Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Nazi songs were songs made for the Nazi Party (NSDAP) of Germany.

Some songs used by the Nazis are very old, and so these songs are often thought of as to be a Nazi song. An example would be Deutschlandlied, which was written in 1841. The Nazis used the Deutschlandlied with the Horst-Wessel-Lied. Same with the song Die Wacht am Rhein, which at that time was almost 100 years old.

Horst-Wessel-Lied 

The Horst-Wessel-Lied, also known as Die Fahne Hoch (The flag on high), was the anthem of the Nazi Party. The song was made by Horst Wessel, a SA leader, who was killed by a member of the Communist Party of Germany. The song, as with many Nazi songs, is banned in Germany.

Es zittern die morschen Knochen 

Es zittern die morschen Knochen was made by Hans Baumann, was a very popular Nazi song. The song was the official song of the Hitler Youth: which is why there are some attacks on the old people in the song. Many Germans know some of the song, but a lot don't know the full song.
Below is the order of how the full song would be sung.

Related pages 
Nazism

Nazism
Political songs
The Fiordland penguin (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus) is a crested penguin. They have white stripes on their belly and cheeks, and they have a black back. They have bright yellow eyebrows and when they get older they turn darker. They also have an orange beak; big feet and they have small black tails. They are  tall and weigh on average , with a weight range of  

They eat fish, squid and krill (small shrimps) The Fiordland penguin’s main predator is seals.
 
Most Fiordland penguins live in the south-western coast of New Zealand's South Island and on Stewart Island/Rakiura and nearby islands. They live up to 15 to 20 years in the wild.

References

Other websites
 http://www.mrsbauer.com/fiordland.htm
 http://tellurian.net/teach/penguins/facts.html                                                              
 http://www.siec.k12.in.us/west/poi/penguins/fiord.html
 http://www.theanimalfiles.com/birds/penguins/fiordland_penguin.html
 http://www.penguinworld.com/types/fiordland.htm

Penguins
The Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) has a plain white belly. It can have a few pure black spots on its belly and have orange with an hint of green. There are less than 10,000 Humboldt penguins in the wild. They are found in Chile and Peru. 

They drink sea water and their favourite food is small fish. A female Humboldt penguin can weigh up to 4.5kg and the male can weigh up to 6kg. Their bodies are adapted to life in water and most Humboldt penguins can live up to 20 years. They get their name from a famous Prussian explorer, Alexander von Humboldt.

They have well dug burrows underground. In the past 100 years their droppings have been used as garden fertiliser. This dung is called “guano”.

References

Other websites
 Penguin World.   

Penguins
The magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) is the most numerous of the Spheniscus family. There are about 3,600,000 magellanic penguins in the world. They breed once a year and lay two eggs of a similar size.  They are 70 centimetres tall and weigh 9 pounds or 4 kilograms. 

They are found in the Falkland Islands, South America, Chile and Argentina and migrate Brazil. They are warm weathered penguins and during the warm weather they lose feathers around their eyes. When it gets colder they grow these feathers back around their eyes. They were first seen in 1519 on a voyage (trip) to South America. They hunt for food on their own when they are 60-70 days old.

Other websites
  
   

Penguins
The yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes), also known as the hoiho or tarakara, is an endangered species of penguin, and the third largest penguin in the world. The penguin gets its name from the yellow stripes on its head. They live and breed on the sea shore of New Zealand and some also in the Antarctic islands in the south. They have a high pitched call which can be heard very clearly.

Yellow-eyed penguins eat small to medium sized fish, red cod and squid. 

They make their nests out of twigs, grass and leaves, carefully formed into a bowl shape. The chicks take 39 to 51 days to hatch and both parents share keeping the eggs warm.

Other websites
 http://www.siec.k12.in.us/west/proj/penguins/yellow.html  
 http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/birds/sea-and-shore-birds/penguins/yellow-eyed-penguin-hoiho/facts/ 

Penguins
Birds of New Zealand
A mononymous person is a person who is known and addressed by a single name. Such names are called mononyms. In some cases, the person was known by a composed name (polynym) before, and selected a single name. Today, this is often the case with artists, who select a stage name.

In many cultures, people only had one name. This is the case of Ancient Greece. Composed names were only used to avoid confusion. Both Zeno of Elea and Zeno of Citium were called Zeno, but the origin was added to avoid confusing the two. In Ancient Rome, people had a composed name which included a clan name and a family name, which did not change. While we refer to Cicero as Cicero, his real name was Marcus Tullius Cicero. Sometimes he is called Tully in English. Other people called Tullius include Manius Tullius Longus, a Roman consul, about 500 BC, and Quintus Tullius Cicero, one of Caesars generals. Nero was known as Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus.
After the Romans, composed names started to be more commonplace in the Middle Ages. In the Americas, mononyms survived until the early 20th century. Examples include Pocahontas (1595-1617) and Geronimo (1829-1909). Pocahontas married and English settler, and took the name Rebecca Rolfe after her marriage.
 
Royals usually adopt a single name. Sometimes, a numeral is added. That way, Elizabeth I (1533-1603) and Elizabeth II (born 1926) both have a surname, but it is not used.

Similarly, popes select a single name, when they are elected. The current pope is called Jorge Mario Bergoglio, but since his becoming pope, everyone has called him Pope Francis.

Names
Sweet Grass (also Sweetgrass) is an unincorporated community in Toole County, Montana, United States.  It is on the Canada-United States border. It is the northern end of Interstate 15.  Interstate 15 is an important route connecting western Canada, the western United States, and Mexico.

In 2004, a joint border facility opened at the Sweetgrass port of entry and Coutts, Alberta.  It has both Canadian and American federal authorities.

Notable people
 Earl W. Bascom (1906-1995), "Father of Modern Rodeo" cowboyed in the 1920's on a ranch on Kicking Horse Creek
 Charles M. Russell (1864-1926), cowboy artist and sculptor ranched on Kicking Horse Creek near the Sweetgrass Hills

References

Unincorporated communities in Montana
Crotalus viridis (commonly known as the prairie rattlesnake or desert rattlesnake) is a species of venomous Pit vipers. There is currently only six  subspecies recognized, not including the nominate subspecies like the hopi,  and others.

Description
The Prairie Rattlesnake usually grows up to the length of around 100 centimeters (3.3 ft). Prairie Rattlesnakes in Montana can sometimes grow up to the length of 120 centimeters (3.9 ft), but the longest ever found was 151.5 centimeters (4.97 ft) long. They are usually light brown in color with some patches of dark brown.

Feeding
Prairie Rattlesnakes eat mainly small mammals like ground squirrels, mice, rats, small rabbits, and prairie dogs. Young Prairie Rattlesnakes eat amphibians, and small reptiles.

Reproduction
Female  Prairie Rattlesnakes are viviparous, and can give birth to around 3-25 young at a time. The young are born around between August and October.
Behavior
Prairie Rattlesnake are diurnal in cool weathers, and nocturnal in hot weathers. They have a very powerful and deadly venom which they only use if attacked. Like other rattlesnakes they shake their tail to make a rasping sound which warns enemies.

Common names
The Prairie Rattlesnake is also called the "Western Rattlesnake", the "Plains Rattlesnake", the "Black Rattler", the "Confluent Rattlesnake", the "Missouri Rattlesnake", the "Spotted Rattlesnake",  the ''  Desert Rattlesnake'',  and the "Western Pacific Rattlesnake".

Where they live
It is also found in southwestern Canada, south to the United States of America, and northern Mexico. In Canada it is found in Alberta, and Saskatchewan, in the United States of America it is found in eastern Oregon, eastern Washington, southern Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and eastern Arizona, in Mexico it is found in northern Coahuila, and northwestern Chihuahua.
Subspecies
Not including the nominate subspecies, Crotalus Viridis Viridis, the Prairie Rattlesnake only has one subspecies: the "Hopi Rattlesnake" (Crotalus Viridis Nuntius) which is found in northeastern and north-central Arizona, and New Mexico.

References

Vipers
Snakes of North America
Anput is the goddess of the seventeenth Nome (or district) of Upper Egypt. She is the goddess of the desert and protection. She was the mother of Kebechet.

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Harry Judd  (born 23 December 1985, Chelmsford, Essex) is an English pop/rock musician. He is best known as being the drummer in the band McFly. Judd has made a guest appearance in the Busted video for "Crashed the Wedding" as the drummer. In 2003, he won Strictly Come Dancing. In 2004, he got engaged to his long term girlfriend Izzy Johnston. and is now married to her.

References

Other websites 

1974 births
Living people
Chelmsford
English pop musicians
English rock drummers
Musicians from Essex
Strictly Come Dancing participants
DeJuan Lamont Blair (born April 22, 1989) is an American basketball player. He plays for the Washington Wizards of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He graduated from Pittsburgh University. He also played for the San Antonio Spurs from 2009 to 2013 and the Dallas Mavericks from 2013 to 2014.

References

Other websites

 

1989 births
African-American basketball players
Dallas Mavericks players
Living people
San Antonio Spurs players
Sportspeople from Pittsburgh
Washington Wizards players
American basketball players
Trade creation is an economic term related to international economics in which trade flows are redirected due to the formation of a free trade area or a customs union. The issue was firstly brought into discussion by Jacob Viner (1950), together with the trade diversion effect.

Trade
The common coquí or coquí (Eleutherodactylus coqui) is a species of frog. They live in Puerto Rico. The coquí is an important symbol of Puerto Rico. They are known for their loud calls they make at night. They belong to the genus Eleutherodactylus.

References

Books

Other websites

 Control of Coqui Frog in Hawaii
 Eleutherodactylus coqui information from HEAR
 Children Story About Coqui; El Coqui De Madagascar 

Frogs of North America
Puerto Rico
A mudpuppy or waterdog is an aquatic salamander. They belong to the family Proteidae. Mudpuppies make a dog-like barking sound, which is why they are called mudpuppies. Mudpuppies belong to the genus Necturus. They live in Canada and Midwestern United States.

Related pages
 Axolotl

Other websites

 Tree of Life: Proteidae 

Salamanders
Tyler Posey (born October 18, 1991) is an actor. He is most famous for his lead role on MTV's Teen Wolf series. Posey plays Scott McCall, a teenager whose life was changed by a bite he received in the woods.

References

Other websites

Living people
1991 births
American television actors
Bufo apolobambicus is a species of toad. They belong to the family Bufonidae. They live in Bolivia and Peru. Their habitat is subtropical or tropical forest. Their population is dying because of habitat loss.

References
 De La Riva, I. 2006.  Bufo apolobambicus .   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 21 July 2007.

Toads
Frogs of South America
The Herveo plump toad (Orsornophryne percrassa) is a species of toad. They belong to the family Bufonidae. They live in Colombia. Their habitat is subtropical or tropical forests. They like to live on high-altitude grasslands. Their population is dying because of habitat loss.

References 
 Bolívar, W. & Lynch, J. 2004.  Osornophryne percrassa.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 21 July 2007.

Toads
Frogs of South America
The Amargosa toad (Bufo nelsoni) is a species of toad. They belong to the family Bufonidae. They were once considered a subspecies of the Western toad.

References

  (2004) The history of a Nearctic colonization: Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of the Nearctic toads (Bufo). Evolution 58: 2517–2535.

Other websites

Nevada Fish & Wildlife Office: Amargosa Toad - website of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Nevada Office

Toads
Frogs of North America
The Western toad (Anaxyrus boreas) is a species of toads. They are among the largest toads. They can grow up to 5.6 and 13 cm long. They live in western North America.

References
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/animals/amphibian/bubo/all.html

Books
 (2004) The history of a Nearctic colonization: Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of the Nearctic toads (Bufo). Evolution 58: 2517–2535.
This article is based on a description from A Field Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of Coastal Southern California, Robert N. Fisher and Ted J. Case, USGS.

Other websites

Toads
Frogs of North America
The Great Plains Narrowmouth Toad (Gastrophryne olivacea) is a species of toads. They belong to the family Microhylidae. They live in south central United States. They can be found in Nebraska, Texas and northern Mexico. They are not "true toads". They are territorial.

References 
  Database entry includes a range map and justification for why this species is of least concern
Herps of Texas: Gastrophryne olivacea 
Amphibian Species of the World: Gastrophryne olivacea

Toads
Frogs of North America
Blush is a medium bright tone of red-violet. 

The first written use of blush as a color name in English was in 1590.

Meaning of blush

 The color blush represents live theatre because it is a color often used for theatre makeup.

Tones of blush color comparison chart

Related pages
 List of colors

References
The plains spadefoot toad (Spea bombifrons) is a species of spadefoot toad. They live in southwestern Canada, the Great Plains of the United States and northern Mexico. Like many spadefood toads, they get their name for having spade-like legs. This allows them to dig into sand and soil.

References 

Herps of Texas: Spea bombifrons 
Canada's Amphibians: Spea bombifrons 

Toads
Frogs of North America
The American toad (Bufo americanus) is a species of toad. They live in eastern United States and Canada. There are three subspecies: the eastern American toad, the dwarf American toad, and the rare Hudson Bay toad.

Subspecies

Eastern American toad 
The eastern American toad (A. a. americanus) is a medium-sized toad. Most of the time, its size is . The biggest one measured was .

Dwarf American toad 
The dwarf American toad (A. a. charlesmithi) is smaller than the eastern American toad. Its size is .

Hudson Bay toad 
The Hudson Bay toad (A. a. copei) is a rare toad. Small groups of them are found in north Ontario.

Gallery

References

Other websites

 B. americanus at the United States Geological Survey site
 B. americanus  at the USDA's Integrated Taxonomic Information System
Animal Diversity Web: Bufo americanus
Photograph and audio recording of male American toad

Toads
Frogs of North America
Gymnopis syntrema is a species of Caecilians. They belong to the family Caeciliidae. They live in Belize, Guatemala and Honduras. Their habitat is subtropical or tropical forests. Their populations are dying because of habitat loss.

References
 Acevedo, M., Lee, J. & Wilkinson, M. 2004.  Gymnopis syntrema.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 21 July 2007.

Other websites
 Amphibian Web

Caecilians
Dermophis gracilior is a species of Caecilians. They belong to the family Caeciliidae. They are found in Costa Rica and Panama. Their habitat are subtropical or tropical forests. They like to live in lowland forests and rural places.

References
 Solís, F., Ibáñez, R., Chaves, G., Savage, J., Jaramillo, C., Fuenmayor, Q. & Wilkinson, M. 2004.  Dermophis gracilior .   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 21 July 2007.

Caecilians
The Microcaecilia supernumeraria is a species of Caecilians. They belong to the family Caeciliidae. They live in Brazil. Their habitats are subtropical or tropical forests. They like to live in lowland forests and rural places.

References
 Silvano, D., Narvaes, P. & Wilkinson, M. 2004.  Microcaecilia supernumeraria.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 21 July 2007.

Caecilians
Siphonops leucoderus, also known as the Salvador caecilian, is a species of Caecilians. They belong to the family Caeciliidae. They live in Brazil. Their habitat are subtropical or tropical forests. They like to live in lowland forests and rural areas.

References
 Silvano, D.& Pimenta, B. 2004.  Siphonops leucoderus.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 21 July 2007.

Caecilians
Boulengerula taitana (also known as the Taita African caecilian, Taita Hills caecilian or Taita Mountains caecilian) is a species of caecilians. They belong to the family Caeciliidae. They live in Africa in countries like Kenya. Their habitat is subtropical or tropical forests. Many people mistake them for worms. They lay their eggs in foam nest in water.

References

Loader, S. & Measey, J. 2004. Boulengerula taitana. In: IUCN 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. . Downloaded on 6 April 2007.

Other websites
A BBC documentary
New Scientist article on Boulengerula taitanus
Video of Boulengerula behaviour 
BBC footage of young caecilians

Caecilians
Animals of Africa
Sylvacaecilia grandisonae (commonly known as the Aleku caecilian or Ethiopian caecilian) is a species of caecilians. They belong to the family Indotyphlidae. They live in Ethiopia. Their habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests. They also live near rivers and springs.

References

 Largen, M., Loader, S. & Wilkinson, M. 2004. Sylvacaecilia grandisonae. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 21 July 2007.

Caecilians
The California newt (Taricha torosa) is a species of newts. They are also called the orange bellied newt. They can grow to 8 inches (20 cm) in length. They have toxic skin. Because of this, the only predator of the California newt are garter snakes. California newts lives in California.

Subspecies 
Sierra newt
Coastal Range newt

Other websites 

 San Diego Natural History Museum
 California Newt facts  
 California Newt mating
 Caudata Culture  

Newts
Animals of North America
The Sierra newt is a subspecies of the California newt. They live in the Sierra Nevada.

Newts
Animals of North America
The Coastal Range newt (Taricha torosa torosa) is a subspecies of the California newt. They live in California Coast Ranges and San Diego, California.

References

Newts
Animals of North America
The Atelopus ignescens is a species of toad. It is often known as the Jambato toad or the Quito stubfoot toad. They belong to the family Bufonidae. They live in Ecuador. They were thought to be extinct until some were discovered in 2016.  Their habitat is subtropical or tropical high-altitude. It was believed to be the closest relative of the Carrikeri Harlequin Frog.

References

Books 
 Ron, S., Coloma, L.A., Lötters, S., Duellman, W., Bustamante, M.R., Bolívar, W. & La Marca, E. 2004.  Atelopus ignescens .   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 21 July 2007.

Toads
Frogs of South America
The Yunnan lake newt (Cynops wolterstorffi) was a species of newts. It was part of the family Salamandridae. It was also known as Wolterstorff's newt. It used to live in China.

References
 Datong, Y. & Lau, M.W.N. 2004. Cynops wolterstorffi .   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 

Newts
Animals of Asia
William Shakespeare ( 23 April 156423 April 1616) was an English dramatist, poet, and theatre actor. He wrote 40 known plays (with about half of them considered comedies) and two long poems in his lifetime. He lived in Stratford-upon-Avon, in Warwickshire, England. His plays are still performed today. He is often quoted in modern writing.

Shakespeare wrote his works between approximately 1592 and 1613. His plays are among the best known in English literature and are studied in schools around the world. Along with writing, Shakespeare also acted in The Chamberlain's Men acting company, starting in 1594.

Shakespeare wrote plays of different kinds, or genres. There are histories, tragedies and comedies. Shakespeare was the first person ever to write a tragicomedy. (A tragicomedy is a play that mixes comedy and tragedy, with a happy ending.)
Shakespeare's plays are written in poetic language. Many of the plays are set in strange, distant places and times. The stories are often exciting, romantic and happy (in the comedies), or very sad (in the tragedies). These stories make people want to know what will happen to the characters. The plays talk about things that are still important today, like love, sadness, hope, pride, hatred, jealousy, and foolishness.

Shakespeare added new words and phrases to the English language. He created over 1,700 English words. He also made some words more popular.

Life 
Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564. Though the exact date is unknown, historians accept 23 April 1564 as Shakespeare's birthday. He was probably the third of eight children. Shakespeare was probably educated at the King's New School in Stratford. Latin was popular in grammar schools during the Elizabethan era, so Shakespeare learned Latin very intensively.
When Shakespeare was 18, he married Anne Hathaway, a 26-year-old woman. Their wedding was rushed because Anne was already pregnant. They had three children: Susanna (who married John Hall); Hamnet (who died at the age of 11 from unknown causes); and Judith (who married Thomas Quiney). By 1592, Shakespeare had become an actor and was becoming well known as a writer of plays. 

At the time of his death in 1616, only some of Shakespeare’s plays had been published in single editions. His plays were collected and published in 1623, seven years after he died. There is proof that people in Shakespeare's time thought highly of him. After his death, even his rival Ben Jonson said:

"Triumph, my Britain, thou hast one to show,
To whom all scenes of Europe homage owe.
He was not of an age, but for all time!"

Shakespeare was involved in the building of the Globe Theatre in 1599. (It burned down a few years later.) His plays are still performed at a new Globe Theatre, built in 1997 near the original.
Marriage and sexuality 
Although Shakespeare was married to a woman and fathered three children, people have questioned his sexuality. Some people, such as Peter Holland of the Shakespeare Institute at Birmingham University, have pointed out that Shakespeare directed some of his sonnets towards young men. They say this is evidence that he may have been bisexual.

Who wrote "Shakespeare"? 

About 150 years after his death, some writers suggested that Shakespeare did not actually write all of the works that are called his. They had various reasons for saying this. For example, the person who wrote "Shakespeare’s works" knew a lot about other countries (especially Italy and France), but William Shakespeare never left England. Several other writers of "Shakespeare" have been suggested, such as Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford. However, most scholars believe that William Shakespeare did write the works that bear his name.

List of Shakespeare's plays
Shakespeare's tragedies  
 Romeo and Juliet
 Macbeth
 King Lear
 Hamlet
 Othello
 Titus Andronicus
 Julius Caesar 
 Antony and Cleopatra
 Coriolanus
 Troilus and Cressida
 Timon of Athens

Shakespeare's comedies 
 The Comedy of Errors
 All's Well That Ends Well
 As You Like It
 A Midsummer Night's Dream
 Much Ado About Nothing
 Measure for Measure
 The Tempest
 Taming of the Shrew
 Twelfth Night or What You Will
 The Merchant of Venice
 The Merry Wives of Windsor
 Love's Labour's Lost
 The Two Gentlemen of Verona
 Pericles Prince of Tyre
 Cymbeline
 The Winter's Tale

Shakespeare's histories 
 King John (play)
 Richard II
 Richard III
 Henry IV, part 1
 Henry IV, part 2
 Henry V
 Henry VI, part 1
 Henry VI, part 2
 Henry VI, part 3
 Henry VIII

Other plays 
 Love's Labour's Won	
 Cardenio

Shakespeare's tragicomedies
 Twelfth Night
 The Merchant of Venice
 As You Like It
 A Midsummer Night's Dream

References

More reading

Other websites
Other websites 

 Shakespeare  Open Literature
 Open Source Shakespeare
 Modern English Shakespeare Resources: Facts, Plays, Sonnets
 Shakespeare - SparkNotes

1564 births
1616 deaths
English playwrights
English poets
 
Writers from Warwickshire
A palaestra was a building in ancient Greece. It is the place where wrestling was taught and practiced. It consisted of a large square or rectangular courtyard. This courtyard was open to the sky. It was surrounded by colonnades. Off these colonnades were dressing rooms, lecture rooms, bath rooms, and rooms for storing equipment. Wrestlers practiced under the colonnades in all weathers.  

Palaestras were often near gymnasiums. They were sometimes a part of gymnasium complexes. Most cities in the Greek world had a palaestra. Large cities may have had several. Some palaestras were privately owned. Most were built with taxes. The palaestra was very much a part of the everyday lives of Greek men and boys. Some men felt as much affection for the palaestra they grew up in as modern men feel for their alma mater. Some men were buried in their favorite palaestra.

What was a palaestra?
A palaestra was a building in ancient Greece where wrestling was taught and practiced. The word palaestra is based on the Greek word pale, which means wrestling. From the sixth century BC through the end of the Roman Imperial age, palaestras were built throughout Greece. The earliest ones were privately owned, but by the fifth century BC public ones were being built. Almost every Greek city had at least one palaestra and some large cities had several.
Palaestras were often located near or were attached to gymnasiums. The gymnasium probably first appeared in the sixth century BC. Both were often referred to simply as "the gymnasium". Greek historian, biographer, and essayist Plutarch writes that a palaestra was used solely for wrestling and the pankration, a sport similar to but much rougher than wrestling. Boxing was taught and practiced in the gymnasium. Retired athletes owned and operated small palaestras. Greek males of all ages joined palaestras. Elderly (old) men sometimes had their own palaestras.

Design of the palaestra 

Vitruvius was a Roman architect who lived in the age of Augustus. He made a plan for the perfect palaestra in his book On Architecture. This palaestra is similar to the one at Olympia, Greece, the site of the ancient Olympic Games. Vitruvius' palaestra has a large courtyard open to the sky. This courtyard is surrounded by roofed colonnades.
The yard would have been filled with skammatapits where wrestlers and pankratiasts would have practiced. A skamma ("dug-up part") was an area where the soil had been turned over and covered with a thick layer of sand to provide a firm foundation for the wrestlers. Because wrestlers may have had to compete in rainy weather, there were two skamma in the palaestra: a dry one and a wet one. Wrestlers called the mud in the wet skamma "beeswax". 

The wrestlers themselves turned over the soil and sand with a pick axe. This was considered a meaningful exercise and the pick axe became a symbol for wrestling in Greek art. It is likely the wet skamma was located under the colonnades to prevent evaporation. Greek physicians thought a mixture of mud and oil had curative powers and a mixture of mud and oil was often used in the pits.
Vitruvius describes single colonnades on three sides of the yard and a double colonnade on the north side. This double colonnade would protect the room behind it from sun and rain. The palaestra was a place for training the body and the mind. This room was the ephebeion. It was here that young men (ephebes) would receive instruction on Greek culture. Stone benches would have been set into the walls. 

To the right of the ephebeion Vitruvius would have had three rooms: the punching bag room, the dust and powder room, and a room for bathing. To the left of the ephebeion would be a room for storing oil, and a group of rooms for a furnace and hot baths. Hot baths were a Roman necessity and were not found at Olympia however. This may have been because of the scarcity of water at Olympia. The baths at Olympia were simple but those at Delphi were large and elaborate.
Vitruvius does not mention the undressing room (apodyterion) but there certainly would have been at least one in every palaestra. Pale and pankration were both practiced in the nude. Vitruvius does not mention a ball room (sphairisterion) either, which some palaestra had. It is not known if this room was used for ball games, storage, or exercise.

On rainy days, wrestling was taught and practiced beneath the two to four roofed colonnades that lined the yard. Just off these colonnades were dressing rooms, rooms for bathing, storage rooms, and rooms for lectures and meeting friends. These rooms were often used for homosexual or pederastic trysts.
Hermes Enagonios ("Hermes of the Contest") presided over the palaestra. He was depicted on a rectangular piece of marble as a head and an erect penis. Hermes was the god of wrestling and sometimes said to be the father of Palaestra, the goddess of wrestling. In Greek art, a herm often indicates the scene is a palaestra. Statues of Apollo and Herakles also stood in a palaestra.

Life in the palaestra 

Wrestling was a highly esteemed sport in ancient Greece. It was less rough than boxing or the pankration, required less space than other sports, and, as a result, was the most popular sport among athletes. References to the sport are frequent in the literature of ancient Greece, especially poetry.
Males of all ages joined palaestras, just as modern men and boys join the YMCA, gyms, or health clubs. Greek men developed an affection for the gymnasiums and the palaestras where they grew up, and some were buried in their favorite gymnasium or palaestra. These buildings could be a center for politics: the plot to free Thebes from Sparta was formed in a palaestra and a revolt against Macedon found its supporters in the gymnasiums and palaestras of Argos. 

Some people were not allowed in the palaestra. These included the paidogogosolder slaves or grandfathers who led young boys to the palaestra and waited for them near the front door. Others not allowed in the palaestra included girls and women, cripples, alcoholics, craftsmen, vendors (salesmen), slaves or freed slaves, the insane, and openly lewd homosexuals. Death was not unknown in the palaestra. One wrestler fell on a hard surface and died ten days later from chest injuries.
Every palaestra had a number of handsome young men called prosgymnastes. They waited around offering to wrestle others for a fee. These young men were known casually as "statues". Wrestling one was known as "hugging a statue". These young men were not held in high esteem.

In a place where men, young men, and boys were nude, homosexual interaction was common. The authorities tried unsuccessfully to curb it. Greek vase paintings of males in the palaestra show teens goosing each other or older males offering love gifts such as hares to teens. In Lysis, the Athenian philosopher Sokrates is pulled into a palaestra by a group of teenagers. They tell him that one of their number is in love with another. Most Greek males considered a homosexual relationship a positive palaestra experience. Archaeologist Stephen Miller writes that Eros was worshipped as much as Hermes and Herakles in the palaestra.

Notes

References 
 
 
 

Ancient Greek wrestling
Sports buildings in Greece
The Black-tailed rattlesnake (Crotalus Molossus) is a species of venomous Pit vipers, found in southwestern United States of America and Mexico. There are currently three subspecies recognized.

Description
Most Black-tailed rattlesnakes grow to the length of . They can be as long as . Females are said to be larger than males.

The Black-tailed rattlesnake is olive green, yellow, brown, or black in color. They are called the "Black-tailed rattlesnake" because of their tail which is the color of black. Like other rattlesnakes the Black-tailed rattlesnake has a rattle on the end of its tail, but its rattle is weak and can be broken. They can shed their skin several times a year.

Common Names
The Black-tailed rattlesnake is also called the "Green rattler", the "Dog-faced rattlesnake", and the "Mountain Diamondback".
Where they live
The Black-tailed rattlesnake is found in southwestern United States of America and Mexico. In the U.S.A it is found in Arizona, New Mexico, and west and central Texas, in Mexico it is found in Oaxaca. It is also found on islands of the Gulf of California, like San Estèban Island and Tiburòn Island.

Behavior
In the spring and fall the Black-tailed rattlesnake are diurnal, in the summer they are nocturnal so they can avoid the heat, and in the winter they hibernate in other animals dens. Even though they are okay climbers and good swimmers they are terrestrial. They live in grasslands, deserts, mountain areas, and forests.

Feeding
Like all rattlesnakes they are carnivores and eat rodents, other small mammals, birds, and small reptiles.
Reproduction
The Black-tailed rattlesnakes mate in the spring, once they have mated the male stays with the female to stop other males from mating with her. It is in the summer that the female gives birth to her young, the young stay with their mother for around a day or two before leaving by their selves. A female usually mates every year and has 10-12 young at a time. They live for around 15–20 years.

Subspecies
 San Esteban Island Black-tailed Rattlesnake, Crotalus Molossus Estebanensis
 Mexican Black-tailed Rattlesnake, Crotalus Molossus Nigrescens
 Oaxacan Black-tailed Rattlesnake, Crotalus Molossus Oaxacus

References

Vipers
Snakes of North America
Young Men's Christian Association (or the YMCA or the Y) is an organization headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It was originally meant to put Christian principles into practice. It was founded in 1844 in London, England, United Kingdom. At first, the organization provided beds and shelter to young men leaving the countryside for work in the cities. It promotes Muscular Christianity.

Basketball was invented in an American YMCA. 

The similar Young Women's Christian Association or YWCA was founded in 1870.

Other websites 

Christian organizations
Youth organizations
1844 establishments
Organizations based in Switzerland
Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is a personality disorder. A person with ASPD fails to conform with socially accepted behavior. People with this disorder often disregard social norms or the rights of other people. People with extreme Antisocial Personality Disorder are sometimes nicknamed sociopaths or psychopaths but those words aren’t really scientific nomenclature. 

The ASPD pattern begin in childhood or adolescence and continues into adulthood.  People with ASPD have no conscience or sense of morality, although the large majority know right from wrong. Those with ASPD often commit crimes. They can also be impulsive, aggressive, reckless, and destructive. About three percent of men and one percent of women have ASPD.

DSM-V criteria
According to the latest version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (the DSM-V), a person has ASPD if they fit the following requirements:
A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, since age 15 years, as indicated by three (or more) of the following:

 Failure to conform to social norms concerning lawful behaviors, such as performing acts that are grounds for arrest.
 Deceitfulness, repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for pleasure or personal profit.
 Impulsivity or failure to plan.
 Irritability and aggressiveness, often with physical fights or assaults.
 Reckless disregard for the safety of self or others.
 Consistent irresponsibility, failure to sustain consistent work behavior, or honor monetary obligations.
 Lack of remorse, being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another person.
 The individual is at least age 18 years.
 Evidence of conduct disorder typically with onset before age 15 years.
 The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusively during schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.

References
The Causinae, commonly known as the "night adders", are a subfamily of venomous vipers found in sub-Saharan Africa. The family is monotypic, since it only has the genus Causus. There are six species.

The night adders can grow to around 60 to 90 centimeters (24 to 36 in) long. They are usually dark gray, light gray, light brown, or black in color with gray or black blotches.

Even though they are called the night adders, they are usually active at day, but some are active at night. When they are attacked or disturbed, they usually coil up and start hissing at their enemy to scare it off. Some may raise their head and neck off the ground, and with their tongue sticking out, move froward like a the Cobra does. 

They eat mainly toads and frogs, but there are reports of some night adders eating almost everything they can find until they are completely unable to swallow any more food.
Reproduction
All night adders are oviparous, which means they lay eggs. This is unusual for most vipers, because most vipers are viviparous, they give live birth. They lay around two dozen eggs at a time. These eggs take around four months to hatch, when they hatch the hatchlings are 4-5 inches (10-12.5 cm) long.

Venom
The night adders have very big venom glands, which are around 10 centimeters long. But even though the venom glands are big, the adders don't always use their venom on their prey. The venom would kill the prey fast enough, but they usually seize their prey and swallow it.
When someone is bitten by a night adder, the venom does not spread around the body, and only causes swelling in the place of the bite. There have been no reports of deaths by night adder venom.
Species
 Two-striped night adder, C. bilineatus
 Snouted night adder, C. defilippii
 Lichtenstein's night adder, C. lichtensteinii
 West African night adder, C. maculatus
 Green night adder, C. resimus
 Common night adder, C. rhombeatus

Vipers
Reptiles of Africa
The common night adder is a species of venomous vipers found in sub-Saharan Africa.

Description
The common night adder can grow up to around 60 centimeters (24 in) long, making it the longest species of the genus Causus. The longest ever recorded was a male found in eastern Zimbabwe which was 93 centimeters (around 37 in) long. They are usually olive green, brown, or grayish-brown in color with black rhombic-shaped blotches, but not all have blotches on them.

Common names
The common night adder is also called the "rhombic night adder", the "demon night adder", the "Cape Viper", and the "African night adder".

Where they live
The common night adder is found in the savannas of Sub-Saharan Africa, from Nigeria, east to Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, south to Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, northern Botswana, Mozambique, Swaziland, and eastern South Africa.
Behavior
The common night adder is a fairly fast species of snake; it can move at the speed of 3.3 km per hour. They are usually found on the ground, but they can climb trees and can swim. They are mainly nocturnal, but some have been seen basking in the early morning or late afternoon. When disturbed they coil up, inflate their body (which makes the black blotches on them stand out), and start hissing loudly.
 
Common night adders are oviparous, meaning that they lay eggs, while other vipers are usually viviparous, meaning that they give live birth. Females lay around two dozen eggs at a time, which take around four months to hatch. Once hatched, the young are 10 to 12.5 cm long and eat small frogs and toads.

Feeding
Their diet is made up of mainly frogs and toads, and sometimes small mammals like mice and rats.

References

Vipers
Reptiles of Africa
Polystyrene is a form of chemical compound that is mainly used for a wide variety of packaging. It is an aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene, a liquid hydrocarbon that is  manufactured from petroleum by the chemical industry. Polystyrene is one of the most widely used plastics, the scale being several billion kilograms per year.

Polystyrene can be in either a thermoset or a thermoplastic form.

References

Polymers
Allometry is the study of the relationship of body size to shape. In particular, it refers to the rate of growth of one part of the body compared to other parts. 

In most cases, the relative size of body parts changes as the body grows. Most allometric relationships are adaptive. For example, organs which depend on their surface area (such as the intestine) grow faster as the body weight increases.

Also, there are changes in allometry as a clade evolves. Allometry is an important way to describe changes in gross morphology (body shape) during evolution. Changes in time of development in an evolutionary series or clade are very common. The trend is known as heterochrony.

Allometry was first outlined by Otto Snell in 1892, D'Arcy Thompson in 1917, and Julian Huxley in 1932.  The relationship between two measured quantities is often expressed as a power law:
   
or in a logarithmic form: 
 
where  is the scaling exponent of the law.
On being the right size 
J.B.S. Haldane's 1926 essay On being the right size gives an overview of the way size interacts with body structure. Haldane's thesis is that sheer size very often defines what bodily equipment an animal must have:
"Insects, being so small, do not have oxygen-carrying bloodstreams. What little oxygen their cells require can be absorbed by simple diffusion of air through their bodies. But being larger means an animal must take on complicated oxygen pumping and distributing systems to reach all the cells".

Many of his examples are based on the square-cube law. If an animal's length is doubled, its surface area will be squared and its weight cubed. This alone causes allometric changes in any evolutionary lineage where successive species get larger or smaller. There are many such lineages.

References 

Anatomy
Physiology
Keiko Tanaka-Ikeda (田中-池田 敬子, born Keiko Tanaka; November 11, 1933 – May 13, 2023), is a Japanese amateur athlete, coach, university professor and sports administrator.  She is best known as a gymnast who competed in the 1956 Summer Olympics, in the 1960 Summer Olympics, and in the 1964 Summer Olympics.

She won a gold medal on the balance beam at the 1954 World Gymnastics Championships.  She is the only Japanese woman to win a gold medal in this international competition.
Tanaka-Ikeda died from brain cancer at a nursing home in Kawasaki, Kanagawa, on May 13, 2023, at the age of 89.

History

Timeline
 1954: World Championships Gold Medal, balance beam

 1958: World Championships Bronze Medal, balance beam and floor exercise

 1962: World Championships Bronze Medal, balance Beam and team

 1964: Olympic Games Bronze Medal, team

 1966: World Championships Silver Medal, uneven bars; and Bronze Medal, all-around and team

Honors
 International Gymnastics Hall of Fame, 2002
Related pages
 Sports in Japan
 Japan at the Olympics

References

1933 births
2023 deaths
1956 Summer Olympics
1960 Summer Olympics
Japanese gymnasts
Japanese Olympic bronze medalists
Medalists at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from Hiroshima Prefecture
Sports executives and administrators
Abhinav Bindra (born September 28, 1982, in Dehradun) is an Indian amateur athlete and businessman.  He is best known as the current World and Olympic champion in the 10 m Air Rifle event.

At the Beijing Olympic Games, he became the first Indian to win an individual Olympic gold medal.

Early life
He was born in Punjab.  He became interested in shooting a gun as a sport when he was in school in Chandigarh

International competitions

Timeline
 2000: Summer Olympic Games
 1998: Commonwealth Games
 2002: Commonwealth Games
 2004: Summer Olympic Games
 2006: Commonwealth Games
 2006: World Championship
 2008: Summer Olympic Games
 2010: Commonwealth Games
 2012: Summer Olympic Games

Honours
 Arjuna Award, 2000

Related pages
 Sports in India
 India at the Olympics

References

Other websites 
 Abhinav Bindra's Profile & Records 

1982 births
Living people
Indian Olympic gold medalists
Punjabi people
Indian sport shooters
Lake Mackay (Pintupi: Wilkinkarra) is a large salt lake in central Australia. It stretches across the border between Western Australia and the Northern Territory. All around it is desert. The Great Sandy Desert is to the northwest, the Tanami Desert is to the northeast, and the Gibson Desert is to the south. There are hundreds of salt lakes along this border area, and Lake Mackay is the largest. It has a surface area of , and is about  long from east to west and north to south. It is the second-largest lake in Australia.

The lake was named after the first European to visit it, Donald George Mackay. The lake is most often dry, because of quick evaporation. Salt and other minerals float on the surface.
Lake Mackay is a central place in dreamtime stories for several Aboriginal groups, especially the Pintupi. The lake forms the centre of the Pintupi ancestral lands. Many sacred paths and tracks come together at the shores of the lake. According to mythology, the lake was formed after a fierce bushfire that ruined the land around it.

References

Lakes of the Northern Territory
Geography of Western Australia
Papunya is a small community in central Australia. It is about  northwest of Alice Springs in the Northern Territory. The people who live there are Aboriginal people who were forced off their traditional country during the 1930s and 1940s. They are mainly from Pintupi- and Luritja-speaking groups. In the 2006 census, Papunya had a population of 299. The town is now on private Aboriginal land. People visiting or travelling through need a permit.

During the late 1950s, a Lutheran mission was set up at Papunya. In the 1970s, many of the people living here moved back to their homelands as part of the outstation movement. The Pintupi moved back west, closer to their homeland around Lake Mackay. They set up the town of Kintore in 1981, about  west of Papunya. During this time, local painters were slowly forming a new style of art. By the mid-1980s, it became internationally known as Papunya Tula.

References
References

Towns in the Northern Territory
Indigenous Australian communities
Pintupi
1950s establishments in Australia
William Thomas Stead (5 July 1849 – 15 April 1912) was a British writer and journalist. He was a pioneer of investigative journalism, and one of the most controversial figures in British journalism during the Victorian era.

His death occurred during the sinking of RMS Titanic.

Other websites 

Encyclopedia Titanica: Biography of William Thomas Stead

English journalists
1849 births
1912 deaths
Victims of the RMS Titanic
Writers from Northumberland
Kintore (Pintupi: Waḻungurru; ) is a remote town in the Northern Territory of Australia. It is about  west of Alice Springs and close to the border with Western Australia. Almost all the people who live there are Aboriginal, and most are Pintupi.

Kintore was founded in 1981. Many Pintupi people who lived in the community of Papunya (to the east) decided to move back to their own country. They had been forced to leave these lands decades before because of weapons testing at Woomera in South Australia. Kintore is a major centre for the Western Desert art movement, which began at Papunya during the 1970s. The paintings made here are visual descriptions of dreamtime stories. They have gained fame around the world. A number of members of the Aboriginal art school Papunya Tula live at Kintore.

1981 establishments in Australia
Towns in the Northern Territory
Indigenous Australian communities
Pintupi