Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Most Serene Republic of Venice (, ), was a state where modern Venice is now. It existed for one thousand one hundred years, from the late 7th century until the late 18th century (1797, when it was conquered by Napoleon). It was an great economic and trading power which was ruled by a leader called the Doge.

Venice was, at its height, the most powerful trading state in Europe.
It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It held property in many places. This property was known as the Stato da Màr. 

There were conflicts with the Catholic Church in Rome, and with Austria. War with their enemies brought the plague in 1630. In 16 months 50,000 people died in Venice, one third of the population. War with Turkish pirates
drained their strength. In 1714 the Turks declared was on Venice, and captured islands of the Peloponnese which had belonged to Venice.
The Republic of Venice declined in the 18th century.

References
References 

Former city-states
7th-century establishments
1797 disestablishments
Venice
Establishments in Italy
Disestablishments in Italy
1790s disestablishments in Europe
Mindroling Monastery is one of the six major monasteries of the Nyingma school in Tibet. It was founded by Rigzin Terdak Lingpa in 1676. Tendrak Lingpa's lineage is known as the Nyo lineage. Mindroling in Tibetan means "Place of Perfect Freedom". It is near Lhasa on the south side of the Tsangpo river.

Mindroling was damaged in 1718 by the Dzungar Mongols from East Turkistan.
It was built again during the life of the Seventh Dalai Lama, Kelzang Gyatso (1708-1757).

Mindroling Monastery has a university. Nyingma scholars and yogis from all over Tibet studied there. The students studied Buddhist scriptures, astronomy, Tibetan lunar calendar, calligraphy, rhetoric, and Traditional Tibetan medicine. Monks studied thirteen major sutra and tantra texts of the Nyingma. They also learned from found teachings called terma. The head of the school was very important in Tibet.
At the time of the 1959 revolt against Chinese Communist rule in Central Tibet, there were around 300 monks at Mindroling. In the years after 1959, the monastery again was damaged, but not as badly as other monasteries such as Ganden. Now, the monastery is still being rebuilt .

In 1965, His Eminence Khochhen Rinpoche and a small group of monks started a new Mindroling monastery located near the hill town of Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand state, India. It now contains Ngagyur Nyingma College, one of the largest Buddhist institutes in India.

Related pages
 List of Tibetan monasteries

Other websites 
Website of the new Mindroling Monastery in India 

Tibetan Buddhism
Lhasa
Monasteries
Royal Mail is a postal service company in the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. It was established as early as 1516. The British Government formerly owned it and since 2013 own 30% of it.

Related pages 
 Mail
 Royal Mail Ship

References

Other websites 
 
 royalmailgroup.com

 
Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange
1516 establishments
1510s establishments in England
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental illness where someone is too critical of their body. If there is something wrong with their body, it is usually so small that a person without BDD would not be unhappy about it at all. People claim that they are insecure, but BDD is far worse.

Most people without BDD may not like some parts of their body, but people with BDD believe that they are so ugly, even though they are not, that they find it difficult to talk or exist with other people, or live normally, scared that other people will be mean to them because of the way they look. People with BDD often do not look for help because they are afraid others will think they are just vain, or they may feel too embarrassed to talk to other people as they think they are so ugly.
BDD is a somatoform disorder. People with BDD may look at themselves in the mirror too much, or some people with BDD may actually try not to look in the mirror. Both of these are possible for a person with BDD. They usually think about their body for more than one hour per day, and in bad cases, can stop talking to other people, and may stay at home. People with BDD often have very low self-confidence, because they believe that a person's value is linked to what they look like, and because they do not think that they are beautiful themselves, they do not think they have much value.

History 
 In 1886, BDD was first written about by the researcher 'Morselli', who named it Dysmorphophobia.
 In 1987, BDD was first properly seen by the American Psychiatric Association.
 In 1997, BDD was first recorded and formally seen as a mental problem in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).
Sigmund Freud had an important Russian person (Sergei Pankejeff) with him in the past, who would have been classified as having the disorder in modern times. Freud named him "The Wolf Man", to protect Pankejeff's identity. Pankejeff was so unhappy with his nose that he could not live a normal life.

Cause 
It is unknown what the full cause of BDD is. However, research shows that a number of things may be the cause:

The chemicals in the brain. If the amount of serotonin is too low, one of the brain's neurotransmitters which gives us 'mood' and 'pain', may help cause body dysmorphic disorder. Scientists can not explain this chemical problem in the brain, but it may be hereditary (passed down from parents to child).

Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Many people with BDD also have OCD, where the person does things without wanting to. If people have had, or have a genetic link to OCD, the person may be more likely to have BDD.
Generalized anxiety disorder. Many people with BDD also have generalized anxiety disorder. This disorder is where the person worries about things a lot, which makes them have anxiety about things in their life, for example, about their body, as in BDD.

Development 

BDD usually develops in adolescence, a time when people usually worry about their appearance the most. However, many people with BDD suffer for years before they look for help. When they do look for help to Doctors, people with the problem often say they have other problems, for example, depression, social anxiety, or obsessive-compulsive disorder, but do not say their real problem is with the way they look. Most patients can not be convinced that the problem they have with their body is only 'imagined', and that they are seeing a 'changed' view of themselves, because people do not know much about BDD, compared to other mental problems, for example OCD or others.
Diagnosis 
The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) IV says that a person must have the things written below if they have BDD:
 Being unhappy with an imagined problem on their body. If a small problem is there, the person is unhappy with it more than they should be.
 The unhappiness causes large problems in talking to other people, having a job, or living a normal life.
 The unhappiness is not caused by a different mental problem (for example, unhappiness with weight in Anorexia Nervosa).

Features of BDD
Features of BDD 

A person with BDD will often do these things:
 Look in the mirror a lot, look in reflective doors, windows and other reflective surfaces.
 If the person does not look in the mirror a lot, they will try not to look in the mirror or at photographs ever, and will often not have mirrors in their home.
 Touch their skin a lot to feel the 'imagined' problem.
 Wanting other people to say good things to them about the way they look a lot.
 Asking other people about the way they look a lot.
 Not talk to people a lot.
 Not having much confidence
 Comparing the way they look to people they want to look like a lot. This may be of celebrities, or people in their life.
 Doing exercise or having diets more than normal.
 Doing these things a lot: combing hair, plucking eyebrows, shaving, etc.
 Using medicine to change the body shape and body size.
 Wanting plastic surgery or more than one plastic surgery, more than normal.
 In some extreme examples, patients have tried to do plastic surgery to themselves.
Where on the body the 'imagined' problem can be 
Dr. Katharine Philips did research, with more than 500 people with BDD, on the percentage of patients unhappy with the most common parts of the body;

 skin (73%)
 hair (56%)
 nose (37%)
 weight (22%)
 stomach (22%)
 breasts/chest/nipples (21%)
 eyes (20%)
 thighs (20%)
 teeth (20%)
 legs (overall) (18%)
 body shape / bone shape (16%)
 all of face (14%)
 lips (12%)
 buttocks (12%)
 chin (11%)
 fingers (11%)
 eyebrows (11%)

source: The Broken Mirror, Katharine A Philips, Oxford University Press, 2005 ed, p56

However, people with BDD often are unhappy about more than one part of their body.

Numbers of people 
A German study has shown that 1-2% of the population has complete BDD, but a bigger percentage of people show some of the effects (Psychological Medicine, vol 36, p 877).

The number of men and women with BDD is around the same, but there are slightly more women with it. However, the number of men and women who go to the doctor with it are the same.
Studies show that BDD is common non-clinical places and clinical places. Research was done on 200 people with DSM-IV BDD. These people were aged 12 and older. They were interviewed. The people with BDD were found from 'mental-health doctors', advertisements, their friends and family, and non-psychiatrist physicians. 53 of the 200 people were receiving medication, 33 were receiving psychotherapy, and 48 were receiving both medication and psychotherapy. How bad each person's BDD was, was assessed using the "Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale", modified for BDD. Symptoms were assessed with the Body Dysmorphic Disorder Examination. Both tests were made just for BDD. The results showed that BDD is in 0.7% - 1.1% of community samples and 2%-13% of non-clinical samples. 13% of psychiatric patients had BDD. Research also found that some of the patients who were firstly diagnosed with OCD, also had BDD. 53 patients with OCD and 53 patients with BDD were compared to each other in research
. Clinical features, comorbidity, family history, and population features were compared between the two groups. 9 of the 62 subjects (14.5%) of those with OCD also had BDD.
In most examples, BDD is not found even when people have it. In research done on 17 patients with BDD, BDD was 'found' in only five patients, and none of the patients had a proper diagnosis of BDD even though they all in fact had BDD.

Problems caused by BDD 
BDD can cause only a few problems for some people. However, for other people, it can cause many problems.

Responsibilities
Responsibilities 

It can make it very difficult to have a normal job or family life. People who have a job or a family to care for would definitely find life easier and better if they did not have BDD. The love partners of BDD people can also suffer, as they may sometimes lose their loved one to suicide. Friendship, romance, and family is very hard to hold for a person with BDD, as the unhappiness with the looks of the person takes over their life, so they often do not bother with the other aspects of life as much. Also, the BDD stops the person from making these 'bonds' with people, as they always feel scared about the way they look, and therefore find it difficult to be themselves with other people.
Motivation 
People with BDD may often have little motivation for anything. This means that BDD people can appear to take a long time to get everything done. However, this is not exactly true, because BDD sufferers will often just stop what they were doing for a long time, so it is not just that they are slow, but find it difficult to concentrate on what they are doing. without being able to actually motivate themselves until it becomes completely necessary to get back up. This low amount of motivation can be in all parts of a person's life, for example, school, friends, love, family, or work.

However, when the person is trying to do things to the way they look, such as combing their hair, or choosing clothes, it is common for the person to have an extreme motivation. Therefore, people with BDD can sometimes not feel motivated for anything in their life, but when they are working on their looks, they will have an extreme motivation that is not normal either.
Suicide 
People with BDD have a very high suicide rate compared to all mental problems.

Phillips & Menard did a lot of research in 2006 about BDD suicides.
 They found that the percentage of people in the USA with BDD who commit suicide is 45 times higher than the percentage of all the USA population who commit suicide.
 The percentage of people in the USA with BDD who commit suicide is more than 2 times higher than the percentage of people in the USA with depression who commit suicide.
 The percentage of people in the USA with BDD who commit suicide is 3 times higher than the percentage of people in the USA with bipolar disorder who commit suicide.

Some people say that there is a link between undiagnosed BDD and a higher than average suicide rate with people who had cosmetic surgery.
Vanity 

BDD is often wrongly thought of as a 'vanity' obsession, but it is actually the opposite, because people with BDD believe they are very ugly, even though people without BDD do not think they are. There is not usually actually anything wrong with the way the person with BDD looks, but to that person, there is. A person with BDD can spend hours looking in the mirror, but they are not being vain, as they do not think they are attractive. People with BDD usually realize that worrying about their looks so much is bad, but they can not help it.

ALSO a person with BDD may alternatively avoid mirrors at all costs. Or any reflective surfaces for that matter. Including spoons, windows, mirrors, etc.
Treatments 
Research found that talking as therapy, has not worked to stop BDD. However, Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) has been found to be more effective. In a study of 54 patients with BDD, some of them had Cognitive Behavior Therapy, and some had no treatment. BDD symptoms decreased a lot in those patients undergoing CBT. BDD was eliminated in 82% of cases at post treatment and 77% at follow-up. (8) Due to low levels of serotonin in the brain, another commonly used treatment is SSRI drugs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor). 74 subjects were enrolled in a placebo controlled study group to evaluate the efficiency of fluoxetine hydrochloride, a SSRI drug. Patients were randomized to receive 12-weeks of double-blind treatment with fluoxetine or the placebo. At the end of 12 weeks, 53% of patients responded to the fluoxetine.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder is a chronic disease that has symptoms that never subside. Instead, they get worse as time goes on. Without treatment, BDD could last a lifetime. In many cases, as illustrated in The Broken Mirror by Katharine Phillips, the social lives of many patients disintegrates because they are so preoccupied with their appearance.

Related pages
 Obsessive-compulsive disorder
 Gender identity disorder
 Bipolar disorder

References 

Mental illnesses
BDD is an abbreviation. It may mean:
 Binary decision diagram, a data structure in computer science
 Body dysmorphic disorder, a mental disorder
 Behavior driven development, a software design method
 Business-driven development, a software development method focusing on business requirements
 BostonDirtDogs.com, a blog-style website focusing on the Boston Red Sox
 Business Desktop Deployment, a free set of tools by Microsoft to manage desktop deployment projects
A bed and breakfast is a private home in which someone can stay when travelling abroad.

References 
 Sakach, Deborah Edwards, Bed & Breakfasts and Country Inns (American Historic Inns, Inc., 16th edition, 2004) 
 Jan Stankus, How to Open and Operate a Bed & Breakfast (Globe Pequot Press, 7th edition 2003) 
 Martha Watson Murphy and Amelia Rockwell Seton, How to Start and Operate Your Own Bed-And-Breakfast/Down-To-Earth Advice from an Award-Winning B&B Owner (Owlet, 1994) 
 Mary Davis, So-You Want to Be an Innkeeper: The Definitive Guide to Operating a Successful Bed-And-Breakfast or Country Inn (Chronicle Books, 1996) 
 Susannah Craig and Park Davis, Complete Idiot's Guide to Running a Bed and Breakfast (Alpha Books, 2001) 
 Cheryl Verstrate, Homestay 101 for Hosts (Start and Run a Successful Homestay), 1st edition,2006 
 Sandee Wright, Owner & Innkeeper of Timberwolf Creek, Maggie Valley NC, Founder of CAIK (Caucus of American InnKeepers)

Accommodations
Bob Cobb can mean:
The real name of the Maestro in the sitcom Seinfeld
Robert H. Cobb, the creator of the Cobb Salad
Robert W. Cobb, a government official
Camper can mean:

 A trailer or vehicle accessory used for camping, see recreational vehicle, travel trailer or camper shell.
 A Campervan - a self-powered van converted for camping.
 a person who engages in camping.
 a reference to the alternative rock band named Camper Van Beethoven.
 in online games, a player who stays in one area of the game world, see camping (computer gaming).
 Camper, a shoe company from Majorca, Spain.
 a camper can be a term for one who stays in their vehicle for a long period of time.
 Petrus Camper, a Dutch anatomist.
James "Jimmy" Cotton (July 1, 1935 – March 16, 2017), was an American blues harmonica player, singer, and songwriter. He was an orphan.

Career 
Cotton first became interested in playing music when he heard Sonny Boy Williamson on the radio. He left his home to find Sonny Boy Williamson, and when he found him (in West Helena, Arkansas), Williamson took him in and raised him. Blues singer Bobby Bland was his half-brother.

First band 
Cotton first began playing the blues harp in Williamson's band, called Howlin Wolf's. After one gig, Sonny Boy quit the band to live with his wife in Milwaukee. He left the band in Cotton's hands. Cotton said, "He just gave it to me. But I couldn't hold it together 'cause I was too young and crazy in those days an' everybody in the band was grown men, so much older than me."
Later career 
Cotton started working with the Muddy Waters Band in 1955. He performed songs like "I Got My Mojo Working" and "She's Nineteen Years Old". After leaving Muddy's band in 1966, Cotton toured with Janis Joplin. Alone, Cotton wrote classic songs like "Cotton Crop Blues", "Rocket 88" and "Hold Me In Your Arms".  He formed the James Cotton Blues Band in 1967. They performed all of Cotton's classics and more.

Death 
Cotton died at a medical center in Austin, Texas from pneumonia on March 16, 2017 at the age of 81.

Awards 
Cotton played harmonica on Muddy Water's Grammy Award winning 1977 album Hard Again. James Cotton's band would also get nominated for two Grammy Awards. The first one was for his 1984 release, Live From Chicago: Mr. Superharp Himself!. His second for Take Me Back.
Performances 
Cotton played with the following people:
 Big Mama Thornton
 Janis Joplin
 Sonny Boy Williamson
 Howlin' Wolf
 Muddy Waters
 Led Zeppelin
 Freddie King
 Steve Miller
 Santana
 B.B. King
 The Grateful Dead
 Willie "Big Eyes" Smith
 Johnny Winter
 Jimmie Vaughan
 Todd Rundgren

Albums 
 Chicago/The Blues/Today! vol. 2
 Take Me Back
 3 Harp Boogie
 Live from Chicago Mr. Superharp Himself High Compression 100% Cotton
 Live & On the Move
 Cut You Loose!
 Mighty Long Time
 Fire Down Under the Hill
 Baby, Don't You Tear My Cloths
 Deep in the Blues
 Living the Blues
 ''35th Anniversary Jam

References

Other websites 
 All Music Guide
 James Cotton discography from Music City 
 His official website
Review of Breakin' It Up Breakin' It Down CD 

Chicago blues musicians
Blues harp players
Singers from Mississippi
American guitarists
Musicians from Mississippi
Infectious disease deaths in Texas
Deaths from pneumonia
1935 births
2017 deaths
Accommodation is the way the eye increases optical power (the degree to which the lens converges or diverges light). This is necessary to produce a clear image (focus) on an object when it draws near the eye. A lens that is more convex( fatter in the middle) would refract more light rays than a less convex lens (thinner lens). The lens can change shape because the cells of the lens contain an elastic crystalline protein. The young human eye can change focus from distance to seven centimeters from the eye in 350 milliseconds. 

The eye focuses on a given object by changing the shape of the eye lens through accommodation.  This is controlled by ciliary muscle,which surrounds the lens.

Other websites 
 pupilEyes - Learn about accommodation of the eye 

Optometry
Eye anatomy
In geometrical optics, a focus (also called an image point) is the point where light rays that come from a point on the object converge (come together).

In reality the focus is never a point but a small spot called the blur circle.

An image, or image point or region, is in focus if light from object points is converged almost as much as possible in the image, and out of focus if light is not well converged.

References 

Optics
Photography
The following is a list of the municipalities in Switzerland.

 

Switzerland
Municipalities of Switzerland
Switzerland-related lists
Vich is a municipality in Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland.

Economy
The Plainisphare record label is in Vich.

History
Vich once had a paleolithic village (which are about 2.5 million years old) on it. There are also clues that it was lived on during the Bronze Age. There is also a Roman paved road running through it from Nyon to Orbe.

Control 
Vich was controlled by many people. It belonged to the lords of Besançon to Cossonay,  Prangins and Savoy.

In 1536 the canton of Vaud was taken by the Bernese who kept it until 1798 when the canton was freed by the French revolutionary troops. In 1803, Vich joined the Swiss Confederation.

References

Other websites 

 Official website (French)
 Aerial photographs on swisscastle.ch

Municipalities in Nyon
Ludiano was a municipality of the district Blenio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 1 April 2012, the former municipalities of Ludiano, Malvaglia and Semione merged to form the new municipality of Serravalle.

References

Other websites 

Former municipalities of Ticino
Lugaggia was a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 20 April 2008, the former municipalities of Bidogno, Corticiasca and Lugaggia joined together and became the municipality of Capriasca.

References

Other websites 

 

Former municipalities of Ticino
Lugano (Latin language: Luganum) is a city of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

History 
Lugano has existed as a town since at least 984. The territory of Lugano was fought over by Milan and Como throughout the Middle Ages. The city joined Switzerland in 1513. In 1956, Lugano hosted the first ever Eurovision Song Contest.

Municipalities 
Since 2004 the former municipalities of Breganzona, Cureggia, Davesco-Soragno, Gandria, Pambio-Noranco, Pazzallo, Pregassona and Viganello were incorporated into the city. In 2008, they were followed by Barbengo, Carabbia and Villa Luganese. In 2013 the former municipalities of Bogno, Cadro, Carona, Certara, Cimadera, Sonvico and Valcolla were incorporated into the city.

Gallery

References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Lugano Tourism 
  Lugano Monte Brè
Lumino is a municipality of the district Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities in Bellinzona
The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation. Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. 

The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.

The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra). 

The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.

A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).

Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.

Construction dates 
There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.

The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

Related pages
 Pyramid
 Giza Necropolis

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Old Kingdom Pyramids of Egypt - Aldokkan
 Pyramids of Egypt – Comprehensive site by an Egyptian archaeology enthusiast that includes spectacular photographs of dozens of pyramids.
 Ancient Authors – A site that quotes descriptions of the "Labyrinth" of Amenemhet III's pyramid at el-Lahun by various ancient authors.
 Ancient Egyptian History - A comprehensive & consise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt
 ANCIENT EGYPT - History & Chronology – A site detailing the major pyramid sites of ancient Egypt and Nubia (Sudan).
 www.great-pyramid.info  –  Photographs and information on Egyptian pyramids.
 Pyramids of Giza colour satellite imagery  (Wikimapia - Google maps)
 Pyramids in relation with the Noble Quraan (Quran)
 diagram of an ancient pyramid from bbc.co.uk 
 Great Pyramid of Giza -Citizendium
 Pyramids of Egypt 
 Pyramids of Giza color satellite imagery 
Pyramids
Buildings and structures in Ancient Egypt
Vich may mean:

Vich, Switzerland
Vigo di Fassa, Italy
Vic, Spain
Sir Andrew Barron Murray  (born 15 May 1987) is a British professional tennis player from Scotland, known as Andy Murray. He was ranked as the number one British tennis player from 2006 to early 2018. From 7 November 2016 to 20 August 2017 Murray was number 1 in the world rankings.

Murray represents Great Britain in his sporting activities and is a three-time Grand Slam tournament winner, two-time Olympic champion and Davis Cup champion.

Murray was born in Glasgow. His brother is tennis player Jamie Murray.

Career 
As a junior, Murray won the US Open and reached the semifinals of the French Open. Murray turned professional in 2005.
Murray was given a Wild Card to Wimbledon and the US Open in 2005, where he reached the third round to David Nalbandian at Wimbledon; and the second round at the US Open. Murray claimed his first title in 2006 at the SAP Open as he beat Lleyton Hewitt in the final. He has appeared in 11 Grand Slam finals, winning three. The first time was in the 2008 US Open. The second time was in the 2010 Australian Open. Both times he lost to Roger Federer. The third time was in the 2011 Australian Open, when he lost to Novak Djokovic. The fourth time was in the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, when he lost to Roger Federer again. Murray won a gold medal in the singles of the London 2012 Summer Olympics, beating Federer in straight sets. Murray won the US Open singles later in 2012, defeating Novak Djokovic. In 2013, Murray won the Wimbledon singles, beating Djokovic 6–4, 7–5, 6–4. In 2016, he won the Wimbledon singles again, beating Milos Raonic 6–4, 7–6(7–3), 7–6(7–2) in the final
. In August 2016, he won the gold medal in the singles at the 2016 Summer Olympics.
Grand Slam record 
This table shows Murray's performance in each Grand Slam tournament in singles.

References

1987 births
Living people
2008 Summer Olympics
British Olympic gold medalists
British Olympic silver medalists
British male tennis players
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from Glasgow
US Open (tennis) champions
Wimbledon champions
World No. 1 tennis players
The Old Kingdom is the name for Egypt during the 3rd millennium BC when  the civilization of Egypt had its first peak. It was the first of three so-called "Kingdom" periods, which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley (the others being Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom of Egypt).

Old Kingdom was the best by the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty (2686 BC – 2134 BC). Many Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth  Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration centralized at Memphis. The Old Kingdom was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline that is called the First Intermediate Period by Egyptologists.
Khufu, called Cheops, was the Pharaoh who built the Great Pyramid at Giza, near Cairo. He believed his soul never died, so they stored food, clothes, and things he owned in the rooms of the pyramid. The Great Pyramid is one of the Seven Wonders of the World: tall as a forty-story building, it took a hundred thousand men twenty years to build. With only ramps and physical energy, they had to move and lift into place 2,300,000 blocks of limestone that were about two and one-half tons apiece. Slaves, farmers, and gangs of men had to work on the Great Pyramid, and were paid with valuable things, not coins (Egyptians had no coins).
To guard the pyramids, a huge stone statue called the Great Sphinx was created and placed nearby. The Great Sphinx has a man's head and a lion's body, with paws 50 ft (15 m) long.

At last, the priests overthrew the Pharaohs. Then the nobles and priests ruled.
Further reading 
Jaromir Malek, In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Egypt During the Old Kingdom, University of Oklahoma Press, 1986. 
Egyptian Art in the Age of the older set of Pyramids, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999.  (catalogue for travelling exhibition of the same name)
 The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom

Other websites
 Middle East on the Matrix: Egypt, The Old Kingdom  – Photographs of many of the historic sites dating from the Old Kingdom
Old Kingdom of Egypt- Aldokkan

3rd millennium BC in Egypt
Memphis was the ancient capital of the first nome of Lower Egypt, and of the Old Kingdom of Egypt from its foundation until around 2200 BC and later for shorter periods during the New Kingdom. It was an administrative centre throughout ancient history.

Its ancient Egyptian name was Ineb Hedj ("The White Walls"). The name "Memphis" () is the Greek  of the Egyptian name of the pyramid of Pepi I (6th dynasty), which was Men-nefer, and became Menfe in Coptic. The modern cities and towns of Mit Rahina, Dahshur, Saqqara, Abusir, Abu Gorab, and Zawyet el'Aryan, south of Cairo, all lie within the administrative borders of historical Memphis ().

Memphis was also known in Ancient Egypt as Ankh Tawy ("That which binds the Two Lands") because of the strategic position of the city between Upper and Lower Egypt.

The ruins of Memphis are 20 km (12 miles) south of Cairo, on the west bank of the Nile.

In the Bible, Memphis is called Moph or Noph.

References

Sources 
 Baines & Malek Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt, 2000.
Other websites 
On the Memphis Theology
Memphis site (Windows Live Local)

Capital of Egypt
Archaeological sites in Egypt
World Heritage Sites in Egypt
Ancient Egyptian cities
This is a list of formulas which predict textual difficulty.

Overview 
These are ways of predicting how hard a piece of writing will be to understand (its textual difficulty). Research has shown that two main factors affect the ease with which texts are read.
How difficult the words are: this is lexical difficulty. Rare words are less well known than common words. Rare, difficult words are often longer than common, easy words. 
How difficult the sentences are: this is syntactical difficulty. Long, complicated sentences cause more difficulty than short, simple sentences.

Formulae for predicting how difficult a sample of prose will be for readers are called "readability formulae". Some measure only the difficulty of the vocabulary: they are one-variable measures. Others include a measure of syntax such as sentence length.
Validity of the formulae 
Validity of formulae can be judged by comparing them to each other, which is a kind of consistency check. More important is a check for how well they predict an independent ("outside") criterion of readability.

One way to do this is to use a set of graded test passages. There the correlation coefficient of the better formulae "hovers around 70%".p113 There have been many dozens of experimental tests, summarised by Klare.p121–156 Correlations between readability measures and comprehension scores on passages are usual, as are correlations between readability scores are grade levels as chosen by experienced teachers. Quite an important result was got by Murphy, who increased the readability of a farm journal and found the readership much increased.

One-variable formulae
SMOG 
The SMOG formula uses one variable to predict the difficulty of a passage of prose.  It was developed G. Harry McLaughlin in 1969 to make calculations as simple as possible. Like Gunning-Fog the formula uses words which have 3 or more syllables as an indicator for hardness; these words are said to be polysyllabic.

The original formula was given for samples of 30 sentences. It is:

This can be adjusted to work with any number of sentences:

McLaughlin also created directions for an approximate version which can be done with just mental calculation. 
 Count the number of words with 3 or more syllables, excluding names, in a set of 30 sentences
 Take the square root of the nearest perfect square
 Add 3 to get the estimated SMOG grade

Two-variable formulae
The Dale–Chall formula 
Edgar Dale, a professor of education at Ohio State University, was one of the first critics of Thorndike's vocabulary-frequency lists. He claimed that they did not distinguish between the different meanings that many words have. He created two new lists of his own. One, his "short list" of 769 easy words, was used by Irving Lorge in his formula. The other was his "long list" of 3,000 easy words, which were understood by 80 percent of fourth-grade students. In 1948, he incorporated this list in a formula which he developed with Jeanne S. Chall, who was to become the founder of the Harvard Reading Laboratory. 

To apply the formula:
 Select several 100-word samples throughout the text.
 Compute the average sentence length in words (divide the number of words by the number of sentences).
 Compute the percentage of words NOT on the Dale–Chall word list of 3,000 easy words.
 Compute this equation

Raw Score = 0.1579PDW + 0.0496ASL + 3.6365
Where: 
 Raw Score = uncorrected reading grade of a student who can answer one-half of the test questions on a passage.
 PDW = Percentage of Difficult Words not on the Dale–Chall word list.
 ASL = Average Sentence Length

Finally, to compensate for the "grade-equivalent curve," apply the following chart for the Final Score:

In 1995, Dale and Chall published a new version of their formula with an upgraded word list.

Flesch reading ease score 
The formula for the Flesch reading-ease score is

Scores can be interpreted as shown in the table below.

The US Department of Defense uses the reading ease test as the standard test of readability for its documents and forms. Florida requires that life insurance policies have a Flesch reading ease score of 45 or greater.

Use of this scale is so ubiquitous that it is bundled with popular word processing programs and services such as KWord, IBM Lotus Symphony, Microsoft Office Word, WordPerfect, and WordPro.
Gunning Fog 
The Gunning Fog, sometimes called the Fog index, is a formula developed by Robert Gunning.  It was first published in his book The Technique of Clear Writing in 1952.  It became popular because the score is easy to calculate. 

The formula has been criticized as it mainly uses sentence length. The critics argue that texts created with the formula will use shorter sentences without using simpler words. However, this criticism confuses prediction of difficulty with production of prose (writing). The role of readability tests is to predict difficulty; writing better prose is quite another matter. As discussed in prose difficulty, sentence length is an index of syntactical difficulty.

Where:
 words is number of words
 sentences is number of sentences
 hard words is the number of word with 3 or more syllables (excluding endings) which are not names or compound words
Spache 
The Spache method compares words in a text to a list of words which are familiar in everyday writing. The words that are not on the list are called unfamiliar. The number of words per sentence are counted. This number and the percentage of unfamiliar words is put into a formula. The result is a reading age. Someone of this age should be able to read the text.  It is designed to work on texts for children in primary education or grades from  to .

In 1974 Spache revised his Formula to:

Coleman-Liau Index 
The calculations are performed in two steps.  The first step finds the Estimated Close Percentage. The second step calculates the actual grade.

A simple version also exists that is not as accurate:

Automated Readability Index 
The Automated Readability Index was designed for real-time computing of readability for the electric typewriter.

References

Further reading 

 
 

Reading
Lists
A Nome (from , “district”) was an administrative part of ancient Egypt. Nome is a Greek name, used late in Egypt's history; the Egyptian name was "sepat".

The division of ancient Egypt into nomes happened before 3100 BC.  These nomes began as autonomous city-states, but later began to join together. According to ancient tradition, the ruler Menes finally joined all the nomes into a single kingdom.

The nomes remain in place for more than 3,000 years.

Lower Egypt, from the Old Kingdom capital Memphis to the Mediterranean Sea, had 20 nomes. The first was based around Memphis, Saqqara, and Giza, in the area occupied by modern-day Cairo.  The nomes were numbered in a more or less orderly fashion south to north through the Nile delta. The numbering started in the west, and continued with the higher numbers in the east. Alexandria was in the Third Nome; Bubastis was in the Eighteenth.
Upper Egypt was divided into 22 nomes.  The first of these was centered around Elephantine close to Egypt's border with Nubia at the First Cataract – the area of modern-day Aswan.  From there the numbering progressed downriver in an orderly fashion along the narrow fertile strip of land that was the Nile valley.  Waset (ancient Thebes or contemporary Luxor) was in the Fourth Nome, Amarna in the Fourteenth, and Meidum in the Twenty-First.

List of nomes 
The nomes are listed in separate tables for Upper and Lower Egypt

Lower Egypt

Upper Egypt

References
Alan K. Bowman (1990).  Egypt After the Pharaohs.  Oxford University Press.

Other websites
Details of the nomes
Archaeological survey of the nomes 

Ancient Egypt
The cataracts of the Nile are areas between Aswan and Khartoum where the water is shallow and flows quickly. The surface is broken by numerous small boulders and stones that lie on the river bed, as well as many small rocky islets. This is called "rapids or "white water".

River cataracts often go with a rapid down-drop of the river. They block the waterway, since boats cannot safely carry cargo through.

The six first cataracts of the River Nile were the main obstacles for boats sailing on the Nile in antiquity. Counted upstream (from north to south), the First Cataract is in modern Egypt; the rest are in Sudan.
The First Cataract is near Aswan 
 The Second Cataract (or Great Cataract) was in Nubia and is now submerged in Lake Nasser 
 The Third Cataract is around Tombos  / Hannek 
 The Fourth Cataract is in the Manasir Desert and will be flooded by the Merowe Dam from 2006 onward 
 The Fifth Cataract is near the confluence with the Atbara River 
 The Sixth Cataract is where the Nile cuts through the Sabaluka pluton near Bagrawiyah 

The word cataract comes from the Greek word Katarakhtes meaning "waterfall".

In ancient times, Upper Egypt extended from the Nile Delta to the first cataract. Further upstream, in what is modern Sudan, the land was later controlled by the Kingdom of Kush.

The cataract faces north, not south, because the river flows north, from Lake Victoria in the south.

The 1899 book The River War by Winston Churchill explains each of the cataracts.

References

Other websites
  The Cataract Nile and the Great Bend  -University of Texas

Photo links
Photo links

 Second Cataract: Second Cataract Second Cataract
 Third Cataract: Third Cataract Third Cataract  Third Cataract 
 Fourth Cataract: Fourth Cataract
 Fifth Cataract: Fifth Cataract 
 Sixth Cataract: Fifth Cataract Fifth Cataract

Nile
Paul Dedrick Gray (April 8, 1972 – May 24, 2010)  was an American musician and bassist for Nu Metal band Slipknot. He was born in Los Angeles, California and moved to Slipknot's home town when he was just a baby.

He was the only member of Slipknot who was not from Des Moines, Iowa.

Death
On May 24, 2010, The Des Moines Register said that Gray had been found dead in a hotel room in the TownePalace Suites hotel in Urbandale, Iowa. 

An autopsy performed on June 21, 2010 showed that Gray died of an accidental overdose of morphine and fentanyl. It also showed that he had signs of a "significant heart disease".

His physician Daniel Baldi was charged with involuntary manslaughter in September 2011. Baldi was accused of continuing to write high-doses of prescription drugs for Gray even though it was known that Gray was a known drug addict. He was also charged with the deaths of seven others and pleaded not guilty when he faced charges.

References
References

1972 births
2010 deaths
American guitarists
American heavy metal musicians
Bassists
Drug-related accidental deaths
Musicians from Los Angeles
Smog is a type of air pollutant; the word "smog" is a combination of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area and is caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide.

London is where it first happened. Coal fires are now illegal in London, and trains are driven by other fuels. In cities like Los Angeles it is the exhaust fumes of cars which cause the smog.  

Delhi is supposed to be the most polluted city on Earth. Smogs cause lung diseases and increase the death rate. According to one estimate, air pollution causes the death of about 10,500 people in Delhi every year.

Peking (Beijing) is another city where air pollution is serious. Car emissions and coal burning are the main reasons for their pollution. They also get pollution from some neighbouring regions, due to the pattern of air movement in the area.

References 

Air pollution
Smog may also rmean:
 Smog a form of air pollution
 SMOG or Simple Measure of Gobbledygook, a measurement of how difficult text is
 (Smog) or Bill Callahan, a music artist

Related pages
 Smaug, a dragon  in The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien
Island Records may refer to the following music industry record labels:
Island Records founded in Jamaica in 1959, and its subsidiary labels:
Island Masters 
Island Reggae Greats
Island Blue Records
The Island Def Jam Music Group, the name of the Island Records group after its merger with Def Jam Music
Labels
This list is probably incomplete, and some of the dates are uncertain.
 Al's Records (1996–1997)
 Aladdin Records (UK) (mid-1960s)
 Antilles Records (1972–1998)
 Apollo Recordings (2006–2007)
 Black Swan Records (1963-1965 and mid-1970s)
 Blue (1999–2001)
 Blunted (1993–1996)
 Brown Brigade (2003-present)
 Europa Recordings (2006–2007)
 Fallout Records (UK division)
 4th & Broadway (1982–1997)
 Gee Street Records (1990-1997)
 Great Jones (1988–1994)
 Island Black Music (1995–1998)
 Island Jamaica (1995–1996)
 Island Jamaica Jazz (1996)
 Island Masters (1980s–1990s; reissues)
 Island Reggae Greats (1985, compilation series; re-issued in several forms)
 Island Trading Company (importer; 1982–mid-1990s; still exists)
 Island Urban Music (2007)
 Island Visual Arts (1985)
 Manga Entertainment (1991-1997, moved to Chris Blackwell's Palm Pictures, then was sold to Starz Media)
 Mango Records (1972–1997)
 Mango Street (1989–1992)
 MonarC Entertainment (2002)
 Sense ("Sense of Island"; 1990–1991)
Stiff Records (1984–1986 only)
 Sue Records (UK division)
 Surprise Records (mid-1970s)
 Trade 2 (1996–1997)
 Trojan Records (1967–1968 only)
 Tuff Gong (UK Division
Other websites
 Island Records (U.K.) — official web site (UK)
 Island Records (U.S.) — official web site (US)
 Island Records label gallery at collectable-records.ru
 Island Book 1962–1977 — Just out! Island Records collectors guide - limited edition, numbered and signed
 Island Records Listing with picture sleeves and label design at collectable-records.ru
 Island Records (UK)  and Island Records (US)  sections of black-music-collectors.com
 Island Records (UK) and Island Records (US) sections of Discogs.com
 Island Records research — Island research wiki for Discogs.com

1959 establishments in North America
Establishments in Jamaica
British record labels
Fiction Records is a record label that was founded in 1976 by Chris Parry as a home for The Cure. Other notable acts to release on Fiction around this time were the Purple Hearts, Back To Zero, Associates, Alberto y Lost Trios Paranoias and Eat (band). The label's first #1 record was Wish by The Cure in 1991, going #1 in the United Kingdom. The band left the record label in 2001, signing to Geffen at the end of the year.

After a period of several years, the label was then re-started in 2002 by Joe Munns, Paul Smernicki and Jim Chancellor as a Polydor imprint. The first release of this record label was a single by Snow Patrol.

Related pages
 List of record labels

Other websites 
Fiction Records Official Website

Indie music record labels
1976 establishments
Foals are a dance-punk band from Oxford who play a mixture of Indie, techno and Math-Rock. The band work with Transgressive Records.

TV Appearances 
In August 2007, the band appeared in a mini episode of Skins, which aired on Myspace.

The band appeared on the 16th November 2007 episode of Later With Jools Holland playing their songs 'Balloons' and 'Red Socks Pugie'.

The band have also appeared on T-Mobile's Transmission on Channel 4 where they performed the song Hummer.

Discography

Albums 
 Antidotes, 2008
 Total Life Forever, 2010
 Holy Fire, 2013
 What Went Down, 2015
 Everything Not Saved Will Be Lost – Part 1, 2019
 Everything Not Saved Will Be Lost – Part 2, 2019
 Life Is Yours, 2022

EPs 
 Live EP (Transgressive Records, 26 February, 2007)
Singles 
Try This On Your Piano / Look At My Furrows Of Worry (Try Harder' April 03 2006)
Hummer / Astronauts And All (Transgressive Records, April 23 2007)
Mathletics / Big Big Love (Fig #1) (Transgressive Records, August 20 2007) UK #109
Balloons / Brazil is Here! (CD only) / Dearth (7" only) / Balloons Produced by Kieran Hebden (Limited edt. etched 12" only) (Transgressive Records, December 10 2007)  UK #39

References

Other websites 
 Foals Official Web Site
 Foals MySpace page
 Foals Fansite 

English punk bands
Polydor Records is a record label currently based in the UK, and is a subsidiary of Universal Music Group.

Polydor UK

Though Polydor's American branch is gone, in the United Kingdom, however, Polydor continues to sign chart-topping acts and remains one of the strongest imprints in the country — with artists such as Klaxons, Sophie Ellis-Bextor, Take That and Kaiser Chiefs. 

It also acts as the UK label for American-based acts under Interscope-Geffen-A&M like Eminem and Gwen Stefani.

In spring 2006, Polydor launched Fascination Records, a music label dedicated to pop music. Both Girls Aloud and Sophie Ellis-Bextor transferred to the new label.

Related pages
 Polydor Records artists
 List of record labels

Other websites 
 UK official site

British record labels