Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
How to Convert Energy
Water is a molecule that consists of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms.  It takes energy to separate water into oxygen and hydrogen, and energy is released when they are put back together as water.  A fuel cell puts hydrogen and oxygen back together in a way releases the energy in the form of electricity.

Fuel (the energy source, usually hydrogen) and air (which contains the oxygen) are put into opposite sides the fuel cell. In the middle of the fuel cell there is a "screen", called an electrolyte, sandwiched between two metal plates, called electrodes, which keeps the fuel and air separate. Different kinds of fuel cells get their names based on what type of screen is used to separate the fuel and air. The screen only allows specific charged molecules, also known as ions, to pass through them.
In order to create ions, electrons have to be carried from the one side of the system to the other. The electrons are split off from the fuel by the metal plate at the fuel side and need to travel to the air side to complete the reaction. Because the screen doesn't let electrons pass through, they go through a separate wire, to the other metal plate on the air side. The travel of electrons creates electric current (electricity). The wire is where electricity can be used. For example, the wire can be cut in half, and a light bulb can be connected in between the two halves.

In the meantime, the ions pass through the screen and react with the molecules (already on the other side) and electrons (which traveled through the wire, giving off energy to power electronics) on the other side. Water is formed (and, depending on the fuel type, occasionally other products), which them comes out through an exhaust pipe.
Efficiency
Fuel cells make electricity by combining oxygen and hydrogen. Efficiency is very good (about 40%-70%). They have a maximum efficiency of 83% if exhaust heat is used during the reaction. Also, fuel cells can use various fuels, for example, natural gas, methanol, LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas), naphtha, kerosene etc.

Features
Some types of fuel cells produce only water, which means no pollution. Most types of fuel cell cause much less emissions than classic ("caloric") power generation. They can consume the same fuel types as classic power generators, for example Diesel engines, but they are about two times as efficient, meaning they can produce the same amount of energy with half as much fuel, and thus at least half as much pollution. Additionally, the direct conversion fuel cells use has less risk of producing secondary emissions like NOx, SOx, and particulate matter, which are side effects of combustion, contribute to global warming, and are known as criteria pollutants.
Fuel cells are very quiet. They have no moving parts aside from some fans to move air, and pumps to move water which means they very rarely require repairs, however some large fuel cells used for powering things like buildings can be quite fragile.

Because of very low pollutant emissions, fuel cells are often used in vehicles that move inside buildings, like forklifts. Because they are very quiet, they are used on some military submarines to avoid detection. Fuel is more efficiently used, which means fuel cells can work longer without getting new fuel. This lets them be used in places that are hard to get to, such as weather or research stations, space ships, or military bases.
Since spaceships are launched using rockets containing pure hydrogen and oxygen, the on-board electricity is produced using very efficient fuel cells which can use these fuels. Additionally, the fuel cells on spaceships produce pure water on their exhaust, which can be further captured and used as drinking water for astronauts, meaning absolutely nothing is wasted.

Types of Fuel Cells
Fuel cells can be classified by the type of inner screen (electrolyte). For instance, phosphoric acid fuel cells are for low temperatures. It is used in cell phones and automobile power supplies that require high currents because it is much safer. Alkali fuel cells usually contain potassium hydroxide (KOH). Methanol fuel cells are used by reacting methanol electrochemically. This type of fuel cell is a better choice for simpler system. But methanol fuel cells have low output densities as its reacting rate is slow.
Some important types of fuel cells are:
 Phosphoric Acid fuel cell (PAFC) - Phosphoric acid fuel cells are commercially available today. They are the most common fuel cells for combined heat and power generation.
 Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEM) - These fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures (about 175 °F), have high power density, can vary their output quickly to meet shifts in power demand, and are suited for applications, such as in automobiles, where quick startup is required. All commercial fuel cell vehicles use this type of fuel cell. The drawback of these fuel cells is that they require high-purity hydrogen which is costly to produce.
Molten Carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) - These fuel cells operate at very high temperatures which allow them to convert more complex fuels, like natural gas, into hydrogen fuel to be used by the cell itself. These take several hours to startup and shutdown, so they are only used in applications where they can keep running continuously, like stationary power for large buildings/businesses.
 Microbial fuel cell (MFC) - A fuel cell that uses respiring microbes to convert organic substrates into electrical energy, using oxidation reduction reactions.
Applications
There are many uses for fuel cells —  major automakers are working to commercialize fuel cell cars.  Toyota and Honda have released the Mirai and Clarity respectively.  Fuel cells are powering buses, boats, trains, planes, scooters, forklifts, and bicycles.  There are fuel cell-powered vending machines, vacuum cleaners and highway road signs.  Miniature fuel cells for cellular phones, laptop computers and portable electronics are predicted.  Hospitals, credit card centers, police stations, and banks use fuel cells to provide power to their facilities.  Wastewater treatment plants and landfills use them to convert the methane gas they produce into electricity.  Fuel Cells have long been used in outer space.  Telecommunications companies use fuel cells at cell phone, radio and 911 towers.

References 

Energy
Live at Wembley is a DVD/CD by American R&B singer Beyoncé Knowles. It was released on April 27, 2004.

Track listing

CD 
 What's It Gonna Be (Album Version)
 My First Time (Album Version)
 Krazy In Luv (Maurice's Nu Soul Remix)
 Baby Boy (Junior's World Mixshow Beyonce)
 Naughty Girl (Calderone Quayle Club Mix)

DVD 
 Baby Boy
 Naughty Girl
 Fever
 Hip Hop Star
 Yes
 Work It Out
 Gift From Virgo
 Be With You
 Speechless
 Destiny`s Child's Medley
 Me, Myself and I
 Summertime
 Dangerously in Love 2
 Crazy In Love

References

2004 albums
Beyoncé albums
Hip hop soul albums
R&B albums
The iPod Classic is a portable media player made by Apple Inc. To date, there have been six models of the iPod Classic, as well as the iPod Photo. All models use a 1.8-inch hard drive for storage.

The name "Classic", which is a retronym or a name that was given later on, started with the sixth-generation iPod Classic on 5 September 2007. Before this, an iPod Classic was simply called an iPod. A recent study by the Consumers Digest foundation, the Guinness Book of Records and the Apple Inc sales department has shown that iPod users bought extra accessories and upgrades every 6.2 months. The most purchases, one purchase every 6.3 days over the period 2000–2007, was by the Montmerle-Berents family of Paris, France.

On September 9, 2014, Apple discontinued the iPod classic. The last product in the iPod line to use the original 30-pin iPod connector was the sixth-generation 160GB iPod Classic, which was also discontinued September 2014.

History
History

First Generation
The first generation iPod started the iPod market on October 22, 2001 with the slogan "1000 songs in your pocket". It had a black and white screen, 5GB and a click wheel with a menu button at the top, left and left and right buttons to the sides, a select button in the middle and in between the four buttons and the select button was where you moved your finger around the wheel to go up and down.

A 10GB iPod was released on March 20, 2002.

Second Generation
The second generation iPod was released on July 17, 2002. It had the same style as the first generation iPod. At first, 10GB iPod and 20GB iPod were available for $399 and $499 and later a 5GB iPod came out for $299.
Third Generation
The third generation iPod was released on April 29, 2003 and featured a brand new touch sensitive wheel called the Click Wheel. A touch sensitive iPod wheel with the four buttons below the screen. A 10GB iPod was sold for $299, a 15GB iPod for $399 and a 30GB iPod for $399. On September 8, 2003 the Microsoft music software Musicmatch was discontinued and iTunes became available for Windows making the iPod compatible with Windows.

Fourth Generation
The fourth generation iPod was released on July 19, 2004 and had the click wheel from the iPod Mini. A 20GB iPod was available for $299 and a 40GB iPod for $399. The iPod casing was also slightly slimmer and rounder.

A special Harry Potter edition iPod was released on September 7, 2005 which featured the hogwarts logo on the back and all 6 harry potter audiobooks on iTunes already on the iPod.
iPod Photo
An special iPod called the iPod Photo was released on October 26, 2004. It has a color screen and the ability to connect the iPod to a TV and display a slideshow. The iPod could hold JPEG, BMP, GIF, TIFF, and PNG photo types.

iPod Color
On June 28, 2005 the iPod Photo was merged into the normal iPod line adding a color screen and the ability to display photos to the iPod 4G.

Fifth Generation
The fifth generation iPod was released on October 12, 2005 after the iPod Nano was released. As well as the "Signature iPod White" color, a black iPod was also released. This is the first iPod to be able to play videos. A 30GB iPod was available for $299 and a 60GB iPod for $399. This is the last iPod to have a plastic body. The sixth generation has a metal body.

On September 12, 2006 an upgraded version of the iPod 5G was released. It featured a brighter screen and longer video playback. The 60GB model was replaced with an 80GB model and the prices were dropped by $50 for both models.
Sixth Generation
The sixth generation iPod was renamed iPod Classic and was released on September 5, 2007. A 80GB iPod was available for $249 and a 160GB iPod for $349. The "Signature White iPod" has also been replaced with a silver iPod and the iPod now has a metal body.

An upgraded version of the sixth gen iPod was released on September 9, 2008. The 80 and 160GB iPods were replaced with a thinner 120GB iPod for $249. It introduced Genius and audio recording features.

Another upgraded version of the sixth gen iPod was released on September 9, 2009. The 120GB iPod's price was dropped to $229 and the now thinner 160GB iPod was re-introduced for $249. The 120GB iPod was later discontinued so the only option left is the 160GB iPod.

Models

Timeline

References 

2001 establishments in the United States
2014 disestablishments
IPod
Georg Leo von Caprivi, later Georg Leo Graf von Caprivi de Caprara de Montecuccoli (), (24 February 1831–6 February 1899) was a German major general and politician, who succeeded Otto von Bismarck as Chancellor of Germany. Caprivi was German Chancellor from March 1890 to October 1894.

Biography
Born in Charlottenburg, Berlin to a family of Italian and Slovenian origin, Caprivi joined the army in 1849 and fought in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.

He liked Bismarck, and once said "What jackass would dare to succeed Bismarck?". Kaiser Wilhelm II was arguing with Bismarck about changes to the government. In February 1890 the Kaiser told Caprivi to come back to Berlin. Caprivi was told that he would take over from Bismarck if Bismarck did not do what the Kaiser wanted. Caprivi became chancellor on 18 March 1890.
Caprivi's government was friendlier to the Social Democrats and to the United Kingdom. The Zanzibar treaty of July 1890, meant Germany gave control of Zanzibar, an island near German East Africa to Britain in return for the island of Heligoland in the North Sea . Caprivi also got the Caprivi Strip added to German South West Africa. This is a narrow strip of land that links German South West Africa (now called Namibia), to the Zambezi River.

In 1892 Caprivi resigned as Prussian Minister President and was replaced by Count Botho zu Eulenburg. Prussia was so powerful in the German Empire that having different people as Imperial Chancellor and Minister President made it hard to govern the country. Caprivi and Eulenburg were dismissed in 1894 and Prince Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst took both jobs.
Other websites
 Die Reden des Grafen von Caprivi im deutschen Reichstage, preussischen Landtage und besondern Anllasen "Speeches of Count von Caprivi in the German Reichstag, Prissian Landtag, and other places" in German at google Books.

1831 births
1899 deaths
Admirals
Chancellors of Germany
German generals
German nobility
German Empire politicians
Politicians from Berlin
German Protestants
Prussian politicians
Columbia is a city in the U.S. state of Missouri. The University of Missouri is located there.

References 

1821 establishments in Missouri
Cities in Missouri
County seats in Missouri
The Dominican city of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, or simply Samaná, is the head municipality of the Samaná province, on the south coast of the peninsula of Samaná. The people from this city, and of the province, are called samanés or samanense, in Spanish.

Name
Santa Bárbara de Samaná is named Santa Bárbara after the Queen Bárbara de Braganza, wife of King Ferdinand VI of Spain. Samaná was the Taíno name of the region.

History
The city was founded in 1756 as Santa Bárbara de Samaná, by the Spanish governor Francisco Rubio y Peñaranda. This was during the period when the area of Santo Domingo was a Spanish colony. Its first European inhabitants were families from the Canary Islands.

When the Maritime District (an old division similar to a province) of Samaná was created in 1865, the city was elevated to the category of municipality.

Population
The municipality had, in , a total population of 33,196: 17,034 men and 16,162 women. The urban population was  of the total population.
Geography
Santa Bárbara de Samaná has a total area of  (without including its municipal districts), about  of the total area of the province of Samaná. The city is an elevation of  above sea level, and at  to the northeast of Santo Domingo.

The city is surrounded by mountains of the Sierra de Samaná, a small mountain range that covers most of the Samaná peninsula.

The municipality of Santa Bárbara de Samaná has the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the east, the Samaná Bay to the south, the municipality of Las Terrenas to the northwest and the municipality of Sánchez to the southwest.

Climate
Samaná has a tropical wet climate (Köppen-Geiger classification: Af) with no dry or cold season as it is constantly moist (rainfalls during the whole year).

The average amount of rainfall for the year in the city is . The month with the most precipitation on average is November with  of rainfall, followed by October with .
The driest season is winter. The month with the least rainfall on average is February with an average of  and the second is March with .

Samaná is in a warm region; the average temperature for the year is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

Administrative division
The municipality of Santa Bárbara de Samaná has 3 municipal districts:

Gallery

References

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
1756 establishments
18th-century establishments in the Spanish Empire
1750s establishments in North America
The word amateur is normally used to mean: somebody who does something (e.g. a job) without being paid for it.

The opposite of an amateur is a professional. He (or she) will expect to be paid a professional fee for the job.

The word “amateur” comes from a French word meaning: "lover of". An amateur is someone who does something (e.g. play the piano, football) because they enjoy doing it. They are not doing it in order to be paid. It is not how they earn money to live.

People often forget the real meaning of the word “amateur”.  It is often mistakenly used to mean: someone who is not good at something.  On the other hand, an amateur might be described as having done a very “professional” job, i.e. done it as well as someone who is paid.

Although one might expect a professional to be better than an amateur, this is not always the case. Someone might be a very good amateur pianist, possibly better than some professionals.
In some jobs it would be impossible for amateurs to be allowed to work. One cannot have amateur doctors or lawyers. In some areas, however, amateurs have been very useful in fields including computer programming and astronomy and birdwatching. Wikipedia, for example, is written by amateurs.

Sport 
In some sporting events, all players are professional or all are amateur. Many events mix professional and amateur participants. 

In some sports (e.g. tennis or football) in the past, amateurs and professionals would not compete against one another. This was not always because amateurs were thought to be not as good as professionals. In some countries, such as Great Britain in Victorian times, this was because of social class distinction. Amateur cricketers were rich gentlemen from the upper classes who did not want to associate with people from lower classes.  This attitude slowly changed during the 20th century.
Until the 1970s most Olympic events were for amateurs. Athletes were disqualified if they received money for the event, or in some cases even if they had been paid for sporting events outside the Olympics.

Related pages 
 Hobby
 Amateur radio
Volunteering

References 

Hobbies
Occupations
Jogging is running at a slow speed. Many people go for a jog in order to keep fit and healthy.  People go jogging for exercise, not for competitions.

Jogging is a very cheap way of keeping fit, because all that is needed is a good pair of running shoes.  One can jog anywhere, although it is good to stay away from main roads where the air is full of traffic fumes.  It is also good to avoid too much jogging on hard pavements (sidewalks). A softer surface such as grass is better for jogging because there is less hard jolting for the knees.

Jogging is a kind of aerobic exercise which helps people breathe better.  It can keep the heart rate at a high-speed level for a long time (depends on how long people spend). A goal of aerobic exercise is to train the different types of muscles so people can keep fit by increasing the muscle mass. Since people increase the muscle mass, they can be successful to increase the lean level and decrease the body fat. In this way, people can keep fit and be healthy.
Jogging and running have very popular in the late 20th century.  People of all ages jog.  It promotes strength and good condition  and is useful to people who want to control their weight.  Like other aerobic exercise, it releases endorphin in many people.

Locations 
Jogging has different perspective come up to consider when someone are planning work out. This surface has both positive and negative, as well as work in different muscle groups. The personal trainer can offer the best way should be using, training for a race like flat and track can help to keep Achilles tendon for became stretched position. Road force has negative at the road force because people need to be careful of the busy traffic during the exercising.
Changing the jogging surface could help in training intensity level when painful comes up to hurt on bones and other joints. Here are the positive and negative of jogging at sidewalk: Jogging at sidewalks is a  very good selection and safe to keep clear from the busy road and a must to escape. However, it’s also the hardest surface to exercise on. It is a good idea to stay off this surface is when your knees or ankles pain.

Challenges in jogging make people increases bone density, decreasing of heart disease. it is helping to strengths, forces legs, and body muscles. Also, improves cardiovascular health, making down of heart disease by assists in reducing body fat percentage that could improve circulation. It could improve both protected functions and cuts out stress by dropping  endorphins in the brain.

As a exercise
As a exercise 

Jogging is also known as a long-standing exercise; no matter what the age is, you can enjoy jogging as well. The option of where can people admire jogging is very extensive, it can be anywhere that makes people feel comfortable, such as at the park, on the track, at the beach, on the mountain, on a jogging path or even on a machine. The great benefits of jogging include stress relief, lifestyle disease prevention, makes the function of heart and lung stronger and builds strong bones. These kinds of interest can support the body's operation and help people stay healthy.
Health effects 
Jogging can improve overall health, it is really good for fitness level,  weight control, and strength of bones. It can change body composition for the better now, legs and hip muscle will grow stronger with the new body process; it helps strengthen the heart and lungs. Also, it’s the blood pressure control and upgrades healthy cholesterol level. Don't eat foods before go to jogging. Make sure eat healthy foods for well-balanced in high sugar.

Related pages
 Strength training
 Healthy lifestyle
 Strength training

References

Other websites

 WorldwideRunning.com - A comprehensive resource for joggers and runners worldwide

Fitness
Birdwatching or birding means going outside to enjoy watching birds. It is a popular hobby.  Someone who does this may be called a birdwatcher, but more often a twitcher  or birder.  They are usually amateurs.  The scientific study of birds is called ornithology.  People who study birds as a profession are called ornithologists.

Birdwatching is very popular in countries such as Britain and the United States.  It can be especially rewarding in spring when a lot of birds are singing and building nests to raise their young.  In spring and autumn many birds can be seen as they migrate.  In winter some other kinds of birds may be visiting from colder areas such as the Arctic where there is no food in the winter.

Equipment
Equipment

It is useful to have a good pair of binoculars to help to see birds that are far away more clearly. Scopes or telescopes can also be used.  These can give greater magnification than binoculars (making the birds look bigger). They need to put on a tripod because it is difficult to hold them steady steady by hand. They are useful for looking at birds that stay in one place for some time such as ducks swimming on a lake, but no use for birds flying in the air or hopping quickly from one tree to another.
Also important is to have a good reference book with pictures of the  birds in your country. This is call a field guide. It tells you background information about the birds, which can be very useful. Apart from what they look like, the most basic information is what time of year they are in your area, and what kind of environment they prefer. Also they will tell you what the birds' songs and calls sound like. You will  discover that it often takes a long time to find a bird even when you know it is there from its song.

Songs and calls 
Songs are longer and more complex. They claim territory and are used in courtship and mating. Calls tend to be alarms or keeping members of a flock in contact. Most birds are songbirds. Those which are not give squawks or cries, which are like calls.

Bird watching
Bird watching 

Birdwatching (twitching) means spending one’s time trying to see as many different kinds of birds as possible. Twitchers keep lists of all the birds they have seen, and if they hear that a rare bird has been seen somewhere, they travel long distances to try to see it so that they can add it to their list.
Birdwatchers are useful 
Although birdwatchers are amateurs, they can be very useful, because they can tell organizations  about what they have seen. This is one kind of citizen science.  This information can be useful when discussions take place about possible damage to the environment, e.g. because of new developments (building).  It can help us to protect the birds, because we understand their needs.  Some birders help with bird ringing.  Putting a ring on a bird’s foot helps us to identify it when it is seen again so that we can understand where birds go and what they do.  Birders can also take part in bird counts.  In Britain a “Big Garden Birdwatch” project takes  place one weekend each year in late January.  Over 400,000 people watch the birds in their gardens for one hour and are asked to make a list of how many they see during this time.  By comparing the results with other years this helps us to see which birds are surviving well, and which ones are becoming less common.
Code of behaviour
Birders are always reminded how important it is not to disturb the birds.  This is particularly important in the nesting season.  If birds are nesting on the ground in fields or reedbeds one should never go anywhere near them.  Some birds get used to humans being near, but others are very shy of humans.

Organizations
Some national organizations which are concerned with birds include:
In the United Kingdom:
British Trust for Ornithology
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
In the United States:
National Audubon Society
American Birding Association

References 

Birds
Hobbies
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emmanuel; later The Prince Consort; 26 August 1819 – 14 December 1861) was the husband of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Albert was born near Coburg, in Germany. He was the son of Ernest I, the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Anhalt. He was a clever child, and liked science, reading and mathematics.

He married Queen Victoria, his first cousin, on 10 February 1840. The wedding was held at St. James's Palace, the queen's official home in London. Both Victoria and Albert were deeply in love with each other. However, the queen kept Albert out of politics; he was not allowed to take part in the government of the country. In the end, this changed, and Albert often gave advice to the Prime Minister of the time.
Albert and Victoria had nine children together. Albert's favourite child was his first, Victoria, who became Queen of Prussia and Empress of Germany, in 1871. When his second child, Albert Edward (the future king Edward VII) was born in 1841, he took an active interest in his education. The two were never close, and Albert often overworked his elder son. 

Albert came up with the idea of the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park, London. The exhibition was meant to show Britain's industrial strength. It was a great success, and improved his popularity in England. It was held in the Crystal Palace, a huge glass and iron building. It burnt down in 1936, long after it had been moved from Hyde Park and rebuilt in a part of south London now called Crystal Palace.
Titles and styles 
 26 August 1819 – 12 November 1826: His Serene Highness Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Duke of Saxony
 12 November 1826 – 6 February 1840: His Serene Highness Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke of Saxony
 6 February 1840 – 25 June 1857: His Royal Highness Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke of Saxony
 25 June 1857 – 14 December 1861: His Royal Highness The Prince Consort

References

Other websites

1819 births
1861 deaths
19th-century British people
British Anglicans
British royalty
Deaths from typhoid fever
Disease-related deaths in England
British Dukes and Duchesses
German Lutherans
House of Wettin
Kings and Queens consort of the United Kingdom
Knights Companion of the Order of the Star of India
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
People with foods named after them
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
East Berlin was the name of the eastern part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990. It was known as just simply Berlin in East Germany, the country it served as the capital of. It was the Soviet sector of Berlin that was established in 1945. The American, British and French sectors became West Berlin, a de facto part of West Germany. Although it was always legally a part of an occupied city, East Berlin was claimed as the capital of East Germany. From 13 August 1961 until 9   November 1989 it was separated from West Berlin by the Berlin Wall. The East German government referred to East Berlin simply as "Berlin" or often ""Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR" (Berlin, capital of the GDR). The term "Democratic Sector" was also used until the 1960s.
The Western Allies (the USA, Great Britain and France) only recognized the power of the Soviet Union in East Berlin in accordance with the occupation status of Berlin as a whole. The three Western commandants regularly protested about the presence of the East German National People's Army (NPA) in East Berlin.

Nevertheless, the three Western Allies eventually established embassies in East Berlin in the 1970s, although they never recognized it as East Germany's capital. Treaties instead used terms such as "seat of government." In the 1960s the Western Allies sometimes said the capital of East Germany was Pankow. Pankow is the borough where the main East German government buildings were built.

On 3 October 1990, West Germany and East Germany were united, and East Berlin ceased to exist.
East Berlin today 
Since reunification, the German government has spent lots of money on rejoining the two halves of the city and bringing services and buildings in the former East Berlin up to the standard in West Berlin. There are still differences between eastern and western Berlin. There are a lot more pre-war buildings in Eastern Berlin, some still show signs of wartime damage. The style of architecture used in the whole of the GDR was very different from that used in rebuilding West Berlin too.

In many East German cities streets were named after socialist heroes. Many were changed after reunification, but some, such as Karl-Marx-Allee, Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz and Karl-Liebknecht-Straße have been kept.
One way anyone could tell if they were in the old East Berlin or in West Berlin was by looking at the traffic lights. East Berlin used special designs on their pedestrian traffic lights, called "Ampelmännchen". The Berlin government wanted to abolish the East German signals, but lots of people objected, and now Ampelmännchen are being seen in West Berlin too.

Commandants of Berlin Soviet Zone

Boroughs of East Berlin 

At the time of German reunification, East Berlin comprised the boroughs of
 Friedrichshain
 Hellersdorf (since 1986)
 Hohenschönhausen (since 1985)
 Köpenick
 Lichtenberg
 Marzahn (since 1979)
 Mitte
 Pankow
 Prenzlauer Berg
 Treptow
 Weißensee

Related pages
 Berlin Wall
 Cold War
 Checkpoint Charlie
 Germany
 West Berlin

References

Other websites 
 Berlin Photos 1989-1999 
 East Berlin Past and Present 
 Old East Berlin Fades Away Amid Renovations
 The Lives of Others official website

Former polities of the Cold War
East Germany
20th century in Berlin
1940s in Berlin
Berlin Wall
Württemberg-Baden was one of the original states of the Federal Republic of Germany.

In 1952 it joined with Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern to make the state of Baden-Württemberg.

Baden-Württemberg
Former states in Germany
1950s disestablishments in Germany
Württemberg-Hohenzollern was one of the original states of the Federal Republic of Germany. Its capital was Tübingen.

It was part of the French Zone of Occupation. After a referendum on 16 December 1951 it joined with Württemberg-Baden, which had been in the American Zone, and Baden which had also been in the French Zone, and formed the present state of Baden-Württemberg on 25 April 1952

After World War the Kingdom of Württemberg became the Free Peoples' State of Württemberg. After World War II the part of the Free Peoples' State of Württemberg and the old Principality of Hohenzollern were joined to make Württemberg-Hohenzollern. The name of the Royal family of Prussia was Hohenzollern because they came from this area. This is also why it was always part of Prussia until Prussia was abolished after World War II.

List of heads of government 

 1945 - 1947: Carlo Schmid (SPD)
 1947 - 1948: Lorenz Bock (CDU)
 1948 - 1952: Gebhard Müller (CDU)
Baden-Württemberg
Former states in Germany
1945 establishments in Europe
1950s disestablishments in Germany
Noraduz cemetery () is a medieval cemetery with many ancient khachkars in the village of Noraduz, Gegharkunik marz near Gavar and Lake Sevan, 90 km north of Yerevan. Many tombstones in the cemetery show carved scenes of weddings and farm life.

Khachkars
The oldest khachkars in the cemetery go back to the late 10th century. During the revival of the khachkar tradition in the 16-17th centuries many khachkars were built under the yoke of the Safavid Empire when oriental influences seeped into Armenian art. Three master carvers from this period carved khachkars in Noraduz, the most notable of whom was Kiram Kazmogh (1551-1610), his contemporaries were Arakel and Meliset.

Folklore
A popular folktale involving the cemetery concerns the invading army of Tamerlane. According to one story the villagers placed helmets on top of the khachkars and leaned swords against them. From a distance the khachkars looked like armed soldiers holding a defensive position as a result of which Tamerlane’s army retreated.
Related pages
Khachkar

Other websites 
Noratus Cemetery at ArmeniaPedia.org

Buildings and structures in Armenia
Cemeteries
10th-century buildings and structures‎
The Teatro alla Scala, usually known as La Scala, is one of the most famous opera houses in the world. It is in Milan, Italy, which is the country where opera started at the beginning of the 17th century. The theatre opened on 3 August 1778. At first it was called Nuovo Regio Ducal Teatro alla Scala. The first opera to be performed there was Salieri's Europa riconosciuta.

Building of the theatre 
There had been a theatre there before, called Teatro Ducale, but it had been destroyed by fire in 1776. The new theatre was built where there had been a church called Santa Maria della Scala. This is how the theatre got its name.
The theatre had more than 3,000 seats arranged in six tiers (six storeys) of boxes, and above that the two 'loggione' or galleries. It has a very large stage. The money for the building was found by selling the 'palchi' (boxes) to wealthy noblemen and other rich people in Milan. In the 'platea' (the main floor) there were no seats and the audience there stood up to watch, like they do today in the Royal Albert Hall at the Proms. The orchestra could be seen very well as they were not in an orchestra pit like they are today.

Above the boxes, La Scala has always had a gallery where people who are not so rich can watch. This is still there today. It is called the loggione. Some people in the loggione, known as the Claque, are known to applaud wildly if they like a singer, or boo loudly if they do not like a singer. During La Scala’s history this has often been because of bribery or blackmail.
La Scala was originally lit with 84 oil lamps mounted on the palcoscenico (ceiling) and another thousand in the rest of theater. In case they ever caught fire, several rooms were filled with hundreds of water buckets. Later, oil lamps were replaced by gas lamps. In 1883 electric lights were put in.

The building was renovated in 1907. After that it had 2,800 seats as it does today. In 1943, during World War II, La Scala was badly damaged by bombing. It was rebuilt and reopened on 11 May 1946, with a brilliant concert conducted by Arturo Toscanini, with a soprano solo by Renata Tebaldi.
Verdi 
Many famous operas were first performed at La Scala, including some by Giuseppe Verdi. For several years, however, Verdi did not allow his music to be played here because he did not like the way the orchestra had played it. However the composer later conducted his Requiem there on May 25, 1874, and in 1886 announced that La Scala would host the premiere of his opera Otello. The first performance of his last opera, Falstaff was also given in this theatre.

Today 

La Scala's season traditionally opens on 7 December, Saint Ambrose's Day, Milan's patron saint. All performances must end before midnight; long operas start earlier in the evening if necessary.

There is also a La Scala Museum (Museo Teatrale alla Scala) which has an extraordinary collection of paintings, drafts, statues, costumes, and other documents about opera and La Scala's history.
Recently there have been more renovations to La Scala. Some people were worried that it would spoil the historic building, but the opera company were very pleased when the work was done. There was a new stage and lots more room behind the stage. The heavy red carpets were taken away and the sound was better. The seats include monitors so that the audience can follow the words in English or Italian if it is in a foreign language (not Italian).
The renovated opera house was opened on 7 December 2004 with the same opera by Salieri that had opened it in 1778. The conductor was Riccardo Muti.

References

Other websites 
 La Scala official website

Scala, La
Buildings and structures in Milan
1778 establishments
18th-century establishments in Italy
1770s establishments in Europe
Hyde Park could mean any of the following:

Places

In England
 Hyde Park, London
 Hyde Park, Leeds, inner-city area of north-west Leeds
 Hyde Park, South Yorkshire, district of Sheffield
 Hyde Park, in Hyde, Greater Manchester

In the United States
 Hyde Park, Los Angeles, California
 Hyde Park, Tampa, Florida
 Hyde Park, Boise, Idaho
 Hyde Park, Chicago, Illinois
 Hyde Park, Massachusetts, part of the city of Boston
 Hyde Park, Kansas City, Missouri
 Hyde Park, New York, town in Dutchess County, New York
 Hyde Park, Ohio, neighborhood of Cincinnati
 Hyde Park, Pennsylvania, borough in Westmoreland County
 Hyde Park, Berks County, Pennsylvania
 Hyde Park, Memphis, Tennessee
 Hyde Park, Austin, Texas
 Hyde Park, Utah
 Hyde Park (town), Vermont
 Hyde Park (village), Vermont
 Hyde Park Township, Cook County, Illinois, annexed by Chicago in 1889
 Hyde Park Township, Minnesota
 New Hyde Park, New York
 North Hyde Park, Tampa, Florida
 Woodbourne-Hyde Park, Ohio

In Australia
In Australia

 Hyde Park, Sydney, park in New South Wales
 Hyde Park (Western Australia), park in Perth
 Hyde Park, South Australia, suburb of Adelaide

Elsewhere

 Hyde Park, Gauteng, South Africa
 Hajd park, Belgrade, Serbia

Grounds
 Dr. Hyde Park a Gaelic Games ground in Roscommon, Ireland

Other Uses
 Hyde Park (play), by James Shirley.
Roger Charles Louis Guillemin (born 11 January 1924 in Dijon, Côte-d'Or, France) received the National Medal of Science in 1976, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1977 for his work on neurohormones.

Education 
Completing his undergraduate work at the University of Burgundy, Guillemin received his M.D. degree from the Medical Faculty at Lyon in 1949, and went to Montréal, Québec, Canada to work with Hans Selye at the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the Université de Montréal where he received a Ph.D. in 1953. The same year he moved to the United States to join the faculty at Baylor College of Medicine at Houston. In 1965, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1970 he started a laboratory, San Diego where he worked for neuro-endocrinology until retirement in 1989.

Guillemin and Andrew V. Schally discovered the structures of TRH and GnRH in separate laboratories.
Books
 Nicholas Wade (1981). The Nobel Duel, Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, NY.
 Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar (1979).  Laboratory Life, Sage, Los Angeles, USA.

Other websites
 Nobel autobiography
 Salk Institute faculty page 

1924 births
Living people
American Nobel Prize winners
American physicians
French Nobel Prize winners
French physicians
Naturalized citizens of the United States
French neuroscientists
People from Dijon
Scientists from San Diego, California
Academics of Université de Montréal
Andrzej Wiktor Schally (also known as Andrew W. Schally, born November 30, 1926 in Wilno, Poland, now Vilnius, Lithuania) is a Polish-born American endocrinologist. In 1977, He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He is of Jewish descent.

Born in Poland, Andrew Schally received his education in Scotland and England. In 1952, he moved to Canada. He received his doctorate in endocrinology from McGill University in 1957.  That same year he left for a research career in the United States where he has worked mainly at Tulane University. A Canadian citizen when he left Canada, Schally became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1962. He was affiliated with the Baylor College of Medicine for some years in Houston, Texas.
He developed a whole new realm of knowledge concerning the brain’s control over the body chemistry. His works also addressed birth control methods and growth hormones. He - as well as Roger Guillemin- described the neurohormone GnRH that controls FSH and LH. He was awarded an honorary Doctoral Degree from Jagiellonian University at Kraków.

Books
 
 
 Nicholas Wade (1981). The Nobel Duel, Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, NY.

References

1926 births
Living people
American Nobel Prize winners
American physicians
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Vilnius
Polish Jews
Refugees from Nazism
Academics from Louisiana
American biochemists
American physiologists
Canadian physicians
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners
Polish Nobel Prize winners
Polish academics
Polish physicians
Hyde Park is one of the largest parks in central London, England and one of the Royal Parks of London, famous for its Speakers' Corner. It is the largest of the eight Royal Parks.

The park is divided in two by the Serpentine Lake. Hyde Park is 350 acres (1.4 km²) large, together with Kensington Gardens (275 acres, 1.1 km²) that is in the immediate neighbourhood the parks have an overall area of 625 acres (2.5 km²).

The park was the site of The Great Exhibition of 1851, for which the Crystal Palace was designed.

The park has become a traditional place for mass demonstrations.

In 1982, four soldiers were killed in a PIRA bombing.

References 
Room, Adrian. Brewer's Names, Cassell, London, 1992.

Other websites
Other websites

Official website 
Map showing Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens 
'Hyde Park', Old and New London: Volume 4 (1878), pp. 375–405. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=45205. Date accessed: 06 June 2007.
Hyde Park Union: Documentary about Hyde Park and its speakers 
Hyde Park in the 19th century
Hyde Park article

Parks in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
See also Kensington Gardens, South Australia, a suburb of Adelaide, Australia

Kensington Gardens, once the private gardens of Kensington Palace, is one of the Royal Parks of London, lying immediately to the west of Hyde Park. Most of it is in the City of Westminster, but a small section to the west is in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. It covers 275 acres (1.1 km²).

Other websites 

 Kensington Gardens , official website
 Kensington gardens landscape architecture 
 Article on Kensington Gardens
 The Garden  a poem by Ezra Pound set in Kensington Gardens

Parks in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
Buildings and structures in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea
Delfzijl is a small city and former municipality in the very north of the Netherlands, in the province of Groningen. It has around 25,000 inhabitants. It has the fifth most important seaport in the country. Since 2021, it has been part of the new municipality of Eemsdelta.

References

Other websites
 (in Dutch)

Port cities and towns of the North Sea
21st-century disestablishments in the Netherlands
Cities in Groningen (province)
Former municipalities of Groningen (province)
Eemsdelta
The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, also known as the Great Exhibition or the Crystal Palace Exhibition, was an international exhibition held in Hyde Park, London, England, from 1 May to 15 October 1851 and the first in a series of World's Fair exhibitions of culture and industry that were to be a popular 19th century feature. 

The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations (its full title) was organized under the leadership of Prince Albert and members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce.It was planned for 4 months. It was a celebration of modern industrial technology and design. 

Its prime motive was for "Great Britain [to make] clear to the world its role as an industrial leader". Prince Albert, Queen Victoria's consort, was an enthusiastic promoter of the exhibition, which was self-financing. Queen Victoria and her family visited three times.
Technology and moving machinery was popular, especially working exhibits. Visitors could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, as well as musical, horological and surgical instruments.

The Crystal Palace 
A special building, The Crystal Palace,  was built to house the show. It took the form of a massive glass house, 1851 feet (about 564 metres) long by 454 feet (about 138 metres) wide. It was built with a cast iron-frame and glass. It was made almost entirely in Birmingham and Smethwick.

It was designed by Joseph Paxton with support from structural engineer Charles Fox. The committee which oversaw its construction included Isambard Kingdom Brunel. The building was architecturally adventurous. Paxton's had experience designing greenhouses for William Cavendish, the 6th Duke of Devonshire.
The Crystal Palace was an enormous success. It was an architectural marvel, but also an engineering triumph which showed the importance of the Exhibition itself. The building was later moved and re-erected in an enlarged form at Sydenham in south London, an area that was renamed "Crystal Palace". The building was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936.

References

Other websites
 Prince Albert's speech of 1849, announcing "The Exhibition of 1851" 
 "Memorials of the Great Exhibition" Cartoon Series from Punch
Royal Engineers Museum  Royal Engineers and the Great Exhibition
"In Our Time" BBC radio programme discussing the Great Exhibition and its impact.
 Images from the catalogue  on flickr.com
 Charlotte Brontë's account of a visit to the Great Exhibition 
 Great Exhibition Collection in the National Art Library

1851
Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
Exhibitions
Spandau is the westernmost borough (Bezirk) of Berlin. It is along the western bank of the Havel, and is where the rivers Havel and Spree meet.
It has an area of  and has (as of 2003) about 226,100 inhabitants. Its current mayor is Helmut Kleebank (SPD).

History 
The history of Spandau begins in the 7th or 8th century, when Slavs settled in the area and built a fortress. It was conquered in 928 by the German King Henry I, but returns to Slavic rule later in the 10th century.

The first written mention of Spandau was in 1197. It was given City rights in 1232.

The Spandau Citadel was completed in 1594 by Joachim II of Brandenburg. In 1558 the village of Gatow became part of Spandau. Spandau was surrendered to the Swedes in 1634.

In 1806, after the Battle of Jena and Auerstedt, French troops under Napoleon took possession of the city and stayed there until 1807. In 1812, Napoleon returned and the Spandau Citadel was besieged in 1813 by Prussian and Russian troops.