Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Given a 6-bit input, the 4-bit output is found by selecting the row using the outer two bits, and the column using the inner four bits. For example, an input "011011" has outer bits "01" and inner bits "1101"; the corresponding output would be "1001".

The 8 S-Boxes of DES were the subject of intensive studies for many years cause of a concern that a method of bypassing the DES cipher to obtaining access to the plaintext–a vulnerability (susceptibility) known only to its designers–might have been planted (inserted) in the cipher. In 1994, the S-Box design criteria were finally published by its designers after the public rediscovery of differential cryptanalysis, showing that they had been carefully tuned the design to increase resistance against differential cryptanalysis attacks. Other research had already indicated that even a very small modification to one of the 8 S-Box used by the DES could weaken it very much.
The design of good S-Boxes was the subject of a great amount of research; now much more is understood about their use in block ciphers than when the DES S-Boxes were released.

Related pages
 Substitution cipher

References

Other websites
 A literature survey on S-Box design
 John Savard's "Questions of S-Box Design"
 Gargiulo's "S-Box Modifications and Their Effect in DES-like Encryption Systems"

Cryptography
Mas-Blanc-des-Alpilles is a commune of 373 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Maussane-les-Alpilles is a commune of 2,155 people (2004). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Meyrargues is a commune in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 3,400 people lived there in 2006.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Meyreuil is a commune of 4,450 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Mimet is a commune of 4,400 people (2004). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Miramas is a commune of 23,800 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Mollégès is a commune of 2,171 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Mouriès is a commune of 3,085 people (2008). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Noves is a commune of 4,845 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Orgon is a commune of 2,913 people (2004). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Paradou is a commune of 1,162 people (1999). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Pélissanne is a commune of 9,268 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Les Pennes-Mirabeau is a commune of 19,043 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
La Penne-sur-Huveaune is a commune of 6,150 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Peynier is a commune of 2,900 people (2005). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Peypin is a commune of 5,097 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Peyrolles-en-Provence is a commune of 4,286 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Plan-de-Cuques is a commune of 10,503 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Plan-d'Orgon is a commune of 2,738 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
In cryptography, confusion and diffusion are two properties of the operation of a secure cipher.

Confusion and diffusion were identified by Claude Elwood Shannon in his paper, "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems" published in 1949. In Shannon's original definitions:
Confusion refers to making the relationship between the key and the ciphertext as complex and as involved as possible
Diffusion refers to the property that redundancy in the statistics of the plaintext is "dissipated" in the statistics of the ciphertext.

Diffusion is associated with the dependency of the output bits on the input bits. In a cipher with good diffusion, flipping an input bit should change each output bit with a probability of one half (this is termed the Strict Avalanche Criterion).
Substitution (a rule for replacing plaintext symbols by another) has been identified as a mechanism for primarily confusion (see S-box); on the other hand transposition using P-box (rearranging or swapping the order of symbols) is a technique for diffusion, although other mechanisms are also used in modern practice, such as linear transformations (e.g. in AES). Product ciphers use alternating substitution and transposition phases (rounds) to achieve both confusion and diffusion respectively.

Related pages
 Substitution-permutation network

References
 Claude E. Shannon, "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems", Bell System Technical Journal, vol.28-4, page 656–715, 1949.  

Cryptography
Port-de-Bouc is a commune of 17,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône is a commune of 8,524 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Puyloubier is a commune of 1,671 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade is a commune. It is in the  Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 5,112 people lived there in (2006).

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Rognac is a commune of 11,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Rognes is a commune of 4,194 people (1999). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Rognonas is a commune of 3,623 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
La Roque-d'Anthéron is a commune of 4,722 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

Communes in Bouches-du-Rhône
Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems is a paper published by Claude Shannon discussing cryptography from the viewpoint of information theory. It is one of the foundational treatments (primitives) of modern cryptography. It is also a proof that all theoretically unbreakable (un-crack-able) ciphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad encryption algorithm.

Shannon published an earlier version of this research in the classified report A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography, Memorandum MM 45-110-02, Sept. 1, 1945, Bell Laboratories.

In 1948, Shannon published his great paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" which is considered one of the founding works of the field of information theory.

Related pages
 Confusion and diffusion
 Product cipher

References
 Shannon, Claude. "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems", Bell System Technical Journal, vol.28(4), page 656–715, 1949.

Other websites
 Online retyped copy of the paper 
 Scanned version of the published BSTJ paper

Cryptography
"Come as You Are" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the second single from their second album, Nevermind, the first was the enormously popular "Smells Like Teen Spirit". It is one of the band's most famous songs. Rolling Stone magazine named it as the 445th on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.

Music video
There was a music video for the song. It has a lot of random scenes, such as Kurt Cobain sitting on a chandelier hanging from a ceiling, a handgun floating in a swimming pool, and a baby swimming in that pool (a reference to the cover art of Nevermind.)

Release
After the single was released, the English post-punk band Killing Joke became angry at Nirvana for supposedly ripping off their song "Eighties".
Nirvana thought that "Smells Like Teen Spirit", the previous single from Nevermind, would not be very popular, and that "Come as You Are" would be a big hit. However, "Smells Like Teen Spirit" became the band's most famous song and one of the most famous songs ever, even though Come as You Are was also popular.

Other versions of the song
On November 18, 1993, Nirvana played "Come as You Are" on their show on MTV Unplugged. The show contained mostly their unpopular songs and covers of other artists' songs; "Come as You Are" was the only hit they played.

Nirvana (band) songs
1992 songs
In cryptography, the International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) is a block cipher designed by Xuejia Lai and James Massey of ETH Zurich in 1991. It was meant to be a replacement for the Data Encryption Standard. IDEA very like an earlier cipher called Proposed Encryption Standard (PES), but with some improvements. Because of this, IDEA was first called IPES (Improved PES).

The cipher is patented in a number of countries but can be used by anyone for non-commercial use. The name "IDEA" is also a trademark. The patents will expire in 2010–2011. Today, IDEA is licensed worldwide by a company called MediaCrypt.

IDEA was used in Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) v2.0 after the cipher used in v1.0, BassOmatic, was found to be breakable. IDEA can be used with the OpenPGP standard.
IDEA operates on 64-bit blocks, using a 128-bit key. It contains a series of eight identical transformations (rounds) and one output transformation (the half-round). It does this for a total of 8.5 rounds. The processes for encryption and decryption are similar.

IDEA derives much of its security by interleaving operations from different groups — modular addition and multiplication, and bitwise eXclusive OR (XOR) — which are chosen to be "algebraically incompatible".

Each of the eight round uses six sub-keys, while the half-round uses four; for a total of 52 sub-keys. Each sub-key is a 16-bit in length. The first eight sub-keys are extracted directly from the 128-bit key, with K1 being the lowest sixteen bits and K8 is the highest sixteen bits; further groups of eight keys are created by rotating the main key left 25 bits after the creation of the previous group; six rotations generate all sub-keys.
The designers analyzed IDEA to measure its strength against differential cryptanalysis and concluded that it is unsusceptible only under certain assumptions. No successful linear or differential attacks have been reported. Some classes of weak keys have been found — E.g. (Daemen et al., 1994) — but these are of little importance, being so rare to be explicitly avoided. As of 2007, the best attack which applies to all keys can break IDEA if reduced to 6 rounds (the full IDEA cipher uses 8.5 rounds).

In 1996, Bruce Schneier wrote about IDEA, "In my opinion, it is the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public at this time." (Applied Cryptography, 2nd ed.) However, by 1999 he was no longer recommending IDEA due to the availability of faster cryptographic algorithms, some progress in its cryptanalysis, and the issue of patents.

References
References

 J. Daemen, R. Govaerts, and J. Vandewalle, Weak keys for IDEA , CRYPTO '93. pp224–231.
 Hüseyin Demirci, Erkan Türe, Ali Aydin Selçuk, A New Meet in the Middle Attack on The IDEA Block Cipher, 10th Annual Workshop on Selected Areas in Cryptography, 2004.
 Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey, A Proposal for a New Block Encryption Standard, EUROCRYPT 1990, pp389–404
 Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey and S. Murphy, Markov ciphers and differential cryptanalysis, Advances in Cryptology — Eurocrypt '91, Springer-Verlag (1992), pp17–38.
 Eli Biham, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller, A New Attack on 6-round IDEA, Fast Software Encryption Workshop, 2007.

Other websites
 RSA FAQ on Block Ciphers 
 SCAN entry for IDEA
 IDEA in 448 bytes of 80x86
 IDEA Applet

Cryptography
Luduş (German: Ludasch, Hungarian: Marosludas) is a town in Mureş County, Romania. It is the fourth biggest city in the county by population. The name of the town in Hungarian means "gooses at Maros"

Towns in Romania
The 2008 Yemen floods took place on October 23, leaving 65 dead and 20,000 without shelter. The Yemeni governorates of Hadhramaut, Lahij, Al Mahrah and Ta'izz were affected the worst by the floods, and most of the deaths were in Hadhramaut.

Details

Before the flooding was several days of rain starting on October 23, as the remains of a tropical cyclone moved over the area. Rain continued, with weather systems coming in from neighbouring Saudi Arabia and northern Somalia, causing severe flooding in some areas of Yemen. Better conditions are expected by Sunday.

Thousands of families fled Hadhramaut alone; many schools were used as evacuee shelters, but these could only hold 10% of the affected. Search and rescue teams said that the number of deaths may increase due to the likelihood of people trapped in flooded houses. Electricity and telephone lines were cut off, and many homes were damaged.

Reaction
Reaction

The Yemeni government promised to supply tents as a means of emergency shelter, along with other emergency supplies, with six transport aircraft loaded with supplies taking off from Sanaa on Saturday and more scheduled for later. President Ali Abdullah Saleh ordered the creation of a committee to provide aid to affected civilians. Also, the United Arab Emirates declared their intent to provide relief. However, several residents in the city of Shibam say that government assistance and support, if any, is low.

The Organisation of the Islamic Conference declared the situation a "national catastrophe" and started a drive on Saturday to collect funds for the relief of flood victims.

Yemeni president Ali Abdullah Saleh said, "The damages... are great and the catastrophe is also great."
Damage
Along with deaths, about 730 homes were destroyed, along with businesses and other building projects. The severe thunder of the thunderstorms resulted in at least nine deaths from lightning in the Al Mahrah, Ta'izz and Lahij governorates.  The rain also destroyed large amounts of farmland and killed large numbers of livestock.

References

2008 in Asia
2000s disasters in Asia

2008 floods

Floods in Asia
October 2008 events
2008 disasters
Alexander Ramsey (September 8, 1815– April 22, 1903) was an American politician. He was born near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

Ramsey was elected from Pennsylvania as a Whig to the U.S. House of Representatives and served in the 28th and 29th congresses from March 4, 1843 to March 3, 1847. He served as the first Territorial Governor of Minnesota June 1, 1849 to May 15, 1853 as a member of the Whig Party.

In 1855, he became the mayor of St. Paul, Minnesota. Ramsey was elected the second Governor of Minnesota after statehood and served from January 2, 1860 to July 10, 1863. Ramsey is credited with being the first Union governor to commit troops during the American Civil War (he happened to be in Washington, D.C. when fighting broke out). He resigned the governorship to become a U.S. Senator, having been elected to that post in 1863 as a Republican. He was re-elected in 1869 and held the office until March 3, 1875, serving in the 38th, 39th, 40th, 41st, 42nd, and 43rd congresses.
Ramsey served as Secretary of War from 1879 to 1881, under President Rutherford B. Hayes.

Legacy 
The Minnesota Historical Society preserves his home as a museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. Alexander Ramsey Park, located in Redwood Falls, Minnesota, is the largest municipal park in Minnesota.  Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County, North Dakota, the city of Ramsey, Minnesota, the city of Ramsey, Illinois, Ramsey Park in Stillwater, Minnesota, and Alexander Ramsey Elementary School in Montevideo, Minnesota are also named for him.

References 

1815 births
1903 deaths
United States Secretaries of War
United States senators from Minnesota
Politicians from Pennsylvania
"Lounge Act" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the ninth song on their second studio album, Nevermind, which is credited with bring grunge music to the mainstream. The song is much like the post-grunge songs that were very popular starting in the mid-1990s, after Nirvana broke up.

The title "Lounge Act" came from when the band thought it sounded like a song they would play in a lounge.

It is one of the songs in the soundtrack of the video game Skate., a skateboarding video game from 2007 for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.

Nirvana (band) songs
1991 songs
The hurricane's strong winds, waves, rains and storm surge caused over 45 deaths across ten countries and caused estimated damages of US$1.5 billion. First impacting the islands of the Lesser Antilles, Dean's path through the Caribbean severely damaged agricultural crops, especially those of Martinique and Jamaica. When it reached  Mexico, Hurricane Dean was a Category 5 storm, but it missed large cities and its exceptional Category 5 strength landfall caused no deaths and less damage than in the Caribbean islands it passed as a Category 2 storm. Because of the damage, the name Dean was retired, and will not be used again for a tropical cyclone.

Related pages
2007 Atlantic hurricane season
Tropical cyclone

References
References

2007 Atlantic hurricane season
Retired tropical cyclone names
Hurricanes in Mexico
2007 in Mexico
2000s in Puerto Rico
2000s in the Dominican Republic
2000s in Haiti
2000s in Jamaica
2000s in the Cayman Islands
2000s in Belize
2000s in Honduras
2000s in Nicaragua
August 2007 events
Hurricanes in Jamaica
Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes
The Amazon Basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its branches. It is low-lying in relation to sea level.

The river has its origins high up in the Andes of Peru and Ecuador. Most of this drainage basin (54%) is in Brazil, including the lower part, other portions are parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Columbia and a small part of Venezuela. The river also has tributaries from Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia. The Amazon rainforest is the largest in the world, covering about 8,235,430 km2 with dense tropical forest. Most of the basin is covered by the Amazon rainforest, also known as Amazonia.

The Amazon Basin is one of the world's most important ecosystems. 

Regions of South America
Drainage basins
Bixa orellana (also known as achiote) is a shrub or small tree from the tropical area of the American continent. The name comes from the Nahuatl word for the shrub, achiotl.  It is also known as Aploppas, and its first Tupi name urucu. It is grown there and in Southeast Asia, where it was brought by the Spanish in the 17th century. It is best known as the source of the natural pigment annatto, made from the fruit. The plant bears pink flowers and bright red spiny fruits which contain red seeds. The fruits dry and harden to brown capsules.

Malvales
In Aztec mythology, Xoːchiquetzal () was a goddess of flowers, fertility, games, dancing and agriculture (planting and harvesting), as well as craftsmen and pregnant women.  She was first a moon and love goddess.

Aztec gods and goddesses
Tlatoani ( ; plural , ) is the Nahuatl word for the ruler of an altepetl, a pre-Hispanic state. The word means "speaker", but may be translated into English as "king". A  () is a female ruler.

References

Kings and queens
Mexican people
José de Acosta (September/October 1539 – February 15 1600), was a Spanish 16th-century Jesuit missionary and naturalist in Latin America.  He wrote several works including  and .

1539 births
1600 deaths
Jesuit missionaries
Naturalists
Spanish Roman Catholics
Spanish writers
Catarrh () is a thick fluid of mucus and white blood cells caused by the swelling of the mucous membranes in the head because of an infection. It is a symptom usually from the common cold and coughs, but can also be found in people with infections of the adenoids, middle ear, sinus or tonsils.

Breathing problems
Upper class is an idea in sociology. It refers to the group of people at the top of a society. They are the wealthiest group of society. Members of an upper class often have great power over resources and governmental policy in their area. They may have acquired these things by inheritance, for example by being monarchs or aristocrats, or by commerce. They may own much land or other valuable property, and may spend much of their income on luxury goods such as yachts and mansions.

Related pages 
 Social class
 Elite

Social classes
A chocolate bar is a confectionery made of cocoa beans, cocoa butter, sugar, and milk. There are many types of chocolate, including milk chocolate, dark chocolate, white chocolate, peanut butter chocolate, and many more. 

Chocolate has a lot of calories, so it can give a person energy.  However, most chocolate also has a lot of sugar.

Chocolate comes from the cacao tree.  Cocoa pods grow on these trees.  They get about as big as a melon.  Once they are ripe, they turn from green to orange.  Then workers can split them open and take out cocoa beans.  Factories use machines to break down the cocoa beans into cocoa butter and chocolate.  Then they add sugar and milk to make the chocolate taste better.

Cocoa farmers are some of the poorest people in the world.  Many of them earn very little money.

References

Candy
The city of Veracruz is an important port city on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It has a population of 444,438 in the city according to the 2005 census.

References 

Cities in Mexico
Veracruz
Sir Hans Sloane, 1st Baronet, PRS (16 April, 1660 – 11 January, 1753) was an Ulster-Scot physician and collector. He donated his collection to the British nation. This collection became the beginning of the British Museum. He also created milk chocolate. Sloane Square in London is named for him.

People from County Down
1660 births
1773 deaths
Irish scientists
British medical doctors
The Royal College of Physicians of London was the first medical group in England to receive a Royal Charter. It was created in 1518 and is one of the most active of all medical groups. It was originally created as the College of Physicians by royal charter of King Henry VIII in 1518.

Medicine
Coenraad Johannes van Houten (March 15, 1801 – 1887) was a Dutch chemist. He was known for creating a method for pressing the fat from roasted cacao beans to create cacao powder. He started a world-famous chocolate company.

1801 births
1887 deaths
Dutch chemists
Dutch inventors
People from Amsterdam
Chocolate
Cocoa butter, also called theobroma oil, is the pale-yellow, pure vegetable fat of the cacao bean. It is used to make solid chocolate bars, and mixed with cocoa powder to make solid pieces of chocolate. Cocoa butter is removed from the cacao beans and can be used to make chocolate, pharmaceuticals, ointments, and toiletries. Cocoa butter has a mild chocolate flavor and smell. It is one of the most stable fats known.

References

Food ingredients
Pietro Longhi (November 5, 1701 – May 8, 1785) was a Venetian painter of contemporary scenes of life.

Related pages
 List of Italian painters

1701 births
1785 deaths
18th-century Italian painters
Alex Turner (born 6 January 1986) is a British musician. He is the lead singer and guitarist of the Arctic Monkeys. He is also a member of The Last Shadow Puppets. He was born and raised in Sheffield. His father was a music teacher and his mother was a German teacher.

The Arctic Monkeys have released 7 studio albums. The first was Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not. The second was Favourite Worst Nightmare. The third was Humbug. The fourth was Suck It and See, which was released late in 2011. The fifth was "AM", which was released in 2013. "Tranquillity Base, Hotel & Casino" was released in 2018, and “The Car” in 2022.

References

English guitarists
English rock musicians
English singer-songwriters
Musicians from Sheffield
1986 births
Living people
Dodge is an American automobile, SUV and truck maker. They are based in Auburn Hills, Michigan. Dodge was created by brothers Horace and John Dodge in 1900. Dodge was sold to Chrysler in 1928. In 2010 Dodge announced it would spin-off the Ram division making it its own brand.

Other websites
Official American website 
Global store locator 

1900 establishments in the United States
American automobile companies
1900s establishments in Michigan
Companies based in Michigan
Introduction 
In mathematics, an ordered pair is a collection of two objects, where one of the objects is first (the first coordinate or left projection), and the other is second (the second coordinate or right projection). An ordered pair where the first coordinate is  and the second coordinate is  is usually written  (sometimes it is written ). If  is different from , then the ordered pair  is different from the ordered pair  - this is why it is called ordered.

Properties 

If  and  are two ordered pairs, then the characteristic or defining property of ordered pairs is:
.

This means that two ordered pairs are equal if and only if: the first coordinates of the pairs are equal, and also the second coordinates of the pairs are equal.

Definition 

There are many mathematical definitions of ordered pair which have this property. The definition given here is the most common one:

.

Kazimierz Kuratowski was the first person to make this definition.

Mathematics
Arts and crafts describes a wide variety of activities involving making things with one's own hands.  Arts and crafts is usually a hobby. Some crafts (art skills) have been practised since preshistoric times, others are more recent inventions. William Morris, John Ruskin and others promoted an "arts and crafts" movement in the late 19th century, which popularized the phrase.

Both children and adults enjoy arts and crafts. Children in schools may learn skills such as woodworking, wood carving, sewing, or making things with all sorts of material. Many community centres and schools have evening or day classes and workshops where one can learn arts and craft skills

Crafts involving textiles 
 Banner-making
 Calligraphy
 Cross-stitch
 Crocheting
 Embroidery
 Felting
 Knitting
 Lace-making
 Macramé
 Millinery
 Needlepoint
 Patchwork
 Quilting
 Rug making
 Sewing
 Shoemaking
 Spinning (textiles)
 String art
 Tapestry
 Weaving
 T-shirt art

Crafts involving wood, metal or clay
Metalworking
 Jewelry
 Pottery
 Sculpture
 Woodworking
 Cabinet making
 Marquetry
 Lacquerware
 Wood burning
 Wood turning

Crafts involving paper or canvas
 Bookbinding
 Calligraphy
 Cardmaking
 Card Modelling
 Collage
 Decoupage
 Embossing
 Iris Folding
 Marbling
 Origami
 Papercraft
 Papier-mâché
 Parchment craft
 Quilling or Paper Filigree
 Scrapbooking
 Stamping (with a rubber stamp)
  Sketching

Crafts involving plants
 Basket weaving
 Corn dolly making
 Floral Design
 Pressed flower craft
 Straw marquetry

Other crafts
 Balloon animal
 Beadwork
 Doll making
 Dollhouse construction and furnishing
 Egg decorating
 Etching
 Glassblowing
 Lapidary
 Mosaics
 Stained glass
 Toy making
 Polymer clay

Hobbies
Art
Stellantis North America,  (officially FCA US, LLC) and formerly Chrysler Corporation is a car manufacturer based in the United States. They are one of the oldest car manufacturers in the world. They own other car companies such as Dodge, Jeep, and Ram Trucks.
Chrysler Corporation was created by Walter P. Chrysler in 1925 when he renamed the Maxwell Motor Company. From 1998 to 2007, Chrysler was part of DiamlerChrysler, a large German company. Then it was owned by Cerberus Capital Management. Chrysler declared Chapter 11 Bankruptcy on August 30, 2009. In 1978 Lee Iacocca left Ford Motor Company to become president and CEO of Chrysler Corporation in 1978. In 1979 Lee Iacocca added the title of chairman, until his retirement in 1992. In 1979, Chrysler Corporation had financial problems. They got 1.5 billion dollars from the U.S. government. Then, Chrysler Corporation created the K-car platform, invented the minivan, and sold many trucks to the army. Chrysler Corporation acquired American Motors in 1988, and rebranded the auto company as Eagle. They slowly recovered. Chrysler is currently owned by Italian automotive Fiat, the two companies merged forming Fiat Chrysler Automobiles or FCA for short. FCA in 2020 merged with the PSA group to form Stellantis
. The company still trades as Chrysler in the United States.
At its peak, Chrysler owned Dodge, Jeep, Plymouth, DeSoto, Valiant, Imperial, and Eagle (AMC). Only Chrysler, Dodge, and Jeep survived. In 2010 Chrysler announced it would spin the Ram Trucks off into its own division and Dodge would focus on performance status.

Brand

Current Models 
 300
 Pacifica

Websites 
 http://www.chrysler.com/en/ 
 http://www.dodge.com/en/ 
 http://www.jeep.com/en/ 

American automobile companies
1925 establishments in the United States
Companies based in Michigan
Nazia Hassan () singer (April 3, 1965 - August 31, 2000) and Zohaib Hassan (), (born November 18, 1966) were a singing sensation and pioneers of the Pakistani pop music scene during the 1980s.

1965 births
2000 deaths
Pakistani singers
Cancer deaths in England
Deaths from lung cancer
Pakistani Muslims
People from Karachi
Sufis
Bilawal Bhutto Zardari () (born 21 September 1988) is co-chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), and the eldest child and only son of the late Pakistani politician and former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and her husband Asif Ali Zardari, the former President of Pakistan. Chairman Bhutto Zardari is also the grandson of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, a former Prime Minister of Pakistan. After completing his studies from the United Kingdom in 2013, Bilawal took over the formal charge of the PPP and made changes in it.  

In the 2018 general election, he ran for Prime Minister of Pakistan but ended in third place loosing to Imran Khan.

1988 births
Living people
Politicians from Karachi
Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq (, born 20 February 1952) is a prominent Pakistani politician and former Federal Minister for Religious Affairs of Pakistan.

Haq joined the Pakistan Army in 1971. He entered Pakistani politics following the 1988 death of his father, the military dictator and self-appointed President of Pakistan General Zia-ul-Haq.

1953 births
Living people
Pakistani military people
Pakistani Muslims
Politicians from Punjab, Pakistan
Zille Huma () is the daughter of the late Melody Queen Madam Noor Jehan and the only one of her four daughters to follow in her mother's footsteps. Today, she is a popular Pakistani pop singer.

References

Pakistani singers
Punjabi people
1944 births
2014 deaths
People from Karachi
People from Lahore
People of British India
Sonya Jehan is a French-Pakistani  Bollywood actress. Jehan's first movie was Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story in 2005. Her original name was Sonya Rizvi.  She changed it to Jehan to honor her grandmother, Noor Jehan, who is a legendary singer and Lollywood actress.

References

Punjabi people
Pakistani movie actors
French actors
1980 births
Living people
Sir Sultan Muhammed Shah, Aga Khan III, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, GCVO, PC (2 November 1877–11 July 1957) was the 48th Imam of the Nizari Ismaili sect of Islam. 

He became Imam at a very young age. He was seven years old when his father, Aga Khan II, died in 1885. He was one of the founders and the first president of the All-India Muslim League, and served as President of the League of Nations from 1937-38.

He was born in Karachi, in what was British India. He was given a religious education, and also a European education. He attended Eton and Cambridge University, and was a frequent visitor to Britain. 

His followers celebrated his anniversaries as Imam in 1937, 1946 and 1954 by weighing him in gold, diamonds and platinum. The proceeds were spent on welfare and development in Asia and Africa. Girls schools were set up in the remote northern areas of what is now Pakistan. He was knighted by Queen Victoria, and later made a member of the Privy Council.
His choice of successor 
At the end of his life, Sir Sultan Mohammed did a remarkable thing. In his will, he disinherited his son, Aly Khan, in favour of his grandson, Karim. So the next Khan, Aga Khan IV, was a younger man better suited to the modern world.

Marriages  
The Aga Khan married four times:
2 November 1896 in Poona, India: to Shazadi Begum
1908 to Cleope Teresa Magliano (1888–1926). They had two sons: Prince Giuseppe Mahdi Khan (d. February 1911) and Prince Aly Khan (1911–1960). She died in 1926, following an operation on 1 December 1926.
1929 (civil), in Aix-les-Bains, France, and (religious), in Bombay, India. The bride was the co-owner of a dressmaking shop in Paris. She became known as Princess Andrée Aga Khan, but did not convert to Islam. By this marriage, he had one son, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, in 1933-2003. 
1944, in Geneva, Switzerland, Yvonne Blanche Labrousse. She had been his social secretary.

Mausoleum 
The Aga Khan's mausoleum is near the Nile at Aswan, Egypt.
1877 births
1957 deaths
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Leaders of All India Muslim League
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
The Iran-Pakistan barrier is a separation barrier which Iran has started building along its border with Pakistan replacing an intermittent tattered border fence.

Buildings and structures in Iran
Pakistan
Sir William Sterndale Bennett (born Sheffield, 13 April 1816;  died London, 1 February 1875) was a distinguished English composer of the Romantic period.

Early life
Bennett's father Robert Bennett, was organist of what is now Sheffield Cathedral. At the age of three he was an orphan, so he was brought up by his grandfather in Cambridge.  At the age of seven he became a chorister at King's College Chapel Choir.  In 1826 he entered the Royal Academy of Music, where he spent ten years studying.  His piano teachers were W. H. Holmes, Dr William Crotch and later Cipriani Potter  

In 1833 he was made organist of St Anne's Church, Wandsworth and in that same year met Felix Mendelssohn who invited him to Germany.  He went there four times, making long tours.  He was  welcomed and admired by famous musicians including Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann.  Schumann later dedicated his Symphonic Studies to Bennett.  He also often performed at the Leipzig Gewandhaus.
Music
Although he knew the works of Bach and Mozart very well, many of his compositions were clearly influenced by Mendelssohn. As well as being known as one of Europe's most brilliant pianists, his music was well known for its new ideas, excitement and poetic beauty.   His compositions include four overtures, six piano concertos, four symphonies, a chamber trio, sextet, several piano works and two song cycles to be followed later in life by a cello duo, a late Symphony in G minor, a Cantata The May Queen for the opening of Leeds Town Hall in 1858, and an oratorio The Woman of Samaria for the 1867 Birmingham Triennial Music Festival.
Of his 80 published compositions, nearly half are now available on CD, the most popular being the Overture The Naiades Op 15, the Chamber Trio Op 26 and the Piano concerto No 4 in F minor Op 19.
Later life
From 1844 for fifteen years he organized the popular Chamber Music Concerts in the Queen's Concert Rooms, Hanover Square in London introducing a number of famous soloists to the British public.  In 1848 he became a founding Director of Queen's College London and in the following year of Bedford College, now part of London University.  In this way he helped women to get equal opportunity in education. 

In 1849 he formed the Bach Society (later to be reformed as the Bach Choir) in London to produce and conduct the first English performance of Bach's St Matthew Passion on 6 April 1854.
In 1856 he succeeded Wagner as conductor of the Philharmonic Society Orchestra.  He was the first person to be given their Gold Medal.  In 1866 he was chosen to be Professor of Music at Cambridge University having got an MA and Mus Doc.  From 1866 until his death he was Principal of the Royal Academy of Music.  A scholarship and Prize in his name continues to be awarded to this day.  In 1870 Oxford University gave him an Hon DCL and a year later he was knighted.  

He died on 1st February 1875 and is buried in Westminster Abbey.

Several of his family later became well known in music and theatre.  Bennett left a large music library which is now at the Bodleian Library in collaboration with his great-great-grandson Barry Sterndale-Bennett (b 1939) which continues to be available for research purposes.

References
References

See: The Life of Sterndale Bennett by JR Sterndale Bennett (Cambridge University Press 1907) and William Sterndale Bennett- a Descriptive Thematic Catalogue by Rosemary Williamson (Clarendon Press 1996) 
 

1816 births
1875 deaths

English composers
Romantic composers
The Grand Trunk Road (commonly abbreviated to GT Road) is one of South Asia's oldest and longest major roads. For several centuries, it has linked the eastern and western regions of the Indian subcontinent, running from Bengal, across north Republic of India, into Peshawar in Pakistan.

It was built by Sher Shah Suri and is also known as  "Sadak E Sher Shah" named after him. 

Transport in Pakistan
Roads in India
The most common condition is an algorithm using a lookup table. This means that the answers for some question for every possible value can be written down. One way of solving this problem is to write down the entire lookup table, which will let you find answers very quickly, but will use a lot of space. Another way is to calculate the answers without writing down anything, which uses very little space, but might take a long time.

A space-time tradeoff can be used with the problem of data storage. If data is stored uncompressed, it takes more space but less time than if the data were stored compressed (since compressing the data decreases the amount of space it takes, but it takes time to run the compression algorithm). 

Larger code size can be used to increase program speed when using loop unwinding. This technique makes the program code longer for each iteration of a loop, but saves the computation time needed for jumping back to the beginning of the loop at the end of each iteration.
In the field of cryptography, using space-time tradeoff, the attacker is decreasing the exponential time required for a brute force attack. Rainbow tables use partially precomputed values in the hash space of a cryptographic hash function to crack passwords in minutes instead of weeks. Decreasing the size of the rainbow table increases the time required to iterate over the hash space. The meet-in-the-middle attack attack uses a space-time tradeoff to find the cryptographic key in only  encryptions (and  space) compared to the expected  encryptions (but only  space) of the normal attack. 

Dynamic programming is another example where the time of solving problems can be decreased by using more memory.

Other websites
 Philippe Oechslin: Making a Faster Cryptanalytic Time-Memory Trade-Off. 
 Once Upon a Time-Memory Tradeoff.

Computer science
In cryptography, an SP-network, or substitution-permutation network (SPN), is a series of linked mathematical operations used in block cipher algorithms such as AES.

These networks consist of S-boxes and P-boxes that transform blocks of input bits into output bits.  

S-boxes substitute or transform input bits into output bits.  A good S-box will have the property that changing one input bit will change about half of the output bits.  It will also have the property that each output bit will depend on every input bit. P-boxes permute or rearrange bits across S-box inputs. In addition, at each round the key is combined using some group operation, typically XOR.

Related pages
 Feistel cipher
 Product cipher
 Square (cipher)
 International Data Encryption Algorithm

References
 Jonathan Katz and Yehuda Lindell, "Introduction to Modern Cryptography". CRC Press, 2007.

Cryptography
In cryptography, Square (sometimes written SQUARE)  is a block cipher invented by Joan Daemen, Enrique Peña Nieto and Vincent Rijmen. The design was published in 1997.

SQUARE is a predecessor to the Rijndael algorithm, which has been adopted in 2001 as the Advanced Encryption Standard by the U.S. government. 

Square was introduced together with a new form of cryptanalysis discovered by Lars Knudsen, called the "Square attack".

The structure of Square is a substitution-permutation network with eight rounds, operating on 128-bit block size and using a 128-bit key size.

Square is not patented.

References

Other websites
 SCAN's entry for Square

Cryptography
In cryptography, a permutation box (or P-box) is a method of bit-shuffling used to permute or transpose bits (rearrange or swap the order of bits) across S-boxes inputs, maintaining diffusion while transposing.

In block ciphers, the S-boxes and P-Boxes are used to make the relation between the plaintext and the ciphertext difficult to understand (see Shannon's property of diffusion).

Related pages
 S-box
 Substitution cipher

References

Cryptography
Carnivorous plants are plants which get nutrients from trapping and eating animals. They are often called insectivorous plants, because they usually trap insects. Since they get some of their food from animals, carnivorous plants can grow in places where the soil is thin, or poor in nutrients. This is true for soils with little nitrogen, such as acidic bogs and rock outcrops. Charles Darwin wrote the first well-known book on carnivorous plants in 1875.

This ability of plants to catch animals is true carnivory. There are more than twelve genera in five families. These include about 625 species that attract and trap prey, produce digestive enzymes, and use their nutrients. In addition, there are more than 300 species in several genera that show some but not all of these characteristics. These are usually called protocarnivorous plants.
Trapping mechanisms 
Insectivorous plants have leaves that are made like pitchers or bladders which catch insects. Today, five different ways of trapping are known:
Pitfall traps (pitcher plants) trap prey in a rolled leaf that has a pool of digestive enzymes or bacteria.
Flypaper traps use sticky mucilage.
Snap traps use rapid leaf movements.
Bladderworts suck in prey with a bladder that produces an internal vacuum.
Lobster-pot traps force prey to move towards a digestive organ with inward-pointing hairs.
These traps are all classified as active or passive. Triphyophyllum is a liana (a climber in tropical forests). It has three types of leaves. When needed, it puts out long leaves. These are passive 'flypapers' which hide mucus. The leaves of the plant do not grow or move as a response to moving prey. The Sundew Drosera, on the other hand, is an active flypaper. All species of Sundew are able to move their sticky tentacles in response to a contact. The tentacles are very sensitive and will bend toward the center of the leaf in order to bring the insect into contact with as many stalked glands as possible. According to Darwin, the touch of legs of a small gnat with a single tentacle is enough to cause this response. This helps the catch and digestion of prey.
The Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula, is one of a very small group of plants able to move fast. When an insect or spider crawls along the leaves and touches a hair, the trap closes only if a different hair is contacted within twenty seconds of the first touch. The two-touch trigger avoids wasting energy on objects with no food value.

Borderline cases 
A carnivorous plant must attract, kill and digest prey. It must then also benefit from digesting the prey. In most cases, this will yield amino acids and ammonium ions. There are some cases, where plants catch the prey, but they do not digest it. Rather, they have a symbiosis with another organism, which feeds on the prey. One such case is the species of the sundew Roridula, which forms a symbiosis with the assassin bug. The bugs eat the trapped insects. The plant benefits from the nutrients in the bugs' faeces.

Evolution
Evolution 

Few fossil carnivorous plants have been found, and then usually as seed or pollen. Carnivorous plants are generally herbs, without wood or bark. True carnivoury has probably evolved independently at least six times. 
Some think all trap types have a similar basic structure—the hairy leaf. Hairy leaves do catch and hold drops of rainwater, which helps bacterial growth. Insects land on the leaf, are caught by the surface tension of the water, and suffocate. Bacteria start to decay the insect, and release nutrients from the corpse. The plant then absorbs the nutrients through its leaves. This 'leaf feeding' can be found in many non-carnivorous plants. Plants that were better at holding water and insects therefore had a selective advantage. Rainwater can be retained by cupping the leaf, leading to pitfall traps. Alternatively, insects can be caught by making the leaf stickier, leading to flypaper traps.they eat only small insects.

References 

Flowering plants
Joe Kinnear is a former football player. He has played for the Republic of Ireland national team. He also coaches football.

Club career statistics

|-
|1965-66||rowspan="10"|Tottenham Hotspur||rowspan="10"|First Division||8||0
|-
|1966-67||20||0
|-
|1967-68||30||1
|-
|1968-69||24||0
|-
|1969-70||9||0
|-
|1970-71||35||0
|-
|1971-72||21||0
|-
|1972-73||24||0
|-
|1973-74||7||0
|-
|1974-75||17||0
|-
|1975-76||Brighton & Hove Albion||Third Division||16||1
211||2
211||2
|}

International career statistics

|-
!Total||26||0
|}

References 

Irish footballers
Irish football managers
Sportspeople from Dublin
1946 births
Living people
Sir Alexander Matthew Busby was a Scottish footballer and football manager. He played for Scotland national team. Busby managed Manchester United and led them to great success. Many people believe that Busby is one of the greatest football managers of all time.

As a player, Busby played for Manchester City and Liverpool. After his playing career, he went to manage Manchester United and built a great team called the Busby Babes. Eight of those players died in an airplane accident in Munich. This accident was called the Munich air disaster. But Busby again built a winning team after the disaster. He spent 25 years with Manchester United and won 13 trophies.

Club career statistics