Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Placebo may mean:
 Placebo, a treatment without intrinsic therapeutic value, but administered as if it were a therapy
 Placebo (band), an alternative rock band
 Placebo (album), the band's self-titled debut album
 Placebo (at funeral) (obsolete usage), someone who falsely claims a connection to the deceased to get a share of the funeral meal
 Observer bias, particularly in audio circles
 And see Placebo effect (disambiguation).
Placebo effect may refer to:
 The placebo effect, the tendency of any pain relief medication or treatment, even an inert or ineffective one, to exhibit results simply because the recipient believes that it will work.
 Placebo Effect, an original novel written by Gary Russell and based on the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who.
Square foot gardening is a method of gardening made popular by Mel Bartholemew in 1981. It is based on the idea that wide rows, used in traditional gardening, waste time, work, water, seeds and soil. It shows that quality vegetables can be grown in less space with less work. In this method, the garden space is divided into beds, separated by paths. Each bed measures 4' × 4' ( × ), therefore covering an area of  (). These beds are further divided into sixteen squares of about one square foot ( per side, ). A different type of plant is grown in each of those squares. A single large plant, like broccoli, will use one of the squares. Smaller plants can be spaced more tightly; for example, four heads of lettuce together in one square, or sixteen carrots. All work (planting, removing weeds, watering and harvesting) is done from the pathways. This stops the soil from being compacted.

Benefits of square foot gardening
Less work. In traditional gardening methods, heavy tools are used to loosen the soil. In this method, the soil is never compacted and it remains loose. Weeding takes much less time.
 Water savings. The loose ground holds the water better. This type of garden needs water less often than other methods. Also, water is poured by hand near the plant roots. Less water is wasted.
 Very little weeding. The vegetables form a living mulch and shade out many weeds before they can start to grow.
 Pesticides or herbicides are not needed. Natural ways to keep insects away, like companion planting, work well in a tight space. Growing many different types of plants in a small area also makes it more difficult for plant diseases to spread.

Other websites 

 Website of the Square Foot Gardening Foundation, founded to promote the method.
 Journey To Forever, a resource for beginners.

Gardening
This article is about the kitchen appliance. For the 3D computer graphics program, see Blender (program)

A blender is an electric kitchen appliance used for making drinks, mixing liquids, and puréeing (chopping up into small bits) fruits and vegetables for sauces and soups.

Parts of a blender
A blender consists of a glass or plastic container with a mounted blade in the bottom, and a base that has an electric motor and switches to turn on the motor or change its speed.
Blenders are used to make milk shakes (a blend of ice cream and milk) and fruit smoothies (a mix of fruit and ice).

Food made with blenders
Blenders are also used to make cold alcoholic drinks that include crushed ice or ice cream, such as margaritas and Mississippi Mudslide drinks.

Cooking appliances
Home appliances
A drinking straw (or "straw") is a utensil used to consume cold drinks such as milk shakes, smoothies, cola, and fruit juice. Drinking straws are usually made from plastic that is formed into a tube. To use a drinking straw, a person places the straw in a glass that contains a liquid and then sucks the straw with their mouth. Straws are mainly plastic, but some straws are paper or cardboard to protect the environment.

The oldest straw found is over 5000 years old. Straws have been found in Sumerian temples made of gold and lapis lazuli. The straws popularity came in the 1800s during the industrial revolution. Those straws were made of paper and turned to mush quickly. An inventor named Joseph Friedman invented a straw made of paper coated in glue so that it did not dissolve.

References

Food utensils
In music, a whole tone scale is a scale in which each note is separated from the next one by an interval of a whole tone.  There is always one note (a semitone) in between each neighbouring pair of notes of the whole-tone scale. Whatever note is started on, the whole tone scale will contain one of the following sets of notes: 
 C, D, E, F#, G#, A#
 or

 C#, D#, F, G, A, B

When a whole-tone scale is played on a piano, starting from a low note and moving up to high notes, while at the same time pressing the sustaining pedal (the right pedal), it makes a "dreamy" sound. It does not sound in any particular key, but floats along.  It also sounds very good on a harp.

Debussy uses the whole-tone scale a lot in his music, but he was not the first to do so. Russian composers such as Glinka in his opera Ruslan and Ludmila and Borodin in Prince Igor used the whole-tone scale.
Later composers to use it include Alban Berg in his Violin Concerto, and Béla Bartók in 
his String Quartet No. 5.  It has also been used in jazz.

Music theory
In music, a pentatonic scale is a scale with five notes in each octave. Pentatonic scales are very common and are found in folk music from all over the world.

Any scale using five notes is "pentatonic" ("penta" is Greek for "five"). However, the pentatonic scale which is used in most Western music uses notes which do not have any semitones. A pentatonic scale starting on C will use the notes C,D,E,G,A (the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th and 6th notes of a major scale).. An easy way to find such a pentatonic scale is by using all the black notes of a keyboard.

Using the pentatonic scale is a good way for children to make up their own tunes. It does not matter too much which note is used for the start and the finish, because there is no feeling of a clear key. The notes always sound good when played together.

Many folk songs are pentatonic, or nearly pentatonic. Well-known songs such as "Land of the Silver Birch" or "Auld Lang Syne" are pentatonic tunes.
Classical composers have sometimes used pentatonic scales, especially Claude Debussy. His piano piece La fille aux cheveux de lin has a tune which is pentatonic except for one note. Maurice Ravel used it to write music which sounded Chinese, and in his Mother Goose suite (Ma Mère l'Oye) which sounds like a fairy tale.

The pentatonic scales used in Indonesian gamelan music are called slendro and pelog.

pentatonic song:
sing out your melody
sing out your song
sing a pentatonic scale
starting on lah
lah
doh
ray
meh
soh
lah!

Difficult words: Octave - An octave is the distance between two musical notes that have the same letter name.

Folk music - Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century but is often applied to music that is older than that. Some types of folk music are also called world music.
Semitones - A semitone, also called a half step or a half tone, is the smallest musical interval commonly used in Western tonal music, and it is considered the most dissonant when sounded harmonically. It is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale (e.g. from C to C♯). This implies that its size is exactly or approximately equal to 100 cents, a twelfth of an octave.

Major scale - The major scale or Ionian scale is one of the most commonly used musical scales, especially in Western music. It is one of the diatonic scales. Like many musical scales it is made up of seven notes: the eighth duplicates the first at double its frequency so that it is called a higher octave of the same note (from Latin "octavus", the eighth). 

Music theory
In music theory, the major scale or Ionian scale is one of the diatonic scales. It is made up of seven separate notes, plus an eighth which is the same as the first an octave higher. In solfege these notes correspond to the syllables "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti/Si, Do". The simplest major scale to write or play on the piano is C major, the only major scale not to require sharps or flats, using only the white keys on the piano keyboard:

Shape

A major scale is a set of steps in the order "Whole:Whole:Half:Whole:Whole:Whole:Half" (tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone). Western scales do not skip any line or space on the staff, and they do not repeat any note  with a different accidental. This means that the key signature of the scale will feature just sharps or just flats.

Names of scale degrees

1st – Tonic- key note
2nd – Supertonic
3rd – Mediant
4th – Subdominant
5th – Dominant
6th – Submediant
7th – Leading Tone
8th – Tonic ( or Octave)
The circle of fifths 
The Circle of Fifths was first described in 1728 by Johann David Heinichen in his book Der General-bass. It has been used ever since as a way to show the relations between scales.

The numbers inside the circle show the number of sharps or flats in the key signature, with the sharp keys going clockwise, and the flat keys counterclockwise from C major (which has no sharps or flats.) The circle depends on enharmonic relationships in the circle, which is six sharps or flats for the major keys of F = G and D = E for minor keys (Drabkin 2001). Seven sharps or flats make major keys (C major and C major) that are more easy to spell with five flats or sharps (as D major or B  major).

Harmonic properties 
The major scale is used more often than the minor scale in Western music because of its unique harmonic properties. For example, the major third is much stronger in the harmonic series (it is the 5th, 10th and 20th harmonic – see below) than the minor third (the 19th harmonic).
Related pages
Minor scale
Enharmonic
Equal temperament
Just intonation
Lydian mode
Major and minor
Music theory
Tetrachord

References 
Bower, Michael. 2007. "All about Key Signatures ". Modesto, CA: Capistrano School (K–12) website. (Accessed 17 March 2010)
Drabkin, William. 2001. "Circle of Fifths". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Jones, George Thaddeus. 1974. Music Theory: The Fundamental Concepts of Tonal Music Including Notation, Terminology, and Harmony. Barnes & Noble Outline Series 137. New York, Hagerstown, San Francisco, London: Barnes & Noble. 
 Kennedy, Michael. 1994. "Key-Signature". Oxford Dictionary of Music, second edition, associate editor, Joyce Bourne. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. .
Other websites 
 Proper fingering of the major and minor scales on the piano
 Listen to and download harmonised Major scale piano MP3s
 The major and pentatonic scales on the guitar  in several positions
 The major scale for guitar in one position, with derivation
A minor scale in music theory is any scale that has at least three scale degrees: the tonic, the minor third above the tonic, and the perfect fifth above the tonic. Together they make the minor triad. This includes many scales and modes such as Dorian mode and the Phrygian mode.

In simple terms, a minor scale is a series of notes with a sad, somber character (exaggerated when heard back-to-back with a major scale). A minor scale begins on the sixth note of its relative major scale, and is built with the following pattern of half steps and whole steps: 

 i_whole_ii°_half_III_whole_iv_whole_v_half_VI_whole_VII_whole _i (next octave)

(e -------- f#° ------ G ---------- a --------- b ------- C ---------- D ---------- e)

Usually, when people talk about minor scales, they mean natural minor, harmonic minor, or melodic minor scales, which are the most common in Western music.
Natural Minor
The natural minor scale is the same as the 6th mode (or Aeolian mode) of the major scale. For example, the white notes of a keyboard from one C to the next C up makes a C major scale. If the white notes are played starting from the sixth step of that C scale, (from any A to the next A), then an A natural minor scale (the "relative minor" of C) is produced.

Harmonic and melodic minor
The harmonic minor scale is the same as the natural minor but with the seventh note raised by a semitone. 

Harmonic Minor Scale: 1  2  3  4  5  6 7  8

For example, in the key of A minor, the harmonic minor scale is:

A  B  C  D  E  F  G  A

One way the harmonic minor is different to the natural minor is that it has two chords which have the same structure when inverted, so they do not belong to any key.  These are the diminished seventh chord (2nd, 4th, 6th and 7th degrees) and the augmented chord (the 3rd, 5th and 7th degrees).
The harmonic minor is also sometimes called the Mohammedan scale because its upper tetrachord is the same as the Hijaz jins, often found in Middle Eastern music.  The harmonic minor scale as a whole is sometimes called Nahawand-Hijaz in Arabic, or as Bûselik Hicaz  in Turkish.

The interval between the sixth and seventh degrees of this scale (in this case F and G) is an augmented second. While some composers, like Mozart, have used this interval in melodic composition, other composers found it awkward. They thought that a whole step between these two scale degrees was better for smooth melody writing, so they used the subtonic seventh, or raised the sixth scale degree. These two options are called the ascending melodic minor scale and descending melodic minor scale. The ascending has the same upper tetrachord to the major scale, and the descending is the same as the natural minor:

A  B  C  D  E  F  G  A' and then 

A' G  F  E  D  C  B  A respectively.
Many composers do not stick to the notes of only one of these scales when writing music. Using the triad of the relative major is very common, but because this is based on the third degree of the minor scale, the raised seventh degree of the harmonic scale would cause an augmented triad. In this case, composers usually use the natural minor. In jazz, usually only the ascending minor is used.

Finding key signatures 

Major and minor keys that share the same key signature are called relative; so C major is the relative major of A minor, and C minor is the relative minor of E major. The relative major is a minor third above the tonic of the minor. For example, since the key signature of G major has one sharp (see major scales for how to find this), its relative minor, E minor, also has one sharp in its key signature.
Music may be written in an enharmonic scale (e.g. A major, which only has four flats in its key signature, compared to the eight sharps required for G major). The following are enharmonic equivalents:

Related pages
Major and minor
Musical mode
Diatonic functionality
Aeolian mode
Major scale
Kirwani
Theoretical key

Notes

References 
Gjerdingen, Robert O. (1990). "A Guide to the Terminology of German Harmony", Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality by Dahlhaus, Carl, trans. Gjerdingen (1990).

Other websites 
 3 note per string Harmonic Minor scale shapes for guitar in PDF format for easy printing
 Proper fingering of the major and minor scales on the piano
 Listen to and download harmonised minor scale piano MP3s
 Guitar: Harmonic minor scale explored 
 The harmonic minor scale on the guitar
Yeast are microorganisms. They are single-celled  fungi. There are about 1,500 different species of yeast. Most reproduce asexually, by budding. Some use binary fission to reproduce asexually.

A particular species of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been used for thousands of years. It is used for baking bread because the yeast makes carbon dioxide as a by-product of it eating sugar, which helps the bread rise (leaven). Yeast is also used for making beer and other alcoholic drinks by a process known as fermentation. This process produces both ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. Ethanol is also used as fuel, and to make other organic chemicals. 

Yeast can be used to make electricity.  Yeast is also a model organism for studying cell biology. Some yeasts can cause infections in humans (they are  pathogens).

Related pages
 Mycorrhiza
 Mould
 Slime_mould
 Lichen
 Candida
 Fungus

References

Other websites

Fungi
Budding is a method of asexual reproduction. With budding, a new organism grows on another one. It stays attached, while it grows. Only when it is fully grown does it detach from the parent organism. Since the reproduction is asexual, the newly created organism is a clone and is genetically identical to the parent organism. This method (asexual reproduction) is done in favourable conditions

Budding is very common in plants and fungi. Sometimes it can also be found with animals, for example with hydras or sponges.

Biological reproduction
Binary fission ("division in half") is a kind of asexual reproduction.  It is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. It occurs in some single-celled Eukaryotes like the Amoeba and the Paramoecium. In binary fission DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously.

In binary fission, the fully grown parent cell splits into two halves, producing two pools. After replicating its genetic material, the parent cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells. The genetic material is replicated, then equally split. The daughter cells are genetically identical (unless a mutation occurs during replication).

During binary fission, the DNA molecule divides and forms two DNA molecules. The cell then grows to create room for each molecule to move towards the opposite side of the bacterium. At the same time, the cell membrane divides to form 2 daughter cells. After division, the new cells grow and the process repeats itself.
Binary fission occurs in eukaryotic tissue cells, but the process is more complicated: see mitosis.      

Basically, a cell copies its DNA, and then splits down the middle, creating two daughter cells.

References

Methods of reproduction
Bacteria
Charisma Lee Carpenter (born July 23, 1970) is an American actress. She is best known for playing the character Cordelia Chase in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer and its spin-off Angel.

Personal life 
Carpenter was born in Las Vegas, Nevada. At 15, her family moved to Rosarito B.C., Mexico. Later, they moved to Chula Vista (a suburb of San Diego). After graduating high school, she was a San Diego Chargers cheerleader in 1991 before beginning her Hollywood career. She had also sky-dived. She married Damian Hardy on October 5, 2002. She gave birth to their son Donavan Charles Hardy on March 24, 2003.
Filmography 
 Josh Kirby... Time Warrior (TV series) (1995)
 Malibu Shores (1996) (TV series)
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series) (1997-1999)
 Angel (TV series) (1999-2003)
 The Groomsmen (2001)
 See Jane Date (TVM) (2003)
 Miss Match (TV series) (2003)
 Charmed (TV series) (2004)
 Voodoo Moon (2005)
 Veronica Mars (TV series) (2005-2006)
 Flirting with Danger (TVM) (2006)
 Cheaters Club (TVM) (2006)
 Relative Chaos (TVM) (2006)
 Desperate Housewives 2009 : "Allison"

References

Other websites 

 
 
 

1970 births
Living people
American movie actors
Whedonverse
Actors from Las Vegas
Actors from San Diego, California
Models from Nevada
American television actors
Paul Watzlawick PhD (July 25, 1921 – March 31, 2007) was a theoretician in communication theory. He also commented in the fields of family therapy and general psychotherapy. He lived and worked in California until his death in 2007 in Palo Alto.

He formulated five axioms. They are:
 It is not possible to not communicate. Every behavior is some kind of non-verbal communication. 
 Every communication has a content. In addition, there is 'metainformation', which says how the communicator wants to be understood.
 All parters involved in a communication process also interpret their own behaviour during communication.
 Human communication involves both verbal and non-verbal communication. In addition to the spoken words, there are is also a non-spoken part (gestures, behavior, intonation..) which is part of the communication.
 Communication between humans is either symmetric or complementary. This is based on whether the relationship of those communicating is based on differences or parity.
Works
Watzlawick is author of 18 books (in 85 foreign language editions) and more than 150 book articles and book chapters. Books he has written or on which he has collaborated include:
 Invented Reality: How do we know what we believe we know? (Contributions to constructivism)
 Pragmatics of human communication 
 The situation is hopeless, but not serious 
 Ultra-solutions: how to fail most successfully 
 How real is real?
 Change
 The language of change

Other websites 
http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Theory/watzlawick/

American psychologists
Austrian academics
People from California

1921 births
2007 deaths
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. They send information between neurons by crossing a synapse. Electrical signals are not able to cross the gap between most neurons. They are changed into chemical signals to cross the gap. Neurotransmitters act mostly on chemical synapses. Once they reach the next neuron they are absorbed. The neuron then changes this chemical signal back into an electrical signal called an action potential. The action potential passes across the next neuron and to the next synapse.

Many neurotransmitters are made from amino acids, which are part of your diet and it takes only a few steps to convert them. Neurotransmitters play a major role in shaping everyday life and functions. Scientists do not yet know exactly how many neurotransmitters exist, but more than 100 chemical messengers have been identified.
Each neurotransmitter has a different function. For example: dopamine is used in reward and pleasure and noradrenaline is used in an animal's "fight or flight" response. Neurotransmitters also regulate the passing of messages. This is because an action potential must be a certain strength before the neurotransmitters are released. The strength required to release the neurotransmitter is called a threshold.

The most common transmitter is glutamate, which is excitatory at well over 90% of the synapses in the human brain. The next most prevalent is called GABA, which inhibits at more than 90% of the synapses that do not use glutamate.

Neurotransmitters are transported within neurons by small "sacks" called vesicles. When these vesciles come into contact with the neuron's cell membrane, it opens. This releases the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
Discovery
Until the early 20th century, scientists assumed that the majority of synaptic communication in the brain was electrical. However, through the careful histological examinations by Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), a 20 to 40 nm gap between neurons, known today as the synaptic cleft, was discovered. The presence of the gap suggested chemical messengers moved across the synaptic cleft. In 1921 German pharmacologist Otto Loewi (1873–1961) confirmed that neurons can communicate by releasing chemicals. By experiments involving the vagus nerves of frogs, Loewi was able to slow the heart rate of frogs by controlling the amount of saline solution present around the vagus nerve.
Loewi asserted that sympathetic regulation of cardiac function can be mediated through changes in chemical concentrations. Otto Loewi also discovered acetylcholine (ACh)—the first known neurotransmitter. Some neurons do, however, communicate by electrical synapses through the use of gap junctions, which allow specific ions to pass directly from one cell to another.

References 

Neuroscience
Hard rock is a variation of rock music with roots in early 1960s garage rock and psychedelic rock.  The term "hard rock" may be used several genres such as punk rock and grunge in order to distinguish them from the more radio-friendly pop rock genre.

Notable Artists 
The Beatles (such as Helter Skelter, I Want You (She’s So Heavy)
Status Quo
The Who
AC/DC
Aerosmith
Black Sabbath
Deep Purple
Grand Funk Railroad
Guns N' Roses
Kiss
Led Zeppelin
Mountain
Thin Lizzy
Van Halen

References
Sally Beamish (born 26 August 1956 in London) is an English composer.  She has written orchestra, chamber music, vocal and choral music.

Sally studied the viola at the Royal Northern College of Music.  Later she studied in Germany and Italy.

Sally started her career playing the viola in a chamber group called the Raphael Ensemble.  The experience of playing in small groups was important for her development as a composer.  Her music often combines and contrasts solo instruments, exploring the sounds they can make.

She has written works for the Swedish and Scottish Chamber Orchestras and has had works performed at the BBC Proms.  Her trumpet concerto, written for Håkan Hardenberger and the National Youth Orchestra of Scotland was performed at the Proms in 2003 with Martyn Brabbins conducting.  She has also written concertos for the flute, viola, saxophone, percussion and accordion and is planning to write concertos for  viola (her third), saxophone quartet and cello.
She has written a stage musical about the Scottish Highlands.  She lives in Scotland with her husband and young daughter.

Other websites 
Sally Beamish  – official website

1956 births
20th-century English composers
21st-century English composers
Musicians from London
Living people
Nakhodka (Russian Находка) is a port city in Primorsky Krai, Russia. It is one of the most eastern cities in Russia. Nakhodka is a port on the Japan Sea. It is located around Nakhodka Bay. Nakhodka means "Lucky find" in Russian.

The village Amerikanka was the first permanent settlement at the location of the current city. It was founded in 1907. Nakhodka became an urban-type fishing settlement in 1941. It received  city status on May 19, 1950. This date is now called City Day.

Economy
The economy of the city is based mainly on the port and port-related businesses. This include processing and canning fish. In Soviet times, Nakhodka was the only Soviet port in the Far East open to foreign vessels. After Vladivostok started being used by foreigners in 1991, the port of Nakhodka is not used as much as before. Economic activity in the city has become much less because of this..
Nakhodka is still an important international port. It is the center of the coastal trade. Exports include timber, coal, fluorspar, honey, fish and seafood.

References

Cities and towns in Primorsky Krai
Sumatra, known also as Sumatera, is the sixth largest island in the world. It is in western Indonesia. It is to the west of the Sunda Islands, and is bordered by the Indian Ocean. Sumatra contains the provinces of Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Riau, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung Islands, Jambi, Bengkulu, Lampung, North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and West Sumatra. Sumatra has an area of about 443,066 km². It is about  long, and  wide, at its widest point. In 2010, about 50 million people lived on Sumatra.

Other websites
 Sumatera Online
The Whigs were a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. The Whigs' start was in constitutional monarchism and disagreement with absolute monarchy. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they tried to win power over their rivals, the Tories. The British prime minister was usually from one of the two parties.

The Whigs played a central role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders, who were Roman Catholic. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715. They held it until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760, allowed Tories back in. 

When they held power, the Whigs got rid of the Tories from all major jobs in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal jobs and local officials. 

Their most famous leader was Robert Walpole, who kept control of the government from 1721 to 1742.

Later on, many of their ideas were adopted by the Liberal Party in the later 19th century.

References
References

Other websites

Karl Marx on the Tories and the Whigs (1852)

Former political parties in the United Kingdom
1678 establishments
1868 disestablishments
1670s establishments in Europe
17th-century establishments in England
19th-century disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Liberal Party (UK)
Espionage or spying is a practice of getting information about an organization, society, or country that is meant to be secret or confidential, without permission. Espionage usually involves having access to where the needed information is stored or to the people that know the information. In wartime, espionage is a war crime. The person who does it is called a "spy" or more vaguely an "agent". A double agent is one who trades information to both sides, and is (without their knowledge) being employed by both sides.
Sir Harrison Birtwistle CH, (July 15, 1934 – April 18, 2022) was one of Britain's most important composers. He was born in Accrington, Lancashire.

Early life
In 1952, Birtwistle entered the Royal Manchester College of Music in Manchester on a clarinet scholarship. While there he met other young composers like Peter Maxwell Davies and Alexander Goehr. Together with pianist John Ogdon and conductor Elgar Howarth, he formed the New Music Manchester group, which put on performances of modern music, especially music using serialism. 

Birtwistle left the college in 1955, then studied at the Royal Academy of Music and afterward made a living as a schoolteacher. In 1965 he got a Harkness Fellowship which gave him the opportunity to study composition in the United States.
In 1975 Birtwistle became musical director of the new Royal National Theatre in London, a post he held until 1983. He was given a knighthood in 1988 and was made a Companion of Honour in 2000. From 1994 to 2001 he was Henry Purcell Professor of Composition at King's College London.

Music 
His music is quite complicated and modern in style.  Sometimes it reminds one of Igor Stravinsky and Olivier Messiaen.  Sometimes he uses blocks of sound like Edgard Varèse.  His first opera Punch and Judy is quite different from a traditional Punch and Judy children's entertainment.  It is very serious and quite violent. He has written other operas: The Mask of Orpheus (1984), Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (1990),  The Second Mrs Kong (1994), and The Last Supper (2000), .
When Gawain was performed in 1994 at the Royal Opera House a group of hecklers booed and whistled loudly.  However, this only made the opera more famous as lots of people read about it and came to hear it.  He wrote a piece called Panic for alto saxophone, jazz drum kit and orchestra.  

It was a very loud, harsh piece and it was a shock for the audience when it was first performed at the Last Night of the Proms, a concert at which people normally expect to hear music with easy, sing-along tunes.

Death
Birtwistle died, aged 87, on April 18, 2022 at his home in Mere, Wiltshire from problems caused by a stroke he had in 2021.

References 

1934 births
2022 deaths
20th-century English composers
21st-century British composers
Companions of Honour
Knights Bachelor
Writers from Lancashire
Musicians from Lancashire
Deaths from stroke
Punch and Judy could mean:

Punch and Judy, a traditional children's puppet show
Punch and Judy, characters in Big Shot
Punch and Judy, an opera by Harrison Birtwistle.
"Punch and Judy", a song released by Marillion in 1984
The Punch and Judy Man, a 1962 British comedy film 
"Punch and Judy", a song by The Stranglers from their 1984 album Aural Sculpture
"Punch and Judy", a song by Elliott Smith from his 1997 album Either/Or
"Punch Judy", three-piece London-based band on the punky side of pop  gives short reviews and gig details
Punch and Judy, a pair of re-occurring characters in the anime Cowboy Bebop
Lorsch is a small town in southwest Germany ( south of Frankfurt am Main) in the Kreis Bergstraße district of the state of Hessen. More than 12,000 people live in the town.

It is the site of a Benedictine abbey, which used to be one of the greatest centers of Carolingian art. Several Carolingian kings of Germany were buried there. The abbey is also famous for the Lorsch Codex, which was produced there around the end of the 12th century. The abbey has been declared a World Heritage Site. The Nibelungenlied identifies Lorsch as the birthplace of Siegfried.

References

Other websites

World Heritage Sites in Germany
Bergstraße (district)
Scottish usually refers to something from or related to Scotland, a country in northern Europe.

These may include:

Language
Scottish English, the accents and dialects of English spoken in Scotland
Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic language native to Scotland
Scots language, a Germanic language spoken in lowland Scotland

People
Scottish people
Ulster Scots people

Related pages 
 Scotts (disambiguation)
Dominic Bernard Patrick Luke Monaghan (born 8 December 1976) is an English actor. He is well known for playing Merry Brandybuck in Peter Jackson's movie trilogy of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. He is also well known for playing Charlie Pace on the television series Lost.
Personal life 
Monaghan was born in Berlin to British parents. He has a tattoo on his right arm of the English word "nine" written with the Tengwar script.  It means that his character was one of the nine members of the Fellowship of the Ring in The Lord of the Rings. Many other cast members also got similar tattoos during the making of the movie. On his left arm is a tattoo that says "Living is easy with eyes closed", a line from The Beatles' song "Strawberry Fields Forever". On Lost, Charlie's tape/bandage finger-rings with letters spelling out words were Monaghan's idea. He thought that because Charlie is an artist, he would still want to be creative even when trapped on an island. Monaghan also actually plays the guitar on Lost.

Dominic dated Evangeline Lilly while the two of them were on Lost. The two broke up in 2007.

References

Other websites 
 
 The Dominic Monaghan Resource 
 Dominic Monaghan interview 

1976 births
Living people
Actors from Berlin
English movie actors
English television actors
The article about the Sioux leader is at Crazy Horse

Le Crazy Horse Saloon or Le Crazy Horse Paris is a nightclub in Paris, founded in 1951. It is famous for its cabaret, which features nude female dancers. It was opened by Alain Bernardin, who also managed it until his suicide in 1994. Today the cabaret is run by Bernardin's children.

The franchise includes Crazy Horse Paris for one in Las Vegas (formerly La Femme), at the MGM Grand. 

Other cabarets with similar names are separate enterprises.

Theatres in Paris
Cnidaria is a phylum with about 11,000 species of animals. All of them are simple and aquatic, and most of them live in the sea. Some are colonial, composed of zooids which may be clones. Cnidarian zooids may take the form of polyps or medusae at different phases of their life.

Cnidaria take their name from special cells which have organelles that sting: the nematocysts. This device is largely responsible for their success: it is their main specialised and distinctive cell type.

Pronunciation 
The word Cnidaria is spoken without the initial "C", and with a long "i". So it sounds like "Naidaria". In a similar way, the term Ctenophore is pronounced as "Teenophore". Originally, a Greek kappa was in front of the words, and it was pronounced. The name comes from Greek language knidi, "nettle", thus mening "nettle-like animals" as all cnidarians have stinging cells like nettles.
Subdivisions 
There are five classes in the group. Jellyfish occur in four of the classes. 
 Subphylum and class Anthozoa: the sea anemones and corals.
 Subphylum Medusozoa: the jellyfish 
 Class Scyphozoa: the 'true' jellyfish.
 Class Cubozoa: the box jellies.
 Class Hydrozoa: the hydroids: (Hydra; Portuguese man o' war).
 Class Staurozoa: the stalked jellyfish.

Unranked, but now known to be cnidarians, is the parasitic group Myxozoa.

Basic body forms
Adult cnidarians are usually either free-swimming medusae or sessile polyps. Many alternate between the two forms. Both forms are radially symmetrical, like a wheel and a tube respectively.
Most have fringes of tentacles equipped with cnidocytes around their edges. Medusae usually have an inner ring of tentacles around their mouth. Some hydroids may be colonies of zooids which serve different purposes: defence, reproduction and catching prey. The mesoglea of medusae is a thick and springy jelly, so it returns to its original shape after muscles around the edge have contracted. This makes a sort of jet propulsion.

Skeletons
In medusae the only supporting structure is the jelly inside their cell layers. Hydra and most sea anemones close their mouths when they are not feeding, and the water in the digestive cavity then acts as a kind of skeleton, rather like a water-filled balloon. Other polyps such as Tubularia use columns of water-filled cells for support. Sea pens stiffen the mesogleal jelly with calcium carbonate spicules and tough fibrous proteins, rather like sponges.
In some colonial polyps, a chitinous periderm gives support and some protection to the connecting sections and to the lower parts of individual polyps. Stony corals secrete massive calcium carbonate exoskeletons. A few polyps collect materials such as sand grains and shell fragments, which they attach to their outsides. Some colonial sea anemones stiffen the mesoglea with sediment particles.

Fossil record 
There is a long fossil record for the corals, and soft-bodied forms appear in some exceptional strata. Some are believed to be among the Ediacaran biota.

References
Path may refer to:

Physical paths:
 Bicycle path
 Bridle path
 Footpath
 Hiking path
 Sidewalk
 Trail

In mathematics and computing:
 Path (computing), where to find a file on a computer
 Path (graph theory), a sequence of vertices of a graph
 Path (topology), a continuous function
 Path, a name for the vectors in vector graphics
Calvinism belongs to the Reformed tradition of Protestant Christianity. This tradition goes back to John Calvin and other theologians.

Important Calvinists from Europe include: Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Huldrych Zwingli, and from England, reformers Thomas Cranmer and John Jewel. Because John Calvin had great influence and played an important role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 17th century, the tradition generally became known as Calvinism.

Today, this term also means the doctrines and practices of the Reformed churches, of which Calvin was an early leader, and the system is perhaps best known for its doctrines of predestination and total depravity.
Background
John Calvin's international influence on the development of the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation began at the age of 25, when he started work on his first edition of the Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1534 (published 1536). He also contributed to confessional documents for use in churches, and his beliefs and practices left a direct influence on Protestantism. He was only one of many people to influence the doctrines of the Reformed churches, but he eventually became one of the most prominent theologians.

The rising importance of the Reformed churches and Calvin appened in the second phase of the Protestant Reformation, when evangelical churches began to form, after Martin Luther, another important Reformer, had been excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church. Calvin was a French exile in Geneva City. He had signed the Lutheran Augsburg Confession in 1540, but his importance came from the Swiss Reformation. It was not Lutheran but followed Huldrych Zwingli and then Calvin.
True Calvinism (historical Calvinism) does not teach that God chooses the people who will be saved. Instead, it teaches that for God's own glory recreates men with a new nature,  a nature that loves God and hates sin, instead of men keeping their old nature since if they kept their old nature, they would not want to follow God.(Romans 3:10-12). Historical Calvinism also teaches that if God does not choose to save someone, he can do nothing to be saved.

Spread
Although much of Calvin's practice was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a reformed church to many parts of Europe. Calvinism became the theology of most Christians in Scotland (see John Knox), the Netherlands, and parts of Germany, and it was influential also in France, Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland. Calvinism was popular as well for some time in Scandinavia, especially Sweden, but it was rejected in favor of Lutheranism after the Synod of Uppsala in 1593.
Most settlers in the Mid-Atlantic and New England, in the United Stages, were Calvinists, including the Puritans and Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (now New York). Dutch Calvinist settlers also began to be the first successful European colonizers of South Africa in the 17th century and became known as Boers or Afrikaners.

Some of the largest Calvinist communions missionaries were started in the 19th and the 20th century, especially in Korea and in Nigeria.

Resources 

John Wesley (2001). Calvinism Calmly Considered. 
C. Gordon Olson (2002). Beyond Calvinism and Arminianism: An Inductive, Mediate Theology of Salvation. Global Gospel Publishers.

Other websites 
 "Calvinist Childrearing Methodology" from A Study of the First Maternal Association of Utica, New York, 1824-1833 by Elizabeth Shanklin
"The Impact of Calvinism on Sixteenth Century Culture" 1967 By Dr. W. Stanford Reid
Calvinist websites
Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics - offers many materials from a Calvinist perspective.
Monergism - classic articles and resources; claims to have the largest collection of Reformed/Calvinist resources on the Internet.
Calvinism Index  by Colin Maxwell

Calvinism and other theological systems
What is Calvinism? - A Summary of the Presbyterian Religion.
Calvinism & Arminianism - a brief comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism from The Five Points of Calvinism - Defined, Defended, Documented by Steele

 
John Calvin
Christian movements and denominational families
Protestant Reformation
Jean Cauvin, also Jean Calvin  (English: John Calvin, July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564), was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation who was a central developer of the system of Christian theology that is called Calvinism or Reformed theology. In Geneva City, he rejected papal authority and established a new scheme of civic and ecclesiastical governance. He is famous for his teachings and writings and is infamous for his role in the execution of Michael Servetus.
Early life
Calvin was born with the name Jean Chauvin (or Cauvin, in Latin Calvinus) in Noyon, Picardy, France, (now Oise department), to Gérard Cauvin and Jeanne Lefranc. In 1523, Calvin's father, a lawyer, sent his 14-year-old son to the University of Paris to study humanities and law. By 1532, he had attained a Doctor of Law degree at Orléans. 
In 1536, he settled in Geneva City, Switzerland. After being expelled from the city, he served as a pastor in Strasbourg from 1538 to 1541, when he returned to Geneva, where he lived until his death.

Thought 
Calvin trained to be a lawyer. He studied with some of the best teachers of the Renaissance in France. Some of the training used newer humanistic methods of trying to understand to deal with a text directly. His training was important for Calvin. When he started to believe in Evangelicalism, he used those methods with the Bible, which he used form his thoughts. He taught and preached what he believed that the Bible taught.
Reformers such as Jan Hus and Martin Luther are seen as original thinkers, who started a movement. Calvin was a great logician. He organized a movement but dif not start as much  doctrine. He knew the writings of the early Church Fathers and the great medieval schoolmen very well. Earlier Reformers also influenced him. Calvin did not disagree with all of the scholastics of the Middle Ages, but he used them and adapted their thoughts according to his understanding of the Bible.

Calvin is often associated with the doctrines of predestination and election. He had similar ideas to those of other magisterial Reformers about them.

Last years (1555–1564)
Calvin's power was very great in his last years. He was known all around the world as a reformer who was different from Martin Luther. Mainly, Luther and Calvin respected each other. However, Luther and a Zürich reformer, Huldrych Zwingli, thought differently about the eucharist. Calvin's thoughts about it made Luther believe that Calvin agreed with Zwingli. However, Calvin was sad that the reformers were not all together. He tried to join them together by signing the Consensus Tigurinus, an agreement between the Zürich and the Geneva churches.
In Geneva, Calvin mainly wanted to make a collège, a school for children. A place to build the school was chosen on March 25, 1558. The school was opened on June 5, 1559. It was divided into two parts. One part was a grammar school, which was called the collège or schola privata. The other part was an advanced school, the académie or schola publica. In five years there were 1,200 students in the grammar school and 300 in the advanced school. The collège later became the Collège Calvin, one of the college preparatory schools of Geneva. The académie became the University of Geneva.
In autumn 1558, Calvin became ill with a fever. He was afraid he might die before finishing his last revision of the Institutes, which made him force himself to work. The last edition became much longer and so Calvin called it a new work. It was 21 chapters in the second-last edition. However, in the last one, there were 80 since he put more detail in the material that was already there, but he did not really add more subjects. He became better, but he soon strained his voice while he was preaching. That made him cough violently. He had burst a blood vessel in his lungs. His health became much worse after this. He preached his last sermon in St. Pierre on February 6, 1564. On April 25, he made his will in which he left a little money to his family and to the collège. A few days later, the ministers of the church came to visit him. He died on May 27 of septicaemia. The goodbye is recorded in Discours d'adieu aux ministres.
The next day, he was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cimetière de Plainpalais. The exact spot of the grave is unknown. However, a stone was added in the 19th century to mark a grave that has traditionally been thought to be Calvin's.

Bibliography

General collections
 
 Writings of Calvin at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL)

Theological works
 Institutes of the Christian Religion at CCEL
 Psychopannychia
 Jean Calvin, Théodore de Bèze,

Commentaries
 Calvin's Commentaries on the Bible at CCEL
 Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles, (with Calvin's dedication to Edward VI), tr. by John Owens, Edingurgh, The Calvin Translation Society, 1855.

Letters
 Jules Bonnet, Letters of John Calvin, Carlisle, Penn: Banner of Truth Trust 1980.
Secondary sources
 Bernard Cottret, Calvin, a Biography, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Eerdmans, 2001. 
 Roland Bainton (1974). Women of the Reformation in England and France. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. .
 John Farrell, "The Terrors of Reform," chapter five of Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau. Cornell University Press, 2006.
 John Foxe. An Account of the Life of John Calvin

References

Other websites 

 St Peter's Cathedral in Geneva

1509 births
1564 deaths

Christian ministers
French theologians
 
People from Geneva
People from Oise
Protestant Reformers
Writers from Hauts-de-France‎
A Trebuchet was a device used in wars and sieges in the Middle Ages. It could be used to throw stones at ramparts, trying to break them down. It could also be used to throw things over the walls of a city. These could be corpses of animals or people that had died of the plague. Trebuchets were more accurate than other medieval catapults. Trebuchets were first made in China in the 4th century BC.

How it works
The trebuchet works in a simple way. The basket of the trebuchet is filled with heavy rocks.  This acts as a counterweight for the other end, which is usually filled with one large rock.  Several men arm the trebuchet by raising the counterweight up and the firing arm down.  At this point the arm is released, the heavy basket swings down and the arm swings up, launching the rock far and fast.
The sling adds an additional 10-15 feet of arm length and gives the projectile a whip like speed then releases. The sling gives the projectile most of its speed.

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