Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Rahonavis is a genus of bird-like feathered dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous, 70–65 million years ago (mya) of what is now northwestern Madagascar.

It is known from a partial skeleton found in a quarry. Rahonavis was a small predator, at about  long, with the typical Velociraptor-like raised sickle claw on the second toe.

Classification
Rahonavis has quill knobs on its ulna (forearm bone), which led at first to its inclusion among the birds. However, the rest of the skeleton is rather typically dromaeosaurid.
Makovicky and colleagues consider Rahonavis to be closely related to the South American dromaeosaurids Unenlagia and Buitreraptor, and thus a member of the subfamily Unenlagiinae. Norell and colleagues (2006) also found Rahonavis to lie within the Unenlagiinae, as the sister taxon to Unenlagia itself.<ref name="norelletal2006">{{cite journal|last=Norell|first=M.A. | display-authors = etal |year=2006|title=A new dromaeosaurid theropod from Ukhaa Tolgod (Omnogov, Mongolia)|journal=American Museum Novitates|issue=3545|pages=1–51|doi=10.1206/0003-0082(2006)3545[1:ANDTFU]2.0.CO;2|url=https://zenodo.org/record/5386073 }}</ref> A 2007 study by Turner and colleagues again found it to be closely related to Unenlagia.  However, studies published since 2009 that have found many traditional "dromaeosaurids", including the unenlagiines, closer to Avialae than to dromaeosaurines. A cladistic analysis recovered Rahonavis as a probable relative of Jeholornis and Jixiangornis.Andrea Cau (2018)
.Andrea Cau (2018). "The assembly of the avian body plan: a 160-million-year long process" (PDF). Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana. 57 (1): 1–25. doi:10.4435/BSPI.2018.01.
Although numerous artists' reconstructions of Rahonavis show it in flight, it is not clear that it could fly. There is even been some doubt that the forearm material, which includes the quill knobs, belongs with the rest of the skeleton. Some researchers have suggested that Rahonavis represents a chimaera, with the forelimb of a bird mixed with the skeleton of a dromaeosaurid.
The nearby discovery of the primitive bird Vorona berivotrensis shows that the possibility of a mix-up cannot be entirely excluded. However, many other scientists, including the original describers of Rahonavis, think its remains belong to a single animal. The wing bones are close to the rest of the skeleton. All the bones attributed to Rahonavis were buried in an area "smaller than a letter-sized page", according to co-describer Luis M. Chiappe in his 2007 book Glorified Dinosaurs. Chiappe maintained that Rahonavis could probably fly, noting that its ulna was large and robust compared to Archaeopteryx, and that this fact, coupled with the prominent quill knobs, suggest that Rahonavis had larger and more powerful wings than that earlier bird. In addition, Rahonavis shoulder bones show evidence of ligament attachments allowing the independent mobility needed for flapping flight. Chiappe concluded that Rahonavis'' was capable of flight, though it would have been more "clumsy in the air than modern birds".
References

Further reading

Cretaceous dinosaurs
Feathered dinosaurs
Gran Turismo 2 is the second racing game in the Gran Turismo series. Game is developed by Polyphony Digital and published by Sony Computer Entertainment in 1999 for PlayStation. The game has over 500 cars  and over 20 tracks.

References

1999 video games
Gran Turismo series
Wii Party is a party video game for the Nintendo Wii games console. It was released in Japan on July 8, 2010, in North America on October 3, 2010, in Australia on October 7, 2010, and in Europe on October 8, 2010. Wii Party received mixed to positive reviews from critics and sold 9.35 million copies worldwide as of September 2021. A sequel, Wii Party U, was released for the Wii U on October 25, 2013. It takes elements from the Mario Party series, which is another video game series that is made by Nintendo. It has over 80 mini-games, like Spin-Off, and House Party.

Minigames 
Board Game Island
In the beginning, the players play a mini-game to set an order. The winner gets a normal dice plus a gold dice, the 2nd place 
gets a silver dice, the 3rd place is playing with the bronze dice and the last one does not get anything, they use a normal dice only.  The gold dice has the numbers 1 – 6, the silver dice has the numbers 1 – 3, the bronze dice has the numbers 1 – 2 while the normal dice has the numbers 1 – 6. After the mini-game, the winner starts first. Then it is the turn of the second place. Place 3 plays as third one and the loser as last one. The objective of the game is to reach the mountaintop first. On the way to the goal, there are many happening spaces which makes it harder or easier to win. After each player rolled the dice(s) a mini-game appears. 

Globe Trot
Globe Trot 

The players go on a journey around the world. But in contrast to the other game the player has to take card to move. He can go 
1,2 or 3 spaces. Each player gets 10 coins in the beginning, an Easter egg from the Mario Party series.The object is to reach special points on the globe (as example: Buy a fan in Japan or eat a Hamburger in the USA.)The visiting of a point costs 10 coins. With any visiting the player collects photos. The player who has the most at the end wins. 

Bingo

A game that makes always fun while playing. As a parody to the famous gambling Bingo. Each player chooses a card with Mii's faces on it. Then the game begins. A huge bingo machine drops balls in every round. The balls show Mii's faces. If a player has 3 faces in a row a voice calls 'Bingo!' and the player wins. So called Minigame balls make the players play a minigame. The winner can choose which face we wants to choose.

Mii of a Kind
Mii of a Kind 

The players swap their Miis against Miis in the middle. The player who has two rows with 3 same Miis in it wins. It is a parody of the card game Thirty-one. 

Spin Off

Players spin a wheel and get medals. Players play many minigames to earn medals. The player who has the most amount of medals wins. The maximum amount of medals that can be in the bank is 99999.

References

Wii games
2010 video games
Party video games
The UEFA Women's Championship is the women's version of the UEFA European Football Championship. Germany has had the most titles so far (eight titles). The first champion of the tournament was Sweden
The tournament was founded in 1984. The current champions are Germany. Three of the tournaments have been part of the European Competition for Representative Women's Teams and all the rest have been UEFA Women's Championship.

Results

References

Football competitions in Europe
UEFA
Pakistan was established in 1947 as a state for Muslims of colonial India. The driving force behind the movement for Pakistan was the educated Muslim in the Muslim minority states of United Province and Bombay Presidency, those of the Muslim majority areas such as Punjab region, Sindh or Bengal, parts of which eventually formed Pakistan were less enthusiastic and joined the cause of Pakistan in the last years before independence and partition. Its formation was based on the basis of Islamic nationalism
. However, due to rampant corruption within the ranks of the government and bureaucracy, economic inequality between the country's two wings caused mainly by a lack of representative government and the government's indifference to the efforts of fierce ethno-nationalistic politicians like Mujeeb-ur-Rehman, colonial East Bengal (Eastern Pakistan) Civil war of and Partition of Pakistan the Bhola cyclone and the 1970 elections were the major factors, resulting in the formation of a new linguistic state of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.
Other parties, tribes and states
Balochistan
 Rebel organization: Balochistan Republican Party (BRP)

Politics of Pakistan
National liberation movements
Buddhism is the third largest religion in Bangladesh with about 0.7% of population adhering to Theravada Buddhism. Most of the practitioners are from the south-eastern district of Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts.

References

Bangladeshi culture
Buddhism
Soweto is a part of Johannesburg, South Africa. The name used to stand for Southwestern townships. The vast majority of its residents are black. Soweto is known by Soweto Uprising occurred in 1976.

Johannesburg
The synagogue of Besançon () is a synagogue in the French city of Besançon, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It was built in the center of the city between 1869 and 1871 by Pierre Manotte, and has a Moroccan style. 

This Jewish shrine replaced an old flad that held everyone in Besançon, about 600 persons in the 1860s. The new building just can hold about 200 persons. All rites are Sephardi.

Related pages
 Besançon
 Jewish cemetery of Besançon

Synagogues
Buildings and structures in France
Judaism in France
Besançon
Organizations based in France
The  Annual Eurovision Song Contest was held in Baku, Azerbaijan in May of 2012. It was held in Azerbaijan since they won in 2011 with their singers Ell & Nikki with their song "Running Scared" in Düsseldorf, Germany. 
Forty-two countries announced their participation in this year's contest which less than the 2011 edition when that year, forty-three countries participated in the contest. This year's contest, saw the return of Montenegro after not being part in the Eurovision Song Contest since 2009 and the withdrawal of Armenia and Poland.

Sweden and its representative Loreen, won the contest with the song "Euphoria" with 372 points; ahead Russia, Serbia, the host of the Eurovision Song Contest 2012, Azerbaijan and Albania.

Final

References

2012 in music
2012
Baku
21st century in Azerbaijan
Helle Thorning-Schmidt  (born 14 December 1966) is a Danish politician. She is the leader of the Danish Social Democrats and is the first female Prime Minister of Denmark. She left the government in 2015.

Early life and education
Helle Thorning-Schmidt was born in Rødovre to Holger Thorning-Schmidt and his wife Grete. Thorning-Schmidt's father was a lecturer in mathematics and national economics at the University of Copenhagen. Her parents were both politically conservative and she grew up in the Copenhagen suburb of Ishøj.

As Prime Minister
She was elected to Prime Minister of Denmark on September 15, 2011, and her government took over at October 3, 2011, from the liberal Lars Løkke Rasmussen.
She formed the government with the Social Liberal Party (Det Radikale Venstre) and the Socialist People's Party (Socialistisk Folkeparti). Together they had 77 seats, and with the support of their parliamentary basis, Unity (Enhedslisten), obtain the 89 seats. Furthermore, she has the support of the North Atlantic - two seats from Greenland and one from the Faroe Islands.

Personal life
She is married to Stephen Kinnock, only son of British politician Neil Kinnock.

References

Other websites

Prime Ministers of Denmark
1966 births
Living people
Samantha Jane "Sam" Stosur  (born 30 March 1984) is an Australian professional tennis player.  She won the 2011 US Open singles title and was a finalist at the 2010 French Open.  Stosur is ranked World No. 5 and her career high in singles is World No. 4, achieved on 21 February 2011. She is a former world No. 1 on the WTA Tour in doubles with Lisa Raymond from the United States.She is currently Australian Number  1.

1984 births
Living people
Australian tennis players
Sportspeople from Brisbane
Pallas () was a Titan from Greek mythology. He was associated with war, killed by Athena in the contest to fight for Zeus. Most sources say he was the son of Crius and Eurybia, the brother of Astraeus and Perses, and the husband of Styx. He was the father of Zelus, Nike, Kratos, and Bia. In addition, he has been named as the father of Scylla, Fontes, and Lacus. Some say he was the son of Megamedes and father of Selene, and is also recorded as the father of Eos.

The city Pellene, in Achaea, was named after Pallas, as was the asteroid 2 Pallas.

Related pages
Athena, sometimes called "Pallas Athena"

Titans
Childhood obesity consists of excess body fat that adversely affects children's health and well being. Obesity for children is especially dangerous because many overweight children will become overweight adults. Health problems related to overweight kids include but are not limited to Type 2 diabetes in adolescence and young adulthood, heart disease, stroke and high blood pressure, diseases which until recently were not common in children and teenagers.

Obesity
A fricative consonant is a consonant that is made when you squeeze air through a small hole or gap in your mouth. For example, the gaps between your teeth can make fricative consonants; when these gaps are used, the fricatives are called sibilants. Some examples of sibilants in English are , , , and . 

English has a fairly large number of fricatives, and it has both voiced and voiceless fricatives. Its voiceless fricatives are [s], , [f], and [θ], and its voiced fricatives are [z], [ʒ], [v], and [ð]

Sibilant fricatives
This is a list of sibilant fricatives.
voiceless coronal sibilant, as in English sip
  voiced coronal sibilant, as in English zip
  voiceless palat-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as in English ship
  voiced palat-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as the s in English vision
  voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized)
  voiced alveo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized)
  voiceless retroflex sibilant (apical or subapical)
  voiced retroflex sibilant (apical or subapical)
Non-sibilant fricatives
  voiceless bilabial fricative
  voiced bilabial fricative
  voiceless labiodental fricative, as in English fine
  voiced labiodental fricative, as in English vine
  voiceless dental fricative, as in English thing
  voiced dental fricative, as in English that
  voiced alveolar fricative trill
  voiceless palatal fricative
  voiced palatal fricative
  voiceless velar fricative
  voiced velar fricative
  voiceless palatal-velar fricative
  voiceless uvular fricative
  voiced uvular fricative
  voiceless pharyngeal fricative
  voiced pharyngeal fricative
  voiceless epiglottal fricative
  voiced epiglottal fricative

Lateral fricatives
  voiceless coronal lateral fricative
  voiced coronal lateral fricative

Pseudo-fricatives

  voiceless glottal transition, as in English hat
  breathy-voiced glottal transition
In many languages, such as English, the glottal "fricatives," like the  in English "hat", are not really fricatives because they are just vowels that are not voiced. However, in languages such as Arabic, they are true fricatives.

References

Other websites 
 Fricatives in English

Consonants
The FIFA World Rankings is a ranking of men's football teams selected by FIFA. Currently, the team ranked #1 is Belgium. The rankings were first made in 1993. The first team to receive first place was Germany.

A points system is used, with points being awarded based on the results of all FIFA-recognized full international matches.

FIFA announced in June 2018 that the ranking system would be updated following the 2018 World Cup. The calculation method to be adopted will be closely modeled after the Elo rating system and rankings of its member associations will be updated on a game-by-game basis. The weighting designated for each confederation for ranking purposes was removed. However, the new method does not account for home or away games and margin of the victory, unlike the Elo rankings. This produced a more altered ranking table, with Germany falling to 15th and 2018 World Cup champions France moving to the top of the ranking.
Men's rank leaders
 FIFA World Men's Ranking Leaders
When the system was created, Germany began as the top-ranked team following their dominant period in which they had reached the three previous FIFA World Cup finals, winning one of them. Brazil took the lead in the run up to the 1994 FIFA World Cup after winning eight and losing only one of nine qualification matches, while on the way scoring twenty goals and conceding just four. Italy then led for a short time on the back of their own equally successful World Cup qualifying campaign, after which the top place was re-claimed by Germany.

Brazil's success in their 1993 qualifying campaign returned them to the lead for a brief period. Germany led again during the 1994 World Cup, until Brazil's victory in that competition gave them a large lead that would stand up for nearly seven years, until they were surpassed by a strong France team that captured both the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2000 UEFA Euro.
Success at the 2002 FIFA World Cup restored Brazil to the top position, where they remained until February 2007, when Italy returned to the top for the first time since 1993 following their 2006 FIFA World Cup win in Germany. Just one month later, Argentina replaced them, reaching the top for the first time, but Italy regained its place in April. After winning the Copa América 2007 in July, Brazil returned to the top, but were replaced by Italy in September and then Argentina in October.

In July 2008, Spain took over the lead for the first time, having won UEFA Euro 2008. Brazil began a sixth stint at the top of the rankings in July 2009 after winning the 2009 Confederations Cup, and Spain regained the title in November 2009 after winning every match in qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
In the summer of 2018, FIFA updated their rating system by adopting the Elo rating system. The first ranking list with this system, in August 2018, saw France retake the top spot for the first time after nearly 16 years, having won the 2018 FIFA World Cup. One month later, for the first time, two teams were both leaders as Belgium reached the same ranking as France. This lasted only one month, and from September 2018 until now (), Belgium is leading the FIFA ranking.

Awards

Team of the year

Performance by team

Best Mover of the Year
The Best Mover of the Year was awarded to the team who made the best progress up the rankings over the course of the year. In the FIFA rankings, this is not simply the team that has risen the most places, but a calculation is performed in order to account for the fact that it becomes progressively harder to earn more points the higher up the rankings a team is.
The calculation used is the number of points the team has at the end of the year (z) multiplied by the number of points it earned during the year (y). The team with the highest index on this calculation received the award. The table below shows the top three best movers from each year.

The award has not been an official part of the awards since 2006.

While an official award has not been made for movements since 2006, FIFA has released a list of the 'Best Movers' in the rankings since 2007.

References 

FIFA
In probability theory and statistics, the central limit theorems, abbreviated as CLT, are theorems about the limiting behaviors of aggregated probability distributions. They say that given a large number of independent random variables, their sum will follow a stable distribution. If the variance of the random variables is finite, then a Gaussian distribution will result. This is one of the reasons why this distribution is also known as normal distribution. 

The best known and most important of these is known as the central limit theorem. It is about large numbers of random variables with the same distribution, each with an identical finite variance and expected value.
More specifically, if  are n identical and independently distributed random variables with mean  and standard deviation , then the distribution of their sample mean, , as n gets large, is approximately normal with mean  and standard deviation . Furthermore, the distribution of their sum, , as n gets large, is also approximately normal, with mean  and standard deviation . 

There are different generalisations of this theorem. Some of these generalisations no longer require an identical distribution of all random variables. In these generalisations, another precondition makes sure that no single random variable has a bigger influence on the outcome than the others. Examples are the Lindeberg and Lyapunov conditions. 

The name of the theorem is based on a paper George Pólya written in 1920, About the Central Limit Theorem in Probability Theory and the Moment problem.

Related pages 

 Standard error

References

Statistics
Probability theory
Mathematical theorems
The MG 42 (shortened from German: Maschinengewehr 42, or "machine gun 42") was a  general-purpose machine gun. It was created in Nazi Germany. It began being used by the Wehrmacht in 1942. It was used with (and sometimes replaced) the MG 34 machine gun in the German Armed Forces. Both weapons were made and used until the end of the war.

The MG 42 was known for being reliable, simple and easy to use. However, it is best known for its very high rate of fire so the Germans called it "Hitlersäge", or "Hitler's saw". There were other automatic weapon designs with similar firepower. Some examples of these are the French Darne, the Hungarian-Gebauer, the Russian 7.62mm ShKAS and the British Vickers K machine gun. However, because the MG 42 got its ammunition from a belt and its barrel was easy to change, it could fire for longer periods of time than these weapons.
The MG 42 was used to create new weapons after Nazi Germany surrendered. The MG1 (MG 42/59) was nearly exactly the same as the MG 42. The MG1 became the MG1A3, which in turn became the MG 3. The Swiss MG 51, SIG MG 710-3, Austrian MG 74, and the Spanish 5.56mm Ameli light machine gun were all designed from the MG 42. The M60 and Belgian MAG also copied some features. The MG 42 was still used by many armed groups after the war.

History

Development
Development

During the 1930s, the German Army began using the MG 34. The MG 34 was thought to be the first general-purpose machine gun. The MG 34 had a barrel that could be changed quickly. It was also able to fire from big magazines or a belt. This meant that the MG 34 could fire for much longer than weapons like the Browning Automatic Rifle, Japanese Type 11, British Bren and French Châtellerault LMG. It was also much lighter than weapons like the Vickers machine gun and M1917 Browning machine gun. The MG 34 was also very changeable. It was able to fire from a belt and a drum magazine. It could also be fired from tripods or from armoured vehicles. It even became one of the main defensive guns for the Luftwaffe as the MG 81. It was also used as a second gun on tanks as the MG 34 Panzerlauf. However, the MG 34 did have some problems. An example of this is that the MG 34 broke down easily if it got dust on it. It was also quite expensive to make. The MG 34S was made as an improvement to the design.
So that these problems could be fixed, a contest was started to find a replacement for the MG 34. Three companies were asked to design this replacement. These were: Metall und Lackierwarenfabrik Johannes Großfuß AG, Rheinmetall-Borsig, and Stübgen. Großfuß AG's design turned out to be the best. Strangely, Großfuß did not make weapons. They mostly made metal lanterns. Ernst Grunow was one of the head design engineers with Großfuß. He did not know anything about machine guns when he was told he would be involved in the project. However, he knew a lot about the machines used to make a lot of a product (mass production). Grunow went to an army machine gunner's training course to help him understand machine guns more. He also asked some soldiers for information. He then used some ideas used by Mauser and added some features he learned about from talking to army machine gunners and things that happened early on in World War II. The new design, the MG 42, was much easier to build
. It took 75 hours to make the new gun. However, the MG 34 took 150 hours. The new gun cost 250 RM. However, the MG 34 cost 327 RM. The MG 42 was also made out of stamped metal. This made it easier to make than other machine guns.
This gun ended up being called the MG 39. It was similar to the MG 34 overall. To the gunner, the only large change was that it could not fire from drum magazines anymore. This meant that the weapon had to fire from a belt or from a drum-shaped magazine that attached to the side of the gun and had a belt inside it.

The weapon was officially brought into service. The weapon began being made in 1942 as the MG 42. Großfuß, Mauser-Werke, Gustloff-Werke and some others were given contracts to make the MG 42.
Service history
The MG 42 had a very high rate of fire. It could fire about 1,500 rounds per minute. This was twice the rate of the British Vickers machine gun and American Browning. Soldiers were so terrified of the MG 42 that the United States Army made training movies to help the soldiers deal with the fear of going against the MG 42 in battle.  At such a high rate, the human ear can not easily hear the sound of a single bullet being fired. This meant that the gun made a sound similar to "rrrrp". Allied soldiers nicknamed the MG 42 "Hitler's Buzzsaw".

When the MG 42 was fired for a long amount of time, it used a lot of ammunition. Because of this, a German MG 42 gunner would usually only fire the weapon in short bursts.

Because of the way the barrel was changed, the MG 42 could not be used on World War II German tanks. However, it could be used on one tank. This tank was called the Jagdpanzer IV.

During World War II, every German machine gun squad had an MG 42.

Use
Use

The MG 42 weighed 11.8 kg. This was lighter than the MG 34.

The MG 42 usually had a crew of six. These people were: the gun commander (the person who told the No.1 what to do with the gun), the No.1 who carried and fired the gun, the No.2 who carried the tripod, and Nos.3, 4, and 5 who carried ammunition, extra barrels and tools to dig foxholes in the ground. This big team was often cut to just three: the gunner, the loader (who loaded ammunition into the weapon and carried the barrels), and the spotter (the person who spotted targets for the gunner to shoot at). The leader of the squad and his assistant were given MP-40 submachine guns.

The MG 42 was used on nearly all German armoured vehicles. In combat, the gun's barrel could be changed in seconds.

The MG 42 was also very durable. To keep the gun working, all that was needed was some oil. The MG 42 could be dropped in mud or water and still work.
The job of many German riflemen was to support the machine gun. If the MG 42 and its crew moved, the riflemen would cover them to keep them safe. When the crew set up the MG 42, the riflemen would dig holes in the ground for the MG 42 crew to sit in. While the MG 42 was firing, the riflemen would carry ammunition to the gunners.

An MG 42 being used in a battle would usually use 3,000 rounds per day.

Design
The MG 42 fires belt fed 7.92mm cartridges from an open bolt.

The MG 42 can only fire fully automatically.  Single shots are very difficult even for people who are experienced with the MG 42. This is because of the weapon's high rate of fire.

The MG 42 barrel can be changed quickly. It has a device in the barrel to make this easier. This feature is similar to the Thompson Light Rifle.

Different types of MG 42

MG 45 
In 1944, the Third Reich were getting short of materials. This led them to develop the MG 45 (or MG 42V). It had an even higher rate of fire and was easier to make.
T24 machine gun 
The American military tried to copy the MG 42 during the war. They thought it could be a possible replacement for the Browning Automatic Rifle and the M1919A4 for foot soldiers. Saginaw Steering Gear made a prototype and called it the T24 machine gun. However, it was realised that the .30-06 cartridge that the gun would fire might be too long. There was also a design problem with the prototype. These problems meant that the project was ended.

M53 
Yugoslavia built the MG 42 at the Zavodi Crvena Zastava company as the M53 machine gun. They did this under a license. This gun still fired the 7.92 x 57mm Mauser cartridge. By doing this, the M53 was nearly an exact copy of the German MG 42. The only big difference is that the rate of fire is lower than the MG 42. Some M53s were sent to Iraq in the 1980s. They were also used a lot during both of the Gulf wars. M53 was known under nickname Šarac.
MG 3 
The Beretta MG 42/59 was just the MG 42 with some small changes. This is still used by the Italian Army. The Rheinmetall MG 3 is also just the MG 42 with some changes. The MG 3 is used with the German armed forces (Bundeswehr).

MG 74 

The last type of MG 42 is called the MG 74. It was developed in Austria. It has been the main machine gun of the Austrian Armed Forces since 1974.

Related pages 
 MG 34
 General-purpose machine gun

References

Other websites

Video of an MG 42 being fired
A U.S. report from WWII on the MG 42

General-purpose machine guns
8 mm firearms
Chocolate gravy is a type of gravy made with fat, flour, cocoa powder and sometimes sugar. In the United States, there is a dish called biscuits and gravy, for which chocolate gravy is often used.

Sauces
Waziristan (Pashto and ), "land of the Wazir" is a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering about . It was part of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, which was not part of any of the country's four provinces. It is now part of the province Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

Legal status
Though declared by the rebels as a "state" or "emirate", there are questions whether the region should have that name. Those who support that the region is a state point to the facts that the federal government has little to no power in the region and that the area is ruled mostly by tribal elders. The Taliban are reported to control most of the region with its own style of Sharia rule, which the Pakistan government has been unable to stop. Such bold show of autonomy has led one writer in the Wall Street Journal to remark that Waziristan was a "state within a state."

References

Regions of Pakistan
Chemical biology is a science that combines the fields of chemistry and biology. It involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems.

It is different from biochemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of biological molecules. For example, a biochemist studies the three-dimensional structure of a protein and how that structure relates to the chemistry of the protein. Also, biochemistry studies the way enzymes work. Chemical biologists use chemical principles to modulate systems. They do this to either investigate biology relationships or create new functions. In this way, the research done by chemical biologists is often closer to that of cell biology than biochemistry. Biochemists work in the chemistry of biology, but chemical biologists work in chemistry applied to biology.
Other websites
 Chemical Biology - BioChemWeb.org 
 Chemical Biology Doctoral Training Centre, Imperial College London 

Cells
Branches of chemistry
Solid-state chemistry, (also called materials chemistry) is the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials. It focuses on non-molecular solids. It has much in common with solid-state physics, mineralogy, crystallography, ceramics, metallurgy, thermodynamics, materials science and electronics. It focuses on the synthesis of new materials and their characterization.

History
Technology helps solid-state inorganic chemistry. Solid-state chemistry works to make materials used in commerce.  Researchers serve industry, as well as answering academic questions.  There were many important discoveries in the 20th century: zeolite and platinum-based catalysts for petroleum processing in the 1950s, high-purity silicon as a core component of microelectronic devices in the 1960s, and “high temperature” superconductivity in the 1980s.  William Lawrence Bragg invented X-ray crystallography in the early 1900s, which brought further discoveries.
Carl Wagner's worked on oxidation rate theory, counter diffusion of ions, and defect chemistry. This work showed how reactions proceed at the atomic level in the solid state. Because of this, he has sometimes been referred to as the "father of solid state chemistry".

Synthetic methods
A diverse variety of syntheic methods are used to make solid-state compounds.  For organic materials, such as charge transfer salts, the methods operate near room temperature and are often similar to the methods of organic synthesis.  Redox reactions are sometimes conducted by electrocrystallisation. For example, Bechgaard salts can be made from tetrathiafulvalene.
Oven techniques
For materials that can withstand heat, chemists often use high temperature methods.  For example, chemists use tube furnaces to prepare bulk solids. This allows reactions to be conducted up to around . For higher temperatures up to , chemists use special equipment such as ovens made with a tantalum tube through which an electric current is passed. Such high temperatures are at times required to induce diffusion of the reactants. But this depends strongly on the system studied. Some solid state reactions already proceed at temperatures as low as .

Melt methods
Chemists often melt the reactants together and then later anneal the solidified melt. If volatile reactants are involved, the reactants are often put in an ampoule and then all air is removed. Often, the chemists keep the reactant mixture cold (for example, by keeping the bottom of the ampoule in liquid nitrogen) and then seal the ampoule. The sealed ampoule is then put in an oven and given a specified heat treatment.
Solution methods
Solvents can be used to prepare solids by precipitation or by evaporation. At times the solvent is used under pressure at temperatures higher than the normal boiling point (hydrothermally). Flux methods add a salt of relatively low melting point to the mixture to act as a high temperature solvent in which the desired reaction can take place.

Gas reactions
Many solids react readily with reactive gases such as chlorine, iodine, oxygen or others. Others solids form adducts with other gases, (for example CO or ethylene). Such reactions are often carried out in a tube with open ended on both sides and through which the gas flows. A variation of this is to let the reaction take place inside a measuring device such as a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In that case stoichiometric information can be obtained during the reaction. That information helps identify the products. (By accurately measuring the amount of each reactant, chemists can guess the ratio of the atoms in the final products.)
A special case of a gas reaction is a chemical transport reaction. These are often carried out by adding a small amount of a transport agent (for example, iodine) to a sealed ampoule. The ampoule is then placed in a zone oven. This method can be used to obtain the product in the form of single crystals suitable for structure determination by X-ray diffraction (XRD).

Chemical vapor deposition is also a widely used high temperature method for the preparation of coatings and semiconductors from molecular precursors.

Air and moisture sensitive materials
Many solids attract water (hygroscopic) and/or sensitive to oxygen. For example, many halides absorb water and can only be studied in their anhydrous form if they are handled in a glove box filled with dry (and/or oxygen-free) gas, usually nitrogen.

Characterization
Characterization

New phases, phase diagrams, structures
Because a new synthetic method produces a mixture of products, it is important to be able to identify and characterize specific solid-state materials. Chemists try changing the stoichiometry to find which stoichiometries will lead to new solid compounds or to solid solutions between known ones. A prime method to characterize the reaction products is powder diffraction, because many solid state reactions will produce polycristalline ingots or powders. Powder diffraction will help the identification of known phases in the mixture. If a pattern is found that is not known in the diffraction data libraries an attempt can be made to index the pattern, that is to identify the symmetry and the size of the unit cell. (If the product is not crystalline the characterization is much more difficult.)
Once the unit cell of a new phase is known, the next step is to establish the ratio of the elements (stoichiometry) of the phase. This can be done in a number of ways. Sometimes the composition of the original mixture will give a clue, if one finds only one product (a single powder pattern) or if one was trying to make a phase of a certain composition by analogy to known materials.  But this is rare.

Often chemist work hard to improve the synthetic methodology to get a pure sample of the new material.
If chemists can separate the product from the rest of the reaction mixture, then chemists can use elemental analysis on the isolated product. Other ways involve Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the generation of characteristic X-rays in the electron beam. The easiest way is to solve the structure is by using single crystal X-ray diffraction.
Improving the preparative procedures requires chemists to study which phases are stable at what composition and what stoichiometry. In other words, the chemists draw the phase diagram of the substance. An important tools in finding the phase diagram data are thermal analysis such as DSC or DTA and increasingly also, thanks to the advent of synchrotrons temperature-dependent power diffraction. Increased knowledge of the phase relations often leads to further refinement in synthetic procedures which repeats the cycle. New phases are thus characterized by their melting points and their stoichiometric domains. Identifying stichiometric domains is important for the many solids that are non-stoichiometric compounds. The cell parameters obtained from XRD are particularly helpful to characterize the homogeneity ranges of non-stoichiometric compounds.

Further characterization
In many cases new solid compounds are further characterized by a variety of techniques  from solid-state physics.
Optical properties
For non-metallic materials, chemists try to get ultra-violet/visible spectra. In the case of semiconductors that will give an idea of the band gap.

Electrical properties
Four-point (or five-point) probe methods are often applied either to ingots, crystals or pressed pellets to measure resistivity and the size of the Hall effect. This gives information on whether the compound is an insulator, semiconductor, semimetal or metal and upon the type of doping and the mobility in the delocalized bands (if present). So, important information is obtained on the chemical bonding in the material.

Magnetic properties
Magnetic susceptibility can be measured as function of temperature to establish whether the material is a para-, ferro- or antiferro- magnet. This tells the bonding in the material. This is particularly important for transition metal compounds. In the case of magnetic order, neutron diffraction can be used to find the magnetic structure.

Notes

References
Notes

References

Other websites
3.091: Introduction to Solid State Chemistry 

Branches of chemistry
Abdominal obesity, also called central body obesity, is a condition involving excess fat surrounding the abdomen and an increase in waist size in humans. Obesity in this area is linked to Type 2 Diabetes, insulin resistance and heart disease in humans of both genders.

References 

Obesity
An alveolar consonant is a consonant with the tongue close to the alveolar ridge, which is the part just behind our teeth. Alveolar consonants that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue, like in English, are called apical consonants while those pronounced using the blade of the tongue which is the flat part of the tongue behind the tip, are called laminal consonants. Alveolar consonants in English are , , , , and . The alveolar consonants , the alveolar nasal, and , the voiceless alveolar plosive, are the most common sounds in human languages.

Alveolar consonants in IPA 
The alveolar/coronal consonants identified by the IPA are:

Consonants
This is a list of programming languages.

A 
 ActionScript
 Ada
 AppleScript

B 
 B
 BASIC

C 
 C
 C++
 C#
 Clojure
 COBOL
 CSS

D 
 D
 Data Base
DarkBASIC

F 
 F#
 Forth
 Fortran
Flutter

G 
 GNU Octave
 Go

H 
 Haskell
 Hope
 HTML

J 
 Java
 JavaScript
 Julia

K 
 Karel
 Kotlin

L 
 LaTeX
 LISP
 Logo
 Lua

M 
 MATLAB
 Mercury
 Miranda
MoonScript

O 
 Objective-C
 OCaml

P 
 Pascal
 Perl
 PHP
Pony
 Prolog
 Processing
 Python
Pega
Ponga

Q 
 QBasic

R 
 Ruby
 Rust
 R

S 
 SATySFi
 Scala
 Scheme
 Scilab
 SNOBOL
 SQL
 Standard ML
 Symsyn
 Swift

T 
 Tcl

V 
 Visual Basic
 Visual Basic .NET

Y 
 Yabasic

Computer-related lists
John George Kemeny (31 May 1926 - 26 December 1992) developed BASIC with Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College, in 1964.

American computer scientists
1926 births
1992 deaths
Dartmouth College faculty
The following is a list of buses. It is not complete. The different types of bus, used in this chart, are:
 Single-deck
 Double-decker
 Coach
 School bus
 Minibus
There are over 300 buses in this list.
The year that is displayed refers to the first year of the model.

Table 

Year refers to the first year introduced. A range of years is the period the bus was manufactured.

#

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y

Z

Š

Related pages

 Bus spotting
 Coach (used for long distance travel)
 Dollar van
 Trackless train
 Tram

References

Transport lists
Odontochelys is the oldest known turtle to have been discovered. It was first described from three 220 million year-old specimens excavated in Upper Triassic rocks in Guizhou, China.

As a primitive turtle, Odontochelys differed from modern turtles in several ways. Modern turtles possess a horny beak without any teeth in their mouth. In contrast, Odontochelys fossils had teeth in their upper and lower jaws. 

One of the most striking features of turtles, both modern and prehistoric alike, are their dorsal shells, forming an armored carapace over the body of the animal. Odontochelys only had the bottom portion of a turtle's armor, the plastron. It did not yet have a solid carapace as most other turtles do. Instead of a solid carapace, Odontochelys had broadened ribs like those of modern turtle embryos that still have not started developing the ossified plates of a carapace.
In a comparison of skull proportions, the skull of Odontochelys is far more elongated in front of the eyes compared to other turtles. The tail of the prehistoric turtle was longer in proportion to its body than other turtles. In addition, the transverse processes found in the tail are not fused such as in later turtles. 

Taken together, these anatomical differences mean that Odontochelys has some of the most primitive features ever seen in a turtle and is somewhat of a transitional fossil. Some scientists, however, are skeptical of this idea. Reisz and Head suggest that Odontochelys does not represent a turtle with a partly evolved shell, but that it is a descendant of an older, land–living turtle, and that the shell became reversed. Such shells can be seen on modern turtles, like the leatherback turtles (the genus Dermochelys).
It is likely that Odontochelys was aquatic, as the fossil specimens were found in marine deposits full of  conodonts and ammonites. The primitive turtle swam in shallow marine waters close to shore.

The species' name, Odontochelys semitestacea literally means "toothed turtle with a half-shell" - an apt description of its most striking physical characteristics.

References

Turtles
Marine reptiles
A band gap, also called a bandgap or energy gap, is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist. The term is used in solid-state physics and chemistry.

Band gaps can be found in insulators and semiconductors.  In graphs of the electronic band structure of solids, the band gap is the energy difference (in electron volts) between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. This is the same as the energy needed to free an outer shell electron from its orbit about the nucleus to become a mobile charge carrier. The free electron is able to move freely within the solid material.  So the band gap is a major factor determining the electrical conductivity of a solid.  Substances with large band gaps are generally insulators, those with smaller band gaps are semiconductors. Conductors either have very small band gaps or no band gap if the energy levels of valence and conduction bands overlap.

In semiconductor physics
Scientists use the band gap to predict if a solid will conduct electricity.  Most electrons (called valence electrons) are attracted to the nucleus of just one atom.  But if an electron has enough energy to fly away from its nearest nucleus, it can join in the flow of electric current across the many atoms that make up the solid.  The electrons that are not tightly attached to just one nucleus are called the conduction band.
In semiconductors and insulators, quantum mechanics show that electrons are only found in a number of bands of energy. Electrons are forbidden from other energy levels. The term band gap refers to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band.  Electrons are able to jump from one band to another.  However, an electron needs a certain amount of energy to jump from a valence band to a conduction band. The amount of energy needed differs with different materials. Electrons can gain enough energy to jump to the conduction band by absorbing either a phonon (heat) or a photon (light).
A semiconductor is a material with a small but nonzero band gap which behaves as an insulator at absolute zero temperature (0 K) but allows heat to excite electrons enough to jump into its conduction band at temperatures which are below its melting point. In contrast, a material with a large band gap is an insulator. In conductors, the valence and conduction bands may overlap, so they may not have a band gap.

The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is strongly dependent on the band gap. The only available carriers for conduction are the electrons which have enough thermal energy to be excited across the band gap.
Band gap engineering is the process of controlling or altering the band gap of a material by controlling the composition of certain semiconductor alloys, such as GaAlAs, InGaAs, and InAlAs. It is also possible to construct layered materials with alternating compositions by techniques like molecular beam epitaxy. These methods are used in the design of heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs), laser diodes and solar cells.

It is hard to draw a line between semiconductors and insulators. One way is to think of semiconductors as a type of insulator with a narrow band gap. Insulators with a larger band gap, usually greater than 3 eV, are not put into the semiconductor group and generally do not exhibit semiconductive behavior under practical conditions. Electron mobility also plays a role in determining a material's informal grouping as a semiconductor.
The band gap energy of semiconductors tends to decrease with increasing temperature. When temperature increases, the amplitude of atomic vibrations increase, leading to larger interatomic spacing. The interaction between the lattice phonons and the free electrons and holes will also affect the band gap a little. The relationship between band gap energy and temperature can be described by Varshni's empirical expression,
, where Eg(0), α and β are material constants.

In a regular semiconductor crystal, the band gap is fixed owing to continuous energy states. In a quantum dot crystal, the band gap is size dependent and can be altered to produce a range of energies between the valence band and conduction band. It is also known as quantum confinement effect.

Band gaps also depend on pressure. Band gaps can be either direct or indirect, depending on the electronic band structure.