Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Havel was very important to changing NATO. He helped change it from an anti-Warsaw Pact alliance to a group that includes former-Warsaw Pact members. Havel spoke very strongly for expanding of the military alliance into Eastern Europe, including the Czech Republic.

Awards
He has received many awards, including:
The Philadelphia Liberty Medal
The freedom medal of the Four Freedoms Award
The Ambassador of Conscience Award

State awards

Works

Collections of poetry
 Čtyři rané básně
 Záchvěvy I & II, 1954
 První úpisy, 1955
 Prostory a časy (poesie), 1956
 Na okraji jara (cyklus básní), 1956
 Anticodes, (Antikódy)
Plays
 Motormorphosis 1960
 An Evening with the Family, 1960,  (Rodinný večer)
 The Garden Party (Zahradní slavnost), 1963
 The Memorandum, 1965, (Vyrozumění)
 The Increased Difficulty of Concentration, 1968, (Ztížená možnost soustředění)
 Butterfly on the Antenna, 1968, (Motýl na anténě)
 Guardian Angel, 1968, (Strážný anděl)
 Conspirators, 1971, (Spiklenci)
 The Beggar's Opera, 1975, (Žebrácká opera)
 Unveiling, 1975, (Vernisáž)
 Audience, 1975, (Audience) - a Vanӗk play
 Mountain Hotel 1976, (Horský hotel)
 Protest, 1978, (Protest) - a Vanӗk play
 Mistake, 1983, (Chyba) - a Vanӗk play
 Largo desolato 1984, (Largo desolato)
 Temptation, 1985, (Pokoušení)
 Redevelopment, 1987, (Asanace)
 Tomorrow, 1988, (Zítra to spustíme)
 Leaving (Odcházení), 2007
Non-fiction books
 The Power of the Powerless (1985) [Includes 1978 titular essay.]
 Living in Truth (1986)
 Letters to Olga (Dopisy Olze) (1988)
 Disturbing the Peace (1991)
 Open Letters (1991)
 Summer Meditations (1992/93)
 Towards a Civil Society (Letní přemítání) (1994)
 The Art of the Impossible (1998)
 To the Castle and Back (2007)

References

1936 births
2011 deaths
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Order of Canada
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Czech playwrights
Presidents of Czechoslovakia
Presidents of the Czech Republic
Royal Society of Literature
Writers from Prague
Charter 77 signatories
Qincheng Prison () is a maximum-security prison in the Changping District northwest of Beijing in the People's Republic of China. The prison was built in 1958 with aid from the Soviet Union and it is the only prison belonging to the Ministry of Public Security. 

The majority of people in prison here are political prisoners. Some of them were participants in the Chinese democracy movement and Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. Famous inmates include Jiang Qing, Bao Tong, Dai Qing, as well as Tibetans such as Choekyi Gyaltsen, the 10th Panchen Lama, and Phuntsok Wangyal. Other inmates included many communist cadres who were criticized during the Cultural Revolution, such as Bo Yibo, Peng Zhen, Israel Epstein, Sidney Rittenberg and David Crook. 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo was also imprisoned here.

The prison is at the eastern foothill of Yanshan, facing the North China Plain in the east, north and south.  The plain is where Qincheng Farm (秦城农场) is, which is part of the prison.
Bibliography
 MacFarquhar, Roderick, and Michael Schoenhals, Mao's Last Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006, pp. 342–345, 416, 435, 442.
 Yao Lun, "Qincheng jianyu de laiyou" (Origins of Qincheng Prison), in Sun Mingshan, ed., Lishi shunjian (Moments in History), vol. 2, Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 2001, pp. 51–58.

Prisons in Asia
Buildings and structures in Beijing
1958 establishments in Asia
A suicide pact is a plan of two or more people to kill themselves. People who agree on such a plan may kill themselves together, or they may just plan to do it on a certain schedule together. When studying suicide, suicide pacts are an important concept. Suicide pacts have occurred through history.

Note that a suicide pact is different from mass suicide. In a mass suicide, many people commit suicide for the same reason. In a suicide pact, it might be that one person is suicidal because of romance, and the other is suicidal because of a disease, but they both wish to die. 

Suicide
In a mass suicide a group of people kill themselves for the same reason. Very often, all the people involved kill themselves together, at more or less the same time. The reason for the mass suicide often inolves religious views. Suicide bombings and Kamikaze missions are military or paramliitary forms of mass suicide.

Related pages
 Cult suicide

Suicide
Bill "Goldie" Goldthorpe (born June 20, 1953 in Hornepayne, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey left winger who played for 16 minor league teams between 1973 and 1984, playing exhibition games with the Toronto Maple Leafs and Pittsburgh Penguins. Goldthorpe grew up in Thunder Bay, Ontario, is widely regarded as one of the most infamous hockey enforcers to have ever played the game, a man once dubbed the "wildest, meanest, most unpredictable player in hockey", earning an amazing 1,132 penalty minutes in 194 professional games. He was the inspiration for the character Ogie Ogilthorpe in the 1977 movie Slap Shot. On January 1, 2008 during the 1st intermission of the NHL's Winter Classic outdoor game in Buffalo, NBC showed a 1-minute and 15 second piece on the movie Slapshot and the Ogilthorpe, Bill Goldthorpe connection to Bob Costas. Costas once did radio play-by-play for the Syracuse Blazers (NAHL) in 1973-74, a team that Bill Goldthorpe played on
. Goldthorpe is currently a foreman at a construction company in Canada, having held that position in San Diego for several years.
References

Other websites 
 

1953 births
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
New Haven Nighthawks players
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
World Hockey Association players
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
Alexander Haim Gray (June 21, 1899 – April 10, 1986) was a Canadian ice hockey right winger for the New York Rangers and the Toronto Maple Leafs from 1927 to 1933.

Early life
Although born in Glasgow, Scotland, Alex Gray grew up in Thunder Bay, Ontario. He played for five years with the Port Arthur Ports of the TBSHL. According to Legends of Hockey, "he was at the top of the league in goal scoring three times and was its most penalized player twice."

Playing career
In 1928 Gray signed with the New York Rangers of the NHL. Wearing jersey number 2, he played on a line with Paul Thompson and Murray Murdoch. He helped the Rangers win the Stanley Cup that spring.

After his rookie season in New York he was involved in a big trade with the Toronto Maple Leafs, He was traded along with Lorne Chabot for Melville "Butch" Keeling and John Ross Roach.
He played a total of 13 games for the Maple Leafs in the 1928–29 season (7 regular season games and 4 playoff games). After 1 season in Toronto he was sent to the minors where he spent the remainder of his career.

Awards and achievements
1928  Stanley Cup Championship  (NYR)

References

Other websites

Alex Gray's New York Rangers Biography 

1899 births
1986 deaths
Canadian ice hockey right wingers
Ice hockey people from Ontario
New York Rangers players
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
Stanley Cup champions
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Gordon Corson Clark (born May 31, 1952 in Glasgow, Scotland) is a retired ice hockey right winger. He played in the National Hockey League for the Boston Bruins and in the WHA for the Cincinnati Stingers.

Other websites

1952 births
Living people
Boston Bruins players
Maine Mariners (AHL) players
Rochester Americans players
Scottish ice hockey players
Sportspeople from Glasgow
Springfield Indians players
World Hockey Association players
American Hockey League players
Round Maple is a hamlet in the civil parish of Edwardstone, in the Babergh district of Suffolk, East of England. Round Maple is 1.2 miles northeast of Edwardstone village, 6 miles east-northeast of Sudbury and 54.9 miles northeast of London. Its postcode district is CO10.

Round Maple Mild 
Round Maple gives its name to Round Maple Mild ale. The ale is made at Mill Green. It has 3.3% alcohol. It also has a little bit of maple syrup. Round Maple Mild is a dark ale.

Listed buildings 
Round Maple has 4 Grade II Listed buildings (important buildings). All are timber-framed and plastered. The buildings include Little Thatch and Hathaway Cottage, Quicks Farmhouse, Seasons, and The Flushing.

Maps 
Round Maple is on the Great Britain A-Z Road Atlas (1C, 54). It is on the Philip's Navigator Britain (D4, 164). Round Maple's OS grid reference is TL953436, its latitude is 52.056308 and its longitude is 0.847251.
Notes 
 A hamlet is a place without a church, see The Free Dictionary and Getamap Ordnance Survey which doesn't show a church and http://www.millgreenbrewery.co.uk/round-maple-mild.html and http://www.zoopla.co.uk/for-sale/details/20643412 which says Round Maple is a hamlet.
 See the Listed buildings references

References

Other websites 
 TL9543 Geograph

Hamlets in Suffolk
Settlements in Babergh
Alexander Stewart "Sandy" Fitzpatrick (born December 22, 1944 in Paisley, Scotland) is a retired professional ice hockey player. He played in the in the National Hockey League for the New York Rangers and Minnesota North Stars.

References 

1944 births
Living people
Minnesota North Stars players
New York Rangers players
Ice hockey centres
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Examples of redheads 
Amy Adams
Andrew Jackson
Antonio Vivaldi
Axl Rose
Benedict Cumberbatch
Boris Becker
Christopher Columbus
Calvin Coolidge
Chuck Norris
Cleopatra
Conan O'Brien
Seth Green
David Bowie
David Caruso
D.H. Lawrence
Dwight Eisenhower
Elizabeth I
Emma Stone
George Bernard Shaw
George Washington 
Geri Halliwell
Gillian Anderson
James Joyce
Jessica Chastain
Julia Gillard
J.K. Rowling
Judas Iscariot
Julianne Moore
Karen Gillan 
Lindsay Lohan
Marcia Cross
Margaret Thatcher
Mark McGwire
Mark Twain
Martin Van Buren
Marilyn Monroe
Mary Magdalene
Neil Kinnock
Nell Gwyn
Nicole Kidman
Paul Scholes
Prince Harry
Rameses II 
Reba McEntire
Redd Foxx
Robin Cook
Ron Howard
Rupert Grint
Sheamus
Sarah Ferguson
Susan Sarandon
Swoosie Kurtz
Sylvia Plath
Thomas Jefferson
Topher Grace
Ulysses S. Grant
Vincent Van Gogh
Vladimir Lenin 
William II of England
Willie Nelson
Winston Churchill

Hair
Adasaurus is a Dromaeosaur theropod dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous. It lived in what is now Central Asia. It was a small carnivore, with a large, sickle-shaped claw on the second toe of each hind foot. An adult was probably about 6.2 feet (2 meters) long.

Two specimens of Adasaurus have been found, both from the Gobi Desert of southern Mongolia. One is an incomplete skeleton with partial skull, including the vertebral column except the back of the tail, all three bones of the pelvis, the shoulder girdle and the hindlimbs. The second specimen includes the back end of another skeleton, including the hindlimbs. Both specimens are in the collection of the Mongolian Geological Institute in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

The age of the strata, like most of Mongolia's later Cretaceous sediments, is not known for certain. It is thought to be somewhere between 74 and 65 million years ago. Other dinosaurs found in this formation include Tarbosaurus, Anserimimus, and Saurolophus.

References
References 

Dromaeosauridae
Cretaceous dinosaurs
Dromaeosaurus was a genus of dromaeosaurid dinosaur which lived during the Upper Cretaceous period, about 75 million years ago. Its remains were found in the western United States and Alberta, Canada.

Description 
Dromaeosaurus albertensis was a small carnivore, the size of a wolf, about 2 m (7 ft) in length and 15 kg (40 lb) in weight. Its mouth was full of sharp teeth, and it had a large "sickle claw" on each foot. It lived during the Upper Cretaceous: some teeth which may belong to it have been found from the latest Cretaceous, 65.5 million years ago.

Although only a few bones are known from the hind limb, they indicate that Dromaeosaurus was a powerfully built animal. The presence of feathers in closely related animals makes it extremely likely that it was feathered as well.
Dromaeosaurus had large eyes and excellent vision. It also probably had a good sense of smell and hearing. Its neck was curved and flexible and its jaws were solidly built. The tail was flexible at the base but sheathed in a lattice of bony rods; this allowed it to be carried in an upturned position.

Discovery and later findings 
Despite widespread attention in popular books about dinosaurs, and complete mounted skeleton casts in many museums, Dromaeosaurus is surprisingly poorly known from actual fossils. The popular cast by the Tyrrell Museum was only made possible by knowledge gained from other dromaeosaurs discovered more recently.

The first known Dromaeosaurus remains were discovered by paleontologist Barnum Brown during a 1914 expedition to Red Deer River on behalf of the American Museum of Natural History.
Several species of Dromaeosaurus have been described, but Dromaeosaurus albertensis is the most complete specimen. The genus is even rarer than other small theropods, although it was one of the first small theropods described.

Matthew and Brown originally placed Dromaeosaurus within "Deinodontidae" (now known as Tyrannosauridae), based on some similarities in the general proportions of the skull. In 1969, John Ostrom recognized that Dromaeosaurus shared many features with Velociraptor and the newly-discovered Deinonychus, and assigned these forms to a new family: Dromaeosauridae.

Palaeobiology and diet 

Dromaeosaurus differs from most of its relatives in having a short, massive skull, a deep mandible, and robust teeth. The teeth tend to be more heavily-worn than those of its relative Saurornitholestes, suggesting that its jaws were used for crushing and tearing rather than simply slicing through flesh. Dromaeosaurus had a bite nearly three times as powerful as that of a Velociraptor.
It is possible that, unlike most other dromaeosaurs, Dromaeosaurus relied more on its jaws than its claws to dispatch its prey. It was probably better suited to tackling large prey than the more lightly-built Saurornitholestes.

Relationships 
The relationships of Dromaeosaurus are unclear. Although its rugged build gives it a primitive appearance, it was actually a very specialized animal. It is usually given its own subfamily, the Dromaeosaurinae; this group is thought to include Utahraptor, Achillobator, Adasaurus, and possibly Deinonychus. However, the relationships of dromaeosaurs are still in a state of flux.
In popular culture 
Dromaeosaurus are featured in Walking with Dinosaurs, stalking juvenile Torosaurus and attempting to steal eggs from Tyrannosaurus, despite never coexisting with the latter in real life.
Dromaeosaurus makes an appearance in Jurassic Fight Club, where a pack is shown being capable of taking down Edmontosaurus in spite of the carnivores' small size, but the carcass is later taken by a Tyrannosaurus (despite the tyrannosaur not being contemporaneous with Dromaeosaurus).

References 

Cretaceous dinosaurs
Dromaeosauridae
On 14 September 2010, the Senate of France (fr) passed a law that forbids the wearing of clothing that covers the face of a person in public, so that the person cannot be identified. The law talks about clothing that covers the face, so it includes burqas and niqabs, but does not include the chador. 

The main arguments for the ban are that people wearing such types of clothing cannot be identified by police forces, and that such veils are not compatible with the values of France as a state. In addition, there was a discussion about women's rights. President Nicolas Sarkozy said that a reason for the ban is to protect women from being forced to cover their faces.

The bill which was introduced, was protested by some women as a violation of women's rights. But many people in France supported the bill, and it was passed in the Senate and the National Assembly of the French Parliament, and it became law.

References

Politics of France
Islamic dress
Legislation
Islamophobia
Controversies
John Flamsteed FRS (19 August 1646 – 31 December 1719) was an English astronomer. He was the first Astronomer Royal, appointed in 1675.

Flamsteed calculated the solar eclipses of 1666 and 1668.

He was responsible for several of the earliest recorded sightings of the planet Uranus, which he mistook for a star and catalogued as '34 Tauri'. The first of these was in December 1690, which remains the earliest known sighting of Uranus by an astronomer.

Star catalogue and atlas 
Flamsteed is also remembered for his conflicts with Isaac Newton, the President of the Royal Society at the time. Flamsteed was refusing to publish work commissioned by the king, so in 1712 Newton and Edmond Halley published a preliminary version of Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica. They did so without crediting the author.
Some years later, Flamsteed managed to buy many copies of the book, and publicly burnt them in front of the Royal Observatory. However, the numerical star designations in this book are still used and are known as Flamsteed designations.

In 1725 Flamsteed's own version of Historia Coelestis Britannica was published posthumously, edited by his wife Margaret. This contained Flamsteed's observations, and included a catalogue of 2,935 stars to much greater accuracy than any previous work. This was considered the first significant contribution of the Greenwich Observatory. In 1729 his wife published his Atlas Coelestis, assisted by Joseph Crosthwait and Abraham Sharp, who were responsible for the technical side.

Further reading
Further reading 

The correspondence of John Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal. 1995-2002. Compiled and edited by Eric G. Forbes, Lesley Murdin and Frances Willmoth. Bristol: Institute of Physics.  (v1);  (v2) ;  (v3)
The Gresham lectures of John Flamsteed. 1975. edited and introduced by Eric G. Forbes. London: Mansell. 
Newton's tyranny: the suppressed scientific discoveries of Stephen Gray and John Flamsteed. 2001. David H. Clark & Stephen H.P. Clark. Freeman. 

1646 births
1719 deaths
English astronomers
A sugar cookie or sugar biscuit is a cookie made from sugar, flour, butter, eggs, vanilla, and baking powder or baking soda.

Sugar cookies can be iced with a variety of icings and are normally decorated.

References 

Cookies
Edmond Halley FRS (8 November 1656 – 25 January 1743) was an English astronomer, the second Astronomer Royal.

He was also a mathematician, meteorologist, and physicist. Halley is best known for computing the orbit of the comet named after him: Halley's Comet.

Career 
On leaving Oxford, in 1676, Halley visited the south Atlantic island of St. Helena and set up an observatory with a  telescope which had no tube.

He used the telescope to study stars from the Southern Hemisphere. He later published Catalogus Stellarum Australium which was about the 341 southern stars.

In 1686, Halley published the second part of the results from his St. Helena expedition.  This was a paper and chart on trade winds and monsoons.  He thought solar heating caused atmospheric motions.  He also established the relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level. His charts were an advance in how to display information visually. Halley also persuaded Sir Isaac Newton to publish a book about his discovery of gravity.
In 1690, Halley built a diving bell, a device in which the atmosphere was replenished by way of weighted barrels of air sent down from the surface. In a demonstration, Halley and five companions dived to 60 feet in the River Thames, and remained there for over an hour and a half. Halley's bell was of little use for practical salvage work, as it was very heavy, but he made improvements to it over time, later extending his underwater exposure time to over 4 hours.

That same year, at a meeting of the Royal Society, Halley introduced a rudimentary working model of a magnetic compass using a liquid-filled housing to damp the swing and wobble of the magnetized needle.

In 1691 Halley sought the post of Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford University. As he was well known as an atheist, he was opposed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Tillotson. The post went instead to a mathematician who had the support of Isaac Newton.
Demography 
In 1693 Halley published an article on life annuities (a kind of pension), which featured an analysis of age-at-death on the basis of the Breslau statistics Caspar Neumann had been able to provide. This article allowed the British government to sell life annuities at an appropriate price based on the age of the purchaser. Halley's work strongly influenced the development of actuarial science. The construction of the life-table for Breslau, which followed more primitive work by John Graunt, is now seen as a major event in the history of demography.

Named after Halley 
 Halley (lunar crater)
 Halley (Martian crater)
 Halley Research Station, Antarctica
 Halley's method, for the solution of many equations
 Halley Street, a street in Blackburn, Victoria, Australia
 Edmund Halley Road, Oxford Science Park, Oxford,  OX4 4DQ UK
 Halley's Comet [orbital period 76 years]
 Halley Ward, surgical ward at Homerton Hospital in East London
These are generally either , rhyming with valley, or  "Hailey", though some people will use Halley's supposed pronunciation of his own name,  "Hawley". The "Hailey" pronunciation inspired the rock and roll singer Bill Haley to call the rest of his band his "Comets" after Halley's Comet.

References 

English astronomers
Atheists
Fellows of the Royal Society
English mathematicians
English physicists
British meteorologists
Scientists from London
There are areas on the periodic table where elements have similar properties. Such areas include Groups, especially columns. 

For example, all of the first column elements (alkali metals) are light, very soft, react with water rapidly, make hydroxides that are strong bases, and react with the halogens to make colorless ionic compounds. 

The second column elements (alkaline earth metals) are a little heavier, a little harder, react with water a little less rapidly, made hydroxides that are strong bases, and react with the halogens to make colorless ionic compounds.

The other categories are: transition metals, pnictogens, chalcogens, halogens, and noble gases. There are also inner transition metals that are divided into lanthanides and actinides.

Chemical nomenclature
Flamsteed designations are for stars that are similar to Bayer designations. However, they use numbers instead of Greek letters. Flamsteed designation contained 2554 stars.

The numbers are usually assigned in the order of increasing right ascension within each constellation. However, because of the effects of precession, they are now slightly out of order in some parts. This method first appeared in  John Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, a book that was published by Edmond Halley and Isaac Newton together in 1712.

References

Astronomical catalogues
Inner transition metals (ITM) are chemical elements on the periodic table. They are normally shown in two rows below all the other elements. They include elements 57-71, or lanthanides, and 89-103, or actinides. The lanthanides are very similar, and the actinides are all radioactive.

ITMs have three incomplete outermost nucleus shells and are all metals. In some cases they are quite malleable and ductile. Many lanthanides such as Lutetium are used in the lighting industry. Actinides do not occur in nature (except for thorium and uranium), and are highly unstable.

The last electrons enter into the f orbitals of these elements, so they belong to the F-block. The general electron configuration is (n-2)f^0-14(n-1)d^0-2np^6ns^2 where n= 6-7.

                    

+
Molar mass is the mass of a substance that has 6.022 × 1023 atoms (Avogadro's number). The mass number of an element is equal to the molar mass of the element . The molar mass of a chemical compound is the mass when the compound has 6.022 × 1023 molecules. Molar mass of Chlorine is 35.45 due to consideration of avg molar mass by including mass of its all isotopes.

It can be found by adding the molar masses of all of its elements. Sodium hydroxide's (NaOH) molar mass can be found by adding the molar mass of sodium, oxygen, and hydrogen, which would be 39.997 g/mo

Periodic table
The D-block is a group of elements on the periodic table. They include the transition metals. The Group 12 elements are normally called post-transition metals because they are different from the transition metals. The Group 12 elements are still in the d-block though. The d-block can hold up to ten (10) electrons at most.

Chemical elements
A group 12 element is a group in the periodic table of chemical elements. It includes zinc, cadmium, mercury, and copernicium. Copernicium is not stable so its properties are not clear. They all have low melting and boiling points. Mercury is even a liquid. Zinc is the least electronegative and most reactive of the Group 12 elements.

12
A period 4 element is an element in the fourth period (row) of the periodic table. It begins at potassium and ends at krypton. Period 4 has 18 elements.

Period 4 elements have electrons in the first four electron shells. All period 4 elements have one or more electrons in the fourth electron shell (valence electrons). When atomic number increases by one, another electron is added. Two electrons join the 4s orbital, ten electrons join the 3d orbital, and six electrons join the 4p orbitals.

Periodic table
A kilogram per cubic meter is a measurement of density. It is defined as the amount of kilograms that one cubic meter of a substance has in it.

Units of measurement
Thomas Wilfred "Smokey, Fred" Harris (born October 11, 1890 in Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada – June 4, 1974) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward.

Harris began playing professional ice hockey with the Vancouver Millionaires in 1911.  After spending some time with the Millionaires he moved on to play for the Seattle Metropolitans and Portland Rosebuds. Eventually he would find his way to the other side of the country to play for the Boston Bruins in the National Hockey League where he scored the first goal in the teams history.

Other websites

1890 births
1974 deaths
Boston Bruins players
Canadian ice hockey forwards
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
A kilojoule per mole is a way of measuring the amount of heat needed for something. It is the number of kilojoules needed to make the reaction in one mole of substance.

Physics
Units of measurement
Enthalpy of fusion is the measure of the energy needed to change a substance from a solid to a liquid. Extra energy is needed, more than what is obvious by the temperature scale. For example, ice at 0°C needs to absorb heat before it converts (changes) to water at 0°C. The temperature does not change, but energy is absorbed to change from solid to liquid.

Related pages 
 Enthalpy of vaporization

Physics
Ionization energies are dependent upon the atomic radius. Since going from right to left on the periodic table, the atomic radius increases, and the ionization energy increases from left to right in the periods and up the groups. Exceptions to this trend is observed for alkaline earth metals (group 2) and nitrogen group elements (group 15). Typically, group 2 elements have ionization energy greater than group 13 elements and group 15 elements have greater ionization energy than group 16 elements. Groups 2 and 15 have completely and half-filled electronic configuration respectively, thus, it requires more energy to remove an electron from completely filled orbitals than incompletely filled orbitals.
Alkali metals (IA group) have small ionization energies, especially when compared to halogens or VII A group. In addition to the radius (distance between nucleus and the electrons in outermost orbital), the number of electrons between the nucleus and the electron(s) you're looking at in the outermost shell have an effect on the ionization energy as well. This effect, where the full positive charge of the nucleus is not felt by outer electrons due to the negative charges of inner electrons partially canceling out the positive charge, is called shielding. The more electrons shielding the outer electron shell from the nucleus, the less energy required to expel an electron from said atom. The higher the shielding effect the lower the ionization energy. It is because of the shielding effect that the ionization energy decreases from top to bottom within a group
. From this trend, Cesium is said to have the lowest ionization energy and Fluorine is said to have the highest ionization energy (with the exception of Helium and Neon).
1st, 2nd, and 3rd Ionization Energies 
The first ionization energy is the energy required to take away an electron from a neutral atom and the second ionization energy is the energy required to take away an electron from an atom with a +1 charge and so on. Each succeeding ionization energy is larger than the preceding energy.
The Effects of Electron Shells on Ionization Energy 
Electron orbitals are separated into various shells which have strong impacts on the ionization energies of the various electrons. For instance, let us look at aluminum. Aluminum is the first element of its period with electrons in the 3p shell. This makes the first ionization energy comparably low to the other elements in the same period, because it only has to get rid of one electron to make a stable 3s shell, the new valence electron shell. However, once you've moved past the first ionization energy into the second ionization energy, there is a large jump in the amount of energy required to expel another electron. This is because you now are trying to take an electron from a fairly stable and full 3s electron shell.

Chemistry
A picometre is a measurement. It is one millionth of a billionth of a metre. It is also one trillionth of a millimetre. This is very small. Many atoms are larger than this. A picometer is 1×10−12 m (1 / 1,000,000,000,000 m). 1 picometer equals 0.001 nanometre or 1000 femtometres.

Units of length
To help compare different orders of magnitude this page lists lengths between 10−10 m and 10−9 m (100 pm and 1 nm).

100 pm — 1 ångström
100 pm — covalent radius of sulfur atom
120 pm — van der Waals radius of a neutral hydrogen atom
126 pm — covalent radius of ruthenium atom
135 pm — covalent radius of technetium atom
153 pm — covalent radius of silver atom
154 pm — mode length of (C-C) covalent bond
155 pm — covalent radius of zirconium atom
175 pm — covalent radius of thulium atom
200 pm — highest resolution of a typical electron microscope
225 pm — covalent radius of caesium atom
340 pm — thickness of single layer graphene
356.68 pm — width of diamond cell (unit cell)
403 pm — width of lithium fluoride cell
500 pm — width of α helix protein
560 pm — width of sodium chloride cell
700 pm — width of glucose molecule
780 pm — mean width of quartz cell
820 pm — mean width of ice cell
900 pm — mean width of coesite cell
900 pm — width of sucrose molecule

Notes

Orders of magnitude
The covalent radius is the radius of an atom that is measured when that atom is in a covalent bond. It is normally measured in picometers. It is normally found by X-ray diffraction. Also it is half the distance between two similar atoms joined by covalent bond

Chemical bonding
The Van der Waals radius is the radius of an atom that is seen as a hard sphere. It is named after someone who realized that atoms were not points, but actual objects. It can be found by the critical point and the physical properties of a gas. It also can be found by a molecular crystal. 

Chemistry
Chemical bonding
Physics
Diamagnetism is a type of magnetism. They very weakly repel magnets. Most substances are diamagnetic. It was discovered in 1778 when someone saw that bismuth and antimony repelled a magnet. Diamagnetic things can be levitated. A frog was levitated in a very strong magnet. Water can be repelled by a magnet because it is diamagnetic. It is too weak to be noticed normally, though.

Magnetism
Young's modulus is the measure of how much force is needed to stretch or compress a substance. Its most basic form is stress/strain. Stress is the measure of the force applied to a certain area. Strain is the amount by which the substance is deformed.

Elasticity (physics)
Shear modulus is a measure of the amount of force that will shear or twist an object. It is normally the letter G. It is the measure of the force needed to shear an object that is attached to a solid object. It can also measure the amount of force needed to twist an object.

Physics
The bulk modulus (letter K) is a measure of the resistance of a substance to compression on all sides. Gases are easily compressed, while solids and liquid are only compressed with difficulty. It is measured by a measuring instrument when another object is placed under pressure. Its unit is psi.

Solid mechanics
Poisson's ratio (letter v) is a measure of the contraction that happens when an object is stretched. It is named after Siméon Denis Poisson. This contraction is perpendicular to the stretching force. It can also expand as the object is compressed in a perpendicular direction.

For example, if a block is being stretched as shown in the image to the right, the equation for the poisson's ratio will be: 

Poisson's ratio ranges from 0.0-0.5 for common materials, though for materials with certain structures, can be as low as -1. A material with a Poisson's ratio close to 0 (like cork) can be stretched a lot in the axial direction without changing much at all in the transverse, where as pulling on a material with a high Poisson's ratio (like rubber) will cause it to become much more narrow. A material with a negative Poisson's ratio will expand in all directions as it is stretched.

Solid mechanics
Materials science
The Brinell scale is a measure of hardness in materials.  It is measured by making a dent in the material and seeing how deep the dent goes with a known amount of force. It is similar to the Mohs' hardness scale, which scratches the material. It is used to test the hardness of metals. Normally, a steel ball is pressed into an object and the dent made is measured.

References
.

Tests
Materials science
A CAS registry number is a unique number given to every chemical substance by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS). It is also called  CASRN or CAS number. CAS registry number is also given to organic, inorganic compounds, minerals, isotopes, alloys. They are numbers ending with a check digit. They do not contain any structure information of the chemical.

It now identifies more than 164 million organic and inorganic substances. 68 million protein and DNA sequences are identified also. It is updated with around 15,000 new substances everyday.

References

Numbering schemes
Numbers
Jeff Heerema (; born January 17, 1980 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian professional ice hockey winger. He was drafted in the first round, 11th overall, by the Carolina Hurricanes in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft.

Career statistics

References

Other websites

1980 births
Living people
Binghamton Senators players
Canadian ice hockey right wingers
Carolina Hurricanes players
Hartford Wolf Pack players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Lowell Lock Monsters players
Manitoba Moose players
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
St. Louis Blues players
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
Ontario Hockey League players
Worcester IceCats players
Daniel Patrick Gruen (born June 26, 1952 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player. His career included 49 games in the National Hockey League and 181 games in the World Hockey Association, during which he played with the Colorado Rockies, Detroit Red Wings, Michigan Stags, Winnipeg Jets, Cleveland Crusaders, Calgary Cowboys, and Minnesota Fighting Saints.

References 

1952 births
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Colorado Rockies (NHL) players
Detroit Red Wings players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
World Hockey Association players
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
Central Professional Hockey League players
Michael Hordy (born October 10, 1956 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey player. During his career he played eleven games in the National Hockey League for the New York Islanders.

Other websites

1956 births
Living people
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Maine Mariners (AHL) players
New York Islanders players
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
Ontario Hockey League players
Central Professional Hockey League players
Stefan "Steve" Hrymnak (March 3, 1926 – November 23, 2015) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey player. His career included playing 18 games in the National Hockey League for the Chicago Black Hawks and Detroit Red Wings.

Other websites
 

1926 births
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Chicago Blackhawks players
Detroit Red Wings players
Eastern Hockey League players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Sportspeople from Thunder Bay
2015 deaths
A board of directors is a group of people. They normally oversee the actions of a corporation or other business. There are laws called  bylaws that the board follows. They organize the business, appoint the CEO, organize budgets and take care of financial matters.

Within a board, directors commonly organize themselves into several committees, such as:  audit committee, compensation committee, and human resource committee.

Usually once a year, the board of directors invite shareholders to a meeting to talk about the company.

Management
A clinical thermometer is a thermometer used to measure human body temperature. Most made in the 20th century are mercury-in-glass thermometers. They are accurate and sensitive, having a narrow place where the mercury level rises very fast. A kink in the tube stops the mercury level from falling on its own.

These thermometers are used in clinics by doctors,  it is a clinical thermometers they are also called a doctor's thermometers or medical thermometers.  Most show both Celsius scale and Fahrenheit temperature scales, and run from 35 degree Celsius to 42 degree Celsius. 

Medical thermometers are cleaned before and after each use, with alcohol.
For centuries medical thermometers were large, and took many minutes to register a temperature.  Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit invented a quicker mercury thermometer in 1714, and the Fahrenheit temperature scale.  In the 1860s smaller, better ones were made, and thus thermometers were more often used.  An ear thermometer was invented in the 1960s, which works quickly and easily.  Digital thermometers became widespread in the late 20th century.

Medical equipment
Thermometers
Roar may refer to :
Roar (utterance), a sound produced by certain animals such as lions, tigers and mammoths.
  Roar, the King's College London student newspaper
Brisbane Roar FC, an Australian football club (formerly Queensland Roar FC)
Roar (movie)  a movie set in Africa and produced by Tippi Hedren
Roar (TV series), a short-lived television drama set in 4th century Ireland 
Roar (UK TV series), a CBBC television series about the animals in a zoo
Rrröööaaarrr, second album of Canadian progressive metal band Voivod
The Roar, a 2008 novel by Emma Clayton
Roar (roller coaster), the name of two wooden roller coasters located at Six Flags America and Six Flags Discovery Kingdom
ROAR Registry of Open Access Repositories indexes open access institutional repositories.

Names
"Roar", a Norwegian form of the name Roger
Roar (dubious Danish king), a dubious legendary king of Denmark
Roar Ljøkelsøy, a Norwegian ski jumper
"My Name is" is a song by Eminem, released in 1999. It is the lead single from his major-label debut album, The Slim Shady LP.

The song contains a sample of Labi Siffre's 1975 track "I Got The ...". Siffre, who is openly gay, stated, "attacking two of the usual scapegoats, women and gays, is lazy writing. If you want to do battle, attack the aggressors not the victims." Eminem made lyric changes and Siffre cleared the sample.

Track listing
UK CD1

UK CD2

UK Cassette

12" single

Record Store Day 2020 7" single

Notes
 signifies a co-producer.

References

1999 songs
Eminem songs
The Sugar Act (1764) was a tax passed by the British to pay for the Seven Years War, called the French and Indian War in America. 

It taxed sugar and decreased taxes on molasses in British colonies in America and the West Indies. This restricted smuggling. It was also a use of mercantilism. It was one of the first taxes that led to protests in the Thirteen Colonies. The Sugar and Stamp Acts were done away with in 1766. The Sugar Act was terrible for the colonial economy. Some people even went as far as to make attempts on the king’s life because they hated the act so much. Most people in 1764, said the British government was borderline insane to enforce this law.  

1764
1760s in the Thirteen Colonies
Taxation
1760s in Great Britain
The Townshend Duties, formally known as the Townshend Acts, was a tax passed by the British. It was named for Charles Townshend, who was the British Prime Minister at the time. He spearheaded the acts, but he died before the detrimental effects were clear. In 1776, he was hanged in effigy, which means a doll was made to represent him and it was hanged in the town square in Boston. It taxed all imported goods. E.g tea, food, anything that was imported. Townshend wanted the duties to make sure the colonists knew that they were under British rule. The acts were resisted in the Thirteen Colonies.

18th century in the United States
Taxation
Tea Act of 1773 was a law made by the Parliament of Great Britain. The law was made to help the East India Company which had massive amounts of tea stored in London which they could not sell. The law would make the company's tea cheaper than other tea which was being smuggled into Britain's North American colonies.  This was supposed to make people buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to accept Parliament's right of taxation.

The law gave the Company the right to directly ship its tea to North America and the right to the duty-free export of tea from Britain. The tax imposed by the Townshend Acts and collected in the colonies remained in force. It became law on May 10, 1773.

Legislation
Kingdom of Great Britain
The Jay Treaty was a treaty between the United States and Britain in the years following the American Revolution. The main American involved in the treaty was John Jay, who was also Chief Justice of the United States. It was passed by the United States Congress in 1795. It allowed for increased trade with Britain in exchange for the British giving up their forts on the Great Lakes.  The Democratic-Republican Party thought that the Jay Treaty was good for the British and bad for the Americans, which led to them burning effigies of Jay.

References

1790s in the United States
1795
18th century in the Kingdom of Great Britain
Treaties of the United States
1790s treaties
Aegyptosaurus, meaning "Egypt's Lizard", is a genus of sauropod dinosaur that lived in Africa around 95 million years ago during the Upper Cretaceous period. Like most sauropods, it had a long neck and a small skull. The animal's long tail probably acted as a counterweight to its body mass. Its tail also ended in a whip-like structure that it used to defend itself against predatory dinosaurs such as Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus. 

Aegyptosaurus was a close relative of Argentinosaurus, a much larger dinosaur that lived in South America at about the same time. This suggests a possible land bridge between Africa and South America during the Cretaceous period.
Aegyptosaurus was discovered and named by a German paleontologist named Ernst Stromer in 1932. Its fossils were found in Egypt, Niger, and in several different locations in the Sahara Desert. All known specimens were discovered before 1939. The fossils were stored together in Munich, but were destroyed when an Allied bombing raid hit the museum in 1944, during World War II.
The type species is Aegyptosaurus baharijensis, named after the Bahariya Formation in Egypt, where the first fossils were found.

Aegyptosaurus was much smaller and more common than its contemporary, Paralititan.

References

Dinosaurs of Africa
Cretaceous dinosaurs
Titanosaurs
In the People's Republic of China, a public security bureau (PSB)  is a kind of government office. These offices acting as a Police stations. Smaller offices are called Police posts. These are similar Japanese Kōban.

PSBs in each province and large city take care of policing law enforcement, public security, and social order. Other duties of such offices include residence registration as well as immigration and travel affairs of foreigners.
Organizations based in the People's Republic of China
Solitary confinement is a punishment or special form of imprisonment. A prisoner is not allowed contact with anyone, except the prison staff. It may be a kind of psychological torture. It is also used to protect one prisoner from other inmates in the prison.

Solitary confinement has many other names. In American English it is also called the 'hole', 'lockdown', the 'SHU'  (pronounced 'shoe') or the 'pound'. In British English people say 'block' or 'the cooler'.

Use and criticism
Use and criticism

People who think solitary confinement is necessary give several reasons. Some prisoners are considered dangerous to other people in the prison. Other prisoners might be able to lead crime groups even from inside jail. Also, solitary confinement can be used to stop prisoners from communicating with others because of possible fears about national security. Finally, it may be used for prisoners who are at high risk of being attacked by other inmates, such as pedophiles, celebrities, or witnesses who are in prison themselves. This form of solitary confinement is sometimes called protective custody.

In the US Federal Prison system, solitary confinement is known as the Special Housing Unit (SHU), . California's prison system also uses the abbreviation SHU, but it stands for Security Housing Units. In other states, it is known as the Special Management Unit (SMU), pronounced .
Opponents of solitary confinement claim that it is cruel and unusual punishment and torture. Taking away social contact, and the sensory input is usually part of solitary confinement and can have a powerful negative effect on a prisoner's mind. This may lead to mental illnesses such as depression and even death since humans are social animals.

Related pages
Prison
Torture

References

Other websites
Sourcebook on solitary confinement

Torture
Imprisonment and detention
Thomas Gainsborough (14 May 1727 – 2 August 1788) was an 18th-century English portrait and landscape painter. He was born in Sudbury, Suffolk, England. He was the youngest son of John Gainsborough. When he was 13, he surprised his father by how well he drew with the pencil. Impressed, his father let him go to London to study art in 1740. In the 1740s, Gainsborough married Margaret Burr and began painting portraits more than landscapes. He had two daughters. In 1774, Gainsborough and his family moved to London. In 1780, he painted portraits of King George III. He died of cancer in London on 2 August 1788 at age 61 years.

In painting portraits he sometimes painted with brushes on sticks six feet long. This put him at the same distance from subject and canvas, set at right angles to each other.

Gallery

References
References

Other websites 
 
Webmuseum Paris: Thomas Gainsborough
Victoria and Albert Museum collection 
 http://www.abcgallery.com/G/gainsborough/gainsborough.html Olga's Gallery
 www.gac.culture.gov.uk/search/Artist.asp?maker_id=112361 
www.Thomas-Gainsborough.org 70 works by Thomas Gainsborough

1727 births
1788 deaths
Cancer deaths in London
English painters
People from Suffolk