Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Elements of Style is an American English how-to-do-it writing style guide. It lists brief guidelines for writing simple English. The book ran to many reprints. 

The original was composed by William Strunk Jr. in 1918, and was published by Harcourt in 1920. It had eight "elementary rules of usage", ten "elementary principles of composition", "a few matters of form", a list of 49 "words and expressions commonly misused", and a list of 57 "words often misspelled". 

E. B. White much enlarged and revised the book for publication by Macmillan, in 1959. That was the first edition of the so-called "Strunk & White", which Time called in 2011 "one of the 100 best and most influential books written in English since 1923".

The first printing of the 1959 edition sold about two million copies. In the following four decades, more than ten million copies of the three printings (1959 edition, 1972 edition, and 1988 edition) have been sold.

References
References 

Style guides
1920 books
Reference works
1959 books
1972 books
1988 books
The amniotic sac  holds a fetus while it is developing during pregnancy.  The amniotic sac is filled with amniotic fluid, which protects the fetus.

Development
The amniotic sac starts to form and fill with amniotic fluid just days after a woman gets pregnant.  At first, the amniotic fluid is made from the mother's plasma (the liquid part of her blood).

At first, the amniotic fluid is made mostly of water with electrolytes (salts).  However, by the 12th to the 14th week of pregnancy, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, phospholipids, and urea are all in the amniotic fluid.  These things help the fetus grow.

As the fetus gets bigger, more amniotic fluid gets created.  By the time the baby is born, there is about one liter of amniotic fluid in the amniotic sac.

Purpose
Purpose

The amniotic fluid
The amniotic fluid is very important in protecting the fetus and helping the fetus grow:
 It acts like a cushion, so the fetus does not hit the side of the mother's abdomen
 It lets the fetus float and move around, which helps the muscles and bones grow
 It keeps the fetus warm
 It contains nutrients that help the fetus grow

After the fetus is about four months old, when the kidneys start to work, the amniotic fluid serves another important purpose.  The fetus swallows amniotic fluid.  This fluid passes through the fetus's digestive system and urinary system and gets urinated out into the amniotic fluid.  This helps the fetus "practice" swallowing, digesting, and urinating before being born.

The amniotic sac

The amniotic sac has two layers, which have two different jobs.  The inside layer holds in the fetus and the amniotic fluid.  The outside layer attaches to the umbilical cord, so that blood and oxygen from the mother can get through the amniotic sac and to the fetus.
Testing

A sample of amniotic fluid can show whether a fetus has certain genetic disorders or infections.  A test called an amniocentesis can take a sample of amniotic fluid with a needle and study it for problems.

Birth
When a woman starts to give birth, the amniotic sac should break and the amniotic fluid will leak out the woman's vagina.  This is often called the time when a woman's "water breaks."  Doctors call it "rupture of membranes."

Once the baby is born, the amniotic sac is pushed out of the woman's vagina in the afterbirth, along with the placenta.

References

Anatomy of the female reproductive system
Biological reproduction
In the Domain Name System, an A record is something that changes a domain name into a 32-bit IP address (or IPv4 address). A domain can have many A records, for example, the domain example.com could have an A record for www.example.com that points to the IP 127.0.0.1, and another A record for mail.example.com that points to the IP 127.0.0.2.

Related pages
AAAA record
MX record

Other websites
The domain name RFC

Internet protocols
In the Domain Name System, an AAAA record is something that changes a domain name into a 128-bit IP address (or IPv6 address). A domain can have many AAAA records, for example, the domain example.com could have an AAAA record for www.example.com that points to the IP 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652, and another AAAA record for mail.example.com that points to the IP 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9653.

Related pages
A record
MX record

Other websites
The domain name RFC

Internet protocols
Aizawl is the capital city of the state of Mizoram in India. It has a population of 293,416 according to the census of 2011. It is the largest city in the state. The population of Aizawl is mostly ethnic Mizo people. The people are mostly Christian.

Aizawl is located in the northern part of Mizoram. It is 1,132 metres (3715 ft) above sea level. In the summer the temperatures range from , and in the winter .

References

Other websites 

 Aizawl Official Website

Mizoram
Capital cities in India
On May 23, 1957, in Cleveland, Ohio, three police officers arrived at the home of a Miss Mapp, the appellant. The officers said they had information a bombing suspect was in the house and demanded entry. After telephoning her attorney, she refused to admit them without a search warrant. The officers watched the house until more officers arrived. Three hours later and with four more police officers, they again demanded entrance to the home. When Mapp did not come to the door immediately, a door was forced open and the police entered. At about the same time, Mapp's attorney arrived, but was refused permission to see his client or to enter the home. When Mapp was halfway down the stairs she demanded to see the search warrant. A piece of paper was flashed at her which she grabbed and hid on her person. The officers grabbed her to physically recover the paper. The paper was not a warrant. The police did not find the bombing suspect. However, they did find books and photographs they said were sexually explicit
. At trial, the prosecution did not produce a search warrant or prove one was ever issued. Mapp was convicted of violating Ohio state law prohibiting “lewd, lascivious, or obscene material.” She was sentenced to one to seven years in prison. Mapp appealed the conviction based on her First Amendment rights.
Ohio Supreme Court 
The Supreme Court of Ohio heard the case. The court believed an argument could be made for reversing the case because of the way the evidence was obtained. But they did not determine the evidence was taken from Mapp's person by the use of brutal force against the defendant. They added that even if the search was made without authority, it could be used at the state trial. They ruled the Fourteenth Amendment does not forbid the admission of evidence gained by unreasonable search and seizure. Therefore, her appeal was denied.
US Supreme Court decision 
In their decision, the court ruled in favor of Mapp and overturned her conviction. In the 6-3 decision, the court found the states were also required to exclude evidence seized in violation of a person's Fourth Amendment rights. They stated that any evidence obtained in searches and seizures that violated the Constitution were not admissible in state courts. Otherwise, there would be no right against unreasonable search and seizure. Associate justice Tom C. Clark delivered the majority opinion.

Notes

References

Other websites 
 The Impact of Mapp v Ohio 
 Dissenting Opinion

United States Supreme Court cases
Ottaplakkal Neelakandan Velu Kurup (27 May 1931 – 13 February 2016),  popularly known as O. N. V. Kurup or simply  O. N. V., was an Indian poet and lyricist. He won Jnanpith Award, the highest literary award in India in 2007. He was born in Chavara, Kollam.

Kurup wrote lyrics for music used in Malayalam cinema. He has written a lot of lyrics for dramas and television serials also. He received the awards Padma Shri in 1998 and Padma Vibhushan in 2011, the fourth and second highest civilian honours from the Government of India. In 2007 he was given an Honorary Doctorate by University of Kerala, Trivandrum. O. N. V. was known for his leftist political views. He was the Left Democratic Front (LDF) candidate in the Thiruvananthapuram constituency for the Lok Sabha elections in 1989.

Kurup died of respiratory failure on 13 February 2016 in Trivandrum, Kerala. He was aged 84.

References

1931 births
2016 deaths
Politicians from Kerala
Indian poets
Writers from Kerala
Bořek Šípek (14 June 1949 – 13 February 2016) was a known Czech architect and designer. He was born in Prague. Šípek was known for his individual, unusual, colorful and rich style. He experiments with unexpected and often weird shapes. Šípek has been called the father of "neo-baroque". His architectural works and other designs are known worldwide.

He was the architect of Prague Castle under the presidency of Václav Havel, and designed Havel's Place. Šípek was knight of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. He had three sons, one of them with Leona Machálková.

Šípek died on 13 February 2016 from cancer in Prague. He was aged 66.

References

1949 births
2016 deaths
Cancer deaths in the Czech Republic
Czech people
Architects
People from Prague
Joachim Peiper, (30 January 1915 in Berlin – 14 July 1976 in Traves, Haute-Saône), also known as Jochen Peiper, was a LSSAH military officer of Nazi Germany during World War II. 

He was a field officer of the Waffen-SS (he had the rank of SS-Standartenführer der Waffen-SS, comparable with the rank of colonel). He was personal adjutant to the commander of the Schutzstaffel (SS), Heinrich Himmler. He held this position between November 1940 and August 1941. Peiper fought on both the Eastern Front against the Red Army and the Western Front against the Western Allies. He won the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords for bravery on the battlefield and his leadership skills. By 1945, he was in command of a regiment of the Waffen-SS. He was the Waffen-SS's youngest regimental colonel.
Peiper was convicted of war crimes committed in Belgium. He was imprisoned for almost 12 years. He was also accused of war crimes in Italy. However, Italian and German courts decided that there was not enough evidence. After his release from prison, Peiper worked for both Porsche and Volkswagen. He then moved to France. In France he translated books from English to German under the pseudonym Rainer Buschmann. Peiper was murdered in France in July 1976. He was shot by unknown people who then burned his house to the ground using Molotov cocktails.

Other websites 

1915 births
1976 deaths
German colonels
Assassinated German people
German prisoners
German war criminals
People from Berlin
SS officers
Unsolved murders
Waffen-SS people
Mexico is a country in North America.

Mexico may also refer to:

Geography

Mexico
Mexico City (México, D.F.; Ciudad de México; Distrito Federal)
Mexico (state) (Estado Libre y Soberano de México; México)

United States
New Mexico
Mexico, Illinois
Mexico, Indiana
Mexico, Kentucky
Mexico, Maine
Mexico, Allegany County, Maryland
Mexico, Carroll County, Maryland
Mexico, Missouri
Mexico (town), New York
Mexico (village), New York
Mexico, Ohio
Mexico, Juniata County, Pennsylvania
Mexico, Montour County, Pennsylvania
Mexico, Texas

Philippines
Mexico, Pampanga, a municipality in the Philippines

Related pages
In the Domain Name System, an MX record is something that a domain uses to tell people and software the IP address of an email server. There can be more than one MX record for a domain. When there is more than one record, DNS uses a priority list that tells whatever is looking up the records to try the IP addresses in a certain order. For example, example.com might have a set of MX records that say for mail.example.com to try 127.0.0.5 first. If that try fails, another record will say to try 127.0.0.6. This behavior makes email more reliable.

Related pages
A record
AAAA record

Other websites
The domain name RFC

References

Internet protocols
An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a safety system that prevents the wheels of a vehicle (for example car, motorcycle) from locking up when it is strongly braked. The goal is to keep the vehicle controllable, because a wheeled vehicle can only be safely steered when its wheels are not skidding.

Automotive technologies
Milli Gazette (MG) is an English-language newspaper in India. It is a compact newspaper. It describes itself as the leading English newspaper for Indian Muslims. Feature articles generally cover global news concerning Muslims, focusing especially on Indian Muslim issues.

References

Other websites
Official website
Milli Gazette E-paper
Google Directory Listing of Newspapers from India 

English-language newspapers published in India
Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States are the members of the Supreme Court of the United States other than the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of Associate Justices is ruled by the United States Congress and is currently set at eight by the Judiciary Act of 1869.

How they are nominated
The President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint... Judges of the supreme Court." Although the Constitution refers to them as "Judges of the Supreme Court," the title actually used is "Associate Justice," introduced in the Judiciary Act of 1789. Associate justices were traditionally styled "Mr. Justice" in court opinions, but the title was shortened to "Justice" in 1980, a year before the first female justice was appointed.

Duties
Each of the Justices of the Supreme Court has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it; the Chief Justice's vote counts no more than that of any other Justice.
Succession process
Under 28 USC 3, when the Chief Justice is unable to discharge his functions, or that office is vacant, his duties are carried out by the most senior Associate Justice until the disability or the vacancy ends.

Current justices
The current Associate Justices are (in order of seniority):

References

Other websites
Historic collection of Supreme Court decisions and biographies indexed by judge name
John Joseph Lattner (October 24, 1932 – February 12, 2016) was an American football player.  While playing college football for the University of Notre Dame, he won the Heisman Trophy in 1953.  He also won the Maxwell Award twice, in 1952 and 1953.  Lattner played professionally for one season in the National Football League (NFL), with the Pittsburgh Steelers in 1954. He was born in Chicago, Illinois.

Lattner died in Oak Park, Illinois on February 12, 2016 from lung cancer. He was aged of 83.

References

1932 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from lung cancer
Cancer deaths in Illinois
Pittsburgh Steelers players
Sportspeople from Chicago
Heisman Trophy winners
Judicial interpretation is an explanation of how the judiciary interprets the law. In Common law, judicial interpretation is made up of guidelines that come from case law rather than from a legislature. These represent all previous judicial decisions. In constitutional law, there are different methods of judicial interpretation. These include:

 Textualism is when judges look at the actual language of more than anything else. This method can be hampered when the language of the Constitution itself is ambiguous. This is also called literalism.

 Strict constructionism is when a judge interprets the text only as it is spoken. Once a clear meaning has been established, there is no need for further analysis. Judges should avoid drawing inferences from previous statutes or the constitution and instead focus on exactly what was written.
Founders' Intent is when judges try to gauge the intentions of the authors of the Constitution. Problems can arise when judges try to determine which particular Founders or Framers to consult. It is also a problem to try to determine what they meant based on often sparse and incomplete documentation. This is also called original intent.

 Originalism is when judges try to apply the "original" meanings of various constitutional provisions.

 Balancing happens when judges weigh one set of interests or rights against an opposing set. They typically used to make rulings in First Amendment cases.

 Prudentialism discourages judges from setting broad rules for possible future cases. It advises courts to play a limited role.

 Doctrinalism considers how various parts of the Constitution have been "shaped by the Court's own jurisprudence".

 Precedent is when judges decide a case by looking to the decision of a previous and similar case. They find a rule or principle in the earlier case to guide the current case.
Structuralism is a method judges use by finding the meaning of a particular constitutional principle only by "reading it against the larger constitutional document or context."

References 

Legal terms
United States Constitution
The incorporation of the Bill of Rights (also called incorporation for short) is how American courts have applied portions of the U.S. Bill of Rights to the states. This has been done through the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.  Before 1925, the Bill of Rights was held only to apply to the federal government. Under the incorporation doctrine, most provisions of the Bill of Rights now also apply to the state and local governments.
Prior to the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment and what became the incorporation doctrine, the Supreme Court in 1833 held in Barron v. Baltimore that the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government, not the states. Even years after the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court in United States v. Cruikshank (1876) still held that the First and Second Amendment did not apply to state governments. However, beginning in the 1920s, a series of Supreme Court decisions interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment to "incorporate" most portions of the Bill of Rights, making these portions, for the first time, enforceable against the state governments. This process has been called selective incorporation.

References 

United States Constitution
This is the Results of the first round of 2015 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A.

Results

1st round

5th round

8th round

9th round

11th round

12th round

15th round

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Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
2015 in association football
Padmanabhan Srikanth "Sri" Srinivasan (born February 23, 1967) is an American jurist. He is the United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit since May 2013. 

He was confirmed by the United States Senate by a vote of 97–0 on May 23, 2013. Before being confirmed as a judge he was the Principal Deputy Solicitor General of the United States. He has argued 25 cases before the U.S. Supreme Court. He was also a lecturer at Harvard Law School.

Srinivasan also is known for having represented former Enron executive Jeffrey Skilling in his appeal before the U.S. Supreme Court, Skilling v. United States (2010).

Early life
Srinivasan was born in Chandigarh, India on February 23, 1967. He was raised in Lawrence, Kansas. He played basketball at Lawrence High School. He studied at Stanford University.

Career
Career

Federal judicial service (2013-present)
On June 11, 2012, President Barack Obama nominated Srinivasan to the seat on the D.C. Circuit. He was nominated again on January 3, 2013, after the Senate adjourned.

His Senate confirmation hearing on April 10, 2013, was uneventful. His nomination was reported to the floor of the Senate on May 16, 2013, by a unanimous vote of 18 for and 0 against. A final vote on his nomination took place on May 23, 2013, where he was confirmed 97-0. He received his commission on May 24, 2013. He received the oath of office from Chief Judge Merrick Garland on June 18, 2013.

2016 Supreme Court speculation
On February 13, 2016, just hours after the death of Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia, there were rumors being published in the media that Srinivasan was the most likely nominee President Barack Obama was going to put forward to replace Scalia.

On March 16, 2016, Obama nominated Merrick Garland to replace Scalia.
Personal life
Srinivasan lives in Arlington, Virginia.  He has been married to Carla J. Garrett.

References

1967 births
Living people
Naturalized citizens of the United States
American judges
Politicians from Kansas
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
John Claggett Danforth (born September 5, 1936) is a retired American politician. He began his career in 1968 as the Attorney General of Missouri. He served three terms as a United States Senator from Missouri. He is considered a moderate and conciliator. He has been periodically called out of retirement by both of the major political parties to fill diplomatic roles. In 2004, he served briefly as United States Ambassador to the United Nations.

Danforth is an ordained Episcopal priest. He presided over the state funeral of Ronald (2004) and Nancy Reagan (2016).

Family and education 
Danforth was born in St. Louis, Missouri. He is the son of Dorothy (Claggett) and Donald Danforth. He is the grandson of William H. Danforth, founder of Purina Mills. His father was the CEO of its successor, Ralston Purina. Danforth's brother, Dr. William Henry Danforth, is former chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis.
Danforth attended St. Louis Country Day School for high school. He eventually went to Princeton University where he received his bachelor's degree in 1958. While in college Danforth joined Lambda Chi Alpha, a fraternity. He then attended law and divinity graduate schools at Yale University. He was employed a short time at the New York law firm Davis Polk & Wardwell.

References 

1936 births
Living people
United States senators from Missouri
United States Ambassadors to the United Nations
Politicians from St. Louis, Missouri
Republican Party (United States) politicians
Leo Ehlen (20 May 1953 – 10 February 2016) was a Dutch football player. He was born in Broeksittard, Limburg (Netherlands). He was a defender and defensive midfielder. Ehlen started his professional career with Fortuna SC and joined Roda JC in 1975. With Roda JC, he played alongside Dick Nanninga, Pierre Vermeulen and Theo de Jong. He was nicknamed the Neeskens of Roda after Johan Neeskens. Ehlen scored 6 goals in 233 official matches for the club. He left them after nine years for a short time with Belgian team Waterschei.

Ehlen died in Sittard, Netherlands on 10 February 2016 from kidney disease. He was aged 62.

References

1953 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from kidney disease
Dutch footballers
People from Sittard-Geleen
Sportspeople from Limburg (Netherlands)
Star City is a fictional city in DC Comics. It is the home of Queen Industries, owned by millionaire Oliver Queen. Queen is the Green Arrow, a trained archer. He protects this city.

Fictional locations
DC Comics
YouTube Premium, previously known as Music Key or YouTube Red is a premium subscription service to YouTube. It allows users to watch videos without any advertisements and allows users to download videos to their mobile devices (but not desktop computers). It costs $11 USD per month as of April 2020, with a free trial that is given new users. 

YouTube Premium was originally launched on November 14, 2014, as Music Key, offering advertisement-free streaming of music videos from participating labels on YouTube and Google Play Music. The service was then revised and relaunched as YouTube Red on October 31, 2015, expanding its scope to offer advertisement-free access to all YouTube videos, as opposed to just music.
YouTube announced the rebranding of the service as YouTube Premium on May 17, 2018, alongside the return of a separate, YouTube Music subscription service. Later in the year, it was reported that YouTube was planning to make some of the original content associated with the service available on an ad-supported basis.

Features
A YouTube Premium subscription allows users to watch videos on YouTube without advertisements across the website and its mobile apps, including the dedicated YouTube Music, YouTube Gaming, and YouTube Kids apps and services. Through the apps, users can also save videos to their device for offline viewing, play their audio in the background, and in picture-in-picture mode on Android Oreo and newer. YouTube Premium also offers original content that is exclusive to subscribers, which is created and published by YouTube's largest creators.

References

Other websites
 

YouTube
In the United States, a presidential primary is a series of elections and caucuses within a political party. They are held to choose the party's candidate for the presidential election. This process was never included in the United States Constitution; it was created over time by the political parties. Some states hold only primary elections, some hold only caucuses, and others use a combination of both.

These primaries and caucuses are staggered generally between either late-January or early-February, and mid-June before the presidential election in November. The primary elections are run by state and local governments.

Other websites
 Fairvote.org
Latrobe  is a city in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania in the United States and part of the Pittsburgh metropolitan area. The city population was 8,060 as of the 2020 census (9,265 in 1990). Latrobe was incorporated as a borough in 1854, and as a city in 1999.

References

Other websites
 City of Latrobe website
 Greater Latrobe Community Network

Cities in Pennsylvania
1854 establishments in the United States
1850s establishments in Pennsylvania
Viggo Reinholdt Rivad (3 July 1922 – 8 February 2016) was a Danish photographer. His career began in 1946, and he went on to win many competitions in the 1950s and 1960s. He was born in Nørrebro, Denmark. 

Around 1960, he adopted his so-called "essay approach". The essay approach uses a series of photographs to tell a story. This resulted in a series of related photographs such as "Et farvel" (1962) and "Laurits" (1971). Rivad also earned a living as a taxi driver. He was a quiet, dedicated photographer, concentrating on disadvantaged areas and people on the edges of society. His humanitarian messages were a result of his anger and concern for society's outcasts.

Rivad died in Copenhagen, Denmark of complications from a stroke on 8 February 2016. He was 93 years old.

References

1922 births
2016 deaths
Danish artists
Photographers
Trifon Marinov Ivanov (; 27 July 1965 – 13 February 2016) was a Bulgarian international footballer. He played as a defender.

Ivanov played his first game for Bulgaria in 1988. He earned 76 caps and scored 6 goals over a ten-year international career. He played in the 1994 and 1998 FIFA World Cups, as well as the 1996 UEFA European Championship.

Ivanov died of a heart attack on 13 February 2016 in Samovodene, Bulgaria. He was aged 50.

References

1965 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Bulgarian footballers
Bulgaria at the 1994 FIFA World Cup
Bulgaria at UEFA Euro 1996
Bulgaria at the 1998 FIFA World Cup
Competition is an interaction between organisms or species in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another. According to evolutionary theory, this competition within and between species for resources plays a role in natural selection.

Competition occurs when  organisms or species need or use the same resources.  Common resources are food, water and territory.

Two species in competition often continue long-term in the same environment. This suggests they each have an "edge" which the other does not. In may cases being there first is a big edge. For example, plants consume nitrogen by absorbing it into their roots, making nitrogen unavailable to nearby plants. 

Species in competition may directly interfere with each other. An example of this can be seen between the ant Novomessor cockerelli and red harvester ants, where the first interferes with the ability of the second to forage. It does this by plugging the entrances to their rival's colonies with small rocks.
Related pages 
Struggle for existence
Natural selection

References 

Biological competition
Ottoman Turkish , or the Ottoman language ( ) (also known as   or  , "Turkish"), is a type of Turkish language that was used in the Ottoman Empire between the 13th and 20th centuries. It was heavily influenced by Arabic and Persian. It was written in the Arabic and Persian alphabets. When the Ottoman Empire was at its most powerful, Arabic and Persian words made up to 88% of its vocabulary. Words of Arabic origins heavily outnumbered native Turkish words.

Related pages 
 Turkish language
 Turkic languages

References

Turkic languages
Ottoman Empire
This is the Results of the second round of 2015 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A.

Results

20th round

21st round

22nd round

23th round

26th round

27th round

29th round

31th round

34th round

35th round

36th round

37th round

38th round 

Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
2015 in association football
Muriel Casals i Couturier (April 6, 1945 – February 14, 2016) was a French-born Spanish economist. She was an emeritus professor in the Department of Economics and Historical Economics in the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB). She was also vicedean of International Relations and Cooperation between 2002 and 2005.

She specialized in industrial reconversions, the history of economic thought and European economics. Casals was also the representative of the UAB in the Xarxa Vives d'Universitats (Live University Networks) between 2002 and 2009. She had been a visiting professor at the University of Edinburgh, the London School of Economics and the University of Wales at Bangor. She was born in Avignon, France to Spanish parents.

Couturier died on February 14, 2016 in Barcelona. She had been injured after being hit by a bicycle. She was aged 70.

References

1945 births
2016 deaths
French economists
Spanish scientists
People from Avignon
People from Barcelona
Autonomous University of Barcelona faculty
Eric Reginald Lubbock, 4th Baron Avebury, PC (29 September 1928 – 14 February 2016) was an English politician.

He served as the Liberal Member of Parliament for Orpington from 1962 to 1970. He served in the House of Lords, having inherited the title of Baron Avebury in 1971. In 1999, when most hereditary peers were removed from the House of Lords, he was elected by his fellow Liberal Democrats to remain. When he died, he was the longest-serving Liberal Democrat peer.

Lubbock died on 14 February 2016 in London from leukemia. He was aged 87.

References

1928 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from leukemia
Cancer deaths in London
Politicians from London
The Liberal Party was a liberal political party. It was one of the two big political parties in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th century.

The party came from an alliance of Whigs and free-trade Peelites and radicals in the 1850s. In the next 50 years it formed four governments under William Gladstone. 

The party split over the issue of Irish Home Rule. It returned to power in 1906 with a landslide victory. They introduced the welfare reforms that created a basic British welfare state. 

H. H. Asquith was Liberal Prime Minister between 1908 and 1916. He was followed by David Lloyd George, whose premiership lasted until 1922. At that time the coalition the party had formed with the Conservative Party in World War I came to an end.

By the end of the 1920s, the Labour Party had replaced the Liberals as the Conservatives' main rival. The party went into decline. By the 1950s, it won no more than six seats at general elections.
Apart from notable by-election victories, the party's fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP-Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 1981. At the 1983 General Election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, but only 23 of the 650 seats it contested. At the 1987 General Election, it won less than 23% of the vote.

The Liberal and Social Democratic parties merged in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats. 

Prominent intellectuals associated with the Liberal Party include the philosopher John Stuart Mill, the economist John Maynard Keynes and social planner William Beveridge.

References 

 
Liberal parties
1859 establishments in the United Kingdom
1988 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
The following is a partial list of landmark court decisions in the United States.  Landmark decisions establish a significant new legal precedent or concept. They can also substantially change the interpretation of existing law. Such a decision may settle the law in more than one way:
 By distinguishing a new principle that refines a prior principle. This way it can depart from prior practice without violating the rule of stare decisis.
 Or, by establishing a test case (a case used to set a precedent) or a measurable standard that can be applied by courts in future decisions.
In the United States, landmark court decisions come most frequently from the Supreme Court. Sometimes United States courts of appeals make such decisions, particularly if the Supreme Court chooses not to review the case or if it adopts the holding of the lower court. Although many cases from state supreme courts are significant in developing the law of that state, only a few are so radically different that they announce standards that many other state courts then choose to follow.

Individual rights

Discrimination based on race or ethnicity 
The Supreme Court has dealt with many cases of discrimination based on race or ethnicity. This is a partial list of such cases.
Basic rights 
Dred Scott v. Sandford, , People of African descent that are slaves or were slaves and subsequently freed, along with their descendants, cannot be United States citizens. For that reason, they cannot sue in federal court. Also, slavery cannot be prohibited in the western territories before they become states. After the Civil War, this decision was voided by the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution.
Civil Rights Cases, , Neither the Thirteenth nor the Fourteenth Amendment empower Congress to safeguard blacks against the actions of private individuals.
 Korematsu v. United States, , President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 is constitutional; therefore, American citizens of Japanese descent can be interned and deprived of their basic constitutional rights.  This case featured the first application of strict scrutiny to racial discrimination by the government.
Hernandez v. Texas , Mexican Americans and all other racial and national groups in the United States have equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The protection of the 14th Amendment covers any racial, national and ethnic groups of the United States for which discrimination can be proved.
Garner v. Louisiana, , Peaceful sit-in demonstrators protesting segregationist policies cannot be arrested under a state's "disturbing the peace" laws.
Plessy v. Ferguson,  State laws requiring segregated facilities for blacks and whites are constitutional under the doctrine of separate but equal.  The ruling  held for nearly 60 years. (Partially overruled by Brown v. Board of Education (1954))
Morgan v. Virginia,  A Virginia law that enforces segregation on interstate buses is unconstitutional.
Henderson v. United States,  The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 makes it unlawful for a railroad that engages in interstate commerce to subject any particular person to any undue or unreasonable prejudice or disadvantage in any respect whatsoever.
Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company, 64 MCC 769 (1955) According to the Interstate Commerce Commission, the non-discrimination language of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 bans racial segregation on buses traveling across state lines. The Supreme Court later adopted and expanded this decision in Boynton v. Virginia (1960).
Browder v. Gayle, 142 F. Supp. 707 (M.D. Ala. 1956) Bus segregation is unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Boynton v. Virginia,  Racial segregation in all forms of public transportation is illegal under the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887.
Segregation (housing) 
 Shelley v. Kraemer,  Courts may not enforce racial covenants on real estate.
 Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.,  The federal government may prohibit discrimination in housing by private parties under the Civil Rights Act of 1968.
 Regents of the University of California v. Bakke,  Race-based set-asides in educational opportunities violate the Equal Protection Clause. This decision leaves the door open for the possibility of some use of race in admission decisions.

Segregation (schools)
Brown v. Board of Education,  Segregated schools in the states are unconstitutional because they violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. At least as applied to public schools, the court overruled Plessy v. Ferguson. A year later in: 
 Brown v. Board of Education II, , the court ordered school integration for all states "with all deliberate speed." 
Bolling v. Sharpe,  Segregated schools in the District of Columbia violate the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment.
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education,  The busing of students to promote racial integration in public schools is constitutional.
Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña,  Race-based discrimination, including discrimination in favor of minorities (affirmative action), must pass strict scrutiny.
Grutter v. Bollinger,  A narrowly tailored use of race in student admission decisions may be permissible under the Equal Protection Clause because a diverse student body is beneficial to all students. This was hinted at in Regents v. Bakke (1978).
Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action,  A Michigan state constitutional amendment that bans affirmative action does not violate the Equal Protection Clause.
Voting rights 
Smith v. Allwright,  This case looked at the Texas Democratic Party's policy of preventing black people from voting in primary elections. The court decided this practice violated the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. 
Gomillion v. Lightfoot,  Electoral district boundaries drawn only to disenfranchise blacks violate the Fifteenth Amendment.
Other issues 
 New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.,  Persons having a direct or indirect interest in terms and conditions of employment have the liberty to advertise and disseminate facts and information with respect to terms and conditions of employment, and peacefully to persuade others to concur in their views respecting an employer's practices.
 Gates v. Collier, 501 F. 2d 1291 (5th Cir. 1974) This decision brought an end to the trusty system and flagrant inmate abuse at the Mississippi State Penitentiary in Parchman, Mississippi. It was the first body of law developed in the Fifth Circuit that abolished racial segregation in prisons and held that a variety of forms of corporal punishment against prisoners is considered cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment.

Batson v. Kentucky,  Prosecutors may not use peremptory challenges to dismiss jurors based on their race.
Discrimination based on sexual orientation 
Bowers v. Hardwick,  A Georgia law that criminalizes certain acts of private sexual conduct between homosexual persons does not violate the Fourteenth Amendment. (Overruled by Lawrence v. Texas (2003))
Romer v. Evans,  A Colorado state constitutional amendment that prevents homosexuals and bisexuals from being able to obtain protections under the law is a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Lawrence v. Texas,  A Texas law that criminalizes consensual same-sex sexual conduct furthers no legitimate state interest and violates homosexuals' right to privacy under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This decision invalidates all of the remaining sodomy laws in the United States.
Goodridge v. Department of Public Health, 440 Mass. 309 (2003) The denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples violates provisions of the state constitution guaranteeing individual liberty and equality. It is not rationally related to a legitimate state interest. This was the first state court decision in which same-sex couples won the right to marry.
United States v. Windsor,  Ruled on Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act, which defines—for federal law purposes—the terms "marriage" and "spouse" to apply only to marriages between one man and one woman. The court ruled the law deprives same-sex couples, who are legally married under state law, of their Fifth Amendment guarantee of equal protection. The federal government must recognize same-sex marriages that have been approved by the states.
Obergefell v. Hodges,  In Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, and Tennessee, groups of same-sex couples sued over their right to marry. They said the states violated the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment. The court agreed and held the right to marry is a fundamental right protected by the Constitution.
Griswold v. Connecticut,  A Connecticut law that criminalizes the use of contraception by married couples is unconstitutional because all Americans have a constitutionally protected right to privacy. This interpretation of a constitutional right to privacy led to the more famous case brought by Jane Roe against prosecutor Henry Wade.
Eisenstadt v. Baird,  A Massachusetts law that criminalizes the use of contraception by unmarried couples violates the right to privacy established in Griswold as well as the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Roe v. Wade,  The court ruled that a state law that banned abortions (except to save the life of the mother) was unconstitutional. The ruling made abortion legal in many circumstances.
Carey v. Population Services International,  Laws that restrict the sale, distribution, and advertisement of contraceptives to both adults and minors are unconstitutional.
Planned Parenthood v. Casey,  A woman is still able to have an abortion before viability, but several restrictions are now permitted during the first trimester. The strict trimester framework of Roe is discarded and replaced with the more vague "undue burden" test.
Stenberg v. Carhart,  Laws that ban partial-birth abortion are unconstitutional if they do not make an exception for the woman's health or if they cannot be reasonably construed to apply only to the partial-birth abortion procedure and not to other abortion methods.
Gonzales v. Carhart,  The Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 is constitutional because it is less ambiguous than the law that was struck down in Stenberg. It is not vague or too broad. It does not impose an undue burden on a woman's right to choose to have an abortion.
Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.,  Closely held corporations have free exercise rights under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993. As applied to such corporations, the requirement of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act that employers provide their female employees with no-cost access to contraception violates the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.
End of life 
Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health,  When a family has requested the termination of life-sustaining treatments for their vegetative relative, the state may constitutionally oppose this request if there is not evidence that the relative would have wanted that.
Washington v. Glucksberg,  Washington's prohibition on assisted suicide is constitutional.
Vacco v. Quill,  New York's prohibition on assisted suicide does not violate the Equal Protection Clause.
Gonzales v. Oregon,  The Controlled Substances Act does not prevent physicians from being able to prescribe the drugs needed to perform assisted suicides under state law.

Power of Congress to enforce civil rights
Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States,  The Civil Rights Act of 1964 applies to places of public accommodation patronized by interstate travelers by reason of the Commerce Clause in Article One of the Constitution (Section 8, Clause 3).
Katzenbach v. McClung,  The power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce extends to a restaurant that is not patronized by interstate travelers but which serves food that has moved in interstate commerce. This ruling makes the Civil Rights Act of 1964 apply to virtually all businesses.
South Carolina v. Katzenbach,  The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is a valid use of Congress's power under Section 2 of the Fifteenth Amendment.
Katzenbach v. Morgan,  Congress may enact laws stemming from Section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment that increase the rights of citizens beyond what the judiciary has recognized.
City of Boerne v. Flores,  Section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment does not permit Congress to substantially increase the scope of the rights determined by the judiciary. Congress may only enact remedial or preventative measures that are consistent with the Fourteenth Amendment interpretations of the Supreme Court.
Shelby County v. Holder,  Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which contains the coverage formula that determines which state and local jurisdictions are subjected to federal preclearance from the Department of Justice before implementing any changes to their voting laws or practices based on their histories of racial discrimination in voting, is unconstitutional because it no longer reflects current societal conditions.
General rights and freedoms

Basic rights 
Corfield v. Coryell, 6 Fed. Cas. 546 (C.C.E.D. Pa. 1823) Some of the rights protected by the Privileges and Immunities Clause in Article Four of the Constitution (Section 2, Clause 1) include the freedom of movement through the states, the right of access to the courts, the right to purchase and hold property, an exemption from higher taxes than those paid by state residents, and the right to vote.

Schenck v. United States,  Speech is not protected under the First Amendment if it causes a danger to other people.  Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. famously used the comparison that free speech would not protect a person from shouting "fire" in a crowded theater and starting a panic.
Citizenship rights 
United States v. Wong Kim Ark,  With only a few narrow exceptions, every person born in the United States becomes a United States citizen at birth because of the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Afroyim v. Rusk,  The right of citizenship is protected by the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Congress has no power under the Constitution to take away a person's United States citizenship unless he or she voluntarily relinquishes (gives it up) it.
Freedom to travel 
Crandall v. Nevada,  The freedom of movement is a fundamental right; a state cannot inhibit people from leaving the state by taxing them.
United States v. Wheeler,  The Constitution grants to the states the power to prosecute individuals for wrongful interference with the right to travel.
Edwards v. California,  A state cannot prohibit indigent people from moving into it.
Kent v. Dulles,  The right to travel is a part of the "liberty" of which the citizen cannot be deprived without due process of law under the Fifth Amendment.
Aptheker v. Secretary of State,  First case in which the U.S. Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of personal restrictions on the right to travel abroad and passport restrictions as they relate to Fifth Amendment due process rights and First Amendment free speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom of association rights.
Military-related 
Ex parte Milligan,  Trying citizens in military courts is unconstitutional when civilian courts are still operating. Trial by military tribunal is constitutional only when there is no power left but the military, and the military may validly try criminals only as long as is absolutely necessary.
Reid v. Covert,  United States citizens abroad, even when associated with the military, cannot be deprived of the protections of the Constitution and cannot be made subject to military jurisdiction.