Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (, ), also called the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, ROCA, or ROCOR) is a small part of the Russian Orthodox Church. It has over 400 parishes worldwide, and an estimated membership of over 400,000 people.

References 

Russian Orthodox Church
Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin (;  – 18 December 1980) was a Russian Political Leader who was Longest Serving Premier of the Soviet Union.  He was a friend of the previous Prime Minister, Nikita Khrushchev. He and Leonid Brezhnev led the country together until he died.

Early Life
Kosygin was born into a Russian working-class family consisting of his father and mother (Nikolai Ilyich and Matrona Alexandrovna) and his siblings. The family lived in Saint Petersburg. Kosygin was baptized (7 March 1904) one month after his birth. He lost his mother in infancy and was brought up by his father.
He and his father sympathized with the Revolution and Alexei was conscripted into a labour army on the Bolshevik side at the age of 14 during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922. After demobilization from the Red Army in 1921, Kosygin attended the Leningrad Co-operative Technical School and found work in the system of consumer co-operatives in Novosibirsk, Siberia. When asked[when?] why he worked in the co-operative sector of the economy, Kosygin replied, quoting a slogan of Vladimir Lenin: "Co-operation – the path to socialism!" Kosygin stayed there for six years until Robert Eikhe personally advised him to quit, shortly before the repressions hit the Soviet consumer co-operation movement.

Rise to Power

Pre-war period
Pre-war period

He applied for a membership in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1927 and returned to Leningrad in 1930 to study at the Leningrad Textile Institute [ru]; he graduated in 1935. After finishing his studies, Kosygin worked as a foreman and later a manager in a textile mill director. He rose rapidly during the Great Purge, overseen in Leningrad by the provincial communist party boss, Andrei Zhdanov. He was appointed director of the October Textile Factory in 1937, head of the Industry and Transport department of the Leningrad provincial communist party in July 1938, and in October 1938, Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Leningrad City Soviets of Working People's Deputies, ie 'mayor' of Leningrad City. In 1939, he was appointed People's Commissar for Textile and Industry and earned a seat on the Central Committee (CC). In 1940 Kosygin became a Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars.

Wartime
Wartime

Kosygin was appointed by the State Defence Committee to manage critically important missions during the Great Patriotic War (World War II).

As deputy chairman of the Council of Evacuation, he had the task of evacuating industry from territories about to be overrun by the Axis. Under his command 1523 factories were evacuated eastwards, as well as huge volumes of raw materials, ready-made goods and equipment. Kosygin managed clearing of congestions on the railroads in order to maintain their stable operation.

During the siege of Leningrad he was sent to his hometown to manage the construction of an ice road and a pipeline across Lake Ladoga.  This allowed evacuating some half-million people, and brought fuel to its factories and power plants. 

In 1943 Alexey Kosygin was promoted to Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (government) of the Russian SFSR. In 1944 he was appointed to head the Currency Board of the Soviet Union.

Afterwar period
Afterwar period

Kosygin became a candidate member of the Politburo in 1946. During the Soviet famine of 1946–47 He headed the foodstuff relief missions to the most suffering regions. He was appointed USSR Minister for Finance in February 1948, and a full member of the Politburo on 4 September 1948, putting him among the dozen or so most ranking officials in the USSR.

Kosygin's administrative skills led Stalin to take the younger man under his wing. Stalin shared information with Kosygin, such as how much money the families of Vyacheslav Molotov, Anastas Mikoyan, and Lazar Kaganovich possessed, spent and paid their staff. (A Politburo member earned a modest salary by Soviet standards but enjoyed unlimited access to consumer goods.) Stalin sent Kosygin to each home[when?] to put their houses into "proper order".

Temporary fall
Temporary fall

Kosygin's patron, Zhdanov, died suddenly in August 1948. Soon afterwards, Zhdanov's old rivals Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov persuaded Stalin to let them remove members of the decapitated Zhdanov faction, of whom the three most prominent were Nikolai Voznesensky, then Chairman of the State Planning Committee and a First Deputy Premier, Alexey Kuznetsov, the party secretary with oversight over the security, and Kosygin. During the brutal purge that followed, known as the Leningrad affair, Voznesensky, Kuznetsov and many others were arrested and shot. Kosygin was relegated to the post of USSR Minister for Light Industry, while nominally retaining his membership of the Politburo until 1952.
Nikita Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs:
Kosygin told his son-in-law Mikhail Gvishiani, an NKVD officer, of the accusations leveled against Voznesensky because of his possession of firearms. Gvishiani and Kosygin threw all their weapons into a lake and searched both their own houses for any listening devices. They found one at Kosygin's house, but it might have been installed to spy on Marshal Georgy Zhukov, who had lived there before him. According to his memoirs, Kosygin never left his home without reminding his wife what to do if he did not return from work. After living two years in constant fear, the family reached the conclusion[when?] that Stalin would not harm them.

Khrushchev era
Khrushchev era

In September 1953, six months after Stalin's death, Kosygin was appointed USSR Minister for Industrial Goods, and in December he was reinstated as a Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, under Malenkov, Stalin's immediate successor, but lost that position in December 1956, during Khrushchev's ascendancy, when he was appointed Deputy Chairman of the State Economic Commission. When the power struggle between Khrushchev and the so-called 'Anti-Party Group came to a head in 1957, Kosygin backed Khrushchev because, as he said later, if Malenkov and his allies had won "blood would have flowed again", but the French journalist Michel Tatu, a close observer who based in Moscow at the time, concluded that "Kosygin did not owe anything to Khrushchev" and that out of the post-1957 leadership "was visibly the least willing to praise the First Secretary", and that Khrushchev was "somewhat reluctant" to promote Kosygin.
However, despite Khrushchev's reluctance, Kosygin's career made a steady recovery. In June 1957, he was again appointed a Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers (for the third time), and a candidate member of the Presidium Central Committee (the renamed Politburo). In March 1959, he was made Chairman of Gosplan, and on 4 May 1960, he was promoted First deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and a full member of the Presidium.
As First Deputy Premier Kosygin travelled abroad, mostly on trade missions, to countries such as North Korea, India, Argentina and Italy. Since 1959 Kosygin headed Soviet mission to the ComEcon. Later, in the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kosygin was the Soviet spokesman for improved relations between the Soviet Union and the United States. According to Michel Tatu, in 1960–62, Kosygin was one of the 'big four', with Khrushchev, Frol Kozlov and Leonid Brezhnev, who would be present in the Kremlin to greet visiting leaders of East European communist parties, implying, but in November 1962, after Khrushchev complained about the management of Gosplan, and opposed Kosygin's plans for economic reform, he was removed from the inner leadership.

Prime Minister of the Soviet Union (1964-1980)
When Khrushchev was removed from power in October 1964, Kosygin replaced him as Premier in a collective leadership that included Leonid Brezhnev as general secretary and Nikolai Podgorny who ultimately became Chairman of the Presidium. Overall, the new Politburo adopted a more conservative outlook than that under Khrushchev's rule.

Kosygin, Podgorny and Andrei Kirilenko were the most reformist members, Brezhnev and Arvīds Pelše belonged to the moderate faction while Mikhail Suslov retained his leadership of the party's Stalinist wing.
In October 1964, at a ceremony in honour of Soviet cosmonauts, Brezhnev called for the strengthening of the Party apparatus. This speech was only the beginning of a large campaign directed against Kosygin. Several newspapers, such as Pravda and Kommunist, criticized the work of the Council of Ministers, and indirectly Kosygin, its chairman, for planning the economy in an unrealistic fashion, and used the highly aggressive rhetoric previously used to condemn Khrushchev against Kosygin.
Brezhnev was able to criticize Kosygin by contrasting him with Vladimir Lenin, who - Brezhnev claimed - had been more interested in improving the conditions of Soviet agriculture than improving the quality of light industrial goods. Kosygin's support for producing more consumer goods was also criticized by Brezhnev, and his supporters, most notably Konstantin Chernenko, for being a return to quasi First World policies. At the 23rd Party Congress, Kosygin's position was weakened when Brezhnev's supporters were able to increase expenditure on defense and agriculture. However, Brezhnev did not have a majority in the Politburo, and could count on only four votes. In the Politburo, Kosygin could count on Kiril Mazurov's vote, and when Kosygin and Podgorny were not bickering with each other, they actually had a majority in the Politburo over Brezhnev. Unfortunately for Kosygin this was not often the case, and Kosygin and Podgorny were constantly disagreeing on policy.
Early during Kosygin's tenure, the Brezhnev–Kosygin attempt to create stability was failing on various fronts. From 1969 to 1970, discontent within the Soviet leadership had grown to such an extent that some started to doubt both former and current Soviet policies. Examples include the handling of the Prague Spring and the later Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia[29] (which Kosygin initially resisted), the decline in agriculture production, the Sino–Soviet border conflict (he advocated restraint), the Vietnam War, and the Soviet–American talks on the limitation of strategic missiles. Two summit conferences between the US and the USSR were held: the Warsaw Pact Summit Conference and the Moscow Summit Conference; both failed to gain support for Soviet policies.
By 1970, these differences had not been resolved, and Brezhnev postponed the 24th Party Congress and the Ninth Five-Year Plan (1971–1975). The delay in resolving these issues led to rumors circulating in Soviet society that Kosygin, or even Brezhnev, would lose their posts to Podgorny. By March 1971, it became apparent that Brezhnev was the leader of the country, with Kosygin as the spokesman of the five-year plan and Podgorny's position within the collective leadership strengthened.

Foreign policy 
Kosygin with US President Lyndon B. Johnson at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference
Early on in his tenure, Kosygin challenged Brezhnev's right as general secretary to represent the country abroad, a function Kosygin believed should fall into the hands of the head of government, as was common in non-communist countries. This was actually implemented for a short period,[16] which led Henry A. Kissinger to believe that Kosygin was the leader of the Soviet Union.[5] Kosygin, who had been the chief negotiator with the First World during the 1960s, was hardly to be seen outside the Second World[33] after Brezhnev consolidated his position within the Politburo,[16] but also due to Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko's dislike of Kosygin meddling into his own ministerial affairs.[34]
The Six-Day War in the Middle East had the effect of increasing Soviet–American cooperation; to improve relations even further, the United States Government invited Kosygin to a summit with Lyndon B. Johnson, the President of the United States, following his speech to the United Nations.[35] At the summit, which became known as the Glassboro Summit Conference, Johnson and Kosygin failed to reach agreement on limiting anti-ballistic missile systems, but the summit's friendly and even open atmosphere was referred to as the "Spirit of Glassboro".[36] Relations between the two countries improved further when the 1970 Moscow Treaty was signed on 12 August 1970 by Kosygin and Gromyko and Willy Brandt and Walter Scheel who represented West Germany.[37] In 1971, Kosygin gave an extensive interview to the American delegation that included David Rockefeller, presenting his views on US-Soviet relations, environmental protection, arms control and other issues.[38][39]
Alexei Kosygin (left) and Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr signing the Iraqi–Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Co-Operation in 1972

Kosygin developed a close friendly relationship with the President of Finland Urho Kekkonen, which helped the USSR to maintain active mutual trade with Finland and to keep it away from Cold War confrontation.[40]

In 1972, Kosygin signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the government of Iraq, building on strong Soviet ties to the Iraqi Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and previous close relations with Iraqi leader Abd al-Karim Qasim.[41]
Kosygin protected János Kádár's economic reforms and his position as leader of the Hungarian People's Republic from intervention by the Soviet leadership.[42] Polish leader Władysław Gomułka, who was removed from all of his posts in 1970, was succeeded by Edward Gierek who tried to revitalize the economy of the People's Republic of Poland by borrowing money from the First World. The Soviet leadership approved both countries' respective economic experiments, since it was trying to reduce its large Eastern Bloc subsidy programme in the form of cheap oil and gas exports.[43] During the discussions within the Soviet leadership of a possible Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia Kosygin reminded leaders of the consequences of the Soviet suppression of the 1956 Hungarian revolution. Kosygin's stance became more aggressive later on when he understood that the reforms in Czechoslovakia could be turned against his 1965 Soviet economic reform.[44]
We should tell Taraki and Amin to change their tactics. They still continue to execute those people who disagree with them. They are killing nearly all of the Parcham leaders, not only the highest rank, but of the middle rank, too.

— Kosygin speaking at a Politburo session.[45]

Kosygin acted as a mediator between India and Pakistan in 1966, and got both nations to sign the Tashkent Declaration. Kosygin became the chief spokesman on the issue of arms control. In retrospect, many of Kosygin's colleagues felt he carried out his work "stoically", but lacked "enthusiasm", and therefore never developed a real taste for international politics.[46]
The Sino–Soviet split chagrined Kosygin a great deal, and for a while he refused to accept its irrevocability; he briefly visited Beijing in 1969 due to increased tension between the USSR and Maoist China. Kosygin said, in a close-knit circle, that "We are communists and they are communists. It is hard to believe we will not be able to reach an agreement if we met face to face".[46] His view on China changed however, and according to Harold Wilson, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Kosygin viewed China as an "organized military dictatorship" whose intended goal was to enslave "Vietnam and the whole of Asia".[47]
During an official visit by an Afghan delegation, Kosygin and Andrei Kirilenko criticized Afghan leaders Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin for Stalinist-like repressionist behaviour. He promised to send more economic and military aid, but rejected any proposal regarding a possible Soviet intervention, as an intervention in Afghanistan would strain the USSR's foreign relations with the First World according to Kosygin, most notably West Germany.[48] However, in a closed meeting, without Kosygin, who strongly opposed any kind of military intervention, the Politburo unanimously supported a Soviet intervention.[49]

Economic policyEditFive-Year PlansEdit

Further information: Five-year plans of the Soviet Union
The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1966–1970) is considered to be one of the most successful periods for the Soviet economy and the most successful when it comes to consumer production (see The "Kosygin" reform).[14] It became known as the "golden era".[50] The 23rd Party Congress and the Ninth Five-Year Plan (1971–1975) had been postponed by Brezhnev due to a power struggle within the Soviet leadership.[29] At the 23rd Party Congress Kosygin promised that the Ninth Five-Year Plan would increase the supply of food, clothing and other household appliances up to 50 percent.[51] The plan envisaged a massive increase in the Soviet standard of living, with Kosygin proclaiming a growth of 40 percent for the population's cash income in his speech to the congress.[52]
The Tenth Five-Year Plan (1976–1981) was referred to by Kosygin as the "plan of quality".[53] Brezhnev rejected Kosygin's bid for producing more consumer goods during the Tenth Five-Year Plan. As a result, the total volume of consumer goods in industrial production only stood at 26 percent. Kosygin's son-in-law notes that Kosygin was furious with the decision, and proclaimed increased defence expenditure would become the Soviet Union's "complete ruin".[54] The plan was less ambitious than its predecessors, with targets of national industrial growth no higher than what the rest of the world had already achieved. Soviet agriculture would receive a share investment of 34 percent, a share much larger than its proportional contribution to the Soviet economy, as it accounted for only 3 percent of the Soviet GDP.[55]

The "Kosygin" reformEdit

Main article: 1965 Soviet economic reform
Like Khrushchev, Kosygin tried to reform the command economy within a socialist framework. In 1965 Kosygin initiated an economic reform widely referred to as the "Kosygin reform". Kosygin sought to make Soviet industry more efficient by including some market measures common in the First World such as profit making for instance; he also tried to increase quantity of production, increase incentives for managers and workers, and freeing managers from centralized state bureaucracy.[56] The reform had been proposed to Khrushchev in 1964, who evidently liked it and took some preliminary steps to implement it. Brezhnev allowed the reform to proceed because the Soviet economy was entering a period of low growth.[57] In its testing phase, the reform was applied to 336 enterprises in light industry.[58]
The reform was influenced by the works of Soviet economist Evsei Liberman. Kosygin overestimated the ability of the Soviet administrative machine to develop the economy, which led to "corrections" to some of Liberman's more controversial beliefs about decentralization. According to critics, Kosygin's changes to Liberman's original vision caused the reform to fail.[57]

A propaganda poster promoting the reform. The poster reads: We're forging the keys of happiness.

Kosygin believed that decentralization, semi-public companies, and cooperatives were keys to catching up to the First World's contemporary level of economic growth. His reform sought a gradual change from a "state-administered economy" to an economy in which "the state restricts itself to guiding enterprises".[59] The reform was implemented, but showed several malfunctions and inconsistencies early on.[56]

ResultsEdit
The salary for Soviet citizens increased abruptly by almost 2.5 times during the plan. Real wages in 1980 amounted to 232.7 rubles, compared to 166.3 rubles before the 1965 Soviet economic reform and the Eighth Five-Year Plan. The first period, 1960–1964, was characterized by low growth, while the second period, 1965–1981, had a stronger growth rate. The second period vividly demonstrated the success of the Kosygin reform, with the average annual growth in retail turnover being 11.2 billion rubles, 1.8 times higher than in the first period and 1.2 times higher than the third period (1981–1985). Consumption of goods and daily demand also increased. The consumption of home appliances greatly increased. Refrigerators increased from a low of 109,000 in 1964 to 440,000 units by 1973; consumption declined during the reversal of the reform. Car production increased, and would continue to do so until the late 1980s. The Soviet leadership, under pressure, sought to provide more attractive goods for Soviet consumers
.[60]
The removal of Khrushchev in 1964 signalled the end of his "housing revolution". Housing construction declined between 1960 and 1964 to an average of 1.63 million square metres. Following this sudden decrease, housing construction increased sharply between 1965 and 1966, but dropped again, and then steadily grew (the average annual growth rate was 4.26 million square metres). This came largely at the expense of businesses. While the housing shortage was never fully resolved, and still remains a problem in present-day Russia, the reform overcame the negative trend and renewed the growth of housing construction.[14]

Cancellation and aftermathEdit
Growing hostility towards reform, the initial poor results, and Kosygin's reformist stance, led to a popular backlash against him. Kosygin lost most of the privileges he had enjoyed before the reform, but Brezhnev was never able to remove him from the office of Chairman of the Council of Ministers, despite his weakened position.[5] In the aftermath of his failed reform, Kosygin spent the rest of his life improving the economic administration through the modification of targets; he implemented various programmes to improve food security and ensure the future intensification of production.[61] There is no proof to back up the claim that the reform itself contributed to the high growth seen in the late-1960s, or that its cancellation had anything to do with the stagnating growth of the economy which began in the 1970s.[62]

1973 and 1979 reformsEdit

Main articles: 1973 Soviet economic reform and 1979 Soviet economic reform
Kosygin initiated another economic reform in 1973 with the intentions of weakening the central Ministries and giving more powers to the regional authorities in republican and local-levels. The reform's failure to meet Kosygin's goal led to its cancellation. However, the reform succeeded in creating associations, an organization representing various enterprises.[63] The last significant reform undertaken by the pre-perestroika leadership was initiated by Kosygin's fifth government in a joint decision of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers. The "Improving planning and reinforcing the effects of the economic mechanism on raising the effectiveness in production and improving the quality of work", more commonly known as the 1979 reform. The reform, in contrast to the 1965 reform, was intended to increase the central government's economic involvement by enhancing the duties and responsibilities of the ministries
. Due to Kosygin's resignation in 1980, and because of Nikolai Tikhonov's conservative approach to economics, very little of the reform was actually implemented.
Awards and Honors
Order of Lenin(6 times - 1939,1944,1954,1964,1974,1974)
Order of the October Revolution (1979)
Order of the Red Banner (1943)
Gold Star Order
Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun of Peru‎ (1970)
José Marti Order
"Hero of the Socialist Labour(2 times - 1964,1974)
Order of Klement Gottwald (1979)
Order of the White Lion (1970)
Medal "Veteran of Labour"
Medal "For Valiant Labour in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1945)
Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin" (1970)
Medal "For the Defence of Leningrad" (1945)
Medal "For the Defence of Moscow" (1945)
Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1945)
Jubilee Medal "Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1965)
Jubilee Medal "Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1975)
Jubilee Medal "50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (1968)
Jubilee Medal "60 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (1978)
Medal "In Commemoration of the 800th Anniversary of Moscow" (1947)
Medal "In Commemoration of the 250th Anniversary of Leningrad" (1954)
References

1904 births
1980 deaths
Heads of government of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
House arrest is when someone has been arrested, but not put in prison. Instead, they are made to stay in their homes, hence the term.

A notable example of house arrest is Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma.  She was under house arrest for much of the time between 1990 and 2010.

Subjects typically wear ankle bracelets which alert the authorities when they leave their house.

References

Punishments
Imprisonment and detention
The Stig is the 'tame racing driver' from the popular BBC motoring show Top Gear. He coaches the 'stars in the reasonably priced car' and is the driver for the Power laps. His identity is unknown though he has been played by many drivers, the most recent driver is Ben Collins.

Television characters

de:Top Gear#The Stig
The American League Central Division is a group of baseball teams in the American League of Major League Baseball (MLB). The teams all play in the Midwestern United States. It was started in 1920.

Teams in the American League Central Division
Chicago White Sox
Cleveland Guardians
Detroit Tigers
Kansas City Royals
Minnesota Twins

American League
When talking about cars, a tuner is a car with many parts changed so the car can go very fast. The word "tune" here means "to adjust" or "to change". Typically, people call any vehicle that has been modified for performance reasons a tuner car regardless of make or model.

When people want to drive fast cars but don't want to buy a very expensive car, they change some parts for an ordinary car to make it go faster.

Making a tuner 
For basic tuning, the engine intake and exhaust are changed, which means the process that takes air into the engine and out of the engine happens faster. People can also make the frame of the car stronger, to help it go around corners better. A spoiler or wing helps air push the car down onto the ground, which means more grip.

Some types of tuned cars
A hot rod is a classic American car with lots of engine upgrades to help it go fast in a straight line.
 A lowrider is a very low car, often with fancy paint and decals. Lowriders are popular in the United States.
 JDM means "Japanese domestic market" and is used for cars that are made for Japan before being brought into other countries.

Related pages
Auto racing

References 

Car classifications
Rage Racer is a 1996 racing video game by Namco where the player controls different cars and wins races in order to become what the game calls "Rage Racer". Four different car manufacturers make cars to drive in the game. Each of the cars has its forte and is sometimes named after it. In the game, the player drives three (four later in the game) courses to try and win a trophy and move to the next class.

Storyline
At the beginning of the game, the game shows a plot of how some elite few "Race Racers" started to race their "worldwide speedway".

Gameplay
Gameplay

Grand Prix
In the Grand Prix mode, the player starts at Class 1. They choose a course and then a car. As the player wins races, they win prize money, or "credits", which are called e.g. in the game. E.g. can be used to buy new upgrades, cars, or courses. If the player loses a race, they lose 1 chance. A player starts with 5 chances per class. If a player loses when they do not have any chances, the game ends. Players can still save, and can still retrieve their credit and cars, but medals and trophies are lost.

Time Trial
Time Trial is a mode where the player races the clock. They choose a car and course, and then are shown the record for the track. Tracks are also divided into "sections", parts of a track.

A player can save or load data with a memory card.

References

Other websites
 Namco Site. 

Racing video games
1996 video games
Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) is a plant which grows in water. It is a member of the Brassicaceae family, along with some other leaf vegetables.

People grow them for eating, often in salad or sandwiches. They have a peppery flavour and are fast-growing. Watercress is related to the cabbage and mustard plants.

Agrology of watercress is both a large scale and a garden scale. However the packaging used by super markets using sealed plastic bags under some pressure. Watercress is also known as tall nasturtium. This plant grows well in cold water. That's why you will find it near water like a ditch.

Watercress packs have a lot of nutrients. Iron, potassium and vitamins C and E are a few. Watercress also helps with skin problems. It keeps the skin very clarified. Watercress is used in many recipes. You can use it to make a sandwich or in soup.

If it is not  harvested, watercress can grow to a height of 50–120 cm. It is a member of the brassicacea family, along with some other leaf vegetables.
New market, Alabama, was once known as "Watercress Capital of the World".

Vegetables
Brassicaceae
Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (30 July 1549 – 3 February 1609) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1587 to 1609. He succeeded his older brother Francesco I.

Ferdinando was the fifth son of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Eleonora di Toledo. 

He was a Cardinal before he became Grand Duke, until he married Christine of Lorraine in 1589. He was succeeded by his eldest son, who reigned as Cosimo II. His wife and daughter-in-law Maria Maddalena of Austria acted as regents for Cosimo II.

Issue
Issue

 Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1590–1621); married Maria Maddalena of Austria and had issue;
 Eleonora de' Medici (1591–1617) died unmarried
 Catherine de' Medici (1593–1629); married Ferdinando Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, later Governor of Siena;
 Francesco de' Medici (1594–1614) died unmarried;
 Carlo de' Medici (1595–1666) died unmarried;
 Filippino de' Medici (1598–1602) died unmarried;
 Lorenzo de' Medici (1599–1648) died unmarried;
 Maria Maddalena de' Medici (1600–1633) died unmarried;
 Claudia de' Medici (1604–1648); married (1) Federico della Rovere and had issue; (2) Leopold V, Archduke of Austria and had issue.

1549 births
1609 deaths
Ferdinando 1
Cosimo I de' Medici (12 June 1519 – 21 April 1574) was Duke of Florence from 1537 to 1574 and then the first Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1569. He was the son of Giovanni dalle Bande Nere and Maria Salviati.

Marriage and family

In 1539, he married Eleonora di Toledo (1522–1562). She died, with her sons Giovanni and Garzia, in 1562, aged forty. All three of them died from malaria while traveling to Pisa.

Before his first marriage, Cosimo fathered an illegitimate daughter with an unknown woman:

Bia de' Medici (1536 – 1 March 1542) died in infancy.

With Eleonora, Cosimo fathered eleven children:
Maria de' Medici (3 April 1540 – 19 November 1557) died unmarried.
Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (25 March, 1541 – 19 October 1587) married Joanna of Austria and then Bianca Cappello.
Isabella de' Medici (31 August 1542 – 16 July 1576) marrried Paolo Giordano I Orsini.
Giovanni de' Medici (28 September 1543 – November 1562) Bishop of Pisa.
Lucrezia de' Medici (7 June 1545 – 21 April 1561) married of Alfonso II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara.
Pietro (Pedricco) (10 August  1546 – 10 June 1547) died in infancy.
Garzia de' Medici (5 July 1547 – 12 December 1562) died unmarried.
Antonio de' Medici (1548–1548) died in infancy.
Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (30 July 1549 – 17 February 1609) married Christina of Lorraine.
Anna de' Medici (1553–1553) died in infancy.
Pietro de' Medici (June 3, 1554 – April 25, 1604)murdered his wife Eleonora di Garzia di Toledo because of infidelity
After Eleonora's death in 1562, Cosimo fathered two children with his mistress Eleonora degli Albrizzi:
Giovanni de' Medici (1563–1621)
unnamed daughter (1566) died at birth?

In 1570, Cosimo married Camilla Martelli:

Virginia de' Medici (29 May 1568 – 15 January 1615) Cesare d'Este, Duke of Modena.

1541 births
1587 deaths
People from Florence
Grand Princes of Tuscany
A point is a unit of score that is given when a player knocks the puck into their rival's goal.

Ice hockey words
The Riau Islands is a province in Indonesia. Tanjung Pinang is its capital city. Its official language is Riau. In 2007, the population was around 1,392,900.

Sources

Other websites
 

Islands of Indonesia
Riau Islands
The Singapore River is a river in Singapore. It flows from the Central Area of Singapore to the ocean. It is  long. Its mouth was used as a port. In the past, it was a very busy place because of the spice trade. It became very polluted and was cleaned up from 1977 to 1987.

References 

Rivers of Asia
Geography of Singapore
The East India Company (EIC) was an British joint-stock company with headquarters in London. It was started for trading with the East Indies, but most trade was with India and China. It was given a charter, permission to exist, in 1600 and traded many things in India.

In the mid-18th century, the company built up its own presidency armies and won the Battle of Plassey, which brought it from only trading with India to actually ruling India.

The company had armed forces and armed ships. It fought against various Indian rulers and struggled against the Dutch East India Company and other European nations. It was ruled by one governor and 24 directors. It became a monopoly in most parts of India.
After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the British government ruled India directly and the company was dissolved in 1874. Its role was taken over by the Government of India (the British Raj). At its height, the Raj covered a huge area from Baluchistan in the west to Burma in the east, as well as Ceylon and a number of other islands.

References 

Defunct companies of the United Kingdom
1600 establishments
1874 disestablishments
17th-century establishments in England
1870s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1600s establishments in Europe
The Battle of Marathon took place in September 490 B.C. on the plain of Marathon. It was fought between the Athenians and the Persians. Athens was supported by a small force from the city of Plataea. The battle was the end of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius the Great, to conquer Greece. It was part of the first Greco-Persian war. The Persians were defeated in the battle and the Greek victory decisively slowed down the Persian advance into the Greek mainland however the Persians would sail across the Aegean Sea ten years later and successfully burn down and destroy Athens.

The Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the Ionian Revolt. Then, Athens and Eretria had sent a force to support the cities of Ionia, who were trying to overthrow Persian rule. The Athenians and Eretrians succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis, but were forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, Darius swore to burn Athens and Eretria to the ground.
Persian invasion 
Once the Ionian revolt was crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade, Darius began planning to conquer Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean, to subjugate the Cyclades, the group of Greek islands in the Aegean Sea. The next step was to attack Athens and Eretria. After a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians defeated, captured and burnt Eretria.
Consequences 
The defeat at Marathon was a decisive victory that marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. The Persian force retreated to Asia. Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece. However, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, postponing any Greek expedition. After Darius died, his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece, which finally began in 480 BC.

The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten. The eventual Greek triumph in these wars began at Marathon. The next two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been so influential in western society. This is why the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a key moment in European history.
John Stuart Mill suggested that "the Battle of Marathon, even as an event in British history, is more important than the Battle of Hastings". The Battle of Marathon is perhaps now more famous as the inspiration for the Marathon race. Although historically inaccurate, the legend of a Greek messenger running to Athens with news of the victory became the inspiration for this athletic event, introduced at the 1896 Athens Olympics, and originally run between Marathon and Athens.

Battle
Battle 

When the Athenian line was ready, according to one source, the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades: "At them".p191 Most likely, they marched until they reached the limit of the archers' effectiveness, the "beaten zone", (roughly 200 meters), and then broke into a run towards their enemy.p66 Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed mainly of missile troops (archers, spear-throwers).
"The enemy directly in their path...realised to their horror that [the Athenians], far from providing the easy pickings for their bowmen, as they had first imagined, were not going to be halted...The impact was devastating. The Athenians had honed their style of fighting in combat with other phalanxes, wooden shields smashing against wooden shields, iron spear tips clattering against breastplates of bronze...in those first terrible seconds of collision, there was nothing but a pulverizing crash of metal into flesh and bone; then the rolling of the Athenian tide over men wearing, at most, quilted jerkins for protection, and armed, perhaps, with nothing more than bows or slings. The hoplites' ash spears, rather than shivering...could instead stab and stab again, and those of the enemy who avoided their fearful jabbing might easily be crushed to death beneath the sheer weight of the advancing men of bronze."194–197
The Athenian wings quickly routed the inferior Persian levies (conscripted troops) on the flanks, before turning inwards to surround the Persian centre, which had been more successful against the thin Greek centre. The battle ended when the Persian centre then broke in panic towards their ships, pursued by the Greeks. Some, unaware of the local terrain, ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned.p71 The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships, and managed to capture seven ships, though most were able to launch.

Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield. It is unknown how many more died in the swamps. The Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11.

Notes

References 

Achaemenid Empire
490s BC
Battles of ancient Greece
The Strait of Singapore or Singapore Strait is a strait in Singapore. It is  long and  wide. It is between the Strait of Malacca and the South China Sea. Singapore is to the north and the Riau Islands are to the south. It is the way to get to the Singapore Harbor.

Geography of Singapore
Straits
Apache Subversion (also called subversion repository and SVN) is an internet software mainly used by software programmers. Subversion allows other developers to view the code easily.

To download files in a directory of a subversion repository, one can "checkout" using a subversion client.

Further reading

 C. Michael Pilato, Ben Collins-Sussman, Brian W. Fitzpatrick; Version Control with Subversion; O'Reilly;  (1st edition, paperback, 2004, full book online, mirror)
 Garrett Rooney; Practical Subversion; Apress;  (1st edition, paperback, 2005)
 Mike Mason; Pragmatic Version Control Using Subversion; Pragmatic Bookshelf;  (1st edition, paperback, 2005)
 William Nagel; Subversion Version Control: Using the Subversion Version Control System in Development Projects; Prentice Hall;  (1st edition, paperback, 2005)

Other websites 
 Subversion official website
 Wikimedia's subversion repository

Internet
Free software
A variable-width encoding is a type of character encoding scheme in which codes of different lengths are used to encode a character set for representation in a computer. All of the common Unicode encodings are variable-width encodings, e.g. UTF-8 and UTF-16. It's a common mistake to think that UTF-16 isn't, so that's not a good reason to prefer UTF-16 (only its obsolete predecessor UCS-2 is fixed-width).

ASCII is a fixed-width encoding. So are many other legacy encodings, but no modern text encoding. Note, ASCII is legal UTF-8 text, but it's only fixed-width in that sense only when that subset is used. As soon as text uses even one letter outside of the ASCII subset, or even if software expects UTF-8 text, and can't rely on only the ASCII subset used, then the (UTF-8) encoding used is variable-length.

Computer science
Encodings
The earliest known Cro-Magnon remains are between 35,000 and 45,000 years old, based on radiometric dating.  The oldest remains, from 43,000  45,000 years ago, were found in Italy and Britain.  Other remains also show that Cro-Magnons reached the Russian Arctic about 40,000 years ago.

Cro-Magnons had powerful bodies, which were usually heavy and solid with strong muscles.  Unlike Neanderthals, which had slanted foreheads, the Cro-Magnons had straight foreheads, like modern humans.  Their faces were short and wide with a large chin.  Their brains were slightly larger than the average human's is today.
Naming
The name "Cro-Magnon" was created by Louis Lartet, who discovered the first Cro-Magnon skull in southwestern France in 1868.  He called the place where he found the skull Abri de Cro-Magnon.  Abri means "rock shelter" in French; cro means "hole" in the Occitan language; and "Magnon" was the name of the person who owned the land where Lartet found the skull.  Basically, Cro-Magnon means "hole on Magnon's land."

This is why scientists now use the term "European early modern humans" instead of "Cro-Magnons."  In taxonomy, the term "Cro-Magnon" means nothing.

Cro-Magnon life

 Used bones, shells, and teeth to make jewelry 
 Spun, dyed, and tied knots in flax, to make cords for their tools, make baskets, or sew clothing

Like most early humans, the Cro-Magnons mostly hunted large animals.  For example, they killed mammoths, cave bears, horses, and reindeer for food.  They hunted with spears, javelins, and spear-throwers.  They also ate fruits from plants.
The Cro-Magnons were nomadic or semi-nomadic.  This means that instead of living in just one place, they followed the migration of the animals they wanted to hunt.  They may have built hunting camps from mammoth bones; some of these camps were found in a village in Ukraine.  They also made shelters from rocks, clay, tree branches, and animal skin (leather).

Related pages
 Neanderthal
 Homo sapiens
 Human evolution

References

Evolutionary biology
Humans
Physical anthropology
These kind of advantages can often be activated by entering codes. A set of cheat codes may have been written into the game's programming by the game's developers. When entered, a code activates a corresponding advantage. Cheat codes can also be created by added software, called a game trainer. Players can also cheat by taking advantage of software bugs in the game.

some games have "activatable cheat codes" preset on the actual game such as Speed Racer, or the Lego series of Video games and by playing the game you actually get told cheat codes to put in to be able to unlock advantages, these are different from "Cheating" because the games developers "want" you to use these types of cheat codes and these types of cheat codes are only useable in single player games
the bad type of cheat codes are
Cheat codes not intended to be used in a game that make the system do things that are not normal. For example, pressing a certain sequence of buttons may increase a character's hit points in an role-playing game, or make a car drive faster in a racing game.

Another way of video game hacks is using applications called exploits. like WiiBrew, which access a video games coding and allows you to completely change its code from adjusting a "left' button to go "up" instead all the way to completely recreating the game.

The number of users using competitive video games cheat continues to decrease with the development of anti-cheat systems. We can examine this thesis based on the League of legends.

The reason why the rate of banned players is higher than the rate of cheating is that past activities can be detected.

Other websites
 Official data shared by League of legends game
 Escape From Tarkov Cheats
Video game design
Anaphalis (pronounced A-ná-pha-lis) is a genus within the Asteraceae family whose members are commonly known by the name Pearly everlasting. There are around 110 species within the genus with the vast majority being native to central and southern Asia. There is one species native to North America that is fairly well known and popular in cultivation, namely the Western Pearly Everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea).

Two of the species, A. javanica and A. longifolia can be found on the mountain af the Java island in Indonesia. A. javanica, also known as the Javanese Edelweiss, is currently an endangered species.

Species 
 Anaphalis javanica (Javanese Edelweiss)
 Anaphalis longiflora
 Anaphalis longifolia
 Anaphalis lorentzii
 Anaphalis margaritacea - Western Pearly Everlasting
 Anaphalis viscida - found in Mount Tambora, Indonesia

Asteraceae
Weaning means changing the diet of a baby little by little, from its mother's milk to the food it will eat as an adult.  Since only female mammals make milk, weaning is only a necessary process for mammals.  When a baby does not drink any more breast milk (or milk substitute), the baby has been weaned.

Human weaning
Babies are able to eat small amounts of solid food, along with breast milk or formula, when they are about six months old.  Before this time, a child's digestive system and kidneys are still forming, so the child is not ready for solid food.

Babies do not have teeth and cannot chew their food, so they are usually fed soft, runny food such as cooked mashed fruit or vegetables.  Babies cannot digest some foods which adults can eat, including food with nuts or with large amounts of gluten, salt or sugar.  Also, babies' digestive systems are very sensitive to bacteria, so they should not eat any foods with honey, eggs or shellfish in them because these foods sometimes contain bacteria.
Weaning
Weaning conflict happens when the mother wants to wean her baby, but the baby wants to keep breastfeeding. The mother tries to force the baby to stop breastfeeding, and the baby tries to force the mother to continue.  Some evolutionary scientists think mammal mothers need to wean their babies as soon as possible, so they will have a greater chance of having more babies and spreading their genes.  But mammal babies want to breastfeed as long as they can so they will have a chance to grow strong, and also to enjoy the full care of their mothers.  Weaning conflict happens in several mammal species, including primates and canines.

Related pages
Breastfeeding

References

Mammals
Nanoelectromechanical systems will be very tiny machines, with dimensions thousands of times thinner than the human hair, that could be used as motors or sensors. The technology is very new and still in the laboratory stage, but may replace microelectromechanical systems.

Compared to human scale, things work very differently at nano dimensions. For example, attractive forces between materials of the same type may push together moving parts and block a motor.

Nanotechnology