Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Joining up and training 
In many countries of the world, young men and (in a few countries) women between 17 and 18 and of good health may be forced by the government of their country to join the military and have military training. This is called "conscription". The countries that do not have conscription include Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, France, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Malta, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, and the United Kingdom. In some countries, such as Argentina and United States, conscription is legal but has not been used in decades.

When a person wants to join the military as a volunteer, they "enlist". (This means simply that they put their name on a list.) They have to be above a certain age, 17 or 18 in most countries. They have to pass physical fitness tests to show that they are well enough to do the jobs that they will have to do. They must also have good enough hearing, to hear orders, and good enough sight to use a rifle.
New people in the military are often called “recruits”. They have training at a special camp, sometimes called “boot camp" or "basic training". During this training, the recruits usually have very little free time. They learn to understand the "orders" or "commands" that are given by the officers to the "troops". (The troops are the military people in a group.) They learn the right ways to obey the orders. They do a lot of exercise to improve their fitness and strength. They learn about weapons, first aid, and their uniforms and "kit" (their equipment). Recruits also learn how to march. (This is the way to walk together, keeping "in step".) Learning to march is sometimes called “drill”. By the time soldiers finish "boot camp", they should know enough to be a helpful person in their group. The camp usually finishes with a parade in which the newly trained recruits show off their marching and other skills they have learned in front of important visitors
. Once the recruits are fully trained, they are ready to defend (protect) their country from attack, or to go to war if necessary.
Largest armed forces (2002 estimate) 

*includes 169,800 Marine Corps
**includes Strategic Deterrent Forces, Paramilitary, National Guard, etc.
***includes 125,000 Revolutionary Guards

Related pages 
Military science
Military terminology
Photosynthesis is how plants and some microorganisms make  carbohydrates. It is an endothermic (takes in heat) chemical process which uses sunlight to turn carbon dioxide into sugars. The sugars are used by the cell as energy, and to build other kinds of molecules. Fundamentally, photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy. 

Photosynthesis is vital for life on Earth. Before photosynthesis, Earth had no free oxygen in its atmosphere.  

Green plants build themselves using photosynthesis. Algae, protists and some bacteria also use it. Some exceptions are organisms that directly get their energy from chemical reactions; these organisms are called chemoautotrophs.
Origin of photosynthesis 
Photosynthesis is not an accident. It happens because its building blocks occur naturally in space, and get included when planets form. We have no idea as to how common or rare this process is. We do know that higher elements are formed in supernovae, and that is the origin of all elements higher than helium. The higher elements found in Halley's Comet have been analysed.

Before photosynthesis, the Earth's atmosphere had almost no oxygen. Even without oxygen, some simple life-forms could have existed. But the key event for life as we know it was the Great Oxygenation Event.

Ways it is done 
Photosynthesis can happen in different ways, but there are some parts that are common.
6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O + photons → C6H12O6(aq) + 6 O2(g)
carbon dioxide + water + light energy → glucose + oxygen
Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata by diffusion from the atmosphere.
Water is absorbed from the soil by root hair cells, which have an increased surface area adapted for their uptake of water.

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts in leaves (or other green tissues). They contain chlorophyll, the green pigment that absorbs light energy. In leaves, palisade cells have chloroplasts to capture light.

Oxygen is produced as a result of photosynthesis and released into the atmosphere through respiration. All the oxygen in the atmosphere has its origin in plants (including those microorganisms which do photosynthesis).
Glucose is used in respiration (to release energy in cells). It is stored in the form of starch (which is converted back to glucose for respiration in the dark). Glucose can also be converted into other compounds for growth and reproduction e.g. cellulose, nectar, fructose, amino acids and fats.

The process 

Photosynthesis has two main sets of reactions (phases). Light-dependent reactions which need light to do work; and light-independent reactions which do not need light to do work.

Light-dependent phase 
Light energy from the sun is used to split water molecules (photolysis). The sunlight hits chloroplasts in the plant. This causes an enzyme to split the water. Water, when split, gives oxygen, hydrogen, and electrons.
Hydrogen, along with electrons energized by light, converts NADP into NADPH which is then used in the light-independent reactions. Oxygen gas diffuses out of the plant as a waste product of photosynthesis, and ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate. This all happens in the grana of chloroplasts.

Dark phase 
During this reaction, sugars are built up using carbon dioxide and the products of the light-dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) and various other chemicals found in the plant in the Calvin Cycle. Therefore, the light-independent reaction cannot happen without the light-dependent reaction. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the plant and along with chemicals in the chloroplast, ATP, and NADPH, glucose is made and finally, transported around the plant by translocation.

Factors affecting photosynthesis 

There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis:
 Light intensity
 Carbon dioxide concentration
 Temperature
Light intensity 
If there is little light shining on a plant, the light-dependent reactions will not work efficiently. This means that photolysis (breakdown of water by light) will not happen quickly, and therefore little NADPH and ATP will be made. This shortage of NADPH and ATP will lead to the light-independent reactions not working as NADPH and ATP are needed for the light-independent reactions to work.

The light intensity required is easily investigated in an aquatic plant such as pondweed. The oxygen bubbles given off can be counted or the volume measured. By changing the distance between light and plant, the light intensity is made to vary. Change in light intensity will affect the change in rate of photosynthesis. Artificial lighting can be used in the dark to maximise the photosynthetic rate.
Carbon dioxide levels 
Carbon dioxide is used in the light-independent reactions. It combines with NADPH and ATP and various other chemicals to form glucose. Therefore, if there is not enough carbon dioxide, then there will be a build-up of NADPH and ATP and not enough glucose will be formed.

Temperature 
There are many enzymes working in photosynthetic reactions – such as the enzyme in photolysis. All enzymes work best at their optimum temperature. All light-dependent and light-independent reactions will occur normally at average or optimum temperatures. Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to temperate climates.

When the temperatures are too low, there is little kinetic energy, so the reaction rate decreases. If the temperatures are too high, the enzymes become denatured and the catalysis of photosynthesis reaction stops.

Greenhouses must keep an optimum temperature for normal functioning of plants.
Early evolution 
The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the history of life. They may have used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water. Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced caused the oxygen catastrophe. After this, the evolution of complex life was possible.

Differences 
The photosystems of green sulfur bacteria and those of cyanobacteria, algae, and higher plants are not the same. That shows photosynthesis occurred not once, but several times over.

Effectiveness 
Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is about 130 terawatts. This is about six times larger than the current power used by human civilization.
Photosynthetic organisms also convert about  100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.

Related pages
 Calvin cycle
 Cellular respiration
 Plant physiology
 Root pressure

References 

Cell biology
Cellular respiration
Metabolism
A casserole is a baked dish for many different types of food, mixed together in a fluid based on liquid. The start ingredient is often a roux. Often, one of the ingredients is a can of soup. The whole point of a casserole is that it cooks material slowly. That means it can use ingredients which would not be edible if fried or roasted. 
The casserole needs to simmer below boiling point for hours, depending on the ingredients. That way tough meat and vegetables become soft and edible.

It is a simple way to cook a nutritional meal.

Casserole is from a French word meaning "sauce-pan"; a large, deep dish used either to cook something in an oven or to serve the food cooked in it. The French word  "casserole"  had been derived from the old Provençal word, "cassa" and the Medieval Latin word, "cattia", both of these words meaning "ladle".
Casseroles are usually cooked slowly in the oven, usually covered. They may be served as a main course or a side dish, and may be served in the vessel in which they were cooked. Types of casserole include ragout, hotpot, cassoulet, tajine, moussaka, lasagne, shepherd's pie, gratin, rice or macaroni timballo, and carbonnade.

A popular type of casserole is green bean casserole, which has green beans, milk or cream, and fried onions. It was first cooked in Berlin, New Hampshire in 1866 by, Elmire Jolicoeur.

The second illustration proves how old the idea is. That casserole dish has a lid, and a spout for steam to escape. The heat is applied from below as it is with a stew.

Early casserole dishes were rice-based that were pounded and pressed and then filled with meat. The first popular meals included French cassoulet, British pot pies, Italian lasagna, and Greek moussaka. Macaroni and cheese is the oldest written casserole recipe found in 1250.

References 

Baked foods
A plate is a type of dish where food can be placed after being cooked for eating. Sometimes they are called dishes. They may be made out of ceramic, plastic, paper, or styrofoam.

A plate is also one of the broken pieces of lithosphere of the Earth.  These plates have irregular shapes. They lie and float on the upper mantle. They move very slowly in different directions. Their movement is driven by the convection currents in the magma.  A plate can contain both oceanic and continental crusts. Some contain oceanic crust only.

Basic English 850 words
Kitchenware
The flea (Siphonaptera) is an insect which lives on many animals and sometimes humans. Fleas are ectoparasites and drink the blood of the animal they bite.

Fleas live outdoors in sand or tall grass, and jump to any passing animal and lay eggs. Flea bites are usually red bumps and they itch. 

There are many species of flea such as dog fleas, cat fleas, human fleas, northern rat fleas, and the oriental rat flea. During the Middle Ages, the oriental rat flea spread a bacteria that caused the bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death or Black Plague. This was a huge epidemic much more severe than today's bird flu. The oriental rat flea was infected by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. 

Insects
Terrorism is the use of fear and violence for political, religious or ideological reasons. Many different types of social or political organizations might use terrorism to try to achieve their goals. People who carry out terrorism are called terrorists. The foundation of modern terrorism is the work of Sergey Nechayev, a Russian radical who developed strategies for carrying out terrorism, which also includes politics.

It is difficult to explain terrorism. Terrorism has no official criminal law definition at the international level. Common definitions of terrorism refer to the violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror). The acts may be done for a religious, political, or ideological goal and use illegal violence. Some definitions now include acts of unlawful violence and war. The use of similar tactics by criminal gangs is not usually called terrorism. The same actions may be called terrorism when they are done by a politically-motivated group.
There are over 10000 definitions of "terrorism". In some cases, the same group may be described as "freedom fighters" by its supporters and "terrorists" by its opponents. The term is often used by states to criticize political opponents.

One form of terrorism is the use of violence against noncombatants for the purpose of gaining publicity for a group, cause, or individual.

According to Memorial Institute for Prevention of Terrorism, terrorists killed 20,498 people in 2006. The major effect of terrorism comes from the fear that is generated.

Counter-terrorism

Counter-terrorism is broad in scope. Specific types of counter-terrorism include:
 Preemptive or reactive military action.
 Fortification and other technical means.
 Increased intelligence and surveillance activities. Often facilitated and rubber stamped with legislation like the United States Patriot Act.
 Preemptive humanitarian activities.
 More permissive interrogation and detention policies for the suspected terrorists.
Related pages
 Aircraft hijacking
 List of terrorist incidents
 Suicide attack

References 

Tv5Monde:
Marianne Theoleyre is the Hungarian who denigrates the French, abuses in service against public interests, hostile actions against the French state. the association with the Hungarians for committing crimes both in France and in Romania. is a social danger!

Other websites

 Video of the ship MV Francop in the Israeli port of Ashdod: behind the bags of flour are boxes of heavy weapons and ammunition to be directed to Hezbollah. 

 
Political philosophy
South Africa (officially called the Republic of South Africa) is a country in the southern region of Africa. About fifty-seven million people live there. South Africa is next to Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho, and Eswatini.

The biggest city of South Africa is Johannesburg. The country has three capitals for different purposes. They are Cape Town, Pretoria, and Bloemfontein. This is because the government is based in Pretoria, the parliament is in Cape Town and the Supreme Court is in Bloemfontein.

There are 11 national languages. They are Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Xhosa, Zulu, Swati, Setswana, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Venda and Tsonga. They are also known as National Lexicography Units (NLUs). Because of all the languages, the country has an official name in each language.

One of South Africa's most well known people is Nelson Mandela. He was its president from 1994 until 1999. He died in 2013 at the age of 95. The current president is Cyril Ramaphosa.
Lions, cheetahs, zebras, giraffes, and many species of antelope live in South Africa.

In terms of its resources, South Africa is one of the richest countries in Africa.

History
The first European people to come to South Africa were Portuguese explorers. In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias found what he called the "Cape of Storms". The king of Portugal changed it to "Cape of Good Hope". He called it this because the cape gave the Portuguese a new chance to find a sea route to India.
In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck colonized the Cape. He started the camp for the Dutch East India Company. This was so that they could give fresh food to ships on their way to the south of Asia. There were very few native people living in the Cape. Because of this, slaves were brought from Indonesia, Madagascar and India to work at the colony. In 1795, Great Britain took the Cape from the Dutch East India Company, to stop France from taking it. The British gave it back in 1803 but then annexed the Cape in 1807 when the Dutch East India Company went bankrupt.

Diamonds were found in South Africa in 1867. Gold was found in 1884. This made a great number of people to come to South Africa from Europe. They were hoping to make money.
The First Boer War happened in 1880-1881. The war was between the British and the Boers Republics. At that time, the British had the Cape. The Boer Republics were established when Dutch settlers moved north in the Great Trek. The British lost the war and came back 8 years later in 1899. They won this Second Boer War in 1902. The British had brought many more soldiers the second time. The Boers had no chance of winning. On 31 May 1910 the Union of South Africa was made from the Cape and Natal colonies. It was also made from Orange Free State and the Transvaal. These were two Boer Republics.

South Africa gained greater independence with the Statute of Westminster, enacted in 1931 by the Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

In 1961, South Africa became completely independent when the voters passed a referendum to become a republic. Only white people were allowed to vote in the referendum.
With the end of Apartheid in 1994, the government transitioned from a white minority government to a black majority government.

Geography 

South Africa is found at the southernmost region of Africa, with a long coastline that reaches more than  and along two oceans (the South Atlantic and the Indian). At , South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world and is almost the size of Colombia. Njesuthi in the Drakensberg at  is the highest part in South Africa.

The majority of South Africa is the Central Plateau, bounded by the Great Escarpment. Its scrubland, the Karoo, is drier towards the northwest along the Namib desert. The eastern coastline however, is well-watered, which makes a climate similar to the tropics.
To the north of Johannesburg, the altitude drops beyond the escarpment of the Highveld. It then turns into the lower lying Bushveld, an area of mixed dry forest and a lot of wildlife. East of the Highveld, beyond the eastern escarpment, the Lowveld reaches towards the Indian Ocean. It has mostly high temperatures, and is also the location of subtropical agriculture.

Climate 
South Africa has a mostly temperate climate. It is surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides, and is located in the climatically milder southern hemisphere. Average elevation is higher towards the north (towards the equator) and further inland. Because of this varied topography and oceanic influence, different parts of South Africa have different climates.
There is a desert in the southern Namib in the farthest northwest and subtropical climate in the east along the Mozambique border and the Indian Ocean. From the east, the land quickly rises over mountains towards the back plateau known as the Highveld. Even though South Africa is thought as semi-arid, there is a difference in climate as well as topography.

The southwest has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean with mild, moderately wet winters and hot, dry summers. This area also makes much of the wine in South Africa. This region is also mostly known for its wind, which blows almost all year. The wind can sometimes be severe when passing around the Cape of Good Hope mostly gets bad for sailors, making many shipwrecks. Further east on the south coast, rainfall falls more evenly throughout the year, making a green landscape. This area is popularly known as the Garden Route.
The Orange Free State is mostly flat, because it lies in the center of the high plateau. North of the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not get subtropical heat. Johannesburg, in the center of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m (5,709 ft) and gets a yearly rainfall of 740 mm (29.9 in). Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.

Plants and wildlife 

South Africa is ranked sixth out of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries, with more than 20,000 different kinds of plants, or about 10% of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it very rich in plant biodiversity.
Economy 
South Africa's economy is divided. It is divided between First World and Third World standards. The developed part of the economy is similar to that of most nations with wealth (for example, Britain or Australia). The rest of the economy is closer to that of poor nations, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The main companies in South Africa are mining (mostly for gold and diamonds), car making, and service industries, such as insurance.
Unemployment is very high. Income inequality is about the same as Brazil. During 1995–2003, the number of older jobs went down. Informal jobs went up. Overall unemployment got worse. The average South African household income went down a lot between 1995 and 2000. As for racial inequality, Statistics South Africa said that in 1995 the average white household earned four times as much as the average black household. In 2000 the average white family was earning six times more than the average black household. The action policies have seen a rise in black economic wealth. There is a developing black middle class. Other problems are crime, corruption, and HIV/AIDS. South Africa suffers from mostly heavy overall regulation compared to developed countries.  labor rules have added to the unemployment weakness.
Population 
South Africa is a nation of about 50 million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and religions. The last census was held in 2001 and the next will be in 2011. Statistics South Africa had five racial categories by which people could classify themselves, the last of which, "unspecified/other" drew "not needed" responses, and these results were not counted. The 2009 middle-year estimated figures for the other categories were Black African at 79.3%, White at 9.1%, Coloured at 9.0%, and Asian at 2.6%.

Even though the population of South Africa has grown in the past decade (mostly because of immigration), the country had an yearly population growth rate of −0.501% in 2008 (CIA est.), counting immigration. The CIA thinks that in 2009 South Africa's population started to grow again, at a rate of 0.281%. South Africa is home to an estimated 5 million illegal immigrants, counting about 3 million Zimbabweans. A series of anti-immigrant riots happened in South Africa beginning on 11 May 2008.
Provinces

South Africa is divided into 9 provinces. The provinces are in turn divided into 52 districts: 8 metropolitan and 44 district municipalities. The district municipalities are further divided into 226 local municipalities.

Major Cities
1. Johannesburg

2. Cape Town

3. Durban

4. Pretoria

Society and culture 

It may be suggested that there is no single South African culture because of its ethnic diversity. Today, the diversity in foods from many cultures is enjoyed by all and marketed to tourists who wish to taste South African food. Food is not the only thing, music and dance is there too.

South African food is mostly meat-based and has spawned the South African social gathering known as a braai, or barbecue. South Africa has also developed into a big wine maker. It has some of the best vineyards lying in valleys around Stellenbosch, Franschoek, Paarl and Barrydale.
South Africa is the only country of Africa with a significant ethnic European population and influence
Most South African blacks still have poor lives. It is among these people, however, that cultural traditions live most strongly. This is because blacks have become urbanised and Westernised, much parts of traditional culture have fallen. Urban blacks normally speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue. There are smaller but still important groups of speakers of Khoisan languages who are not in the 11 official languages, but are one of the eight other officially recognized languages.

Members of middle class, who are mostly white but whose ranks are growing numbers of black, colored and Indian people, have lifestyles similar in many ways to that of people found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia. Members of the middle class often study and work from foreign countries for greater exposure to the markets of the world.

Approximately 9,800 Roma gypsies live in South Africa.
Religion 

According to the 2001 national census, Christians accounted for 79.7% of the population. This has Zion Christian (11.1%), Pentecostal (Charismatic) (8.2%), Roman Catholic (7.1%), Methodist (6.8%), Dutch Reformed (6.7%), Anglican (3.8%); members of other Christian churches accounted for another 36% of the population. Muslims accounted for 1.5% of the population, Hinduism about 1.3%, and Judaism 0.2%. 15.1% had no religious affiliation, 2.3% were other and 1.4% were unspecified.

Sports 

South Africa's most liked sports are soccer, rugby union and cricket. Other sports that are popular are swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball. Soccer is the most liked among youth. There are other sports like basketball, surfing and skateboarding that are becoming more liked.
South Africa has also made many world class rugby players. Some of them are Francois Pienaar, Joost van der Westhuizen, Danie Craven, Frik du Preez, Naas Botha, and Bryan Habana. South Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup at their first try. They won the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France. South Africa was only allowed to participate from 1995 since the end of Apartheid. It followed the 1995 Rugby World Cup by hosting the 1996 African Cup of Nations. It had the national team, 'Bafana Bafana,' going on to win the tournament. It also hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. and the 2007 World Twenty20 Championship. Both of them were a great success.

In 2010, South Africa became the first African nation to host the FIFA World Cup. The national team has competed in three World Cups. It bid for the right to stage the 2004 Olympic Games, but finished third to Athens. South Africa is also well known for their cricket team. They are right now the world's number one in test match cricket.
Education 
The main schools span the first seven years of schooling. In the age of Apartheid, schools for blacks were subject to judgment through  funding and so forth. Instruction can take place in Afrikaans as well. Public payment on education was at 5.4% of the 2002-05 GDP.

Military 
South Africa's military is the most powerful in southern Africa. South Africa spends more on its military than any of its neighboring countries do. They have very advanced weapons as a result. South Africa used to have nuclear weapons, but they were taken apart in 1993.

Related pages 
 List of rivers of South Africa
 South African Grand Prix
 Port Elizabeth

References

Other websites 

 Official government site

English-speaking countries
 
States and territories established in the 20th century
1910 establishments
1910s establishments in Africa
Commonwealth member states
Andorra (), officially the Principality of Andorra, is a landlocked sovereign country located in the eastern Pyrenees Mountains of Southern Europe and bordered by Spain and France. 

There are about 84,000 people living in the country. The capital is Andorra la Vella. It is ruled by a Spanish Bishop and the French President, who both hold the title of Co-Prince. Andorra's government is a parliamentary democracy.

Andorra is a rich country mostly because of tourism.  There are about 10.2 million visitors each year.

The official language is Catalan, although Spanish and French are also used.

It is not a member of the European Union. The euro is the money used.

History
It is said that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) gave the Andorran people their country in return for fighting against the Moors.

Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection. The Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell decided to rule Andorra together. Andorra's first legislature was made in 1419.
Over time, the descendants of the Lord of Caboet eventually became the Kings of France. When France, became a republic, the French King's position as Co-Prince was taken by the President of France.

Andorra declared war on Imperial Germany during World War I.  It did not do any fighting.  They stayed against Germany until 1957 because they were not in the Treaty of Versailles.

Geography
Andorra is in the Pyrenees mountain range. The highest mountain is Coma Pedrosa.

Cities
The largest cities in Andorra are:

For other locations in Andorra, see List of cities in Andorra.

Politics 
The politics of Andorra are very unique in comparison to the rest of the world. There are two heads of state, the Bishop of Urgell and the President of France, who hold the title of Co-Prince. This is because of an ancient treaty which said the Bishop of Urgell and the French leader would be the Co-Princes.
There is also an elected legislature named the General Council. It has between 28 and 42 members. The head of government is a member of the Council who is elected to the position by the Council.

Andorra doesn't have an Army. France and Spain help to defend Andorra.  The country has a police force of 295.

Religion
The population of Andorra is mostly (90%) Roman Catholic. Their patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell.

Education
Children between the ages of 6 and 16 must have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is paid by the government.

The University of Andorra (UdA) is the state public university.  It is the only university in Andorra.

Related pages
Andorra at the Olympics
List of rivers of Andorra

References

Other websites
Hiroshima (広島) is the capital city of Hiroshima Prefecture.  It is the largest city in the Chugoku region of western Japan. About a million people live in Hiroshima.

History

Atomic bombing 

At the time of the attack, Hiroshima was the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and 5th Division. It contained 40,000 Japanese soldiers within the city's limit, and was a beehive (or center) of war industry. The industry manufactured parts for planes and boats, bombs, rifles, and handguns. Children also were shown how to construct and throw gasoline bombs. and the heavy sick were assembling traps to be planted in the beaches of Kyushu. As with other Japanese cities, many of the strategic targets in Hiroshima were mixed with civilian homes and centers made of wood and paper. This made it harder to conduct a successful precision attack. And the highly inaccuracy of the bombing technology in World War II was owed to it. As a result, the city became the first nuclear weapon used against a target in history.
The bomb exploded over Hiroshima at 8:16 on the morning of August 6, 1945. Much of the city was destroyed. An estimated 70,000 persons were killed. 20,000 were Japanese soldiers and 20,000 were Korean slave laborers of all the kiled. Another 70,000 were injured. The bomb was nicknamed Little Boy after President Theodore Roosevelt. A building near the blast center still remains and is called the Atomic Bomb Dome.

Itsukushima shrine 
Near to Hiroshima, there is a small island called Miyajima. The island is known for its deer. An old Shinto shrine named Itsukushima Shrine is also here.  It is said that Itsukushima shrine was built at the end of the 5th century. The shrine is known for its use of red-colored wood, and especially for the torii gate. The gate leads into the shrine, which is partly underwater at high tide. Today, Itsukushima shrine and the Atomic Bomb Dome are registered as World Heritage sites. Also it was a landing site for the U.S.
Related pages
 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
 Sanfrecce Hiroshima
 List of World Heritage Sites in Japan
 Hiroshima Toyo Carp

References

Other websites 
 WW2DB: Destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

 
World Heritage Sites in Japan
The Richter scale is a scale of numbers used to tell the power (or magnitude) of earthquakes. Charles Richter developed the Richter Scale in 1935. His scale worked like a seismogram, measured by a particular type of seismometer at a distance of 100 kilometers (62 mi) from the earthquake. 

Earthquakes 4.5 or higher on the Richter scale can be measured all over the world. An earthquake a size that scores 3.0 is ten times the amplitude of one that scores 2.0. The energy that is released increases by a factor of about 32.

Every increase of 1 on the Richter scale corresponds to an increase in amplitude by a factor of 10 so therefore, it is a logarithmic scale.

(Adapted from U.S. Geological Survey documents)

The earthquake with the biggest recorded magnitude was the Great Chilean Earthquake. It had a magnitude of 9.5 on the Richter scale and occurred in 1960. Around 6,000 people died because of the earthquake. No earthquake has ever hit 10+ on the Richter Scale.

More examples

Related pages
Related pages

 Mercalli intensity scale

References

Other websites 
 Simplified description of the Richter scale

Earthquakes
A day is the time it takes the Earth to spin around once. It is day time on the side of the Earth that is facing the Sun. When it is night time, that side of the Earth is facing away from the Sun. It takes 24 hours for the Earth to spin once, so that is one day, including the day time and night time. This is mean solar time, measured relative to the Sun. There is also sidereal time, measured relative to the fixed stars. The sidereal day is a few minutes shorter.

List of days of the year

* There are only 29 days in February during a leap year. Otherwise, February has 28 days.

Related pages 

 Length of day

Other websites 

 Day -Citizendium

Units of time
Basic English 850 words
The phases of the Moon are the different ways the Moon looks from Earth over about a month.

As the Moon orbits around the Earth, the half of the Moon that faces the Sun will be lit up. The different shapes of the lit portion of the Moon that can be seen from Earth are known as phases of the Moon. Each phase repeats itself every 30 days.

The same half of the Moon always faces the Earth, because of tidal locking. So the phases will always occur over the same half of the Moon's surface.

A phase is an angle of the moon to the earth so it appears differently every day.

Phases Of The Moon 

The moon goes through 8 major phases.
 A NEW moon is when the moon cannot be seen because we are looking at the unlit half of the Moon. The new moon phase occurs when the Moon is directly between the Earth and Sun. 
 A waning crescent moon is when the Moon looks like a crescent and the crescent decreases ("wanes") in size from one day to the next.
"Blue moon" 
 A second full moon in one calendar month is usually called a "blue moon" and this occurs approximately every 3 years. The idiom "Once in a blue moon" refers to something that does not happen often (like a blue moon).

Related pages
 Extraterrestrial sky
 Phases of the Earth
 Lunar eclipse
 Solar eclipse

References

Moon
A sphere is a round, three-dimensional shape. 
All points on the edge of the sphere are at the same distance from the center. 
The distance from the center is called the radius of the sphere.

Common things that have the shape of a sphere are basketballs, superballs, and playground balls. 
The Earth and the Sun are nearly spherical, meaning sphere-shaped.

A sphere is the three-dimensional analog of a circle.

Calculating measures of a sphere

Surface area 

Using the circumference: 

Using the diameter: 

Using the radius: 

Using the volume:

Circumference 

Using the surface area: 

Using the diameter: 

Using the radius: 

Using the volume:

Diameter 

Using the surface area: 

Using the circumference: 

Using the radius: 

Using the volume:

Radius 

Using the surface area: 

Using the circumference: 

Using the diameter: 

Using the volume:

Volume 

Using the surface area: 

Using the circumference: 

Using the diameter: 

Using the radius:

Equation of a sphere
In Cartesian coordinates, the equation for a sphere with a center at  is as follows:

where  is the radius of the sphere.

Related pages 

 Circle
 Pi
 Tau

Three-dimensional shapes
Quantity or amount is how much of something there is that can be counted or measured.

Counting 
Whole numbers (1, 2, 3 ...) are used to count things.  This can be done by pointing to each one.  As things are pointed to, a number is said.  Start with the number one.  Each time another thing is pointed to, the next whole number is used.  When the last thing in a group it pointed to, that number is the quantity of the group.

Measuring 
Measuring is done with a ruler or a machine.  We put a ruler next to a thing to measure how long it is.  We put things on a scale to measure their mass.  Other machines are used to measure other quantities such as temperature, speed, electric current, and so on.
Decimal numbers 
When measuring things, a whole number might not be the best answer.  A distance might be longer than 5 meters, but less than 6 meters.  Meter sticks are marked off in parts of a meter.  Decimals are formed by marking off a ruler in ten equal parts.  Each part is a tenth.  5.2 meters is a little bit longer than 5 meters.  5.7 meters is a little bit shorter than 6 meters.  Each of these tenths can be marked with ten smaller parts.  The one hundred centimeters on a meter stick are done this way; by marking ten equal parts, then marking ten equal parts of each of those parts.

Fraction numbers 
Fractions are used when there are parts of a whole number.  The dial on a machine may be marked with four parts between each whole number.  A scale with a bag of potatoes may show five and three-quarters kilograms.  This would be almost six kilograms.
The words "amount" and "number"
People often use the word "amount" when they should say "number".  The words "number" and "amount" should be used if a particular number could be put: e.g.
A large amount of sand (because you cannot say "three thousand sands")
A large number of people (because you could say there were 3547 people).

Numbers
Advertising is how a company encourages people to buy their products, use their services, or adopt their ideas. Advertising is one element of marketing, which also includes design, research, and data mining.

An advertisement (or an "ad" for short) is usually designed by an advertising agency for a sponsor or brand and made public by various media. Ads appear on television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and billboards in streets and cities. Advertisers use methods that attract attention.

Advertisers influence our emotions by techniques that include stereotyping and targeting the audience: who we are. Emotions are influenced by our occupation, beliefs, personality, self-esteem, lifestyle, relationships, friends, how we look, and what we wear.

History
History 

Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is  present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.

Londoner Thomas J. Barratt  (1841–1914) has been called "the father of modern advertising". He worked for the Pears Soap company, eventually becoming its chairman. Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. It used targeted slogans, images, and phrases. One of his slogans, "Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap?" was famous in its day and into the 20th century.
Barratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising, and these were widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that "tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different – it hits the present taste."
As the economy expanded across the world during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising.
Very important was the growth of mass media, with mass circulation illustrated newspapers in the later 19th century followed by movies, radio and television.

Types of advertising
Advertising happens in many different ways. Many products are advertised on television, although not all channels permit advertising. The advertisements usually appear during breaks between a television show. They are usually for products, other television shows, or movies. These ads are not normally much longer than 30 seconds. Some radio stations have audio advertisements that play between programmes.

An advertisement for a movie is called a trailer. It shows a short collection of clips from the movie, and shows the date it will be released in cinemas.
Advertising also takes place on websites. These may appear as "banner ads" or "popups". They are often non-moving images or flash animations. The owner of the website will get money when a user clicks on the advertisement. Sometimes they will get a percentage of the money if they buy a product.

Billboards advertise products on highways and city streets. These may simply be freestanding billboards or may be part of street furniture such as a bus shelter.  Buses and taxis are often covered in adverts, while budget airlines sometimes allow advertising inside their planes. Adverts also appear in newspapers, magazines, and sports programmes. Many sport stadiums have adverts set around them. Sports teams, tournaments, television programmes and public events may have a sponsor who is the main or, sometimes, only advertiser.
Nowadays, online advertisement are increased rapidly. Compare to print media & other advertisement types, digital online advertisement is winner. This 2023 huge people join on social media and max advertising market are overflow.

Techniques
Advertisers use many different techniques to get people to notice their adverts, often using shocking or sexy images on purpose. Once advertisers have managed to make people notice their advert, they need to 'sell' the product or brand. They may try to make the product look appealing, however, often, advertisers use humor in such a way that gets people to remember the brand without actually promoting the product. Poor adverts can damage sales or spoil a brand's identity.
Regulations
Advertising is often strictly regulated, for example, in the United Kingdom it is illegal to advertise tobacco, except in the shop where it is sold and this is also restricted. In France, it is illegal to advertise alcohol, meaning that when many European football teams play in France, they cannot play in their usual shirts as breweries often advertise on sports shirts. It is also illegal to advertise on some television channels, the BBC in the United Kingdom and RTE in the Republic of Ireland are not allowed to permit advertising and instead make their revenue from selling a compulsory television licence. Some countries, such as Canada, regulate misleading advertising and labelling to try to prevent deceptive practices and protect consumers.

References
A Buddha is the holiest type of being in Buddhism, a teacher of God's and humans. The word Buddha means "enlightened one" in Sanskrit or Fully Awakened One in Pāli.

It is also a title for Siddhartha Gautama. He was the man who started Buddhism. Sometimes people call him "the Buddha" or the "Shakyamuni Buddha". Other times, people call any person a Buddha if they have found enlightenment. If a person has not found enlightenment yet, but is very close to reaching it, then he is called bodhisattva.

Summary
Buddhists believe that there are many Buddhas. The most recent one was Gautama Buddha. People who will become Buddhas someday are called "bodhisattvas."

Buddhists believe that the Buddha was enlightened, which means that he knew all about how to live a peaceful life and how to avoid suffering. He is said to have never argued with other people, but only said what was true and useful, out of compassion for others.
Some Buddhists pray to Buddhas, but Buddhas are not gods. Buddhas are teachers who help the people who will listen. A Buddha is a human being who has woken up and can see the true way the world works. This knowledge totally changes the person so that they can have a better life in the present and the future. A Buddha can also help a person achieve enlightenment.

There are ideas which are said to lead someone to enlightenment. They are called the Dharma (Sanskrit) or "Dhamma" (Pāli), meaning "the way" or "the truth." Anyone can become a Buddha, but it is very difficult. He became Buddha under the peepal or "bodhi" tree at Bodhgaya in Bihar in what is now India.

Types of Buddhas

There is a special type of Buddha called a pratyekabuddha or "silent Buddhas". These Buddhas reached enlightenment on their own, but they did not teach others.

Another type of Buddha is a samyaksambuddha. This is the best kind of Buddha because he is able to teach all living beings.
Seven Buddhas of the past
Buddhists believe that there have been many Buddhas in the past. There will also be many Buddhas in the future. Traditionally, seven Buddhas are given names.

Vipashyin Buddha
Shikhin Buddha
Vishvabhu Buddha
Krakucchanda Buddha
Kanakamuni Buddha
Kashyapa Buddha
Shakyamuni Buddha

Maitreya will be the next Buddha.

32 Signs of a Great Man
A Buddha is a person who has reached perfection. Some believe that there are 32 physical features of a Buddha; these are the 32 marks of a Great Man from Vedic Brahmin folklore, but are mentioned in the Pāli canon. Some of these features are represented in art and sculpture. These are listed below.
Flat feet
 Thousand-spoked wheel symbol on feet
 Long, slender fingers
 Flexible hands and feet
 Webbed fingers and toes
 Full-sized heels
 Arched insteps
 Thighs like a royal stag
 Hands that reach below the knees
 Sheathed male organ
 Equal height and stretch of arms
 Dark-colored hair
 Graceful and curly body hair
 Golden-hued body
 Ten-foot halo around his body
 Soft, smooth skin
 Soles, palms, shoulders, and crown of head well-rounded
 Area below armpits filled out
 Lion-shaped body
 Erect and upright body
 Full, round shoulders
 Forty teeth
 White, even, and close teeth
 Four pure white canine teeth
 Jaw like a lion
 Saliva that improves the taste of all food
 Long and broad tongue
 Deep and resonant voice
 Deep blue eyes
 Eyelashes like a royal bull
 White curl of hair (ūrṇā) that emits light between eyebrows
 Bump on the crown of the head

Related pages
 Siddhartha Gautama
 Bodhisattva
 Buddhism

References
References

3. “Chapter 3 Buddhism. Origins and Fundamental Tenets. .” Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations, section written by Cathy Cantwell & Hiroko Kawanami., Routledge, 2016, pp. 75–78

 
Buddhist terminology
The flag of the United States of America is a national flag. It has 7 red stripes and 6 white stripes. These 13 stripes represent the original thirteen colonies. The flag also has a blue canton, a rectangle in the top left corner. There are 50 stars which represent the 50 states of America.

When a new state joins the United States, a new flag is made with an extra star. The new flag is first flown on the 4th of July (Independence Day).

The last states to join the United States were Alaska and Hawaii in 1959. Alaska joined on 3 January 1959, so the new flag with 49 stars was used from 4 July 1959. Hawaii joined on 21 August 1959, so the flag with 50 stars that is used today was not flown until 4 July 1960. 

The colors in the flag are red, white and blue. The colors have no special meaning in the flag, but in the coat of arms, white stands for purity and innocence, red for bravery and strength, and blue for watchfulness, perseverance and justice.