 1 gram of sucrose in 100 grams of solution and represents the strength of the solution as percentage by mass.
Plato scale
Twaddell scale

Temperature

Celsius
Fahrenheit
Réaumur scale

Earth science
Earth science

 Beaufort scale (wind)
 Fujita scale (tornadoes)
 Mohs scale of mineral hardness
 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale
Okta (cloud cover) - a unit of measurement used to describe the amount of cloud cover at any given location such as a weather station. Sky conditions are estimated in terms of how many eighths of the sky are covered in cloud, ranging from 0 oktas (completely clear sky) through to 8 oktas (completely overcast).

Economics
Scale (economics)
Resource-Based Relative Value Scale, returns to scale

Music
Scale (music)
Bohlen-Pierce scale
Chromatic scale
Deutsch's scale illusion
Diminished scale
Mathematics of musical scales
Major scale
Minor scale
Scale (string instruments)
Scale (album), an album by electronic artist Matthew Herbert

Scale models
Scale model
2 mm scale
HO scale
O scale

Social science
Kinsey scale, sexual orientation
Likert scale, questionnaire format
Phrase completions, questionnaire format
Miscellaneous
The Goldberg scale measures mania and depression.
The Liebowitz social anxiety scale measures the severity of social anxiety disorder.
The Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale and the Mercalli scale measure the intensity of earthquakes.
The Mohs scale of mineral hardness characterizes the scratch resistance of various minerals.
The Richter scale, a mathematical device to compare the size of earthquakes.
The Scoville Scale measures the hotness of peppers.
The Apgar score is determined by evaluating the newborn baby on five simple criteria on a scale from zero to two, then summing up the five values thus obtained. The resulting Apgar score ranges from zero to 10. The five criteria are summarized using words chosen to form a backronym (Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration).
A map scale is the size of an object compared to the size of the object's smaller representative on a map. This can be shown by a scale bar and a ratio 1:n. The reader can measure a distance on the map to know what is the distance on the ground. 

People sometimes speak of a map as one with a "large scale" or "small scale".  A "large scale" map makes things look large, and a "small scale" map makes things look small.  For example, an island displayed on a 1:10,000 map will appear larger than if it were displayed on a 1:25,000 map.  Thus, the former is "large scale". What can be confusing is that for a map of a given physical size, say 11 by 17 inches, a "large scale" map will have a smaller geographic extent than a "small scale" map centred on the same point.
Maps with a ratio of 1:50 000 or larger (for example, 1:40 000 would be larger) are considered large scale. Maps with a ratio of 1:50 000 to 1:250 000 are considered intermediate scale. Any maps with a smaller scale (for example 1:300 000) are considered small scale.

Related pages
 Scale (ratio)

References 

Cartography
Measurement
Midnight sun is a phenomenon that exists north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle. It means that the sun, on parts of the year, is visible the whole night long. The sun above the horizon at midnight in the arctic or Antarctic summer.

There are no people living permanently south of the Antarctic Circle, but in Alaska, Canada, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, and some other countries it is possible to watch the Midnight sun in the summer.

The opposite of the Midnight sun is the Polar night.

Astronomical phenomena
Geography
Eight Below is a 2006 Walt Disney Pictures movie. It was directed by Frank Marshall and written by David DiGilio. The movie was released on February 17, 2006 in the United States.

Other websites

Disney movies
American adventure movies
2006 movies
Movies about animals
2006 adventure movies
American drama movies
General Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (born 9 September 1949), is an Indonesian retired military general and politician. He was the sixth President of Indonesia from 2004 to 2014. Yudhoyono is the first president to be elected directly by voters.  Yudhoyono won the presidency on 20 September 2004. He defeated President Megawati Sukarnoputri.

Other websites
 Official website 

1949 births
Living people
Indonesian Muslims
Presidents of Indonesia
Democratic Party (Indonesia) politicians
The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an English order of chivalry. It was started in 1348, by King Edward III of England. The Order is the highest level of knighthood that can be given by the English monarch. It is the world's oldest national order of knighthood. Membership in the Order is limited to those people who have done many great things for the United Kingdom.

The Order of the Garter is made up of a very small number of people. This group includes the Sovereign (the King or Queen of Britain) and no more than 25 full members. These members are called "Companions". Male companions are called "Knight Companions". Female members are called "Lady Companions". There are also a number of extra members known as "Supernumerary" Knights and Ladies. These members are usually members of the British royal family, and monarchs of other countries.