Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
He was on holiday in Germany the next summer when World War I broke out.   All British people who were in Germany were  sent to the Ruhleben P.O.W. Camp just outside Berlin.  The place where the detainees (prisoners of war) were held had been a horse racecourse.  There were lots of stables, and in each stable there were 27 horse boxes which became the detainees' home during the war.  The detainees were allowed to do lots of things to keep themselves busy.  They could get books, and Ellis made good use of his time to study.  Another detainee in the camp was the scientist James Chadwick.  Chadwick taught Ellis a lot and together they made a laboratory in one of the horse stables where they made scientific experiments on the photochemical process.
Career after the war
After the war Ellis decided to study at Trinity College, Cambridge.  After graduating in 1920 he did research work at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge.  The director there was Sir Ernest Rutherford.  Chadwick also worked there.    In 1921 Ellis had become a fellow of Trinity College and was made assistant lecturer in natural science.  In 1925 he married the daughter of a rich Polish shipbuilder.  In 1929 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.

In 1930 Rutherford, Chadwick and Ellis wrote a famous book together called Radiations from Radioactive Substances.

Discovery of the neutrino
During the early 1930s Ellis worked with N.F.Mott on energy relations in beta decay.  He discovered the neutrino and  worked with W.J.Henderson on the energy distribution of positrons in artificial radioactivity.  He became professor at the University of London.
During World War II he worked on the possibility of using nuclear fission to develop new weapons.  He became scientific adviser to the army council from 1943-1946.  He was knighted in 1946 for his war service.

Later career
After World War II Ellis had other jobs which were not related to nuclear weapons.  He gave scientific advice to the National Coal Board and to the British American Tobacco Company.  This was at a time when people were just starting to realize that smoking might be bad for the health.

Ellis died in 1980 in a nursing home in Cookham after a short illness.

References
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; OUP 2004-7
 The Ruhleben Story

1895 births
1980 deaths
English physicists
POW at Ruhleben
Knights Bachelor
Scientists from London
The following is a list of Southern Hemisphere cyclone seasons.

1900s 
1995–96
1996–97
1997–98
1998–99
1999–00

2000s 
2000–01
2001–02
2002–03
2003–04
2004–05
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
Post-2008

Related pages

Parent topics
Tropical cyclone
List of notable tropical cyclones
Lists of tropical cyclone names

Other tropical cyclone basins
List of Atlantic hurricane seasons
List of Pacific hurricane seasons
List of Pacific typhoon seasons
List of North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons

Tropical cyclones
Weather lists
Biography
James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, England. He went to Manchester High School, and studied at the Universities of Manchester and Cambridge.
In 1913, Chadwick went to Berlin in Germany to work with the scientist Hans Geiger. He also worked with Ernest Rutherford. He was still in Germany when World War I broke out and he was interned in Ruhleben P.O.W. Camp just outside Berlin. In the camp, which had more than 5,000 detainees (prisoners of war) had been a horse racetrack. There were stables, each with 27 horse boxes. The detainees lived in these boxes. The detainees were allowed to do things to keep themselves busy. Chadwick worked with a young scientist called Charles Ellis. Together they set up a laboratory in the stables where they worked on the ionisation of phosphorus and also on the photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine.

Career
Career

Research at Cambridge 
After the war, Chadwick returned to Cambridge where he worked with Ernest Rutherford, studying the emission of gamma rays from radioactive materials. They also studied the transmutation of elements by bombarding them with alpha particles, and investigated the nature of the atomic nucleus.
Liverpool 
Chadwick became professor of physics at Liverpool University in 1935. He worked on the possibility of an atomic bomb. Later he realized that the nuclear bomb really was going to be made. He found it very frightening that the science he had been working on could lead to such a terrible weapon. He started to take sleeping pills.

He joined the Manhattan Project in the United States, which developed the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Chadwick was knighted in 1945.

Return to Cambridge 
After the war, Chadwick moved to Cambridge University as master of Gonville and Caius College.

He died in Cambridge on 24 July 1974.

Sources

Other websites
Annotated bibliography for James Chadwick from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues 
Nobel prize Website entry
The Papers of Sir James Chadwick are held at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge and are accessible to the public.

1891 births
1974 deaths
POW at Ruhleben
English physicists
British Nobel Prize winners
Francombat is a French martial art similar to jiu-jitsu. It was created in the year 1988 by Alain Basset and Dominique Dumolin.

Francombat is practiced especially in the south of France. There are schools of francombat in Paris, Bordeaux, Montpellier, and in other localities.

This martial art is based on the strategy and on the knowledge of the human body. During the trainings, the instructors are dressed in red clothes and the students are dressed in green ones. According to the persons that practice this discipline, the efficiency in combat depends on three factors: good physical form, good knowledge of the techniques and of the strategy, good control of stress.

The training of francombat is based on: 
 intensive practice of physical exercises,
 complete learning of techniques of combat in the limits of the strategy that has main goal: the true efficiency,
 mental and physical preparation for stressful situations,
 respect for the law.
Other websites
 Site Officiel de l'Union Française de Francombat
 Francombat et sapeurs-pompiers: www.pompiers.fr
 Francombat Langonais 
 Club de villevaudé (77) 

Sport in France
European martial arts
The classic cycle races are the most important one-day professional cycling road races in the international calendar (list of races)

All of the races are run in western Europe. Most of the events have been on the professional calendar for decades and the oldest ones date back to the 19th Century. They are normally held at roughly the same time each year. In the last few years, the five top races are sometimes described as the 'Monuments'.

From 2005, the Classics have formed part of the UCI ProTour run by the Union Cycliste Internationale. This event series also includes various stage races including the Tour de France, Giro d'Italia, Vuelta a España, Paris-Nice and the Critérium de Dauphiné Libéré, and various non-Classic single day events. The ProTour replaced the UCI Road World Cup series which contained only one-day races.

The Classics

Some races that were Classics are no longer run. These include the gruelling (very hard) 560km, Derny event, Bordeaux-Paris, run from 1891 to 1988.
The 'Monuments'
Five of the classic races are sometimes called "the Monuments"
Milan-Sanremo 
Ronde van Vlaanderen 
Paris-Roubaix 
Liège-Bastogne-Liège 
Giro di Lombardia 

Only three riders have won all five 'Monument' one-day races during their careers: Roger De Vlaeminck, Rik Van Looy and Eddy Merckx.  All were from Belgium.

Seán Kelly of Ireland won four Monuments but only finished second in the Ronde van Vlaanderen on three occasions (1984,1986,1987).

Related pages
List of important cycling events

Cycle races
A criterium, or crit, is a type of bicycle race held on a short course (usually less than 5 km), often run on closed-off city centre streets.

Race length can be either a time or a number of laps. Often a criterium lasts about one hour, which is shorter than that of a traditional road race – which can last many hours, sometimes of several days or even weeks, as in a Grand Tour. However, the average speed and is much higher. The winner is the first rider to cross the finish line without having been "lapped" (overtaken).

Events often have prizes (called primes, usually cash) for winning specific intermediate laps (for instance, every 10th lap).

Winning criteriums needs a mix of good technical skills – especially the ability to corner rapidly and sharply – and riding safely with a large group on a short circuit and exceptional fitness to attack other riders and repeatedly accelerate hard from corners.
Criteriums are relatively easy to organize and do not require a large amount of space. They are the most common type of bicycle racing in the continental United States.

Equipment

Racing bicycles used for criteriums are typically no different than those used in other mass-start road events. However, some racers use shorter bicycles to help keep control when turning  and slightly shorter cranks (pedal levers) to help pedalling through sharp turns.

Other websites
 Alto Velo Racing Club - Criterium Skills & Sprinting 
 Extreme Fitness - Guide to Criterium Training 
 Portsmouth, NH Criterium 

Cycle races
In chemistry, valence electrons are the electrons in the outside or valence electron shell of an atom. They determine the valency of the atom which is important in how a chemical element reacts with other elements. Elements which have eight valence electrons (noble gases) are inert and they do not tend to create chemical reactions with other elements in the Periodic table group. 

The number of valence electrons is also important for determining the group of an element in the Periodic table, because an element's number of valence electron is the same as the number of its group in the periodic table. To calculate the amount of valence electrons present in an element you have to find the last number of the electron configuration. 

Physical chemistry
Flamingos () are types of birds. They are noisy birds and they live in big groups called flocks. Flamingos are wading birds. This means they live by water, such as lakes. 

They are in the genus Phoenicopterus and family Phoenicopteridae. There are six species of flamingo. Two of species are found in Africa, Europe and Asia. The other four are found in North America and South America.
Flamingos are pink or red. This is because of small bacteria that live in water which the flamingos eat. This small bacteria is known as carotenoids. This is a pigment that causes the plumage color you see on flamingos. They also eat small crayfish and algae. Baby flamingos are gray. Flamingos can fly. This is why they have wings. Flamingos are very tall birds and they have long legs. They often stand on only one leg. Scientsts found that they do this beacuse it takes less energy than standing on two legs. Flamingos have a curved bill that is shaped like a banana. This is because they feed in the mud on the bottom of lakes.
Flamingos can weigh up to 4 kg and be up to 145cm tall. They live up to around 47 years.

Conservation
Many flamingos that live in Kenya and Tanzania are dying. Scientists do not know why. They think it may be because of bacteria in the water.

Taxonomy 
The Phonenicopteriformes is an order of birds, which contains the family of flamingos and two another families which are extinct.
Living species
 Greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus)
 Lesser flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor)
 Chilean flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis)
 James's flamingo (Phoenicoparrus jamesi)
 Andean flamingo (Phoenicopterus andinus)
 American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber)

References 

Birds
Magnesium oxide, or magnesia, is a white solid mineral, made of one part magnesium and one part oxygen. Its chemical formula is MgO. Magnesium oxide is used by libraries to make books last longer. It is also used as an insulator for some electrical wires, and to help crucibles resist high temperatures. Magnesium oxide is also used to treat heartburn and upset stomachs.

References

Chemical compounds
Oxides
A movie studio, or film studio, is a place where movies are made. A movie studio can be an area where the movie is filmed; like an indoor (interior) stage or room, or an outdoor area in which only those making the movie are allowed to be.

The term movie studio also means a production company because these companies often had - in the 1920s to the 1940s - their own studios in their own buildings. Even though most production companies do not now have their own studios, the term is still used in this way.

References
For the type of cycling race see Criterium

The Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré is an annual cycling road race, run over eight stages in the Dauphiné region in France during the first half of June. It is organised by the Le Dauphiné Libéré newspaper. Along with the Tour de Suisse, the Dauphiné Libéré is an important race in the lead-up to the Tour de France in July.

Because the Dauphiné is a mountainous area, the winners are often climbing specialists. Many climbs that are famous from the Tour de France, like the Mont Ventoux, the Col du Galibier or Col de la Chartreuse appear often in the Dauphiné Libéré.

All cyclists who have won the Tour de France five times or more have also won the Dauphiné Libéré.

The first Dauphiné Libéré was held in 1947 when Eduard Klablinski from Poland was the winner. Nello Lauredi, Luis Ocaña, Charly Mottet and Bernard Hinault share the record of the most wins, with three each.
Iban Mayo won in 2004, when he climbed Mont Ventoux very quickly.  In the 2005 Dauphiné the winner was Iñigo Landaluze, of the Euskaltel-Euskadi team.

Winners

1947 to 1999

After 1999

Other websites 
 Official website 

UCI ProTour
Cycle racing in France
The 1900 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the II Olympiad, were held in Paris, France.

The games were part of the 1900 Exposition Universelle (Paris World's Fair). The sports events were not well planned; and the games were not thought to be a success.

Participating nations
A total of 24 nations sent athletes to compete at the Paris games.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 IOC page for the 1900 Summer Olympics

Olympics
19th century in France
Summer Olympic 1900
Summer Olympics in France
1900s in Europe
The 1998 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XVIII Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1998 in Nagano, Japan. Other possible host cities were Aosta, Italy; Jaca, Spain; Östersund, Sweden; and Salt Lake City, USA. The selection was held in Birmingham, United Kingdom in 1991.

Related pages
 Sports in Japan

Other websites 
 IOC Site on 1998 Winter Olympics

 
1998 in Japan
1998 in Asian sport
Mont Ventoux is a mountain in the Provence region of southern France, about 20 km north-east of Carpentras, Vaucluse.

It is the largest mountain in the region and has the nicknames "Giant of Provence" and "The Bald Mountain".

History 
Jean Buridan climbed the mountain early in the fourteenth century; Petrarch repeated the feat on April 26, 1336, and claimed to have been the first to climb a mountain since antiquity, which has been widely repeated since.

In the 15th century a chapel was built on the top.  It was dedicated to the Holy Cross.

In 1882, a meteorological station was constructed on the summit, but it is not used now. In the 1960s a 50m-high telecommunications mast was built.

Road cycling 

For road bicycle racing enthusiasts, the mountain can be climbed by three roads.
South from Bédoin: 22 km over 1610 m. This is the most famous and difficult ascent. The road to the summit has an average gradient of 7.6%. Until Saint-Estève, the climb is easy, but the 16 remaining kilometres have an average gradient of 10%. The last kilometres have strong, violent winds. The ride takes 2–3 hours for trained amateur individuals, and professionals can ride it in 1-1.5 hours. The fastest time so far recorded has been that of Iban Mayo in the individual climbing time trial of the 2004 Dauphiné Libéré: 55' 51". The time was measured from Bédoin for the first time in the 1958 Tour de France, in which Charly Gaul was the fastest at 1h 2' 9".

 North from Malaucène: 21 km over 1570 m. A little easier than the Bédoin ascent, better sheltered against the wind.

 East from Sault: 26 km over 1220 m. The easiest route. After Chalet Reynard (where the "lunar landscape" of the summit starts), the climb is the same as the Bédoin ascent. Average gradient of 4.4%.
Every year there are amateur races to climb the mountain as quickly and often as possible in 24 hours. On May 16 2006, Jean-Pascal Roux from Bédoin broke the record of climbs in 24 hours, with eleven climbs, all of them from Bédoin.

Tour de France 

Mont Ventoux is the one of the most gruelling climbs in the Tour de France.  The Tour has visited the mountain thirteen times since 1951. The route is usually the Bédoin.

British cyclist Tom Simpson, who died here on July 13, 1967 from a combination of amphetamines, alcohol and heat exhaustion. He began to weave across the road before he fell down twice. He was delirious, but his last words were not "put me back on my bike", that was what a journalist wrote.
Amphetamines were found in his jersey and bloodstream. There is a memorial to Simpson near the summit which has become a shrine to fans of cycling, who often leave small tokens of remembrance there. In 1970, Eddy Merckx rode himself to the brink of collapse but won the stage. He received oxygen, recovered, and won the Tour. In 1994, Eros Poli, not known for his climbing ability, stole away at the beginning of the day's stage, built up a big time gap from the peloton, and was first over the Ventoux and was the stage winner despite.  The last winner on the Ventoux was the French climber Richard Virenque.

Winners of the Mont Ventoux stage at the Tour de France 
 1951: Lucien Lazarides 
 1952: Jean Robic 
 1955: Louison Bobet 
 1958: Charly Gaul 
 1965: Raymond Poulidor 
 1967: Julio Jimenez 
 1970: Eddy Merckx 
 1971: Gonzalo Aja 
 1972: Bernard Thévenet 
 1987: Jean-Francois Bernard 
 1994: Eros Poli 
 2000: Marco Pantani 
 2002: Richard Virenque 
 2009: Juan Gárate 
 2013: Chris Froome

References
References

Other websites 

 Mont Ventoux: Picture Gallery 
 Velo News: The curse of the Ventoux 
 Réserve de Biosphère du Mont Ventoux (in French)
 winter picture mont ventoux
 Mont Ventoux cycling. Pictures and profiles. (in French)

Biosphere reserves
Alps
Mountains of France
Vaucluse
In baseball, a designated hitter (DH) is a person who bats in place of the pitcher in the American League of Major League Baseball. In the National League, the pitchers have to bat for themselves. The designated hitter is usually one of the best hitters on the team but is not a good defensive player.

The reason for the designated hitter is because many pitchers are not good hitters. Pitchers are chosen because they are good at pitching, not because they are good at hitting.

References

Baseball rules
Baseball positions
American League
The 1968 Winter Olympics, officially known as the X Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1968 in Grenoble, France and started on February 6. Thirty-seven countries took part. Norway won the most medals, the first time a country other than the USSR had done so since the USSR first entered the Winter Games in 1956.

Attention in the USA 
Frenchman Jean-Claude Killy won three gold medals in all the alpine skiing events. In women's figure skating, Peggy Fleming won the only United States gold medal. The games have been credited with making the Winter Olympics more popular in the United States, largely because of ABC's coverage of Fleming and Killy, who became very popular among teenage girls.

New practices 
1968 was the first year that the International Olympic Committee (IOC) let East and West Germany enter separately, and the first time the IOC ever ordered drug and gender testing of the athletes.

Other websites 
 IOC page for the 1968 Winter Olympics
The 1964 Winter Olympics, officially known as the IX Olympic Winter Games, were held in Innsbruck, Austria, from January 29 to February 9 1964. The games included 1091 athletes from 36 nations, and the Olympic Torch was carried by Joseph Rieder,

a former alpine skier who had participated in the 1956 Winter Olympics.

The games were affected by the deaths of Australian alpine skier Ross Milne and a British luge slider, during training, and by the deaths, 3 years earlier, of the entire US figure skating team and family members.

Participating nations
36 nations sent athletes to compete in Innsbruck.  India, Mongolia, and North Korea participated in the Winter Games for the first time.  Athletes from West Germany (FRG) and East Germany (GDR) competed together as the United Team of Germany from 1956 to 1964.

Medal count 
These are the top ten nations that won medals at these Games:

References 

 
1964 in sports
1960s in Austria
1964 in Europe
Counterculture is a term used in psychology and sociology. People use it to describe a set of views that are not of the mainstream. These values are in contrast to what the mainstream people believe. An example of a counterculture that was started in the 1960s is the culture of the hippies. This counterculture focused on drug use, sexual freedom (freedom of choice), and women's rights.

Related pages
Bohemianism 

Sociology
A hippie (sometimes spelled as hippy) is a label for a person of a particular counterculture that started in the United States and spread to other countries in the 1960s. 

Hippies have their own opinions on drugs, sexual liberation, and women's rights.

History 
The first people to be called "hippies" were young adults and teenagers in the 1960s who grew out of the beatnik movement. These people were supporters of civil rights for African-Americans in the Southern USA. They soon developed their own music scene in neighborhoods in New York City (Greenwich Village) and San Francisco (Haight-Ashbury). They were also strongly against the Vietnam War, nuclear weapons, and what they called the "Establishment" (this was a word for mainstream society). They were also against the "military-industrial complex". This phrase was taken from a warning in the farewell speech of President Dwight Eisenhower in 1961.
Late that year, a murderer named Charles Manson who posed as a hippie killed several people. Because some people blamed hippies for this, the term began to fall a little out of fashion in 1970, even if the fashions themselves did not. A new type of hard rock called heavy metal was developing out of one style of hippie music. A band called Led Zeppelin took the number one spot for most popular band of the year in 1970, which had been held by the Beatles for eight years. Also that year, when students at Kent State University in Ohio were protesting Nixon's spread of bombing to Laos, the National Guard shot at them, and four were killed. This had a chilling effect on the hippies and the whole country, but the peace movement continued. In 1973, the draft was ended, and the war ended soon after that. US public attention turned to the Watergate scandal. After this, hippies never again had the attention they once did, though the lifestyle continued, especially in other countries
. In the mid-seventies, trends like punks and disco were also spreading, causing the hippie image to fade in the media.
References

Social issues
Lifestyles
Sexual revolution
Subculture
Halakha is the Hebrew word for the Jewish code of laws.

History 
A long time ago, these laws were oral (spoken, but not written down). Once they became written down they were called the Mishnah. The Mishnah was made by rabbis in the 1st and 2nd Century (CE).

Related pages 

 Law of Moses

Jewish law
A stereotype is a mistaken idea or belief many people have about a thing or group that is based upon how they look on the outside, which may be untrue or only partly true. Stereotyping people is usually considered a type of prejudice because how a person would appear on the outside is a small part of who a person is on the inside. Like other untrue opinions, stereotypes might be used as reasons to discriminate against another person, or sometimes for a humorous effect in fiction.

The term was invented in the late 18th century for a method of printing. In the mid-19th century it meant the faithful reproduction of everything which could be printed, whether words or pictures. It made the printing of cheap editions possible, and was used in printing newspapers. The term got its psychological meaning in the 20th century.

Related pages 
Gender role
Stereotype threat
Women and video games

References 

Psychology
Social issues
Printing
Thomas Simpson (30 November 1937 – 13 July 1967) was an English road racing cyclist who died of exhaustion on the slopes of Mont Ventoux riding the 13th stage of the Tour de France in 1967.

The post mortem found that he had taken amphetamines. Added to brandy, the hard climb up Mont Ventoux, the hot conditions, and a stomach complaint, the doping was fatal.

Early life 
Simpson was the youngest of the six children. He was born in Easington, County Durham. After World War II, the Simpson family moved to Harworth in north Nottinghamshire, another mining village, where Simpson grew up and became interested in cycling. He attended the village school and later Worksop Technical College and in 1954 was an apprentice draughtsman at an engineering company in Retford.
As a cyclist he joined first Harworth and District Cycling Club and later Rotherham's Scala Wheelers, and by his late teens was winning local time trials. He was then advised to try track cycling, and he travelled regularly to Fallowfield Stadium in Manchester to compete.  He won medals in the national 4000m individual pursuit discipline. 

When he was 19, Simpson was part of the Great Britain team pursuit squad which won a bronze medal at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia. Two years later, he won a silver medal in the individual pursuit at the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Cardiff.

In April 1959, Simpson went to France to live in the Breton fishing port of Saint-Brieuc. He hoped to win enough local amateur races to get noticed by a professional cycling team. It was in Saint-Brieuc that he met Helen Sherburn. They married on 3 January 1960.
Professional cyclist
Within two months, Simpson had won five races and in July 1959 was offered terms by two professional teams; he decided to join the Rapha Geminiani team, which already had a British cyclist, Brian Robinson, in its squad. His first event as a professional was a small stage race, the Tour de l'Ouest (Tour of the West).  He won two stages and finished 18th overall - a major achievement for a new pro who would normally be expected to be a domestique to the team's leader.

He competed in the 1959 World Championships in the Netherlands in the individual pursuit and professional road race, finishing fourth in both events. Simpson turned down an invitation to ride in the 1959 Tour de France, because he thought he was not ready. He rode in the 1960 Tour, and finished 29th, and was third in stage 3.
In 1960 he also competed in his first Classic races: he had top ten finishes in La Flèche Wallonne and Paris-Roubaix - he led the Paris-Roubaix for around 40 km before running out of energy and being overtaken less than 10k from the finish, ending up 9th.

In April 1961, however, Simpson won his first Classic . He won the tough Ronde van Vlaanderen after a two-man sprint at the finish. That year he also finished 5th in the "Race to the Sun" - the Paris-Nice stage race, and 9th in the world championship, but he abandoned the Tour de France on stage 3, because of an earlier knee injury.

In 1962, he became the first Briton to wear the maillot jaune (the jersey of the leader of the Tour de France) and eventually finished 6th overall.  That was highest final placing by a Briton until Robert Millar was fourth in 1984).  Simpson had been third until a crash.
Earlier in the season, he again showed how much he likied for the tough Belgian Classic races.  Simpson finished 5th in the Ronde van Vlaanderen and 6th in the Gent-Wevelgem.

1963 and 1965 were probably Simpson's best years for Classic races.   He was riding for the  Peugeot BP team in 1963, when he won the gruelling motor-paced event Bordeaux-Paris, was second in Paris-Brussels and Paris-Tours, third in the Ronde van Vlaanderen, 8th in Paris-Roubaix, and 10th in both La Flèche Wallonne and Giro di Lombardia.

In 1965, Simpson became the first Briton to be world professional road racing champion.

In 1967 he won the early season Paris-Nice stage race (taking two second places and a third place on different days) and the Tour of Sardinia. He also rode in the Vuelta a España for the first time, collecting two stage victories en route to an eventual 33rd place overall.
Thursday 13 July 1967
At the start of the 1967 Tour de France, Simpson thought that he could do well in the event. After the first week he was sixth overall, but a stomach bug began to affect his form, and he lost vital time in a stage including the Col du Galibier. In Marseille, at the start of stage 13 on 13 July, he was still suffering the bad stomach as the race headed into Provence on a blisteringly hot day.
On the next day, the other riders did not want to race so soon after Simpson's death and asked the organisers for a postponement. In the end, they agreed to ride but with the condition that they would allow a British rider to win the stage. This honour went to Barry Hoban. Hoban later married Simpson's widow.

Memorials

British cyclists paid for a granite memorial to Simpson near the spot where he died. 

Harry Hall, the team mechanic, said that Simpson's last words were "Go on, go on!".  The words "Put me back on my bike!" were invented by Sid Saltmarsh, a journalist writing about the Tour for "The Sun".  Saltmarsh was not present at Simpson's death.

Simpson is buried in Harworth cemetery. A small museum about him was opened in August 2001 by former Tour de France rider Lucien van Impe in the Harworth social club.  A small version of the Mont Ventoux Simpson Memorial was put outside that club in 1997, to commemorate the 30th anniversary of Simpson's death.
Achievements: a summary
Simpson's professional achievements include four Classic one-day victories:

1961 - Winner, Ronde van Vlaanderen
1962 - Maillot jaune for a short time in the Tour de France
1963 - Winner, Bordeaux-Paris
1964 - Winner, Milan-Sanremo
1965 - World road race champion
1965 - Winner, Giro di Lombardia
1967 - Winner, Paris-Nice
1967 - Winner of two stages of Vuelta a España

In addition to these victories, Simpson frequently finished in the top ten of Classics, and won numerous criteriums and other events.

As an amateur he also won an Olympic Games team pursuit bronze medal (1956), silver in the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games individual pursuit, silver (1956) and gold (1958) medals in the British 4000m individual pursuit championship, and was British League of Racing Cyclists hill climb champion in 1957, picking up a silver medal in the same event the following year.

Sources
Sources

William Fotheringham (2002) Put Me Back on My Bike: In search of Tom Simpson (Yellow Jersey Press, London)

References

Other websites 
Complete Palmarès 
Video of Simpson's final climb (online on April 28, 2006)
Wheels Within Wheels documentary

British cyclists
British Olympic bronze medalists
Deaths from heart failure
Deaths in sport
Doping cases in cycling
Medalists at the 1956 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from County Durham
Sportspeople from Nottinghamshire
World cycling champions
1937 births
1967 deaths
Deaths from exhaustion
Electron cloud is an informal way to describe an atomic orbital. 

The electron cloud is not really a thing. An electron cloud  model is different from the older Bohr atomic model by Niels Bohr. Bohr talked about electrons orbiting the nucleus. Explaining the behavior of these electron "orbits" was a key issue in the development of quantum mechanics.
The electron cloud model was developed in 1926 by Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg. The model is a way to help visualize the most probable position of electrons in an atom. The electron cloud model is currently the accepted model of an atom. The atoms were traveling at such a high speed that there was no predictable time or place for the electron to be. The electrons were like a blur which is where they got the 'Electron Cloud' from.

According to Bohr's calculations for a hydrogen atom, the electron under normal conditions always stays at a certain distance from the nucleus. This distance is called the Bohr radius and is approximately 0.529 Å (). But according to the wave mechanical or cloud concept model, the electron keeps on moving away or towards the nucleus and the maximum probability of locating it lies at a distance of 0.529 Å from the nucleus. In other words, the radius of the electron cloud or the radius of maximum probability is 0.529 Å.

References
References 

Physical chemistry
Nuclear physics
Quantum chemistry
9-1-1 or 911 (a lot of times said as "nine-one-one" or "nine-eleven") is the emergency telephone number for the United States, Canada, Argentina, Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, and the Cayman Islands. This number can only be used for real emergencies. In other words, you use it when you are in serious trouble. The use of the number when there is no emergency may end in a criminal charge.

Related pages
 Emergency telephone number
 1-1-2
 9-9-9
 000 Emergency
 Rescue 911
3-1-1

Other websites 
 Fact sheets on using 911 in Simple English for children , teenagers , adults , and parents 
 How to Use 911 - from KidsHealth.org (in Simple English)

References 

Emergency phone numbers
Telephone numbers in the United States
Telephone numbers in Canada
N11 codes
Year 911 (CMXI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events

By place

Africa
 Rebellion of the Kutama Berbers against the Fatimid Caliphate. The Kutama tribesmen have previously been the main supporters of the new Shi'ite regime.

Europe 
 July 11 – The Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte is signed between Charles the Simple, King of France and Rollo, leader of the Vikings, allowing the latter to settle in Neustria, the origin of the Normans.
 September – Following the death of Louis the Child, last Carolingian ruler of the East Franks, Charles the Simple of France, is elected King of Lotharingia.
 The Fatimids begin the conquest of Sicily over their Aghlabid arch-rivals.

By topic

Religion 
 April – Pope Anastasius III succeeds Pope Sergius III as the 120th pope.

Deaths 
 April 14 – Pope Sergius III, pope of the Roman Catholic Church

References
An emergency is a situation in which a risk to health, life, property or environment is about to happen. Most emergencies need quick attention to prevent it from becoming worse. Even though some emergencies are easy to see, like a natural disaster, many smaller incidents need the opinion of someone who is watching in order to decide whether it is really an emergency. The exact definition of an emergency, the agencies involved and the rules followed, depend on the jurisdiction, and this is usually set by the government, whose agencies (emergency services) are responsible for emergency planning and handling.

Related pages 
 Civil defence
 Crisis
 Emergency department
 Emergency medicine
 Emergency communication system
 State of emergency
 9-1-1

References

Safety
German Jews are Jews of German descent, or Jews living in Germany.

Holocaust 
170,000 German Jews were killed in the camps during the Holocaust.The Jews of Germany: A Historical Portrait - Page 281
by Ruth "Gay

References

Other websites 
 German Jews during the Holocaust, 1939-1945
 List of German Jews at English Wikipedia
Agriculture is made up of  livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries and forestry and farming (or crop production). From agriculture one can get food and non-food products.

Agriculture can be
Fish hatchery
Oyster farming, a kind of aquaculture or mariculture
Growing cotton (for making cloth)
Growing tobacco
Growing trees for lumber (or forestry) and logging
Raising cattle or other livestock, is part of agriculture.
Agriculture has farmers that do their work so that they can harvest
cereals (grains), 
vegetables, 
fruits, 
meat, 
milk, 
eggs
edible mushroom or
cooking oils

Important kinds of agricultural products are: 
fibers
fuels
raw materials (such as rubber).
classes (or kinds) of food

There are some different views about what is different between farming and agriculture.

Sources
The term Sexual revolution was coined by Wilhelm Reich in his book The Sexual Revolution. That book was first published in 1936 in German, translated into English. The English edition was 1945.

Reich wrote in the book what he saw as wrong, namely the double standard regarding morals in the society of his time. These double standards and the suppression of the sex drive would make people different. This would lead to a buildup of aggressions and frustration. Freeing the sex drive would lead to a peaceful change of society, according to Reich.

Reich dies in prison 1957, but his ideas had their effect in the 1960s when people changed their views about sex. They were more open-minded about it. The publications of people like Alfred Kinsey helped give wings to the movement.
First wave of sexual emancipation 
The sexual revolution was prepared by a "first wave" of pioneers who campaigned against the sexual repression which was common in the 19th century. This change began, roughly,  at the end of the 19th and start of the 20th century. One impetus came from the pioneers of birth control and family planning. The books and publicity of Marie Stopes in England and Margaret Sanger in the United States, changed the lives of many women.

Attitudes towards homosexuality and masturbation were altered by the publications of Havelock Ellis. Ellis was the first person to say in print that masturbation was normal, and did not cause any medical problems. The ideas of Sigmund Freud were also influential. He believed that people's strong instincts toward sexuality were repressed in order to meet the constraints imposed on them by civilized life.

References 

 
Books about sexuality
1936 books
Peter Martyr d'Anghiera (2 February 1457 – October 1526) was an Italian-born historian of Spain and of the discoveries and explorations in the Americas.

The international form of his name is Pietro Martire d'Anghiera. In different languages, his name is written:
 English - Anghiera, Peter Martyr d'
 French - Martyr d'Anghiera, Pierre
 German - Anghiera, Peter Martyr von
 Italian - Martire d'Anghiera, Pietro
 Latin - Anglerius, Petrus Martyr
 Spanish - Anglería, Pedro Mártir de

He was born on February 2, 1457 at Arona, near Anghiera (called now Angera) on Lake Maggiore, Lombardy, Italy. He went to Rome in 1477, at the age of twenty, and there he met important persons of the Catholic Church. In 1486, Anghiera met the Spanish ambassador in Rome, and with him to Spain in August, 1487, to the court of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.
He wrote in Latin the first accounts of explorations in the Americas in a series of letters and reports that were published from 1511 to 1530 in chapters called "Decades". The first three "Decades", together with a description of his experiences in Egypt, were published in 1516 under the title: De orbe novo decades cum Legatione Babylonica or, for short, De orbe novo ("On the New World").

He was the first writer to use the word Hispaniola to name the island that Columbus named La Española. He also wrote that the Taíno name of the island was Quizqueia, a name that no other historian of that time mentioned. Quizqueia is used now as Quisqueya or Kiskeya for the whole island (in Haiti) or for the eastern part (in the Dominican Republic).

He died in October 1526 at Granada, Spain.

References 
 

 
 
 

1457 births
1526 deaths
Italian historians
Italian people
Wilhelm Reich (March 24, 1897 – November 3, 1957) was an Austrian-American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. In the 1920s he was a pupil of Sigmund Freud in Vienna and made important contributions to psychoanalysis (Charakteranalyse 1933; engl. 1945ff). His work was rediscovered by the activists of the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.

During the 1920s Reich became involved in the social struggles of the time. In 1927 he joined the Communist Party. There he founded "SexPol", short for Sexual Politics. In 1933 he was kicked off from the Party, and in 1934 from the organisations of Psychoanalysis. At this time he started his own research on the biological foundations of psychoanalysis, later on called "orgonomy". Orgonomy was to be the science of orgone, a "primordial energy" Reich claimed to have discovered.
The other side of Reich's story is that he was blamed to have invented a pseudoscience method for treating cancer. He was exposed as a fraud in 1947 articles by journalist Mildred Edie Brady, published in the magazines Harper's and The New Republic, the latter titled "The Strange Case of Wilhelm Reich," with the subhead, "The man who blames both neuroses and cancer on unsatisfactory sexual activities has been repudiated by only one scientific journal". The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) decided that they were dealing with a "fraud of the first magnitude". 

Finally, in 1956 Reich violated an injunction got by the FDA, and was arrested. All his research equipment including his books was destroyed. He was sentenced to two years prison. Reich died on 3 November 1957 (aged 60) in the United States Penitentiary, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Opinions about him remain very divided.
Reich had founded "Orgonon" in Rangeley, Maine after immigrating to the US. It was his  home, laboratory and research center, and also Reich's burial place. It is now open to the public as the Wilhelm Reich Museum.

References 

1897 births
1957 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Austrian psychiatrists 
American psychoanalysts
Psychoanalysts from Europe
American psychiatrists
Jules Massenet (born Montaud nr. Saint-Étienne, 12 May 1842; died Paris, 13 August 1912) was a French composer. He is most famous for his operas, although he wrote a large amount of other music as well.

His life

Early years 

Jules’ father had a business making agricultural tools. His mother gave him his first piano lessons. In 1847 his father retired and the family moved to Paris. When he was ten years old he went to the Paris Conservatoire for piano and solfège studies. Over a period of ten years he studied there, gaining many prizes. He was taught composition by Ambroise Thomas who was an excellent music teacher.

Jules earned enough money to keep himself by giving piano lessons. He also played timpani in the orchestra of the Théâtre Lyrique. This helped him to get a good knowledge of French composers such as Gounod (especially his Faust) as well as music by Gluck, Mozart and Beethoven. He was also very keen on the music of Berlioz and Wagner.
In 1863 he won the Prix de Rome (it was his second attempt). This allowed him to spend two years in Italy. During this time he travelled a lot but hardly composed anything.

Early career 

In 1866 he returned to Paris where he married. He gave piano lessons. At this stage he had hardly written anything important. However, soon he was to start writing many famous works. He became friends with other composers: Saint-Saëns, Bizet, Delibes, Lalo, Fauré, Duparc and others. Several of these people competed in writing operas for competitions. Massenet wrote several works, but he found writing operas difficult. His operas never won any prizes.

Years of fame
Years of fame 

In 1870 he served in the National Guard during the Franco-Prussian war. After the war he continued to compose, and he became professor of composition at the Conservatoire. He spent many years working on an opera Le Roi de Lahore. This was a great success and helped him to become internationally famous. For many years he spent the winter in Paris and the summer in various places in the country where he could compose. His pupils at the Conservatoire included Pierné, Koechlin, Hahn, Enesco. In 1884 his opera Manon was produced at the Opéra-comique. This made him clearly the most famous opera composer of his time. It was an opéra-comique with some speech over the music. During the next 28 years he composed another 20 operas. Another opera that was particularly famous was Werther. It was first performed in 1892 in Vienna and a year later in Paris. It was soon being performed in all the big European opera houses.
Some of his greatest operatic roles were written for the young American soprano Sybil Sanderson. This includes the main role in his popular opera Thaïs. The story is set in Egypt and is about a monk who tries to persuade Thaïs to give up her life as a prostitute. However, he soon finds he is falling in love with her himself. This mixture of religion and salvation became an extremely popular subject for operas at that time. The Méditation from Thaïs is a short piece for violin solo. It is one of the best-loved of all Romantic violin solos.

He continued to compose lots of music even when his health was failing during his last years. He was a quiet, family man who hated it when people made a fuss about him. He liked best to spend his evenings quietly at home, or in the countryside during the summer. He continued to compose in a Romantic style to the end of his life, even though many composers around him (e.g. Debussy) were writing music which was more “modern” sounding.
Romantic composers
20th-century French composers
1842 births
1912 deaths
People from Saint-Étienne‎
The Tokyo Game Show is one of the biggest conferences for video games in the world. held in the Makuhari Messe, in Chiba Prefecture, Japan.

Other websites 
 Tokyo Game Show

Video game events
Tokyo
Chiba Prefecture
Choline is an organic compound. It is the precursor molecule (~building block) for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is involved in many functions including memory and muscle control.

Some animals cannot produce choline, but must have it in their diet to stay healthy. Humans make a small amount of choline in the liver. In the United States, choline is recommended as an essential nutrient after research showed that humans need to get it. They need to have choline in their diet or take a supplementation for proper health. Possible benefits include reducing the risk of neural tube defects and fatty liver disease. It has also been found that intake of choline during pregnancy can have long-term beneficial effects on memory for the child.
Choline is usually grouped with the Vitamin B complex. It is a vitamin that is needed by the human body. Adults should take between 425 and 550 milligrams of it daily. Choline is used by the body in the walls of cells and as a neurotransmitter. It also helps to prevent heart disease. There are claims that it helps reduce body fat, but this has not been proven.

History 
Choline was discovered by Andreas Strecker in 1864. In 1998 choline was classified as an needed nutrient by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine (USA).

Sources 
Sources of Choline are egg yolks, soy and cooked beef, chicken, veal and turkey (bird) livers. Many foods contain small amounts of choline, even iceberg lettuce.

References 

Vitamins
Food supplements
Nutrients
Organonitrogen compounds
"La Borinqueña" ( is the national anthem of Puerto Rico. The current official music and words were made up in 1903 and have been taught in schools and accepted by the public. The music was officially made the national anthem by the government in 1952, and the words in 1977. The title refers to the Taíno (Native American) name for the island of Puerto Rico, Boriken or Borinquen.

Spanish lyrics and translation

References

 National Symbols of Puerto Rico , from the official governor's website.

Puerto Rico
1903 works
North American anthems
Boy was Irish rock group U2's first album, from the year 1980.

History
Before this album came a single, a song that is played on its own, called "I Will Follow". It became popular and was played on college radio stations and made people know who U2 were. "I Will Follow" was thought of as a Christian song. This was because most of the members of U2 were Christians.  None of the band members has said that that is true. This album is somewhat about Bono's life as a child, and his mother's death when he was 14.