Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
End of the settlement
Lieutenant governors of the first settlement:
 6 March 1788–24 March 1790: Lieutenant Philip Gidley King (1758–1808)
 24 March 1790–Nov 1791: Major Robert Ross (c.1740–1794)
 4 November 1791–Oct 1796: Lieutenant Philip Gidley King
 October 1796–Nov 1799: Captain John Townson (1760–1835)
 November 1799–Jul 1800: Captain Thomas Rowley (c.1748–1806)
 26 June 1800–9 September 1804: Major Joseph Foveaux (1765–1846)
 9 September 1804–January 1810: Lieutenant John Piper (1773–1851)
 January 1810–15 February 1813: Lieutenant Thomas Crane (caretaker)
 15 February 1813–15 February 1814: Superintendent William Hutchinson
When Joseph Foveaux arrived as Lieutenant Governor in 1800, he found the settlement quite run down. Not much had been done to keep it in good condition for four years. He began fixing buildings and other public works and tried to improve education.
Second settlement 1825-1854
In 1825 the British government decided to set up a new convict prison on Norfolk Island. This was to be a prison for convicts from New South Wales who continued to break the law. The Governor of New South Wales, Sir Thomas Brisbane wanted it to be place from which there would be no return. It was to be the worst punishment short of death. Many of the convicts were lashed with a nine tailed whip. This could be as many as 300 lashes at one time, and many had been lashed over 1000 times. Because it was to be a prison, there were no free settlers allowed on the island, and there were no women prisoners. Only government ships, or ships in distress, were allowed to land at the island.
Third settlement 1856
After the prison was closed, the British government gave the island to the people from Pitcairn Island. Pitcairn, with only 30 hectares of land suitable for farming, could no longer cope with a large population. All 194 people were moved to Norfolk in 1856. These people were descendants of the mutineers from HMS Bounty. They arrived on the island on 8 June 1856, and the anniversary is celebrated every year as Bounty Day.

Climate
Norfolk Island has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification).

Images

Related pages
 Pitcairn
 Mutiny on the Bounty

References

Pacific islands
Commonwealth dependent states
Islands of Australia
1979 establishments in Australia
Atlas is a Titan in Greek mythology. He is the son of Iapetus. He has seven daughters with the Oceanid Pleione. They are called the Pleiades.

After the war between the Olympians and the Titans, Atlas was punished. Zeus forced him to hold the heaven on the western edge of the world. Later, the story about him changed and it was said that he held the whole world on his shoulders. Mostly in modern times, he is shown holding a globe of the world.

Heracles came to Atlas and asked him to for help with one of his Labours. He wanted Atlas to get the "Golden Apples" for him as only an immortal could take them. Atlas agreed, but only if Heracles would hold up the sky. Atlas was pleased to be free from its weight but Heracles tricked him into holding it again.

Perseus also came to Atlas for help after killing Medusa. Atlas, who was tired of holding the heavens, asked Perseus to allow him to see Medusa's head. Perseus took out Medusa's head and Atlas turned into a mountain.
Atlas was turned into a mountain called, "[The] Atlas Mountains."

Titans
El Paso is a city in the U.S. state of Texas. It is the county seat (the city where the county is governed) of El Paso County. It is in the far southwestern part of the U.S. state of Texas, along Interstate 10. The name comes from "El Paso de Norte", meaning The Passageway to the North.

The large majority of the city's inhabitants are Hispanic. The 2020 population from the U.S. Census Bureau was 678,815, making it the 23rd-largest city in the United States, the sixth-largest city in Texas, and the second-largest city in the Southwestern United States behind Phoenix, Arizona. The city is also the second-largest majority-Hispanic city in the United States, with 81% of its population being Hispanic.

El Paso won the All-America City Award five times: 1969, 2010, 2018, 2020, and 2021. 

The city has a desert climate and is home to the University of Texas at El Paso.

On August 3, 2019, 22 people were killed in a mass shooting.

References 

 
County seats in Texas
An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a large community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in a particular area. The living and physical components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Ecosystems are of any size, but usually they are in particular places.

Each ecosystem has its own community. An aquarium community, for example, can have small fish and other organisms. A desert community may have cacti, small snakes, and scorpions. A pond community can have frogs, insects, snakes, and plants, and a forest community may have rabbits, foxes and pine trees. The species in a community are divided into populations according to the particular habitats and ecological niches in the ecosystem.
Energy 
Ecosystems are stable, but changeable. They react to major changes in the environment, especially climate changes. For example, the major rainforests have lasted for a long time (perhaps 50 million years or more in some cases). As the rainfall and temperature changes, they change. We know that the Amazon rainforest shrank in size during ice ages, and expanded in the warmer periods.

Primary production 
What drives all ecosystems is the primary production. Primary production is the production of organic matter from inorganic carbon sources. This happens through photosynthesis. It drives the carbon cycle, which influences global climate via the greenhouse effect.
Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture energy from sunlight and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an ecosystem is called the gross primary production (GPP). About 48–60% of the GPP is consumed in plant respiration. The rest is known as the net primary production (NPP). Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include the amount of light available, the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants limits photosynthesis), the supply of carbon dioxide and water, and suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.

Types 
Some of the major types of ecosystem:
 Aquatic ecosystem
 Marine ecosystem
 Freshwater ecosystem
 Lake ecosystem
 River ecosystem
 Wetland
 Terrestrial ecosystem
 Forest
 Rain Forest
 Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem
 Littoral zone
 Riparian zone
 Desert
 Grassland
 Tundra
 Taiga
Related pages 
 Biodiversity
 Biosphere Reserve
 Ecology
 Ecosystem services
 Ecosystem valuation
 Natural environment
 Vegetation
 Wildlife

References
The House of Stewart, or Stuart, is a royal house of Scotland and England.
The Tudor dynasty ended when Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603. She named her cousin James I as heir. He became James I of England, and started the Stuart dynasty.

List of monarchs
Here are the rulers of the Stuart dynasty:

Scotland

Great Britain and Ireland

References
Parasitism is a form of one-sided symbiosis. The parasites live off the host. They may, or may not, harm the host.  Parasitoids, on the other hand, usually kill their hosts. A parasitic relationship is the opposite of a mutualistic relationship. Examples of parasites in humans include tapeworms and leeches. World-wide, the most serious cause of human death by a parasite is malaria.

A definition:
 A parasite is an organism drawing nutrients from a living host. It lives in or on another organism, getting from it part or all of its food. It usually shows some degree of adaptive modification, and causes some degree of damage to its host.

Parasites on humans 
"Humans are hosts to nearly 300 species of parasitic worms and over 70 species of protozoa, some derived from our primate ancestors and some acquired from the animals we have domesticated or come in contact with during our relatively short history on Earth. Our knowledge of parasitic infections extends into antiquity".
Biological context 
When the above definition is applied, many organisms which eat plants can be seen as parasites, because they feed largely or wholly on one individual plant. Examples would include many herbivorous insects: the Hemiptera or true bugs (leafhoppers, froghoppers, aphids, scale insects and whiteflies). The larvae of Lepidoptera usually feed and mature on a single individual of the host plant species, and what they eat accounts for most of the food for their complete life span. Moreover, caterpillars can and often do serious damage to the host's foliage. Other orders also have many parasitic herbivores: Thysanoptera (thrips), Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (flies).
Parasites of larger animals account for much research done for veterinarian and medical purposes. These parasites include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, flatworms (flukes and tapeworms), nematodes (roundworms), arthropods (crustacea, insects, mites). Parasitic wasps and flies are of great interest to the entomologist, and may be used in biological control.

On the other hand, many blood-sucking insects (such as mosquitoes) have only brief contact with a host, and so perhaps should not be regarded as parasites.p5
A huge number of species are parasitic. A survey of the feeding habits of British insects showed that about 35% were parasites on plants, and slightly more were parasites on animals. That means that nearly 71% of insects in Britain are parasitic. Since British insects are better known than those elsewhere (because of the length of time they have been studied), this means that the majority of insect species throughout the world are parasitic. Also, there are several other invertebrate phyla which are wholly or largely parasitic. Flatworms and roundworms are found in virtually every wild species of vertebrate. Protozoan parasites are also ubiquitous. Hence parasitism is almost certainly the most common feeding method on Earth.
"It is clear that parasitism as a way of life is more common than all other feeding strategies combined".p8
Terminology of parasitism 
 Ectoparasites live on the outside of a plant or animal.
 Endoparasites live inside a plant or animal. Intracellular parasites live inside cells; Intercellular parasites live in the spaces between cells. 
 Parasitoids are organisms whose larval development takes place within another organism's body, resulting in the death of the host. There are twelve Superfamilies of wasps which are entirely or mainly parasitoid, such as the ichneumonoid wasps, whose species number over 80,000. The interaction between the parasitoid and the host is fundamentally different from true parasites and their host, and shares some characteristics with predation.
 A vector is a third party that carries the parasite to the host. Thus, with malaria, the mosquito is the vector, the Plasmodium protozoan is the parasite, and the mammal is the host. The mosquito is an ectoparasite as well as a vector.
 An epiparasite is one that feeds on another parasite.
 Kleptoparasites steal food from other species.
Brood parasites (such as the Cuckoo) induce other species to raise their young. The Cowbird is another brood parasite. 
 Social parasites take advantage of interactions between members of social organisms such as ants or termites.
Ecology

Dispersal and reproduction 
Parasites are adapted to small, separated habitats. For a parasite, each host is an island surrounded by a hostile environment. For a small organism, the distances between hosts, or groups of hosts, is a hazard. Adaptations to bridge this hazard are:
 Mass production of spores or eggs.
 Dispersal of fertile females.
 Dispersal by attaching to a larger organism (many ectoparasites).
 Extreme longevity of resting stages (spores or cysts). For example, plant parasitic nematodes may remain quiescent for 23 years.
 Parthenogenesis, and inbreeding among offspring of a single female, are common in parasites.

So parasites exist in small, genetically similar groups with little flow of genes between them. In consequence, they have adaptations to solve their problems of dispersal and reproduction.
Parasites are highly specialised 
Parasites face an environment which varies in time and space. Consequently, both local (geographic) races and polymorphism occur. Both may occur in the same species. Parasites are very specialised feeders: many species have only one host at any stage of their life cycle. A few use more than two host species.

Complex life cycles 
Many parasites have complex life-cycles. Tremadodes, the flukes, are a parasitic class of flatworms (Platyhelminths), with over 20,000 species. Most of them infect molluscs in the first part of the life-cycle, and vertebrates in the second part. The biology of scrub typhus is even more complex. It involves these factors:
1. The pathogen bacterium Rickettsia.
2. Chiggers, which are ectoparasitic mites.
3. Small mammals, especially rats.
4. Scrubby vegetation with moist conditions
5. Humans passing through patches where the above are present.
The occurrence of all these factors together would be limited in space, and brief in time. This is typical of the ecology of parasitic infections.

Evolution

Rapid speciation 
Both evolutionary rates and speciation rates can be high. Sibling species are very common in the bug Erythroneura, in which about 150 transfers from one host to another has resulted in about 500 species in the genus.

The clearest evidence comes from the large size of many parasitic families. 
"Even though some parasitic taxa evolved much later than predatory taxa, families of parasites on plants are on average almost eight times larger than those of predators, and families of parasites on animals are over ten times larger".p26

Sometimes there is good evidence of the speed of speciation. For example, five or more species of the moth Hedylepta must have evolved within 1000 years in Hawaii, because they are specific to banana, which was only introduced then.
Adaptive radiation 
Adaptive radiation in parasites is extensive. Its development in each taxon (group) depends on:
The diversity of the hosts. How many species there are in the group being parastised, and how different they are from each other.
The size of the host target: body size, population, geographical distribution.
The evolutionary time available for colonisation of hosts.
The selective pressure for evolutionary modification.

Diversity of hosts is a big factor. If many related species of host are available, then many related species of parasite will evolve. Mites on Lepidoptera families or fleas on mammals and birds are good examples. Eichler's rule goes as follows:
"When a large group of hosts consisting of a wide variety of species is compared with an equivalent group consisting of few representatives, the larger group has the greater diversity of parasitic fauna".
The two British oaks support some 439 species of parasite directly, and indirectly many hundred more which parasitise these parasites. "It would certainly be an underestimate to say that the two British species of oak are the primary products for a thousand species of parasite".p28 Obviously, the large size of these trees is a factor in the number of parasite species. In general, this holds whether the host is a plant or an animal. A larger bird will harbour more species of ectoparasite than a small bird.

More time, more species 
One of the reasons large trees have so many parasites is that they may have lived a long time in a particular area compared with other types of plant. They have had longer to accumulate parasites.

Parasites can be most useful in sorting out the phylogenetic relationships of their hosts. Sibling host species have been discovered when their parasites diverged. Common ancestors of present-day parasites were themselves parasites of the common ancestors of present-day hosts.
Selection for co-evolution 
As the host evolves defences, so the parasite evolves to cope with this. This is co-evolution.

Consider two families of host plants, the Umbellifers (fennel, cumin, parsley, hemlock) and the Gramineae (grasses). The umbellifers have many aromatic species, and are chemically diverse and pharmaceutically interesting. Their resins and oils are defences against herbivory and parasitism. On the other hand, grasses have one big defence to herbivores: their stony inclusions in their cells wear down the teeth of herbivorous mammals, but they have few chemical defences. Both families are attacked by leaf-miner flies. There are four times as many grass species as there are umbellifers, but there are twice as many leaf-miner species on the umbellifers. 
"This is apparently because the chemical diversity of potential hosts within the Umbelliferae has forced specialisation of the parasites. Eighty-two percent of the species of leaf-miner attack only one genus each".
Sympatric speciation 
This is speciation which does not require geographical isolation. Ernst Mayr, the chief exponent of geographical speciation, admitted that host races of phytophagous animals "constitute the only known case indicating the possible occurrence of incipient sympatric speciation".

Further reading 
Schmidt-Hempel 2011. Evolutionary parasitism: the integrated study of infections, immunology, ecology, and genetics. Oxford University Press.

References 

 
Coevolution
Symbiosis
There is also a video game The Moment of Silence, and a poem "Moment of Silence".

A moment of silence is a short time when people do not make noise. A moment of silence shows respect for people who have died. Many countries observe a minute of silence after a tragic event. Moments of silence often last one minute, but other amounts of time may be chosen.

On November 11th, many countries observe a two-minute silence to remember those who have died in World Wars. The tradition was started in 1919 exactly one year after the end of World War I. It became an official part of the annual service on Remembrance Day or Armistice Day.

During the moment of silence, people often bow their heads, remove their hats, and do not speak or move. A person in charge of a group will tell everyone when the moment begins and ends. A moment of silence may come before or after other events with symbolic meaning. Examples of these events are the ringing of bells, the release of doves or balloons, or a bugle playing the "Last Post".
The first recorded instance of an official moment of silence dedicated to a dead person took place in Portugal on February 13, 1912. The Portuguese Senate dedicated 10 minutes of silence to José Maria da Silva Paranhos Júnior, baron of Rio Branco, Brazil, and Minister of the Exterior of the Brazilian government, who died three days earlier on February 10. This moment of silence was registered in the Senate's records of that day.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Debates Parlamentares - Diário 039, p. 2 (1912-02-13)|url = http://debates.parlamento.pt/catalogo/r1/cs/01/01/02/039/1912-02-13/2|website = debates.parlamento.pt|access-date = 2016-01-01 |quote=O Sr. Presidente: Tenho de cumprir o doloroso dever de comunicar ao Senado o falecimento, no Rio de Janeiro, do Barão do Rio Branco, que ilustrou grandemente o seu nome, tanto pela maneira como dirigiu os negócios diplomáticos do Brasil como pela erudição manifestada nas suas obras, e que muito honrou a sua origem lusitana. (Apoiados gerais)
. (Apoiados gerais). Além disso devemos lembrar-nos de que o Barão do Rio Branco era Ministro do Govêrno que primeiro reconheceu a República Portuguesa. (Apoiados gerais). Por consideração, pois, para com todos êstes aspectos daquele vulto notável, proponho que a sessão seja interrompida durante 10 minutos, conservando-se os Srs. Senadores sentados nos seus lugares e silenciosos durante êsse espaço de tempo.' (Apoiados gerais). Às 14 horas e 45 minutos foi, portanto, suspensa a sessão, reabrindo-se às 14 e 55 minutos. The President: I must fulfill the painful duty of communicating to the Senate the death in Rio de Janeiro of the baron of Rio Branco, who made his name illustrious with the manner in which he conducted the diplomatic business of Brazil as well as with the erudition manifested in his work, and who honored his Portuguese origins with grandeur. Furthermore, we must remember that the baron of Rio Branco was a Minister of the government that first recognized the Portuguese Republic
. Thus, in consideration of all these aspects related to this notable figure, I propose that the session be interrupted for 10 minutes, with the Senators remaining on their seats in silence for that period of time. At 14 hours and 45 minutes the session was therefore suspended, reopening at 14 hours and 55 minutes.}}</ref> In the same year, large parts of the United States kept a ceremonial silence to honour the dead of the Maine and the Titanic''.
Moments of silence and the separation of church and state
In the United States, some people say that allowing prayer as part of a moment of silence means that moments of silence can make it hard to keep the separation of church and state (the idea that religion and government should not affect each other).

Moments of silence do not have to be time for prayers. They can be used for other thoughts that are not religious. Many people who want time for prayers in public schools and government meetings use moments of silence so that some people can pray and other people do not have to pray. Because they represent the government, and because the Constitution of the United States says that government cannot force people to do religious things, these people cannot tell other people to pray.
When public schools have a moment of silence, Buddhist students could meditate (relax and think calm thoughts), students with other religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism could pray, and atheist students could think about the day ahead.

Colin Powell, a famous government leader, likes having moments of silence in schools. He has said that a simple moment of silence at the start of each school day is a good idea. He also has said that students could use this time to pray, meditate, think, or study.
Many people believe that prayer is not allowed in United States public schools, but this is not true. The Supreme Court ruled in 1962 that students can pray in school, but teachers and other school leaders cannot lead the prayers. Students can form clubs where they can pray, and they can pray alone, but they cannot lead prayers at school events. The reason prayer is not allowed at those times is because of the First Amendment. The First Amendment says that government cannot force people to do religious things, and public schools are part of the government.

In 1976, the state of Virginia allowed schools to have a moment of silence at the start of the school day. This moment would last one minute. In 1985, the Supreme Court said that a "moment of silence" law in Alabama would not work with the United States Constitution and could not be used. In 2005, the state of Indiana made a law that said all public schools had to give students time to say the Pledge of Allegiance and a moment of silence every day.
In April 2000, Virginia changed its law to say that all public schools in Virginia had to have a moment of silence (before this change, schools could choose not to have a moment of silence). In October 2000, a judge named Claude M. Hilton said that the "moment of silence" law was allowed by the United States Constitution. Judge Hilton said that the law has a secular (not religious) purpose, that the law does not make religion more important or less important, and that the law does not make government and religion be too close to each other. Judge Hilton also said, "Students may think as they wish," and that this thinking could be religious or not religious. He said that the only thing students had to do because of the law was sit and be quiet.

In March 2008, Illinois followed Virginia and made a compulsory 30 seconds moment of silence, but was lifted in August.
The American Civil Liberties Union thinks that these laws that say public schools should have moments of silence are a bad idea. They think they are a bad idea because the laws are made to give students time to pray, and that makes religion more important than non-religion.

US States that have a moment of silence
Florida (As of 4/22/21)

Notes

Other websites 
 MomentOfSilence.org  – a web site that likes the idea of moments of silence
 Nothing Really Matters – an article that talks about "moments of silence"

Relationships
Religious behavior and experience
Education
Muhammad Ali Jinnah (26 December 1876 – 11 September 1948) was the founder of the country of Pakistan. After the partition of India, he became the Governor-General of Pakistan. As a mark of respect, Pakistanis call him Quaid-e-Azam. bra
Quaid-e-Azam is a phrase which, in the Urdu language, means "the great leader". He is also called Baba-e-Qaum, another phrase in the Urdu language which means "the father of the nation". The day of his birth is a national holiday.

Early life of M.A jinnah 
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born on 25 December 1876 in Karachi into the Isma'ilism family of Poonja Jinnah. Jinnah. He was born in Karachi, City of Sindh. His father’s name was Jinnah Poonja (1857- 1901) and his mother’s name was Mithibai. Jinnah was the eldest of the seven children of Jinnah Poonja and Mithibai. His family had migrated to Sindh from the Kathiawar area of Gujarat, present-day India.
Jinnah’s birth name was Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He later changed it to the much simpler 'Muhammad Ali Jinnah' or M.A. At home, his family talked in Gujarati language, and the children also came to speak Kutchi and English. Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings.

Early working years 
In 1891 (when he was fifteen), Jinnah went to London and worked for a few years for a company. At around that time, his mother died.

In 1894, Jinnah quit his job to study law. He joined the course at Lincoln's Inn and graduated in 1896. While still in London, he also started to participate in politics. He greatly admired Indian political leaders Dadabhai Naoroji and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. Gradually Jinnah was developing his own political outlook. He was thinking on the line that India should have a constitutional self-government.
Around this time, his father lost his business. This put Jinnah under great difficulty. In the meantime, he had started to practice as a lawyer in Mumbai. He also built a house in Mumbai’s Malabar Hill area. The house is now known as Jinnah House.

He became a successful lawyer. In 1908 he represented Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a famous leader of the Indian National Congress. Tilak was facing charges of sedition against the British Rule. Jinnah pleaded the case well, but Tilak was sent to prison.After that he lost hope

Early years as a politician 
Jinnah had already joined the Indian National Congress in 1906 when he started his politics. The Congress was the largest political organization in British India. Many members and leaders of the Indian National Congress favoured a limited self-government for the people of the Indian subcontinent. Jinnah also held the same view. At that time, his role model was Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
On 25 January 1910, Jinnah became a member on the Seventy two-member Imperial Legislative Council. He was an active member of the council. Like many other leaders of British India, Jinnah also supported Great Britain during World War I. The leaders had supported the Great Britain thinking that after the war, Great Britain would grant the people of the subcontinent political freedom.

At the beginning Jinnah had avoided joining the All India Muslim League, another political organization of British India. Muslims had formed the League in 1906. In 1913, Jinnah became a member of the Muslim League. In 1934, he became the president of the Muslim League. He helped in making an agreement between the Congress and the Muslim League (Lucknow Pact in 1916). The agreement tried to present a united front to the British for giving the people of the subcontinent self-government dominion status in the British Empire. This was similar to the dominion status which Canada, New Zealand and Australia had at that time.
By 1918, Mohandas Gandhi had become one of the leaders of the Congress Party. Gandhi took a line of non-violent protest for gaining self-government for British India. Jinnah took a different line. He wanted constitutional struggle to gain the self-government for British India. Jinnah also opposed Gandhi’s support for the Khilafat movement. Gradually, many differences between them had arisen. In 1920, Jinnah left the Congress party. He became the president of the Muslim League. At this time, Jinnah brought out a program to reduce the differences between the Congress Party and the Muslim League. The program had fourteen points of action. Therefore, it became popularly known as Jinnah’s Fourteen Points. But the Congress party did not accept these.

During these years Jinnah’s personal life had suffered. His focus upon politics had led to tensions in Jinnah's marriage. The couple separated in 1927 and after a serious illness Rattanbai died.
Around that time, there was a conference of British Indian leaders with the government of Great Britain. It was held in London and is known as the Round Table Conference. Jinnah criticized the policy of Gandhi. The conference failed. Jinnah was also not happy with the Muslim League. He decided to quit politics. He again started to work as a lawyer in England. During all these years, his sister Fatima Jinnah took care of Jinnah’s affairs, both at home and outside. She also became a close adviser to him. She helped him in raising Jinnah’s daughter, Dina Wadia. The daughter married Neville Wadia, a Parsi who had converted to Christianity. Jinnah did not like this marriage.

Leader of the Muslim League 
Many Muslim leaders of British India like Aga Khan III, Coudhary Rahmat Ali and Sir Muhammad Iqbal requested Jinnah to come back to the British Raj.
His differences with the Congress Party continued to become bigger. In 1930, some Muslim leaders like Allama Iqbal had argued for a separate country for the Muslim people of India. At last he came to the conclusion that Hindus and Muslims cannot live in a single country. Jinnah also started to have the idea of a separate country for Muslims of India. Jinnah and the Muslim League started work to get such a separate country. They made a plan for this in 1940 called the Pakistan Resolution. This new country was to be named Pakistan.

In 1941, Jinnah founded a newspaper, named the Dawn. This newspaper published the views and political thinking of the Muslim League. During World War II, Jinnah supported the British, and opposed the Quit India movement of the Congress party. In 1944, Gandhi held 14 rounds of talks with Jinnah, but they could not come to any conclusion. By this time, the Muslim League had formed governments in some provinces, and had also entered the central government.
Founder of Pakistan 
The Muslim League under Jinnah’s leadership accepted both the plans. But, on 16 August 1946, Jinnah also announced the Direct Action to achieve independence for Pakistan, a separate country of Muslims of the former British Raj.

Governor-General 

The British Indian Empire was partitioned into two countries, namely, India and Pakistan. Jinnah became the first Governor-General of Pakistan, his sister Fatimah Jinnah became the "Mother of the Nation". He also became the president of Pakistan’s constituent assembly. In an address to the constituent assembly on 11 August 1947, Jinnah told about the future of Pakistan as a secular state. He told this in the following words:
You may belong to any religion caste or creed - that has nothing to do with the business of the state. In due course of time, Hindus will cease to be Hindus and Muslims will cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the state.

Jinnah also took the direct charge of the government. After the partition, large scale violence between Muslims and the Hindus took place. Such violence was very serious in Punjab and Bengal. Jinnah toured the areas with Hindu leaders from British India to calm down the population. Many people died in the violence. The estimates of death vary from two hundred thousand deaths to over a million deaths. Jinnah was personally very sad at all these happenings.
Soon after the independence of India and Pakistan, armed conflict broke out in Kashmir. Kashmir’s king had agreed to become a part of India. but mostly Muslims of Kashmir did not like this. They started fighting in Kashmir. India had to send his troops to Kashmir, which had become a part of India. India raised the issue to the United Nations. The United Nations ordered the conflict to end and a Plebiscite. This problem still continues to have a bad effect on the India-Pakistan relationship.

Jinnah’s role in creation of Pakistan as a new nation was very important. This made him very popular among the people of Pakistan. In East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), people opposed Jinnah’s view that the language most commonly known as Urdu should be the sole national language.
Death 
Muhammad Ali had been suffering from tuberculosis since the early 1940s. Only his sister and very few other persons close to the family knew this. After the partition of India and creation of Pakistan, he had become the governor general of Pakistan. His work was increased, but his health was deteriorating. To regain his health, he spent many months at his official rest house. The rest house was located at a place named in Ziarat. Jinnah could not regain his health. He died on 11 September 1948 from tuberculosis.

Modern views on Jinnah 
In recent years, some scholars have given some new views about Jinnah’s actions. Jinnah showed interest that some of the Hindu majority princely states should join Pakistan. These scholars argue that this view was against Jinnah’s declared view that Hindus and Muslims could not live together.
Some historians like H M Seervai and Ayesha Jalal say that Jinnah wanted a united South Asia. He demanded a separate state for Muslims as the Congress leaders were not willing to share power with the Muslim League.

Recently, Indian leaders belonging to the Bhartiya Janta Party, like Lal Krishna Advani and Jaswant Singh praised Jinnah. Jaswant Singh was expelled from the party because he had praised Jinnah in his book 'Jinnah- India, Partition and Independence'.

Commemoration 
Nations and people have done many things in memory of Jinnah. In Pakistan he is called Quaid-e-Azam. His pictures appear on many Pakistani banknotes and coins. Karachi’s international airport is named after him. In 1998 a new university in Karachi was named the Mohammad Ali Jinnah University. Another university in Islamabad is named after Quaid-e-Azam university.
Many other places and institutions bear his name in Pakistan and elsewhere. For example, in Turkey, a very large street is named after him. In Iran, one of the highways of its capital city Tehran bears his name and in Mumbai Jinnah Hall, a public hall is named after him.

Many books, movies and TV programs tell about the life and work of Jinnah, including the biographical movie, Jinnah.
Famous quotes 
 "With faith, discipline and selfless devotion to duty, there is nothing worthwhile that you cannot achieve."
 "Think 100 times before you take a decision, But once that decision is taken, stand by it as one man."
 "Failure is a word unknown to me."
 "No nation can rise to the height of glory unless your women are side by side with you."
 "Expect the best, Prepare for the worst."
 "No struggle can ever succeed without women participating side by side with men."
 "You have to stand guard over the development and maintenance of Islamic democracy, Islamic social justice and the equality of manhood in your own native soil."
 "Islam expect every Muslim to do this duty, and if we realise our responsibility time will come soon when we shall justify ourselves worthy of a glorious past."
 "That freedom can never be attained by a nation without suffering and sacrifice has been amply borne out by the recent tragic happenings in this subcontinent."
"We are victims of evil customs. It is a crime against humanity that our women are shut up within the four walls of the houses as prisoners. There is no sanction anywhere for the deplorable condition in which our women have to live."
 "Pakistan not only means freedom and independence but the Muslim Ideology which has to be preserved, which has to come to us as a precious gift and treasure and which, we hope other will share with us."
Related pages
 History of Pakistan

Further reading

References

Other websites
 Jinnah Quotes (27 quotes) goodreads.com
 

1876 births
1948 deaths
Governors General of Pakistan
Leaders of All India Muslim League
National symbols of Pakistan
Pakistani Muslims
Politicians from Karachi
Speakers of the National Assembly of Pakistan
Gregor Johann Mendel (Heinzendorf, Austria, 20 July 1822 – Brünn, Austro-Hungary, 6 January 1884) was an Austrian monk and botanist.

Mendel founded genetics by his work cross-breeding pea plants. He discovered dominant and recessive characters (genes) from the crosses he performed on the plants in his greenhouse. What he learnt is known today as Mendelian inheritance.

His work was not appreciated at first, but was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by  Carl Correns and Hugo de Vries. Erich von Tschermak's status as a third rediscoverer is now less convincing.

The experiments 
Mendel used the edible peas (Pisum sativum) for his crosses. He selected seven characters which were distinctive, and never blended; they occurred as either-or alternatives. Examples:  plant height (short or tall); colour of peas (green or yellow); position of flowers (restricted to the top or distributed along the stem).
When he crossed varieties which differed in a trait (e.g. tall crossed with short), the first generation of hybrids (F1) showed only one of the two alternatives. One character was dominant, and the other recessive. But when he crossed these hybrids with each other, the recessive character reappeared in the second (F2) generation. The proportion of plants showing the dominant as opposed to the recessive character was close to 3 to 1. Further analysis of the descendants (F3) of the dominant group showed that one-third of them were true-breeding and two-thirds were of hybrid constitution. The 3:1 ratio could therefore be rewritten as 1:2:1, meaning that 50 percent of the F2 generation were true-breeding and 50 percent were still hybrid. This was Mendel’s major discovery.

It could all be summed up by saying that inheritance was not blending, as Darwin had thought, it was particulate. The factors (genes) were not merged or mixed, they stayed separate and were passed on to the next generation unchanged.
He published his work in 1866, but at the time no-one saw how significant it was. 35 years later, the papers were rediscovered and, immediately, modern genetics began.

Related pages
List of biologists
 Mendelian inheritance

References 

 Iltis, Hugo 1932. Life of Mendel, transl. by Eden & Cedar Paul. Allen & Unwin, London. German original: Gregor Mendel: Leben, Werk und Wirkung. Springer, Berlin 1924.

Other websites 
 Mendel's Paper in English
 Mendel Museum of Genetics
 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia entry, "Mendel, Mendelism"
 Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man
 Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas at Brno
 Johann Gregor Mendel: Why his discoveries were ignored for 35 (72) years 

1822 births
1884 deaths
Austrian botanists
Geneticists
Austrian Roman Catholics
Christian monks
Moravian-Silesian Region
Marschall der DDR (Marshal of the German Democratic Republic), was the highest rank in the NVA, the army of the DDR. It was founded on 25th March 1982. The reason was a strategy change in the armies of Warsaw Pact. After the change the DDR needed a new rank to be sure there was only one high command. The rank was never used and abolished in 1989.

East Germany
Farscape is a science fiction television show.  The series was filmed in Australia.  It was first shown from March 19, 1999 to March 21, 2003, followed by Farscape: The Peacekeeper Wars, which was broadcast on October 17 and 18, 2004.  The show was cancelled after four seasons and ended with a cliffhanger.  The cliffhanger was resolved in a miniseries, The Peacekeeper Wars, in 2004.

Rockne S. O'Bannon came up the idea for the series.  It was produced by Jim Henson Productions and Hallmark Entertainment.

Plot
The show's main character is an astronaut named John Crichton.  He travels through a wormhole by accident.  He exits the wormhole at a distant part of the universe.  The astronaut joins an alien crew on board a living ship.  The members of the crew are escaped prisoners.

Cast
Ben Browder
Claudia Black
Virginia Hey
Anthony Simcoe
Gigi Edgley
Paul Goddard
Lani Tupu
Wayne Pygram
Jonathan Hardy

References

Other websites
Other websites 

Karlsweb Farscape e-Zine
Farscape World
The Farscape Encyclopedia 
Far-what?
SCI-FI.COM | Farscape 
What Is Farscape?
Watch Farscape 
BBC Online - Cult - Farscape
The Farscape Props Forum
Neural Cluster
Terra Firma
ScapeCast - The Farscape Podcast

Science fiction television series
English-language television programs
An interplanetary internet does not exist yet.  When people talk about an interplanetary internet, they are talking about a problem they are still trying to solve - the problem of making the internet to work between different planets.

Method 
The way the internet works here on Earth is simple. Computers need to connect to each and can share a network.  One computer sends another computer a message (called a packet) and then the other sends back a message saying it got it. Internet messages move at the speed of light, about 300 thousand kilometres in a second, which is very fast. But if you were sending that message to Mars, it would take about ten minutes for the message to get there, and another ten for it to get back.  That means we need to completely change the way computers talk to each other if we are going to communicate between different planets.  That is the problem people are trying to solve when they talk about the interplanetary internet. It's a new and a very interesting concept.

References
References

Other websites 
 The InterPlaNetary Internet Project IPN Special Interest Group

Internet
The History of China covers thousands of years. The earliest records are from about 1250 BC but a few things are known about earlier times. Chinese history covers many periods and dynasties. It may be divided into the following parts:

Prehistory 
Prehistory means history of a time before any written record. In such cases, it is very difficult to tell anything definite about the prehistory of China or any other country. Even then, historians believe some facts about the China of that period. About a million years ago Homo erectus, an early human species, lived in China. Later, about 65,000 years ago, modern human beings Homo sapiens reached China from Africa. For food, they hunted wild animals. They also began to pick and gather fruits, eventually resulting in the Chinese learning to farm by 5000 BC. They had started cultivating rice and possibly other types of grains. By 2500 BC, the Bronze Age had come to China. A ruling class with kings and queens had come into society.

Ancient history
Ancient history

Xia dynasty 
Some scholars think that about 4000 years ago, the Xia dynasty ruled China. Yu(Da Yu) was the first ruler of this dynasty. There are few credible sources about Yu(who could have been legendary), his time, and other rulers of the Xia dynasty.

Shang dynasty 
From the time of the Shang Dynasty, some written history is available. Writings were done on Oracle Bones. Several such bones and shells have been found. Scholars believe that present day Henan was the ninth and last capital of kings of the Shang Dynasty.

Most Chinese historians of that time think that one dynasty came after another but it is possible that two dynasties were ruling in different parts of China at the same time. Therefore, some scholars think that Xia dynasty and Shang Dynasty may have ruled at the same time, but in different areas of China.
Zhou dynasty 
About 1046 BC, the Zhou Dynasty defeated the last king of the Shang Dynasty and came to power. They changed the capital from Henan to a place near present-day Xi'an, near the Yellow River. The Zhou Dynasty also brought a new theory to China(see the Mandate of Heaven). Almost all dynasties of Chinese rulers continued to repeat this theory. The kings of this dynasty won many new areas. For the first time in the history of China, a large number of people also moved from one area to another area for settlement.

Spring and Autumn period 
The Spring and Autumn Period was around the 8th century BC. The Zhou dynasty continued, but its power waned as the lords gained lands and followers. Many kings ruled in different parts of China. China became several fragmented states, each ruled by a different king. In some cases, a king ruled just a village with a small fort.
During this period of China, many new lines of thinking arose. Some of them still continue to be important. They are Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism.

Warring States period 
The Spring and Autumn Period continued for about 300 years. By the 5th century BC, there were only seven main Chinese states left. They had taken over all the smaller areas. These states continued to fight each other. Historians call this period the Warring States Period due to wars and fights among these states. In 221BC, Ying Zheng, king of the State of Qin, united all the seven states. He made himself the Emperor of China and founded the Qin Dynasty.

Imperial China

Qin dynasty
Qin dynasty 

Qin Dynasty was a very important dynasty in the history of China. They followed the philosophy of Legalism. Their capital was at Xianyang. Under the king of this dynasty, China became a powerful country. Many new things were done for the first time. A tight legal system was followed. Written language was developed. Common currency was used. The building of the Great Wall of China was started.

Han dynasty 

The Han dynasty was founded by Liu Bang after the Qin dynasty ended. During the Han dynasty, the territory of China expanded, and many advancements in science and technology took place. It was considered to be a golden age in Chinese history.

The Three Kingdoms 

The Three Kingdoms period (traditional Chinese: 三國; simplified Chinese: 三国; pinyin: Sānguó) is a period of history where China was divided into the states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Eastern Han dynasty lost all power. Eventually, the Han dynasty emperor abdicated.

Jin dynasty
Jin dynasty 

The Jin dynasty (1115–1234) is also known as the Jurchen dynasty, and as the Great Jin. It was one of the last dynasties before Mongol invasion (and eventual conquest) of China.

The dynasty was founded by the Wanyan (完顏 Wányán) clan of the Jurchens.[1] These were the ancestors of the Manchu, who established the Qing dynasty some 500 years later. The Jin Dynasty was founded in northern Manchuria, The founder was Wanyan Aguda (完顏阿骨打).[2]
The History of Jin recorded that Tangkuo Dingge (唐括定哥), Consort Gui (貴妃) was a Jurchen woman. She was first married to the Jurchen Jin royal Wanyan Wudai (完顏烏帶. She had an affair with her Han Chinese slave, Yan Qi'er (閻乞兒) and with Wanyan Liang (Prince Hailing). When Wanyan Liang became emperor of the Jin dynasty he forced Dingge to have her husband Wanyan Wudai killed by her other slaves, Ge Wen (葛溫) and Ge Lu (葛魯) and he promised that she would be named empress. Wanyan Liang broke his promise after he got bored of her when she entered the harem. Dingge then smuggled Yan Qi'er into the palace through a trunk after first smuggling a trunk full of her clothes as a dummy and then reprimanded him for looking at her clothes so he wouldn't look when Yan Qi'er was smuggled in next. Dingge and Yan Qi'er had sex until a Jurchen maid, Guige (貴哥) told on them to the emperor and Dingge was strangled and Yan Qi'er was beheaded.[3][4][5][6]