Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The 1944 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIII Olympiad, were not held.

The games were cancelled because of World War II. They would have been held in London, England, which won the bid in the June 1939 International Olympic Committee election, over Rome, Detroit, Lausanne, Athens, Budapest, Helsinki and Montreal. 

London hosted the next Olympic Games, the 1948 Summer Olympics, awarded without an election.

In spite of the war, the IOC had many events at its headquarters in Lausanne, Switzerland to celebrate its 50th anniversary. These events happened on 17 June to 19 June 1944 and were called "The Jubilee Celebrations of IOC" by Carl Diem, the man who began the modern tradition of the Olympic torch relay.

Polish POWs in the Woldenberg (Dobiegniew) Oflag II-C POW camp were granted permission by their Nazi captors to have an unofficial POW Olympics in 1944, showing that the Olympic spirit can survive even during war.
Related pages
 1916 Summer Olympics
 1940 Winter Olympics
 1940 Summer Olympics
 1944 Winter Olympics

References

Other websites
 The Olympic Idea  Chris Matthew Sciabarra

1944 in Europe
Olympics
1940s in England
Cancelled Olympic Games
Summer Olympic Games
20th century in London
The 1920 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the VII Olympiad, were held at Antwerp in Belgium.

The games were a financial strain for the host country and the participants. The events were not well attended.

Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the Antwerp games.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 IOC page for the 1920 Summer Olympics

1920 in Europe
20th century in Belgium
Summer Olympics in Europe
Summer Olympic 1920
Antwerp
The 1916 Summer Olympics , officially known as the Games of the VI Olympiad, were not held.

The games were planned for Berlin in Germany.

In 1912, workers began building the sports facilities for the games. The Deutsches Stadion ("German Stadium") began in 1912.  In June 1913, the stadium was officially opened with 60,000 people at the ceremonies.

The games were cancelled because of World War I.

Related pages
1940 Summer Olympics
1940 Winter Olympics
1944 Summer Olympics
1944 Winter Olympics

References

Other websites 

  Vignettes of 1916 at Olympic-museum.de

Olympics
1910s in Germany
20th century in Berlin
Cancelled Olympic Games
Olympic Games in Germany
Sport in Berlin
Summer Olympic Games
Morphology is part of linguistics. It looks at the way words are put together using small pieces called morphemes.  A morpheme is the smallest part of a word that has meaning.  Different languages have different morphemes and have different rules for how morphemes are combined.

Free and bound morphemes 
Words are the smallest pieces of a sentence. Some words only have one morpheme. For example the English words thank, dog, and slow are all words made up of only one morpheme. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is called a free morpheme.
Words can also be made up of more than one morpheme.  English speakers know that one can add the plural(more than one) morpheme, -s, to the end of dog, and create the word dogs.  The new word combines the meanings of the two morphemes, so the meaning of the new word, dogs is more than one dog.  Dog is a free morpheme, but the plural morpheme -s is not. It must attach to a word (no native English speaker would use -s as a stand alone word).  Morphemes which must be attached to a word are called bound morphemes.  Morphemes attached to the front of a word are called prefixes. Those attached to the end are called suffixes. Some morphemes can attach in the middle of a word and are called infixes. (example?)
Inflectional and derivational morphemes 
There are two types of bound morphemes: derivational and inflectional. Inflectional morphemes give a listener or reader information about how the word is used in a sentence.  English does not have a lot of inflectional morphemes. An example of an inflectional morpheme in English is the -ed suffix for verbs.  This morpheme at the end of a verb lets the speaker know that the action happened in the past.  Another example is the -s suffix for nouns to show that there is more than one of the noun.

Derivational morphemes change the part of speech or somehow change the basic meaning of the word they attach to.  Most bound morphemes in English are derivational.

Examples 
English Word: "unthankful"

Morphemes:

English Word: "songwriter"

Morphemes:

English Word: "modernized"

Morphemes:

Sources

References 

Linguistics
In linguistics, syntax is the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences. 

The term syntax can also be used to refer to these rules themselves, as in “the syntax of a language”. Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules, and, for many practitioners, to find general rules that apply to all languages.

Related pages
 Phrase
 Grammar

Syntactic terms 

 Adjective
 Adverb
 Article
 Clause
 Comparative

 Infinitive
 Noun
 Phrase
 Phrasal verb
 Plural

 Preposition
 Pronoun
 Superlative
 Verb
 Tense
 Word order

Notes

References

Other websites 
 The syntax of natural language (Beatrice Santorini & Anthony Kroch, University of Pennsylvania)
 Learn Programming Language Syntax 
 Various syntactic constructs used in computer programming languages 

Grammar
The 1912 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the V Olympiad, were held in Stockholm, Sweden.  

The games were thought to be a success.  For the first time, athletes in the Games came from all five continents symbolised in the Olympic rings.

Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the Stockholm games. They were:

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 IOC page for the 1912 Summer Olympics

Olympics
1910s in Europe
20th century in Sweden
Summer Olympic 1912
Summer Olympics in Europe
Syntax may refer to:
 Syntax, set of rules governing how words combine to form grammatical meanings.
 Syntax (journal), a Blackwell Publishing journal devoted to natural language syntax.
 Syntax (logic)
 Syntax of programming languages
 Syntax (band)
 Syntax (television manufacturer)
 Syntax Records (a San Diego-based record label)
Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov (21 August 1929 – 7 October 2017) was a Soviet/Russian historical linguist. His main topic of study is Indo-European languages.

Works 
He is best known for his glottalic theory of how consonants are spoken in Indo-European languages and for placing point of origin for these languages in the area of the Armenian Highlands and Lake Urmia. He was born in Moscow.

Vyacheslav Ivanov's father was Vsevolod Ivanov, one of the most famous Soviet writers. His mother was an actress. She worked in the theatre of Vsevolod Meyerhold. His childhood was filled by disease and war, which he spent in Tashkent.

Ivanov died in Moscow on 7 October 2017 at the age of 88.

References

More readings
 Vyacheslav V. Ivanov and Thomas Gamkrelidze, The Early History of Indo-­European Languages, Scientific American, vol. 262, N3, 110­-116, March, 1990.
 Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V.; Vjacheslav V. Ivanov (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans. Mouton de Gruyter. .

Russian linguists
1929 births
2017 deaths
Tamaz (Thomas) V. Gamkrelidze (Georgian თამაზ გამყრელიძე) (October 23, 1929 – February 10, 2021) was a Georgian linguist, orientalist and public benefactor, Academician (beginning in 1974) and President (2005–2013) of the Georgian Academy of Sciences (GAS), Doctor of Sciences (1963), Professor (1964).

Gamkrelidze was born in Kutaisi. His brother Revaz Gamkrelidze, was also an academician and a famous mathematician.

Gamkrelidze died at the age of 91.

Some of the main works of Tamaz Gamkrelidze 
 The Akkado-Hittite syllabary and the problem of the origin of the Hittite script, "Archiv Orientalni" (vol. 29). 1960
 Anatolian languages and the problem of Indo-European migration to Asia Minor, Studies in General and Oriental Linguistics. Tokyo, 1970
 Alphabetic writing and the old Georgian script. New York, Caravan Books, 1994
 with V. Vs. Ivanov: "Indo-European language and Indoeuropeans" (vols. I-II). Berlin / New York, 1994-1995

Related pages
 Glottalic theory
List of Asian scientists by country

References
References

Other websites 
 Home Page of Tamaz Gamkrelidze
 Georgian Academy of Sciences (GAS)
 Tbilisi State University

1929 births
2021 deaths
Scientists from Georgia (country)
The Georgian alphabet is used to write in the Georgian language and other Kartvelian languages. The alphabet is called Khutsuri, first said around in the 11th century. 

Greek and Aramaic influences have been shown, but some Georgian scholars like Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze have said that they were freely invented in imitation of the Greek model rather than directly based upon earlier forms of the Aramaic alphabet even though the Georgian phonological inventory is very different from Greek.

Other websites 
 Georgian Website / Portal with info on Georgian culture and language 
 Direct transliteration Latin ↔ Georgian
 Georgian fonts, compliant with Unicode 4.0, also available for MAC OS 9 or X

Georgia (country)
Alphabets
Cytosine is one of the 5 main nucleobases used in storing and transporting genetic information within a cell in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. 

In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine. However, it is unstable, and can change into uracil. This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired. The DNA repair enzymes, such as uracil glycosylase, cuts uracil in DNA.

Cytosine is the centre of modern genetic research into epigenetics. Methyl groups added to cytosine change the action of genes during lifetime. These changes are not inherited.

References

Other websites
Computational Chemistry Wiki 
 

Organonitrogen compounds
DNA
Epigenetics
The 1908 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the IV Olympiad, were held in London, United Kingdom.

The Olympics were originally scheduled to be held in Rome; however, Mount Vesuvius erupted on 7 April 1906. The natural disaster caused a financial strain on the Italian government. Then the venue was changed to London. The costs of the games were covered by donations.

Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the London games. They were:

  Argentina
  Australasia
  Austria
  Belgium
  Bohemia
  Canada
  Denmark
  Finland
  France
  German Empire
  Great Britain

  Greece
  Hungary
  Italy
  Netherlands
  Norway
  Russian Empire
  Union of South Africa
  Sweden
  Switzerland
  Ottoman Empire
  United States

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 IOC page for the 1908 Summer Olympics
Guanine is one of the five main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.

The others are adenine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil. With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine.

Basic principles 
Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA and uracil only in RNA.

References 
 Miyakawa, S., Murasawa, K., Kobayashi, K., Sawaoka, AB. "Abiotic synthesis of guanine with high-temperature plasma." Orig Life Evol Biosph. 30(6): 557-66, Dec. 2000.
 Horton, H.R., Moran, L.A., Ochs, R.S., Rawn, J.D., Scrimgeour, K.G. "Principles of Biochemistry." Prentice Hall (New Jersey). 3rd Edition, 2002.
 Lister, J.H. "Part II Purines." The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds. Wiley-Interscience (New York). 1971.

Other websites 
 Computational Chemistry Wiki 
 Good Guanine reference

DNA
Organonitrogen compounds
The glottalic theory is that Proto-Indo-European had ejective stops instead of voiced stops and so it had p’ t’ k’, not b d g, as the traditional version of the Proto-Indo-European sound system.

The glottalic theory was made in the United States by Paul Hopper and in the Soviet Union by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov. The earliest theory was made by the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen that did not have glottalized sounds.

Earlier linguists, such as André Martinet and Morris Swadesh, saw the potential of replacing glottalic sounds for the supposed plain voiced stops of Proto-Indo-European. The idea stayed hypothetical until more evidence for it was published in 1973 by Hopper in the journal Glossa and by Gamkrelidze and Ivanov in the journal Phonetica.
Sources
Paul J. Hopper, "Glottalized and murmured occlusives in Indo-European." Glossa 7:2:1973, 141-166.
 Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vjacheslav V. Ivanov, Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans, translated by Johanna Nichols, 2 volumes. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995. 
 Robert S.P. Beekes, Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. John Benjamins, 1995.
 Anthony Fox, Linguistic Reconstruction. Oxford, 1995.

Pronunciation
The Proto-Indo-Europeans were a group of people after the last Ice age. Their existence, from 4000 BC or earlier, is implied by their language. They were the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE), an unwritten but now partly reconstructed prehistoric language.

People 
Knowledge of them comes not only from language, but also from archaeology and archaeo-genetics. They were a group of loosely related peoples ancestral to the Bronze Age Indo-Europeans.

The Proto-Indo-Europeans likely lived during the Copper Age, or roughly the 5th to 4th millennia BC. Mainstream scholarship places them in the  general region of the steppes in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Some scholars would extend the time of PIE much further back. More recent studies support an origin in today's northern Iran and the Armenian Highland.

By the mid-2nd millennium BC offshoots of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had reached Anatolia, the Aegean, Indus Valley, Ganges Plain, and likely Western Europe.
Culture 
The Proto-Indo-European culture had some or all of these features:

 stockbreeding and animal husbandry, including domesticated cattle, horses, and dogs
 agriculture and cereal cultivation, including technology commonly ascribed to early farming communities
 a climate with winter snow
 transportation by or across water
 the solid wheel, used for carts, but not yet chariots with spoked wheelsp249
 worship of a sky god, *dyeus ph2tēr (literally 'sky father': Ancient Greek Ζευς (πατηρ) / Zeus (patēr); dieu-ph2tēr Latin Jupiter.)
 oral epic poetry or song lyrics that used stock phrases such as imperishable fame
 a patrilineal kinship system based on relationships between men
The Proto-Indo-Europeans were a patrilineal society, probably half-nomadic, relying on animal husbandry, notably of cattle and sheep. They domesticated the horse – ekwos (cf. Latin equus).  The cow (gwous) played a central role, in religion and mythology as well as in daily life. A man's wealth would have been measured by the number of his animals (small livestock), peḱus (cf. English fee, Latin pecunia).

They practiced a polytheistic religion centered on sacrificial rites, probably administered by a priestly caste. Burials in barrows or tomb chambers (see Kurgan hypothesis). Important leaders would have been buried with their belongings, and possibly also with members of their households or wives (human sacrifice, suttee).
Many Indo-European societies know a threefold division of priests, a warrior class, and a class of peasants or husbandmen. If there was a separate class of warriors, it probably consisted of single young men. They would have followed a separate warrior code unacceptable in the society outside their peer-group. Traces of initiation rites in several Indo-European societies suggest that this group identified itself with wolves or dogs (see also Berserker, werewolf).

As for technology, reconstruction suggests a culture of the early Bronze Age, with bronze tools and weapons. Silver and gold were known. Sheep were kept for wool, and textiles were woven. The wheel was known, certainly for ox-drawn carts, and late Proto-Indo European warfare may also have made use of horse-drawn chariots.
The native name of this people cannot be reconstructed with certainty. Aryo- (interpreted by some as meaning "those who plow"), sometimes upheld as a self-identification of the Proto-Indo-Europeans (see Aryan), is shown only in the Indo-Iranian subfamily, since it appears on written inscriptions; however, the Proto-Indo-Europeans themselves had not yet adopted writing, so there is no way to verify that Aryo- was their self-identification.

Related pages
 Proto-Indo-European language
 Comparative linguistics
 List of Indo-European roots
 Urheimat
 Armenian hypothesis
 Archaeogenetics
 Kurgan
 Aryan

References

Further reading 

 .
 .
 C. Renfrew 1987. Archaeology and language, the puzzle of Indo-European origins. London, Penguin.
 Brian Sykes 2001. The seven daughters of Eve. London. Corgi Books.
 .

Other websites 
 Indo-European Roots Index, from The American Heritage® Dictionary
 Kurgan culture 
 Indo-European Origins in Southeast Europe

Indo-European
Urheimat (German: ur- original, ancient; Heimat home, homeland) is a linguistic term meaning the original homeland of the speakers of a proto-language. Since many peoples tend to wander and spread, there is no exact Urheimat, but there is an Indo-European Urheimat different from the Germanic or Romance Urheimat. Recent studies say the original home of Indo-Europeans was near the Armenian Highlands.

Specific hypotheses:
Kurgan hypothesis
Anatolian hypothesis
Armenian hypothesis
Out of India theory

References 
.
.

Other websites 
Linguistics and Ideology in the Study of Language by E. F. K. Koerner, University of Ottawa On linguistics and the  search for the original Indo-European homeland

Indo-European
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
The Anatolian hypothesis of Proto-Indo-European origin is that the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language lived in Anatolia during the Neolithic era. When the Neolithic Revolution took place in the seventh and sixth millennia BC, the speakers spread over Europe. Those who advocate this hypothesis think that the Indo-European languages originated in Anatolia.  They believe that the Proto-Indo-Europeans then migrated north to the location north of the Caucasus Mountains. There is an another hypothesis, called the Kurgan hypothesis. The people who support it say the Indo-European languages came from the Caucasus. One of the best-known advocates of the Anatolian hypothesis is Colin Renfrew.

Related pages
Indo-Hittite
Armenian hypothesis
Neolithic Europe
Neolithic revolution
Kurgan hypothesis

Other websites 
Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin, Nature 426 (27 November 2003) 435-439
Indo-European
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
Rafayel Avetisi Ishkhanyan (, 9 March 1922 – 6 February 1995) was an Armenian philologist and historian. He was a professor of the Yerevan State University.

Biography 
In 1939, Ishkhanyan entered the department of Armenian language and literature of Yerevan State University. He fought in World War II. After the war, he continued his studies and graduated from Yerevan University in 1949.

His works are generally dedicated to the earliest history of the Armenian people, to the comparative linguistic analysis of ancient languages, and to printing. He is one of the authors of Armenian Soviet encyclopedia.

He was a Deputy to the Supreme Soviet Armenia in 1990-1996.

Publications
Ishkhanyan claims that Armenians "were the aborigines of the Armenian plateau who have been living there continuously since the fourth millennium B.C.E at the latest". Similar claims were promoted in nationalist novels such as those of Sero Khanzatian, published in the 1970s.
Books 
Errord Uzhi Batsarman Orenke: Hodvatsner, Azat khosk,  (5-8079-0250-5)
Girke Khorhrdayin Hayastanum: Matenagitakan Tsank, Hayastani azgayin grapalat,  (99930-50-03-2)
Mer Inknutyan Glkhavor Nshane: (Grakanagitakan Hetazotutyunner), Nairi,  (5-550-00429-1)
Patkerazard Patmutyun Hayots, Book 1, 1989, Arevik,  (5-8077-0057-0)
Rafael Ishkhanian, Hayeri tzagume yev hnaguin patmutiune (The Origins and Most Ancient. History of the Armenians) (Beirut: Altapress 1984))
Questions of origin and earliest history of Armenian people, Yerevan 1988
On the Origin and Earliest History of the Armenian People
Ksiazka Ormianska W Latach 1512 - 1920, Ossolineum

References

Other websites 
Books of Ishkhanyan

1922 births
1996 deaths
Armenian historians
A Cross-country race is any running race that takes place on different types of terrain. Different levels of competition include middle school , high school , collegiate men  and , women 5km (3.1 mi) and , amateur, and professional.

The scoring in these events gives one point to the winner, two points to the person who finished second, and so on. In an invitational or meet where teams of runners count up the points of their top five finishers. This is their score. The team with the lowest score wins. If there is a tie, the team with the fastest sixth man wins.

Times in races depend on the terrain, weather, and the other runners. This means that two athletes competing in different places in the world who are running the same time might not be at the same ability level.

Related pages
Long distance race

Other websites

 U. S. Cross-Country Championships 
 2008 USATF Competition Rules / Article IV Rules of Competition / Section VIII Cross Country 

Running
A long distance race is any running event on the track that is longer than 3000m. This includes such events as the 3000m run, the 3000m steeplechase, the 3200m run, the two mile run,  the three mile run, 5000m run, five mile run, six mile run, and 10000m run, and so on.

The original marathon race, created in 1896, paid tribute to the legendary run completed by Greek messenger Pheidippides in 490 BC. Pheidippides gives word of the Greek victory over Persia at the Battle of Marathon to the people of Athens.  That’s when, according to legend, Pheidippides (530-490 BC) ran 26 miles from Marathon to Athens to deliver news of a military victory against the Persians in the Battle of Marathon.

Related pages
 Sprint
 Middle distance race
 Walking race
 Hurdle race
 Relay
 Steeplechase (athletics)
 Cross-country race
 Marathon

Running
distinguish the Warsaw Pact, which was a defence treaty between Eastern European nations

The Warsaw Convention is an international convention which regulates  for international carriage of persons, luggage or goods performed by aircraft for reward.

It was signed in 1929 in Warsaw, it was amended in 1955 at The Hague and in 1975 in Montreal.

In particular, the Warsaw Convention has the following rules:
carriers issue passenger tickets;
carriers issue baggage checks for checked luggage;
there is a limitation period of 2 years within which a claim must be brought (Article 29); and
a carrier's liability is at least:
 250,000 Francs or 16,600 Special Drawing Rights (SDR) for personal injury;
 17 SDR per kilogram for checked luggage and cargo,
 5,000 Francs or 332 SDR for the hand luggage of a traveller.

On April 1, 2007, the exchange rate was 1.00 SDR = 1.135 EUR or
1.00 SDR = 1.51 USD.
The Montreal Convention, signed in 1999, will replace the Warsaw Convention system, once Montreal has been ratified by all states.

Footnotes

Other websites 

 .
Beginner's guide to the Warsaw Convention 

Air travel‎
1929 in Europe
1920s in Poland
1955
1950s in the Netherlands
1975 in North America
1970s in Canada
20th century in Montreal
1920s treaties
1950s treaties
1970s treaties

pl:Prawo transportowe#Pierwsze konwencje
Coroner was a thrash metal band from Switzerland. The band was formed in 1985.  The band is with Noise record label. The band's most successful albums are No More Color, Mental Vortex and Grin.

References

Other websites 
Coroner at Encyclopaedia Metallum

1980s establishments in Switzerland
1985 establishments in Europe
1996 disestablishments in Europe
2010 establishments in Switzerland
Swiss heavy metal bands
Thrash metal bands
Organizations based in Zürich
Musical groups established in 1985
Musical groups disestablished in 1996
Musical groups established in 2010
Disestablishments in Switzerland
Ritchies is a large supermarket chain in Australia. The chain is owned by a group of private investors. Metcash is a part of that group. The chain is also known as "Ritchies Supa IGA". Most Ritchies stores are in Victoria. Ritchies earns about $1.4b each year. 

In recent years, Ritchies has had grown a large amount.  In 2000, there were less than 20 Ritchies stores. Ritchies is now on the top 20 Australian retailers list. Other companies on this list include large companies such as Kmart, Myer and Wesfarmers Bunnings..

References

Other websites 
Official Ritchies Web Site

Supermarkets of Australia
Dame Margaret Natalie Smith  (born 28 December 1934) is a British actress. She is better known as Maggie Smith. She made her stage debut in 1952 and is still performing after 60 years. She has won many awards for acting, both for the stage and for movies, including seven BAFTA Awards (five competitive awards and two special awards including the Bafta Fellowship in 1996), two Academy Awards, two Golden Globes, two Emmy Awards, a Laurence Olivier Award, two SAG Awards and a Tony Award.

Her award winning movies include Othello (1965), The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1969), Travels with My Aunt (1972), California Suite (1978), Clash of the Titans (1981), A Room with a View (1985) and Gosford Park (2001). She has also been in a number of widely-popular movies, including Hook (1991), Sister Act (1992) and as Professor Minerva McGonagall in the Harry Potter movie series. She currently stars in the drama Downton Abbey as Violet Crawley, the Dowager Countess of Grantham, for which she has won an Emmy.
Smith was born in Ilford, Essex. She moved to Oxford at age four and went to Oxford High School.

Personal life
Smith has been married twice. She married actor Robert Stephens on 29 June 1967 at Greenwich. The couple had two sons: actors Chris Larkin (born in 1967) and Toby Stephens (born in 1969). They divorced on 6 May 1974.

She married playwright Beverley Cross on 23 August 1975 at Guildford. He died on 20 March 1998.

In 2007, the Sunday Telegraph''' reported that she had breast cancer. She has made a full recovery.

Filmography
Television and cinema
Theatre roles
 Twelfth Night, Oxford Playhouse, 1952
 He Who Gets Slapped, Clarendon Press Institute, 1952
 Cinderella, Oxford Playhouse, 1952
 Rookery Nook, Oxford Playhouse, 1953
 The Housemaster, Oxford Playhouse, 1953
 Cakes and Ale (revue), Edinburgh Festival, 1953
 The Love of Four Colonels, Oxford Playhouse, 1953
 The Ortolan, Maxton Hall, 1954
 Don’t Listen Ladies, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
 The Government Inspector, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
 The Letter, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
 A Man About The House, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
 On the Mile (revue), Edinburgh Festival, 1954
 Oxford Accents, New Watergate Theatre, London, 1954
 Theatre 1900, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
 Listen to the Wind, Oxford Playhouse, 1954
 The Magistrate, Oxford Playhouse, 1955
 The School For Scandal, Oxford Playhouse, 1955
 New Faces (revue), Ethel Barrymore Theatre, New York, 1956
 Share My Lettuce (revue), Lyric Hammersmith and Comedy Theatre, 1957
 The Stepmother, St. Martin's Theatre, 1958
 The Double Dealer, Old Vic, 1959
As You Like It, Old Vic, 1959
 Richard II, Old Vic, 1959
 The Merry Wives of Windsor, Old Vic, 1959
 What Every Woman Knows, Old Vic, 1960
 Rhinoceros, Strand Theatre, 1960
 Strip the Willow, UK Tour, 1960
 The Rehearsal, Bristol Old Vic and Globe Theatre, 1961
 The Private Ear and The Public Eye, Globe Theatre, 1962
 Mary, Mary, Queen's Theatre, 1963
 The Recruiting Officer, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1963
 Othello, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1964
 The Master Builder, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1964
 Hay Fever, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1964
 Much Ado About Nothing, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1965
 Trelawney of the Wells, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1965
 Miss Julie, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1966
 Black Comedy, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1966
 A Bond Honoured, National Theatre/Old Vic, 1966
 The Country Wife, Chichester Festival Theatre, 1969
 The Beaux Stratagem, National Theatre/Old Vic and Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, 1970
 Hedda Gabler, National Theatre/Cambridge Theatre, 1970
Design For Living, Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, 1971
 Private Lives, Queen's Theatre, 1972
 Peter Pan, London Coliseum, 1973
 Snap, Vaudeville Theatre, 1974
 Private Lives, US tour and 46th Street Theatre, New York, 1975 [Tony nomination]
 The Way of the World, Stratford, Canada, 1976
 Antony and Cleopatra, Stratford, Canada, 1976
 Three Sisters, Stratford, Canada, 1976
 The Guardsman, Stratford, Canada and Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, 1976
 A Midsummer Night's Dream, Stratford, Canada and Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, 1977
 Richard III, Stratford, Canada, 1977
 As You Like It, Stratford, Canada, 1977
 Hay Fever, Stratford, Canada, 1977
 Macbeth, Stratford, Canada, 1978
 Private Lives, Stratford, Canada, 1978
 Night and Day, Phoenix Theatre, Washington D.C. and ANTA Playhouse, New York, 1979 [Tony nomination]
 Much Ado About Nothing, Stratford, Canada, 1980
 The Seagull, Stratford, Canada, 1980
 Virginia, Stratford, Canada, 1980 and Theatre Royal Haymarket, 1981
The Way of the World, Chichester Festival Theatre and Theatre Royal Haymarket, 1984
 The Interpreters, Queen's Theatre, 1985
 The Infernal Machine, Lyric Hammersmith, 1986
 Coming Into Land, National Theatre/Lyttelton, 1987
 Lettice and Lovage, Globe Theatre, 1987
 Lettice and Lovage, Ethel Barrymore Theatre, New York, 1990 [Tony win]
 The Importance of Being Earnest, Aldwych Theatre, 1993
 Three Tall Women, Wyndham's Theatre, 1994 and 1995
 Talking Heads, Chichester Festival Theatre and Comedy Theatre, 1996
 A Delicate Balance, Theatre Royal Haymarket, 1997
 The Lady in the Van, Queen's Theatre, 1999
 The Breath of Life, Theatre Royal Haymarket, 2002
 Talking Heads, Australian tour, 2004
 The Lady From Dubuque'', Theatre Royal Haymarket, 2007
References

Other websites 
 

Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Essex
Actors from Oxfordshire
BAFTA Award winning actors
Emmy Award winning actors
English movie actors
English stage actors
English television actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
People from Ilford
People from Oxford
Tony Award winning actors
1934 births
Living people

Knights and Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Laurence Olivier Award winners
Blood Tsunami is a thrash metal band from Oslo, Norway. The band was formed in 2004.

Other websites 
Official website
Blood Tsunami at Encyclopaedia Metallum

Thrash metal bands
Norwegian heavy metal bands
Oslo
Musical groups established in 2004
2004 establishments in Europe
21st-century establishments in Norway
Bates College is an American liberal arts college in Lewiston, Maine, in the United States.  Bates College was founded in 1855.  1,800 students attend Bates.  Economics, English, Psychology, Biology, and History are popular majors at Bates College.

References

Other websites
Bates College

Colleges and universities in Maine
Oberlin Group of Libraries
Lewiston, Maine
1855 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Maine
Suffolk University is an American university in Boston, Massachusetts.  Suffolk was founded in 1906 by Gleason Archer.  The University has three main schools: Suffolk University Law School, Suffolk University College of Arts and Sciences, and Suffolk University's Sawyer Business School.  The University remains best known for its law school. It is featured annually in U.S. News and Annual Report and the Princeton Review.

Other websites 
Suffolk University

Colleges and universities in Massachusetts
1906 establishments in the United States
1900s establishments in Massachusetts
French literature is the literature of France. It also includes literature that is written in French, even if the writer is not from France. There are countries besides France where French is also spoken. These countries include Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, Senegal, Algeria, and Morocco. Works that are written in French but not from France are called Francophone literature.

History of French literature
The French language grew out of Latin. French is a Romance language, related to other languages like Spanish and Italian. French was also influenced by the Celtic and Frankish languages.
French Nobel Prize in Literature winners 
The following French or French language authors have won a Nobel Prize in Literature:
1901 - Sully Prudhomme (The first Nobel Prize in literature)
1904 - Frédéric Mistral (wrote in Occitan)
1911 - Maurice Maeterlinck (Belgian)
1915 - Romain Rolland
1921 - Anatole France
1927 - Henri Bergson
1937 - Roger Martin du Gard
1947 - André Gide
1952 - François Mauriac
1957 - Albert Camus
1960 - Saint-John Perse
1964 - Jean-Paul Sartre (declined the prize)
1969 - Samuel Beckett (Irish, wrote in English and French)
1985 - Claude Simon
2000 - Gao Xingjian (writes in Chinese)

Selected list of French literary classics
Fiction
Middle Ages
 anonymous - La Chanson de Roland (The Song of Roland)
 Chrétien de Troyes - Yvain ou le Chevalier au Lion (Yvain, the Knight of the Lion), Lancelot, ou le Chevalier à la charrette (Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart)
 various - Tristan et Iseult (Tristan and Iseult)
 anonymous - Lancelot-Graal (Lancelot-Grail), also known as the prose Lancelot or the Vulgate Cycle
 Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung - Roman de la Rose ("Romance of the Rose")
 16th century
 François Rabelais - Pantagruel, Gargantua
 17th century
 Madame de Lafayette - La Princesse de Clèves
 18th century
 Voltaire - Candide
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse
 Denis Diderot - Jacques le fataliste (Jacques the Fatalist)
 19th century
 Stendhal - Le Rouge et le Noir (The Red and the Black), La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma)
 Honoré de Balzac - La Comédie humaine ("The Human Comedy", a novel cycle which includes Père Goriot and Eugénie Grandet)
Gustave Flaubert - Madame Bovary, Salammbô, L'Éducation sentimentale (Sentimental Education)
 Edmond and Jules de Goncourt - Germinie Lacerteux
 Guy de Maupassant - Bel Ami, La Parure (The Necklace), other short stories
 Émile Zola - Les Rougon-Macquart (a novel cycle which includes L'Assommoir, Nana and Germinal)
 20th century
 André Gide - Les Faux-monnayeurs (The Counterfeiters), The Immoralist
 Marcel Proust - À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time)
 André Breton - Nadja
 Louis-Ferdinand Céline - Voyage au bout de la nuit (Journey to the End of the Night)
 Colette - Gigi
 Jean Genet - Notre-Dame-des-Fleurs
 Albert Camus - L'Étranger  (The Stranger)
 Michel Butor - La Modification
 Marguerite Yourcenar - Mémoires d'Hadrien
 Alain Robbe-Grillet - Dans le labyrinthe
 Georges Perec - La vie mode d'emploi
 Robert Pinget - Passacaille
Poetry
 François Villon - Les Testaments
 Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and other poets of "La Pléiade" - poems
 La Fontaine - The Fables
 Victor Hugo - Les Contemplations
 Alphonse de Lamartine - Méditations poétiques
 Charles Baudelaire - Les Fleurs du mal
 Paul Verlaine - Jadis et naguère
 Arthur Rimbaud - Une Saison en Enfer
 Stéphane Mallarmé - Un coup de dés jamais n'abolira le hasard ("A Throw of the Dice Will Never Abolish Chance")
 Guillaume Apollinaire - Alcools
 Francis Ponge
 Raymond Queneau

Theater
 Pierre Corneille - Le Cid
 Molière - Tartuffe, The Misanthrope, Dom Juan
 Jean Racine - Phèdre, Andromaque
 Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de Marivaux
 Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais
 Edmond Rostand - Cyrano de Bergerac
 Jean Giraudoux - The Trojan War Will Not Take Place
 Jean Anouilh - Becket, Antigone
 Jean-Paul Sartre - No Exit
 Samuel Beckett - Waiting for Godot, Endgame
 Eugène Ionesco - The Bald Soprano, Rhinoceros
 Jean Genet - The Maids, The Blacks
Non-fiction
 Michel de Montaigne - The Essays
 Blaise Pascal - Les Pensées
 François de La Rochefoucauld - The Maxims
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, The Social Contract
 François-René de Chateaubriand - Genius of Christianity
 Alexis de Tocqueville - Democracy in America
 Adolphe Theirs - History of the French Revolution, History of the Consulate and Empire
 Jules Michelet - Histoire de France, La Sorcière
 Albert Camus - The Myth of Sisyphus
 Jean-Paul Sartre - Existentialism is a Humanism, Being and Nothingness

Literary criticism 
Roland Barthes
Paul Bénichou
Jacques Derrida
Julia Kristeva
Jacques Lacan
Jean-François Lyotard

Poetry 

Parnassian
Romanticism
Symbolism (arts)
Surrealism

Related pages 
 French culture
 French art
 List of French language authors
 List of French language poets
 French science fiction
 Fantastique

Other websites
Other websites 

 French Language & Literature Resources at Yale University 
 Littérature francophone virtuelle (ClicNet) online texts
 Athena Textes Français online texts
 ABU online texts
 French Literature at Digital Librarian 
Jean-Michel Maulpoix & Co.: Modern and contemporary french literature site maintained by prominent French poet Jean-Michel Maulpoix
 Full text of Roland Barthes' "Death of the Author"
The Treaty of Warsaw () is a treaty between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland. It was signed on December 7, 1970 and ratified by the German Bundestag on May 17, 1972.

In the treaty, both sides committed themselves to nonviolence and accepted the existing border - the Oder-Neisse line. This was a very sensitive topic at the time as Poland was concerned that one day a German government would lay claim to some of the territory Germany lost after World War II. Poland took over this territory to replace eastern Poland, which the Soviet Union had conquered in 1939. A lot of that land was east of the Curzon Line, and Poland kept it after the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921).

Chancellor Willy Brandt was heavily criticized by the conservative CDU/CSU opposition, which indeed were in favour of such a claim, accusing him of abandoning German interests. The Oder-Neisse line was reaffirmed by a reunited Germany in the German-Polish Border Treaty, signed on 14 November 1990.
In the FRG at the time this treaty was signed it was not seen as the last word on the border, because article IV stated that previous treaties like the Potsdam Agreement were not superseded by this latest agreement, so the provisions of this treaty could be changed by a final peace treaty between Germany and the Allies of World War II as provided for in the Potsdam Agreement.

References

Other websites
 Text of the treaty (PDF file, )

1970 in Germany
20th century in Poland
Warsaw 1970
The History of Poland is the history of rather different territories during the past millennium. At one time, in the 16th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the second largest state in Europe, after Russia. At other times there was no separate Polish state at all. Poland got back its independence in 1918, after more than a century of rule by nearby empires, but its borders shifted again after the Second World War.

Formation and early history
Poland began to form into a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty. In 966, Prince Mieszko I got himself and the whole Polish nation christened. 

In the 12th century Poland broke into some smaller states, which were later attacked by Mongol armies in 1241. In 1320 Władysław I became the King of the repaired Poland. His son Casimir III repaired the Polish economy, built new castles and won the war against the Ruthenian dukedom.
The Black Death, which affected many parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351, did not come to Poland.
Beginning with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila, the Jagiellon dynasty (1385–1569) formed the Polish-Lithuanian Union. The partnership proved beneficial for the Poles and Lithuanians, who played a dominant role in one of the most powerful empires in Europe for the next three centuries. The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish Sejm (parliament) in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power from the Monarch to the Sejm. This event marked the beginning of the period known as "Nobility Commonwealth" when the State was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility. The Lublin Union of 1569, established the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in European politics and a vital cultural entity.
Conflict with neighbors
In the 17th century Sweden attacked all of Poland (this was called “the Deluge”). Many wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. During the following 80 years, the government and natione were weaker, making Poland dependent on Russia. Russian tsars took advantage of this by offering money to traitors, who would block new ideas and solutions. Russia, Prussia, and Austria broke Poland into three pieces in 1772, 1793 and 1795, which dissolved the country. Polish people did not like the new kings, and often rebelled.

Constitutional state
In 1791, in an attempt of reform the Sejm of Poland and Lithuania accepted the Constitution of May 3 which was the first modern constitution in Europe and the second (after the United States) on Earth. But that did not help against the partitions of Poland in 1793 and 1795.
Post-Napoleonic period 
Napoleon made another Polish state, “the Duchy of Warsaw”. After the Napoleonic wars, Prussia, Russia, and Austria again split Poland among themselves at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar.

World War II
See also: Polish victims of The Holocaust

During World War I all Western Allies agreed to save Poland. Soon after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland became the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). It got its freedom after several military conflicts; the largest was in 1919-1921 Polish-Soviet War.

On September 1, 1939, Nazi Germany attacked Poland, and the Soviet Union attacked on September 17. Warsaw was defeated on September 28, and was split up into two pieces, one owned by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. The eastern part of the German zone was turned into the German Government area.
The war resumed with Operation Barbarossa.  During the war, about 5.6 million citizens of Poland died, half of them Polish Jews.  Poland also gave the most troops, after the US, the British and the Soviets, to ultimately defeat Nazi Germany. At the war's end, Poland's borders were moved west, pushing the east border to the Curzon line. The west border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland became 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometers (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced millions of people to move: Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews.
After these events, Poland became, for the first time, a real country. There are still many Polish people in the neighboring countries Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries. Most Poles outside of Poland are in the United States, especially in Chicago.
Soviet era
After the Second World War, the Soviet Union put a Communist government in Poland, and the country was named the People's Republic of Poland. In 1989 Solidarity - a political group led by Lech Wałęsa - helped defeat the communist government in Poland.

Post-communist and the EU
During the early 1990s the country turned its economy into one of the most solid in Central Europe. There were many improvements in human rights, such as free speech, democracy, etc. In 1991 Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined NATO in 1999 also with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Polish voters then voted to join the European Union in a vote in June 2003. The country joined the EU on May 1, 2004.

Other websites 

 A History of East Central Europe by Oscar Halecki 
 History of Poland, in paintings
 History of Poland on Historycy.org forum
The term "Polish-Lithuanian union" means a development from the personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, allso called the "Republic of the Two Nations", in 1569 and eventually to the creation of a short-lived  state in 1791.

The most important acts in the process of union were:

 1385 - Union of Krewo - a personal union;
 1401 - Union of Vilnius and Radom;
 1413 - Union of Horodło;
 1432 (1432-34) - Union of Grodno;
 1499 - Union of Kraków and Vilnius;
 1501 - Union of Mielnik;
 July 1, 1569 - Union of Lublin - creation of the Republic of the Two Nations;
 May 3, 1791 - Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791:  the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were abolished, and a common state was created in their place.

History of Poland
History of Lithuania
A personal union is a relationship of two or more sovereign states, which, through law, share the same person as their head of state. 

Personal unions can begin for very different reasons.  In many cases a princess who is already married to a king becomes pregnant, and their child inherits the crown of both countries.  However, a personal union sometimes was seen as a means against uprisings if a state wants an annexation of an other state.  The unions can be written down in a constitution, which clearly expresses that both states shall share the same person as head of state.  When that is not the case, a personal union can easily be broken.

Some examples

Andorra 
 Partial personal union with France since 1607 (the French president, and formerly the king of France, is one of the Heads of State in Andorra, the other co-head of state is the Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell, Catalonia, Spain.)

Belgium 
Personal union with the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908, when it annexed the Congo Free State.
Bohemia 
 Personal union with Poland 1003 - 1004 (Bohemia occupied by Poles)
 Personal union with Poland 1300 - 1306 and Hungary 1301 - 1305 (Wenceslas II and Wenceslas III)
 Personal union with Luxembourg 1313 - 1378 and 1383 - 1388
 Personal union with Hungary 1419-1439 (Sigismund of Luxemburg and his son in law) and 1490 - 1526 (Jagellon dynasty)
 Personal union with Austria and Hungary 1526 - 1918 (except years 1619 - 1620)

Brandenburg 

 Personal union with the Duchy of Prussia from 1618, when Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia died without male heirs and his son in law John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg became ruler of both countries. Brandenburg and Prussia maintained separate governments and seats of power in Berlin and Königsberg respectively until 1701, when Frederick William I consolidated them into one government.

Congo Free State 
Personal union with Belgium from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium annexed it.
Australia 
 Since 1941, upon the ratification of the Westminster Statute in 1942 - which ended the British Parliament's ability to legislate for Australia. The Australia Act of 1986, amongst other things, removed the Privy Council as the last court of Appeal in the Australian Judicial System. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom serves, independently, as Queen of Australia, through her Vice-Regal Representative, the Governor-General, nominated by the Prime Minister.
Ireland 
 Personal union with the Kingdom of England from 1541, when the Irish Parliament proclaimed King Henry VIII of England to be also King of Ireland, to 1707 when the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland both united by the Treaty of Union and were replaced by the Kingdom of Great Britain.
 Personal union with the Kingdom of Scotland from 1603, when King James VI of Scotland became King of England and King of Ireland to 1707, when the kingdom of England and the kingdom of Scotland united and were replaced by the Kingdom of Great Britain. 
 Personal union with the Kingdom of Great Britain from 1707 to 1800 when the two kingdoms were merged into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 
Personal union with Hanover from 1714 to 1800. 
 As a Commonwealth realm from 1922-1936/1949, when it became a republic (see Irish head of state from 1936-1949).
Denmark 
 Personal union with Norway from 1380 to 1814 (the Norwegian Riksråd was abolished in 1536)
 The Kalmar Union with Norway and Sweden from 1389 to 1521 (sometimes defunct)
 The kings of Denmark at the same time being dukes of Schleswig and Holstein 1460-1864. (Holstein being part of the Holy Roman Empire, now part of Germany)
 Personal union with Iceland from 1918 to 1944 when Iceland became a republic