Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Singers can sing as a solo, or in a group or a choir. Choirs can include gospel music, church music and even pop songs where there are usually two male groups of singers (bass and tenor) and two female groups of singers (soprano and alto). Sopranos have a higher range and altos have a lower range. Combining these two can create various harmonies which add textures to songs and make them more interesting to listen to.

People may feel like singing for various reasons. They may want to share their feelings with other people. They may be feeling happy about something, or sad, or excited, frustrated or angry. Singing is an art in which mood is expressed through the voice.

Notable singers
 taylor swift
 beyonce
 Adele
 Rihanna
 Billie Eilish
 Justin Bieber
 Freddie Mercury
 Michael Jackson
 Kanye West
 Ariana Grande

Related pages
 Singing

References

Other websites 
 What It Takes to Become a Professional Singer

 
Entertainment occupations
A keyboardist is a musician who plays one or more of the musical instruments called keyboard instruments, such as the piano, organ, or electronic synthesizer. They may also use MIDI. A person who plays piano is also called a pianist. A person who plays organ is called an organist. Many types of music use keyboardists, such as rock, pop, funk, and classical music.

Musicians
Entertainment occupations
Mao Zedong (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Communist leader. He is notable for the resistance of the Japanese invasion and reunifying China, which he ruled as the chairman of the Communist Party of China.

Name 
Mao Zedong is the Latin-alphabet version of Mao's name now used by most people.  In the romanization common in his lifetime, it was spelled "Mao Tse-tung".  "Mao" is his family name - in China, family names are placed first.  Mao is also called Chairman Mao,  because he was the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party.

Early life and career 

Mao Zedong was born into a peasant family on December 26, 1893 in the small village of Shaoshan in the Hunan province. After finishing school, He worked as a librarian were he was exposed to Marxist literature. In 1921, he founded the Chinese Communist Party.
In 1927 KMT members purged members of the Communist Party in Shanghai, thus starting the Chinese Civil, which Lasted from 1927 to 1949. During the the Japanese invasion of China during World War II, Mao formed an alliance and cooperated with the KMT against the Japanese. 

After Japan's surrender in 1945, Mao fought against the KMT in early 1946. In 1949, Mao's forces successfully defeated the KMT, establishing the People's Republic of China, and unifying China as a single country.

Ruler
Ruler 

In the 1950s, Mao Zedong had many plans for how China could move forward in technology very quickly and catch up with countries like the United Kingdom and United States. Mao was responsible for the Five Year Plan.  The Second Five Year Plan included the Great Leap Forward, which was a disaster for the Chinese people. Poor farming practices led to significant crop failure, and cities did not make many  of their daily items like clothes and machines. The famine that came as a result killed millions of people via starvation. In the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966 in order to keep his power and position within the Chinese Communist Party. The Cultural Revolution lasted for a decade until Mao's Death in 1976.
A few years after Mao won the civil war in China, Nikita Khrushchev became the leader in the Soviet Union. Before this, Joseph Stalin was the leader in the Soviet Union. Mao liked Stalin and respected the way he led. China and the Soviet Union became allies with each other. Khrushchev thought Stalin was a criminal dictator, and led the country very differently. Mao and Khrushchev did not like each other, so the Soviet Union was no longer allies with China. China now had only a few allies like Albania, North Korea, Democratic Kampuchea, and Pakistan. This change of friends was called the Sino-Soviet split. "Sino" is another way to say "Chinese".

During the 1970s, Mao became more friendly with the United States. In 1972, American president Richard Nixon visited the People's Republic of China and met Mao. Mao died in September 1976, and the Cultural Revolution also ended that year. Mao's supporters were imprisoned, and Deng Xiaoping, who followed Mao, revised Mao's economic policies.
Liu Shaoqi 
Mao Zedong was afraid that Liu Shaoqi would overthrow him, and take over the CPC.  As in the result, Mao blamed Liu Shaoqi for being a capitalist, and placed him in jail.  Liu Shaoqi died in prison from brutal treatment, hunger, and terrible conditions.

Lin Biao 
After Liu had been removed from leadership, the defence minister Lin Biao was ranked second in the party and hoped to succeed Mao.
In 1971, Lin Biao and his wife died in a plane crash after trying to assassinate Mao and seize power for himself.

Death

Mao had been in poor health for several years and had declined visibly for at least six months prior to his death. There are unconfirmed reports that he possibly had ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease. Mao's last public appearance was on 27 May 1976, where he met the visiting Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto during the latter's one-day visit to Beijing.
At around 5:00PM on 2 September 1976, Mao suffered a heart attack, far more severe than his previous two and affecting a much larger area of his heart.  Three days later, on 5 September, Mao's condition was still critical.  On the afternoon of 7 September, Mao's condition completely deteriorated.  Mao's organs failed quickly and he fell into a coma shortly before noon where he was put on life support machines.  He was taken off life support over 12 hours later, quarter to midnight and was pronounced dead at 12:08 am on 9 September 1976. 

His body lay in state at the Great Hall of the People. There was a three-minute silence observed during this service. His body was later placed into the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, despite his wishes to be cremated and he had been one of the first high-ranking officials to sign the "Proposal that all Central Leaders be Cremated after Death" in November 1956.

Legacy
Legacy 

Many Chinese mainlanders still believe Mao Zedong was a great leader, but they also know that he did unwise and bad things. According to Deng Xiaoping, Mao was "seven parts right and three parts wrong" and his "contributions are primary and his mistakes secondary". Supporters praise him for having unified China and for ending the previous decades of civil war. He is also praised for having improved the status of women in China and for improving literacy and education. Some people think Mao Zedong made China lose its most important ally, or friend, the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were two of the things that Mao did that many people disliked.
Some historians think that tens of millions of people died because of Mao's bad ideas and neglect. Some people dislike Mao because he did not support family planning, and this caused too many births, so causing rapid population growth. Leaders of China after Mao passed a law called the one child policy. This had the long-term effect of greatly reducing the population.

Mao Zedong also made several changes to the Chinese language, such as switching from the Wade-Giles system of Romanization to Pinyin. For this reason, Nanking is now called Nanjing on modern maps. Taiwan still uses Wade-Giles, so its capital is called Taipei instead of the pinyin Taibei. Mao also simplified the Chinese characters. In theory it would make them easier to read and write so that more people would be literate.

References
References

Sources and other websites 
   Washington State University.
 BBC 中国丛谈特辑（上）
 BBC 中国丛谈特辑（上）采访录音
 BBC 中国丛谈特辑（下）
 BBC 中国丛谈特辑（下）采访录音
 開放出版社 《毛澤東：鮮為人知的故事》中文版 
 《毛澤東：鮮為人知的故事》 英文注釋 
 德国之声，含采访录音 张戎：鲜为人知的毛泽东是怎样写成的
 Spence. J. MAO 1999 Weidenfeld & Nicolson LONDON
 Wikipedia - Liou Shaoqi, last heading
 Becker, Jasper. Hungry Ghosts. New York: The Free Press, 1996. Print.
 Mao Zedong -Citizendium
Peter Polack, Guerrilla Warfare; Kings of Revolution,Casemate, .

1893 births
1976 deaths
Chinese communist politicians
Former dictators
Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei (more commonly known as Opus Dei) is an organization of the Roman Catholic Church.  ("Opus Dei" means "Work of God" in Latin.) Opus Dei says that the Catholic Church gave them a special job: to tell everyone that God wants them to be close to him. This means that everyone is called by God to become a saint.

Opus Dei was started by St. Josemaría Escrivá, a Roman Catholic priest, in 1928. It was approved by Pope Pius XII in 1950.  Now, Opus Dei has around 85,000 members in 80 different countries.
In 1982, Pope John Paul II decided to make Opus Dei into a personal prelature.  Usually, in the Catholic Church, there are separate dioceses in different areas.  Each area has its own bishop who is in charge of just that diocese.  But because Opus Dei is a personal prelature, its bishopm called the Prelate, is not limited to any specific area.  He is in charge of members of Opus Dei wherever they are, around the world. The prelate of Opus Dei is Monsignor Fernando Ocáriz Braña.

Beginnings and goals

Opus Dei was started by a Roman Catholic priest, Josemaria Escrivá, on 2 October 1928 in Madrid, Spain.  He said that God showed him what to do. On that day he "saw Opus Dei."

Escrivá said that the goals of Opus Dei are:
 To help Christians to know that ordinary life is a way to becoming a saint; and
 To bring people close to God.

Opus Dei gives classes, talks, and other help so that people can practice these teachings.

Belief that Opus Dei is God's work
Pope John Paul II has said that Escrivá was led by God when he started Opus Dei.

In 2002, Pope Benedict XVI said that Opus Dei is God's work, not Escrivá's.  He said that God just used Escriva as a tool to start his own work.

What it teaches

Escrivá and Opus Dei teach that a person can get close to God by doing these things:
Becoming a saint in ordinary life
Living like saints.  According to Opus Dei, when they were baptized, Christians became children of God.  Because of this, they have to act like people who belong to the family of God.  Most Christians should live like Jesus Christ, making their everyday lives holy. Jesus worked as a carpenter and lived as a son in a Jewish family in a small village for 30 years.
Making work holy
Doing work for God by doing things that help others and serve the needs of society. This work pleases God. By working to serve and help others, Jesus Christ "did all things well" (Mk 7:37).
Loving freedom
Loving freedom
Being happy that God created them as free beings. Being free means each person can choose do something or not to do it. When God himself became a man, he also became free like any man. Throughout his life, he obeyed what God the Father wanted from him, even when he had to die in the process. "Because he wants to," each person either decides to be with God or away from him. Those are the two basic choices in life.
Praying and sacrificing (doing good things which are hard to do)
Learning to love by praying throughout the day like a child.  Love is what holiness is all about. Escrivá said that people can have great holiness just by doing the little duties of each moment.
Doing charity and bringing people to God
Loving God and others.  Escrivá said this is the most important thing a Christian should do.  Christians should understand others and be nice to each other.  They should do their duties and also give God to others.
Becoming god-like.  A Christian who seeks God not just in church, but also in material things (things he can own), does not have two lives. He has one life. He lives the life of Jesus Christ, and Jesus is both God and man. A good Christian becomes another Christ.
Escrivá said that the basis of a Christian life is being a child of God.  If people are aware of this, then they will always be very happy.  He wrote that joy comes from knowing we are children of God.

What it does

According to the Catholic Church, people can find God in their daily work and activities. There they can be very close to him. They do not have to become priests or monks to become a saint. God wants them to become a saint by doing their ordinary duties and activities well.  The Catholic Church gave Opus Dei the job of spreading this knowledge, and teaching people that they can be real saints just by doing ordinary things and offering them to God.

Beliefs, newness and problems
Pope John Paul II praised Opus Dei and said that its aim of bringing God into the place of work is something great. Cardinal Albino Luciani, who later became Pope John Paul I, said that Escriva brought about a big change in how people deal with God. Before, people saw prayers as the only way to be close to God. Luciani said that Escriva also gave importance to work. The work one does can become prayer.

But when Escriva started teaching this, some Jesuits in the 1940s did not understand him. They said his beliefs were against the Catholic faith, because at that time Catholics thought that only priests and nuns could become holy. Some Jesuit leaders started saying that Opus Dei had secrets which it did not want the world to know, and that Opus Dei was dangerous. In fact, they said, Opus Dei just wanted to become very powerful and to control the world.
All these accusations were cleared up by the Popes and Catholic officials. These officials say that Opus Dei is doing something good for the world, by teaching people how to practice good habits, like telling the truth, working hard, keeping promises, loving people, and being concerned with those who are in need.

However, since the Jesuits are well-respected, a lot of people in the world believed what they said. Opus Dei has gotten a lot of criticism from Catholics and non-Catholics. They say that the members develop a strong drive to gain influence, and that the behaviour resembles that of a sect.  Critics of Opus Dei also say there is a lot of gender inequality in the organization.  They say Opus Dei has a very traditional view of the role of women in a Christian society. According to these critics, for Opus Dei the duty of the woman is to busy herself about the house and to raise the children of the family.
In 2005, a writer named John L. Allen, Jr. wrote a book which argued against these accusations. He said that these claims are mainly based on not understanding Opus Dei. He argued that:
 Opus Dei only teaches what the Catholic Church teaches
 There are many Opus Dei women who are very good leaders in business, fashion, art, education, social work, and other professions
 Half of Opus Dei's leaders are women, and these women also lead men
 Opus Dei does teach that women are very good at taking care of their families. Escriva said that women are natural teachers.

Another writer, Massimo Introvigne, said that Opus Dei is now being attacked by people who do not believe in God and people who think that God should not be present in the world of human beings. These people, he says, do not want religion to come back to the lives of many people in society.

History: how it developed
1928: October 2. Escrivá' starts Opus Dei
1930: February 14. Start of the Women's branch of Opus Dei
1939: The Way, Escrivá's book of spiritual thoughts, is first published
1941: March 19. The Bishop of Madrid approves Opus Dei
1943: February 14. Start of the Priestly Society of the Holy Cross
1946: Escrivá goes to Rome and puts up the headquarters of Opus Dei there
1950: June 16. Pope Pius XII gives the Catholic Church's approval of Opus Dei
1962: Start of the Second Vatican Council, a big meeting of Catholic bishops from all over the world. In this meeting, the bishops and the Pope teaches to everyone that they are all called to become holy
1975: June 26. Escrivá dies. Alvaro del Portillo, his closest co-worker, is chosen to become his successor
1982: November 28. Opus Dei become a personal prelature. John Paul II chooses del Portillo as prelate, or head of the prelature
1992: May 17. John Paul II declares that Opus Dei's founder, Escrivá, is in Heaven
2002: October 6. John Paul II says that Escriva is a saint. John Paul II calls Escrivá the "saint of ordinary life"
Further reading
 Allen, John, Jr. (2005). Opus Dei: an Objective Look Behind the Myths and Reality of the Most Controversial Force in the Catholic Church, Doubleday Religion.  — Some online excerpts are: Opus Dei: An Introduction , Chapter I: A Quick Overview , Chapter 4: Contemplatives in the Middle of the World , Chapter 7: Opus Dei and Secrecy 
 Berglar, Peter (1994). Opus Dei. Life and Work of its Founder. Scepter. — online here 
  
Estruch, Joan (1995). Saints and Schemers: Opus Dei and its paradoxes. — online Spanish version here
 Hahn, Scott (2006).  Ordinary Work, Extraordinary Grace: My Spiritual Journey in Opus Dei. Random House Double Day Religion.   — online excerpt of Chapter One here
Introvigne, Massimo (May 1994). "Opus Dei and the Anti-cult Movement". Cristianità, 229, p. 3-12 — online here
John Paul II. Sacred Congregation for Bishops. (23 August 1982). Vatican Declaration on Opus Dei. — online here
Martin, James, S.J. (25 February 1995). "Opus Dei in the United States". America Magazine. — online here 
  — online Spanish version here 
O'Connor, William. Opus Dei: An Open Book. A Reply to "The Secret World of Opus Dei" by Michael Walsh, Mercier Press, Dublin 1991, 
Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal (Benedict XVI) (9 October 2002). "St. Josemaria: God is very much at work in our world today". L'Osservatore Romano Weekly Edition in English, p. 3. —  online here
Schall, James, S.J. (Aug-Sept 1996). "Of Saintly Timber". Homiletic and Pastoral Review.  — review of Estruch's work, online here
Walsh, Michael (2004). Opus Dei: An Investigation into the Powerful Secretive Society within the Catholic Church. Harper San Francisco.
Other websites

Sites that support Opus Dei
 Opus Dei Official Site
 Romana, the Opus Dei's Official Bulletin
 McCloskey's Perspectives — website of writer Fr. McCloskey, priest of Opus Dei

Sites that criticize Opus Dei
 Opus Dei Awareness Network 
 Opus Libros (in Spanish)
 The Unofficial Opus Dei FAQ

Roman Catholicism
1928 establishments in Europe
1920s establishments in Spain
A superhero is a fictional character who protects innocent people and fights for good.

Modern superheroes usually have superhuman powers, for example have better senses, are stronger and faster than normal humans. Usually a superhero is courageous and noble. They usually have a colorful name and costume.

Some of the most well-known original superheroes are Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Spider-Man and Hulk from DC and Marvel.

Some superheroes do not actually have super powers but are merely strong individuals who want to do good in the world. For example, Batman does not have any superpowers, but has been through years of training to be physically and mentally stronger than his enemies.
Most superheroes keep their identities a secret by wearing masks or helmets.  This protects the superheroes' friends and family from being hurt by villains. Also, because superheroes do not fight within the regulations of the law like police officers do, they would have to be arrested for vigilantism if they revealed their identities.

Also, many superheroes have tragic backstories that play into why they're superheroes in the first place. Batman, for example, saw both of his parents murdered in front of him and dedicated himself to fighting crime to prevent things like that happening to other people. Another example of this is Spider-Man who let a thief go that he could've easily stopped; that same thief later broke into his home and killed Spider-Man's uncle. After this, Spider-Man realized that he had to be responsible with his power and use it to help others.

Superheroes
Paul Karrer (21 April 1889  18 June 1971) was a Swiss biochemist best known for his work on vitamins.  He and Norman Haworth won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937.

1889 births
1971 deaths
Swiss Nobel Prize winners
Swiss biologists
Biochemists
William "Smush" Parker (born 1 June 1981 in New York, New York) is a professional player in the American National Basketball Association.

Parker was not selected in the NBA player draft after a college career at Fordham University, and has played for the Cleveland Cavaliers, Detroit Pistons and Phoenix Suns, signing a contract with the Los Angeles Lakers during the 2005 offseason.

He last played in the NBA for the Los Angeles Clippers in 2010.

References

African-American basketball players
Sportspeople from New York City
Cleveland Cavaliers players
Detroit Pistons players
Los Angeles Clippers players
Los Angeles Lakers players
Miami Heat players
Phoenix Suns players
1981 births
Living people
American basketball players
Year 1462 (MCDLXII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.

Events
 March 27 – Vasili II of Russia dies. He is succeeded by his son Ivan III of Russia.
 July 1 – Battle of Seckenheim

 June 27 – Louis XII of France
Half-Life is a science fiction first-person shooter computer game developed by Valve Software and published by Sierra Entertainment in 1998, based on a very changed Quake game engine. It was first published for PCs running Microsoft Windows, and was later ported to Sony's PlayStation 2 video game console. A port for the Dreamcast was planned, but was cancelled. It is the first game in the Half-Life series.

Half-Life, often shortened to HL, has been thought to be very great by computer game critics for its gripping in-depth storyline, which has influenced the development of many other first-person shooters after it. It became very popular after it was released and still has many fans.
Plot
The story of the game takes place in a science research facility in New Mexico named Black Mesa. In the game, you play as Gordon Freeman, a scientist who works at Black Mesa. A test that Gordon helps with goes wrong, and causes a "resonance cascade", or a hole in the fabric of reality. This causes portals to appear all over Black Mesa. Aliens from a different dimension come through the portals and kill many of the scientists and workers. The dimension that the aliens come from is called Xen. After that, a branch of the United States Military called the HECU is ordered to kill all the scientists and aliens in Black Mesa to cover up the incident. Gordon must fight aliens and marines on his way through Black Mesa, then teleport to Xen so he can kill the alien leader called the nihilanth.

Expansions
Expansions

Half-Life: Opposing Force 
Half-Life: Opposing Force is the first expansion for Half-Life, which was made by Gearbox Software instead of Valve. It was released on November 1, 1999. Half-Life: Opposing Force happens during the same time as Half-Life and in the same setting. In the expansion, you play as "Adrian Shephard", a United States marine. He was sent to Black Mesa, and must escape after the helicopter he was riding was shot down.

Half-Life: Blue Shift 
Half-Life: Blue Shift is the second Expansion for Half-Life, which was also made by Gearbox Software, and was released on June 12, 2001. Half-Life: Blue Shift happens during the same time as Half-Life and in the same setting, just like Opposing Force. In this expansion, you play as "Barney Calhoun", a security guard who works at Black Mesa during the resonance cascade.
Half-Life: Decay 
Half-Life: Decay is the final expansion for Half-Life. Only the PlayStation 2 version of Half-Life has it. A few years after it was released, though, some fans of Decay made a version of it for the computer, and released it as a mod. The expansion is a cooperative multiplayer campaign, where two players have to work together to win.

Characters

G-Man 
The G-Man is a mysterious character that constantly appears in the Valve Software games Half-Life, Half-Life 2, Half-Life 2: Episode One, Half-Life 2: Episode Two and Half-Life: Alyx.

As of yet it is not yet certain who the suit-wearing man is, although it is commonly agreed that he has a pivotal role to play in the upcoming Half-Life 2: Episode 3. Avid followers of the series will know that he appears in almost every game level (see G-Man Locations), and lots of fan sites have been set up in his honor.
Gordon Freeman 
"Gordon Freeman" is a scientist that worked at the Black Mesa Research Facility before the main events of the game and is the main character in Half-Life.

Xen extraterrestrials 
Aliens from the dimension known as Xen.

Sequels 
Half-Life has 2 sequels, Half-Life 2 (including its episodes), and Half-Life: Alyx, a VR interquel that follows the character Alyx Vance.

References

Shooter video games
1998 video games
Half-Life series
Year 1681 was a common year that started on a Wednesday when using the Gregorian calendar.

Events 

 March 14 – Charles II of England grants a land charter to William Penn for the area that will later become Pennsylvania.
 October 28 –  A London woman is publicly flogged for the crime of "involving herself in politics."
 August 31 – Titus Oates is told to leave his state apartments in the Whitehall – his fame begins to wane and he is soon arrested and imprisoned for sedition.
 August 12 – The Ahom King Gadadhar Singha or Gadapani, who took the Tai name Supaatphaa, ascends the throne.
 December – Wu Shifan, the grandson of the Chinese general Wu Sangui, commits suicide in Yunnan province, ending the eight year conflict of the Revolt of the Three Feudatories against Qing Dynasty authority in China, then led by the Kangxi Emperor.

Undated 
 France annexes the city of Strasbourg.
 The last dodo bird is killed.
 Collections are made in England for needy French refugees.

Births
Births 

 March 14 – Georg Philipp Telemann, German composer (died 1767)
 June 26 – Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein-Gottorp, Swedish writer (died 1708)
 September 11 – Johann Gottlieb Heineccius, German jurist (died 1741)
 September 28 – Johann Mattheson, German composer (died 1764)
 November 17 – Pierre François le Courayer, French theologian (died 1776)
 November 28 – Jean Cavalier, French Protestant rebel leader (died 1740)

Deaths 

 January 28 – Richard Allestree, English royalist churchman (born 1619)
 March 12 – Frans van Mieris, Sr., Dutch painter (born 1635)
 May 25 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Spanish dramatist and poet (born 1600)
 July 1 – Oliver Plunkett, Irish saint (born 1629)
 July 25 – Urian Oakes, English-born President of Harvard University (born 1631)
 August 22 – Philippe Delano, Dutch Plymouth Colony settler (born 1602)
 December 22 – Richard Alleine, English Puritan clergyman (born 1611)
 date unknown – Gerard ter Borch, Dutch painter (born 1617)
Anonymity means "namelessness" and comes from Greek words meaning "without name". It is when a person's identity or name is unknown. If a person is called anonymous, nobody knows who he or she is, or the anonymous person does not want to be found out. 

The concept of anonymity has some important uses. It is vital for a democracy that votes cast in an election are anonymous. In that way, no-one can find out how a person voted in an election.

Names
Privacy
Spectroscopy is the study of light as a function of length of the wave that has been emitted, reflected or shone through a solid, liquid, or gas. 

To be analysed the chemical is heated, because each chemical glows differently. The various wavelengths of the glow make a color spectrum which differs in some detail from other chemicals. Spectroscopy separates and measures the brightness of the different wavelengths. It can identify the chemicals in a mixture, and determine some other things, such as how hot the thing is.

Spectroscopy allows scientists to investigate and explore things that are too small to be seen through a microscope, such as molecules, and the even smaller subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and  electrons. There are special instruments to measure and analyze these light waves.
Methods
Infrared spectroscopy measures light in the infrared electromagnetic spectrum. The highlight of IR spectroscopy is that it is very useful in identifying functional groups of organic molecules.  The absorption of infrared light by organic molecules causes molecular vibrations.  The vibrational frequencies are unique to the individual functional groups. IR spectra is given graphically by transmittance(%) vs. wavenumber (cm-1)

X-ray crystallography can look at the structure of a crystalline molecule. The electron cloud of each atom diffracts the X-rays thus revealing the positions of the atoms. Various inorganic and organic molecules can be crystallized and used in this method including DNA, proteins, salts and metals. The sample used for analysis is not destroyed.
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy uses visible and ultraviolet light to look at how much of a chemical is in a liquid. The colour of the solution is the basis for how UV-Vis works. The color of the solution we are working with is colored because of its chemical composition. So the solution absorbs some light colors and reflects other colors, the light it reflects is the color of the solution.  UV-Vis spectroscopy works by passing light through a sample of your solution then determining how much light gets absorbed by the solution.
Nuclear magnetic resonance can look at nuclei. It uses the magnetic properties of certain nuclei, the most common being 13C and 1H.  The NMR instrument generates a large magnetic field that makes the nuclei act like tiny bar magnets.  The nuclei either align with the instruments magnetic field or against it.  At this point we have two possible orientations the nuclei could be in α or β. Next the nuclei are exposed to radio waves that make α go to the β orientation. When this change occurs energy is given off and detected.  The data is interpreted graphically (Intensity vs. chemical shifts in ppm) by a computer system.  NMR does not destroy the sample you use for analysis.  Below is a 900 MHz NMR system.

Related pages 
 Absorption spectroscopy
 Astronomical spectroscopy
 Time-domain spectroscopy
 Auger electron spectroscopy
 Cauchy distribution
 Optics

Other websites

Measurement
Equestrianism is the sport of horseback riding. It is a popular sport in countries like the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom and other countries in Europe. Horses are used in many different competitions.

Within the sport, there are several types of riding, such as English and Western.

English riding is part of the Olympics there are several equestrian competitions, Dressage, Show jumping and Eventing, where three individual disciplines; dressage, showjumping and cross country are all performed by the same horse and rider partnership . There are no forms of Western riding in the Olympics.

Show jumping
Show jumping 

In show jumping, a rider rides a horse over a set course of horse jumps while being timed.  Riders win by having the fastest time without mistakes.  There are many types of horse jumps such as the vertical (a jump which is straight up and down and has no depth), the  oxer (a jump which is two or more rails deep, creating a wider jump), and combinations (2 or 3 jumps put right after each other). Courses will generally include more than 10 jumps, and require the horse and rider to do many complicated turns, jump at difficult angles, and perform more advanced tests of ability and communication.

Not every type of horse can jump well, just like not all horses are able to do well at horse racing or farm work.  Most horses seen in show jumping competitions are warmblood and thoroughbred horses which were bred for equestrian sports.  The riding has been popular since 1900.
Dressage 
Dressage is an event where horses are judged “on the flat” (no jumps) and where horse and rider are tested on their ability to talk to each other and perform specific tasks in a specific order within a time period. There is usually a sequence of activities that the horse and rider must complete. Letters are placed around a sand filled arena to show where movements should happen.  In dressage the horse and rider can also perform a freestyle, which is also known as "Dancing on Horseback". Dressage riders usually wear tight pants called breeches, as well as a blouse, a top coat and a top hat.  The moves of the horse should be very graceful. Horses and riders that compete at the Olympics in dressage have had many years of training to learn all the moves they must do together for the competition.
Eventing 
Eventing (or 3-day-eventing) combines dressage, show jumping, and the horse version of cross country into one sport. This combined training is based on the old military tests of the cavalry where the rider's life depended on the horse listening to what the rider told it to do. In eventing, the horse and rider compete in three separate tests of skill typically over 2–3 days: Dressage, Show Jumping, and Cross Country.
 
The cross country test makes this sport different from the other equestrian sports. It requires the horse to canter and gallop at a high speed over solid and complicated jumps and jump combinations. These jumps may be logs, stone walls, water, ditches, or banks. The cross country course is very long, and at the Olympics it may take as long as 10 minutes to complete the course.
The dressage test makes sure that the horse is listening to the rider, is relaxed, and is able to do very difficult small tasks. It tests that the horse is very well trained. The cross-country course makes sure that the horse is fast, has long-distance endurance, and is brave. Cross-country fences may be very scary and the horses may become tired while running. The show jumping test makes sure that the horse and rider are in good physical condition, have excellent jumping skills, and are able to jump many high jumps in a short period of time without making a mistake. This is an especially difficult test as the athletes will be tired after completing the other tests. If the horse is too tired, he will hit the show jumps and make it harder for the rider to win.

Sometimes bad accidents happen during the cross country course it is a huge risk if you join the course.
Hunter-jumper 
In the Hunter-jumper discipline, people ride horses in various classes meant to test skills required in English fox hunting. Tests may be conducted over fences or “under saddle” meaning without jumps. In this discipline, the horse is being judged on how easy it makes each of the tests look. It is the job of the rider to make the test look as easy as possible, to not show signs of forcing the horse to do anything, and to let the horse show its ability.

Under saddle, a horse should walk, trot, and canter in both directions easily and relaxed. The horse should not show signs of being annoyed, show anger, change speed, or misbehave in any other way. In some cases, riders may be asked to “jog” their horses, which is where they get off the horse, take off the saddle, and run on foot next to the horse to show that it has no injuries and so the judge can look at the horse to see if it has the right body for hunting.
Over fences, riders will be asked to take the horses over a course of natural jump fences, made to look like the obstacles encountered in the English countryside. The courses are simple, with no tight turns, or complicated jumps, and usually only one or two changes of direction. The horse must keep the same speed throughout the course, they must not touch any of the jumps with their body, and the rider must make it look as easy as possible.

Hunter-jumper is one of the most popular disciplines for children and teenagers. Classes are also offered at most shows for adults and professionals as well.

Stock work 
Stock work began when horses were ridden on a ranch to round up cows, sheep, or other animals.  Today, horse shows also have competitions for horses to show these skills. These include Cutting, Reining, Barrel Racing, Cattle Penning, Calf Roping, Campdrafting,  and Pole Bending.
Driving 
Driving in the horse world means that a horse is pulling a type of wagon. It knows where to go by a person sitting on the wagon that tells them which direction they should turn. A horse used to pull a wagon is usually bigger and heavier than most other horses.  The hooves are also much larger than a racing horse. Large horses are calm, trustworthy and good-natured. Types of heavy horses are: Belgians, Shires, Clydesdale, Friesian horse, and Gypsy Vanners. These horse breeds are generally quiet, strong, heavy, but gentle. Beginner equestrians may be able to communicate with these well tempered horses.

Races of horses pulling carts are called harness races. Harness racing is typically done at a trot and by a single horse pulling a light cart with a single jockey.
In other types of carriage or harness races, teams of multiple horses may race around figure 8 courses. Horses may also compete in individual driving competitions which require individual or teams of horses to be guided through a serious of tests.

Racing 

Horse racing tests the speed of a horse. Different breeds do different types of races. The most popular type in the U.S. is Thoroughbred racing, where only horses of this breed can participate in galloping around a track. There are also endurance races, trotting races and steeplechases (horses galloping around a track with jumps). Most horses that are used for racing are ridden by professional riders called jockeys. Usually the people that own or train the horse do not ride it in the races.

Barrel racing is a sport where the rider rides the horse in a pattern around three barrels. The rider must be able to turn the horse very quickly around the barrels. The horse that does the pattern the fastest is the winner.
Pleasure riding 
Pleasure riding is riding for enjoyment, not for awards. People ride horses on trails in the forest, along quiet roads, or in an arena near their homes or barns. Horse back riding lessons could be considered pleasure riding.  Pleasure riding can be called trail riding. Pleasure riding does not have to be for any specific reason, just for fun and enjoyment. Riding in a horse carriage may also be for pleasure.

Endurance
Endurance riding is an equestrian long-distance race.  There are two main types of endurance rides which are competitive trail riding and endurance rides.

The Risk 
If you join the Cross country course there is a huge risk of it. Lots of accidents happen during the course. Sometimes the horses die or need to be taken to the vet. But equestrians fall of very much.
 
Horse riding
The United States Virgin Islands are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. They are currently owned and under the authority of the United States Government. They used to be owned by Denmark (and called Danish West Indies). They were sold to the U.S. on January 17, 1917, because of fear that the Germans would capture them and use them as a submarine base in World War I. They are the only part of the U.S. where vehicles drive on the left hand side of the road.

References

Other websites

 Official Tourism Website
 Governor's Website 
 
 U.S. Census Bureau: Island Areas Census 2000
 
 
 
 Real-time, geographic and other scientific resources of Virgin Islands  from the United States Geological Survey
 Convention between the United States and Denmark for cession of the Danish West Indies
Chester Alan Arthur (October 5, 1829 – November 18, 1886) was the 21st president of the United States from 1881 to 1885. Before becoming president, he was most noted as the Collector of Customs for the Port of New York, a job he got from his political friendships. Arthur was the first president of the United States to take oath of office at his own house. 

Arthur was a lawyer in New York City. Two of his cases were famous. One confirmed that any slave brought to New York was automatically set free. The other ended the racial segregation of streetcars in the city. 

After President James A. Garfield died, vice-president Chester Arthur replaced him. The man who killed him expected the new president to pardon him. This did not happen.
During Arthur's term a major problem was that people were appointing their friends (such as himself) into high political offices instead of people who were most qualified to do the job. The problem was solved after he promoted the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act which required people to pass tests before they could be appointed to a public job.

References

Other websites 

Arthur's White House biography 

1830 births
1886 deaths
Deaths from stroke
Republican Party (United States) politicians
 
Politicians from Vermont
19th-century American politicians
Wizardry is a series of computer role-playing games that were popular in the 1980s. First, made for the Apple II, they were later moved to other platforms. The latest game in the series, Wizardry 8, is only for Windows.

Wizardry began as a simple dungeon crawl by Andrew C. Greenberg and Robert Woodhead. It was written when they were students at Cornell University and then published by Sir-Tech.

David W. Bradley took over the series after the fourth game.

Series

Ultimately the single game became a series:

Main series
Wizardry: Proving Grounds of the Mad Overlord (1981)
Wizardry: Knight of Diamonds - The Second Scenario (1982)
Wizardry: Legacy of Llylgamyn - The Third Scenario (1983)
Wizardry: The Return of Werdna - The Fourth Scenario (1986)
Wizadry V: Heart of the Maelstrom (1988)
Bane of the Cosmic Forge (1990)
Crusaders of the Dark Savant (1992) (Remade as Wizardry Gold in 1996)
Wizardry 8 (2001)
Spin-offs
Nemesis: The Wizardry Adventure (1998)
Wizadry Chronicle (2001)
Wizardry: Tale of the Forsaken Land (2001)
Wizardry: Labyrinth of Lost Souls (2011)
Wizardry Online (2013)

The first and last three games were trilogies (Three parts of one story).

Legacy

Wizardry inspired many games which were almost exactly like it. Some notable series that are very much like Wizardry include The Bard's Tale and Might and Magic.

Other websites 
 Official Wizardry 8 website 
 Prepare Yourself for the Ultimate in Fantasy Games
 Moby Games entry on Wizardry 
 Page with a lot of mods and inofficial patches

Role-playing video games
Apple II games
Video game series
Windows games
The United States Army is a branch (or section) of the United States Armed Forces. An army mainly deals with land based missions, while other parts of the military deal with air and sea missions. The current Commander-in-chief of the United States Army is President Biden.

The United States Secretary of the Army, a civilian, leads the army with the help of the Army Chief of Staff, a general. Officially, a person (or member) in the army is called a soldier. The soldier must take orders from a person in charge known as a CO or commander. When a person joins the Army, they must serve for a certain amount of time or a "tour of duty". A new soldier or recruit must go through training called Basic Training to become a soldier. Each soldier is trained in a variety of weapons and equipment to carry out commands.
History
The army started as the Continental Army from 1775 to August 7, 1789 when the War Department (now known as the Department of Defense) was formed. The Army fought wars against the British and many indigenous peoples in its early years. It also rented slaves from slaveowners to build forts, and many officers brought their own slaves with them on assignments.

Mission 
The United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U.S. Military.

Regiment
Traditionally, the US Army has had three different combat arms:

Artillery

Cavalry (Armoured)

Infantry

Related pages
 United States National Guard
 United States Army Reserve
 United States Army Center of Military History
 United States Army trucks

References

 
Slavers
Charlemagne (, French: Charlemagnes, , , ) (c. 2 April 748 – 28 January 814) was the king of the Franks and the first Holy Roman Emperor. He was crowned as the Emperor on Christmas Day, 800. He was the older son of King Pippin III of the Carolingian dynasty. When Pippin died, Charlemagne and his brother Carloman ruled together. When Carloman died in 771 Charlemagne became the only ruler of the Franks.

Life 
The Franks—one of the Germanic peoples who had moved their homes over the River Rhine into the Roman Empire as it was falling apart—were, by the year 700, the rulers of Gaul, and a lot of Germania east of the Rhine. They also protected the Papacy and the Roman Catholic faith. When their king Pepin the Short died, his sons, Charlemagne and Carloman were chosen to share the kingdom. They divided it into two parts: one half for Charlemagne, and the other for Carloman. Carloman died on December 4, 771, leaving Charlemagne as the leader of the whole Frankish kingdom.
He was king of the Franks from 768, and king of the Lombards from 774. He was crowned Imperator Augustus (Emperor) in Rome on Christmas Day by Pope Leo III in 800, starting the Holy Roman Empire, that they hoped would be a kind of second Western Roman Empire (while the Byzantines in Constantinople were still keeping up the Eastern Roman empire). With many wars, Charlemagne spread his empire across much of Western Europe.

Charlemagne fought in many wars over the course of his reign. He is known for using his sword, Joyeuse, in each of the thirty years of war and the 18 battles he fought in. He also finally managed to conquer Saxony, something the Roman Emperor Augustus could not do 800 years earlier. He was able to convert the Saxons to Catholic Christianity. He also had many schools built so his people could learn. However, he also killed thousands of those who failed to convert.
Death
Charlemagne's politics and plans failed, which led to low self-esteem. His last years were spent in bed in deep depression. He died in 814, leaving his kingdom to his only son, Louis the Pious. The descendants of Charlemagne are called Carolingians. His family line died out in Germany in 911 and in France in 987.

Battles and campaigns 
Saxon Wars.  The Saxon Wars, also called the Saxon War or Saxon Uprising were the campaigns and insurrections of the thirty-three years from 772, when Charlemagne first entered Saxony with the intent to conquer,

References 

740s births
814 deaths
Holy Roman Emperors
Frankish rulers
Carolingian dynasty
9th century in Europe
Marlow is a town on the banks of the River Thames, on the southern tip of Buckinghamshire, England.

Other websites 
 Official website

References 

Towns in Buckinghamshire
Italian unification (), also known as the Risorgimento (meaning "the Resurgence"), refers to the Italian movement that united the Italian states in the 19th century. The movement began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna. It ended in 1871, when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy by the efforts of Count of Cavour, the prime minister of Piedmont, and Giuseppe Garibaldi, an Italian national hero who united southern Italy. That allowed King Victor Emmanuel II to become the first king of Italy.

Napoléon's defeat of Napoleon 
Napoléon Bonaparte invaded Italy in 1796 and later controlled it. When he was defeated in 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo, the free states could now join together.

The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) restored the prewar ancien régime. The Austrian Empire, ruled by the Habsburgs, controlled most of Italy.

Conquest of Sardinia
Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont-Sardinia had a great vision of a unified Italy. He wanted Piedmont-Sardinia to be a model for the unification of Italy. To do so, he started many public works, projects, and political reforms. Piedmont-Sardinia was soon recognized as an emerging power. The next step for its conquest was to get Austria out of the Italian Peninsula.

With the Crimean War breaking out between France and Britain on one side, and Russia on the other, Piedmont-Sardinia had a chance to earn some respect and to make a name for itself. Britain and France proved victorious, and Sardinia was able to attend the peace conference. As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia gained the support of French Emperor Napoléon III.