Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Drowning is a form of death caused by being suffocated with water or another liquid.
Near drowning is the survival of a drowning event where the person is unconsciousness (passed out) or breathes in a dangerously large amount of water, and can cause serious problems, including death, later on. That means that near drowning also requires help from a doctor. 

Secondary drowning is death caused by chemical or biological changes in the lungs after a near drowning incident.

Drowning happens when a person spends too much time underwater or with their nose and mouth submerged in a liquid to the point where they are unable to breathe and their lungs are full of liquid.
In many countries, drowning is one of the biggest causes of death for children under 14 years old. Children have drowned in wading pools and even bathtubs. Many people drown in countries where there is a lot of water, especially if they swim in dangerous waters.  For example, in the United Kingdom there are about 450 drownings each year (that is: 1 per 150,000 of its people), and in the United States there are about 6,500 drownings (or around 1 per 50,000 of its people). Drowning related injuries are the fifth most likely cause of accidental death in the US. In some places, drowning is the second most likely cause of injury and death for children.

Prevention 
There are many ways in which drowning can be prevented. Some examples are:
Watching - drowning can be silent, so this is why watching the person is very important. It is even more important to watch children and infants. A baby can drown in a bathtub. Many people choose to take their children to swim in areas that have security cameras or lifeguards. 
 Learning to swim - this is one of the most important ways to prevent drowning. Children should be taught to swim when they are less than 8 years old.  
 Pool fencing - Private pools should always be fenced when they are not being used if there are children around so they do not fall inside the pool, and so they don't use the pool without another adult watching them.  
 Alcohol - a drunk person has a greater chance of drowning that someone who isn't drunk. 
 Lifejackets - people that cannot swim should use a lifejacket so they float on the surface. 
 Diving - a person can be knocked out and drown if they dive into a pool and hit their head on the bottom. In worse cases, this may cause someone to be paralyzed, or even die.
Avoiding dangerous water - nobody should swim in waters that have large waves and fast currents. The speed of a current can be determined by how quickly items on the surface of the water move.
Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment about quantum physics. Erwin Schrödinger suggested it in 1935, in reaction to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum physics. 

Schrödinger wrote:

Simple Explanation 
In simple terms, Schrödinger stated that if you place a cat and something that could kill the cat (a radioactive atom) in a box and sealed it, you would not know if the cat was dead or alive until you opened the box, so that until the box was opened, the cat was (in a sense) both "dead and alive". This is used to represent how scientific theory works. No one knows if any scientific theory is right or wrong until said theory can be tested and proved.
Application to Physics 
Physics can be divided into two types; classic physics and quantum mechanics. Classic physics explains most physical interactions, like why a ball bounces when it drops. It can also be used to predict physical interactions, like what will happen when you drop a ball. However, there are some physical interactions which it does not explain; for instance, how light can be turned into electricity. Quantum mechanics provides a way for physicists to explain why these things happen. 

The Copenhagen interpretation is used to explain what is happening to the smallest part of an atom (a sub atomic particle) without looking at it (observing it or measuring it). Mathematics are used to show how likely something is to happen to the particle. A particle could be described as being 50% likely to be in one place at one time, or 50% likely to be in one place at another time. This could also be expressed as a chart (or wave form). This is very convenient when making quantum physics calculations.
However the only way to be 100% sure of where a particle is, is to observe it. Up until the point that you observe it, the Copenhagen Interpretation says that the particle is there and is not there. It is only when you observe the particle that you know if it's there or not there.  

While this makes sense in quantum physics, it does not make sense in classical (real world) physics.  

Schrödinger wanted to show that this way of thinking about quantum mechanics would lead to absurd situations. He designed a thought experiment. 

A cat is placed in a room that is separated from the outside world. 

A Geiger counter which counts the amount of radioactive decay and a little bit of a radioactive element are in the room. 

Within one hour, one of the atoms of the radioactive material might decay (or break down because the material is not stable), or it may not.
If the material breaks down, it will release an atomic particle, which will hit the geiger counter, which will release poison gas, which will kill the cat.

The question now is: at the end of the hour, is the cat alive or dead? Schrödinger says that according to the Copenhagen Interpretation, as long as the door is closed, the cat is dead and alive. There is no way to know until the door is opened. But by opening the door, the person is interfering with the experiment. The person and the experiment have to be described with reference to each other.

By looking at the experiment the person has influenced the experiment, therefore it may not give us the correct answer. 

The thought experiment was invented by Schrödinger to demonstrate the foolishness of thinking about quantum states for large objects. It has also been referenced many times in pop culture.

Related pages 
 Wavefunction collapse

References

Quantum mechanics
Basic physics ideas
Wollongong ()  is a city in New South Wales, Australia. It is on the eastern coast of Australia, , just over one hour from the south of Sydney and 2.5 hours from Canberra. It is the third largest city in New South Wales, after Sydney and Newcastle.

References
Yuletide is a pagan holiday also known as the Winter solstice. Generally celebrated by Wiccans and Northern European Christians. "Yuletide" celebrates the birth of the Sun and also celebrates the "Mother" at the height of her "Greatness".  
Pagans celebrate Yuletide in many ways, most will decorate a "Yuletide" tree, keep it in their homes until most of the leaves fall off then burn the Yule log. Many Wiccans will decorate their alters with Yule colours and items and generally just honour the Goddess.

Yuletide in Christianity
The Christian holiday, Christmas, was created by the Christian Romans based around the polytheistic (many Gods) Sun God festival (Sol Invictis) on the winter solstice, and people in northern Europe combined it with their Yule festival.  Yule is celebrated on the 25th of December by most Northern Europeans and the 21st of December, by Wiccans and many non religious groups. For them, Yule is celebrated as the longest night of the year. It is the night when the sun sets earliest and rises latest the next day. The Wiccan ritual includes thanking the Goddess for the past year and asking for a happiness in the year to come.

References
Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in A History of Private Life vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987 
Farrar, Janet and Stewart ([1989] 1998).  The Witch's God, "IX Oak King and Holly King".  35-38.  Phoenix Publishing, Inc.  Blaine, Washington.

Other websites
Stone, John Robert, Observing Bede's Anglo-Saxon Calendar
So Amal was born in 2006, May 31th

Religious holidays
This is a list of cities in Australia sorted by state.

Australian Capital Territory 
 Canberra (National Capital)

New South Wales 
 Sydney (Capital)
 Albury (NSW-Victoria border)
 Armidale
 Bathurst
 Broken Hill
 Cessnock
 Coffs Harbour
 Dubbo
 Gosford
 Goulburn
 Grafton
 Griffith
 Lake Macquarie
 Lismore
 Maitland
 Newcastle
 Nowra
 Orange
 Port Macquarie
 Queanbeyan (adjacent to Canberra)
 Tamworth
 Tweed Heads (NSW-Queensland border)
 Wagga Wagga
 Wollongong
 Wyong

Northern Territory 
 Darwin (Capital)
 Alice Springs
 Katherine
 Palmerston

Queensland 
 Brisbane (Capital)
 Bundaberg
 Cairns
 Charters Towers
 Gladstone
 Gold Coast
 Gympie
 Hervey Bay
 Ipswich
 Logan City
 Mackay
 Maryborough
 Mount Isa
 Nambour
 Redcliffe
 Rockhampton
 Sunshine Coast {region}
 Thuringowa
 Toowoomba
 Townsville

South Australia 
 Adelaide (Capital)
 Gladstone
 Mount Gambier
 Murray Bridge
 Port Augusta
 Port Pirie
 Port Lincoln
 Victor Harbor
 Whyalla
Tasmania 
 Hobart (Capital)
 Burnie
 Clarence
 Devonport
 Glenorchy
 Launceston

Victoria 
 Melbourne (Capital)
 Benalla
 Ballarat
 Bendigo
 Geelong
 Latrobe City
 Mildura
 Shepparton
 Swan Hill
 Wangaratta
 Warrnambool
 Wodonga

Western Australia 
 Perth (Capital)
 Albany
 Broome
 Bunbury
 Geraldton
 Fremantle
 Kalgoorlie
 Mandurah
 Port Hedland

Australia
Australia-related lists
Warrnambool is a city on the south-western coast of Victoria, Australia. About 32,000 people live in the city. It is at the western end of the Great Ocean Road. It is also on the Princes Highway which links Melbourne and Adelaide. Warrnambool is 265 kilometres and 3 hours from Melbourne by road or rail. The name Warrnambool is an Indigenous Australian word meaning "water between two rivers", "two swamps", or "plenty of water".

There are daily trains to Melbourne, via Geelong, and buses to Ballarat, Hamilton and Mount Gambier, South Australia.

The average maximum temperatures are 22 C in summer and 14 C in winter.
The Mahogany Ship
It is possible that the first European people to come to Warrnambool arrived in the 1500s. There is a wrecked ship in the sand dunes near Warrnambool which historians believe is an early Portuguese ship. It may have been part of an expedition in 1522, led by Christovao Mendonca. The wreck was first seen in 1836, but the last sighting was in 1880. It is now covered in sand, and its exact location is now unknown. It is just one of the 80 wrecked ships along the coast. There are 29 wrecks in Lady Bay at Warrnambool. The first recorded exploration of this part of the Victorian coast was by the French explorer Nicholas Baudin in 1802. During the 1830s whaler hunters lived on the coast during the whaling season.

Early settlement
Farmers began to settle along the coast during the 1840s. In 1846 the town was surveyed and laid out, and the first land sale was held in 1847.

References

Cities in Victoria
Whitney Adela Sloan (born August 21, 1988) is an English actress. She is from London, England. Perhaps her most notable role is in a recent Disney made movie, Go Figure.

Other websites 

1988 births
Living people
English movie actors
English television actors
Actors from London
Disney actors
Macedonia or Macedonian may refer to:

Places
 Macedonia (region) as a complete region including the whole Macedonia
 Republic of North Macedonia, a Balkan, land-locked country
 Macedonians, a Slavic people who live in the Republic of North Macedonia
 Macedonian language, a Slavic language spoken in the Republic of North Macedonia
 Macedonia (Greece), the biggest region of Greece
 Blagoevgrad, a province in Bulgaria sometimes called 'Pirin Macedonia'
 Macedonia, Iowa, a city in the U.S. state of Iowa
 Macedonia, Ohio, a city in the U.S. state of Ohio

Former places
 The ancient Macedonian Empire, a place in today's Greek Macedonia
 Macedonia (Roman province), a province of the early Roman Empire

Other
 Macedonians (ethnic group)
 Macedonia (food), a fruit-vegetable salad
Rock, paper, scissors (RPS) is a two-person hand game. It is often used as a selection method in a similar way to coin flipping or drawing straws to randomly select a person for some purpose. However, unlike truly random selections, it can be played with skill if the game extends over many sessions, as a player can often recognize and exploit the non-random behavior of an opponent.

Sportsmen often use RPS (both officially and unofficially, in place of a coin toss) to decide on opening plays. Similarly, uncertain calls, or even the whole game in case of rain, may be so decided. It is also often used as a method for creating appropriately non-biased random results in live action role-playing games, as it requires no equipment. It is also used in some gambling sites as a form of novelty betting.
The exact name of the game can vary, with the three components appearing in a different order, or with "stone" in place of "rock". Non-English speakers may know the game by their local words for "rock, paper, scissors", although it is also known as Janken or Yakyuken in Japan, Kawi Bawi Bo in Korea, Pierre-Papier-Ciseaux in France, Ca-Chi-Pun in Chile, and in South Africa as Ching-Chong-Cha, the words used in the 'count'.

The players both count aloud to three, or speak the name of the game (e.g. "Rock! Paper! Scissors!" or "Reaux! Sham! Beaux!"), each time raising one hand in a fist and swinging it down on the count. On the third count, or on a further beat after the third count (saying "shoot"), the players change their hands into one of three gestures, which they then "throw" by extending it towards their opponent.
Rock is represented by a closed fist. 
Paper is represented by an open hand. 
Scissors is represented by the index and middle fingers extended. 
The objective is to select a gesture which defeats that of the opponent. Gestures are resolved as follows:

Rock blunts/smashes scissors; rock wins. 
Paper covers rock; paper wins. 
Scissors cut paper; scissors wins. 

In terms of logic, this type of game is intransitive.
If both players choose the same gesture, the game is tied and played again.

In some variations of the game, the winner of each round "uses" the weapon on the opponent's weapon, to demonstrate that they have won.

RPS is frequently played in a "best two out of three" match, and tournament players often prepare sequences of three gestures ahead of time.

Popularity 
The game is famous in Korea, Japan, China, and the United States.

References 

Rock, paper, scissors
Darwin can mean:
 Charles Darwin (1809–1882), the person who developed the biological theory of evolution by natural selection
 Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802), the grandfather of Charles
 Darwin, Northern Territory, capital city of the Northern Territory, Australia
 Darwin (operating system), a computer operating system used on Apple's Mac OS X
Katie Leung (born 8 August 1987) is a Scottish actress. She is most famous for her role as Cho Chang in the Harry Potter series. She was born in Dundee, Scotland.

Her parents, Peter and Kar Wai Li Leung, are Chinese immigrants. After her parents got divorced, she lived with her father in a £400,000 house in Motherwell, Scotland. Her two brothers and a younger sister, also lived with her. Her father owns a restaurant and a fast food business in Motherwell. Leung went to school at Hamilton College, a Scottish private school in Glasgow. She speaks fluent Cantonese and some Mandarin.

Leung has been named as Scotland's most stylish female and as the hottest Scotswoman by The Scotsman. She has also been in Teen Vogue and in Evening Standard.

Film & Television & Stage

Achievements

2008 

 Best Kiss Nominee 2008 MTV Movie Awards U.S. (alongside Daniel Radcliffe)

2007 

 Scotland's Most Stylish Female
 No. 80 on the Cosmogirl's Hot 100 List.

2006
2006 

 Outstanding Newcomer Award, Asian Excellence Awards (Top 4)
 Young Scots Award (nominee)

References

1987 births
Living people
Scottish movie actors
Scottish television actors
People from Dundee‎
Film noir is a term used to describe crime drama movies from Hollywood that are often focused on sex, crime, and corruption. 

Film noir movies were mostly made from the early 1940s to the late 1950s in the United States, and they were usually filmed in black-and-white. The term "film noir" comes from the French term for "black film" or "dark film". Film noir movies include many different genres of movies, such as gangster movies, police movies, and detective movies. 

Film noir movies were often filmed so that there were many dark shadows in the movie, even on characters' faces. The Hollywood film noir movies were influenced by German film directors such as Fritz Lang, who used dramatic lighting techniques. Another influence on film noir movies was 1930s French books or movies about heroes who would die at the end of the story or stories with sad endings. Film noir movies were also influenced by crime fiction, such as the detective and crime stories by Dashiell Hammett, James M. Cain, and Raymond Chandler.
Examples of film noir movies and actors 
Some important film noir movies are: Stranger on the Third Floor (1940); The Maltese Falcon (1941) Double Indemnity (1944) The Big Sleep (1946) The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946); Key Largo (1948);Kiss Me Deadly (1955), and Touch of Evil (1958). 

The important actors from Hollywood film noir movies were Robert Mitchum, Humphrey Bogart, and Peter Lorre.

Movies from after the film noir period 
The film noir period was the 1940s and 1950s. Even in the years after the 1950s, some movies were made in the film noir style. In the 1960s and 1970s, there were movies like The Manchurian Candidate (1962) and Chinatown (1974), which were influenced by the film noir movies from the 1950s.
In the 1980s and 1990s there were movies that were a bit like film noir movies, like Body Heat (1981), Basic Instinct (1992), Kill Me Again (1989), Red Rock West (1992), and Fargo (1996). In the 2000s, there are also movies that are like film noir movies in some ways. For example, there are films such as Memento (2000) and Sin City (2005). 

There are also science fiction movies that look a bit like film noir movies because they look dark and they have a lead character who does some bad things, such as Soylent Green (1973); Blade Runner (1982), which starred Harrison Ford; and Minority Report (2002), which starred Tom Cruise.

Things seen in film noir movies 
Film noir movies are often shot in cities at night, and the stories often take place in bars, nightclubs, gambling clubs, casinos, and cheap hotels. This makes film noir movies look very dark, because the scenes are shot at night, or inside dark places like a bar or hotel.
Film noir movie scenes often have a lot of shadows, such as the shadows of window frames, blinds, or stair banisters. There are also often dark shadows on the movie scenes, even on the faces of the actors. All of the shadows and darkness make the film noir movies feel mysterious and stressful. 

The characters in film noir movies are often motivated by greed, jealousy, or revenge. The characters in film noir movies are often private detectives or police officers who are investigating crimes committed by bad criminals and gang members such as murder, gambling or prostitution. In film noir movies, there are often stories about robberies, heists, extortion of money (which is called "blackmail"), or murder.
Watching film noir movies 
In film noir movies, even the heroes or lead characters are often bad or partly bad in some way. For example, the hero of a film noir movie may help an innocent man or woman who is being threatened by a criminal, or rescue a woman from a criminal gang. Yet the hero or lead character may also do bad things, such as commit crimes, hurt or threaten people, or tell lies. 

Often, the hero or lead character of a film noir film will be bitter, sad, lonely, or depressed, because of bad things that happened to them. The person watching the movie has to decide if they think that a hero who does both good and bad things is a good person or not. The stories from film noir movies can make the audience think about how people should act, or how people should make choices in their life. This is one of the things that people like about watching film noir movies.
Film noir movies are not happy movies. In happy movies, like romance movies, people fall in love, get married, and live happy lives. In film noir movies, sad things happen. A good man with a wife might need money for their rent, and borrow the money from a criminal gang leader, because the good man has no other way of getting the money. Then the bad gang leader might force the good man to do bad things to pay back the money. Maybe the bad gang leader will threaten to hurt the good man's wife. Then the good man has to decide between protecting his wife or doing a bad crime. 

People who watch film noir movies like to see stories about people who have to make hard choices, or people whose lives have sad things happen in them. Real life is not a romantic comedy; people often have to make hard choices or have sad things happen.

Books about film noir 
Robert Ottoson wrote a book in 1981 about film noir called A Reference Guide to the American Film Noir: 1940–1958.
Other websites 
 "A Guide to Film Noir Genre" by Roger Ebert 
 Aesthetics of film noir
Jazz fusion (or "jazz-rock fusion" or fusion) is a genre or style of music. Jazz fusion mixes jazz with rock. Some jazz fusion also uses funk, rhythm and blues and world music.

Jazz fusion is usually played with instruments, without singing. The songs are often longer than those in pop music. A jazz fusion song could be five to ten minutes long. A pop song is usually about three minutes long. Also, jazz fusion songs have a long solo played by instruments. Frank Zappa, for example, had long guitar solos in his music, which was of the jazz fusion genre. In jazz fusion, solos are improvised, or made up as they are played, during a performance.

Jazz fusion music is not heard much on the radio in the United States or Canada. In Europe, it is more popular on radio stations.
History
Jazz fusion began in the late 1960s in the United States. In the late 1960s jazz musicians such as Miles Davis and a band called The Tony Williams Lifetime began using electric instruments such as electric bass and electric piano in their jazz music. As well, jazz musicians began adding rhythms or beats from soul music, rhythm and blues, and rock music into their jazz music. Two important jazz fusion albums are In a Silent Way and Bitches Brew.

In the 1970s, more people began playing jazz fusion. It became more popular, so more people began listening to jazz fusion and going to jazz fusion concerts. In the 1970s, jazz musicians such as Herbie Hancock, Joe Zawinul, Jan Hammer and Chick Corea began using electronic synthesizers in their songs.
In the early 1980s, a new style of jazz fusion called "pop fusion" began being played. This new style of pop fusion was softer and slower than fusion from the early 1970s. Pop fusion was played a lot more on the radio than the fusion from the early 1970s. Pop fusion musicians include Lee Ritenour, Al Jarreau, Kenny G, Bob James and David Sanborn.
Steve Vai was an icon of jazz fusion in the 1980s and played extensive guitar based jazz fusion instrumentals.

Jazz music
Stadio Olimpico is a sports stadium in Rome, Italy.

Events 
 1960 Summer Olympics
 UEFA Euro 1968 Final
 1976 UEFA Champions League Final
 1984 European Cup Final
 1987 World Athletics Championships
 1990 FIFA World Cup Final
 1996 UEFA Champions League Final
 2009 UEFA Champions League Final
 S.S. Lazio and A.S. Roma home matches

Sources

Sports buildings in Italy
Buildings and structures in Rome
1937 establishments in Europe
1930s establishments in Italy
Olympic venues
Insulation might mean:
 Thermal insulation, materials used to reduce the rate of heat transfer
 Building insulation, thermal insulation added to buildings for comfort and energy efficiency
 Insulated glazing
 Insulator (electricity), materials used to reduce the conduction of electricity
 Soundproofing, reducing sound
The Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile is commonly known as Arc de Triomphe (meaning arch of victory). It is a famous monument in Paris. It is at the centre of the Place Charles de Gaulle. This was formerly called the Place de l'Étoile at the western end of the Champs-Elysées. 

Emperor Napoléon Bonaparte commissioned it in 1806 after victory in the Battle of Austerlitz. It was inaugurated on 29 July 1836. It is a large arch, but it is not possible to drive underneath it. Jean-François Chalgrin designed it, and it has roughly 300 steps that lead to the top. It has four main sculptures and six reliefs. Just beneath the vault of the arch, there is the tomb of the unknown soldier. The names of French generals and battles are engraved on the walls.

Buildings and structures completed in the 19th century
Buildings and structures in Paris
Monuments and memorials in France
Tombs of Unknown Soldiers
Show can mean different things:

 It can mean a theatrical play
 It can mean a film or movie
 It can mean a musical concert
 It can mean a performance at the opera
 It can also mean a television program
Traffic lights (or traffic signals) are lights used to control the movement of traffic. They are placed at road intersections and crossings. The different colors of lights tell drivers what to do.

In South Africa, they call them robots.

Light cycles 
Traffic lights change their colors in the same order every time. In most English-speaking countries, traffic lights usually change in this order:
 Red light on: This tells drivers to stop.
 Green light on: This means the driver can start driving or keep driving.
 Yellow light on: This tells drivers to stop when it is safe to, because the light is about to turn red.

Lester Wire was credited with the invention of the electric traffic light in 1912 in Salt Lake City, Utah.  Garrett Morgan, an African-American inventor, also developed a traffic signaling system, and was one of the first people to get a patent for a traffic light.

William Potts, a police officer, invented the first traffic light with three colors.

References 

Traffic
A railway signal or just signal is a mechanical or electrical machine that gives train drivers or engineers information about the line ahead. These traffic signals say whether the train must stop or may continue and what speed the train may go.

In Britain, modern signalling uses a system similar to road traffic lights. The signals are coloured lights mounted on a pole. A red signal means 'do not go further'. A yellow signal gives a warning to the driver that the next signal is showing a red.  Some signals can show two yellow lights, known as a "double yellow" and are warnings to the driver that the next signal is showing a yellow.  A green signal means 'you can continue'.
On older lines semaphore signals are still used.  These are poles with a coloured bar at the top, which can be moved so that it is either horizontal, or at an angle.  When a red bar is horizontal this means that the train must stop, and when it is pointing diagonally up or down it means that it's safe for the driver to continue.  There are also signals with yellow bars which give warnings in the same way as yellow lights on newer signals.

Related pages

 Communications-based train control

Rail technologies
Maitland () is a city in  New South Wales, Australia. The city is on the Hunter River. Maitland is 200 km north of Sydney and 30 km northwest of Newcastle. Maitland is sometimes called the largest city that is not on the sea in New South Wales. The Maitland Gaol, which closed in 1998, is now a tourist attraction.

Other websites
 The Maitland City Council website
 The Maitland Gaol website

References

Cities in New South Wales
Benalla is a city in Victoria, Australia. In 2016, 9,298 people lived there. Benalla is on the Hume Highway between Sydney and Melbourne. The town is on the Broken River, which often floods. Benalla has a station on the main railway line between Sydney and Melbourne. Benalla is widely known for it's annual 'Wall to Wall' festival which sees many tourists through the area to visit the wall art.

History
Major Thomas Mitchell went through this area on his way back to Sydney in 1836. One of the men with him, a convict named James Taylor, was drowned while trying to cross the Broken River. After Mitchell many farmers arrived with sheep to make new farms. The Reverend Joseph Docker (1793 - 1865) started a farm called "Benalta" in 1838 but later settled on the run Bontherambo, near Wangaratta. The name came from the Taungurung Australian aboriginal word meaning "musk duck". The name was later changed to Benalla.
Seven men, working for farmers George and William Faithfull, were killed by the aborigines at Winding Swamp on April 11 1838. The police under Captain Lonsdale killed many Taungurung people as punishment. Their ears were cut off and taken back to Melbourne as a trophy (prize).

The town of Benalla was surveyed in 1846.

Botanical gardens
The Benalla Botanical Gardens were started in 1886. They cover an area of . The gardens are well known for their collection of roses. The gardens also have three Ulmus x viminalis, an elm tree hybrid. These trees are listed on the Significant Tree Register of the National Trust. They are the only known examples of the hybrid elm in Australia.

References

Cities in Victoria
Ned Kelly
Grafton (, ) is a small city on the northern coast of New South Wales, Australia. It is on the Clarence River and is 640 kilometres north of Sydney. The town is famous for its double-decker road/railway bridge.

References

Cities in New South Wales
Zupaysaurus was a dinosaur that lived in South America 213 million years ago, during the Upper Triassic period. It was about 5 meters (15 feet) long. A dinosaur very similar to it, Dracovenator, lived in South Africa at the same time. 

During the Triassic period, all the continents were connected to form the supercontinent of Pangaea, and animals could migrate freely between them. Zupaysaurus was a carnivore.

Other websites 

Ceratosaurs
Zephyrosaurus was a small dinosaur. It was a relative of Hypsilophodon. It lived 132 million years ago, in the western part of what is now North America. It was 6 ft (2 metres) long and 3 ft (1 metre) high.

The remains are bones from various parts of the body. It had a steep face, a raised knob on the upper jaw, and a larger knob on the cheekbone. Some of the bones may have allowed movement within the skull (cranial kinesis) as well. Like other hypsilophodonts, it had beak teeth.

References 

Hypsilophodontidae
Hypsilophodon was a small, fast-running, plant-eating dinosaur. It lived 125 million years ago, was 2.3 metres long (7/8 feet), including tail, and weighed about the same as a man.

It was originally thought to be a young Iguanodon which could climb trees. Later it was realised to be a different species, and to be a running dinosaur, not adapted for climbing.

Palaeobiology 
Like most small dinosaurs, Hypsilophodon was bipedal and ran on two legs. Its entire body was built for running; a light-weight, low, aerodynamic posture, long legs and stiff tail for balance. All this would have allowed it to travel remarkably fast for its size.
Hypsilophodon fed on low-growing vegetation, most likely preferring young shoots and roots in the manner of modern deer. The structure of its skull, with the teeth set far back into the jaw, strongly suggests that it had cheeks, an advanced feature that would have facilitated the chewing of food. There were twenty-eight to thirty ridged teeth in the animal's jaw which, due to their alternate arrangement, appear to have been self-sharpening.  As in almost all dinosaurs and certainly all the ornithischians, the teeth were continuously replaced.

The level of parental care in this dinosaur has not been defined, although a neatly-arranged nest has been found, suggesting that some care was taken before hatching. Fossils of large groups have been found, so it is likely that the animals moved in herds. For these reasons, the hypsilophodonts, particularly Hypsilophodon, have often been referred to as the "deer of the Mesozoic".
Despite living in the Cretaceous, Hypsilophodon had a number of primitive, or basal, features. For example, there were five fingers on each 'hand' and four on each foot. Most dinosaurs had fewer digits by the Cretaceous period. Also, although it had a beak, Hypsilophodon still had pointed triangular teeth in the front of the jaw. Most herbivorous dinosaurs had, by this stage, lost the front teeth altogether (although there is some debate as to whether these teeth may have had a specialized function in Hypsilophodon).

The group Hypsilophodontidae remained the same from the Upper Jurassic to the end of the Cretaceous. It is possible that this was because the animals were almost perfectly adapted to their lifestyle, therefore selective pressure, it is assumed, was low.

Hypsilophodontidae 
The family named after Hysilophodon has these genera:
Agilisaurus
Anabisetia
Atlascopcosaurus
Drinker
Fulgurotherium
Gasparinisaura
Gongbusaurus (= Eugongbusaurus)
Hexinlusaurus.
Hypsilophodon
Jeholosaurus
Leaellynasaura
Notohypsilophodon
Orodromeus
Othnielosaurus.
Koreanosaurus.
Parksosaurus
Qantassaurus
Thescelosaurus
Yandusaurus
Zephyrosaurus

References 

Hypsilophodontidae
Dryosaurus was a small plant-eating ornithopod dinosaur that lived in forests of western North America around 150 million years ago.

Its family, the Dryosauridae, were precursors (ancestors) of the Iguanodons, and lived from the Middle Jurassic to the Lower Cretaceous.

References

Iguanodonts
[[File:Iguanodon manus 1 NHM.jpg|thumb|A formidable weapon: the Iguanodons thumb.]]

 Iguanodon''' is a genus of ornithopod dinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous period in Europe, North America, Africa and Asia. It lived 125/126 million years ago (mya).

Discovered in 1822 and described three years later by English geologist Gideon Mantell, Iguanodon was the second dinosaur formally named, after Megalosaurus. Together with Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus, it was one of the three genera originally used to define the Dinosauria.

A large, bulky herbivore, Iguanodon is thought by some to be in the same family as the duck-billed hadrosaurs. The taxonomy of the genus continues to be a topic of study as new species are named or long-standing ones reassigned to other genera.
Scientific understanding of Iguanodon has evolved over time. New information is got from the fossils. Researchers have made suggestions about  the living animal, including feeding, movement, and social behaviour.  As one of the first scientifically known dinosaurs, Iguanodon is well known.

 Species 
There are at least two species recognised:I. bernissartensis, described by George Albert Boulenger in 1881, is the type species for the genus. This species is best known for the many skeletons discovered in a coal mine in Bernissart, Belgium in 1878. The coal dates to the earliest Cretaceous period. 36 adult skeletons were excavated at this site, a coal mine. This is by far the largest find of this species. The species is large and strong.I. galvensis, described in 2015, is based on adult and juvenile remains found in deposits in Teruel, Spain, dating to about 126 mya.
Posture and movement 
Because its front limbs were shorter than the hindlimbs, Mantell guessed it could move on two legs, as opposed to Owen, who thought it was quadrupedal. As it happens, it probably used both modes. Slow walking would be done on all fours, and faster running on the hind legs. Either way, the position of the body would be more horizontal than upright, with the tail held above the ground by its ossified (bony) ligaments (they can be clearly seen on the skeleton). It would defend itself against predators on its hind legs, using its strong front arms and dagger-like thumbs as weapons.

 Eating 
The teeth were close-set grinding teeth suitable for a browser. it is believed that, as with most other ornithischians, Iguanodon'' had some sort of cheek-like structure, muscular or non-muscular, to keep food in the mouth.

References 

Iguanodonts
Xylem is a tissue in vascular plants. Its cells have thick, hard walls. Xylem tissue dies soon after it is formed and is the wood in the middle of a tree. The dead cells are like pipes, hollow and rigid.

Xylem is one of two tissues in the plant which transport substances that plants need to live. Substances that xylem transports include water and minerals obtained through the plant's roots, as xylem runs from the roots to the stems and leaves. The other transport tissue is the phloem, which transports energy in the form of sugar (as well as any other chemicals) from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

Xylem cells are present in all parts of a plant, in stems, roots, and leaves. Water is carried against gravity by the negative pressure that builds up through the process of transpiration, which is the evaporation of moisture in leaves.

Xylem consists of four types of cells:

 Xylem parenchyma which are living cells with thin walls
 Xylem fibres
 Tracheids
 Xylem vessels
Most of these cells are dead cells and have thick walls.

Related pages
 Medullary ray

Vascular tissue
Plant physiology
Allosaurus was a large theropod dinosaur from the Jurassic period, a predatory carnivore.

Allosaurus averaged 8.5 metres (28 ft) in length, though some remains suggest it could reach over 12 meters (39 ft). Its three-fingered forelimbs were smaller than its large hind legs, and the body was balanced by a long, heavy tail. It weighed 2.3 tons. Allosaurus teeth were around 2.7-3.0 inches long this made it a scary ferocious pretator.

It is the most common large predator found in the Morrison Formation of North America. This formation was laid down 155 to 145 million years ago, in the Jurassic.

Allosaurus was at the top of the food chain. It probably preyed on large herbivorous dinosaurs and perhaps even other predators (e.g. Ceratosaurus). Potential prey included ornithopods, stegosaurs, and sauropods.

Some paleontologists think Allosaurus had cooperative  behavior, and hunted in packs. Others believe they may have been aggressive toward each other.
Groups have been found together in the fossil record. This might be evidence of pack behavior, or just the result of lone individuals feeding on the same carcass.

Remains of many individuals have been found, including some which are almost complete. Over sixty-nine individuals from one species have been found.

Feeding 

Sauropods, live or dead, seem to be likely candidates as prey. Sauropod bones with holes fitting allosaur teeth, and the presence of shed allosaur teeth with sauropod bones have been found.

There is dramatic evidence for allosaur attacks on Stegosaurus. An Allosaurus tail vertebra has been found with a partially healed puncture which fits a Stegosaurus thagomizer. Also, there is a Stegosaurus neck plate with a U-shaped wound that correlates well with an Allosaurus snout.
Allosaurus was probably not a predator of fully grown sauropods, unless it hunted in packs. It had a modestly sized skull and relatively small teeth, and was greatly outweighed by adult sauropods. Another possibility is that it preferred to hunt juveniles instead of fully grown adults.

Researchers have made other suggestions. Robert T. Bakker compared the short teeth to serrations on a saw. This saw-like cutting edge runs the length of the upper jaw, and could have been driven into prey. This type of jaw would permit slashing attacks against much larger prey, with the goal of weakening the victim.

Another study showed the skull was very strong but had a relatively small bite force. The authors suggested that Allosaurus used its skull like a hatchet against prey, attacking open-mouthed, slashing flesh with its teeth, and tearing it away without splintering bones but this is disputed by many scientists.
They suggested that different strategies could be used against different prey. The skull was light enough to allow attacks on smaller and more agile ornithopods, but strong enough for high-impact ambush attacks against larger prey like stegosaurs and sauropods.

Their ideas were challenged by other researchers, who found no modern examples of a hatchet attack. They thought it more likely that the skull was strong to absorb stresses from struggling prey.

The original authors noted that Allosaurus itself has no modern equivalent, so the absence of a modern 'hatchet attacker' was not significant. They thought the tooth row was well-suited to such an attack, and that articulations (joints) in the skull helped to lessen stress.
Another possibility for handling large prey is that theropods like Allosaurus were 'flesh grazers' which could take bites of flesh out of living sauropods, sufficient to sustain the predator so it did not need to kill the prey outright. This strategy might have allowed the prey to recover and be fed upon again later. 

Another idea is that ornithopods, the most common available prey, could be subdued by Allosaurus grasping the prey with their forelimbs, and then making bites on the throat to crush the trachea. The forelimbs were strong and capable of restraining prey, and the articulation of the claws suggests that they could have been used to hook things.

The shape of the Allosaurus skull limited binocular vision to 20° of width, slightly less than that of modern crocodilians. As with crocodiles, this may have been enough to judge prey distance and time attacks. The similar width of their field of view suggests that allosaurs, like modern crocodiles, were ambush hunters.
Finally, the top speed of Allosaurus has been estimated at 30 to 55 kilometers per hour (19 to 34 miles per hour).

Cleveland-Lloyd discoveries 
The fossil site  known as the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Emery County, Utah was known in 1927, but major operations did not begin there until 1960. An effort from nearly 40 institutions got thousands of bones between 1960 and 1965. The quarry is notable for the many Allosaurus remains, the condition of the specimens, and our ignorance of its ancient origin. It is estimated that the remains of at least 46 A. fragilis have been found there, out of at least 73 dinosaurs. The fossils found there are disarticulated (separate) and well-mixed.
Suggestions as to how it arose include animals getting stuck in a bog, to becoming trapped in deep mud, to falling victim to drought-induced mortality around a waterhole, to getting trapped in a spring-fed pond or seep. Regardless of the cause, the great quantity of well-preserved Allosaurus remains means the animal is one of the best-known theropods. Individuals of almost all ages and sizes are found, from less than 1 meter (3.3 ft) to 12 meters (39 ft) long.

Species 
There are five recognised species of Allosaurus: 
 A. fragilis
 A. tendagurensis (?)
 A. atrox (?)
 A. europaeus
 A. jimmadseni

Media 

Allosaurus, like Tyrannosaurus, has come to represent the quintessential large, carnivorous dinosaur in popular culture.

It is a common dinosaur in museums. A number of museums cooperated in excavations at the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry. By 1976, museums in eight countries on three continents had Cleveland-Lloyd allosaur material or casts. Allosaurus is the official 'state fossil' of Utah.
Allosaurus is top predator in both Arthur Conan Doyle's 1912 novel, The Lost World, and its 1925 film adaptation, the first full-length motion picture to feature dinosaurs.

Allosaurus was used as the starring dinosaur of the 1956 film The Beast of Hollow Mountain, and the 1969 film The Valley of Gwangi. Gwangi is billed as an Allosaurus, though Ray Harryhausen based his model for the creature on Charles R. Knight's depiction of a Tyrannosaurus. Allosaurus appeared in the second episode of the 1999 BBC television series Walking with Dinosaurs and the follow-up special The Ballad of Big Al, which speculated on the life of the 'Big Al' specimen, as revealed by the numerous injuries and pathologies in its skeleton.

References 

Jurassic dinosaurs
Carnosaurs
Ceratosaurus was a predatory dinosaur from the Upper Jurassic period, 156 to 145 million years ago. 

It was first described by O.C. Marsh in 1884. It had a horn on its nose, and a pair of small horns above its eyes. Unusually, for a theropod, Ceratosaurus had armour: small osteoderms ran down the middle of its back.

The animal had deep jaws and long blade-like teeth. A nearly complete skeleton was discovered in Garden Park, Colorado, in rocks belonging to the Morrison Formation.Other examples or close relatives have since been found.Ceratosaurus was a midle sized carnivorus dinosaur found in the jurassic period.Cerastosaurus was known for the large horns on the top of its head.Ceratosaurus was in the same time as the allosaurus,stegosaurus and many more.Ceratosaurus was ranged from 9.2 meters long to 11.6 meters long.
This made it a fast and dependable predator.Ceratosaurs had 4 fingers mostly used for grabing\clutching objects.Ceratosaurus teeth were around 1.7-2.1 inches tall. Scientists have found bite marks of ceratosaurus in many dinosaurs including,allosaurus,stegosaurus and more.

Dinosaurs of Africa
Jurassic dinosaurs
Ceratosaurs
Carnotaurus was a predatory dinosaur. It lived 70 million years ago on the Cretaceous period. It was a large theropod which lived in South America. Although there is only one well-preserved skeleton, it is one of the best-understood theropods from the southern hemisphere. The skeleton, found in 1984, was uncovered in the Chubut Province of Argentina.

Carnotaurus is a member of the Abelisauridae, a group of large theropods. They lived only in the ancient southern supercontinent Gondwana. They were the dominant predators of the later Cretaceous of Gondwana. They occupied the ecological niche filled by the tyrannosaurids in the northern continents.
Description 
Carnotaurus was a lightly built, bipedal predator,  in length and weighing . As a theropod, Carnotaurus was highly specialized and distinctive. It had thick horns above the eyes, a feature not seen in other carnivorous dinosaurs, and a very deep skull sitting on a muscular neck. Also, it had small, vestigial forelimbs, smaller even than those of Tyrannosaurus.

The remains include skin impressions showing a mosaic of small, non-overlapping scales about 5 mm in diameter. The mosaic was interrupted by large bumps that lined the sides of the animal, and there are no hints of feathers.
The distinctive horns and muscular neck may have been used in fighting rivals of its own species. Rivals may have fought with quick head blows, by slow pushes with the upper sides of their skulls, or by ramming each other head-on, using their horns as shock absorbers. The feeding habits of Carnotaurus remain unclear. Some studies suggest the animal was able to hunt down very large prey such as sauropods, while other studies find it preyed mainly on relatively small animals. Carnotaurus was well adapted for running and was possibly one of the fastest large theropods.

Palaeoecology 
The animal lived in an environment of estuaries, tidal flats or coastal plains. The climate would have been seasonal with both dry and humid periods. The most common vertebrates collected include  lungfish, turtles, crocodiles, plesiosaurs, dinosaurs, lizards, snakes and mammals. Turtles are represented by at least five taxa. In 2011, the discovery of a new enantiornithine bird from the La Colonia Formation was announced.
Media 
It appears in the movie Dinosaur (2000), when two Carnotaurus were killing other species of Iguanodon, Parasaurolophus, Pachyrhinosaurus or Stygimoloch. And in Jurassic World 2: Fallen Kingdom (2018), when fighting a Sinoceratops and gets taken down by the iconic "Rexy" the Tyrannosaurus rex. Later on in the movie, it escapes the "Lockwood Manor" in Michael Crichton's book "The Lost World" (1995)

References 

Abelisauridae
Dinosaurs of South America
Chubut Province