Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Other observations are not clearly answered by known physics. According to the prevailing theory, a slight imbalance of matter over antimatter was present in the Universe's creation, or developed very shortly thereafter. Although the matter and antimatter mostly annihilated one another, producing photons, a small residue of matter survived, giving the present matter-dominated Universe.

Several lines of evidence also suggest that a rapid cosmic inflation of the Universe occurred very early in its history (roughly 10−35 seconds after its creation). Recent observations also suggest that the cosmological constant (Λ) is not zero, and that the net mass-energy content of the Universe is dominated by a dark energy and dark matter that have not been characterized scientifically. They differ in their gravitational effects. Dark matter gravitates as ordinary matter does, and thus slows the expansion of the Universe; by contrast, dark energy serves to accelerate the Universe's expansion.

Multiverse hypothesis
Some people think that there is more than one universe. They think that there is a set of universes called the multiverse. 

By definition, there is no way for anything in one universe to affect something in another. The multiverse is not yet a scientific idea because there is no way to test it. An idea that cannot be tested or is not based on logic is not science. It is not known if the multiverse is a scientific idea.

Future 
This is a scientific topic called "the ultimate fate of the universe". It is a topic in cosmology. There are possible scenarios for its evolution. The basic issue is whether its existence is finite or infinite.
The future of the Universe is a mystery. However, there are a couple of theories based on the possible shapes of the Universe:
 If the Universe is a closed sphere, it will stop expanding. The Universe will do the opposite of that and become a singularity for another Big Bang. This is the Big Crunch or Big Bounce theory.
 If the Universe is an open sphere, it will speed up the expansion. After 22,000,000,000 (22 billion) years, the Universe will rip apart with the force. This is the Big Rip theory.
 If the Universe is flat, it will expand forever. All stars will lose their energy. 
After a googol years, the black holes will also be gone. This is the Heat death of the Universe, or Big Freeze theory.  
A chance "Boltzmann's brain" may appear, and random quantum fluctuations and quantum tunnelling could generate a new Big Bang after an incredible amount of time. Over an infinite time there could also be an entropy decrease by Poincaré recurrence theorem or by thermal fluctuations.
There is a strong consensus among cosmologists that the shape of the universe is considered "flat" (parallel lines stay parallel) and will continue to expand forever.

People think it will end. However, this is not true. The universe will last forever. If the Universe holds enough matter, including dark matter, the combined gravitational attraction of everything will gradually halt this expansion and precipitate the ultimate collapse. Over time, galaxies, then individual stars, will smash into each other more frequently, killing off any life on nearby planets.
Further reading 
Adams, Fred; Gregory Laughlin (2000). The Five Ages of the Universe: Inside the Physics of Eternity. Simon & Schuster Australia. ISBN 978-0-684-86576-8.
Chaisson, Eric (2001). Cosmic Evolution: The Rise of Complexity in Nature. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00342-2.
Dyson, Freeman (2004). Infinite in All Directions (the 1985 Gifford Lectures). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-039081-5.
Harrison, Edward (2003). Masks of the Universe: Changing Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77351-5.
Mack, Katie (2020). The End of Everything: (Astrophysically Speaking). Scribner. ISBN 978-1982103545.
Penrose, Roger (2004). The Road to Reality. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4.
Prigogine, Ilya (2003). Is Future Given?. World Scientific Publishing. ISBN 978-981-238-508-6.
Smolin, Lee (2001). Three Roads to Quantum Gravity: A New Understanding of Space, Time and the Universe. Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-7538-1261-7.
Morris, Richard (1982). The Fate of the Universe. Playboy Press, New York. ISBN 978-0-87223-748-6
Islam, Jamal N. (1983). The Ultimate Fate of the Universe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0521-24814-3
Related pages 

 Anthropic principle
 Big Bang
 Cosmology
 Multiverse
 Omniverse
 Panentheism
 Reality
 Antiverse

References

Other websites 

 
 Age of the Universe at Space.Com
 Stephen Hawking's Universe  – Why is the universe the way it is?
 Cosmology FAQ
 Cosmos – An "illustrated dimensional journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos" 
 Illustration comparing the sizes of the planets, the sun, and other stars
 Logarithmic Maps of the Universe 
 My So-Called Universe  – Arguments for and against an infinite and parallel universes
 Parallel Universes  by Max Tegmark
 The Dark Side and the Bright Side of the Universe Princeton University, Shirley Ho
 Richard Powell: An Atlas of the Universe – Images at various scales, with explanations
 Multiple Big Bangs
 Universe – Space Information Centre 
 Exploring the Universe  at Nasa.gov

Videos 
 The Known Universe created by the American Museum of Natural History

 
Reality
Cosmology
Units of measurement give standards so that the numbers from our measurements refer to the same thing. Measurement is a process that uses numbers to describe a physical quantity. We can measure how big things are, how warm they are, how heavy they are, and many other features.

For example, the metre is a standard unit to measure length. Before 1982, one meter was defined as the distance between two markers on a special metal rod. During that time, saying that something had a length of two meters meant that it was exactly twice as long as the rod used to define the meter. Now scientists define the meter by using the speed of light.

In the past, different units were used in different countries. Today, most units of measure fall into one of three systems:
The older two, the British imperial system and the closely related US customary system use the foot as a measure of length, the pound as a measure for weight, and the second as a measure for time. They use other units as well. The number of smaller units that make the bigger units in these two systems varies: For example, there are 12 inches in a foot and 16 ounces in a pound. 

The newest and most used of the three systems is the metric system or SI system which use 10, 100 or 1000 of a smaller unit to make a bigger one. For instance, there are 100 centimetres in one metre or 1000 grams in one kilogram. This system uses the metre for length and kilogram for mass. 

The common, non-metric measurement of time does not follow this pattern. The second is the basis for time measurement, and it is based on the sexagesimal system: 60 seconds make one minute, and 60 minutes make one hour.
Number and unit of measurement 
The property of the thing being measured is given as a number of units of measure. The number only has sense when the unit of measurement is also given. By that number it represents a measurement of something.

For example, The Eiffel Tower in Paris, France is  tall.  That is, the distance from the top to the bottom of the Eiffel Tower is 300 metres.  The property of the Eiffel Tower being measured is a distance.  The number measured is 300.  300 of what?  The unit of measurement is the metre.

Measurement standards 
Standards are usually special objects used to make measurements.  A metre stick is an example of a standard.  When you measure something with a metre stick, you can compare that measurement to anything else that is also measured with a metre stick. This makes measurement easier and comparisons between measurements easier.
Science, medicine and engineering use smaller units of measurement to measure small things with less error. It is easy to measure large things using larger units of measurement.  Astronomical measurements like the width of a galaxy use light years and parsecs.

Small measurements like the mass of an atom use special units of measurement.

Systems of units of measurement 

There are many different standards and units used all over the world. Some became less used during the 19th and 20th centuries.

Metric System

The metric system is a system of measurement used in most of the world. It is also called the International System of Units, or SI.

Units of measure in the metric system include:

The units of length or linear size are based on the metre. They include the kilometre (km) which is 1,000 metres, the centimetre (cm), and the millimetre (mm) which is 1/1,000th of a metre.
The unit of volume is the litre. It is used for measuring an amount of liquid.  A millilitre (abbreviated as mL) is the amount of liquid that would fill up a cube that measures 1 centimetre on each side. One litre of liquid would fill up a cube that is 10 cm on each side.

The unit of mass is the kilogram.  A kilogram (kg) is the mass of 1 litre of water (at  temperature and  pressure). 1 gram (g) is the mass of 1 millilitre of water at .  The metric tonne is 1,000 kilograms or a million grams.

Imperial units

Imperial units were defined in the United Kingdom in 1824. These units were based on similar units that were in use before 1824. Imperial units were used in countries that were part of the British Empire. While many of these countries, including the United Kingdom, have officially adopted SI, the older system of units are still used.

US customary units
US customary units

US customary units are the official units used in the US. These are similar to the British imperial units and also based on the units used in the United Kingdom from before American Independence. Some of the units are different to the British ones. For example, there are 20 imperial fluid ounces in an imperial pint, but 16 US fluid ounces in a US pint. Additionally, the US fluid ounce is slightly bigger than the imperial fluid ounce. The result is that US pints and gallons are smaller than imperial pints and gallons. In the United States, the metric system has been legal for trade since 1866 but other measurements such as the gallon, inch, and the pound are still widely used.

Imperial and US units of measurement include:
Length - inch (in), foot (ft), yard (yd), and mile.
1 foot = 12 inches
1 yard = 3 feet (plural of foot) = 36 inches
1 mile = 1760 yards = 5280 feet
Imperial volume - imperial fluid ounce (fl oz), imperial pint (pt), and imperial gallon (gal).
1 imperial pint = 20 imperial fluid ounces
1 imperial gallon = 8 imperial pints

US volume - US fluid ounce (fl oz), US cup (cp), US pint (pt), US quart (qt), and US gallon (gal).
1 US cup = 8 US fluid ounces
1 US pint = 2 US cups = 16 US fluid ounces
1 US quart = 2 US pints = 4 US cups = 32 US fluid ounces
1 US gallon = 4 US quarts = 8 US pints = 16 US cups

Weight and mass - ounce (oz), pound (lb), and stone (st).
1 pound = 16 ounces
1 stone = 14 pounds

The ounces for weight and volume are different. Even when measuring water, the number of ounces of weight is not the same as the number of fluid ounces.

Converting between systems
Metric to US
1 metre = 1.09 yards = 39.37 inches.
1 litre = 33.3 fluid ounces = 1.76 pints = .26 US gallons.
1 kilogram = 35.32 ounces = 2.2 pounds
US to metric
Length
1 inch = 2.54 centimetres
1 foot = 30.48 centimetres
1 yard = 0.9144 metres
1 mile = 1.609344 kilometres
Volume
1 fluid ounce = 29.6 millilitres
1 pint = 473.1 millilitres
1 gallon = 3.79 litres
1 cup = 236.55 millilitres
Mass
1 ounce = 28.35 grams
1 pound = 0.45359237 kilograms

Other units of measurement 
The unit of time is the second. The minute (60 seconds) and hour (60 minutes or 3600 seconds) are larger units. A day is defined as 24 hours, but the Earth’s rotation has slowed.  The difference is corrected at the end of some years with what is called a leap second. A week (7 days) and month are also standard units.

A unit of measurement that applies to money is called a unit of account.  This is normally a currency issued by a country. For instance, the United States use dollars. Each dollar is 100 cents. The United Kingdom uses pounds. Each pound is 100 pennies or pence. The European Union uses the Euro. There are 100 cents in the Euro.
The units for electricity, magnetism and radiation were mostly invented in the 19th century when scientists learned how to measure them. Most were originally given imperial systems, but it is usual to use metric systems for them today.

References
U.S. customary units is the main system of units of measurement used to measure things in the United States and U.S. territories (except in Puerto Rico and Guam, where the metric system is also officially used and is dominant).  The system of Imperial units, on which the U.S. customary units are based, is very similar but there are some differences.

Length or distance units include the inch, foot, yard and mile.

Land units include square miles (2589998.47032 square meter) and acres (4046.8726 square meter).

Common volume units are the teaspoon, tablespoon (3 teaspoons), fluid ounce (two tablespoons), cup (8 ounces), pint (2 cups, or 16 fluid ounces), quart (2 pints, or 32 fluid ounces), US gallon (16 cups, 128 fluid ounces, or 3.8 liters).

A barrel is the unit to measure oil.

Temperature is measured in degrees Fahrenheit (°F). Here is a formula to convert from °C to °F:
Units of weight and mass include the pound (453.6 grams), which contains 16 ounces. This should not be confused with the British pound which is a type of money. The different uses of the word pound can cause confusion. Different sizes of ounce are also in use.

Some people have been trying to replace these units with the metric system since the 1820s. Much infrastructure in the United States and British Empire was built in past centuries using the old measures. During the 20th century some sectors such as science, medicine and the military of the United States converted to metric but Americans still use the old units for daily purposes. On the other hand, world trade is conducted using the metric system and except for the US, the world uses the metric system for almost all purposes.

Length

Area

Volume

Mass and weight

Related pages
Units of measurement

Notes

References

Measurement
Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun in our Solar System.  Like Neptune, it is an ice giant. It is the third largest planet in the solar system.

The planet is made of ice, gases and liquid metal. Its atmosphere contains hydrogen (1H), helium (2He) and methane. The temperature on Uranus is  near the top of its atmosphere, but its small solid core (about 55% the mass of Earth) is probably about .

The planet is tilted on its axis so much that it is sideways. It has five big moons, many small ones, and a small system of 13 planetary rings.

The distance between Uranus and the Sun is about 2.8 billion km.  Uranus completes its orbit  around the Sun in 84 earth years. It completes a spin around its axis in 17 hours and 14 minutes. This means there are about 43,000 Uranian days in one Uranian year.

Uranus was discovered in 1781.  This planet can be seen with the naked eye under perfect conditions. John Flamsteed saw it decades earlier but mistook it for a star (34 Tauri).
Uranus is named after Uranus, the Greek name of the Sumerian god Anu, who was a god of the sky.

History

Discovery 
Uranus  has been observed many times through a telescope, and even through the naked eye, but was mistaken for a star due to its slow orbit. Sir William Herschel observed Uranus on 13 March 1781 from the garden of his house at 19 New King Street in Bath, Somerset, England (now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy), and first reported it (on 26 April 1781) as a comet. With a homemade 6.2-inch reflecting telescope, Herschel "engaged in a series of observations on the parallax of the fixed stars."

Herschel wrote in his journal: "In the quartile near ζ Tauri ... either [a] Nebulous star or perhaps a comet." On 17 March he noted: "I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet, for it has changed its place." When he presented his discovery to the Royal Society, he continued to assert that he had found a comet, but also implicitly compared it to a planet:
Herschel notified the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne of his discovery and received this reply from him on 23 April 1781: "I don't know what to call it. It is as likely to be a regular planet moving in an orbit nearly circular to the sun as a Comet moving in a very eccentric ellipsis. I have not yet seen any coma or tail to it."

Although Herschel continued to describe his new object as a comet, other astronomers had already begun to think otherwise. Finnish-Swedish astronomer Anders Johan Lexell, working in Russia, was the first to calculate the orbit of the new object. Its nearly circular orbit led him to a conclusion that it was a planet rather than a comet. Berlin astronomer Johann Elert Bode described Herschel's discovery as "a moving star that can be deemed a hitherto unknown planet-like object circulating beyond the orbit of Saturn". Bode concluded that its near-circular orbit was more like a planet's than a comet's.
The object was soon universally accepted as a new planet. By 1783, Herschel acknowledged this to Royal Society president Joseph Banks: "By the observation of the most eminent Astronomers in Europe it appears that the new star, which I had the honour of pointing out to them in March 1781, is a Primary Planet of our Solar System." In recognition of his achievement, King George III gave Herschel an annual stipend of £200 on condition that he move to Windsor so that the Royal Family could look through his telescopes ().

Moons 
Uranus has 27 known moons.  They are named for characters from the works of Shakespeare and Alexander Pope.  The five biggest moons are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon.  Many moons have yet to be discovered.

Exploring 
In 1986, NASA's Voyager 2 visited Uranus. This is the only space probe that tried to investigate the planet from a short distance. The spacecraft studied the atmosphere of the planet.
Clouds 
Uranus is covered in blue clouds. The top clouds, made of methane, are difficult to see. Lower clouds are thought to be frozen water. There are also violent storms. Wind speeds can reach . Scientists are studying the clouds to try to understand the storms on the planet.

Rings 
The planet Uranus has a system made of 13 rings which is far fewer than the rings of Saturn but more than those around Jupiter and Neptune.  The rings of Uranus were discovered in 1977. More than 200 years ago, William Herschel also reported observing rings, but modern astronomers do not believe that he saw them, because they are very dark and faint. Two additional rings were discovered in 1986 in images taken by Voyager 2, and two outer rings were found in 2003–2005 by the Hubble Space Telescope.  The rings are probably mainly composed of frozen water.
The rings of Uranus are thought to be relatively young, not more than 600 million years old. The Uranian ring system probably began from the collisional fragmentation of moons that once existed around the planet. After colliding, the moons probably broke up into many particles, which survived as narrow, optically dense rings only in zones of maximum stability.

General properties 
The ring system of Uranus has thirteen distinct rings. In order of increasing distance from the planet they are: 1986U2R/ζ, 6, 5, 4, α, β, η, γ, δ, λ, ε, ν, μ rings. They can be divided into three groups: nine narrow main rings (6, 5, 4, α, β, η, γ, δ, ε), two dusty rings (1986U2R/ζ, λ) and two outer rings (μ, ν). The rings of Uranus   consist mainly of macroscopic particles and  little dust, although dust is known to be present in 1986U2R/ζ, η, δ, λ, ν and μ rings.
In addition to these well-known rings, there may be numerous optically thin dust bands and faint rings between them. These faint rings and dust bands may exist only temporarily. Some of them became visible during a series of ring plane-crossing events in 2007. A number of dust bands between the rings were observed in forward-scattering  geometry by Voyager 2.  All rings of Uranus show azimuthal brightness variations.
The rings are made of an extremely dark material. The rings are slightly red in the ultraviolet and visible parts of the spectrum and grey in near-infrared. They show no identifiable spectral features. The chemical composition of the ring particles is not known. However, they cannot be made of pure water ice like the rings of Saturn because they are too dark, darker than the inner moons of Uranus. This shows that they are probably a mixture of the ice and a dark material.  The nature of this material is not clear, but it may be organic compounds considerably darkened by the charged particle irradiation from the Uranian magnetosphere. The rings' particles may consist of a heavily processed material which was initially similar to that of the inner moons.
As a whole, the ring system of Uranus is unlike either the faint dusty rings of Jupiter or the broad and complex rings of Saturn, some of which are composed of very bright material—water ice. However, there are similarities with some parts of the latter ring system; the Saturnian F ring and the ε ring are both narrow, relatively dark and are shepherded by a pair of moons. The newly discovered outer rings of Uranus are similar to the outer G and E rings of Saturn. Narrow ringlets existing in the broad Saturnian rings also resemble the narrow rings of Uranus. In addition, dust bands observed between the main rings of Uranus may be similar to the rings of Jupiter. In contrast, the Neptunian ring system is quite similar to that of Uranus, although it is less complex, darker and contains more dust. The Neptunian rings are also positioned further from the planet.

Orbit and rotation
The rotational period of the interior of Uranus is 17 hours, 14 minutes, clockwise (retrograde). As on all giant planets, its upper atmosphere experiences very strong winds in the direction of rotation. At some latitudes, such as about two-thirds of the way from the equator to the south pole, visible features of the atmosphere move much faster, making a full rotation in as little as 14 hours.

Related pages
 List of planets

References

Notes

Other websites 

 NASA's Uranus fact sheet
 Uranus Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
 Keck pictures of Uranus show best view from the ground  — Press release with some photographs showing rings, satellites and clouds
 News reports of December 22, 2005 rings and moons discovery
 New Moons and Rings found at Uranus, SPACE.com
 Two more rings discovered around Uranus , MSNBC
 Planets—Uranus A kid's guide to Uranus.
 Uranus (planet) -Citizendium
A university is a higher learning institution. The word university comes from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars".  Students can go to university to get an academic degree. Unlike the schooling they have done before, the courses at university are specialised. A person studying biology at university has many courses about biology and fewer courses in other fields such as languages or history. To get a higher degree, people must do some research.

Not all subjects are offered at universities. Mainly, universities offer courses which are about knowledge. They usually do not offer courses in practical trades. In some cases such as law, where there are both knowledge and practical issues, the university does mainly the theoretical side of the subject. Practical qualifications are done elsewhere.

History
History 

The universities were born in Europe during the Middle Ages. The first institution of this type was the University of Bologna, which later became a model for other centres of education.

At first, the universities had formed themselves according to the model of the professional groups and like almost everything in the Middle Ages, they remained tied to the Catholic Church. At the beginning, they had worked to teach the so-called "seven liberal arts" (the trivium and the quadrivium):
 Trivium: grammar, logic and rhetoric.
 Quadrivium: arithmetic and geometry, astronomy and music.
That earliest division caused the present divisions between literary and scientific fields. From one point of view, the world's oldest university is Qarawiyyin university. However, teaching religion is not the definition used by most people. A university should in theory teach every subject.
The university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian tradition. European higher education took place for hundreds of years in cathedral schools or monastic schools (scholae monasticae). There, monks and nuns taught classes: evidence of these dates back to the 6th century. 

The Universities of Paris and Oxford were founded by members of the church. Later universities were founded by kings. 

In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools became mainly sites of higher education. Pope Gregory VII promoted the concept of modern university as his 1079 Papal Decree. He ordered the establishment of cathedral schools, which eventually turned into the first European universities.
Organisation 
A university can include several campuses or different places where classes are taught by professors. In each campus there are several faculties and university schools (mainly for teaching), and also laboratories, departments and institutes of research. Many campuses also have housing for students in buildings called dormitories and structures like libraries, study rooms and gymnasiums for students that live there. Each school offers many courses that students take to earn a degree. The person with the highest right to control and to command in a university is the rector, who governs the university with the help of the party of vice-rectors and of other organs such as the social council and the governing body.

Notable universities

Australia
 The Australian National University
 University of Melbourne
 Deakin University
 University of New South Wales
Canada
 Carleton University
 McGill University
 McMaster University
 Queen's University
 University of British Columbia
 University of New Brunswick
 University of Ottawa
 University of Toronto
 University of Waterloo
 University of Western Ontario

Chile
 University of Chile (Universidad de Chile)
 Catholic University of Chile (Universidad Católica de Chile)
 Metropolitan Technologic University (Universidad Tecnológica Metropolitana)

China
 Peking University
 Tsinghua University
 University of Hong Kong

Finland
 Åbo Akademi University
 Aalto University
 University of Helsinki

Germany
 Free University of Berlin
 Goethe University Frankfurt
 University of Tübingen

Italy
 University of Bologna

Japan
 University of Tokyo
 University of Kyoto
 Waseda University
 University of Osaka

Malaysia
 University of Malaya
 Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman
Mexico
 UNAM, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. The biggest and most important university in Mexico and Latin America
 UdG, University of Guadalajara.It is the second oldest university in Mexico, regarded as one of the most significant universities in Mexico.
 IPN, Instituto Politécnico Nacional
 ITESM, Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey
 ITAM, Instituto Tecnoloógico Autónomo de México

Netherlands
 Delft University of Technology
 Eindhoven University of Technology
 Erasmus University Rotterdam
 Free University Amsterdam
 Leiden University
 Maastricht University
 Nyenrode Business University
 Open University of the Netherlands
 Radboud University Nijmegen
 Tilburg University
 University of Amsterdam
 University of Groningen
 University of Twente
 Utrecht University
 Wageningen University & Research

Poland
 University of Warsaw
 Jagiellonian University

Romania
 Naval Academy "Mircea cel Batran" (ANMB)
South Korea
 Seoul National University
 Yonsei University
 Korea University

Sweden
 Chalmers University
 Karolinska Institute
 Lund University
 Royal Institute of Technology
 Stockholm School of Economics
 Uppsala University
 Umeå University

Turkey
 Galatasaray University (İstanbul)

United Kingdom

 University of Aberdeen
 Aston University
 University of Birmingham
 University of Bristol
 Queens University, Belfast
 University of Cambridge
 Coventry University
 University of Dundee
 Durham University
 University of Edinburgh
 University of Exeter
 University of Glasgow
 University of Leeds
 University of London
 King's College London
 University College London
 University of Manchester
 Open University
 University of Oxford
 University of St Andrews
 University of Wales
United States
There is a group of famous universities called the Ivy League. They are:
 Harvard University
 Princeton University
 Yale University
 Brown University
 Cornell University
 Dartmouth College
 Columbia University
 University of Pennsylvania

Some other famous universities are:
 California Institute of Technology
 Duke University
 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology
 Stanford University
 University of Chicago
 Georgetown University
 University of California, Berkeley
 Ohio State University
 Illinois State University
 Yeshiva University

Related pages
 College
 Education
 Higher education
 Laboratory
 Public university

References

Other websites 
 History of the Universities
Value is how much something is worth. Often the best way to find the value of something is to use the price that it can be sold for. However Oscar Wilde wrote that 'people know the price of everything but the value of nothing'- in other words true value does not depend on money alone.

In math, a value is a number which is concrete, something everyone can agree upon.  However people may disagree on the value of water, depending if you live in a desert or next to a river. Disagreements on the value of things can create fights between nations, political parties, religions, etc.

Basic English 850 words
Economics
Volapük (pronounced  in English,  in Volapük) is a constructed language created in 1880 by Johann Martin Schleyer. Schleyer was a Catholic priest from Germany. He felt that God had told him in a dream to make an international language. The name "Volapük" comes from the words "vol" (world) and "pük" (language). Volapük conventions took place in 1884, 1887, and 1889. The aim was to help people from different cultures speak to each other.

Volapük became less popular after 1887 when Esperanto was published. Part of the reason for this was that Esperanto is easier to learn with a simpler grammar. There are believed to only be 20-30 Volapük speakers in the world today.

The vocabulary of Volapük is mostly English, with some words from German and French. The grammar is based on Indo-European languages.
History 
Volapük was created by Johann Martin Schleyer. He first wrote about his idea in 1887. He published a book about Volapük in 1880. The book was translated into ten languages. Soon, people started creating Volapük clubs in Europe.

The language started to become popular. People published books and journals in Volapük. However, not everybody liked the language. The American Philosophical Society thought that Volapük was too complex.

Example text 
Below is the Lord's Prayer written in Volapük.

References

Other websites 

 Basic course in Volapük, in English 
 Basic grammar of Volapük, in Esperanto 
 Volapop: A site about popular culture written in Volapük  
 Discussion group on the vocabulary and grammar of Volapük
 A complete Italian grammar of Volapük (1888) by V. Amoretti 
 Una grammatica completa di Volapük in lingua italiana (1888) a cura di V. Amoretti 
 General Volapük discussion group
 Flenef bevünetik Volapüka / International Friendship of The World Language

Constructed languages
A vocabulary is a list of words.

The vocabulary a person uses is all the words that person knows and uses. In general, a person who is five knows about 4,000 to 5,000 words. Adults who have gone to college may know 20,000 words. A hearing vocabulary and reading vocabulary are bigger than a speaking vocabulary or writing vocabulary, as people understand some words that they do not use.

The number of words in a language is more than the words listed in one dictionary. One dictionary may have a list of 500,000 (half a million) words. Another dictionary may have some other words that the other dictionary does not have. Adding up all the words in those dictionaries, there are about 750,000 words in English. There may be more words than that.

The most used words are short words. That is true in all languages. The 50 most common words in English have fewer than seven letters. Half of these words have fewer than four letters.
The vocabulary of a language is always changing.  New words are made or words change their meaning. Words about computers, like "download" are new to the English language. The new word "bling" came from hip hop.  Words like "cool" have developed new meanings.

Related pages
 Grammar

References

Other websites 

 Complicated vocabulary detector
 Simplevocab - A multi-word dictionary
Vegetable oils are triglyceride oils made from plants. They are used in food and for cooking. In past centuries they were much used as fuel in oil lamps. Some kinds of plant oils that people use are palm oil, maize, olive, peanut, rapeseed, soy, and sunflower.

Margarine is an artificial butter made from vegetable oil.

Related pages
Cooking oil

Cooking oils
A verb is a kind of word (part of speech) that tells about an action or a state. It is the main part of a sentence:  every sentence has a verb. In English, verbs are the only kind of word that changes to show past or present tense.

Every language in the world has verbs, but they are not always used in the same ways. They also can have different properties in different languages. In some other languages (Chinese & Indonesian, for example) verbs do not change for past and present tense. This means the definition above only works well for English verbs.

There are sixteen verbs used in Basic English. They are: be, do, have, come, go, see, seem, give, take, keep, make, put, send, say, let, get.

The word 'verb' 
The word verb originally comes from *were-, a Proto-Indo-European word meaning "a word". It comes to English through the Latin verbum and the Old French verbe.
Verbal phrase 
In simple sentences, the verb may be one word: The cat sat on the mat. However, the verb may be a phrase: The cat will sit on the mat. 

Verbal phrases can be extremely difficult to analyse: I'm afraid I will need to be going soon. There seem to be three verbal phrases here, which mean something like Sorry, I must go soon.

Verb forms 
In English and many other languages, verbs change their form. This is called inflection. Most English verbs have six inflected forms (see the table), but be has eight different forms.
You should notice that some of the verb forms look the same. You can say they have the same shape. For example, the plain present and the plain form of walk have the same shape. The same is true for the past and the past participle. But these different forms can have different shapes in other verbs. For example, the plain present of be is usually are but the plain form is be. Also, the past of eat is ate, but the past participle is eaten. When you look for a verb in the dictionary, it is usually the plain form that you look for.

An English sentence must have at least one primary-form verb. Each main clause can only have one primary-form verb.
Kinds of Verbs 
English has two main kinds of verbs: normal verbs (called lexical verbs) and auxiliary verbs. The difference between them is mainly in where they can go in a sentence. Some verbs are in both groups, but there are very few auxiliary verbs in English. There are also two kinds of auxiliary verbs: modal verbs and non-modal verbs. The table below shows most of the English auxiliaries and a small number of other verbs.

There are several auxiliary verbs:
 To do (do, does, did)
 To be (am, is, are, was, were): Creates a progressive tense
 To have (have, has, had): Creates a perfect tense

The following verbs are modal auxiliaries.
 Can
 Could
 May
 Might
 Must
 Shall
 Should
 Will
 Would 

Auxiliary verbs also inflect for negation. Usually this is done by adding not or n't.
 You shouldn't be here.
 He isn't at home.
 We haven't started yet.
Use of the auxiliary do 
Sometimes the verb do is used with other verbs. It does not really change the meaning, but it can be used to make a strong statement.
 I do talk (Present)
 I did go (Past)

It is also used in the negative when no other auxiliary verbs are used.
 I don't talk (Present)
 I didn't go (Past)

Sometimes it comes before the subject. This is called inversion and it usually means the sentence is a question.
 Do you talk? (Present)
 Did you go? (Past)

Many other languages do not use the verb do as an auxiliary verb.  They use the simple present for do, and the simple past or perfect for did.

Tense, aspect, and mood 
There are three main systems related to the verb: tense, aspect, and mood.

Tense 
Tense is mainly used to say when the verb happens: in the past, present, or future. In order to explain and understand tense, it is useful to imagine time as a line on which past tense, present tense and future tense are positioned.
Some languages have all three tenses, some have only two, and some have no tenses at all. English and Japanese for example have only two tenses: past and present. Chinese and Indonesian verbs do not show tense. Instead they use other words in the sentence to show when the verb happens.

Aspect 
Aspect usually shows us things like whether the action is finished or not, or if something happens regularly. English has two aspects: progressive and perfect. In English, aspect is usually shown by using participle verb forms. Aspect can combine with present or past tense.

Progressive aspect 
English uses the gerund-participle, usually together with the auxiliary be (and its forms am, is, are, was, and were) to show the progressive aspect.
 I'm sleeping. (present progressive)
 He was studying English last night. (past progressive)
 He will be going to the store tomorrow (future progressive)

Many other languages, such as French, do not use progressive tenses.
I've seen him twice. (present perfect)
 I had lived there for three years. (past perfect)

The past perfect can be used to express an unrealized hope, wish, etc.
 He had intended to bake a cake but ran out of flour.
 She had wanted  to buy him a gift but he refused.

After If, wish and would rather, the past perfect can be used to talk about past events that never happened.
 If only I had been born standing up!
 I wish you had told me that before.
 I would rather you had gone somewhere else.

Mood 
Finally, English mood is now usually shown by using modal verbs. In the past, English had a full mood system but that has almost completely disappeared. The subjunctive mood now uses the plain form. There is also a form of be that is used in conditionals to show that something is not true (e.g., If I were a bird, I would fly to California.)
Sentence parts that go with verbs 
Certain parts of a sentence naturally come before verbs or after them, but these are not always the same for all verbs. The main sentence parts are: subject, object, complement, and modifier.

Subjects 
Almost all English sentences have subjects, but sentences that are orders (called imperatives) usually do not have any subjects. A subject usually comes before a verb, but it can also come after auxiliary verbs. In the following examples, the subject is underlined and the primary verb is in bold.
 We need you.
 The food was good.
 The small boy with red hair is sleeping.
 Can you see the car?
 Come here. (no subject)
Objects 
Many verbs can be followed by an object. These verbs are called transitive verbs. In fact, some verbs must have an object (e.g., take), but some verbs never take an object (e.g., sleep). Verbs that do not take an object are called intransitive verbs. Some verbs can even have two objects. They are called ditransitive verbs. In the following examples, the object is underlined and the primary verb is in bold.
 I'm sleeping. (no object)
 I took the book from him.
 I gave him the book. (2 objects)
 I am happy. (no object)
 I became a teacher. (complement, no object)
 I slept in my bed (1 object)

Complements 
Some verbs can or must be followed by a complement. These verbs are called linking verbs or copula. In the following examples, the complement is underlined and the verb is in bold.
 He is good.
 He is a boy.
 She became sick.
 She became a manager.
 It looks nice.
Modifiers 
Verbs can be modified by various modifiers, mainly adverbs. Note that verbs generally do not need modifiers; it's usually a choice. In the following examples, the adverb is underlined and the verb is in bold.
 The boy ran quickly.
 The freely swinging rope hit him.

Verbs also commonly take a variety of other modifiers including prepositions.

Differences between verbs and other words 
Sometimes a verb and another word can have the same shape. In these cases you can usually see the difference by looking at various properties of the words.
Verbs vs. adjectives 
Sometimes a verb and an adjective can have the same shape. Usually this happens with participles. For example, the present participle interesting and the adjective interesting look the same. Verbs are different from adjectives, though, because they cannot be modified by very, more, or most. For example, you can say "That is very interesting," so you know interesting is an adjective here. But you cannot say "My teacher is very interesting me in math" because in this sentence interesting is a verb. On the other hand, if you cannot change the 'be' verb to 'seem' or 'become', it is probably a verb. 
 He was isolated / He became isolated (isolated is an adjective)
 The door was opening / *The door became opening (opening is a verb)

Verbs vs. nouns 
The gerund-particle sometimes looks like a noun. This is especially true when it is used as a subject, as in the following example:
 Running is good for you.
The main differences between these verbs and nouns are: modifiers, number, and object/complement

Modifiers 
Verbs cannot generally be modified by adjectives and nouns cannot generally be modified by adverbs. So, in "Running regularly is good for you", running is a verb because it is modified by regularly, an adverb.

Number 
Verbs cannot change for number, so if you can make the word plural, it is a noun, not a verb. For example, "this drawing is nice" can change to "these drawings are nice", so drawing is a noun. But "drawing trees is fun" cannot change to "drawings trees is fun", so it is a verb here.

Object/complement 
Many verbs can take objects or complements, but nouns cannot. So, in "parking the car is hard", parking is a verb because it takes the object the car. But, if you say, "there's no parking", parking may be a noun because it does not have an object.
Verbs vs. prepositions 
Some verbs have become prepositions. Again, usually these share a shape with participles. Here are some examples:
 Given the problems, I do not think we should go.
 We have many helpers, including John.
 According to the map, we are here.
 He went to hospital following the fight.

The main difference between verbs and prepositions is that verbs have a subject. Even if the subject is not written, you can understand what it is. Prepositions do not have a subject.

References 

Grammar
This article is about physical object; for meaning from audio field, see loudness.

The volume of an object is a measure of the amount of space occupied by that object, and is not to be confused with mass. The volume of a mountain is much larger than the volume of a rock, for instance.

By convention, the word volume implies a three-dimensional context where: 
 The length is the longest distance between the object's extremities.
 The width (or breadth) refers to the size of the object in a direction perpendicular to its length.
 The height (or depth) stands for the size of that object in the direction perpendicular to both the length and the width.

For objects at or near the Earth's surface, height or depth often refers to the dimension of the object along the local vertical. All physical objects occupy a volume, even if some are so thin that they appear to be two-dimensional, like a sheet of paper.
Units of volume 
The unit of volume in the International System of Units is the cubic meter, which is represented by the symbol m3.

In some fields or applications, one often uses different units to simplify the discussions or writings. For instance:

 Everyday quantities of liquids are often measured in units of a litre, written as L, which is the volume occupied by a cubic decimetre.
 Large quantities of liquids, such as oil, and sometimes other materials, may be measured and traded in units of barrels. There are many different reference volumes called barrels, depending on the nature of the content.

Traditional units are still in encountered in some countries: Imperial units such as the gallon or the fluid ounce were in widespread use within the British Empire. Some of them are still popular in the United States, which also uses units like the bushel, the quart, the cup and the teaspoon (in cooking recipes, for example). See U.S. customary units for more examples.
Non-conservation of volume 
The volume of an object is not a fundamental property of that object: it can change with environmental conditions such as pressure and temperature, especially if the object is highly compressible.

The volume of a mixture of fluids (liquids, gases) may or may not be equal to the sum of their volumes before they were mixed.

Measuring a volume 
In mathematics, the volume of simple geometric objects, written , can often be calculated on the basis of their shape and dimensions:
The volume of a perfect cube of side c is c3.
 The volume of a rectangular box is the product of its three linear dimensions: length, width and length.
 The volume of a parallelepiped of sides a, b and c is a × b × c.
 The volume of a sphere of radius r is (4/3) π r3.
The volume of a gas is typically that of its container, but it could be ill-defined, as in the case of the atmosphere, which has no clear upper limit. The volume of a liquid is often measured by pouring it into a graduated container. The volume of a small solid can be estimated by immersing it into a graduated container partially filled with a known amount of liquid, provided the solid is not soluble in the liquid.

Related pages
 Geometry
 Surface area to volume ratio

References 

Physical quantity
Geometry
Venus is the second planet from the Sun. Venus is the only planet in the Solar System that has a day longer than a year. The year length of Venus is 225 Earth days. The day length of Venus is 243 Earth days.

Venus is a terrestrial planet because it has a solid, rocky surface like other planets in the inner Solar System. Astronomers have known Venus for thousands of years. The ancient Romans named it after their goddess Venus, goddess of love and beauty.

Venus is the brightest thing in the night sky except for the Moon. It is sometimes called the morning star or the evening star as at some elongations it is easily seen just before the sun comes up in the morning. At other times, it can be seen just after the sun goes down in the evening. Venus comes closer to the Earth than any other planet does.
Venus is sometimes called the sister planet of Earth as they are quite similar in size and gravity. In other ways the planets are very different. Venus' atmosphere (air) is mostly carbon dioxide with clouds of sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is a chemical that is poisonous to life. For this it is sometimes known as the Earth's "evil twin".

The thick atmosphere makes it hard to see the surface. Until the late twentieth century many thought there might be life there. The pressure on Venus' surface is 92 times that of Earth. Venus is one of only 2 planets in the Solar System (the other being Mercury) that has no moons.  Venus spins very slowly on its axis and it spins in the opposite direction to the other planets.

Physical properties