Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The technique of ending a spoken or musical recording by fading out the sound goes back to the earliest days of recording. In the era of mechanical (pre-electrical) recording, this could only be achieved by either moving the sound source away from the recording horn, or by gradually reducing the volume at which the performers were singing, playing or speaking. With the advent of electrical recording, smooth and controllable fadeout effects could be easily achieved by simply reducing the input volume from the microphones using the fader on the mixing desk.

No single recording can be reliably identified as "the first" to use the technique. In 2003, on the (now-defunct) website Stupid Question , John Ruch listed the following recordings as possible contenders:
Fader 
A fader is any device used for fading, especially when it is a knob or button that slides along a track or slot. A knob which rotates is usually not considered a fader, although it is electrically and functionally equivalent. A fader can be either analogue, directly controlling the resistance or impedance to the source (e.g. a Potentiometer); or digital, numerically controlling a digital signal processor (DSP).  Digital faders are also referred to as virtual faders, since they can be viewed on the screen of a digital audio workstation. Modern high-end digital mixers often have piezo-electric actuators attached to the faders such that they can be multi-use and will jump to the correct position for the selected function and/or saved setting.
Crossfading 
A crossfader on a dj mixer essentially functions like two faders connected side-by-side, but in opposite directions. It allows a DJ to fade one source out while fading another source in at the same time. This is extremely useful when beatmatching two phonograph records or compact discs.

The technique of crossfading is also used in audio engineering as a mixing technique, particularly with instrumental solos. A mix engineer will often record two or more takes of a vocal or instrumental part and create a final version which is a composite of the best passages of these takes by crossfading between each track.
In the perfect case the crossfader would keep constant output level. However, there's no standard how this should be achieved. Many DJ equipment manufacturers offer different mixers for different purposes (e.g. scratching, beatmixing, cut mixing, etc.). High-end mixers often have crossfade curve switches allowing the DJ to select the type of crossfade necessary. Experienced DJs are also able to crossfade between tracks using the channel faders.

There are many software applications that feature virtual crossfaders. For instance, burning-software for the recording of audio-CDs.

Pre-fader, post-fader 

On a mixer with auxiliary send mixes, the send mixes are configured pre-fader or post-fader.

If a send mix is configured pre-fader, then changes to the main channel strip fader does not affect the send mix.  This is useful for stage monitor mixes where changes in the Front of House channel levels would distract the musicians.
If a send mix is configured post-fader, then the level sent to the send mix follows changes to the main channel strip fader.  This is useful for reverberation and other signal processor effects.

References 

 Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music, p. 95-6. Philadelphia: Open University Press. .

Other websites 
WikiRecording's Article on Faders

Sound
The Centenary Medal is an award given by the Australian Government in 2001. It was set up to celebrate the Centenary of Federation of Australia and to honour people who have made a contribution to Australian society or government. Possible winners were studied by a group headed by the historian Professor Geoffrey Blainey.

Design

Award 
The front of the medal has a seven-pointed Commonwealth Star, for the six Australian states, with the seventh point for Australia's territories. At the centre of the star is an image showing the Indigenous Australian traditions at the heart of the continent. Around the edge are 100 dots for 100 years of federation. The other side has a seven pointed star, with the words "For Contribution Made to Australian Society" around the edge.
Bar and Ribbon 
The colours in the ribbon are crimson, which represents federation, and blue and gold for the beginning of the 21st Century. The seven gold and red lines signify the states' pathways to federation. The bar and ribbon are the same so that a person with the award can be recognized easily.

Some medal winners
 Jack Brabham, motor sport
 Barry Marshall, Nobel Prize winner

References 

Orders, decorations, and medals of Australia
2001
2000s in Australia
Pressing the backspace key on a computer terminal would generate the ASCII code 08, BS or Backspace, a control code which would delete the preceding character. That control code could also be accessed by pressing Control-H, as H is the eighth letter of the Latin alphabet. Terminals which did not have the backspace code mapped to the function of moving the cursor backwards and deleting the preceding character would display the symbols ^H (caret, H – see Caret notation) when the backspace key was pressed. This sequence is still used humorously for epanorthosis by computer literates, denoting the deletion of a pretended blunder, much like a strikethrough.

Example:

 My slave-dri^H^H^H^H^H^H^H^H^Hboss decided to stall the project.
A more concise alternative sometimes seen is ^W, which is the shortcut to delete the previous word in the Berkeley Unix terminal line discipline. One ^W can replace a whole string of ^H's. This shortcut has also made it into the Vi text editor. For really embarrassing blunders, ^U (kill line) can outdo a series of ^W.

The backspace is distinct from the delete key, which in paper media for computers would punch out all the holes to strike out a character, and in modern computers deletes text following it. Also, the delete key often works as a generic command to remove an object (such as an image inside a document, or a file in a file manager), while backspace usually has no effect.

In modern systems, the backspace key is often mapped to the delete character (0x7f in ASCII or Unicode), although the backspace key's function of deleting the character before the cursor remains.

In a mainframe environment, to backspace means to move a magnetic tape backwards, typically to the previous block.
The backspace key is commonly used to go back a page when exploring folders in graphical environments, or when browsing the Web in web browsers.

Although the term "backspace" is the standard name of the key which deletes the character to the left of the cursor, the actual key may be labelled in a variety of ways, for example delete, Erase (for example in XO-1, One Laptop Per Child), or with a left pointing arrow.

References 

Computer keyboard
Control characters
The Australian Sports Medal was an award given during 2000 to recognise achievements in Australian sport.

Winners of the award included competitors, coaches, sports scientists, office holders, and people who maintained sporting facilities and services.  Over 18,000 Medals were awarded.

Description
 The medal is circular and made of nickel-silver with a highly polished finish. The front design symbolises Australian sport showing the stars of the Southern Cross, and lines representing the athletics track at the Australian Sports Stadium.
 The other side has the same lines as the front, and the words ‘to commemorate Australian sporting achievement’ appearing in the raised edge of the medal. It is also marked with the year ‘2000’.
 The medal hangs from a 32 mm ribbon by a connector piece and ring. The ribbon’s colours are Australia’s national colours green and yellow.

Other websites
It's an Honour  - Australian Government site
  - Stanley Brooks (Australian Government Site)
Sport in Australia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Australia
2000 in Australia
Marin Mersenne, (born 8 September 1588, in modern-day Sarthe, died 1 September 1648, in Paris) was a French theologian and mathematician. He developed the first laws of acoustics, which was known by his name for a long time. Today, he is mainly remembered for the Mersenne primes. Together with Galileo Galilei he built the laws which describe how a mass falls in an empty space. He was in favour of modern science, and did not agree with "occultist" movements. 

He often travelled to meet great scientists, which made him an important mediator. This is especially true for mathematicians such as Pierre Gassendi, Gilles Personne de Roberval, Blaise Pascal und Pierre de Fermat. To tell Mersenne of a discovery was like publishing it. He told Gassendi to reply to the Meditations of Descartes. Mersenne gave Huygens the idea of using a pendulum to measure time. This led to the development of pendulum clocks.

1588 births
1648 deaths
French mathematicians
French Roman Catholics
French theologians
The Land Transport Authority (Abbreviation: LTA; Chinese: 陆路交通管理局 (shortform: 陆交局); Malay: Penguasa Pengangkutan Darat; ) of Singapore is a statutory board of the Ministry of Transport. It was founded in 1 September 1995, by merging four agencies, which are Registry of Vehicles, Mass Rapid Transit Corporation, Roads & Transportation Division of the Public Works Department of Singapore and Land Transport Division of the then-Ministry of Communications. LTA leads the development of land transport in Singapore.

References

Other websites 

 Official website

Transport in Singapore
Organizations based in Singapore
The usage share of web browsers is the percentage (%) of viewers at a group of websites who use a particular web browser. For example, when it is said that Google Chrome has 64% usage share (May 2022), it means that all versions of Chrome (including the related Chromium) are used by 64 of every 100 visitors who visit a  set of websites.

Other websites
Chuck Upsdell's Browser Stats lists web stats from many different stats sources and gives the approximate current usage share of the most popular layout engines.
W3Schools' Browser Statistics lists the web stats only from the W3 Schools site, which gives the approximate usage share of browsers among "people with an interest for web technologies."
Wikimedia's most recent squid report lists web stats for Wikipedia and its sister projects.

ru:Браузер#Рыночные доли
Quatuor pour la fin du temps is a piece of chamber music by the French composer Olivier Messiaen.  In English -speaking countries it is often called by the English title Quartet for the End of Time.  The piece is written for an unusual combination of four instruments: clarinet (in B-flat), violin, cello, and piano.  There are 8 movements.  It takes about 50 minutes to perform.  The work was first performed in unusual circumstances in 1941.  It is a very important work in the history of 20th century classical music.
Composition and first performance
There was a special reason why Messiaen wrote this work for an unusual combination of instruments.  In 1940, when World War II was being fought, Germany invaded France.  Messiaen was captured by the German army and he was held as a prisoner of war. While being taken to the prisoner of war camp, Messiaen talked to another prisoner, Henri Akoka, who was a clarinettist.  Messiaen showed him the sketches for a clarinet piece he was writing called  Abîme des oiseaux. Two other professional musicians were also among the prisoners: Jean le Boulaire, a violinist and Étienne Pasquier, a cellist.   Messiaen composed the Quatuor for these three musicians with himself at the piano. The combination of these four instruments is unusual,  although Paul Hindemith had written a work for the same combination in 1938.
The quartet was given its first performance in Görlitz, Germany (now called  Zgorzelec in Poland) on 15 January 1941.   The audience consisted of about four hundred  prisoners of war.  There were German prison officers sitting in front.  The music must have seemed strange to the audience, but they all listened politely.  Shortly after this Messiaen was released from prison and went back to France.

Inspiration
Messiaen was inspired by the words in the Bible where the angel says “There shall be time no longer”.  These words have another meaning in relation to the music, because Messiaen does not write music with a regular number of beats in a bar.  Like The Rite of Spring, the length of the bars keep changing.  Messiaen had heard enough of soldiers marching to a regular one-two-three-four-one-two-three-four during the war.  His rhythms in this music develop from little tiny rhythmic patterns.

Structure
The work is in eight movements.
The first movement is called “Liturgie de cristal” (“Chyrstal liturgy”) and describes the birds waking up.  All four instruments play this movement.

The second movement is “Vocalise, pour l'Ange qui annonce la fin du Temps
“Song for the Angel who announces the end of time”.  It is played by the full quartet, although the clarinet does not play in the central section.

The third movement is called “Abîme des oiseaux” (“Abyss of birds”) and is just played by the clarinet.  It is extremely slow and the clarinettist needs a lot of breath control.

The fourth movement is “Intermède”  (“Interlude”) and is played by the violin, cello, and clarinet.).  It is fast and lively.

The fifth movement is “Louange à l'Éternité de Jésus (“Praise to the eternity of Jesus").  It is played by the cello accompanied by the piano who just plays chords.  It is again extremely slow and the cellist needs good bow control.
The sixth movement is called “Danse de la fureur, pour les sept trompettes“ (“Dance of the Fury, for the seven trumpets”), played on all four instruments.  They play in unison (the same notes) nearly all the way through.

The seventh movement is called “Fouillis d'arcs-en-ciel, pour l'Ange qui annonce la fin du Temps" (“Tangle of rainbows, for the Angel who announces the end of time”),  played by the full quartet.  Some of the music from the second movement is repeated.  We hear the angel being covered by the rainbow.

The eighth movement is “Louange à l'Immortalité de Jésus" (“Praise to the immortality of Jesus"), for violin and piano.  We hear the ascent of man to his god.  The violin finishes on a very high harmonic note.
In the long preface at the front of the score Messiaen writes a short introduction to the music theory theory of his music.  He describes the rhythms he uses and how they relate to one another.  However, at the end, he says that it is not necessary to read all about his theory in order to perform the piece.

References

Chamber music compositions
National Parks Act 
The National Parks Act of 1980 was written to record what national parks are for, and how they would be chosen and looked after. It begins by explaining what a national park is:

The National Parks Act goes on to say that the public will be allowed to enter and use the parks freely, but with rules to avoid destroying the native plants and animals or the parks. Access to specially protected areas (550 km²) as noted under the act is only allowed with special permits.
National parks are soil, water and forest conservation areas, and should be kept as natural as possible. Native plants and animals are to be looked after and other plants and animals removed if they harm the natural wildlife. Development in what the act calls "wilderness areas" is only foot tracks and huts used for wild animal control or scientific research.
Services available for public use
The Act allows the Department of Conservation to provide hostels, huts, camping grounds, ski tows and other services, parking areas, roading and tracks within the parks. As well as these, the department also provides some accommodation, transport and other services at entry points to the parks, but these are also offered by others. Other services within the parks, such as guided walks and skiing tutorials, are provided by other companies, sometimes with help from the department.

List of national parks

Proposed national park
The area around Waipoua Forest, north of Dargaville, was suggested to become a new Kauri National Park. The area contains most of New Zealand's remaining kauri, including the largest known kauri, Tāne Mahuta. These stands of kauri are also important because they are homes for many endangered species including the North Island brown kiwi. This proposal is currently being considered by the Department of Conservation.
Mining concerns 
In 2010 the New Zealand Government proposed removing some national park and conservation areas from Schedule 4 protection of the Crown Minerals Act which means that mining is not allowed in those areas. In July the government decided against the proposal after receiving a large number of submissions, most of which were against mining.

References

Other websites
National Park information at the Department of Conservation

New Zealand
New Zealand
Geography of New Zealand
Lists of national parks
national parks
Plumbaginaceae is a family of flowering plants are about 560 species in 10 genera found all over the world. They are annual or perennial herbs, shrubs and climbers. Thrift (Armeria) and Sea Lavender (Limonium), have small flowers in dense clusters. They are generally grown for garden decoration or as cut flowers, either fresh or dried, and medicinal extracts are obtained from some species.

Caryophyllales
Plant families
Polygonaceae is a family of flowering plants are herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees comprising about 30 genera and 1,000 species. The leaves are simple, alternate or rarely opposite, and usually stipulate. Some well known members include buckwheat (Fagopyrum), sorrel (Rumex), rhubarb (Rheum), and knotweed (Polygonum).
Charles is a boy's name of German origin.  There are many famous people named Charles:
Charles Aznavour, Armenian-French singer
 Charles Babbage, English inventor
 Charles Barkley, American basketball player
 Charles Blanvillain, French rapper
 Charles Bronson, American actor
 Charles Carroll of Carrollton, signer of the Declaration of Independence
 Charles Chaplin, American actor
 Charles Chesnutt, American author
 Charles Colson, American lawyer
 Charles Cornwallis, British general and politician
 Charles Court, Australian politician
 Charles Curtis, Vice-President of the United States
 Charles Darwin, who came up with the theory of evolution
 Charles G. Dawes, Nobel Laureate and Vice-President of the United States
 Charles Ellis, English physicist
 Charles de Gaulle, French general and President
 Charles Dickens, English author
 Charles Ebbets, owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers
 Charles Foster, Ohio Congressman
 Charles Gounod, French composer
 Charles Hendry, British MP
 Charles Higounet, French historian
 Charles Hoare, English computer scientist
Charles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court
 Charles Ives, American composer
 Charles Lindbergh, American pilot
 Charles Lummis, American author and historian
 Charles-Louis Montesquieu, French philosopher
 Charles Spurgeon, British preacher
 Charles de Tornaco, Belgian racecar driver
 Charles Doolittle Walcott, American paleontologist
 Charles Frederick Worth, fashion designer
Rulers and noblemen named Charles

 Charles I of England, King of England, 1625-49
 Charles II of England, King of England, 1660-85
 Charles IV of France, King of France, 1322-28
 Charles I of Spain, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, 1519-58
 Charles IV of Spains, King of Spain 1788-1808 
 Charles, Duke of Berry, grandson of Louis XIV
 Charles, Duke of Guelders, Dutch nobleman
 Charles I of Austria , final monarch of AUSTROHUNGARIAN KINGDOM
 Charles Edward Stuart, a.k.a. Bonnie Prince Charlie, Jacobin pretender
 Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy from 1638 to 1675
 Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia 1730-1773
 Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia, King of Sardinia 1796-1802
 Charles Felix of Sardinia, King of Sardinia 1821-1831
 Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, British PM 
 Charles, Prince of Wales, heir to the British throne
 [[
Eschborn is a town near Frankfurt am Main in the Main-Taunus district, Hesse, Germany. The town has a population of 20,789.

Towns in Hesse
Rudolf von Bitter Rucker (born March 22, 1946 in Louisville, Kentucky) is an American mathematician, computer scientist, science fiction author, and philosopher. He is one of the founders of the cyberpunk literary movement. He writes both fiction and non-fiction books and articles. He is best known for the novels in the Ware Tetralogy (series of four books). The first two books (Software and Wetware) both won Philip K. Dick Awards. Now he edits the science fiction webzine called Flurb.

Early life
Rucker is the great-great-great-grandson of the philosopher Georg Hegel.

Rucker attended St. Xavier High School. Then he completed a B.A. in mathematics from Swarthmore College. Next, he earned Master's and Ph.D. degrees in mathematics from Rutgers University.
Career
He taught at the State University of New York at Geneseo from 1972 to 1978. He got a grant (money to support scholarship) from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, so he went to teach math at the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg from 1978 to 1980. He then taught at Randolph-Macon Women's College in Lynchburg, Virginia from 1980 to 1982. Next, he tried being as a full-time author for four years. Inspired by an interview with Stephen Wolfram, Rucker became a computer science professor at San José State University in 1986. He retired from SJSU in 2004. He is a mathematician who is also interested in philosophy. He has written books connecting these two areas, for example: The Fourth Dimension; Geometry, Relativity and the Fourth Dimension; and Infinity and the Mind. Princeton University Press published new editions of Infinity and the Mind in 1995 and in 2005, both with new prefaces; the first edition is cited with fair frequency in academic literature.
As his "own alternative to cyberpunk," Rucker developed a writing style he calls Transrealism. He gave a brief explanation of Transrealism in his 1983 essay, The Transrealist Manifesto. It is science fiction based on the author's own life and immediate perceptions, mixed with fantastic elements that symbolize psychological change. Many of Rucker's novels and short stories apply these ideas. One example of Rucker's Transrealist works is Saucer Wisdom, a novel in which the main character is abducted by aliens. Rucker and his publisher marketed the book as non-fiction as a kind of joke.

Rucker wrote his first Transrealist novel, White Light, while he was at Heidelberg. This Transrealist novel is based on his experiences at SUNY Geneseo.
Rucker often uses his novels to explore scientific or mathematical ideas. For example, White Light examines the concept of infinity. Parts of the Ware Tetralogy (written from 1982 through 2000) are an explanation of using natural selection to develop computer software (a subject also developed in his The Hacker and the Ants, written in 1994). His novels also show a mystical philosophy. Rucker explained this philosophy in an essay called The Central Teachings of Mysticism. There may be some irony in this tiitle (The essay is included in Seek!, 1999).

He recently published a book called The Lifebox, the Seashell, and the Soul: What Gnarly Computation Taught Me About Ultimate Reality, the Meaning Of Life, and How To Be Happy. This book summarizes the various philosophies he's believed over the years. It ends with the tentative conclusion that people might get some benefit by thinking about the world as made of computations. His final remark in the book is, "perhaps this universe is perfect."

Works
Works

Fiction
 The Ware Tetralogy 
 Software (1982)
 Wetware (1988)
 Freeware (1997)
 Realware (2000)
 Transrealist novels
 White Light (1980)
 Spacetime Donuts (1981)
 The Sex Sphere (1983)
 The Secret of Life (1985)
 The Hacker and the Ants (1994) (Revised 'Version 2.0' 2003)
 Saucer Wisdom (1999) novel marketed as non-fiction
 Other Novels
 Master of Space and Time (1984)
 The Hollow Earth (1990)
 Spaceland (2002)
 As Above, So Below: A Novel of Peter Bruegel (2002)
 Frek and the Elixir (2004)
 Mathematicians in Love (2006)
 Postsingular (Fall 2007)
 Hylozoic  (sequel to Postsingular, May 2009)
 Story collections
 The Fifty-Seventh Franz Kafka (1983)
 Transreal!, also includes some non-fiction essays (1991)
 Gnarl! (2000), complete short stories
 Mad Professor (2006)
Non-fiction
 Geometry, Relativity and the Fourth Dimension (1977)
 (editor), Speculations on the Fourth Dimension: Selected Writings of Charles H. Hinton, Dover (1980), 
 Infinity and the Mind (1982)
 The Fourth Dimension (1984)
 Mind Tools (1987)
 All the Visions (1991), memoir
 Seek! (1999), collected essays
 Software Engineering and Computer Games (2002), textbook
 The Lifebox, the Seashell, and the Soul (2005)

List  on Rucker's SJSU web page. With links to each book's web page.

References

Other websites
 The Rudy Rucker website
 Rudy Rucker's SJSU Home Page 
 Rudy Rucker's Twitter page
 
 
 Rudy Rucker's autobiography, written for Contemporary Authors in 2004
 A story in a San Jose newspaper regarding Rucker
 The Transrealist Manifesto 
 Flurb, a Webzine of Astonishing Tales (Rudy Rucker, editor)
 Rudy Rucker: Everything is Computation - 3/1/2007
 Radio interview  on Philosophy Talk
1946 births
American science fiction writers
Living people
American computer scientists
Writers from Louisville, Kentucky
Scientists from Kentucky
A tinamou is one of an family of birds called the Tinamidae. They are the only species within the family. There are 47 species of tinamou in Central and South America. They are one of the most ancient living groups of bird, and are related to the ratites. Generally ground dwelling, they are found in a range of habitats.

Taxonomy and evolution 
Of Gondwanan origin, tinamous are related to the ratites. Although the fossil record in South America is poor, the known tinamiform fossil record goes back 10 million years. Together with the ratites, they make up Palaeognathae ("old jaws"), while all other living birds are members of Neognathae ("new jaws"). Unlike the other palaeognaths, tinamous do have a keeled sternum. Like the other palaeognaths, they also have a distinctive palate (thin bony plate at top of mouth).
Recent phylogenetic studies place tinamids as the sister group of Australasian/Oceanian ratites. Those are the (cassowaries, emus, and kiwi). South American ratites (rheas) and African ratites (ostriches) are also related, but more distantly. Tinamous themselves are monophyletic.

References 

Ratites
Birds
This page lists direct English translations of common Latin phrases, such as veni vidi vici and et cetera. Some of the phrases are themselves translations of Greek phrases, as Greek rhetoric and literature were highly regarded in ancient Rome when Latin rhetoric and literature were still maturing.

Be aware that the Latin letter i can be used as either a vowel or a consonant. When used as a consonant, it is often replaced by the letter j, which was originally simply an orthographic "long i" that was used in initial positions and when it occurred between two other vowels. This medieval convention is most commonly preserved in Latin legal terminology–hence phrases like de iure are often spelled de jure. On this list, the more common form will be the one a phrase is listed under: thus, de jure is used instead of de iure, and alea iacta est instead of alea jacta est.

To view all phrases on a single, lengthy document, see:
 List of Latin phrases (full)
The list is also divided alphabetically into 20 other pages:

 List of Latin phrases (A)
 List of Latin phrases (B)
 List of Latin phrases (C)
 List of Latin phrases (D)
 List of Latin phrases (E)
 List of Latin phrases (F)
 List of Latin phrases (G)
 List of Latin phrases (H)
 List of Latin phrases (I)
 List of Latin phrases (L)

 List of Latin phrases (M)
 List of Latin phrases (N)
 List of Latin phrases (O)
 List of Latin phrases (P)
 List of Latin phrases (Q)
 List of Latin phrases (R)
 List of Latin phrases (S)
 List of Latin phrases (T)
 List of Latin phrases (U)
 List of Latin phrases (V)

Related pages

Lists
List of Latin abbreviations
List of legal Latin terms
List of Greek phrases

Categories
Latin legal phrases
Latin medical phrases

Other websites

 Latin abbreviations
 Latin quote ideas 
 Latin sayings & Latin phrases , organized by topic

Language-related lists
Musette is the French word for small bellows played bagpipes. Some composers liked to use a drone (especially one in fifths) to make it sound like bagpipes or other folk instruments. Johann Sebastian Bach, François Couperin and other Baroque composers often called such pieces "Musette". Sometimes they did this in orchestral music: Joseph Haydn used a drone in the last part of his Symphony No. 104 to accompany a folk tune.

Other websites

Bagpipes
The Gram-Schmidt process is a way of converting one set of vectors that forms a basis into another, more friendly one.

Suppose we have a set of vectors  that form a basis for , and that we wish to convert these into a "friendly" basis which is easier to work with later. We begin by finding out which component of a vector is being unfriendly to a second vector, which we may do with inner products. If we have two vectors , then we may find the component of  being unfriendly to  with . By subtracting this from , we get the component friendly to . By returning to our abstract set , we may make use of this observation to construct a general algorithm to convert an arbitrary basis into a friendly basis.  Like from our original set, each time we use the process on a new vector, it is guaranteed to be mutually friendly with all the previous vectors.

Define:

 = 

 = 

et cetera, with the general term:
Should we wish to make this a friendly and cute basis, we can simply make each new element of the basis cute, by replacing both  with .
Linear algebra
I

References

Language-related lists
A

References

Language-related lists
The pigeonhole principle explains that when there are (n) pigeon-sized holes in a pigeon container, then it's impossible to fit more than (n) pigeons in that container, without having at least one hole containing more than one. The pigeons are used here as an example for anything that can be put into containers or subdivisions.

This theorem is important in computer science and mathematics, especially in graph theory.

Example

In one suitcase there are 12 blue socks and 18 black socks. If we close our eyes, how many socks must we pull out to be sure we have a pair of the same color?

If we think of the colors as holes or categories, we have 2 holes, so (n) = 2. If we pull three socks from the suitcase, at least two of them must be the same color, because 3 is a number greater than 2. So the correct answer here is three.  

Computer science
Mathematics
A nickel is a coin. It is in the United States currency. It is worth 5 cents. It is made of cupronickel, an alloy of copper and nickel.

Related pages
Penny
Dime

American coins
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) aims to keep people’s money safe. Specifically, the money people put into American banks. If money is lost they will replace it. The FDIC will replace up to $250,000 per person, per bank.  the FDIC insured 7,895 different banks or institutions. The FDIC also watches banks or institutions for problems or failings.

The FDIC was made during the Great Depression by President Franklin Roosevelt in June 1933. This is an important occurrence in United States history because it guaranteed people their money. This also helped people feel safer when using banks in the United States.

Sources

Other websites

 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (official website)
 FDIC Statistics at a Glance  (FDIC.gov)
 FDIC List of Failed Banks
 The Federal Deposit Insurance Reform Conforming Amendments Act of 2005
 History including Boards of Directors 
 60 Minutes - Your Bank Has Failed: What Happens Next? 

Government of the United States
Vehicle insurance (also called auto insurance or car insurance) is a kind of insurance that protects people if they have a car accident. Somebody with vehicle insurance would not have to pay the entire cost of damage a car accident causes. In many places, it is against the law to drive without vehicle insurance.

The driver pays a premium to the car insurance company. In exchange, the company covers the potential cost of damages and financial loss that are a result of driving. 

The bare minimum everyday driver should require to purchase liability coverage. It varies from state to state and it is important to have the minimum amount as required by law. You can receive a ticket, have your driver's license revoked, or even be arrested. 

Liability is there to protect the other drivers on the road from the damages you cause. 

Insurance prices vary a lot by the company. The car you drive can affect your auto insurance rates. If you get in an accident the repairs on the car may be different from others.
Premium
Somebody with vehicle insurance would pay what is called a premium  (perhaps every month). The insurance company would decide how big the premium is and might consider several factors. These include some of the following: 

Age 
Type of car
Type of job
Gender
Home
History of insurance
Past accidents
When you pay a premium, the insurance company agrees to pay your losses as outlined in your policy. Depending on different factors, the insurance company may not pay all or any of your losses.

References

Insurance
The umbrella policy is there to fill the gaps in other insurance policies. Where one policy does not cover, the umbrella policy picks up where it doesn’t cover. The umbrella policy covers all insurances such as house, car, etc. The umbrella policy covers in increments of 1,000,000 dollars. So if you had car insurance that only covered 200,000 dollars, the coverage would then be 1,200,000 dollars. The same goes for home owners insurance, if you had 500,000 dollars in coverage the total coverage would become 1,500,000 dollars in coverage.

References 

Insurance
Business
An argument from false premises is a line of reasoning which can lead to wrong results. A false premise is an untrue proposition that forms part of the basis of a logical syllogism.  Since the premise (assumption) is not correct, the conclusion drawn may also be wrong. 

However, it should be noted that whether or not an argument is "valid" does not depend on whether its premises are true. It rather depends on whether the conclusion follows from them, which is to say, on whether under the assumption that the premises are true, the conclusion must be true as well.

For example, consider this syllogism:

 If the streets are wet, it has rained recently. (premise)
 The streets are wet. (premise)
 Therefore, it has rained recently. (conclusion)
This argument is logically valid. But its premises are not always true. The first premise can be false – someone could have hosed down the streets, a street cleaner could have passed, the local river could have flooded, and so on.  A simple logical analysis will not reveal the error in this argument, since that analysis assumes that all the argument's premises are true.  For this reason, an argument based on false premises can be much more difficult to refute, or even discuss, than one featuring a normal logical error, as the truth of its premises must be established to the satisfaction of all parties.

Another feature of an argument based on false premises that can bedevil critics, is that its conclusion can in fact be true.  Consider the above example again.  It may well be that it has recently rained, and that the streets are wet.  This of course does nothing to prove the first premise, but can make its claims more difficult to refute.
A false premise can also be a premise that is poorly defined, which makes the conclusion questionable.  The following joke from Plato and a Platypus Walk Into a Bar illustrates the point: "An old cowboy goes into a bar and orders a drink.  As he sits there sipping his whiskey, a young lady sits down next to him.  ... She says, 'I'm a lesbian.  I spend my whole day thinking about women. ...' A little while later, a couple sits down next to the old cowboy and asks him, 'Are you a real cowboy?' He replies, 'I always thought I was, but I just found out I'm a lesbian'."  The mistake the cowboy makes is that he assumes that the definition of a lesbian is somebody who spends the "whole day thinking about women", without including the fact that a lesbian is a homosexual female.  The cowboy is neither homosexual nor female; therefore, he is not a lesbian.

Related pages
 Predicate logic

References

Deception
Logical fallacies
Nichrome is an alloy. It is made of nickel and chromium. It has an 80/20% composition. It is used as a heating element. It gets hot when electricity goes through it. It is normally silver in colour and a wire.

Related pages
Cupronickel

Alloys
Cupronickel is an alloy. It is made of copper and nickel. It is used in nickels, the US coins. It does not corrode. It is silvery in color. It has 75% copper and 25% nickel.

Related pages
Nichrome

Alloys
B

References

Language-related lists
C

References

Language-related lists
Nickel oxide can refer to either of these chemical compounds:

Nickel(II) oxide, green
Nickel(III) oxide, black
Nickel(II) oxide, also known as nickelous oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is NiO. It contains nickel in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions.

Properties
Nickel(II) oxide is a light green solid. It does not dissolve in water. Sometimes it is gray because all of the nickel is not in the +2 oxidation state. It reacts with acids to make nickel(II) salts. For example, it reacts with hydrochloric acid to make nickel(II) chloride. It does not react with bases easily.

Preparation
Nickel(II) oxide can be made by heating nickel powder in air at . This normally makes a black nickel oxide. It also can be made by reacting nickel with water at . The simplest way to make it is to heat nickel(II) hydroxide, nickel(II) carbonate, or nickel(II) nitrate.

Uses
It is used to make alloys. It is also used in ceramics. It is used to make other nickel compounds.

Safety
Nickel(II) oxide can irritate skin and make problems when breathed in.

Related pages
Nickel(II) sulfate
Nickel compounds
Oxides
Margaret Cho (born Moran Cho on 5 December 1968) is an American comedian and actress. She was born in San Francisco, California. She is bisexual and liberal.

References

Other websites

Actors from San Francisco
LGBT people from California
American movie actors
American television actors
American television producers
American television writers
American voice actors
Bisexual people
Comedians from San Francisco
LGBT actors
LGBT comedians
American LGBT writers
Writers from San Francisco
1968 births
Living people
Dr. Goodluck Ebele Azikiwe Jonathan (born 20 November 1957) was the President of Nigeria (5 May 2010 - 29 May 2015). He was Governor of Bayelsa State from 9 December 2005 to 28 May 2007, and became the Vice President of Nigeria on 29 May 2007. Jonathan is a member of the People's Democratic Party (PDP), which is in power as of September 2010. On 13 January 2010, a federal court gave him the power to carry out state affairs while President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua was being taken care of in a hospital in Saudi Arabia. On 24 February 2010, Yar'Adua came back to Nigeria, but Jonathan kept the President's power . Yar'Adua died on 5 May 2010, and Jonathan officially became the President. He took the oath of office the next day.

Jonathan's term as President of Nigeria ended on 29 May 2015, when he handed over to President Muhammadu Buhari.
Early life, education and personal life
Jonathan was born in Otueke in Ogbia Local Government Area in Nigeria to a family of canoe makers. He has a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree in Zoology. He also holds an M.Sc. in Hydrobiology/Fisheries biology, and a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Zoology from the University of Port Harcourt. After he got his degree, he worked as an education inspector, lecturer, and environmental-protection officer, until he decided to become a politician in 1998.

Jonathan is married to Patience Faka Jonathan and has two children. Jonathan is a member of the Ijaw ethnic group.

Among his children include Ariwera Jonathan, Aruabi Jonathan, and Ariwera Jonathan is the name of his son whom was rumored to be dead five years ago in London but his father refuted the claims and labelled it as false even though he took ill and was admitted at the hospital.

Early political career
Bayelsa State governorship
Jonathan began his career in politics in 1998, having joined the People's Democratic Party (PDP) in 1998.
Jonathan, who had been the Deputy Governor of Bayelsa State, succeeded Governor Diepreye Alamieyeseigha, who was impeached by the Bayelsa State Assembly after being charged with money laundering in the United Kingdom. In September 2006, Jonathan's wife was indicted by the nation's anti-crime agency, the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC), for crimes related to money laundering.

Presidential race
In December 2006, Jonathan was chosen as running mate to Umaru Yar'Adua for the PDP presidential ticket in the April 2007 election. On 20 April 2007, shortly before the presidential election, there was a violent attack from militants. The police said that people had tried to kill Jonathan. However, this did not end up happening.
Vice Presidency
Following the PDP's election win, which some people did not think was fair, militants blew up Jonathan's country house in Otu-Eke, Bayelsa State on 16 May; two policemen were killed in the attack. Jonathan was not there at the time.
Acting President
President Umaru Yar'Adua left Nigeria on 23 November 2009 for medical treatment. He did not make plans for anyone to take over his duties. On 13 January 2010, a federal court handed Vice-President Jonathan the power to carry out state affairs in the president's continued absence. On 22 January 2010, the Supreme Court of Nigeria ruled that the Federal Executive Council (FEC) had 14 days to decide whether President Yar'Adua "is incapable of discharging the functions of his office".
In a nationwide address in February 2010, Jonathan called on all Nigerians to set aside religious and ethnic differences to work together for the common good.
Jonathan said "The events of the recent past have put to a test our collective resolve as a democratic nation,"
"I am delighted to know that our nation has demonstrated resilience and unity of purpose.
On 9 February 2010, the Senate decided that presidential power should be given to the Vice President. He was appointed to serve as Acting President, with all the accompanying powers, until when and if Yar'Adua returned to full health. The power transfer was called a "coup without the word" by opposition lawyers and lawmakers. The Nigerian Constitution requires a written letter from the President stating he is unable to serve or that the cabinet sends a medical team to examine him but this provision has not apparently been fulfilled leaving some doubts as to the constitutionality of the action.

Presidency

Yar'Adua died on 5 May 2010. Jonathan was sworn in as Yar'Adua's replacement on 6 May 2010, becoming Nigeria's 14th Head of State. He will serve as President until the next election. Upon taking office, Jonathan cited anti-corruption, power and electoral reform were what he wanted to focus on as President. He stated that he came to office under "very sad and unusual circumstances."
On 18 May 2010, the National Assembly approved President Goodluck Jonathan's nomination of former Kaduna State governor, Namadi Sambo, an architect, for the position of Vice President.

World Cup controversy

After the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, in which the Nigerian side failed to advance beyond group stage, Jonathan said that the national team could no longer play international matches. FIFA objected to the president's decision and threatened to kick Nigeria out of the association. After this, Jonathan ended the ban.

Re-election
Jonathan was re-elected in April 2011 in an election that some experts said may have been the most fair election in Nigerian history.

Related pages 
 List of Nigerians

References

1957 births
Living people
Presidents of Nigeria
D

References

Language-related lists
Idioma de Signos Nicaragüense, or Nicaraguan Sign Language, is a sign language that was spontaneously invented by deaf schoolchildren in Nicaragua in the 1970s and 1980s.  The language developed when the Sandinist government of Nicaragua created the first (elementary) school for deaf people, in the 1970s. The language is of special interest to linguists, because it allows them to study how languages develop.

In the 1970s, the deaf people of Nicaragua rarely met. They lived isolated lives and used simple gestures to communicate with their friends and family. In 1977, a special programme for the deaf was started in a suburb of Managua. At first, fifty children took part. When the Sandinist came to power, the number of pupils rose to hundred. In 1980, a vocational school for deaf people was opened in another part of Managua. In 1983, both schools together had about 400 pupils.
The teaching was centered on lip reading and the use of a hand alphabet. This was mostly unsuccessful, because most pupils had trouble spelling words in this way. The children were cut off from their teachers, and used recreational breaks, and free time spent together to create a system that allowed them to communicate with each other. Gestures and signs used at home were used to create a pidgin. Later the pidgin developed into a Creole language. The first step, that is to say the pidgin is called Lenguaje de Signos Nicaragüense (LSN) today. Pupils who left the school before the creole language was created, continue to use the pidgin.
The staff of the school missed the fact that a language was developing before their eyes. All they saw were some mimics, and the failure to learn Spanish. As they did not know what the pupils were saying, they asked for help. In 1986, Judi Kegl, an expert on the topic of American Sign Language was asked to help. When she analysed the language, she found out that the pidgin NSL had been made more complex by the younger pupils — it now included a fixed grammar, and the arrangement of verbs. Today, this extended form is known as ISN.

Other websites
 5 minute PBS documentary video showing examples of Nicaraguan Sign Language (QuickTime and RealPlayer formats).
 http://www.unet.maine.edu/courses/NSLP/
 http://cf.linguistlist.org/cfdocs/new-website/LL-WorkingDirs/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=NCS 
 https://www.nytimes.com/library/magazine/home/19991024mag-sign-language.html
 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/citations/04/041014.coppola-ct.html

Nicaragua
Sign languages
Nickel(II) nitrate, also known as nickelous nitrate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Ni(NO3)2. It contains nickel in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains nitrate ions.

Properties
Nickel(II) nitrate is a green crystalline solid. It dissolves in water. Because it has nitrate ions, it is an oxidizing agent. It normally has water molecules attached to it, making it hydrated.

Preparation
It is made by dissolving nickel metal in nitric acid.

Uses
It is used as a source of nickel(II), but nickel(II) chloride and nickel(II) sulfate are used more commonly.

Safety
It is an oxidizing agent, so it should be kept away from things that can burn. It also is toxic to things that live in the water. It is a carcinogen.

Related pages
Nickel(II) oxide
Nickel(II) carbonate

References 

Nitrogen compounds
Nickel compounds