Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Wagner changed people's ideas of what operas should be. He thought that the drama (the story that is being told with all its tensions) was very important, and he chose the singers for his operas himself, so that he could train them into his way of thinking. The music in his operas did not give the audience a chance to applaud after big solos as it had done in the 18th century: it continues throughout the whole act. He made his music tell the story by using what he called “leitmotifs”. These were melodies or short musical phrases which belonged to particular characters in the opera, or to particular ideas. He had more influence on other composers than anybody else in his time, largely because of his harmonies which became more and more chromatic (using lots of sharps and flats), with many changes of key. He built an opera house to his own design in the German town of Bayreuth. Nearly all musicians in Europe tried to make a journey to Bayreuth to hear Wagner's music
. The Wagner festival still takes place every year there.
His life

Early years 

He studied at the University of Leipzig, although he was not allowed to be a full student because he did not have proper school qualifications. Although he lived a wild life he worked hard at his music. He studied the scores of Beethoven's string quartets and symphonies and he wrote his own symphony which was performed in 1833 at the famous Leipzig Gewandhaus. He wrote his first opera, Die Feen (The Fairies) in Würzburg. He became the conductor of a travelling opera group and fell in love with one of the singers called Minna Planer and he married her in 1836. His second opera, Das Liebesverbot, based on Shakespeare's play Measure for Measure was a failure.
Wagner always liked spending money, and he soon found he owed money to a lot of people, so he went away to Paris where he lived for three years. He was not successful at all there, none of the French musicians showed any interest in him and he was very poor. He still managed to write an opera Rienzi in 1841, and this was soon followed by Der fliegende Holländer, (The Flying Dutchman), which still remains a favourite to opera lovers today. It was first performed in Dresden in 1843. The audience did not like it much because they were used to operas like Rienzi which were written in the old way. Wagner was given the job of court opera composer in Dresden. He stayed there until 1849. During that time he worked very hard to make opera performances better, improve the orchestra and train the singers. In 1845 he wrote another great opera, Tannhäuser. People gradually started to understand the way that Wagner's music was telling the drama of the story
. After this all his operas were great successes, although there always remained some people who hated his music, e.g. the music critic Eduard Hanslick.
In 1848 he finished working on Lohengrin but it was not performed because he was supporting the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, joining in the demonstrations. Although he did join the fighting he was going to be arrested, so Franz Liszt helped him to escape to Switzerland. He lived in Zürich until 1858. There he wrote about music, conducted, and read stories from Norse mythology. He was starting to think about writing operas about these stories. It was something that would take him over 25 years to complete. They were to become the four operas known as Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung) which, together, tell one long story. The four operas which make up this famous Ring cycle are Das Rheingold (The Rhinegold), Die Walküre (The Valkyrie), Siegfried and Götterdämmerung (Twilight of the Gods). Because of the political situation in Germany at the time, Wagner expected the rise of a socialist state
. The operas in the Ring cycle were a new kind of music drama (which Wagner simply called “drama”). These operas can be seen as describing a new kind of world in which humans are free. The music used the idea of leitmotif (in English: “leading motive”), where musical ideas represent characters or emotions, and help the development and understanding of the story.
By 1857 Wagner had written the first two operas as well as Acts One and Two of Siegfried. However, the third Act of Siegfried was not written until many years later, because he could see that at that time there was no suitable opera house to have these operas performed. He fell in love with a woman called Mathilde Wesendonk, whose husband was very rich. This affair led to a separation with his wife, Minna. He wrote an opera about an unhappy love affair: Tristan und Isolde (Tristan and Isolde).

Mid career 

Meanwhile, he wrote another opera: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (The Mastersinger of Nűrnberg). It is the only comedy Wagner wrote.
It is set in medieval Germany and is about a song contest.
By 1864 Wagner was in debt once more. He fled to Stuttgart to avoid being put into prison (Germany at that time was still made up of many small countries, each with their own laws). Then he had a big stroke of luck. The new king of Bavaria, Ludwig II, who was only 18 years old, adored the music of Wagner. He had read the poem about the Ring of the Nibelungs (Wagner had written the words, but had not finished the music). King Ludwig invited Wagner to finish the Ring cycle for performances in Munich. He gave him somewhere to live, and his new operas were performed in Munich: Tristan und Isolde in 1865, Die Meistersinger von Nűrnberg in 1868, Das Rheingold in 1869 and Die Walkűre in 1870. There were plans for a new opera house in Munich, but it was never built because people were angry with Wagner for being in debt in spite of having lots of money from the king. Another thing people did not like was that he fell in love with the wife of the man who had conducted his operas, Hans von Bülow. Her name was Cosima
. Her father was the composer Franz Liszt who had not been married to Cosima's mother. Wagner had already left Munich in 1865, but the king still supported him, making it possible for him to live in a large house called Triebschen on Lake Lucerne. Cosima divorced von Bülow in 1870 and married Wagner in the same year.
Bayreuth and Wahnfried 

By now Wagner was working hard at the Ring cycle again. He had promised the king that the four operas would be performed in Munich when they were ready, but he realized that they would need a special kind of opera house. So he designed his own opera house and had it built in the town of Bayreuth. He spent a lot of time travelling and conducting in order to raise money for this huge project. The King Ludwig also gave him a lot of money, and a lovely new house in Bayreuth which Wagner called Wahnfried (the name of the house means something like: Peace from the mad world). Finally, the complete cycle of four operas was performed in August 1876 in the new opera house, the (Bayreuth Festspielhaus). The third and fourth operas of the cycle, Siegfried and Götterdämmerung  were being performed for the first time.
Wagner spent the rest of his life living in Wahnfried. Sometimes he travelled. He went to London and made several trips to Italy. He wrote his last opera, Parsifal, which almost has a religious feeling to it. The story is related to the legends about King Arthur and the Holy Grail. Wagner dictated his memoirs to his wife. His autobiography is called Mein Leben (My Life). He died of a heart attack when he was staying in Venice. He was buried in the grounds of Wahnfried.

Wagner’s reputation 

Wagner had enormous influence on the development of music. Many composers imitated his harmonies, or let themselves be influenced by them. By the early 20th century some composers like Arnold Schoenberg had gone even farther in making more and more complicated harmonies, and composers had to find new ways of composing.
Wagner made his orchestras much bigger than usual. The woodwind, for example, need four of each instrument (four flutes, four oboes etc.), and there are extra instruments like the bass clarinet and Wagner tubas. His ideas about music drama were very important. His music helps the drama to be told because it develops all the time, like the music in a symphony.

Wagner was anti-semitic. Wagner's writings on Jews, including ‘Jewishness in Music’, corresponded to some existing anti-semitic trends of thought in Germany during the 19th century. The published essay attacks two Jewish composers and Jews in general.

Wagner died long before the Nazis arose. Wagner's widow and heirs established direct political links with the Nazis. Their actions to belittle Jewish artists and involvement in anti-semetic organisations after 1914 helped prepare the ground for state-organised expulsion of Jewish artists after 1933.
When Hitler came to power in the 1930s he liked Wagner's music and thought that it was something typically German. Wagner's ideas in Die Meistersinger von Nűrnberg about German art suited some of Hitler's thoughts. After the war, the music was wrongly thought of as being something of the Nazis. Wagner wrote things that freely expressed his dislike of Jewish composers, although he praised Felix Mendelssohn for his Hebrides Overture. Wagner also had some Jewish friends. Wagner's music is played very rarely in Israel. Daniel Barenboim made people in Israel angry by conducting Wagner's music at a Jerusalem festival in 2001.

References 

German autobiographers
19th-century German composers
Musicians from Leipzig
Romantic composers
1813 births
1883 deaths
[[File:Connecticut Yankee frontispiece by Beard.jpg|thumb|300px|An illustration of the Connecticut Yankees 1st edition.]]A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court''''' is a novel. It was written by Mark Twain. It was published in 1889. It is one of the first stories about time travel.

Story 
Hank Morgan is an American from late 19th-century Connecticut. He travels back in time to King Arthur's Camelot. He has a lot of knowledge of science and technology. He becomes very powerful. People call him "The Boss". He tries to improve medieval society according to the morals and technologies of his time. In the end, Merlin puts Hank in a magic sleep. Hank wakes in his own time.

Books by Mark Twain
1889 books
19th-century American novels
Juno (), in Roman mythology, is the wife of Jupiter and the queen of the gods. Her father was Saturn.  She was later identified with the goddess Hera, the wife of Zeus in Greek mythology. She was the goddess of marriage and childbirth. She was called Juno Regina ("Queen"). She was the patron goddess of Rome and a protector of the state. With Jupiter and Minerva, she was part of the Capitoline triad of gods.

Juno, Roman goddess and Hera, Greek goddess, are the same person just believed to be different.

References 

Roman gods and goddesses
History of the sword
The sword was obtained by the king with the advice of his wizard-adviser . But it was considered that there existed two Excalibur swords. The first was the one Merlin put into the stone and said that the throne will be taken by the one who will take the sword out of the stone.do it. The second Excalibur was the one to which Merlin took the King. The sword was located at a magical lake where the Lady of the Lake gave it to Arthur. The Excalibur was made by an elf. Later the sword was stolen by his sister and it was the time when the scabbard (sword coverage) was lost. In the battle of Camlann, Arthur was hurt, and he told Bedwyr (Griflet) to return the Excalibur to the lake.
  
One of the earliest names of King Arthur's sword was Caladfwlch. It is a Welsh word that comes from Calad-Bolg (Hard Lightning). Later it was changed to Caliburn by Geoffrey of Monmouth. And today we know it as Excalibur, due to French.
The legend of Excalibur is similar to the Irish hero, Cú Chulainn, who had a sword named Caladbolg; or to Norse Legend of Sigurd. All these swords were made by an elf. Sometimes he is named Wayland (Saxon myth); and Gofannon (Celtic myth).

Clarent is one of King Arthur's two mythic swords. The first is Excalibur, the sword of war, and the second Clarent, the sword of peace.  The Clarent sword is less known because it was used for peaceful acts, whereas the Excalibur was well known because it was used to defend Camelot. But by the legend the Clarent Sword play a very important role. It was stolen by the traitor Mordred, who later used it against Arthur and cut him to death.

In some versions of the story of Excalibur, it is said that the sword was forged in dragon fire, though it is not commonly told of.

Other websites 
 Medieval European Armor 

Arthurian legend
Mythological swords
Georg Philipp Telemann (March 14, 1681  June 25, 1767) was a German baroque composer. He wrote more than 3,000 pieces of music, many of which were published. As publishing cost much money at that time, this was quite unusual. He mostly taught himself musically and knew how to play instruments. During his life people thought he was one of the greatest composers. He also wrote lots of church music, most of which is not common today.

Life
Life

Early life 
Telemann was born in Magdeburg. His father died when he was four years old. He studied music with an organist for two weeks. He wrote his first opera at the age of 12. However, his mother did not want him to become a musician. So, she took away his instruments. She did not let Telemann write music. Telemann continued to play and write music secretly. His mother sent him to a school in Zellerfeld. She hoped that Telemann would lose his interests in music. Even so, Telemann continued to write and study music. He learned how to play the figured bass himself. He wrote music for school events. He also wrote church music. After studying in Zellerfeld for four years, he went to study in Hildesheim.

Leipzig
Leipzig 

After Telemann graduated, he gave up music. He went to Leipzig to study law. One day, his friend found a piece of Telemann's music. It was a setting of the sixth Psalm. It was soon performed in the Thomaskirche. The mayor of Leipzig heard the performance. He asked Telemann to write church music for the two churches in Leipzig, the Thomaskirche and Nikolaikirche. So, Telemann went back to writing music. He became the director of the Leipzig Opera in 1702. He was chosen to become the organist of the Neukirche.

Telemann founded a collegium musicum in Leipzig. The collegium was a group of students who loved music. On Sundays they performed Telemann's church music. They also performed in coffee houses and for noblemen. The cantor of the Thomaskirche, Johann Kuhnau did not like that his students joined the Collegium.
Telemann left Leipzig in 1705. He became the Kapellmeister in the court of Sorau. He worked for Count Erdmann II of Promnitz. The count loved French music. So, Telemann had to write music in the French style. Many musicians were fired by the count. Even so, Telemann was not fired. He left Sorau when Sweden attacked the town in 1706.

Eisenach 
Telemann went to work in Eisenach, the birthplace of Johann Sebastian Bach. He was a Konzertmeister. His job was writing music and playing the violin. Telemann worked with Pantaleon Hebenstreit. He was a better violinist than Telemann. Telemann played concertos for two violins with Hebenstreit. Telemann and Hebenstreit made the orchestra in Eisenach bigger. Telemann hired musicians from Leipzig. Hebenstreit hired musicians from Weißenfels, where he used to work.
Telemann wrote instrumental music in Eisenach. He wrote concertos, overtures, and chamber music. Telemann also wrote church cantatas. After Telemann left Eisenach, Telemann still wrote music for Eisenach. He sent a cantata cycle every two years to Eisenach. A cantata cycle is a collection of cantatas. The cantatas are meant to be performed in a church year. When Duke John William died in 1719, Telemann stopped sending cantatas.

Telemann returned to Sorau to marry Amalie Louise Juliane Eberlin in 1709. She was the daughter of Daniel Eberlin, a composer. She died in 1711 after giving birth to their daughter. Telemann soon left Eisenach.
Frankfurt 
Telemann went to Frankfurt in 1712. He became the music director of the city's two churches. He taught singing and Latin in the schools. He wrote five cantata cycles for the churches. He published his first set of music in 1715. They are six sonatas for the violin. He led another collegium musicum. It was called the Frauenstein collegium. Telemann wrote music for the collegium. The collegium also performed Telemann's first passion oratorio, the Brockes-Passion, in 1716. The performance was a success.  

Telemann did not want to work as a Kapellmeister again. However, he was asked to become the new Kapellmeister when he went to Gotha in 1716. Duke Ernest Augustus I of Saxe-Weimar also wanted to make Telemann the Kapellmeister of Eisenach, Gotha, and Weimar. Telemann chose to stay in Frankfurt for five more years.

Telemann married Maria Catharina Textor in 1714. They had nine children.

Hamburg
Hamburg 

Telemann moved to Hamburg in 1721. He became the music director of Hamburg. He was in charge of the music in five churches in Hamburg. He had to write two cantatas for every Sunday. He had to write music for special events. He also taught history and music to students. However, Telemann was not allowed to play concerts in public. He was also not paid as much as he wanted.
In 1722, Johann Kuhnau, the cantor of the Thomaskirche died. The city of Leipzig looked for a new cantor. Telemann had worked in Leipzig before. Leipzig's city council wanted Telemann to become the new cantor. So, they asked Telemann to come to Leipzig. Telemann came to Leipzig on August 1. He performed two cantatas for his audition on August 9. He was chosen by the council on August 13. He told Hamburg's city council that he was going to leave Hamburg. Hamburg's city council did not want Telemann to leave. So, they increased his salary. Telemann changed his mind. He did not become the cantor of the Thomaskirche. Johann Sebastian Bach was chosen as the cantor.

Telemann had a debt of 5,000 Reichstalers in 1726. It was because his wife spent a lot of money. Around this time, Telemann started publishing music. He might have started publishing music to pay back his debts. He had paid back 3,000 Reichstalers in 1736.

Later life
Later life 

Telemann went to Paris in 1737. He was asked to come to Paris by French musicians. Some people in Paris had published six of Telemann's quartets. This set is the first part of the Paris quartets. Telemann did not allow them to publish the set. He published another six quartets, called the , in Paris. This is the second part of the Paris quartets. Telemann wrote about music in France after he returned to Hamburg. However, he did not finish writing it.

Telemann stopped publishing music in 1740. He sold all of the copper plates which he used to print music. He wrote music theory books. However, he did not publish them. He started to do gardening. He received many rare plants from other composers. Handel sent him a crate of plants from England. Telemann stopped writing new cantatas around 1750. He used music he had written before. He could not direct performances. His legs had become weak. He was helped by his grandson, Georg Michael.
Telemann died on 25 June 1767 at the age of 86. His godson Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach became the next music director of Hamburg.

Music 
Telemann wrote more than 3,000 pieces of music. His music mixes different styles. He wrote in the French and Italian styles. He also used Polish folk music's style. He heard Polish folk music when he worked in Sorau. He was one of the first composers to write a concerto for the viola.

Telemann published his own music. At that time, publishing music cost a lot of money. Composers did not get a lot of money by publishing music. Even so, Telemann started a publishing business. He even engraved some of the copper plates himself. The copper plates were used to print the music on paper. He created a musical newspaper. It was called  (English: The Faithful Music Master). He published his music in the newspaper. He also published music by other composers.
Legacy 
During his life, people thought that Telemann was one of the greatest composers. Johann Sebastian Bach copied one of Telemann's violin concertos. Bach also arranged another one of Telemann's violin concertos. The arrangement is played on the harpsichord. 182 people bought the first edition of Telemann's Tafelmusik. This includes George Frideric Handel and Johann Joachim Quantz.

People in the 19th century thought that Telemann's music was bad. They thought his music was not serious. They thought his cantatas were not natural, too dramatic, and used bad text. However, this changed in the 20th century. People began to study Telemann's music again. His music is performed more often.

References

Other websites 

 
 A list of works by Telemann (in French)

1681 births
1767 deaths
Baroque composers
18th-century German composers
Multi-instrumentalists
People from Magdeburg
Giovanni da Palestrina (born Palestrina, (c.1525 – February 2, 1594 in Rome) was a very important Italian composer of church music of his time.  He lived in the period called the Renaissance.  Most of his music was choral (written for choirs).  It is very polyphonic.  This means that the different voices (sopranos, altos, tenors or basses) are often singing different words and different parts of the tune at the same time.  Many composers since have studied the way that Palestrina wrote, because this is an excellent way to learn to write contrapuntal music.
Palestrina took his name from the town where he was born.  We are not sure of the exact date of his birth.  Any records of his birth were destroyed when the town burned in 1577.  He was probably a choirboy in Palestrina.  When he was grown up he got a job as organist and choir director at the Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore.  He was not earning much money, but he married a lady who came from a very rich family, so he was comfortably off.  Pope Julius III heard about how good this young composer was.  He asked him to come and meet him.  He was given the job of master of the Capella Juliana, the choir that sang at the services in St Peter’s, Rome.  This was the top job in Italy and he was only 26.   Of course, Palestrina composed a mass in the pope’s honour.

Palestrina composed 93 masses (these are musical settings of the words of the communion service).  He also wrote motets and madrigals.  Palestrina and Lassus were the two greatest composers of the late Renaissance.
16th-century Italian composers
1525 births
1594 deaths
[[Image:The Prince and the Pauper 1881 p20.jpg|thumb|200px|Tom Canty meets Prince Edward. An illustration in The Prince and the Paupers 1st edition.]]The Prince and the Pauper''''' is a book by Mark Twain. It was published in 1882. The story has been adapted to stage, television, and movies.

Story
The story takes place in England, in the year 1547 when the King has a glorious and much rejoiced birth of the son he awaited, Edward the fourth, after many sisters (Mary and Elizabeth)and still births. By chance, Prince Edward, son of King Henry VIII of England and Jane Seymor, and Tom Canty, a pauper (poor boy), find out that they look exactly the same, like identical twins. After they put on each other's clothes for fun, the prince is thrown out of the palace, while people think that Tom is the prince. Now both Edward and Tom have to live in a world where they are treated different and which they do not understand.
Tom lives the life of a prince. On the streets of London, Edward is saved by the nobleman Miles Hendon. Edward travels with Miles around England. There Edward sees and has to live with the poverty and cruel treatment in the life of the poor people. 

Then King Henry VIII dies. People prepare to make Tom the next King. At the crowning ceremony, Edward arrives and says that he is the real Prince. In the end, Tom and Edward can clear everything up. Edward becomes King of England. Tom Canty becomes "The King's Ward", a position in which he can live comfortably for the rest of his life. Miles Hendon is made an Earl. King Edward's rule is very good to the common and poor people, because he has lived that way for a while and knows how hard it is. But Edward dies when he is still very young.

Related pages

Books by Mark Twain
1882 books
American children's books
American novels
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is a book written by Mark Twain, published in 1876. There is also a sequel, the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

It is the story about the boy Tom Sawyer who lives in America in the first half of the 19th century and has adventures in his everyday life.

Plot
Tom Sawyer is 12 years old and lives with his Aunt Polly, his half-brother Sid and his cousin Mary in St.Petersburg, a small town along the Mississippi River.
Because Tom went to school and made his clothes dirty in a fight, he gets punished and he had to whitewash the fence. Because he does not want to do this, he tells some boys what a “pleasure” it is to do the work. His plan works and the boys even pay him for this.
As the story goes on, Tom falls in love with Becky Thatcher, the Judge’s daughter. He convinces her to get “engaged” to him but when she finds out that she is not the first girl he is engaged to, she breaks up with him.
One night, Tom goes with Huckleberry Finn, the town drunk’s son, to the graveyard to try out a “cure” for warts. When they arrive there at midnight, they see Injun Joe murdering Dr. Robinson. The murderer blames his drunken companion Muff Potter for committing the crime and in addition to that, Injun Joe’s accomplice gets arrested the next day. Because Tom and Huck are afraid of him, they swear not to tell anybody about what they have seen.
Some days later, Tom, Huck and their friend Joe Harper run away to an uninhabited island on the Mississippi. They want to become pirates there. The boys are having a great time there and do not care about their families and friends. After some days, their families search their bodies in the river because they think the boys are drowned. Because Tom wants more information, he returns home without being seen and overhears his aunt and some other people from town talk about the boys’ funeral. Afterwards he goes back to the island to tell his friends about his idea to return home at their funeral. Huck and Joe are convinced that this will be a big surprise and agree. As they expect, everybody is surprised and happy that they are back. After their return all classmates admire them.

After this incident, Becky is interested in Tom again and they continue where their relationship first ended.
Then the trial of Cheyenne Frazier started. At this moment, Tom feels guilty for not telling the truth. So he tells that Injun Joe is the real murderer but he does not mention that Huck also saw the crime. After this, Muff Potter comes free and Injun Joe flees through a window. Now, Tom is afraid that Injun Joe could kill him.

Sometime later, Tom and Huck see Injun Joe and his companion when they find a box full of gold coins in the “haunted house”. The boys follow him to see where they hide the treasure but it does not work. When they find out that Injun Joe hangs out in a room in the “Temperance Tavern”, Huck shadows the murderer each night.

One night, Tom and Becky go on a picnic with their classmates to McDougal’s cave. Both told their families that they spend the night at a friend’s house because they want to stay the night together. Later that night, they separate from the others and get lost in the cave. Nobody notices that they are gone, so their families miss them just the next morning.
The same night, Huck follows Injun Joe who hides the box of gold. Huck hears him and his companion talking that they want to kill the widow Douglas. Afterwards, he goes to the Welshman who helps to chase the criminals away.

In the meantime, Tom sees a person in the cave and first thinks of help, but it turns out that it is Injun Joe. He does not tell Becky about that and after a long time Tom finds a small hole where they can escape.

After some days, Tom wants to visit Becky and her father tells him that the hole has been closed. The boy tells the Judge that he saw Injun Joe inside the cave. So the townspeople go to the cave where they find the dead body of Injun Joe.

Tom shows Huck the hole where he got out of the cave and both search and finally really find the treasure inside.

In the end, the Widow Douglas adopts Huck Finn. First Huck does not like it but Tom tells him that he can just join his robber band if he stays. Finally, Huck agrees.

Related pages

 Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

References
References

1876 books
American children's books
Books by Mark Twain
American novels
Billy Boyd (born 28 August 1968, in Glasgow) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for playing Peregrin Took in the Lord of the Rings movie trilogy (2001–2003) and Barrett Bonden in  Peter Weir's movie Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003).

Talents 
As well as being an actor, he can sing, and play the guitar, bass, and drums. He wrote and sang a song in Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King.
He worked as a book-binder for 6 years before becoming an actor. One of the books he bound was The Lord of the Rings.

He lives in a house in Lesmahagow with his girlfriend, Alison McKinnon. On 26 April 2006, he and McKinnon had their first child: Jack William Boyd.
Filmography
Stone of Destiny (2008)Ecstasy (2007) as WoodsyThe Flying Scotsman (2006) as MalkySave Angel Hope (2006) as VinceMidsummer Dream (2005) voice of PuckOn a Clear Day (2005) as DannyInstant Credit (2004) as FrankieSeed of Chucky (2004) as the voice of GlenThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) as Peregrin TookMaster and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003) as Barrett BondenThe Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002) as Peregrin TookSniper 470 (2002)  as the SniperThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) as Peregrin TookJulie and the Cadillacs (1999) as Jimmy CampbellUrban Ghost Story (1998) as the loan sharkThe Soldier's Leap'' (1998) as the postman

Other websites 

1968 births
Living people
Scottish movie actors
Scottish television actors
Scottish stage actors
Actors from Glasgow
Turing machine is a term from computer science. A Turing machine is a system of rules, states and transitions rather than a real machine. It was first described in 1936 by English mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing. There are two purposes for a Turing machine: deciding formal languages and solving mathematical functions. Turing machines are one of the most important formal models in the study of computer science.

Common basics 
A Turing machine consists of the following components (simplified):
 A limited set of states (with one state marked as start state; while running, a Turing machine always has a current state)
 An infinite tape with storage cells and a read/write-device that can move on the tape
 A definition of a so-called transition function

Also, a working-alphabet (set of characters) has to be defined.
When a Turing machine is started, a word (out of the working-alphabet) must be present on the infinite tape of the machine. The read/write-device on the first character now reads the first character and depending on the current state of Turing machine the read/write-device overwrites the character with a new one or moves one cell to the left or to the right. Furthermore, the current state of the machine can be switched.

Turing machines that decide languages 
For decidability theory a Turing machine is said to decide a language if it is always able to determine whether a given word is contained in a certain language or not. Therefore, the machine usually has two special states marked as Accept and Reject. After a while one of the two states will be reached (depending on the input word) and the machine is halted. If only one of the two states will ever be reached, the Turing machine is said to semi-decide a language.
Turing machines that compute functions 
If a Turing machine is used for the computation of functions it only has one end state. When the machine comes to that state it is halted and the result of the function (depending on the input) can be found on the tape.

Impact of Turing machines 
Turing machines were not invented to be built in reality, but they are very important for theoretical computer science as they are one of the simplest models for computers. The Church-Turing thesis states that all computers are only as powerful as Turing machines. This can be used to prove if a problem is solvable by a computer or not.
Variations 
 A Turing machine can consist of multiple infinite tapes (and multiple read/write-devices). However it is proven that such machines are only as powerful as single-tape machines. Multi-tape machines are useful when dealing with more complex problems.
 If a Turing machine has a nondeterministic transition function there can be multiple transitions from one state to many others when reading a character. Again this does not enhance the power of Turing machines. However nondeterministic Turing machines (as they are called then) may possibly decrease the computation time by a strong amount. This question is covered in the P versus NP-discussion and is not solved yet. Most scientists assume however that nondeterministic machines can work much faster on certain problems.
 A Universal Turing Machine is a variation which can simulate a Turing Machine with an input.

Other websites 

 Turing Machine -Citizendium

Computer science
John Rhys-Davies (born 5 May 1944, in Ammanford, Carmarthenshire, Wales) is a Welsh actor. Although he has played in many movies, Rhys-Davies is probably best known for his characters in two blockbuster movie series: Sallah in the Indiana Jones movies and the dwarf Gimli in the Lord of the Rings movie trilogy.
Selected filmography
 The Game of Their Lives (2005)
 The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement (2004)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)
 The Medallion (2003)
 The Jungle Book 2 (2003) (voice)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)
 Sabretooth  (2002)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
 Cats Don't Dance  (1997) (voice)
 Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996) (voice)
 Glory Daze  (1996)
 The Great White Hype  (1996)
 Sliders (1995-1997)
 Quest for Glory IV: Shadows of Darkness   (1994)
 The High Crusade  (1994)
 Indiana Jones (1992)
 The Lost World (1992)
 Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989)
 The Living Daylights (1987)
 King Solomon's Mines  (1985)
 Sahara  (1983)
 Victor/Victoria (1982)
 Ivanhoe (1982)
 Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)
 I, Claudius (1976)

Other websites 

1944 births
Living people
Welsh Christians
Welsh movie actors
Welsh stage actors
Welsh television actors
Welsh voice actors
People from Carmarthenshire
Sean Bean (born as Shaun Mark Bean on 17 April 1959) is an English actor. As an actor, he adopted the Irish/Scottish spelling "Sean" of his first name. He was born in Handsworth, Sheffield, West Riding of Yorkshire.

Movies

Film

Television

References

Other websites 

1959 births
Living people
Actors from Sheffield
Actors who played Bond villains
English movie actors
English stage actors
English television actors
English voice actors
Tripoli () is a city in Greece. It is in the center of the Peloponnese. It is built at an altitude of about 600 meters, at the bottom of Mainalo mountain. It had 28,876 people according to the 2001 census. Tripoli is the capital of Arcadia prefecture.

Transportation
Tripoli is connected to the capital city Athens by a motorway between Corinth-Tripoli-Kalamata, which is a part of the E65.

Known people from Tripoli
 Kostas Karyotakis (1896–1928)
 Semni Karusou (1900–1994)
 Yiannis Kouros (1956–)

Other websites 
 Official site

Cities in Greece
The 2006 FIFA World Cup was a football (soccer) sporting event that was held in Portugal from June 9 to July 9, 2006. 32 teams took part from many countries. Italy won the trophy after beating Portugal in the final on penalties. Portugal got second place at home.

Participants

Africa 
 			(ANG) • Squad
 		(CIV) • Squad
 			(GHA) • Squad
 			(TOG) • Squad
 		(TUN) • Squad

Asia 
 		(AUS) • Squad
 			(IRN) • Squad
 			(JPN) • Squad
 		(KOR) • Squad
 		(KSA) • Squad

Europe 
 		(CRO) • Squad
 		(CZE) • Squad
 		(ENG) • Squad
 			(FRA) • Squad
 		(GER) • Squad
 			(ITA) • Squad
 		(NED) • Squad
 			(POL) • Squad
 		(POR) • Squad
 	(SCG) • Squad
 			(ESP) • Squad
 			(SWE) • Squad
 		(SUI) • Squad
 		(UKR) • Squad

North and Central America 
 		(CRC) • Squad
 			(MEX) • Squad
 	(TRI) • Squad
 		(USA) • Squad

South America 
 		(ARG) • Squad
 			(BRA) • Squad
 		(ECU) • Squad
 		(PAR) • Squad

Group stage

Group A 

Schedule

Group B

Group C

Group D

Group E

Group F

Group G

Group H

Knockout stage
Knockout stage

Round of 16

Quarter-finals

Semi-finals

Third place play-off

Final

References 

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FIFA World Cup tournaments
FIFA
2006 in Europe
2000s in Germany
International association football competitions hosted by Germany
June events
July 2006 events
Football in Berlin
Football in Munich
History of Berlin
21st century in Munich
2006 FIFA World Cup
Polynesia is a group of over 1,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean.

Triangle 
Polynesia is the islands in a triangle in the Pacific Ocean. The top of the triangle is Hawai'i, the bottom left is New Zealand and the bottom right is Easter Island. All the islands inside the triangle are Polynesia.
Islands 
 American Samoa (overseas United States territory)
 Anuta (in the Solomon Islands)
 Bellona Island (in the Solomon Islands)
 Cook Islands (self-governing state in free association with New Zealand)
 Easter Island (part of Chile, called Rapa Nui in Rapa Nui)
 Emae (in Vanuatu) 
 French Polynesia ("overseas country", a territory of France)
 Hawaii (a state of the United States)
 Kapingamarangi (in the Federated States of Micronesia)
 Mele (in Vanuatu)
 New Zealand (called Aotearoa in Māori, usually associated with Australasia) 
 Niue (self-governing state in free association with New Zealand)
 Nuguria (in Papua New Guinea)
 Nukumanu (in Papua New Guinea)
 Nukuoro (in the Federated States of Micronesia)
 Ontong Java (in the Solomon Islands) 
 Pileni (in the Solomon Islands)
 Rennell (in the Solomon Islands) 
 Rotuma (in Fiji)
 Samoa (independent nation)
 Sikaiana (in the Solomon Islands) 
 Swains Island (politically part of American Samoa) 
 Takuu (in Papua New Guinea)
Tikopia (in the Solomon Islands) 
 Tokelau (overseas dependency of New Zealand)
 Tonga (independent nation)
 Tuvalu (independent nation)
 Wallis and Futuna (overseas territory of France)
Cocaine (also cocain) is a strong stimulant drug that is made from coca leaves. Cocaine is usually a white powder. Most cocaine is used as an illegal drug. Because it is a stimulant, cocaine gives people energy. It also makes people feel very happy when it is taken. When used this way, cocaine is very addictive. However, cocaine can also be used as a local anesthetic if it is applied topically (onto the skin or gums).

Origin and effects

Where cocaine comes from 

Cocaine is taken from the leaves of the coca plant. Coca plants are mostly grown in South America, in countries like Brazil or Argentina. When Spanish conquistadors (explorers) discovered coca plants, they sent them back to Europe. People started using cocaine as a medicine, as well as in drinks and food. This was because they did not know how damaging and addictive the drug could be when used.
In America, cocaine was used during surgery, or to treat toothaches. It was also put into drinks. When Coca-Cola was first made in 1885, it got the first part of its name from the "handful of coca leaves" added to the drink for energy. (The caffeine in the drink came from the kola nut, so the name "Coca-Cola" was chosen.) Cocaine was taken out of Coca-Cola completely by the 1920s because of pressure from groups in the United States.

Effects of cocaine 
When cocaine is applied topically (onto the skin or gums), it causes numbness.

When cocaine is chewed or eaten, inhaled into the nose ("snorted"), or injected into the veins, it causes people to feel euphoric (very happy), alert, very confident, and full of energy.  This feeling is called being "high."  Some people who take cocaine also have unpleasant feelings.  They may feel worried, anxious, or even paranoid.  They may also have physical symptoms, like shaking, a high heart rate, and high body temperature.
Cocaine cannot be smoked in its normal form. It must react with another chemical to form crack cocaine, which can be smoked. This is because burning normal cocaine destroys it, so the user does not get the effect they want.

Cocaine as an illegal drug 

In most countries, it is illegal to make, sell, or use cocaine (unless it is being used for approved medical reasons).

As an illegal drug, cocaine can be used in its powder form, or it can be made into crack cocaine. Usually, crack is made by adding baking soda and water to cocaine and then heating the mixture. Crack is usually less expensive than the normal form of cocaine. Crack is usually smoked. It gives users a high that is very strong, but does not last as long as the high from regular cocaine. Both forms of cocaine are addictive, although crack cocaine is thought to be more addictive as it is usually smoked.
Dangers of using cocaine 
If people use cocaine, they may take too much and get sick or even die. This is called an "overdose". When people take cocaine, they get intoxicated as well. When a person is intoxicated, they may do dangerous things, such as having unsafe sex with a person they do not know, or getting into a violent fight with a person.

If a person uses cocaine for a long time, they can start to get strange feelings, like there are bugs crawling under their skin, or they can get paranoia (a feeling that there are people that want to hurt them).

Cocaine is a very addictive drug. It can lead to psychological and/or physical dependence. When a person is addicted to a drug, they might do bad or criminal acts in order to get money for more drugs, such as crimes (for example theft, robbery, fraud, or prostitution).  If the person tries to stop using cocaine, they will go through cocaine withdrawal.
Another danger from using cocaine is the risk of infection when using unsafe ways of taking cocaine (like using dirty needles when injecting cocaine). A person can get infectious diseases like HIV or Hepatitis C when they use cocaine in these ways.

Cocaine as a legal medicine 
Cocaine is also occasionally used as a legal medicine in Australia and some parts of Europe, if a person has a prescription from a doctor. Doctors sometimes prescribe cocaine for people who want to lose weight, because cocaine decreases the appetite. 

Dentists in countries like Australia sometimes use forms of cocaine in dental operations, as an anaesthetic. Doctors, surgeons, and dentists use anaesthetics when they are doing operations, so that the patient will not feel pain. Dentists put the cocaine on the patient's mouth so that the patient will not feel pain in their mouth during the operation.

Notes and references 

Illegal drugs
Organonitrogen compounds
Esters
A viola ( ) is a musical instrument that is similar to the violin and cello.  The viola sounds lower than a violin, but higher than a cello.  It has four strings: the C, G, D, and A strings. The highest string is the A string. The viola is played with a bow in the right hand.  Playing with the bow is called arco.  Sometimes the strings may be plucked (pizzicato).
When people see the viola, sometimes they think it is a violin.  This is because the viola is only a little larger than a violin, and like the violin, the viola is held on the player's left shoulder.  It is also because the sound of the viola is only five notes lower than the sound of the violin. The biggest difference between the viola and the violin is the sound. The viola's lowest string is the "C" string and its highest string is the "A" string. So, to see whether a violin-like instrument is a violin or viola, one will need to pluck the thinnest string. The violin's lowest string is the "G" string and its highest string is the "E" string.  Even though the viola and violin can play many of the same notes, they each have a special sound quality.  Sometimes people describe the viola's sound as more "dark", "earthy", or "mellow" than the violin's sound.
The person that makes and repairs violas is called a luthier.The Viola is also known as the Cinderella of the orchestra, due to it being unfairly neglected when it comes to popularity to the public and choice of famous classical music. Lionel Tertis and William Primrose were the two famous violists that helped the viola become more respected in general and as a solo instrument.

People who write music often use the viola for harmony notes. It is one of the instruments in a string quartet, along with two violins and a cello. The viola is found in chamber ensembles of string instruments only, and also in full symphony orchestras where strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion instruments play together. The viola can also be a solo instrument, but is mostly used in an orchestra. The viola comes in many sizes. The sizes are measured in inches, such as a 14-inch viola. The size of the viola is measured from the bottom to the neck of it (its body's length).

String instruments
String is a thin piece of rope or twine which is used to tie, bind, or hang other objects. String can be made from many kinds of fibres.

A "string" can also mean:

In science, computers or mathematics:
 String (computer science), a sequence of symbols or digits in computer programming
 String (physics), one of the main objects of study in string theory 
 strings (Unix), a UNIX programme for finding character strings in binary files
 String literal, the notation for representing a string value within the text of a computer program
 A string of nucleotides is called DNA or RNA
 A string of amino acids is called a peptide or protein
 String theory, a popular grand unified theory
In music:
 String instrument, a musical instrument that produces sound through vibrating strings
 Strings (music), flexible material that provides vibrations in string instruments
 Strings (Pakistani pop band), a pop band from Pakistan
 String (Thai pop), a genre of Thai pop music
 "Strings", the nickname of Robert Dahlqvist, guitarist of Swedish rock and roll band The Hellacopters

Other meanings:
 G-string, a type of underclothing that parts the buttocks without covering them 
 Strings (film), a 2004 movie directed by Anders Rønnow Klarlund
 String figures, designs formed by weaving string around one's fingers
 A character controlled by Marik in the Yu-Gi-Oh! series
Windsor is a town in Berkshire, England. It is near the River Thames. The official residence of the British monarch, Windsor Castle, is located in Windsor.

Windsor, Berkshire
Windsor Castle is a castle in Windsor, Berkshire, England. It is the largest inhabited castle in the world. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom lived there for part of the year. The castle was built in the 11th century by William the Conqueror as a motte-and-bailey castle for the protection of England; it has been expanded and rebuilt many times. It was a military headquarters during the English Civil War. In 1992, there was a fire at the castle.

Windsor Castle is near the River Thames.

Castles in England
Royal residences in the United Kingdom
Windsor, Berkshire
11th-century buildings and structures
Buildings and structures in Berkshire
The Peugeot 206 is a car made by the French company Peugeot from 1998 to 2013 in Europe with production ongoing in some markets.  The car came in 3 or 5-door hatchback models with a hard-top convertible version added in 2000 and an estate version added in 2002, in 2006 it was replaced by the 207 but the 206 stayed as a budget model, in 2009 a heavily facelifted version called the 206+ arrived although this wasn't sold in the UK.

Engines 
 1.1 44 kW (60 hp)
 1.4 55 kW (75 hp)
 1.4 16V 65 kW (88 hp)
 1.6 65 kW (88 hp)
 1.6 16V 80 kW (109 hp)
 2.0 GTI 100 kW (136 hp)
 2.0 RC 130 kW (177 hp)
 1.4 HDi 50 kW (68 hp)
 1.6 HDi 80 kW (109 hp)
 1.9 D 51 kW (69 hp)
 2.0 HDi 66 kW (90 hp)

206
Front wheel drive vehicles
206
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
2020s automobiles