Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Winners This is an incomplete list, please help us by updating it. 1907: Albin Polasek (first winner)
 1918: Walter Ufer
 1921: Frank V. Dudley
 1921: Cecilia Beaux
 1924: Eugene F. Savage
 1925: Albin Polasek
 1925: Archibald J. Motley
 1926: Charles Hopkinson
 1926: Bror Julius Olsson Nordfeldt
 1929: David Smith
 1930: Davenport Griffen
 1931: Morris Kantof
 1930: Theodore Roszak
 1933: Santiago Martínez Delgado
 1935: Doris Lee
 1938: Norman MacLeish 
 1939: Gladys Curtis Simpson
 1940: Lawrence Adams 
 1942: Abbott Lawrence Pattison
 1954: Naum Gabo
 1959: Richard Talaber
 1963: Isamu Noguchi
 1964: James Rosati
 1966: Al Held

George Bellows
Gutzon Borglum
James Brooks
Frank Tolles Chamberlin
Howard Norton Cook
Frederic Milton Grant
Emil Holzhauer
Edward Hopper
Rudolph Ingerle
Terrence Karpowicz
Willem de Kooning
Charles Wheeler Locke
Conrad Marca-Relli
Suzanne Martyl
Frank Moore
Louis Conrad Rosenberg
Carl E. Schwartz
Hannah Small
Heinz Warneke
Marguerite Zorach
William Zorach

References
References

Further reading
 Rudolph Ingerle (1879-1950): Paintings of the Ozarks, the Great Smoky Mountains and the 1933 Century of progress Exposition'' (Chicago: Aaron Galleries, 2000)

Other websites
 "Sanity & Mrs. Logan". Time Magazine (March 22, 1937).   Retrieved January 31, 2008

Art awards
The Thames Barrier is the world's second-largest movable flood barrier, after the Oosterscheldekering in the Netherlands. It is downstream of central London. Its purpose is to prevent London from being flooded by exceptionally high tides and storm surges moving up from the North Sea. It is raised (closed) only during high tide; at ebb tide it is lowered to release the water which backs up behind it.

The barrier's northern bank is in the London Borough of Newham and its southern bank is in the London Borough of Greenwich. The report of Hermann Bondi into the North Sea flood of 1953 affecting parts of the Thames Estuary and parts of London was what led to the building of the barrier.

Geography
Geography

Geographical weather system 
London is vulnerable to flooding. A storm surge generated by low pressure in the Atlantic Ocean sometimes tracks eastwards past the north of Scotland and may then be driven into the shallow waters of the North Sea. The surge tide is funnelled down the North Sea which narrows towards the English Channel and the Thames Estuary. If the storm surge coincides with a spring tide, dangerously high water levels can occur in the Thames Estuary.  This situation combined with downstream flows in the Thames tells engineers when to operate the barriers.

Rising water levels
The threat has increased over time due to the slow but continuous rise in high water level over the centuries (20 cm (8 inches) / 100 years) and the slow "tilting" of Britain (up in the north and west, and down in the south and east) caused by post-glacial rebound.
Historical flooding 
Fourteen people died in the 1928 Thames flood, and after 307 people died in the UK in the North Sea Flood of 1953 the issue gained new prominence.

Early proposals for a flood control system were stymied by the need for a large opening in the barrier to allow for vessels from London Docks to pass through. When containerization replaced older forms of shipping and a new port was opened at Tilbury, a smaller barrier became feasible with each of the four main navigation spans being the same width as the opening of Tower Bridge.

Operation 

A Thames Barrier flood defence closure is triggered when high tides are forecast in the North Sea and river flows are high at the tidal limit at Teddington weir. If water levels might exceed  in central London, that is the trigger.
Closure begins about 9 hours before a dangerous high tide reaches the barrier. Messages give orders to stop river traffic, close subsidiary gates and alert other river users. As well as the Thames Barrier, the smaller gates along the Thames Tideway must be closed. Once river navigation has been stopped and all gates closed, then the Thames Barrier itself can be closed. The smaller gates are closed first, then the main navigable spans in succession. The gates remain closed until the tide downstream of the barrier falls to the same level as the water level upstream.

After heavy rain west of London, floodwater flows down the Thames upstream (before London). Because the river is tidal from Teddington weir all the way through London, this is only a problem at high tide, which prevents the floodwater from escaping out to sea. From Teddington the river is opening out into its estuary, and at low tide it can take much greater flow rates the further one goes downstream.
When the river is in flood upstream, if the gates are closed shortly after low tide, a huge empty volume holds behind the barrier which can act as a reservoir to hold the floodwater coming over Teddington weir. Most river floods will not fill this volume in the few high tide hours when the barrier needs to be closed. If the barrier was not there, the high tide would fill up this volume instead, and the floodwater could then spill over the river banks in London. About a third of the closures up to 2009 were to prevent flooding caused by heavy rain to the west of London.

Closures and incidents 
In the 1980s there were four closures, 35 closures in the 1990s, and 75 closures in the first decade of this century. The rate of closures is above that predicted, and is increasing rapidly.
An incident that was potentially catastrophic for London occurred on 27 October 1997. The dredger, MV Sand Kite, sailing in thick fog, collided with one of the Thames Barrier's piers. As the ship started to sink she dumped her 3,300 tonne load of aggregate, finally sinking by the bow on top of one of the barrier's gates where she lay for several days. Initially the gate could not be closed as it was covered in a thick layer of gravel. A longer term problem was the premature loss of paint on the flat side of the gate caused by abrasion. One estimate of the cost of flooding damage, had it occurred, was around £13 billion. The vessel was refloated in mid-November 1997.
The barrier was closed twice on 9 November 2007 after a storm surge in the North Sea which was compared to the one in 1953. The main danger of flooding from the surge was on the coast above the Thames Barrier, where evacuations took place, but the winds abated a little and, at the Thames Barrier, the 9 November 2007 storm surge did not completely coincide with high tide.

Future
The barrier was originally designed to protect London against a big flood level. The defence level included long-term changes in sea and land levels as understood at that time (~1970). Despite global warming, and a higher predicted rate of sea level rise, recent analysis suggested the barrier could last until around 2060–2070.

Released in 2005, a study by four respected academics contained a proposal to replace the Thames Barrier with a more ambitious 16 km (10 mi) long barrier across the Thames Estuary from Sheerness in Kent to Southend in Essex.

References
References 

River Thames
Civil engineering
Flood control
Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Newham
Buildings and structures in the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. Environmental chemistry can be defined as the study of the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical species in the air, soil, and water environments; and the effect of human activity on these. Environmental chemistry is an interdisciplinary science that includes atmospheric, aquatic and soil chemistry, as well as uses analytical chemistry. It is related to environmental and other areas of science. It is different from green chemistry, which tries to reduce potential pollution at its source.

Environmental chemistry starts by understanding how the uncontaminated environment works. It identifies the chemicals that are present naturally. It studies the concentration and effects of those chemicals. Then, it accurately study the effects humans have on the environment through the release of chemicals.
Environmental chemists draw on a range of concepts from chemistry and various environmental sciences to assist in their study of what is happening to a chemical in the environment. Important general concepts from chemistry include understanding chemical reactions and equations, solutions, units, sampling, and analytical techniques. Chemists study compounds with biological activity such as pheromones.

Contamination
A contaminant is a substance present in nature at a level higher than typical levels or that would not otherwise be there.   This may be due to human activity. The term contaminant is often used interchangeably with pollutant, which is a substance that hurts the surrounding environment.  While a contaminant is sometimes defined as a substance present in the environment as a result of human activity, but without harmful effects, it is sometimes the case that toxic or harmful effects from contamination only become apparent at a later date.
The "medium" (for example, soil) or organism (for example, fish) affected by the pollutant or contaminant is called a receptor. A sink is a chemical medium or species that retains and interacts with the pollutant.

Environmental indicators 

Chemical measures of water quality include dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, nutrients nitrates and phosphorus, heavy metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), and pesticides.
Applications
Environmental chemistry is used by the Environment Agency (in England and Wales), the Environmental Protection Agency (in the United States) the Association of Public Analysts, and other environmental agencies and research bodies around the world to detect and identify the nature and source of pollutants. These can include:
Heavy metal contamination of land by industry. These can then be transported into water bodies and be taken up by living organisms.
Nutrients leaching from agricultural land into water courses, which can lead to algal blooms and eutrophication.
Urban runoff of pollutants washing off impervious surfaces (roads, parking lots, and rooftops) during rain storms. Typical pollutants include gasoline, motor oil and other hydrocarbon compounds, metals, nutrients and sediment (soil).
Organometallic compounds.

Methods
Quantitative chemical analysis is a key part of environmental chemistry, since it provides the data that frame most environmental studies.
Common analytical techniques used for quantitative determinations in environmental chemistry include classical wet chemistry, such as gravimetric, titrimetric and electrochemical methods. More sophisticated approaches are used in the determination of trace metals and organic compounds.  Metals are commonly measured by atomic spectroscopy and mass spectrometry: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission (ICP-AES) or Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometric (ICP-MS) techniques.  Organic compounds are commonly measured also using mass spectrometric methods, such as gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS). Non-MS methods using GCs and LCs having universal or specific detectors are still staples in the arsenal of available analytical tools.
Other parameters often measured in environmental chemistry are radiochemicals. These are pollutants which emit radioactive materials, such as alpha and beta particles, posing danger to human health and the environment. Particle counters and Scintillation counters are most commonly used for these measurements. Bioassays and immunoassays are utilized for toxicity evaluations of chemical effects on various organisms.

Published analytical methods
Peer-reviewed test methods have been published by government agencies
 and private research organizations. Approved published methods must be used when testing to demonstrate compliance with regulatory requirements.

Related pages
 Green chemistry

References

Further reading
Further reading

Stanley E Manahan. Environmental Chemistry. CRC Press. 2004. .
Julian E Andrews, Peter Brimblecombe, Tim Jickells, Peter Liss, Brian Reid. An Introduction to Environmental Chemistry. Blackwell Publishing. 2004. .
Rene P Schwarzenbach, Philip M Gschwend, Dieter M Imboden. Environmental Organic Chemistry, Second edition. Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2003. .

NCERT XI text book. [unit 14]

Other websites
List of links for Environmental Chemistry  - from the WWW Virtual Library
International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry

Biochemistry
Branches of chemistry
 
Water pollution
Foster the People is an American indie pop band from Los Angeles, California. Foster the People have four members: Mark Foster, Isom Innis, Mark Pontius, and Sean Cimino. Their best known song is "Pumped Up Kicks" which was released on September 14, 2010 and reached #1 on Billboard's Alternative Songs chart, #3 on the Rock Songs tally and #3 on the Billboard Hot 100.

Discography 
So far as of 2014, Foster the People has released 2 Studio albums and 1 EP:

Albums
Torches (2011)
Supermodel (2014)
Sacred Hearts Club (2017)

EPs
Foster the People (2011)
Spotify Sessions (2014)
III (2017)
Pick U Up (2019)

Other websites 
Official website

American pop music groups
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Joseph-Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Lodovico [Luigi] Lagrangia, Turin, Piedmont, 25 January 1736 – Paris, 10 April 1813) was a mathematician and astronomer. According to one authority, he was "the greatest mathematician of the eighteenth century".

He lived part of his life in Prussia and part in France. He made significant contributions to mathematical analysis, from number theory, to classical and celestial mechanics. 

On the recommendation of Euler and d'Alembert, in 1766 Lagrange succeeded Euler as the director of mathematics at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. He stayed there for over twenty years, producing a large body of work and winning several prizes of the French Academy of Sciences. 

Lagrange's treatise on analytical mechanics, first published in 1788, was the best treatment of classical mechanics since Newton, and helped the development of mathematical physics in the nineteenth century.
Life 
Lagrange's parents were Italian, although he also had French ancestors on his father's side. In 1787, at age 51, he moved from Berlin to France and became a member of the French Academy, and he remained in France until the end of his life. Therefore, Lagrange is alternatively considered a French and an Italian scientist. 

Lagrange survived the French Revolution and became the first professor of analysis at the École Polytechnique upon its opening in 1794. Napoleon appointed Lagrange to the Legion of Honour and made him a Count of the Empire in 1808. Lagrange is buried in the Panthéon and his name appears as one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

Related pages 
Lagrange point
Lagrange's theorem (group theory)

References 

1736 births
1813 deaths
Alumni of the École Polytechnique
French mathematicians
Italian mathematicians
People from Turin
French theoretical physicists
The Homeless World Cup is an football competition for homeless people all over the world. Starting in 2003 in Graz, Austria, the competition brings together homeless people with the aim to end homelessness.

Rules

Anyone can play, male or female, as long as they are at least 16 years old. They must also have been homeless at some point after the previous year's World Cup, work as a street newspaper seller to earn money or be asylum seekers.

A team of 4 players play, with 3 outfield players and 1 goalkeeper. 4 substitution players are allowed. 

A team gets 3 points for a win. If a match ends in a draw, it is decided by penalty shootout and the winning team gets three points and the losing team gets one point. Games are 14 minutes long, in two seven-minute halves. The field is 22m (long) x 16m (wide).

History

Since 2003 the competition has taken place in:
Graz, Austria - 2003 
 Gothenburg, Sweden - 2004
 Edinburgh, Scotland - 2005 
 Cape Town, South Africa - 2006
 Copenhagen, Denmark - 2007
 Melbourne, Australia - 2008
 Milan, Italy - 2009
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 2010
 Paris, France - 2011
 Mexico City, Mexico - 2012
 Poznań, Poland - 2013
 Santiago, Chile - 2014
 Amsterdam, Netherlands - 2015
 Glasgow, Scotland - 2016
Oslo, Norway - 2017
Mexico City, Mexico - 2018
Cardiff, Wales - 2019
Kicking It documentary
The 2006 Homeless World Cup was the filmed as part of a documentary called Kicking It. directed by Susan Koch and Jeff Werner focusing on the experiences of seven homeless people at the Homeless World Cup football (soccer) game. Residents of Afghanistan; Kenya; Dublin, Ireland; Charlotte, North Carolina; Madrid, Spain and St. Petersburg in Russia were in the documentary which was narrated by actor Colin Farrell. The movie was released in January, 2008 at the Sundance Film Festival and is being distributed by Liberation Entertainment, Netflix and ESPN.

References

Other websites 

Official website

Homelessness
Football competitions
Football in Austria
Graz
2003 establishments
I Know What You Did Last Summer is a 1997 American teen slasher movie. The movie is based on the novel of the same name by Lois Duncan. The movie was directed by Jim Gillespie. It stars Jennifer Love Hewitt, Freddie Prinze, Jr., Sarah Michelle Gellar, Matthew Lillard, Neve Campbell and Ryan Phillippe. The writer is Kevin Williamson (the writer of Scream). It was followed by two sequels: I Still Know What You Did Last Summer and I'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer.
Plot
On the Fourth of July 1996 in Southport, North Carolina, high school graduates Julie James (Jennifer Love Hewitt), Ray and George Bronson (Freddie Prinze Jr. and Matthew Lillard) Charlotte Wilson (Neve Campbell), Helen Shivers (Sarah Michelle Gellar), and Barry Cox (Ryan Phillippe) drive to the beach after a night of partying. While driving along a coastal byway, they accidentally hit a pedestrian. Julie's friend Max (Johnny Galecki) passes by them on the road. Julie reassures Max that everything is all right, and he leaves. After some arguing, the group decides to dispose of the body, dumping it in the water. They agree to never again discuss what had happened.
A year later, Julie returns home from her college in Boston for the summer. Since the incident, the friends have gone their separate ways. Julie receives a letter with no return address, stating, "I know what you did last summer!" Disturbed, Julie tracks down Helen, who has returned to Southport to work at her family's department store after a failed attempt at an acting career in New York City. The girls take the note to Barry, who immediately suspects Max. They confront Max on the docks, and Barry threatens him with a hook. Julie meets Ray, who is now working as a fisherman; he unsuccessfully tries to reconcile with her. Julie meets up with George, who is now working as a host for a children's TV show, she showed the letter to George, then Julie and George meet up with Charlotte, who now works at a video store. She reconciles with George and Julie. Later, Max is killed by a figure in a rain slicker wielding a hook. Barry discovers a note in his gym locker saying, "I know
." He is then ambushed by the same assailant driving Barry's car.
Julie and George find an article mentioning Susie's father, Ben Willis (Muse Watson), and realise that Ben was the man they ran over, moments after he had killed David to avenge his daughter. She and George then go to the docks to tell Ray, but he refuses to believe them. Julie and George notice Ray's boat is called Billy Blue and run away. Ben appears, knocking Ray unconscious, and invites both Julie and George to hide on his boat. On the boat, they find photos and articles about their friends and them, and pictures of Susie. Ben's boat leaves the docks, and he begins tormenting Julie and George, chasing them below deck; there, they uncover the bodies of Helen, Charlotte and Barry in the boat's ice box. Ray regains consciousness and steals a motorboat to rescue Julie and George. He ultimately uses the rigging to sever Ben's hand and send him overboard
. When the police question them, they deny knowing why Ben attempted to kill them, but they are relieved not to have actually killed anybody the previous summer, and reconcile.
A year later, both Julie and George are in college in Boston. As Julie enters the shower, she notices the words "I still know" on the mirror. Moments later, a dark figure crashes through it as Julie screams in horror.

Cast
 Jennifer Love Hewitt as Julie James
 Sarah Michelle Gellar as Helen Shivers
 Ryan Phillippe as Barry William Cox
 Freddie Prinze, Jr. as Ray Bronson
 Matthew Lillard as George Charles Bronson (Ray's brother)
 Neve Campbell as Charlotte Wilson (George's girlfriend)
 Bridgette Wilson as Elsa Shivers
 Anne Heche as Missy Egan
 Muse Watson as Ben Willis
 Johnny Galecki as Max Neurick
 Stuart Greer as Officer David Caporizon

Awards
 1997 ASCAP Award in the category "Top Box Office Films".

References

Other websites
Other websites 

1997 horror movies
1997 thriller movies
1990s horror thriller movies
1990s mystery movies
1990s serial killer movies
1990s teen horror movies
American horror thriller movies
American mystery movies
American serial killer movies
American teen horror movies
Columbia Pictures movies
English-language movies
Movies about revenge
Movies based on books
Movies set in North Carolina
Slasher movies
The Amu Darya (, Āmūdaryā; , Jihôn or Jayhoun; , Gozan ), also called Oxus and Amu River, is a major river in Central Asia. It is formed by the junction of the Vakhsh and Panj. In ancient times, the river was regarded as the boundary between Iran and Turan.

Names 

In antiquity, the river was known as Vaksu to Indo-Aryans.

In ancient Afghanistan, the river was also called Gozan, descriptions of which can be found in the book "The Kingdom of Afghanistan: a historical sketch By George Passman Tate".

In classical antiquity, the river was known as the Ōxus in Latin and Ὦξος Oxos in Greek.

The name Amu is said to have come from the medieval city of Āmul, (later, Chahar Joy/Charjunow, and now known as Türkmenabat), in modern Turkmenistan. Darya is the Persian word for "river".
Amu Darya is a river almost in reverse. It gets its water from a powerful glacier fed stream high in the Pamir Knot at the eastern end of Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor, and does not end at the sea but spreads out into the sands of Turkmenistan's Kyzyl Kum desert instead of the inland Aral Sea as it did in former times.

In hadith
In the traditions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (hadith), the river is called by the name Jayhan (Arabic form of its ancient name Gozan).

As the river Jayhan
Historians tell us that one of the most ancient names for the Oxus or Amu in ancient Afghanistan was Jayhan. A name used by Greek, Mongol, Chinese, Persian, Jewish and Afghanastan historians. .

"Hara (Bokhara) and to the river of Jayhan (that is to say, the Amu, (called by Europeans the Oxus)....".

"the Jayhan River is the River Balkh, i.e. the Oxus or the Amu Darya.....".
"... and were brought into Halah (modern day Balkh), and Habor (which is Pesh Habor or Peshawar), and Hara (which is Herat), and to the river Gozan (which is the Ammoo, also called Jehoon)...".

Description

The river's total length is  and its drainage basin totals  in area. The river is navigable for over . All of the water comes from the high mountains in the south where annual precipitation can be over . Even before large-scale irrigation began, high summer evaporation meant that not all of this discharge reached the Aral Sea - though there is some evidence the large Pamir glaciers provided enough melt water for the Aral to overflow during the 13th and 14th centuries A.D.

Historical records state that in different periods, the river flowed into the Aral Sea (from the south), the Caspian Sea (from the east) or both, similar to the Syr Darya (Jaxartes, in Ancient Greek).
Watershed
About  of land is drained by the Amu Darya into the Aral Sea endorheic basin. This includes most of Tajikistan, the southwest corner of Kyrgyzstan, the northeast corner of Afghanistan, a long narrow portion of western Turkmenistan and about half of Uzbekistan. About 61% of the drainage lies within Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, while 39% is in Afghanistan.
Of the area drained by the Amu Darya, only about  actively contribute water to the river.
This is because many of the river's major tributaries (especially the Zeravshan River) have been diverted, and much of the river's drainage is dominated by outlying desert and steppe.
The abundant water flowing in the Amu Darya almost entirely comes from glaciers in the Pamir Mountains and Tian Shan,
which, standing above the surrounding arid plain, collect atmospheric moisture which otherwise would probably have escaped somewhere else. Without its mountain water sources, the Amu Darya would not contain any water because it rarely rains in the lowlands that characterize most of the river. Throughout most of the steppe, the annual rainfall is about .

History
 

The Amu Darya is (also theJayhan river)

was called the Oxus by the ancient Greeks. In ancient times, the river Jayhan was regarded as the boundary between Irān and Tūrān. The river Jayhan drainage lies in the area between the former empires of Genghis Khan and Alexander the Great, although they occurred at much different times. One southern route of the Silk Road ran along part of the Jayhan river northwestward from Termez before going westwards to the Caspian Sea.
It is believed that the Amu Darya's course across the Kara-Kum Desert has gone through several major shifts in the past few thousand years. Much of the time, the most recent period being in the 13th century to the late 16th century, the Amu Darya emptied into both the Aral and the Caspian Seas. Sometimes, the flow through the two branches was more or less equal, but often, most of the Amu Darya's flow split to the west and flowed into the Caspian.

People began to settle along the lower Amu Darya and the Uzboy in the 5th century A.D., establishing a thriving chain of agricultural lands, towns, and cities.

The first British explorer who reached the region was a naval officer called John Wood.  He was sent on an expedition to find the source of the river in 1839. He found modern day Lake Zorkul, called it Lake Victoria and proclaimed he had found the source. Then, the French explorer and geographer Thibaut Viné collected a lot of informations about this area during five expeditions between 1856 and 1862.
The Soviet Union became the ruling power in the 20th century. The Soviet Union fell in the 1990s and Central Asia split up into the many smaller countries that lie within or partially within the Amu Darya basin. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya were first used by the Soviets to irrigate extensive cotton fields in the Central Asian plain. Before this time, water from the rivers was already being used for agriculture, but not on this massive scale. The Qaraqum Canal, Karshi Canal, and Bukhara Canal were among the larger of the irrigation diversions built. The Main Turkmen Canal was a proposed project that would have diverted water along the dry Uzboy River bed into central Turkmenistan, but was never built.

Literature 

The Oxus river, and Arnold's poem, provide a literary background for the 1930s children's book The Far-Distant Oxus.

Related pages

Notes
Notes

References 
 
 Gordon, T. E. 1876. The Roof of the World: Being the Narrative of a Journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. Reprint by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company. Taipei. 1971.
 Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. Between Oxus and Jumna. London. Oxford University Press.
 Wood, John, 1872. A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus. With an essay on the Geography of the Valley of the Oxus by Colonel Henry Yule. London: John Murray.

Rivers of Afghanistan
The Founding Fathers refers to certain men who lived during the American Revolutionary War era.  These men signed the Declaration of Independence, either helped write the Constitution of the United States, or helped win the American Revolutionary War.  Many of these men were members of the Continental Congress at some point. The term "Founding Fathers" was first used for these people in 1916.

There were many people who were Founding Fathers.  Some scholars like to limit them to a small number, such as seven: George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison.

Most of the Founding Fathers were large landowners or rich merchants. Most of them owned slaves. After the Constitution, many of the Founding Fathers became leaders in the federal government. Five of them, Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, and James Monroe, were later elected president of the United States.

References
CNDO is the short cut for Complete Neglect of Differential Overlap. It is both 1) a method for learning key facts about molecular orbitals as well as 2) the name of a particular set of computer programs. CNDO is based on quantum chemistry. It is one of the first semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods. It uses two approximations:
core approximation - only the outer valence electrons are explicitly included.
zero-differential overlap

CNDO builds a mathematical model of a molecule. CNDO starts with the position of the positively charged nuclei of the atoms and the negatively charged electron clouds surrounding them.  Quantum chemistry tells the model the probability distribution of electron locations based on atomic orbitals.  From this information, CNDO computes data about the resulting molecular orbitals.

CNDO/2 is the main version of CNDO. John Pople and coworkers first wrote CNDO/2.

References
References

Other websites
CNDO/2 Calculation (Pirika)
Molecular Modeling for Educators 
Density Functional Modelling of Point Defects in Semiconductors 

Semiempirical quantum chemistry methods
Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers (CAPIF) is a group that represents the music industry in Argentina.

Sales certification 
Singles:
 Gold: 50,000
 Platinum: 100,000

Long plays & cassettes (albums):
 Gold: 30,000
 Platinum: 60,000
 Diamond: 500,000

Compilation albums:
 Gold: 100,000
 Platinum: 200,000

The criteria for certification were changed as of January 1, 2001. CAPIF certification criteria for albums since that date are:

 Gold: 20,000 units
 Platinum: 40,000 units
 Diamond: 250,000 units

Non-album formats:

Music industry organizations
Organizations based in Argentina
Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas (AMPROFON) is a group that represents the music industry in Mexico.

Sales certificates

References 

Mexican music
Music industry organizations
Organizations based in Mexico‎
A signature song is a song that is best known for a music artist because of its popularity among their fans. Signature songs can be songs that helped boost an artist's fan base, popularity, fame, and bookings. 

Songs
Selena is an epic biographical drama movie. It was released on March 21, 1997, by Warner Bros. Gregory Nava was the director and the screenwriter. The movie is about the singer Selena. She was murdered at age 23 by her friend, an ex-employee of her clothing stores. The movie also describes how Selena started in the music business and her family's problems. Jennifer Lopez starred as Selena, and many music critics believe this movie made Lopez famous. Selena was produced by Abraham Quintanilla, Jr. (Selena's father), Moctesuma Esparza and Robert Katz.

Lopez was given $1 million for her role as Selena, making her the highest-paid Hispanic woman ever, at the time. The movie soundtrack contained two unreleased songs, two tribute songs and two melodies. It reached number seven on the US Billboard 200 chart. It was certified platinum for shipments of one million copies in the United States.bagamash
Nava had a budget of $20 million to make this movie. They filmed the movie in Corpus Christi, San Antonio and Houston, Texas. Over 35,000 fans participated in the Houston Astrodome scene. The movie made $15,599,598 on its first week, the number one movie for that week. In total, it made $35,281,794 in 101 days. Selena had mostly good reviews from critics, though many thought the movie did not tell the true story of Selena. The movie won several ALMA Awards and Imagen Foundation Awards. It was nominated for a Golden Globe Award, MTV Movie Awards and a Young Artist Award.

Plot
The movie starts with Selena (Jennifer Lopez) getting ready for her Houston Astrodome concert on February 26, 1995. After her performance, the movie goes back in time to 1961. Abraham Quintanilla, Jr. (Edward James Olmos) and his band Los Dinos are at band practice. After band practice, they went to see a promoter in the other side of town. Los Dinos are then discriminated for being Americans of Mexican heritage. Los Dinos then performed at a Spanish nightclub, and are booed off stage by Mexicans for not knowing any Mexican music. The movie goes forward in time to 1981. Abraham had quit his dreams of becoming a music star and began helping his family. After work, Abraham sat down on his chair and began playing the guitar. His youngest child, Selena (Rebecca Lee Meza) was playing a football game in the backyard. She noticed her father and was curious to know what he was doing. She started to sing in front of Abraham. Abraham was surprised, he started a family band, and named it Selena y Los Dinos. He puts A.B
. He puts A.B. Quintanilla III (Rafael Tamayo) on base and Suzette Quintanilla (Victoria Elena Flores) on drums. Selena became the singer of the group.
The movie is now set in 1989, where Selena is performing at a Houston, Texas festival as an adult. In the next scene, Selena began talking to her cousin (Seidy Lopez) about her dreams of becoming a fashion designer. Suzette (Jackie Guerra) ran upstairs and told them that a rock guitarist is in their kitchen. The three of them began spying to see what's going on. Chris Perez (Jon Seda) began to audition as the band's new guitarist in front of Abraham. Abraham tells A.B. (Jacob Vargas) that he does not like Chris. This is because he is a rocker. However, A.B. tries to tell Abraham that Chris will change his style and look. The next day, Selena asks Chris to eat with her at a pizzeria. In the next scene, Selena's song "Como La Flor" reached number one on Billboard which made the group come together and celebrate. Selena is asked to perform in Mexico where 50,000 fans are waiting on her to sing. Selena came out to perform "La Carcacha"
. However, the crowd became very excited and started pushing people inside of the stage. Selena is later asked by her father to calm down the crowd. She performed a slower version of "Como La Flor" and calmed everyone down. After her performance, she and Chris walked on a pier. Selena told him that she was scared for the first time, while Chris tells Selena that he loves her.
While on the bus, Abraham found out that Chris liked Selena. Abraham tells Chris and Selena that their relationship is over. He then fires Chris and orders him to leave. Selena tried to run after him, however, her father told her that if she did that he will disband the group. After this, Selena and Chris began to meet secretly and they eloped. Selena went to her father's house the next day. Abraham began crying and told Selena that he was sorry. He then accepted Chris into the family. In the next scene, Selena won a Grammy Award and opened her clothing stores. She hired Yolanda Saldivar (Lupe Ontiveros) as the manager. Yolanda began to steal money from these places. After this, Selena started recording songs for her crossover album. Abraham later finds out that Yolanda was stealing money, and holds a meeting to hear Yolanda's side. Yolanda tells Abraham that if given time, she will prove her innocence. Later that night, Selena performed "Si Una Vez" at the Houston Astrodome on February 26, 1995
. After that night, Selena asked her mother to scratch her head and that she and Chris are thinking of starting a family. Selena then dreams of the crossover tour and sings "Dreaming of You". After Selena sings the opening of the song, a rose is thrown at her. Selena is seen being rushed to the hospital. Reporters tells everyone that Selena was shot by Saldívar during an argument over the missing financial records. In the next scene, a doctor walks towards Selena's parents. He tells them that Selena has died. "Dreaming of You" is played again, while her fans are seen holding pictures of her during a candlelight vigil. The movie ends with a picture of Selena waving goodbye reading "April 16, 1971 – March 31, 1995".
Characters 

This is a list of the actors and their roles in Selena:
 Jennifer Lopez as Selena Quintanilla-Pérez
 Jackie Guerra as Suzette Quintanilla
 Constance Marie as Marcella Quintanilla
 Alexandra Meneses as Sara
 Jon Seda as Chris Perez
 Edward James Olmos as Abraham Quintanilla, Jr.
 Jacob Vargas as A.B. Quintanilla III
 Lupe Ontiveros as Yolanda Saldivar
 Pete Astudillo as himself
 Ruben Gonzalez as Joe Ojeda
 Rebecca Lee Meza as "Young Selena"
 Victoria Elena Flores as "Young Suzette"
 Rafael Tamayo as "Young A.B."
 Panchito Gomez as "Young Abraham"
 Seidy López as Deborah
 Ricky Vela as himself
 Don Shelton as himself
Production and marketing 
Selena's family wanted to make a movie about Selena's life. They searched Hollywood, California for movie producers. Abraham then contacted Moctesuma Esparza and Robert Katz. They chose Gregory Nava as the movie director. Abraham told Esparza and Katz that he did not like Nava because of his "ego". The two producers told Abraham that everyone in Hollywood had an "ego problem". They also told him that Nava was the right guy.
Filming took place in Corpus Christi, San Antonio and Houston, Texas from May to October 1996. Nava posted fliers in Texas asking Selena fans to attend the Houston Astrodome scene. News of this event spread throughout the United States and Mexico. Over 35,000 people attended, some coming from as far as Japan and South America. It took over 3 hours to put makeup on everyone who attended. Producing the Astrodome scene cost about $2 million. The budget of the movie was $20 million.

The movie's trailer was released worldwide in December 1996. Nava spent $1 million on promotions for Selena.

Music
Music 

The soundtrack of the movie was released on March 11, 1997 by EMI Latin. The soundtrack included two songs that Selena did not release when she was alive: "Is It the Beat?" and "Where Did the Feeling Go?". It included two medleys — "Disco Medley" and the "Cumbia Medley". They are live versions Selena sang during her Houston Astrodome concert. Two tribute songs were also in the album. "Viviras Selena" includes Tejano singers and the Barrio Boyzz. "One More Time", which was composed by Olmos is performed by Lil'Ray. The "Oldies Medley" was performed by the Vidal Brothers. The soundtrack reached at number seven on the US Billboard 200 chart and number 36 on Canada's RPM. It was later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 1,000,000 copies in the United States. The album was produced by Selena's brother, Quintanilla III.
Chuck Eddy of Entertainment Weekly gave the soundtrack an "A" rating and stated that the soundtrack had everything a "right posthumous" album should have. Eddy also stated that listening to the album reveals why Selena's death impacted many Americans. Enrique Lopetegui of the Los Angeles Times wrote that "One More Time" was a "corny but effective" tribute to Selena. Lopetegui commented that "Viviras Selena" was the "weakest track" of the album and that "Is It the Beat?" was one of the "best songs" of Selena. He believed that "Where Did the Feeling Go?" was one of the "strongest". Lopetegui also stated that "Where Did the Feeling Go?" was similar to "Vision of Love" which was recorded by Mariah Carey. Lopetegui compared "Is It the Beat?" to the song "I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me)" by Whitney Houston, which had similar beats and sounds. A Miami Herald writer believed the soundtrack was "uneven" and stated that Selena's unreleased recordings "outshines" the rest of the songs on the album
. A score was released in the summer of 1997 and had music by Dave Grusin.
Before the movie was released, Selena fans were not happy that a Puerto Rican would play the part of a Mexican American singer. Many fans changed their views on Lopez after the Houston Astrodome scene was done filming. The movie opened in 1,850 theaters worldwide. Selena was released on March 21, 1997, and grossed $11,615,722, making it the second-highest debut for that week. It grossed $15,599,598 during its first week and became the number-one movie for that week. The next week, the movie grossed $24,285,142. In total, Selena grossed $35,281,794. It became the first and only movie directed by Nava to reach the 30 millionth mark. Selena was in theaters for 101 days, and Lopez's portrayal of Selena became the "breakthrough role" (becoming very important) for her career. She became very popular after the movie was released. Selena was released on VHS and DVD in fall 1997. On September 18, 2007, Warner Bros. released a 10th anniversary of the movie. It featured unreleased "behind the scenes" and extras.
The movie had mostly positive feedback from critics. Enrique Fernandez of the Sun Sentinel wrote that Nava did a great job in "catching the audience" with Selena. Fernandez also stated that Lopez had a "terrific characterization" of Selena. Steve Persall of the St. Petersburg Times believed that Nava did not do a good job in retelling Selena's murder. Persall believed Nava was under pressure by Selena's family and fans to tell a more "fairy tale" movie then a "real life event". Daisann McLane of Sun Sentinel agreed that the movie was more of a "fairy tale" and that "the movie is the family's version of the story". McLane believed that Selena "lie[d]" about Selena's "real life". Stuart Elliott of Austin American-Statesmen wrote that Selena became a "breakthrough success" in Selena's career. Elliott believed that Nava had "perfect[ed]" every scene and that female Hispanics in America can relate to the conflicts and the climax of the story.

Awards and nominations

References
References 

1990s biographical movies
1997 drama movies
American biographical movies
American drama movies
English-language movies
Jennifer Lopez
Movies set in Texas
Movies based on real life events
Selena
Movies about singers
Spanish-language movies
Selena ¡VIVE! was a tribute concert that was held on April 7, 2005. It was held a week after the 10th anniversary of Selena's death. Over 65,000 fans attended the concert, which featured high-profile artists.

Selena ¡VIVE! is the highest-rated and most-viewed Spanish-language show in American television history. The show, which lasted over three hours, scored a 35.9 Nielsen household rating.

References 

Selena
"You and I" is a song by American pop singer Lady Gaga from her third album Born This Way. it was released as the fourth single from the album on August 23, 2011.  Gaga wrote the song herself and produced it with R.J. "Mutt" Lange, who is known for his 14-year marriage to Canadian country pop singer Shania Twain and was Twain's writing partner and producer.

The song reached the top ten in the US and Canada.  The Recording Industry Association of America certified the song triple-Platinum on February 29, 2016, for sales and shipments of three million copies across the United States.

Music video 
Gaga is seen on a farm in Nebraska and is dressed in various outfits: in one point, she is wearing a straitjacket, and another time, she is dressed as a mermaid.  Actor Taylor Kinney plays Gaga's love interest in the video.  Kinney and Gaga dated for nearly five years after making the music video.

References 

2011 songs
Lady Gaga songs
Kalām (, literally "speech" or "words") is the Islamic discipline of seeking theological knowledge through dialectic (debate and argument). It also promotes prudence and logical reasoning. A practitioner of kalām is called a mutakallim (plural mutakallimiin).

Related pages 

 Islamic theology

References

Philosophy
Islamic theology
The Ohio State Senate is the upper house of the Ohio General Assembly. There are 33 State Senators. The state legislature meets in the Ohio Statehouse in Columbus, Ohio.  The President of the Senate presides over the body when in session. He is currently Matt Huffman. The Senate is currently controlled by the Republican Party.

Senators serve four year terms. The terms of the Senators are staggered so that about half the membership is elected every two years. The Senators representing the even-numbered districts are elected in years evenly divisible by four. The Senators from the odd-numbered districts are elected in even-numbered years not divisible by four. Senators are limited to two terms.

Each Senator represents approximately 330,000 Ohioans. Each Senate District covers three Ohio House districts.

Composition 
134th General Assembly (2021-2022)

Leadership

Other Officers
Other Officers

Clerk: According to the Rules of the Senate, the Clerk is elected by the members of the Senate and is tasked with maintaining records of all Senate bills and resolutions. The Clerk is also responsible for handling all documents received from other government departments.

Members of the 133rd Senate

References

Other websites
Ohio Senate official website
Project Vote Smart - State Senate of Ohio 
Map of Ohio Senate districts 
2006 Election Results from Ohio Secretary of State 
2004 Election Results from Ohio Secretary of State 
Reclaim Ohio - A Detailed Site About Ohio State House / Senate Election Results 

Government of Ohio
State upper houses in the United States
The snare drum or side drum is a percussion instrument. It has strands of snares made of curled metal wire, metal cable, plastic cable, or gut cords. They are stretched across the skin on the bottom of the drum. Pipe and tabor and some military snare drums can have a second set of snares on the bottom side of the top head. This is used to make a "brighter" sound. The snare drum is considered one of the most important drums of the drum kit.

The snare drum can make some special sounds:
A rimshot: When the drum is hit in a way that makes the side of the stick touch the rim. This makes it louder.
A cross-stick: The stick is laid down on the drum with its tip touching the head and the bottom end being used to hit the other side of the rim. This makes a loud "click" sound.

Sources
Beck, John (1995). Encyclopedia of percussion instruments. New York: Garland Publishing. . Google Books preview. Accessed 8 September 2009.

Other websites
Other websites 

 Marching Snare Drum Heads - Description of types of marching snare drum heads.
 Royal Schools Sources Percussion Page  Sources for the prescribed music for the Royal Schools of Music practical exams
 Field Drums Blog Photos, information, critical commentary and analysis of field drums, focusing on drums of the American Civil War
 Snare Drums Online  Snare Drum reviews, Guides to choosing a snare drum, and buying guides
 How to Build a Snare Drum DRUM! Magazine shows the step-by-step process of building a snare drum.

Drums
Economic boom is a phase when the economy has a huge increase. It is a natural cycle.

The United States of America had an essential supply of natural resources such as timber, iron, coal, minerals, oil and land. Immigrants provided a plentiful and cheap work force to utilise these resources. This enabled America to become a huge economic power at the beginning of the 20th century. These resources were an important foundation for the economy.

Whilst European economies suffered during the First World War, the USA experienced significant growth. US banks loaned money to Europe and businesses sold much needed goods. The war also provided a stimulus for inventions in production, materials and advertising. Immediately after the war there was a small slump but from 1922 the USA experienced an unprecedented economic boom.