Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The major voice work for E.T. was Pat Welsh, an elderly woman who lived in Marin County, California. Welsh smoked two packets of cigarettes a day, which gave her voice a quality that sound effects creator Ben Burtt liked. Burtt also recorded 16 other people and various animals to create E.T.'s "voice". These included Spielberg; Debra Winger; Burtt's sleeping wife, who had a cold; a burp from his USC movie professor; and raccoons, sea otters, and horses.

Doctors working at the USC Medical Center were recruited to play the doctors who try to save E.T. Spielberg felt that actors in the roles, performing lines of medical talking, would come across as unnatural.

Reception

The movie was first shown at the closing gala of the 1982 Cannes Film Festival. It started in the United States on June 11, 1982. It opened at number one with a gross of $11 million.  The movie was re-released in 1985 and 2002.

On September 17, 1982, the movie was shown at the United Nations, and Spielberg received the U.N. Peace Medal.
The movie was nominated for nine Oscars at the 55th Academy Awards, including Best Picture. Gandhi won that award, but its director, Richard Attenborough, declared "I was certain that not only would E.T. win, but that it should win. It was inventive, powerful, [and] wonderful. I make more mundane movies." It won four Academy Awards: Best Original Score, Best Sound, Best Sound Effects Editing, and Best Visual Effects.  At the 40th Golden Globe Awards, the movie won Best Picture in the Drama category and Best Score; it was also nominated for Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best New Male Star for Henry Thomas.  The Los Angeles Film Critics Association awarded the movie Best Picture, Best Director, and a "New Generation Award" for Melissa Mathison. The movie won Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film, Best Writing, Best Special Effects, Best Music, and Best Poster Art, while Henry Thomas, Robert McNaughton, and Drew Barrymore won Young Artist Awards
. Composer John Williams won a Grammy and a BAFTA for the score.  It was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.
In 1994, E.T. was selected to keep in the U.S. National Film Registry.

References

Other websites 
 
 

1982 drama movies
1982 science fiction movies
1980s family movies
Academy Award winning movies
American drama movies
American family movies
American science fiction movies
English-language movies
Golden Globe Award winning movies
Movies composed by John Williams
Movies directed by Steven Spielberg
Saturn Award winning movies
United States National Film Registry movies
Universal Pictures movies
Movies about extraterrestrial life
Movies set in California
Movies set in the 1980s
Sir Alexander Chapman Ferguson  (born 31 December 1941) is a retired Scottish footballer and retired manager.  He has managed St. Mirren, Aberdeen, and Manchester United. He is considered one of the greatest football manager of all time, and has won more trophies than anyone else in the history of English football.

As a player, he played as a forward. He play for multiple Scottish teams, including Dunfermline Athletic and Rangers. After retiring from playing, he started managing at East Stirlingshire. He would be hired by St Mirren, Aberdeen, and the Scotland national team, due to the death of Jock Stein. He was the manager of Scotland at the 1986 FIFA World Cup.

In November 1986, he was appointed the manager of Manchester United. He won 38 trophies with Manchester United, including 13 Premier Leagues, 5 FA Cups, 4 Football League Cups, 10 FA Community Shields, 2 UEFA Champions Leagues. He would manage the team until his retirement in 2013.
Playing Career
He made his debut for Queen's Park at age 16. He would score 20 goals in 31 games for Queens Park. He joined St Johnstone in 1960 to try to get regular gametime. He would score a hat-trick for St Johnstone against Rangers. He signed for Dunfermline in 1964.

In the 1964-65 season, Dunfermline finished 3rd with 49 points. They finished 1 point behind Hearts and Kilmarnock. Ferguson was dropped for the 1964–65 Scottish Cup final. In that final, Dunfermline lost 3-2 against Celtic. He was the joint top scorer in the 1965–66 Scottish Division One season. He and Joe McBride both scored 31 goals. He joined Rangers in 1967, for a Scottish record of £65,000. He would only spend 2 season at Rangers, before joning Falkirk in 1969.

He retired in 1974, after spending 1 season at Ayr United. He scored 171 goals in 317 games throughout his career.

Managerial Career
Managerial Career

Early career as manager 
In June 1974, Ferguson became the manager of East Stirlingshire. A year after that, St Mirren offered Ferguson the job as their manager. Ferguson took the job. In 1974, St Mirren were playing in the second division. By 1978, Ferguson had led the club to the First Division title. St Mirren fired Ferguson from his role in 1978.

Aberdeen 
Ferguson became Aberdeen manager in 1978. At that time, Aberdeen had only won the league title once. Ferguson was still a young manager. His start with Aberdeen did not go very well. Aberdeen lost the Scottish Cup semi-final and the Scottish League Cup final in his first season, and finished fourth in the league.
In the 1979-80 season, Aberdeen won the Scottish league. In 1982, the team won the Scottish Cup. As a result of winning the cup, Aberdeen played in the European Cup Winners' Cup the following season (1982-83). Impressively, Aberdeen beat Bayern Munich on their way to the final. They faced Real Madrid in the final. Aberdeen won that game 2-1 and won the competition. In the next season, Aberdeen beat the European Cup champions Hamburger SV to win the European Super Cup.

Aberdeen won the league title in 1983-84 and 1984-85 seasons and won a couple of domestic cups. He left for Manchester United in November 1986.

Manchester United 
On 6 November 1986, Manchester United appointed Ferguson as their manager. The team was in the 21st position (out of 22) when he took over, but they finished 11th. Manchester United finished second in the following season, 1987-88.

Career statistics

As a player

As a manager

Honours

Player
St Johnstone
 Scottish Division Two: 1962–63

Falkirk
 Scottish Division Two: 1969–70
Individual
 Scottish Division One top scorer: 1965–66

Manager
St Mirren
 Scottish First Division: 1976–77

Aberdeen
 Scottish Premier Division: 1979–80, 1983–84, 1984–85
 Scottish Cup: 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1985–86
 Scottish League Cup: 1985–86
 Drybrough Cup: 1980
 European Cup Winners' Cup: 1982–83
 European Super Cup: 1983

Manchester United
 Premier League: 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13
 FA Cup: 1989–90, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1998–99, 2003–04
 Football League Cup: 1991–92, 2005–06, 2008–09, 2009–10
 FA Charity/Community Shield: 1990 (shared), 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011
 UEFA Champions League: 1998–99, 2007–08
 European Cup Winners' Cup: 1990–91
 European Super Cup: 1991
 Intercontinental Cup: 1999
 FIFA Club World Cup: 2008
Individual
 LMA Manager of the Decade: 1990s
 LMA Manager of the Year: 1998–99, 2007–08, 2010–11, 2012–13
 LMA Special Merit Award: 2009, 2011
 Premier League Manager of the Season: 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13
 Premier League Manager of the Month: August 1993, October 1994, February 1996, March 1996, February 1997, October 1997, January 1999, April 1999, August 1999, March 2000, April 2000, February 2001, April 2003, December 2003, February 2005, March 2006, August 2006, October 2006, February 2007, January 2008, March 2008, January 2009, April 2009, September 2009, January 2011, August 2011, October 2012
 UEFA Manager of the Year: 1998–99
 UEFA Team of the Year: 2007, 2008
 Onze d'Or Coach of the Year: 1999, 2007, 2008
 European Coach of the Year—Alf Ramsey Award: 2008
 IFFHS World's Best Club Coach: 1999, 2008
 IFFHS World's Best Coach of the 21st Century: 2012
 Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the Year: 2000
BBC Sports Personality of the Year Coach Award: 1999
 BBC Sports Personality Team of the Year Award: 1999
 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award: 2001
 World Soccer Greatest Manager of All Time: 2013
 ESPN Greatest Manager of All Time: 2013
 France Football 2nd Greatest Manager of All Time: 2019
 FourFourTwo Greatest Manager of All Time: 2020
 BBC Sports Personality Diamond Award: 2013
 English Football Hall of Fame (Manager) : 2002
 Scottish Football Hall of Fame: 2004
 European Hall of Fame (Manager): 2008
 FIFA Presidential Award: 2011
 Premier League 10 Seasons Awards (1992–93 – 2001–02)
 Manager of the Decade
 Most Coaching Appearances (392 games)
 Premier League 20 Seasons Awards (1992–93 – 2011–12)
 Best Manager
 FWA Tribute Award: 1996
 PFA Merit Award: 2007
 Premier League Merit Award: 2012–13
 Mussabini Medal: 1999
Orders and special awards
 Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE): 1985
 Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE): 1995
 Knight Bachelor (Kt.): 1999
 Freedom of the City of Aberdeen: 1999
 Freedom of the City of Glasgow: 1999
 Freedom of the City of Manchester: 2000
 Freedom of the Borough of Trafford: 2013

Honorary degrees
Ferguson has received at least eight honorary degrees. These Include:

References

Other websites
 Sir Alex Ferguson's Manchester United Managerial Record at mufcinfo.com
 
 
 Scottish Football Hall of Fame profile 
 Aberdeen Manager profile at AFC Heritage Trust

1941 births
Living people
Footballers from Glasgow
Association football forwards
Scottish football managers
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Bachelor
Manchester United F.C.
The Tocharians were an ancient people who lived in the Tarim Basin. They spoke an Indo-European language. The region they live in was closer to the Far East than that of any other Indo-European-speaking regions.

References

Other websites
Tocharian alphabet
Tocharian alphabet
Modern studies are developing a Tocharian dictionary
Mark Dickens, 'Everything you always wanted to know about Tocharian' 
Mysterious Mummies of China  by Nova on Google Video

Tocharians
Information technology (or IT) is a term that encompasses all forms of technology used to create, store, exchange, and use information in its various forms (business data, voice conversations, still images, motion pictures, photos, multimedia presentations, and other forms, including those not yet conceived).

The modern term “Information Technology” was coined by Leavitt and Whisle. In 1958 a Harvard Business Review included, “The new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology.”
Information technology is the concept that includes every process of information flow, such as data collection, processing, storage, search, transmission, and reception. In the information society, information technology is one of the most necessary industries. As technology advances day by day, IT has developed into an essential part. It is also attracting future industries. In the future, the use of information technology will be more important in the overall industry. The development of the internet made it possible for the world to be connected. IT will be a power that makes an increasing number of promising occupations and science and technology.

Now, people have been using it to refer to other aspects of technology.  It now covers many more fields of study than it has covered in the past.
History 
Four basic periods
Characterized by a principal technology used to solve the input, processing, output and communication problems of the time:
 Premechanical,
 Mechanical,
 Electromechanical, and
 Electronic
A. The Premechanical Age: 3000 B.C. – 1450 A.D. 
 Writing and Alphabets—communication.
 First humans communicated only through speaking and picture drawings.
 3000 B.C., the Sumerians in Mesopotamia (what is today southern Iraq) devised cuneiform
 Around 2000 B.C., Phoenicians created symbols
 The Greeks later adopted the Phoenician alphabet and added vowels; the Romans gave the letters Latin names to create the alphabet we use today.
 Paper and Pens—input technologies.
 Sumerians' input technology was a stylus that could scratch marks in wet clay.
 About 2600 B.C., the Egyptians write on the papyrus plant
 around 100 A.D., the Chinese made paper from rags, on which modern-day papermaking is based.
 Books and Libraries: Permanent Storage Devices.
 Religious leaders in Mesopotamia kept the earliest "books"
 The Egyptians kept scrolls
 Around 600 B.C., the Greeks began to fold sheets of papyrus vertically into leaves and bind them together.
 The First Numbering Systems.
 Egyptian system:
Egyptian system:
 The numbers 1-9 as vertical lines, the number 10 as a U or circle, the number 100 as a coiled rope, and the number 1,000 as a lotus blossom.
 The first place value numbering systems similar to those in use today were invented between 100 and 200 A.D. in India who created a nine-digit numbering system.
 Around 875 A.D., the concept of zero was developed.
The First Calculators: The Abacus. 

One of the very first information processors.

B. The Mechanical Age: 1450 – 1840 
 The First Information Explosion.
 Johann Gutenberg (Mainz, Germany)
 Invented the movable metal-type printing process in 1450.
 The development of book indexes and the widespread use of page numbers.
 The first general purpose "computers"
 Actually people who held the job title "computer: one who works with numbers."
 Slide Rules, the Pascaline and Leibniz's Machine.
Early 1600s, William Oughtred, an English clergyman, invented the slide rule.

C. The Electromechanical Age: 1840 – 1940. 
The discovery of ways to harness electricity was the key advance made during this period. Knowledge and information could now be converted into electrical impulses.
The Beginnings of Telecommunication.
 Voltaic Battery.
 Late 18th century.
 Telegraph.
 Early 1800s.
 Morse Code.
 Developed in 1835 by Samuel Morse
 Dots and dashes.
 Telephone and Radio.
 Alexander Graham Bell.
 1876
 Followed by the discovery that electrical waves travel through space and can produce an effect far from the point at which they originated.
 These two events led to the invention of the radio
 Guglielmo Marconi
 1894

2. Electromechanical Computing
 Herman Hollerith and IBM.Herman Hollerith (1860–1929) in 1880.
 Mark 1
 Howard Aiken, a Ph.D. student at Harvard University
 Built the Mark I
 Completed January 1942
 8 feet tall, 51 feet long, 2 feet thick, weighed 5 tons, used about 750,000 parts
D. The Electronic Age: 1940 – Present. 
 First Tries.
 Early 1940s
 Electronic vacuum tubes.
 Eckert and Mauchly.
 ENIAC, fixed, not stored, program
3. The First Stored-Program Computer(s)
 Early 1940s, Mauchly and Eckert began to design the EDVAC - the Electronic Discreet Variable Computer.
 John von Neumann's influential report in June 1945:
 "The Report on the EDVAC"
 British scientists used this report and outpaced the Americans.
 Max Newman headed up the effort at Manchester University
 Where the Manchester Mark I went into operation in June 1948--becoming the first stored-program computer.
 Maurice Wilkes, a British scientist at Cambridge University, completed the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) in 1949—two years before EDVAC was finished.
 Thus, EDSAC became the first stored-program computer in general use (i.e., not a prototype).
 The First General-Purpose Computer for Commercial Use: Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC).
Late 1940s, Eckert and Mauchly began the development of a computer called UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)
 Remington Rand.
 First UNIVAC delivered to Census Bureau in 1951.
 But, a machine called LEO (Lyons Electronic Office) went into action a few months before UNIVAC and became the world's first commercial computer.
3. The Four Generations of Digitalg Computing.
The First Generation (1951–1958).
 Vacuum tubes as their main logic elements.
 Punch cards to input and externally store data.
 Rotating magnetic drums for internal storage of data and programs
 Programs written in
 Machine code
 Assembly language
 Compiler language
The Second Generation (1959–1963).
 Vacuum tubes replaced by transistors as main logic element.
 AT&T's Bell Laboratories, in the 1940s
 Crystalline mineral materials called semiconductors could be used in the design of a device called a transistor
 Magnetic tape and disks began to replace punched cards as external storage devices.
 Magnetic cores (very small donut-shaped magnets that could be polarized in one of two directions to represent data) strung on wire within the computer became the primary internal storage technology.
 High-level programming languages
 e.g., FORTRAN and COBOL
The Third Generation (1964–1979).
Individual transistors were replaced by integrated circuits.
 Magnetic tape and disks completely replace punch cards as external storage devices.
 Magnetic core internal memories began to give way to a new form, metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) memory, which, like integrated circuits, used silicon-backed chips.
 Operating systems
 Advanced programming languages like BASIC developed.
The Fourth Generation (1979–Present).
 Large-scale and very large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs and VLSICs)
 Microprocessors that contained memory, logic, and control circuits (an entire CPU = Central Processing Unit) on a single chip.
 Which allowed for home-use personal computers or PCs, like the Apple (II and Mac) and IBM PC.
 Apple II released to public in 1977, by Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs.
 Initially sold for $1,195 (without a monitor); had 16k RAM.
 First Apple Mac released in 1984.
 IBM PC introduced in 1981.
 Debuts with MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
 Fourth generation language software products
 e.g., VisiCalc, Lotus 1-2-3, dBase, Microsoft Word, and many others.
 Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) for PCs arrive in early 1980s
 Apple's GUI (on the first Mac) debuts in 1984.
 Microsoft Windows debuts in 1985.
 Windows wouldn't take off until version 3 was released in 1990
Field of Study 
 A Bachelor of Information Technology (abbreviations BIT, BInfTech, B.Tech(IT) or BE(IT)) is an undergraduate academic degree that generally requires three to five years of study. While the degree has a major focus on computers and technology, it differs from a Computer Science degree in that students are also expected to study management and information science, and there are reduced requirements for mathematics. A degree in computer science can be expected to concentrate on the scientific aspects of computing, while a degree in information technology can be expected to concentrate on the business and communication applications of computing. There is more emphasis on these two areas in the electronic commerce, e-business and business information technology undergraduate courses. Specific names for the degrees vary across countries, and even universities within countries.
Many employers require software developers or programmers to have a Bachelor of Science in Computer Science degree; however, those seeking to hire for positions such as network administrators or database managers would require a Bachelors of Science in Information Technology or an equivalent degree. Graduates with an information technology background are able to perform technology tasks relating to the processing, storing, and communication of information between computers, mobile phones, and other electronic devices. Information technology as a field emphasizes the secure management of large amounts of diverse information and its accessibility via a wide variety of systems both local and world-wide.

Related pages
 Digital divide
 Information systems
 Telecommunication

References

Other websites 
 Search data center
 A History of Information Technology and Systems 

Computing
Technology
The history of Asia can be seen as the history of several distinct regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East that have more or less context depending of the situation in the central Eurasian steppe.

The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, with each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China had much in common. Therefore, it is likely that they exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other aspects such as that of writing developed individually in each area. Cities, states and then empires developed in these lowlands.
The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus, Himalaya, Karakum Desert, and Gobi Desert formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. The city dwellers were more advanced in civilisation but they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. Because the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.

Outline

Paleolithic

Neolithic

Bronze

Iron Age
Bronze

Iron Age

Alexander the Great conquered an area from Turkey to Pakistan in the 4th century BC. The Roman Empire would later control parts of western Asia. The Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanian empires were based in ancient Persia. Many ancient civilizations were influenced by the Silk Road, which connected China, India, the Middle East and Europe. The Vedic religion and later Buddhism, which began in Southern Asia, were an important influence on South and East Asia.

Middle Ages
The Islamic caliphate and other Islamic states took over the Middle East starting in the 7th century, and later expanded into India and Indonesia. The Crusades would be fought from the 12th century, in Christian Europe's attempt to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims. The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent.
Modern period
The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, eventually taking control of much of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire controlled Turkey and the Middle East from the 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty, although this was in decline by the nineteenth century and had been overthrown in 1912.
Several European powers had control of other parts of Asia by the 1900s, such as British India, French Indochina and Portuguese Macau and Goa. Russia and Britain struggled for power in the Central Asian region in the nineteenth century. The Trans-Siberian Railway that crossed Asia by train was complete by 1916. Parts of Asia remained free from European control, although not influence, such as Persia, Thailand and most of China. In the twentieth century, Imperial Japan expanded into China, Korea and Southeast Asia during the Second World War. After the war, many Asian countries became independent from European powers. During the Cold War, the northern parts of Asia were communist controlled with the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China, while western allies formed pacts such as CENTO and SEATO. Conflicts such as the Korean War, Vietnam War and Soviet invasion of Afghanistan were fought between communists and anti-communists
. In the decades after the Second World War, a massive restructuring plan drove Japan to become the world's second-largest economy, a phenomenon known as the Japanese post-war economic miracle. The Arab-Israeli conflict has dominated much of the recent history of the Middle East. After the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991, there were many new independent nations in Central Asia.
History by country

History of the Middle East
History of Arabia
 History of Saudi Arabia
History of Armenia
 History of Iraq
History of Mesopotamia
 History of the Levant
History of Israel
History of Jordan
History of Lebanon
History of Palestine
History of Syria
 History of Turkey
History of Anatolia
History of the Republic of Turkey
History of South Asia
 History of India
History of the Republic of India
History of South India
History of Assam
History of Bengal
History of West Bengal
History of the Punjab
History of Tamil Nadu
 History of Pakistan
Historical regions of Pakistan
History of Sindh
History of Punjab
History of Balochistan
History of Afghania
History of Mehrgarh
History of the Indus Valley
 History of Iran
History of Persia
 History of Afghanistan
History of Kashmir
 History of Khalistan
 History of Bangladesh
History of East Bengal
History of East Pakistan
 History of Nepal
 History of Sikkim
 History of Bhutan
 History of Tibet
 History of Myanmar
 History of Sri Lanka
 History of the Maldives

History of East Asia
listed by area in alphabetical order
History of China
History of Hong Kong
History of Japan
History of Korea
History of Macau
History of Mongolia
History of Russian Far East
History of Ryukyu Islands
History of Siberia
History of Tibet
History of Taiwan
History of Vietnam
History of Vladivostok
History of Central Asia
 History of Tajikistan
 History of Kazakhstan
 History of Kyrgyzstan
 History of Mongolia
 History of Uzbekistan
 History of Turkmenistan

History of Southeast Asia
 History of Cambodia
 History of Indonesia
 History of Laos
 History of Malaysia
 History of the Philippines
 History of Singapore
 History of Thailand
 History of Vietnam
Generally, a periphery is a boundary or outer part of any space or body. It is derived from the Greek word , meaning a circumference or outer surface.

 In biology, the periphery of the body is the part that is away from the central or core regions.
 For example, the peripheral nervous system is distinct from the central nervous system.
 See also peripheral membrane protein.

 Peripheral vision is that part of visual perception that occurs in the periphery, i.e., near the edges, of the field of view.

 A computer peripheral is added to a host computer in order to expand its abilities.

For peripheral submanifolds in mathematics, see boundary parallel.

 The Periphery includes nations that are not core countries -  capitalist or industrialized nations. See Immanuel Wallerstein, Third World.

 The 13 peripheries of Greece are subnational subdivisions of that country, equivalent to regions.

 In the fictional universe of BattleTech, the Periphery is the region of interstellar space.
The International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) is a six-question two-day math competition for students that have not yet gone to college and are under 20 years old. Any country may take part in it by sending a team of six students to compete.

History
The IMO has been held every year since 1959. It takes place in a different country (which is called the "host country") from year to year. However, it is often seen that this competition is dominated by the US and China.

Results
The current ten countries with the best all-time results are as follows:

References

Notes

Mathematics competitions
International competitions
Edmund Strother "Ned" Phelps, Jr. is an American economist. He was born on July 26, 1933 in Evanston, Illinois.  He was given the 2006 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. He is best known for his work on economic growth at Yale University's Cowles Foundation in the 1960s. This includes the idea of the Golden Rule savings rate, which is about how much money should be spent and how much should be saved for the future. Some of his best work is on microeconomics of full employment and how prices affect wages. Part of this work is about the natural rate of unemployment.

Phelps has been the McVickar Professor of Political Economy at Columbia University since 1982.  He is also the director of Columbia's Center on Capitalism and Society.

His Nobel Prize award was announced on October 9, 2006. He received the award on his own, breaking the recent pattern of awarding the prize to two or more winners at the same time.

Biography
Biography

Early life and education
Edmund Phelps was born in 1933 near Chicago, but he grew up and went to school in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, where his family had moved when he was six years old. In 1951, he went to Amherst College as an undergraduate student. At his fathers advice, Phelps took his first economics course in his second year at Amherst. His economics teacher was James Nelson and his studies were based on a famous textbook by Paul Samuelson. Phelps was very interested in studying business. He knew of important unsolved problems and had new ideas, such as the gap between microeconomics and macroeconomics.
Research in the '60s and '70s
After receiving his Ph.D., Phelps went to work as an economist for the RAND Corporation. His main interest was macroeconomics, but RAND focused on defense work so Phelps decided to return to the his studies the next year, 1960. He took a research job at the Cowles Foundation, and a teaching job at Yale. At the Cowles Foundation, his research was mainly on future prices and wages, following the work of Robert Solow. As part of this research, Phelps published in 1961 a famous paper on the golden rule savings rate, one of his most important works for economic science. He also wrote papers about other economic theories, such as monetary economics (Ricardian equivalence) and its importance when producing the best economic growth.
In the next years, Keynesian economics were thought of as less important after the publication of John Muth's work called rational expectations. Phelps, with Calvo and John Taylor, started a programme to rebuild Keynesian economics with new ideas about prices and wages being kept the same for certain time. Professor Phelps and John Taylor published research in 1977, about how to calculate wages ("Staggered Wages). During the '70s, Phelps and Calvo worked on research for making contracts using asymmetric information.

In the late '70s, Professor Phelps researched with Roman Frydman, who was taught by Phelps. They worked on rational expectations and showed problems in it. A book was published in 1983 about what people said at a big meeting they had to talk about rational expectations in 1981. This book was not thought of as very important.
In 1982 Phelps was made the McVickar Professor of Political Economy at Columbia. During the early '80s he wrote a textbook about economics knowledge. The book, Political Economy, was published in 1985, but was not used in a lot of schools.

European co-workers since mid-'80s
In the 1980s Professor Phelps worked with European universities and institutions, such as Banca d'Italia (most of his 1985-86 holidays were spent in Italy) and Observatoire Français des Conjonctures Économiques (OFCE). He became interested in the continuing high unemployment in Europe and published some work about it with Jean-Paul Fitoussi (the director of OFCE).  During the next years, Professor Phelps worked to calculate the natural rate of unemployment. He published some of his research in a 1994 book. Phelps also worked with Luigi Paganetto at the University of Rome Tor Vergata and, between 1988-98, they held the Villa Mondragone International Seminar.
In 1990 Phelps took part in a mission from the EBRD to Moscow, where he and Kenneth Arrow worked on the reform of the USSR. He became a member of the EBRDs Economic Advisory Board, and stayed there until 1993. Professor Phelps became interested in the Eastern European transition economies while there.

Nobel Prize

In its announcement, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said Phelps' work had "deepened our understanding of the relation between short-run and long-run effects of economic policy."
George Mason University Professor Tyler Cowen wrote in the Marginal Revolution blog that "his main contribution is a better understanding of the Phillips curve and the dynamics of short-run unemployment and the concept of the natural rate of unemployment." Cowen also wrote that "his 1960s macro work was true, important, and extremely influential.  The capital theory work endures and provides a foundation for subsequent theory.  The overall scope is impressive, and Phelps's concerns never strayed far from the real world." Cowen by writing that the award to Phelps meant: "The big questions still matter.  Unemployment, economic growth, labor markets, capital accumulation, fairness, discrimination, and justice across the generations are indeed worthy of economic attention."

Professor Cowen and Berkeley's Professor Brad DeLong both said the choice of Phelps was a good noe, and Harvard Professor Gregory Mankiw said it was "a wonderful choice".

Some books by Professor Phelps

Footnotes
Footnotes

References
 Phelps, Edmund S., "A Life in Economics", autobiography published in "The Makers of Modern Economics", Volume II (1995), edited by Arnold Heertje, Edward Elgar Publishing Co., Aldershot, UK, Brookfield, US 
 The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (2006), "Edmund Phelps’s Contributions to Macroeconomics", Advanced information on Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel

Other websites 
 Phelps' homepage
 Columbia University press release
 Nobel profile and links to further announcement details
 Edmund Phelps' syndicated op/ed column
 Center on Capitalism and Society -- Edmund Phelps, director 
 Summary of Phelps' influence by George Mason University's Professor Tyler Cowen
 Phelps and the Nobel Prize by Arnold Kling. EconLog and Econlib
 Edmund Phelps's Contributions to Macroeconomics
1933 births
Living people
Academics from Pennsylvania
American economists
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Evanston, Illinois
Yale University alumni
Columbia University faculty
Educators from Evanston, Illinois
Nanotechnology is a part of science and technology about the control of matter on the atomic and molecular scale - this means things that are about 100 nanometres across

Nanotechnology includes making products that use parts this small, such as electronic devices, catalysts, sensors, etc. To give you an idea of how small that is, there are more nanometres in an inch than there are inches in 400 miles.
To give an international idea of how small that is, there are as many nanometres in a centimetre, as there are centimetres in 100 kilometres.

Nanotechnology brings together scientists and engineers from many different subjects, such as applied physics, materials science, interface and colloid science, device physics, chemistry, supramolecular chemistry (which refers to the area of chemistry that focuses on the non-covalent bonding interactions of molecules), self-replicating machines and robotics, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, biology, biological engineering, and electrical engineering.
Generally, when people talk about nanotechnology, they mean structures of the size 100 nanometers or smaller. There are one million nanometers in a millimeter. Nanotechnology tries to make materials or machines of that size.

People are doing many different types of work in the field of nanotechnology. Most current work looks at making nanoparticles (particles with nanometer size) that have special properties, such as the way they scatter light, absorb X-rays, transport electrical currents or heat, etc. At the more "science fiction" end of the field are attempts to make small copies of bigger machines or really new ideas for structures that make themselves. New materials are possible with nano size structures. It is even possible to work with single atoms.
The start of nanotechnology 
Ideas of nanotechnology were first used in talk "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom", a talk given by the scientist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman described a way to move individual atoms to build smaller instruments and operate at that scale. Properties such as surface tension and Van der walls force would become very important.
Feynman's simple idea seemed possible. The word "nanotechnology" was explained by Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper. He said that nanotechnology was the work of changing materials by one atom or by one molecule. In the 1980s this idea was studied by Dr. K. Eric Drexler, who spoke and wrote about the importance of nano-scale events . "Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology" (1986) is thought to be the willythirst book on nanotechnology. Nanotechnology and Nano science started with two key developments: the start of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). Soon afterwards, new molecules with carbon were discovered - first fullerenes in 1986 and carbon nanotubes a few years later. In another development, people studied how to make semiconductor nano crystals. Many metal oxide nanoparticles are now used as quantum dots (nanoparticles where the behaviour of single electrons becomes important)
. In 2000, the United States National Nanotechnology Initiative began to develop science in this field.
Classification of Nano materials 
Nanotechnology has nanomaterials which can be classified into one, two and three dimensions nanoparticles. This classification is based upon different properties it holds such as scattering of light, absorbing x rays, transport electric current or heat. Nanotechnology has multidisciplinary character affecting multiple traditional technologies and different scientific disciplines. New materials which can be scaled even at atomic size can be manufactured.
Facts 
 One nanometer (nm) is 10−9 or 0.000,000,001 meter.
 When two carbon atoms join together to make a molecule the distance between them is in the range of 0.12-0.15 nm.
 DNA double helix is about 2 nm from one side to the other. It develops into a new field of DNA nanotechnology. In future DNA can be manipulated that can lead to new revolution. Human genome can be manipulated according to requirements.
 A nanometer and a meter can be understood as the same size-difference as between golf ball and the Earth.
 One nanometer is about one twenty-five-thousandth the diameter of a human hair.
 Fingernails grow one nanometer per second.

Physical characteristics of nanomaterial 
At nano scale physical properties of system or particles substantially change. Physical properties such as quantum size effects where electrons move different for very small sizes of particle. Properties such as mechanical, electrical and optical changes when macroscopic system changes to microscopic one which is of utmost importance.
Nano materials and particles can act as catalyst to increase the reaction rate along with that produce better yield as compared to other catalyst.
Some of the most interesting properties when particle gets converted to nano scale are substances which usually stop light become transparent (copper); it becomes possible to burn some materials (aluminum); solids turn into liquids at room temperature (gold); insulators become conductors (silicon). A material such as gold, which does not react with other chemicals at normal scales, can be a powerful chemical catalyst at nanoscales. These special properties which we can only see at the nano scale are one of the most interesting things about nanotechnology.

Notes

Related pages 
Biophysics
Biotechnology
Other websites 
 'The Next Big Thing: Nanotechnology' TV discussion
 Carbon Nanotubes video
 C60 fullerene video
 Funny introduction video to nano: The Nano Song
 Nanotechnology Image Gallery
 Kumiko Miyazaki, & Nazrul Islam, (November 2007). Nanotechnologysystems of innovation—An analysis of industry and academia research activities. Technovation, 27(11), 661-675. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.libdb.njit.edu:8888/science/article/pii/S0166497207000697
 Minna Allarakhia, & StevenWalsh, (March-April 2012). Analyzing and organizing nanotechnology development: Application of the institutional analysis development framework to nanotechnology consortia. Technovation, 32(3-4), 216-226. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.libdb.njit.edu:8888/science/article/pii/S0166497211001532
Hattem is a municipality and a city in the eastern Netherlands.

Hattem became a city in 1299. That is one year before Amsterdam.

Hanseatic League
Cities in Gelderland
Municipalities of Gelderland
IJsselvallei
Alex McLeish is a Scottish association football manager. He was born in 1959 and is currently manager of Aston Villa F.C. after his reign in Birmingham City F.C.. He also managed Rangers F.C. and the Scotland national football team.

1959 births
Living people
Footballers from Glasgow
Scottish football managers
Óscar Arias Sánchez (born 13 September 1940 in Heredia, Costa Rica) is a Costa Rican activist and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. He was President of Costa Rica from 1986 to 1990 and from 2006 to 2010. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987 for his efforts to end civil wars in Central America. He is also a winner of the Albert Schweitzer Prize for Humanitarianism and a trustee of Economists for Peace and Security.

In 2003, he was elected to the Board of Directors of the International Criminal Court's TrustFund for Victims. He is also a member of the Club de Madrid. It is a nonprofit organization. It is made up of 81 former leaders of democratic nations. They work to strengthen democracy.

Arias started his political career in the 1970s.
In January 2005 Arias was selected as the candidate for the National Liberation party. He was reelected as president of Costa Rica. There was a lot of criticism for his support towards the Free Trade Agreement process in Costa Rica. Because of his political background and determination, many Costa Ricans still trust and respect Arias.

References

1940 births
Living people
Presidents of Costa Rica
Universal history, world history or global history examines history from a global perspective.

It looks for common patterns that one can find across all cultures. Universal historians use a thematic approach. That means they look at history from two viewpoints: On the one hand they look at processes of world history that have drawn people of the world together, on the other hand they want to find out how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experience.

The study of universal or global history is in some ways a product of the current period of accelerated globalization. This period has two tendencies: it integrates various cultures and it shows their differences when people of different cultures and civilizations have to live with each other.

To discuss "the history of the world" in a unified framework is not that new. For example, it was a genre popular in the 19th century, and with Christian historians going back to at least the 4th century.

Related pages
Natural history

Notes
Notes

Other websites
 World History Network
Bridging World History 
China and Europe 
Journal of World History
The Changing Shape of World History, William H. McNeill, Paper originally presented at the History and Theory World History Conference, March 25-26, 1994
World History Connected 
World History For Us All  - World History Model Curriculum 	 
World History Matters  	 
WWW-VL World History Index  	 
World History Blog - World History blog. 	 
World History Today  - World History blog.
Five Epochs of Civilization Ends regional bias by focusing on communication technologies shared throughout the earth

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A brewery is a building, where beer is made or a business (brewing company) whose trade is the production and sale of beer.

Breweries can take up several city blocks, or be a collection of equipment in a homebrewer's kitchen. The diversity of size in breweries is matched by the diversity of processes, degrees of automation, and kinds of beer produced in breweries. Typically a brewery is divided into distinct sections, with each section reserved for one part of the brewing process.

The oldest brewery in the world still in operation is believed to be the Bavarian State-owned brewery Weihenstephan, found in the German city of Freising, which can trace its history back to 1040.  Although the Zatec brewery in the Czech Republic claims it can prove paying beer tax in 1004.

References
References 

 : Technology Brewing and Malting, Wolfgang Kunze, 1999, 2nd revised edition, VLB Berlin.  Available at their website 
 : Technology Brewing and Malting, Wolfgang Kunze, 2004, 3nd revised edition, VLB Berlin.  Available at their website 
 http://www.beertown.org/craftbrewing/statistics.html : Craft Brewery definitions at the bottom of the page

 
Manufacturing buildings
Drink companies
Butane is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is an alkane with four carbon atoms. It is used as a fuel (sometimes with propane) and in aerosol cans.

Uses of Butane 
Butane is sold in canisters, for cooking and camping. It is also used as fuel in cigarette lighters, and as propellant in aerosol sprays or deodorants. Some kinds of Butane are used in refrigerators.

Mixtures with Propane are known as LPG.

Dangers 
Butane can be hazardous. Inhalation can lead to death by asphyxiation due to displacement of oxygen in the lungs. Contact with the skin can lead to frostbite. If the gas is mixed with air and ignighted it is prone to explode like many other fuels that are volatile

References
References

Other websites 
 International Chemical Safety Card 0232
 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
 n-Butane  Molecule of the Month
 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk  See Butane in 3D
 Computational Chemistry Wiki 
 World LP Gas Association (WLPGA)
 LP Gas Association: Propane and Butane in the UK 
 Global BioSciences In-Situ Bioremediation utilizing Butane
 Butane Viscosity as function of  temperature and pressure

4
Fuel
Liquefied petroleum gas (also known as LPG, LP Gas or autogas) is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases. It is commonly used in the household, for example for cooking, or as fuel for heating. LPG is replacing Chlorofluorocarbons more and more, also because it is less harmful to the ozone layer.

Very often, mixes of propane and butane are sold.

Other websites
Pixie Gas  LPG Supplier based in the United States

Petroleum
Aerosol spray is a system used in certain containers, like spray cans. The contents of the can, like color or deodorant are pressurized. The can has a valve. When this valve is opened, the liquid is forced out. It will emerge as an aerosol or mist. Apart from the liquid, there is another substance in the container, usually called propellant. When the valve is opened, some propellant will be forced inside the container. That way the pressure in the container is kept constant.

History 

Around 1790, it was discovered that a carbonated beverage was pushed out of a container in France.

In 1837, the syphon was invented.

In 1862, several experiments with liquid spraying using compressed gas were held.

In 1927, Norwegian engineer Eric Rotheim proposed the first usable aerosol balloon construction.
In 1943, Americans Lyle Goodhugh and William Sullivan, commissioned by the US government, developed a bug bomb (World War II was going on, and it was necessary to find a way to quickly spray insecticide in order to control insect-borne diseases). This date is considered to be the beginning of the mass production of aerosol balloons.

In 1947, aerosolized insecticides appeared on the mass market.

In 1949, Robert Abplanalp invented the modern spray valve. In the same year, Edward Seymour started the production of spray paint.

Safety 
The instructions for most aerosols warn that it is forbidden to spray it near open flames, electric stoves, and so on.

It is also forbidden to overheat balloons and put them in the sun in hot weather, as well as on heaters. There were many cases of balloon explosions in hot weather, as well as pyrotechnic entertainment of detonating aerosols on fires, which is a rather dangerous activity.
In detail 
 A - Donut (indicating the color of the paint)
 B - Valve system
 C - Safety ring
 D - Mixture balls (characteristic for paint cans)
 E - The valve itself

Related pages 
 Graffiti
 Pepper spray

Tools
Air pollution
Art materials
Environmental issues