Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Production in the western panhandle began with the discovery of the Jay field in June 1970. Jay is the largest oil field discovered in North America since the discovery of the giant Prudhoe Bay Oil Field on the Alaskan North Slope in 1968. Since then, six more oil fields have been discovered in the western panhandle of Florida. North Florida has dominated Florida oil production since the discovery of the Jay field. North Florida oil fields account for 83 percent of the state’s production, with the Jay field alone producing 71 percent.

It is believed that significant energy resources are located off of Florida's western coast in the Gulf of Mexico, but that region has been closed to exploration since 1981.
In July 2007, Florida Governor Charlie Crist announced plans to sign executive orders that would impose strict new air-pollution standards in the state, with aims to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions by 80 percent of 1990 levels by 2050. Crist's orders would set new emissions targets for power companies, automobiles and trucks, and toughen conservation goals for state agencies and require state-owned vehicles to use alternative fuels.

Florida gets much of its drinking water from the Floridan Aquifer and the Biscayne Aquifer, as well as from surface water from Lake Okeechobee and other lakes, but population increases have begun to strain available sources. The state has built 120 desalination plants, more than three times as many as any other state, including the largest plant in the United States. Additionally, an electrodialysis reversal plant in Sarasota is the largest of its type in the world, and a nanofiltration plant in Boca Raton is the largest of its type in the western hemisphere.
Increasing landfill space is also an issue. St. Lucie County is planning to experiment with burning trash through plasma arc gasification to generate energy and reduce landfill space. The experiment will be the largest of its kind in the world to date, and begin operation no later than 2009. If successful, experts estimate that the entire St. Lucie County landfill, estimated to contain 4.3 million tons of trash, will disappear within 18 years. Materials created in the energy production can also be used in road construction.

Parks
Parks

Areas under control of the National Park Service include:
 Big Cypress National Preserve, near Lake Okeechobee
 Biscayne National Park, in Miami-Dade County south of Miami
 Canaveral National Seashore, near Titusville
 Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, in St. Augustine
 De Soto National Memorial, in Bradenton
 Dry Tortugas National Park, at Key West
 Everglades National Park in Southern Florida
 Fort Caroline National Memorial, at Jacksonville
 Fort Matanzas National Monument, in St. Augustine
 Gulf Islands National Seashore, near Gulf Breeze
 Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve, in Jacksonville
Areas under the control of the USDA United States Forest Service include:
 Apalachicola National Forest along the east bank of the Apalachicola River,
 Choctawhatchee National Forest near Niceville,
 Ocala National Forest in Central Florida, and
 Osceola National Forest in Northeast Florida.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Ocean Service is responsible for one sanctuary:
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

Biodiversity
Florida is a biodiverse state, with 3,500 native vascular plants and 1,500 vertebrates, a higher number than all but three other states. A 2003 United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization study stated that the Florida Straits had the highest biodiversity in the Atlantic Ocean, and were the home to 25 endemic species.

Flora

Red tide has also been an issue on the southwest coast of Florida. While there has been a great deal of guessing over the cause of the toxic algae bloom, there is no evidence that it is being caused by pollution or that there has been an increase in the length or frequency of red tide outbreaks.
Floral  pests
Native flora is threatened by various invasive plants, including the Brazilian Pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius). Owning and growing this tree is illegal. Large numbers of volunteers cut down these invaders, particularly along waterways. The Australian pine (Casuarina spp.) is being actively attacked.

Other foreign pests include the Asian ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus), which threatens the local avocado industry and redbay trees (Persea borbonia).

It is illegal to import Giant African land snails (achatina fulica). These threaten buildings, 500 types of local plants, and carry meningitis.

Fauna

Endemic species in Florida include the Florida Scrub Jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens), Miami blue (Cyclargus thomasi bethunebakeri), Okaloosa darter (Etheostoma okaloosae), and Key Deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium).
Florida is a popular destination for birdwatching, because of the many species that can be found in the state at various times of the year. The Florida Ornithological Society maintains the official state list of the birds of Florida, which currently contains 498 species. A study published in 2003 by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission documented 196 species of birds which were confirmed to breed in the state, with an additional 19 species listed as possible or probable breeders. The Great Florida Birding Trail, a 2,000-mile-long (3,200 km) trail, is composed of 489 locations throughout the state which are excellent observation sites.

Sport fishing is also popular in Florida; over 250 different species of fishes (including 73 non-native species) can be found in Florida. There are more than 1,000 species of fish in Florida's inshore waters.

In 2010, NOAA, citing the Magnuson-Stevens Act, banned fishing of red snapper until the population has time to recover.
Florida's Atlantic coast is home to the only extensive coral reefs in the continental United States, and the third largest in the world. The entire reef system in the Florida Keys is part of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, and large parts of reef are protected as part of Biscayne National Park.

In 1977, the federal government placed alligators on the endangered species list. They were removed from the endangered list in 1987 and Florida allowed selective hunting in 1988.

Bird and turtle habitats
In 1987, Brevard County, Florida hosted the last member of the Dusky Seaside Sparrow, now extinct. There have been only two extinct bird species since listing of endangered species began in 1973. This event has presented a challenge to ensure that other environmental concerns are addressed quickly.

The Florida Scrub Jay has been thought to be threatened for many years, because the species is territorial and cannot move to better grounds when its habitat is in danger.
Nesting beaches of loggerhead sea turtles are protected.

References

Other websites
The Living Marine Resources of the Western Central Atlantic, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
 Energy and Environmental Data for Florida 
 Executive Order 07-126 establishing climate leadership by example 
 Executive Order 07-128 Action Team On Energy and Climate Change 

Florida
Tarafa Baghajati (, (born September 1st 1961) in Damascus, Syria) is a human right activist and writer, he is also the chairman of the Austrian Muslim Initiative (AMI).
He lives in Vienna, Austria since 1986.

Life 
Tarafa Baghajati was born in Damascus, to parents Adnan Baghajati,an author and former Syrian Education minister, and Amal Homsi, an economic journalist.

In 1984 the Syrian regime detained Baghajati for more than 8 months, he spent three of them in Tadmor Prison due to his political views.

Since he moved to Austria in 1986, Baghajati is active on the topics of immigration, anti-racism, human right and political issues which also involve the Middle East especially his home country Syria, he is also very active on the topics of Islam and Muslim in Austria and Europe, and opposition what is known as Islamophobia, and the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM), in Africa and Europe.
In 1999, he found the initiative of Muslim Austrians ( IMOE ) with his wife Carla Amina Baghajati , Omar Al-Rawi, Mouddar Khouja and Andrea Saleh, who are members of the Islamic Religion Community in Austria .

Baghajati is a former board member . (2001 - 2007, 2004-2007 Vice- President ) and member of the Honorary Advisory Board of European Network Against Racism (ENAR)
He is also a board member of the Platform for Intercultural Europe (PIE).

In March 2009, Rüdiger Nehberg and Tarafa Baghajati met Sheikh Prof.Dr Yusuf al-Qaradawi in Qatar, one of the most best known Islamic contemporary authority scholar. They obtained a fatwa issued by the recognized legal scholars, stating the genital mutilation of girls is referred to and forbidden as "devil's work" because it is directed against the ethics of Islam. Speaking at the Hamburg Museum of Ethnology, 6 February 2011 Baghajati ventured to predict to celebrate the end of this practice as early as 2020.
in February 2011,Rüdiger Nehberg and Tarafa Baghajati met this time Sheikh Prof.Dr Mohamed Said Ramadan Al-Bouti and obtained a similar fatwa against female genital mutilation.

Baghajati is one of the finders and a board member of European Muslim Initiative for Social Cohesion (EMISCO).

Education
Baghajati graduated as civil engineer from Polytechnic University of Timișoara in 1986

Awards 
Initiative of Muslim Austrians (IMOE) won democracy award by Margaretha Lupac Stiftung in 2008.

Personal life 
He is married to Carla Amina Baghajati since 1990,has four children.

References

1961 births
Living people
Austrian engineers
Human rights activists
Muslims
Political prisoners
Writers from Vienna
Austrian activists
Civil engineers
Micronations are countries started by one or a group of people which are not seen as actual countries by the United Nations. These countries are mostly used in people's heads, or on the internet. It is important to note that micronations are different from partially-recognised countries and separatist territories, which often have full autonomy over their territories. 

People make micronations for lots of reasons. Some are to show they do not like their main country (for example the United Kingdom), or if they want to make money, or to use it as a place for themselves. Micronations create their own rules, but because they are not recognised as actual countries, they have to keep within the laws of their home country.

Some of the more famous micronations include the Republic of Molossia, the Islamic Sultanate of Qarsherskiy, Sealand, the Aerican Empire, and Eternia.

List
Here is a list of some Micronations;

Competitions
Some micronations play in competitions.
Football
The biggest football organisation for micronations is known as the MFA (Micronational Football Association), founded by Joe Foxon in 2009. It has 13 micronations from 7 countries as members. It makes a competition every 4 years called the MFA World Cup for all the micronations in the world to play in. The first World Cup will be in Southern England in 2013.

Chess
Every year there is a chess competition for micronations to play in. It is played on the computer and in the first year, 3 micronations took part.

Singing
Every year there is a singing competition called the MicroVision Song Contest. Micronations make a song and put it on the internet, and then other micronations vote for the best song. The winner then makes the next one.

Other websites
Wiki of Micronations

References
Jacqueline Ruth "Ilene" Woods (May 5, 1929 – July 1, 2010) was an American singer and actress who voiced Cinderella in the 1950 Disney movie.

Early life 
Woods was born on May 5, 1929 in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. As a child Woods was led into singing by her mother. By the age of 11, Woods had her own radio show.

Career
In 1948, at the age of 18, Woods recorded several songs for friends Mack David and Jerry Livingston. The songs ("Bibbidi Bobbidi Boo", "So This is Love", and "A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes") were then played for Walt Disney. He chose Woods out of 300 other girls to play the part of Cinderella for the Disney movie Cinderella. Recording the part took about 2 years, working off and on.

Later years
Woods was first married to Stephen Steck Jr. They had one child, a daughter named Stephanie. After a divorce, in 1963 she married Ed Shaughnessy. They had two sons, James and Daniel.  In 2003 she was recognized as a Disney Legend for her work in Cinderella.
Death
Woods died on July 1, 2010 from causes related to Alzheimer's disease in Canoga Park, Los Angeles, California. She was 81.

References

1929 births
2010 deaths
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American voice actors
American radio actors
Singers from New Hampshire
Actors from New Hampshire
People from Portsmouth, New Hampshire
The Zygophyllaceae is a family of flowering plants that contains the bean-caper and caltrop. It includes around 285 species in 22 genera.

In the APG III system of classification, the families Zygophyllaceae and Krameriaceae compose the order Zygophyllales.

rosids
Plant families
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (18 July 1853 – 4 February 1928) was a Dutch physicist. In 1902, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics together with Pieter Zeeman for the discovery and theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect. He also derived the transformation equations that were later used by Albert Einstein to describe space and time.

Biography

Early life
Hendrik Lorentz was born in Arnhem, Gelderland (The Netherlands), the son of Gerrit Frederik Lorentz (1822–1893). In 1862, after his mother's death, his father married Luberta Hupkes.

Career

Lorentz and special relativity
In 1905, Einstein would use many of the concepts to write his paper entitled "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", known today as the theory of special relativity. Because Lorentz laid the fundamentals for the work by Einstein, this theory was originally called the Lorentz-Einstein theory.
Lorentz and general relativity
Lorentz was one of few scientists who supported Einstein's search for general relativity from the beginning – he wrote several research papers and discussed with Einstein personally and by letter. For instance, he attempted to combine Einstein's formalism with Hamilton's principle (1915).

Death
In January 1928, Lorentz became seriously ill, and died shortly after on February 4.

Related pages
Lorentz force

References

Other websites

in the Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Science, Amsterdam

1853 births
1928 deaths
Dutch academics
Dutch Nobel Prize winners
People from Arnhem
Dutch theoretical physicists
Galileo was an unmanned NASA spacecraft. It explored the planet Jupiter and its moons. Galileo was launched in 1989 and it arrived at Jupiter in 1995.

Galileo was made up of two parts: an orbiter and a probe. The probe was released from the orbiter on July 13, 1995 and it went towards Jupiter. It reached Jupiter on December 7, 1995 and went down into the atmosphere. The probe gathered data for 57 minutes until the great atmospheric heat and pressure destroyed it.

The orbiter went into orbit around the planet on December 8, 1995 and went down into Jupiter's atmosphere and was crushed on September 21, 2003.

References

NASA spacecraft
Jupiter
1990s in spaceflight
Henderson's Boys is a series of young adult spy books. It was written by English author Robert Muchamore. The series follows Charles Henderson, the creator of a fictional espionage organisation CHERUB and is set in the 1940s, during World War II. Henderson goes on various adventures, helped by children. Henderson's Boys is a spin-off of the popular CHERUB series, which is about the same organisation in modern times. There are seven books in the series. These are The Escape, Eagle Day, Secret Army, Grey Wolves, The Prisoner, One Shot Kill and Scorched Earth.

References

British young adult novels
2009 books
Mixed-oxide fuel (or MOX fuel) is nuclear fuel that contains an oxide of more than one element. Most nuclear fuel that is not of the MOX type only contains uranium dioxide. In most cases, the additional oxide will be plutonium dioxide, sometimes thorium dioxide. Any reactor that uses uranium-based fuel will produce plutonium dioxide. Mox fuel consists of about 93% uranium, and about 7% of thorium or plutonium dioxide.

One of the benefits of using MOX-type fuel is that the plutonium dioxide that is produced, can be re-used for energy generation. Certain types of nuclear power plants need plutonium to work properly.

Nuclear energy
The Bush is a term for the portions of Alaska that are not connected to North America's road network.  Most of Alaska's native populations live in the Bush. They live off the land as their ancestors did.

Places in the Bush include Bethel, Dillingham, King Salmon, Nome, Barrow, Katmai National Park, Kodiak Island, Kotzebue, and Unalaska-Dutch Harbor.

Most parts of Alaska that are off the road system can only be reached by small airplane. Travel from place to place is usually by  snowmobile or snow machine, boat, or sometimes dog sled.

References 

Bush, The
Arctic Alaska, or Far North Alaska is a region of the U.S. state of Alaska. It is the northern area between the Arctic Circle and the Arctic Ocean.

Some of the places in Arctic Alaska are the North Slope Borough, the Northwest Arctic Borough, and the Nome Census Area. Some towns there are Prudhoe Bay, Barrow, Kotzebue, and Nome.

Most of these places have no highways and can only be reached by aircraft or snowmobile, or by boat if they are on the coast or near a river when they are not frozen. Long ago there were only Inuits living here, who make up the majority of the population. They mostly ate salmon, which there are lots of there, and also whales and other marine mammals. More people came to Arctic Alaska when gold was discovered there. Still more people and industry came when petroleum was discovered in the area. Above the Arctic Circle, the sun rises in May and sets in August.
Arctic Alaska is mostly tundra covering mountain ranges and coastal plains. Some of the animals there are bears, wolves, sheep, reindeer, and lots of birds.

Other websites 
Regions of Alaska, including description of Far North Alaska 

Geography of Alaska
Arctic
The Principality of Hutt River, previously known as the Hutt River Province, is the oldest micronation in Australia. The principality claims to be an independent sovereign state.  It is unrecognized except by other micronations, but got de facto legal status on 21 April 1972.

The principality is located  north of Perth, near the town of Northampton.

The principality was founded on 21 April 1970 by Leonard George Casley when he and his friends proclaimed their secession from the state of Western Australia.
The Principality of Hutt River was created in 1969, as a province by the name of Hutt River Province, in response to a dispute with the government of Western Australia over what the Casley family considered draconian wheat production quotas. The Casley farm had around  of wheat ready to harvest when the quotas were issued which allowed Casley to sell only 1,647 bushels or approximately . Initially the five families who owned farms in Hutt River banded together to fight the quota and Casley lodged a protest with the Governor of Western Australia Sir Douglas Kendrew. The Governor replied "no rectification of our Quota would be allowed" which, as he acts as the Queen's representative, made Her Majesty technically liable, in Tort, for applying an unlawful imposition as the quota had not yet been passed into law. Casley then lodged a claim under the Law of Tort for $52 million in the belief the claim would force a revision of the quota
. Two weeks later the government introduced a bill into Parliament to "resume" their rural lands under compulsory acquisition. After approaches to the government to reconsider the acquisition bill failed, Casley and his associates resorted to a British law (the Treason Act 1495) which they felt allowed them to secede and declare their independence from the Commonwealth of Australia. Casley states that he nonetheless remains loyal to Queen Elizabeth II. Casley was elected administrator of the new "sovereign state" by his family.
The government of Western Australia determined it could do nothing without the intervention of the Commonwealth. The Governor-General of Australia, Sir Paul Hasluck, later stated that it was unconstitutional for the Commonwealth to intervene in the secession. In letters with the governor-general's office, Casley was called the "Administrator of the Hutt River Province" by mistake. The Royal Prerogative, makes this recognition binding on all courts.  After the government threatened him with prosecution, Casley styled himself His Royal Highness Prince Leonard I of Hutt to take advantage of a Commonwealth law that a monarch could not only not be charged, but that anyone who interfered with his duties could be charged with treason. Although the law in this matter has since changed, the Australian government has not taken any action against Hutt River since the declaration
. Under Australian law, the government had two years to respond to Casley's declaration; the failure to respond gave the province de facto legal status on 21 April 1972.
In 1976, Australia Post refused to handle Hutt River mail, forcing mail to be redirected via Canada. Following repeated demands by the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) for the payment of taxes, on 2 December 1977 the province officially declared war on Australia. Prince Leonard notified authorities of the cessation of hostilities several days later. The mail service was restored and tax requests ceased. Hutt River citizens are now classed by the ATO as non-residents of Australia for income tax purposes; thus income earned within the province is exempt from Australian taxation. The province levies its own income tax of 0.5% on financial transactions by foreign companies registered in the province and personal accounts.

While the principality does not pay taxes, the Australian government's current official position is that it is nothing more than a private enterprise operating under a business name.
In the early 1980s Hutt River Province declared itself to be a kingdom, but soon after reverted to its original status of a principality. The principality proceeded to release a number of its own stamps and coins.

In September 2006 Prince Leonard decided to change the name to "Principality of Hutt River" and dropped the word "Province".

Statistics 
The Principality of Hutt River is situated  north of Perth along the Hutt River. It is about  in size.

Exports include wildflowers, agricultural produce, stamps and coins. Tourism is also important to its economy with 40,000 tourists visiting the principality every year.

Very few people live in Hutt River, but the principality claims a world-wide citizenry of 13,000.

The Principality has no standing army, but a number of its citizens have been awarded military commissions. Honorary guardsmen attend the prince on formal occasions, and despite being completely landlocked, naval commissions have been conferred on supporters of the principality.
The principality's capital, Nain, is named after Nain in Galilee.

Government
When the Principality of Hutt River seceded, a bill of rights, a brief document outlining the rights of "Hutt River" citizens, was drafted. It also provided for an administration board to govern the principality until a permanent government could be set up. When Casley declared himself a prince, the administration board was abolished and the Hutt River Principality became a benevolent absolute monarchy, with a legislation committee to draft new legislation. In 1997, the legislation committee presented a proposal for a constitution to the prince and his cabinet. Its most recent version is effective from 1 January 2011.  All citizens over 18 living in the principality have the right to elect the parliament.

Royal Family
Royal Family

His Royal Highness Prince Leonard I of Hutt was the style that has been used by Leonard George Casley since his creation of the Hutt River Principality.  Prince Leonard was married to Her Royal Highness Princess Shirley of Hutt, Dame of the Rose of Sharon (née Shirley Butler).  They have seven adult children, among them is Crown Prince Ian (born 1947) who is the Prime Minister of the Principality, and is Prince Leonard's heir apparent.

Prince Leonard died of a lung infection on 13 February 2019 at the age of 93.

Prince Ian is involved heavily in the wildflower production, with the product not only being exported to Perth, Western Australia but to many cities internationally.

Princess Shirley plays host to the many dignitaries and diplomatic representatives visiting the principality each year as well as receiving many of the television crews and magazine journalists. She is also royal patron and chairwoman on the board of directors of the Red Cross of Hutt.
In the royal family there are 24 grandchildren and 23 great-grand children in the direct line.

Prince Leonard pursued a number of occupations before purchasing a large wheat farm near Northampton, Western Australia and Geraldton, Western Australia in the 1960s.
A former mathematician and physicist who worked for NASA in the 1950s, the prince has had a star named in his honour.

Despite his advancing years the prince Leonard is known as a keen-minded "bush lawyer". He is also an adherent of hermeticism, a subject on which he has privately published a number of research papers and books.

Prince Leonard is the subject of a permanent exhibit at the National Museum of Australia in Canberra.

Currency

A set of low denomination banknotes was introduced in 1974. The first Hutt River coins were not issued until 1976.

The currency of the Hutt River Province Principality is the Hutt River Dollar, which is divided into 100 cents. The Hutt River Dollar is tied at a one-to-one ratio with the Australian dollar.
First series: 1976 - 1978
There were four denominations: 5₵, 10₵, 20₵ and 50₵. These were issued between 1976 and 1978, but the 1978 issue was a proof only issue. There was also a silver $30 coin and a gold $100 coin, struck only in proof.

Silver Jubilee $1 coin
In 1977 $1 coins were struck to commemorate the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II. These coins are known as "holey dollars", a nickname which is applied to the extremely rare New South Wales 5/- coin and the Prince Edward Island 5/- coin, which were cut and counterstamped from Spanish-American Pieces of Eight (8 Reales).

Coins of the same design were struck again in 1978, without the inscription "Queens's Jubilee".

Later series
Most of the coins of later series have specific commemorative topics and are usually made of precious metal. The issuance of coins went on until 2000, and resumed with new issues beginning in 2007 to celebrate the 60th wedding anniversary of the Prince and Princess.
Status and criticism
The Australian Ambassador to the United Arab Emirates, Jeremy Bruer, upon hearing that an office claiming to represent the “Hutt River Province” was operating in Dubai and allegedly selling travel documents, stated that the Australian Government did not recognise the "Hutt River Province", legally or in any other way.

He further stated that: "The area of land which is described as the 'Hutt River Province' is a privately owned wheat-growing property on the Hutt River, north of Geraldton in the State of Western Australia. It has no special status. It has no separate sovereignty and remains subject to the Australian Constitution and the laws of Australia."
Regarding the use of titles, the ambassador said that: "The Australian Government does not recognise the 'royal titles' nor titles of office, such as 'Head of State', 'State minister' and 'Minister for Foreign Affairs' assumed by the family owning the property nor the use of terms such as 'consulates' and 'principality' in relation to the 'Hutt River Province'."

However, the Hutt River Province argues that it is an independent entity within the Australian legal system and the Commonwealth has no right to dispute the claimed de facto legality it was given in error by the Governor General's office, and its own failure to respond to the claim. To overturn this de facto recognition, the West Australian Governor General's office would have to submit the secession to arbitration, something which the Hutt River Province claims is not done due to legal uncertainty related to the fact that Western Australia in its entirety was never officially proclaimed as British Territory.
Although passports issued by the "Hutt River Province" are not legally recognised by the Australian Government, they have been accepted on a case-by-case basis for overseas travel.

In 2010 Brendon Grylls, the Western Australian Minister for Regional Development and Lands, was asked if his state had a position on the province. He replied "Only that Prince Leonard is an enigma...There is nothing currently on my agenda as Minister...that relates to that."

Treatment by Australian Government departments
On the whole, Australian Government departments do not interfere with Hutt River Province. While the Australian Taxation Office has issued a warning on its website for the public not to purchase companies from the PHR, it has not acted against the principality.
The principality had plans to start a university in its territory, which is illegal within Australia. However, the government authorities did not act against PHR. Similarly, the PHR does not pay taxes to the ATO.
Treatment by European Government departments
In 2008, the Council of the European Union issued a memorandum identifying Hutt River passports among known "fantasy passports...issued by private organisations and individuals" to which a visa should not be affixed.

References 

 "Mini-states Down Under are sure they can secede", by Nick Squires, The Daily Telegraph (UK) , 24 February 2005.
 "If at first you don't secede…", by Mark Dapin, The Sydney Morning Herald – Good Weekend, 12 February 2005, pp 47–50
 "Unusual World Coins", by Colin R Bruce, Krause Publications, 2005, , p240

Other websites

PHR
 Principality of Hutt River (PHR) website
 Permanent Representative of the PHR Berlin-Germany , multilanguage site
 PHR website/Charge D'Affaires for New England 
 HRP US Representative Office website (Updated 2007) 
 Hutt River Principality, Cabinet Magazine

Australian Government
 Australian Taxation Office's viewpoint on HRP's business 
 National Museum of Australia
Other
 Time Magazine article/1975 
 ABC TV transcript/2003
 Interview with H.R.H. Prince Leonard

Western Australia
Micronations
Bitcoin  (₿) is a digital and global money system cryptocurrency. It allows people to send or receive money across the internet, even to someone they don't know or don't trust. It is the first of its kind technology that allows the transfer of digital scarcity across the internet without needing a third party. Money can be exchanged without being linked to a real identity. The mathematical field of cryptography is the basis for Bitcoin's security.

Bitcoin was invented by someone using the name . A Bitcoin address, or simply address, is an identifier of 26-35 letters and numbers, beginning with the number 1, 3, or bc1, that represents a possible destination for a bitcoin payment. Addresses can be generated at no cost by any user of Bitcoin. For example, using Bitcoin Core, one can click "New Address" and be assigned an address. It is also possible to get a Bitcoin address using an account at an exchange or online wallet service.

History
History

Creation
The domain name "bitcoin.org" was registered on 18 August 2008. On 31 October 2008, a link to a paper authored by Satoshi Nakamoto titled Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System was posted to a cryptography mailing list.

In June 2021, El Salvador became the first country in the world to make Bitcoin a legal tender. In April 2022, the Central African Republic made bitcoin a legal tender.

Pseudonymous 
One of the differences between using bitcoin and using regular money online is that bitcoin can be used without having an internet connection to link any sort of real-world identity to it. Unless someone chooses to link their name to a bitcoin address, it is hard to tell who owns the address. Bitcoin does not keep track of users; it keeps track of addresses where the money is. Each address has two important pieces of cryptographic information, or keys: a public one and a private one.
Public key 
A public key is what determines the ownership of bitcoins, and is very similar to an ID number. If someone wanted to send you bitcoins, all you would need to do is supply them your bitcoin address, which is a version of your public key that is easier to read and type. For example, if Bob has 1 bitcoin at the bitcoin address "ABC123," and Alice has no bitcoins at the bitcoin address "DEF456," Bob can send 0.5 bitcoins to "DEF456." As soon as the transaction is processed, Alice and Bob both have 0.5 bitcoins. Anyone using the system can see how much money "ABC123" has and how much money "DEF456" has, but they cannot tell anything about who owns the address.

Private key 
A Bitcoin private key has 52 characters consisting of letters and numbers. It is, simply, a random number. The set of numbers that can make up a private key is extremely large. The Bitcoin private key can be any number from a maximum of 2 to the power of 256.
In the example above, "ABC123" and "DEF456" are the bitcoin addresses of Bob and Alice. But Bob and Alice each have a second key which only they individually know. This is the private key, and it is the "other half" of a Bitcoin address. The private key is never shared, and allows the owner of the bitcoins to control them. However, if the private key is not kept secret, then anyone who sees it can also control and take the bitcoins there. This happened on live TV when Bloomberg's Matt Miller accidentally showed a private key to viewers. The money was taken immediately. The person who took it, told others about it later, saying "I'll send it back once Matt gives me a new address, since someone else can sweep [empty] out the old one."

Technical Details
Technical Details

Blockchain 
Sites or users using the Bitcoin system are required to use a global database called blockchain. Blockchain is a record of all transactions that have taken place in the Bitcoin network. It also keeps track of new bitcoins as they are generated.  With these two facts, the blockchain can keep track of who has how much money at all times.
Mining 
The process of generating the bitcoins is called mining. To generate a bitcoin, a miner must solve a math problem. However, the difficulty of the math problem depends on how many people are mining for bitcoin at the moment. Because of how complicated the math problems usually are, they must be calculated with very powerful processors. These processors can be found in CPUs, graphics cards, or specialized machines called ASICs. People who use these machines to mine bitcoins are called miners. Miners either compete with one another or work together in groups to solve a mathematical puzzle. The first miner or group of miners to solve the particular puzzle are rewarded with new bitcoins.
The puzzle is determined by the transactions being sent at the time and the previous puzzle solution. This means the solution to one puzzle is always different from the puzzles before. Attempting to change an earlier transaction, maybe to fake bitcoins being sent or change the number of someone's bitcoins, requires solving that puzzle again, which takes a lot of work, and also requires solving each of the following puzzles, which takes even more work. This means a bitcoin cheater needs to outpace all the other bitcoin miners to change the bitcoin history. This makes the bitcoin blockchain very safe to use.

When miners mine a block of bitcoin, they receive a reward. This reward gets cut in half every 210,000 blocks, which occurs roughly once every 4 years. During Bitcoin's inception, the block reward was 50 BTC. It was halved to 25 BTC on November 28th, 2012, and to 12.5 BTC on July 9th, 2016. As of May 11th, 2020, the block reward has been 6.25 BTC.

QR codes
QR codes 

A popular image associated with Bitcoin is a QR code. QR codes are a group of black and white boxes that are similar to barcodes.  Barcodes are a row of lines, and QR codes are a grid of squares. Bitcoin uses QR codes because they can store more information in a small space, and a camera such as a smartphone can read them. The two QR codes on the Bitcoin note are the public and private addresses, and can be scanned with a number of online tools.

Exchanges 

Everyone in the Bitcoin network is considered a peer, and all addresses are created equal. All transactions can take place solely from peer to peer, but a number of sites exist to make these transactions simpler. These sites are called exchanges. Exchanges provide tools for dealing in Bitcoin. Some allow the purchase of Bitcoin from external accounts, and others allow trading with other cryptography-based currencies like Bitcoin. Most exchanges also provide a basic "wallet" service.
Wallets 
Wallets provide a handy way to keep track of all of a user's public and private addresses. Because addresses are pseudo a anonymous, anyone can have as many addresses as they want. This is useful for dealing with multiple people, but it can get complicated to manage multiple accounts. A wallet holds all of this information in a convenient place, just like a real wallet would. A backup of a wallet prevents 'losing' the bitcoins.

Popularity 
During the 2010s, Bitcoin has gained the attention of the mainstream media. Adoption growth has not only happened for consumers, but also for many companies, who are looking to make use of all of the advantages of Bitcoin.

As of 2018, Bitcoin was most popular cryptocurrency, followed by Ethereum and Litecoin.

As of 2021, El Salvador is the first country in the world to adopt the Bitcoin as a legal tender.
Criticism 
Bitcoin has often been criticized for its unstable price, its network's high electricity consumption, and for its high transaction fees. Additionally, it has been criticized for having characteristics in common with Ponzi and pyramid schemes.

Notes

References

Other websites

 Bitcoin.org website
 

2009 establishments
Cryptocurrency
Andrew Zachary Fire (born April 27, 1959 in Palo Alto, California) is an American biologist. He is a professor of pathology and genetics at Stanford University School of Medicine. Fire was given the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of RNA interference. The research was conducted at Carnegie Institution for Science and published in 1998.

Education 
Fire completed high school at age 15. He wanted to study at Stanford University, where he would later work, but was not accepted. He studied at the University of Californiaat Berkeley. Fire graduated with a bachelor's degree in mathematics at 19,  and earned a PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1983.
Nobel prize 
In 2006, Fire and Craig Mello shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for work first published in 1998 in the journal Nature. The paper reports that tiny snippets of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) effectively shut down specific genes, and so caused the destruction of messenger RNA (mRNA) with sequences matching the dsRNA. As a result, the mRNA cannot be translated into protein.

Fire and Mello found that dsRNA was much more effective in gene silencing than the previously described method of RNA interference with single-stranded RNA. Because only small numbers of dsRNA molecules were required for the observed effect, Fire and Mello proposed that a catalytic process was involved. This hypothesis was confirmed by later research.
The Nobel Prize citation, issued by Sweden's Karolinska Institute, said: "This year's Nobel Laureates have discovered a fundamental mechanism for controlling the flow of genetic information". The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) quoted Nick Hastie, director of the Medical Research Council's Human Genetics Unit, on the scope and implications of the research:

"It is very unusual for a piece of work to completely revolutionise the whole way we think about biological processes and regulation, but this has opened up a whole new field in biology".

References

1959 births
Living people
American biologists
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from California
Jewish American scientists
People from Palo Alto, California
Pathologists
Stanley Cohen (November 17, 1922 – February 5, 2020) was an American biochemist of Jewish descent. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1986. His research helped people understand how cancer starts and how to design anti-cancer drugs.

He was also, with Herbert Boyer, one of the first to do any kind of genetic engineering.

Biography
Cohen majored in chemistry and biology at Brooklyn College. He received a bachelor's degree in 1943, and worked as a bacteriologist at a plant that processes milk. Later in 1945, he received an M.A. in zoology from Oberlin College. He also received a Ph.D. from the department of biochemistry at the University of Michigan in 1948.

In the 1950s, Cohen worked with Rita Levi-Montalcini at Washington University in St. Louis. He isolated the nerve growth factor and then discovered the epidermal growth factor. In 1959, he began teaching biochemistry at Vanderbilt University.
Cohen also received the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University in 1983 and the National Medal of Science in 1986.

Cohen died on February 5, 2020 in Nashville, Tennessee at the age of 97.

References

Other websites
 Autobiography at Nobel Prize website

1922 births
2020 deaths
American biochemists
American Nobel Prize winners
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from New York City
Nephrons are tiny tubules (miniature tubes) which are the smallest working part of the kidney. This is where the kidney removes waste, excess salt and excess water. 

Each nephron starts in the cortex of the kidney, then goes into the medulla of the kidney, before coming back to the cortex, then goes through the medulla into the pelvis of the kidney. In the pelvis, the nephrons join up with the ureter.

In humans, a normal kidney has between 800,000 and 1.5 million nephrons.

Each nephron consists of a cup-shaped structure at one end called the Bowman's capsule. It extends into a long urinary tubule,that is surrounded by a network of renal capillaries. The urinary tubules of nephrons in each kidney join to form a common tube called the ureter.

Inside the Bowman's capsule is a network of blood capillaries, the glomerulus. The Bowman's capsule and glomerulus together form the Malphigian capsule or Malphigian body.
Liquid passes through the segments of the nephron in this order:
Bowman's capsule (including glomerulus)
Proximal convoluted tubule
Descending loop of Henle
Ascending loop of Henle
Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting duct

References

Anatomy of the urinary system
The Parliament of Canada  () is the federal legislative branch of Canada, seated at Parliament Hill in the national capital, Ottawa.

Parts
The parliament has three parts.  
 King Charles lll as Canadian monarch, represented by her governor general
 The Senate, or "upper house" and 
 The House of Commons often called the "lower house"

Members
The governor general summons and appoints each of the 105 members of the upper house on the advice of the Prime Minister of Canada, while the 308 members of the lower house are directly elected by Canadian voters, with each Member of Parliament representing a single electoral district.

 
Canada
Queen Máxima of the Netherlands (born as Máxima Zorreguieta; 17 May 1971) is the wife of Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands.

Early life and education
She was born Máxima Zorreguieta in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 17 May 1971. Máxima is the daughter of Jorge Horacio Zorreguieta Stefanini, a farmer and a politician (died 2017). He was the under-secretary of Agriculture under Jorge R. Videla's military dictatorship. She studied in Northlands School, in Argentina. She has two brothers, a sister and three half-sisters by her father's first wife.
She graduated with a degree in Economics from the Universidad Católica Argentina in 1995 before working for large international companies in Finance in Argentina, New York and Europe.

In June 2018, her sister Inés Zorreguieta, committed suicide by hanging herself at her Buenos Aires apartment, aged 33.

She has been serving as the United Nations Secretary General’s Special Advocate for Inclusive Finance for Development (UNSGSA) since 2009.
Relationship with Willem-Alexander
Máxima met the crown prince in April 1999 in Sevilla, Spain, during the Seville Spring Fair. This is an important annual event, to which many people from other countries come and dress in typical Spanish Andalusian costume. In an interview, they stated that he introduced himself only as "Alexander," so that she did not know he was a prince. She thought he was joking when he told her he was a Prince. They agreed to meet in New York, where Máxima was working for Dresdner Kleinwort Benson, two weeks later. Their relationship apparently began in New York, but the Princess did not meet the Prince's parents, Queen Beatrix and Claus von Amsberg, for some time.
The news of the couple's relationship and eventual marriage plans caused controversy in the Netherlands. Máxima's father had been the Minister of Agriculture during the regime of former Argentine President Jorge Rafael Videla, a military dictator who ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1981 and who was responsible for many atrocities against civilians (non-military people). An estimated 10,000–30,000 people disappeared during this and later military regimes. Democracy was restored to Argentina in 1983.

Jorge Zorreguieta claimed that, as a civilian, he did not know about the Dirty War while he was a cabinet minister. Professor Baud was asked by the Dutch Parliament to research in what way Jorge Zorreguieta was involved in the war. He concluded that it would have been unlikely for a person in such a powerful position in the government to not know about the Dirty War. But the research also found that Máxima's father had not been directly involved with the many deaths in question.
The Dutch parliament gave permission for Máxima and Willem-Alexander to marry. This is necessary by law for the Prince of Orange to be able to become king. Because of the research around his involvement in the Dirty War, Máxima's father offered not to attend the wedding. Out of solidarity with her husband, Máxima's mother also did not come to the wedding on 2 February 2002 in Amsterdam.

Marriage
The couple announced their engagement on 30 March 2001. Princess Máxima talked to the nation in fluent Dutch during the live  broadcast on the occasion of the engagement.

Princess Máxima and Prince Willem-Alexander were married on 2 February 2002 in a civil ceremony in the Beurs van Berlage, Amsterdam. After that they had a religious ceremony at the Nieuwe Kerk (also in Amsterdam).

Title 

2 February 2002-30 April 2013 Her Royal Highness Princess Maxima of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau 

30 April 2013-present Her Majesty The Queen
Children
 Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange (born 7 December 2003)
 Princess Alexia of the Netherlands (born 26 June 2005)
 Princess Ariane of the Netherlands (born 10 April 2007)

The second names of all three of their daughters are also the names of the last three Dutch queens: Amalia's for her grandmother, Queen Beatrix, Alexia's for her great-grandmother, Queen Juliana and Ariane's for her great-great-grandmother, Queen Wilhelmina.

Queen Máxima is also godmother to two royal babies: Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau (daughter of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands) and of Prince Sverre Magnus of Norway (son of Crown Prince Haakon and Crown Princess Mette-Marit of Norway).

References

Other websites