Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Vyankatesh Madgulkar (1927-2001) was one of the most popular and well-known Marathi writers of his time. He became well-known mainly for his realistic writings about village life in a part of southern Maharashtra called Maandesh. These writings about Maandesh are set in a period of 15 to 20 years before and after India's Independence.

Vyankatesh Madgulkar was a man of many interests. He also read a lot of books on different subjects. He was lovingly called Tatya (“old man”, or “grand old man” in Marathi) by his admirers, friends and family members.

Childhood 
Vyankatesh Madgulkar was born in Madgul, a village in Sangli district of Maharashtra. The Madgulkar family had probably come from the neighbouring state of Karnataka a few centuries back. They were one of the eight Brahmin families Madgul, which had a population of over a thousand.
The family owned some land. Vyankatesh Madgulkar's grandfather and the earlier generations had lived off the land. However, in Vyankatesh Madgulkar's father’s time, the land could not feed the family. The family was large. Apart from Vyankatesh Madgulkar, there were seven children, one of whom died early.

Vyankatesh Madgulkar's father took a job in the government of the Aundh princely state, which ruled over Madgul and the region around it known as Maandesh  . The job took him to various villages and small towns of Maandesh. For some time, the family moved with him. In this way, Vyankatesh Madgulkar got to see life in many parts of Maandesh.

Although his mother was an old-fashioned woman who believed Brahmins should not mix with people of 'lower' castes, Vyankatesh Madgulkar freely mixed with children of other castes and communities. From them he learnt how to climb trees, how to identify birds, how to trap fish, how to hunt.
Madgul had no electricity, bus service or shop. But it had a primary school. Vyankatesh Madgulkar studied there and later in a secondary school in a small town nearby. But he was not a good student. Some of his teachers told him he had no future.

When he was a teenager, he left home and joined a group of people fighting for India’s freedom. For two years he was considered a criminal by the British government.

Working life 
After India got Independence, Vyankatesh Madgulkar returned home. His elder brother (“Anna”), Gajanan, had already left home and become a writer for Marathi films.`GaDiMa’ (Gajanan Digambar Madgulkar), as he was called, went on to become a famous poet, song and screenplay writer, and a well-known name in Maharashtra.

GaDiMa’s success might have helped Vyankatesh Madgulkar to also think of becoming an artist. However, he had his own personality, different from that of his brother.
As he said often, he had always had the feeling he was “different”. He first wanted to be a poet. He also loved sketching and painting. And though he did not complete school education, he developed an enormous love for reading. He learnt and read English books the hard way, with the help of a dictionary. He read books by the American novelist John Steinbeck, the famous British writer George Orwell and the Irish writer Liam O’ Flaherty, and several other Western writers.

Vyankatesh Madgulkar first tried to become a painter. He went to the city of Kolhapur in western Maharashtra to learn painting. However, he lost interest in becoming a painter and turned to writing. He wrote his first short story when he was 19 years old. It won a literary prize. This encouraged him to become a writer.

In 1948, when he was 21, he took up a job as a journalist. Two years later he moved to the capital of Maharashtra, Mumbai, to write scripts for Marathi films.
In 1955 he took up a job in Pune, in the rural programming department of the government's All India Radio (AIR) station . He worked here till he retired in 1985. All this time, he continued to write.

He visited Australia and the island of Tasmania while he was in the service of All India Radio and wrote stories based upon his experiences there.

Vyankatesh Madgulkar died in August 2001 at the age of 73. He died of complications from diabetes.

Writing 
Vyankatesh Madgulkar wrote in many different ways. He wrote nearly 40 screenplays for films. He wrote several folk plays. He attempted a Marathi version of Fiddler on the Roof.He translated books, especially wild life books, from English to Marathi. He wrote essays on his travels, nature and interesting people he had read about, like Richard Burton, the British traveler.

However, he is most fondly remembered for his short stories and novellas (long stories). He wrote 8 novellas and over 200 short stories.
His first book, Maandeshi Manse (People of Maandesh), was published when he was only 22 years old. Maandeshi Manse is about different kinds of people Vyankatesh Madgulkar had met during his childhood in Maandesh. The descriptions of these people are realistic. However, Vyankatesh Madgulkar explained later that the descriptions were are not fully true. The people in Maandeshi Manse are creations of the author, based on real people he knew.

Vyankatesh Madgulkar mixed the real world with his own imagination in the same way in all his Maandeshi stories. He also did not change his style of writing.

That style is generally of a person telling a story to people sitting in front of him.
Bangarwadi 
The most famous of Vyankatesh Madgulkar's writing is his novella called Bangarwadi (1954). It is about the experiences of a young schoolteacher in a village of shepherds in Maandesh. The story begins with the schoolteacher walking alone towards the village called Bangarwadi, in the night, across a landscape with few trees. When the teacher reaches Bangarwadi, he finds that the school is not working. Over the next months, the schoolteacher successfully runs the school. However, at the end of the story, lack of rainfall forces all the people of Bangarwadi to leave the village. The school again has no students.

Within this story, Vyankatesh Madgulkar gives us an unforgettable and detailed picture of a way of living. One reviewer, Taya Zinkin reviewing the English translation of the book in The Economic Weekly in 1958 said, “(it) is perhaps the most important book written by an Indian about India to appear in English since [Jawaharlal] Nehru’s Discovery of India.”
Bangarwardi was translated in several languages. The great German scholar on India Gunther Sontheimer translated it in German. Bookstores in Pune and other Maharashtra cities still sell the original book in Marathi. It has been reprinted over 15 times.

Bangarwardi was also make into a film by Amol Palekar.

Other writing 
Vyankatesh Madgulkar wrote stories about Maandesh for around 20 years, from the mid-1940s to the mid-1960s. Later, he wrote about his family and then about nature. His last novella, Sattantar (1981), about a community of monkeys, won him the central government’s Sahitya Parishad award for best Marathi book published in that year.
About translations 
Vyankatesh Madgulkar has been translated in several languages. Brief details of translation in English with year of publication are as below:
 Bangarwadi was translated as The village had no walls by Ram Deshmukh. The book was published by Asia Publishing House, Mumbai, in 1958 and again by Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, in 1994.
 Vavtal (Whirlwind) was translated as Winds of fire by Pramod Kale. The book was published by Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi, in 1974. The book is out of print.
 An excerpt from The village had no walls was published in Treasury of Modern Asian Stories (Mentor Books, New York, 1961).
 An excerpt from The village had no walls was published in Stories from South Asia (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988).
 A story translated as School Inspection was published in The Rough and the Smooth (Asia Publishing House, Mumbai, 1966).
The following are brief details of translation of his work in languages other than English with year of publication:
  Bangarwadi was translated in German by the noted Indologist Gunther Sontheimer (1986)
 Service Motar (Bus service) was translated in German (1969)
 An excerpt from Bangarwadi was translated in Danish (1964)
 Bangarwadi was translated in Hindi (1962?)
 Around 20 stories including Bus Service and Shala (School) were translated in Hindi between 1958 and 1981
 Sattantar was translated in Kannada (1990)
 Vavtal (Whirlwind) was translated in Russian (publication details not available)

 References 
 Yeshwant Shripad Raste, Vyankatesh Madgulkar Samagra Vadmay Soochi, Utkarsh Prakashan, Pune, 1996
 M. D. Hatkangalekar (ed.), Vyankatesh Madgulkar: Maandeshi Manus aani Kalavant, Shabdh Prakashan, Satara, 2000
 Vyankatesh Madgulkar, Karunashtak'', Majestic Prakashan, Mumbai, 2003
Other websites
Marathi Songs Of Ga Di Madgulkar - The Official Madgulkar Website
Gadima On Facebook - The Official Madgulkar Facebook Page

1927 births
2001 deaths
Indian writers
The Ren and Stimpy Show is an American surrealist black comedy situation comedy cartoon created by John Kricfalusi, which aired from 1991 to 1999. The main characters are Ren Höek (John Kricfalusi, and (later) Billy West), a chihuahua, and Stimpson J. Cat (Billy West) (Stimpy for short).

The show premiered on Nickelodeon on Sunday, August 11, 1991, and aired new episodes on the channel from 1991 to 1996.

The series ended on October 20, 1996, with the episodes "Sammy and Me" and "Last Temptation".

It was also shown on MTV, and was shown in other countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and most of Europe.
People who make cartoons think that Ren and Stimpy is famous because of its classic cartoonish style and gross humor that is different from other animated shows at the time, and then became a cult following. John Kricfalusi got fired after only one year of working on his show. He did not send his work on time and often fought with his friends at Nickelodeon, so they fired him. He made other shows but none were as popular as Ren and Stimpy.

Reruns of Ren and Stimpy currently air on the Nicktoons Network.

Characters 
Ren Höek
Stimpy
Mr. Horse
Powdered Toast Man
Muddy Mudskipper
Mr. and Mrs. Pipe
Announcer Salesman
Haggis McHaggis
Wilbur Cobb
The Fire Chief
Mrs. Buttloaves
George Liquor

Cast 
 John Kricfalusi as Ren Hoek (seasons 1-2)
 Billy West as Stimpy and Ren Hoek (seasons 3-5)
 Harris Peet as Muddy Mudskipper
 Michael Pataki as George Liquor

Related pages
 List of The Ren and Stimpy Show episodes
1991 American television series debuts
1996 American television series endings
1990s American animated television series
American children's television series
Adult animated television series
Nickelodeon television series
 
 
English-language television programs
Perdita is a closer moon to Uranus. Perdita's discovery was not simple. The first pictures of Perdita were taken by the Voyager 2 spacecraft in 1986, but it was not seen on the photographs for more than ten years. In 1999, the moon was noticed and reported.

Because no further pictures could be taken to confirm its existence, in 2001 it was thought to be non-existent. However, in 2003, pictures taken by the Hubble Space Telescope managed to pick up an object where Perdita was supposed to be. This proved its existence at last.

After its discovery in 1999, Perdita was labelled S/1986 U 10. she was the daughter of Leontes and Hermione in William Shakespeare's play The Winter's Tale. The moon is also called Uranus XXV.
Perdita belongs to Portia Group of moons, which also includes Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Portia, Juliet, Cupid, Rosalind and Belinda. These moons have similar orbits and photometric properties. Unfortunately, other than its orbit, radius of  15 km, and geometric albedo of 0.08, almost nothing is known about it.

References

Other websites
Perdita Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration

Uranus' moons
135 film is the official name of the photographic film that is most used today. It is specified by ISO Standard 1007. It was introduced by Kodak in 1934 It was made for making pictures, rather than films. It is 35mm wide; that is why it is often also called 35mm film. 

It quickly grew in popularity. It became more popular than 120 film by the late 1960s. Since then, it has been the most popular photographic film format. Despite competition from formats such as 828, 126, 110 and APS, it remains so today.

Individual rolls of 135 film are enclosed in single-spool, light-tight, metal cassettes. This allows cameras to be loaded in daylight. The film is clipped or taped to a spool and exits via a velvet-covered slot. The end of the film is cut on one side to form a leader, which is to be inserted into a corresponding slot in the camera take-up spool. It has the same dimensions and perforation pitch as 35 mm movie print film.

References 

Photographic film formats
The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) is a European treaty that was adopted in 1992.

It was designed by the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe. It applies only to languages traditionally used by the nationals of the State Parties that are very different from the majority or official language. The treaty does not protect languages that are used by recent immigrants from other countries. Also, the treaty does not protect local dialects of the official or majority language.

To be protected, a language must be spoken either by the people living in a region or area of the country or by a minority in the country as a whole (languages such as Yiddish and Romani are covered by the treaty even if there is no "Romani region").
National official languages are not covered by the treaty, but some regional official languages are. For example, Catalan is official only in a region of Spain and so can benefit from the treaty. However, Irish cannot because it is an official language in Ireland even if it is a minority language. However, Irish is protected in Northern Ireland because it is not an official or national language of the United Kingdom.

France has signed the treaty, but the French constitution does not allow the government to support a language other than French.

There are two levels of protection. Every country that signed the treaty must give all qualifying languages the lower level of protection. Countries may decide to give some languages the higher level of protection. Countries then must do 35 things.

Languages protected under the Charter 

Here are the countries that have ratified the Charter and the languages for which the ratification was made:
Related pages
 European languages
 Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
 Languages of the European Union
 Language policy in France
 Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights
 Vergonha

References

Other websites 

 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages page (Legal Affairs, Council of Europe)
 More information

Languages

European Union
Finger Eleven is a  Canadian rock band. it was formed in 1989. They are from Burlington, Ontario. There they had achieved minor success as a cover band, then as a full fledged band.

Discography

Albums
1995 Letters From Chutney (as Rainbow Butt Monkeys)
1997/1998 Tip
2000 The Greyest Of Blue Skies
2003 Finger Eleven
2007 Them vs. You vs. Me
2010 Life Turns Electric

Other websites 
Official Website
U.S. Street Team 
Canadian Street Team 
Finger Eleven on JBTV 
Audio Interview  recorded February 2007
Interviews and Music Videos 
Finger Eleven Pagina En Español

1990s music groups
1994 establishments in Canada
2000s music groups
2010s music groups
Post-grunge bands
Alternative metal bands
Canadian hard rock bands
Nefertiti (pronounced at the time something like *nafratiːta) (c. 1370 BC  c. 1330 BC) was the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten. She was the mother-in-law and may have been stepmother of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun. After her husband died, Nefertiti may have also ruled as pharaoh under the name Neferneferuaten.   However, some archaeologists do not think Nefertiti was Neferneferuaten.

Her name in English means "the beautiful (or perfect) woman has come". Nefertiti was one of the most powerful queens in Ancient Egypt.
Background 
Nefertiti was the first and most loved wife of Akhenaten. He had a total of eight wives, but she was different from the rest. Ramses was devoted and obsessed with her beauty. Nefertiti reigned beside the pharaoh toward the eighteenth dynasty. While she reigned she was known as Ankhkheperure Neferneferuatan. Nefertiti was such an educated woman, she was able to read and write hieroglyphs. It was a rare skill that barely anyone had. While being married she had six daughters, and no matter how old Nefertiti was, Akhenaten still loved her deeply.

Mystery 
There are many tales about Nefertiti being born as a royal and her father being pharaoh Ay, but they are not confirmed. So it would be unlikely that she did become a pharaoh without royal blood. Her daughter Meritaten was born a royal, so she had more of a chance of becoming a pharaoh. Her parenthood is still a mystery. The only detail known is that they were nobles.
Disappearance 
Two of her daughters became queens of Egypt. In the 12th year of Akheneaton rule many of the princesses died, but what was more confusing was that Nefertiti vanished. So everyone assumed that she died like the other princesses. There was no record of Nefertiti’s death and no evidence that she was ever buried.

Bust 
She is best known for her bust, which is in the Altes Museum in Berlin, Germany.  This bust is considered to be a beautiful example of Egyptian art.

A man called Ludwig Borchardt with a team of people discovered a portrait bust of Queen Nefertiti. This bust captured all her beauty even though one of the eyes was damaged. The famous bust that everyone began knowing Nefertiti was displayed at the museum of Berlin in the 1920’s. The queen's bust became very known around the world. This caused Nefertiti to become one of the most recognized and beautiful queens in ancient Egypt before Cleopatra.

References
References

Other websites 
 Row over Nefertiti bust continues
 Do We Have the Mummy of Nefertiti?  by Marianne Luban, 1999 (predates Joann Fletcher's work).
 J. Kluger, A. Dorfman, Nefertiti found?, Time, June 16, 2003; online edition 
 Tracking Nefertiti Discovery article on Joann Fletcher's work.
 King Tut tut tut The Sunday Times on Joann Fletcher's work.
  Spinning Nefertiti 
 Discussion on the Nefertiti found? program 
 The Encyclopedia of El Amarna, examining her time and connections
 Nefertiti, a musical based on the Egyptian queen.
 Altes Museum, Berlin 
 "Queen Nefertiti, Images & History"
  Reconstruction of  Nefertiti's Face
 "M.A. Mansoor Amarna Collection"

Ancient Egyptian queens
2nd millennium BC in Egypt‎
A wide-angle lens is a lens that has a focal length that is shorter than that of the normal lens. Normal lenses have an angle of view of between 40° and 50°. Wide-angle lenses have an angle of view that is bigger. 

For the 135 film format (the most popular photographic film type), normal lenses are 50mm focal length. 35mm (with an angle of view of 63 degrees) and 28mm (75°) are slight wide-angle lenses. 

24mm (84°), 20mm (94°), 17mm (104°) and 14mm (114°) offer more extreme views (for 35mm film). 

This is different for digital photography. Many digital cameras use smaller sensors. This means that the focal lengths have an angle of view that is smaller. That way, an 18mm lens mounted on a digital camera of this type gives an angle of view of the 28mm wide-angle lens, namely 75 degrees, for a multiplier of 1.5.

One kind of wide-angle lens is a fish eye lens.

Telephoto lens is the opposite. It has a long focal length, and a narrow angle of view.

Camera lenses
The Grand Duchy of Hesse () was a former state that existed in modern-day Germany. It was formed in 1806 after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire as a result of the actions of Napoleon, who then elevated the former Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt to the level of grand duchy. For this reason, this state was occasionally known simply as Hesse-Darmstadt.

History
Because Hesse-Darmstadt was a member of Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine, it was forced to give up a considerable amount of territory at the 1815 Congress of Vienna. The territory of the Duchy of Westphalia, which Hesse-Darmstadt received from the 1803 Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, was given to the Kingdom of Prussia. However, it received some territory on the western bank of the Rhine, including the important federal fortress at Mainz.  

The Grand Duchy changed its name to the Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine () in 1816.

Subdivisions of Hesse
The Grand Duchy of Hesse was divided into three provinces:
 Starkenburg: (Capital: Darmstadt) Right bank of the Rhine, south of the Main
 Rhenish Hesse, (Capital: Mainz) Left bank of the Rhine, territory gained from the Congress of Vienna
 Upper Hesse (Capital: Giessen) North of the Main, separated from Starkenburg by the Free City of Frankfurt, which was later annexed by Prussia in 1866.

Other websites
Das Großherzogtum Hessen 1806–1918
Großherzogtum Hessen (Kreise und Gemeinden) 1910

References

Former states in Germany
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
States of the German Empire
States of the North German Confederation
1806 establishments in Europe
1800s establishments in Germany
1918 disestablishments in Germany
Puck is a closer moon to Uranus. Puck was found from the images taken by Voyager 2 on December 30, 1985, and was given the designation S/1985 U 1.

In Celtic mythology and English folklore, Puck is a mischievous sprite, imagined as an evil demon by Christians; the moon is named after the Puck who appears in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, in which he travels around the globe at night with the fairies. It is also designated Uranus XV.

Puck is the biggest of the small closer moons to Uranus. It is in the middle in size between Portia and Miranda, the smallest of the five bigger moons. Puck's orbit is also located between these two moons. Little is known about it aside from its orbit, its radius about 81 km, and its geometric albedo approximately 0.11.
Of the moons found by the Voyager 2 imaging team, only Puck was found early enough that the probe could be programmed to take pictures of it in some detail. Images showed that Puck has a shape of a slightly prolate spheroid (ratio between axises is 0.97 ± 0.04). Its surface is heavily cratered and is grey in color. There are three named craters on the surface of Puck. Observations with Hubble Space Telescope and large terrestrial telescopes found water ice absorption features in the spectrum of Puck.

References

Other websites
Puck Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
Page that includes a reprocessed version of the Voyager Puck image 

Uranus' moons
Schinus is a large genus of Anacardiaceae. They are commonly known as pepper trees. They prefer tropic subhumid zones.
Californian pepper tree S.areira native from Mexico to South America. Various species grown as ornamental, e.g. S.areira, and Brazilian pepper S.terebinthifolius.

Other websites
weed behaviour 
Germplasm Resources Information Network
USDA

References

Trees
Anacardiaceae
Mab is a closer moon to the planet Uranus. It was found by Mark R. Showalter and Jack J. Lissauer in 2003 using the Hubble Space Telescope. It was named after Queen Mab, a fairy queen from English folklore who is noted in William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet.

Because the moon is small and dark, it was not seen in the images taken by Voyager 2 during its Uranus flyby in 1986. However, it is brighter than another moon, Perdita, which was discovered from Voyager's photos in 1997. This led scientists to look at the old photos again, and the moon was finally found in the images.

If it is as dark as Puck, then it is about 24 km in diameter. On the other hand, if it is brightly coloured like the neighbouring moon Miranda, then it would be even smaller than Cupid and comparable to the smallest farther moons.
Mab is heavily perturbed, meaning its movement is not only caused by the gravity of another large thing. The actual source for perturbation is still unclear, but is probably one or more of the nearby orbiting moons.

Following its discovery, Mab was given the code name S/2003 U 1. The moon is also known as Uranus XXVI.

References

Other websites
  Hubble Uncovers Smallest Moons Yet Seen Around Uranus – Hubble Space Telescope news release (2003-09-25)
  Hubble Discovers Giant Rings and New Moons Encircling Uranus – Hubble Space Telescope news release (2005-12-22)

Uranus' moons
In photography, a telephoto lens is a lens. There are two different uses of the word. The less specific use is to mean a lens that has a longer focal length than a normal lens. Their angle of view is smaller than that of a normal lens. With telephoto lenses things look closer than they really are.

The other meaning of telephoto lens applies to lenses that are constructed in a special way so they can be shorter than their focal length.

For 35 mm film, 50 mm is a normal focal length. Typical telephoto lenses are 85 mm (28°50') and 100 mm (24°). They are used for portraits mostly. Other telephoto lenses that are used often are 135 mm (18°), 180 mm  and 200 mm. Many are zoom lenses.

Longer focal lengths (300 to 1200 mm) are used in sports and nature photography.

Different focal lengths
Effect of different focal lengths on photographs taken from the same place:

The above photos were taken using a 35 mm camera, using lenses of the given focal lengths.

Camera lenses
Umbriel is a moon of Uranus found on October 24, 1851 by William Lassell. It was found at the same time as Ariel.

Name 
The name "Umbriel" and the names of all four moons of Uranus then known were suggested by John Herschel in 1852 at the request of Lassell. Lassell had earlier supported Herschel's 1847 naming scheme for the seven then-known moons of Saturn and had named his newly-found eighth moon Hyperion in accordance with Herschel's naming scheme in 1848. Umbriel is the 'dusky melancholy sprite' in Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock, and the name suggests the Latin umbra, shadow. The adjectival form of the name is Umbrielian.

It is also designated Uranus II.

Physical characteristics 
So far the only close-up images of Umbriel are from the Voyager 2 probe, which made observations of the moon during its Uranus flyby in January, 1986. During the flyby the southern hemisphere of the moon was pointed towards the Sun so only it was studied.
Umbriel's surface is the darkest of the Uranian moons, and reflects only about half as much light as Ariel, Uranus' brightest moon. It has far more and bigger craters than do Ariel and Titania and is also the least geologically active.  It is mostly made of water ice, with the balance made up of silicate rock, and other ices such as methane.  Methane can break down and form reddish-black organic compounds such as tholins when bombarded by high-energy particles.  Near-IR spectra of Ariel and Umbriel clearly show that water ice dominates the spectra of these objects.

Craters 
Craters on Umbriel are named after many different demons from various mythologies.

Other websites 
 Umbriel Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
 William Lassell, Astronomical Journal 2 (1851) 70
 AN, 33 (1852) 257/258
 AN, 34 (1852) 325/326
 Uranus and moons  as seen by the VLT in August 2007

Notes

References 

Uranus' moons
Titania is the largest moon of Uranus and the eighth largest moon in the Solar System.

Discovery 
Titania was found on 11 January 1787 by William Herschel. He reported it and Oberon the same year. He later reported four more moons, which turned out to be spurious.

Name and pronunciation 
The names of Titania and the other four moons of Uranus then known were suggested by Herschel's son John Herschel in 1852 at the request of William Lassell. Lassell had found Ariel and Umbriel the year before. He had  supported Herschel's 1847 naming scheme for the seven then-known moons of Saturn and had named his newly-found eighth moon Hyperion in 1848, in accordance with Herschel's naming scheme.

All of the moons of Uranus are named for characters from Shakespeare or Alexander Pope. Titania was named after Titania, the Queen of the Faeries in A Midsummer Night's Dream. It is also designated Uranus III.
Physical characteristics 
So far the only close-up images of Titania are from the Voyager 2 probe, which photographed the moon during its Uranus flyby in January, 1986. At the time of the flyby the southern hemisphere of the moon was pointed towards the Sun so only it was studied.

Although what its interior is made up of is uncertain, one model suggests that Titania is made of about 50% water ice, 30% silicate rock, and 20% methane-related organic compounds.

Surface features 

Surface features on Titania are named for characters from plays by William Shakespeare. Chasms on Titania are called chasmata. Escarpments here are called rupes. They are named after the places where plays by Shakespeare happen. craters on Titania are named after female characters in the plays.

A major surface feature is a huge canyon that dwarfs the scale of the Grand Canyon on Earth and is in the same class as the Valles Marineris on Mars or Ithaca Chasma on Saturn's moon Tethys.
Occultation 
On September 8, 2001, Titania occulted a faint star; this was a chance to both refine its diameter and ephemeris, and to detect any extant atmosphere.  The data revealed no atmosphere to a surface pressure of 0.03 microbars; if it exists, it would have to be far thinner than that of Triton or Pluto.

Other websites 
 Titania Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration

Notes

Other websites
 USGS: Titania nomenclature

Uranus' moons
The 20 Hunchakian gallows (or Ksan Gakhaghan, also "The 20 Martyrs", "The 20s") is the common name for the group of Hunchakian activists who were hanged in the Sultan Bayazid square of Constantinople in June 15, 1915.

History
The 7th General Convention of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party which was held in Constanţa, Romania, in 1913, had a unique and great importance not only for the Hunchaks, but in the history of the Armenian people as a whole. During the Convention, members stressed their concern of the Ittihad (Young Turk) government's blatant disregard of the Armenian lives who resided in Historic Armenia. The Hunchaks feared that this disregard would only escalate as time past. The Hunchaks also stressed the importance of a United Independent Armenia which would be impossible under the racist and dictatorial Young Turk government's rule of the Ottoman Empire.

Thus the convention adjourned with two main objectives:
I - As stated in its original program, the party was to move from licit to illicit activities, thus becoming once again a covert organization.

II - To plan and assassinate the leaders of the Ittihad (Young Turk) party, the same leaders that carried out the Adana massacres of 1909, and thus the same leaders who at that moment were planning the annihilation of the Armenian people. 
  
Unfortunately, these secret objectives were passed on to the Turks by an Armenian agent for the government; consequently as soon as the delegates arrived in Constantinople, they were arrested. By the end of the year a total of one hundred and forty Hunchak leaders were arrested.
After spending two years in terrible conditions in Turkish prisons, and undergoing lengthy mock trials, twenty prominent figures - Paramaz, Dr. Benne, Aram Ach'ekbashian, Vanig and others were sentenced to death by hanging. A few weeks after the beginning of the Armenian Genocide on June 15, 1915, all twenty men were hanged in the central square of Constantinople, known as Sultan Bayazid Square. Paramaz's last words before his hanging were, "You can only hang our bodies, but not our ideology. ...You will see tomorrow on the Eastern horizon a Socialist Armenia." 

Since their execution, the Twenty Martyrs have been a source of inspiration for thousands of young Armenians throughout the world.

In 2001 the monument of Paramaz and his 19 Hunchakian comrades was opened in Meghri town, Armenia.
The list of hanged Hunchakians
 Paramaz,
 Dr. Benne (Bedros Torosian, Kharpert), 
 Aram Achekbashian (Krikor Garabedian, Arabkir),
 Kegham Vanig (Van), one of the editors of "Gaidz" youth journal,
 Mourad Zakarian (Mush),
 worker Yervant Topuzian,
 Hagop Basmajian,
 Smpat Keljian,
 Roupen Garabedian,
 Armenag Hampartsoumian,
 Apraham Mouradian,
 Hrand Yegavian,
 Karnig Boyajian,
 Hovhannes Yeghiazarian,
 Mgrdich Yeretsian,
 Yerevia Manoukian,
 Tovmas Tovmasian,
 Karekin Boghosian,
 Minas Keshishian,
 Boghos Boghosian.

Two other prominent Hunchakian activists, Stepan Sabah-Goulian and Varaztahd, were condemned to death in absentia.

Other websites
 The Twenty Hunchakian Gallows

References

Armenian people
1915 deaths
Executed people
An allowance is usually an amount of money that a parent gives to his/her child.

Possible reasons why allowance is given:
The parent might have extra money so he/she shares or gives it to the child(ren).
The parent might want to teach the child how to manage money.
The parent might want the child to help him/her to do chores with or without allowance.

Income
The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (SDHP) (), also known as Hentchak is one of the oldest political parties in Armenia and the first Socialist party in the Ottoman Empire and in Persia in the 1880s. It was founded in 1887 by Avetis Nazarbekian, Mariam Vardanian, Ruben Khan-Azat and others, who studied in Geneva, Switzerland, with the goal to gain Armenia's independence from the Ottoman Empire, which is part of Armenian national liberation movement. Its name, taken from its newspaper Hunchak, means "Bell" in English, and is taken by party members to represent "awakening, enlightenment, and freedom."
History 
All of the 7 founders of Hunchakian party were Russian-Armenian Marxist students who had left Russia to continue their higher education in universities of Western Europe. They were young persons, in their twenties, and were from well‑to‑do bourgeois families who were financially supporting them. For the purpose of furthering revolutionary activity in Turkish Armenia, they formed the Hunchakian Revolutionary Party in August, 1887.

Hunchak party fought many battles against the Ottoman Empire, to free the Armenian people from Turkish rule. One of Armenia's famous national heroes Andranik Ozanian, at first, joined the Hunchak party, but disagreement with party policies led Andranik to leave the Hunchak ranks and join the Dashnak party.
Democratic Republic of Armenia 
The party also played role in establishment of Democratic Republic of Armenia, as party members took part in the Battle of Sardarapat, during the World War I at Caucasus Campaign, which defended the Armenian capital of Yerevan from Army of Islam of Ottoman Empire.

Activities in Lebanon 
In the 1950s, it clashed, sometimes violently, with the Dashnak Party, due to tensions that escalated when the ARF elected Bishop Zareh as Catholicos of Cilicia, a move that was rejected by the Hunchaks.  In the midst of increasing sectarian strife in the late 1960s and early 1970s, however, Lebanon's Armenian community began to close ranks, and in 1972, the Hunchakian Party ran a joint ticket with the Dashnaks.  In 2000, the Hunchakian Party joined forces with Rafik Hariri's Dignity party, which swept the city of Beirut.

Modern 
In the early 1990s, the party took part in the Nagorno Karabakh conflict.  The party today forms part of the opposition "Justice" bloc.
This party is also active in Lebanon, where it competes for the six National Assembly seats reserved for ethnic Armenians.  The party subscribes to a socialist ideology and advocates a planned economy for Lebanon.

Affiliate organizations 
The Hunchakian party has established affiliate organizations such as the AEBU which is an organization that helps with educational, health and social care, the Armenian Dkhrouhi Youth Association and HMM (Homenmen) which is a sporting organization (not to be confused with Homenetmen).

Related pages
 Armenian Revolutionary Federation

Other websites 
 Party's Official Web Site

References 

 "The 89-th commemoration of the 20 Hunchakian martyrs" / Tchahagir Weekly, Cairo, 17 June, 2004, p. 1 

Political parties in Armenia
1887 establishments
Establishments in Armenia
An inverter is an electric apparatus that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). It is not the same thing as an alternator, which converts mechanical energy (e.g. movement) into alternating current.

Direct current is created by devices such as batteries and solar panels. When connected, an inverter allows these devices to provide electric power for small household devices. The inverter does this through a complex process of electrical adjustment. From this process, AC electric power is produced. This form of electricity can be used to power an electric light, a microwave oven, or some other electric machine.

An inverter usually also increases the voltage. In order to increase the voltage, the current must be decreased. So, an inverter will use a lot of current on the DC side when only a small amount is being used on the AC side.
Inverters are made in many different sizes. They can be as small as 150 watts, or as large as 1 megawatt (1 million watts). Smaller inverters often plug into a car's cigarette lighter socket and provide 120 or 240 volt AC power from the car's 12 volt supply.

The earliest inverters consisted of a Motor–generator, a DC motor connected mechanically to an AC generator. A later design often used with vacuum tube car radios used a rapidly switching relay. Modern inverters are based on MOSFET or IGBT transistors.
Types 
 Sine wave inverters produce good-quality AC power. They use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to produce a true sine wave, which makes them expensive.
 A modified sine wave inverter produces a lower quality of AC power, with strong power system harmonics but is cheaper. The output of a typical modified sine wave inverter is a square wave with a pause between the change in direction. Various modulation strategies are used in cascaded multilevel inverters to reduce the harmonic contents. Modified sine inverters reduce the performance of some appliances, such as microwave ovens and appliances containing electric motors, and are known to damage some equipment including smoke detectors and some battery chargers.

Electricity
Machines
The 1998 FIFA World Cup was a football sporting event that was held in France from 10 June to 12 July 1998. 32 teams took part from many countries. France won the trophy after beating Brazil in the final 3-0.

Participants

Africa 
       (CMR) • Squad
        (MAR) • Squad
        (NGA) • Squad
   (RSA) • Squad
        (TUN) • Squad

Asia 
           (IRN) • Squad
          (JPN) • Squad
    (KOR) • Squad
   (KSA) • Squad

Europe 
        (AUT) • Squad
        (BEL) • Squad
       (BUL) • Squad
        (CRO) • Squad
        (DEN) • Squad
        (ENG) • Squad
         (FRA) • Squad
        (GER) • Squad
          (ITA) • Squad
    (NED) • Squad
         (NOR) • Squad
        (ROU) • Squad
       (SCO) • Squad
          (ESP) • Squad
  (YUG) • Squad

North and Central America 
        (JAM) • Squad
         (MEX) • Squad
  (USA) • Squad

South America 
      (ARG) • Squad
         (BRA) • Squad
          (CHI) • Squad
       (COL) • Squad
       (PAR) • Squad
Group Stage
A win would earn the team 3 points, a draw would earn them 1 point, and a loss earns them no points.

Group A

Group B

Group C

Group D

Group E

Group F

Group G

Group H

Knockout stage

Round of 16

Quarter-finals

Semi-finals

Third-place match

Final

Statistics

Goalscorers 
6 goals
 Davor Šuker

5 goals
 Christian Vieri
 Gabriel Batistuta

4 goals
 Marcelo Salas
 Luis Hernández
 Ronaldo

3 goals
 Thierry Henry
 César Sampaio
 Bebeto
 Rivaldo
 Jürgen Klinsmann
 Oliver Bierhoff
 Dennis Bergkamp

2 goals
 Ricardo Peláez
 Marc Wilmots
 Ariel Ortega
 Roberto Baggio
 Abdejalil Hadda
 Salaheddine Bassir
 Shaun Bartlett
 Fernando Hierro
 Fernando Morientes
 Phillip Cocu
 Ronald de Boer
 Patrick Kluivert
 Theodore Whitmore
 Viorel Moldovan
 Slobodan Komljenović
 Alan Shearer
 Michael Owen
 Brian Laudrup
 Lilian Thuram
 Zinedine Zidane
 Emmanuel Petit
 Robert Prosinečki
1 goal
 John Collins
 Craig Burley
 Mustapha Hadji
 Dan Eggen
 Håvard Flo
 Tore André Flo
 Kjetil Rekdal
 Luigi Di Biagio
 Pierre Njanka
 Patrick M'Boma
 Toni Polster
 Ivica Vastić
 Andreas Herzog
 Marc Rieper
 Allan Nielsen
 Michael Laudrup
 Peter Møller
 Ebbe Sand
 Thomas Helveg
 Martin Jørgensen
 Christophe Dugarry
 David Trezeguet
 Bixente Lizarazu
 Youri Djorkaeff
 Laurent Blanc
 Raúl
 Luis Enrique
 Kiko
 Mutiu Adepoju
 Sunday Oliseh
 Victor Ikpeba
 Wilson Oruma
 Tijani Babangida
 Ha Seok-Ju
 Yoo Sang-chul
 Alberto García Aspe
 Cuauhtémoc Blanco
 Siniša Mihajlović
 Predrag Mijatović
 Dragan Stojković
 Mario Stanić
 Robert Jarni
 Goran Vlaović
 Robbie Earle
 Paul Scholes
 Darren Anderton
 David Beckham
 Adrian Ilie
 Dan Petrescu
 Andreas Möller
 Benni McCarthy
 Marc Overmars
 Pierre van Hooijdonk
 Edgar Davids
 Boudewijn Zenden
 Hamid Estili
 Mehdi Mahdavikia
 Brian McBride
 Léider Preciado
 José Luis Sierra
 Sami Al-Jaber
 Yousuf Al-Thunayan
 Celso Ayala
 Miguel Ángel Benítez
 José Cardozo
José Cardozo
 Emil Kostadinov
 Luc Nilis
 Mauricio Pineda
 Javier Zanetti
 Claudio López
 Masashi Nakayama
 Skander Souayah
Own goals
 Tom Boyd (against Brazil)
 Youssef Chippo (against Norway)
 Pierre Issa (against France)
 Andoni Zubizarreta (against Nigeria)
 Siniša Mihajlović (against Germany)
 Georgi Bachev (against Spain)

Players who were red-carded during the tournament 
  Ariel Ortega
  Gert Verheyen
  Anatoli Nankov
  Raymond Kalla
  Lauren
  Rigobert Song
  Miklos Molnar
  Morten Wieghorst
  David Beckham
  Laurent Blanc
  Marcel Desailly
  Zinedine Zidane
  Christian Wörns
  Darryl Powell
  Ha Seok-ju
  Pável Pardo
  Ramón Ramírez
  Patrick Kluivert
  Arthur Numan
  Mohammed Al-Khilaiwi
  Craig Burley
  Alfred Phiri

References 
 FIFA 

|
The 1994 FIFA World Cup was a football sporting event that was held in USA from June 17 to July 17, 1994. 24 teams took part from many countries. Brazil won the trophy after Roberto Baggio from Italy famously missed the last penalty in a penalty shootout.

Participants

Africa 
 Cameroon (CMR) • Squad
 Morocco (MAR) • Squad
 Nigeria (NGA) • Squad

Asia 
 Korea Republic (KOR) • Squad
 Saudi Arabia (KSA) • Squad

Europe 
 Belgium (BEL) • Squad
 Bulgaria (BUL) • Squad
 Germany (GER) • Squad
 Greece (GRE) • Squad
 Italy (ITA) • Squad
 Netherlands (NED) • Squad
 Norway (NOR) • Squad
 Republic of Ireland (IRL) • Squad
 Romania (ROU) • Squad
 Russia (RUS) • Squad
 Spain (ESP) • Squad
 Sweden (SWE) • Squad
 Switzerland (SUI) • Squad

North and Central America 
 Mexico (MEX) • Squad
 United States (USA) • Squad

South America 
 Argentina (ARG) • Squad
 Bolivia (BOL) • Squad
 Brazil (BRA) • Squad
 Colombia (COL) • Squad

Results

Round 1

Group A

Group B

Group C

Group D

Group E

Group F

Knockout stage
Knockout stage

Final
 won the championship.

References 
 FIFA 

|

FIFA World Cup tournaments
1994 in association football
1994 in the United States
Soccer in the United States
June 1994 events
The 1990 FIFA World Cup was a football (soccer) sporting event that was held in Italy from 8 June to 8 July 1990. 24 teams took part from many countries. Germany won the trophy after beating Argentina in the final.

The 1990 FIFA World Cup had the lowest amount of goals, and had 16 red cards handed out. However, the 1990 FIFA World Cup was one of the most watched sporting events of all time. This was also the last World Cup that had 2 points for a win in the Group Stage.

Qualification 

24 teams qualified for the 1990 FIFA World Cup. Costa Rica, Republic of Ireland and the United Arab Emirates qualified for the first time.

Participants

Africa 
  Cameroon (CMR) • Squad
  Egypt (EGY) • Squad

Asia 
  Korea Republic (KOR) • Squad
  United Arab Emirates (UAE) • Squad
Europe 
  Austria (AUT) • Squad
  Belgium (BEL) • Squad
  Czechoslovakia (TCH) • Squad
  England (ENG) • Squad
  West Germany (FRG) • Squad
  Italy (ITA) • Squad
  Netherlands (NED) • Squad
  Republic of Ireland (IRL) • Squad
  Romania (ROU) • Squad
  Scotland (SCO) • Squad
  Soviet Union (URS) • Squad
  Spain (ESP) • Squad
  Sweden (SWE) • Squad
  Yugoslavia (YUG) • Squad

North and Central America 
  Costa Rica (CRC) • Squad
  United States (USA) • Squad

South America 
  Argentina (ARG) • Squad
  Brazil (BRA) • Squad
  Colombia (COL) • Squad
  Uruguay (URU) • Squad

Group stage
Group stage

Group A 
Hosts Italy won Group A with a 100 percent record. They beat Austria 1–0 thanks to substitute Salvatore 'Totò' Schillaci, who had played only one international before but would become a star during the tournament. A second 1–0 victory followed against a United States team already thumped 5–1 by Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovaks ended runners-up in the group, while the USA's first appearance in a World Cup Finals since 1950 ended with three consecutive defeats.
Group B 
Cameroon defeated reigning champions Argentina. Despite ending the match with only nine men, the African team held on for a shock 1–0 win, with contrasting fortunes for the brothers Biyik: François Omam scoring the winning goal, shortly after seeing Andre Kana sent off for a serious foul. In their second game the introduction of Roger Milla was the catalyst for a 2–1 win over Romania, Milla scoring twice from the bench (making him the oldest goalscorer in the tournament). With progression assured, Cameroon slumped to a 4–0 defeat in their final group game to a Soviet Union (in what would be their last World Cup due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union) side striving to stay in the tournament on goal difference after successive 2–0 defeats. A 1–1 draw between Romania and Argentina sent both through, the latter as one of the best third-placed teams.
Group C 
Costa Rica beat Scotland 1–0 in their first match, lost 1–0 to Brazil in their second, then saw off Sweden 2–1 to claim a place in the second round. Brazil took maximum points from the group. They began with a 2–1 win over Sweden, then beat both Costa Rica and Scotland 1–0. Scotland's 2–1 win over Sweden was not enough to save them from an early return home as one of the two lowest-ranked third-placed teams.

Group D 
Group D featured the most goals of all the groups, due in part to the defensive inadequacies of a United Arab Emirates team that lost 2–0 to Colombia, 5–1 to West Germany and 4–1 to Yugoslavia. West Germany was at the top of the group after a 4–1 opening victory over group runners-up Yugoslavia.
Group E 
The winners of Group E were Spain, for whom Michel hit a hat-trick as they beat South Korea 3–1 in an unbeaten group campaign. Belgium won their first two games against South Korea and Uruguay to ensure their progress; Uruguay's advance to the second round came with an injury time winner against South Korea to edge them through as the weakest of the third-placed sides to remain in the tournament.

Group F 
Group F, featured the Netherlands, England, the Republic of Ireland and Egypt. In the six group games, no team managed to score more than once in a match. England beat Egypt 1–0, thanks to a 64th-minute goal from Mark Wright – and that was enough to win the group.

The Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands finished with identical records. With both teams assured of progressing, they were split by the drawing of lots to determine second and third place.

Ranking of third-placed teams
Knockout stage
The knockout stage involved the 16 teams that qualified from the group stage of the tournament. There were four rounds of matches, with each round eliminating half of the teams entering that round. The successive rounds were: round of 16, quarter-finals, semi-finals, final. There was also a play-off to decide third/fourth place. For each game in the knockout stage, any draw at 90 minutes was followed by 30 minutes of extra time; if scores were still level there would be a penalty shoot-out (at least five penalties each, and more if necessary) to determine who progressed to the next round. Scores after extra time are indicated by (aet), and penalty shoot outs are indicated by (p).

Round of 16 
Two of the ties – Argentina vs Brazil and Italy vs Uruguay – pitted former champion countries against each other, and West Germany met the Netherlands in a rematch of the 1974 World Cup Final.