Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
In the Ravenna document of 13 October 2007 representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church agreed that "Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the taxis (order), and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos (first) among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of historical evidence from this era regarding the rights of the bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium."

Christian tradition says Saint Peter was the first leader of an early apostolic community for at least 34 years. At that time the word Pope or "Papa" was not used to name the leader of the Roman Catholic Church. At that time there was only one Christian Church. Later, the Roman Catholic Church would say that Peter was their first Pope.

Tradition also locates his burial place where St. Peter's Basilica was later built, in Vatican City.
Related pages

 Twelve apostles

References

Other websites 

 Online articles about Saint Peter in Simple English

Early Christian saints
Twelve Apostles
Popes
67 deaths
Deans of the College of Cardinals
The Sistine Chapel is a large chapel in the Vatican Palace, the place in Italy where the Pope lives. The Chapel was built between 1473 and 1481 by Giovanni dei Dolci for Pope Sixtus IV.

The Sistine Chapel is the Pope's own chapel. It is used for important Masses and ceremonies. When a pope dies, the College of Cardinals meet in the Sistine Chapel to elect a new pope.

The Sistine Chapel is famous for its fresco paintings by the Renaissance painter Michelangelo.

Architecture and paintings 

 
 

The Sistine Chapel is a brick building shaped like a rectangle. The outside is plain, with no decoration and no big door. It has a walk-way near the top, for soldiers. 
It has six arched windows on its two side walls and a curved ceiling called a barrel vault.

The inside of the chapel is richly decorated. The floor is of coloured marble. The lower parts of the walls are painted to look like gold and silver cloth.
The other decorations in the chapel are paintings which tell stories to help people understand about Jesus Christ and about the Roman Catholic Church.

The middle part of the walls has 12 large paintings called frescoes, done by famous artists in 1481. The artists' names were Domenico Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli, Perugino, Cosimo Rosselli, Pinturicchio, Benedetto Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli and Bartolomeo della Gatta.
The frescoes show stories from the Bible. On the north side, the stories are about the life of Moses. On the south side, they are about the life of Jesus.

Above the stories, near the windows, are painted pictures of Popes.
Sistine Chapel ceiling 
The ceiling is the most famous part of the Sistine Chapel, and many thousands of visitors go to see it. 
In 1505 Pope Julius II asked Michelangelo to paint the ceiling. Michelangelo was a famous sculptor. He did not want to be a painter. Three years later, he agreed to paint the ceiling. He worked from 1508 to 1511, standing on a high platform with his arms stretched above his head. 
(Although some people think that he lay down to paint, this is not true.) Because he painted onto wet plaster, the smell and the heat was terrible. He wrote a poem about how sick he was.

Along the center of the ceiling are painted nine pictures that tell stories from the Book of Genesis in the Old Testament of the Bible. The stories start with three pictures of God making light, making the Earth, the Sun and the Moon, and making the Sea and Sky.
The next three pictures tell the story of the first man and woman, Adam and Eve. In the first scene, God has just made Adam. He reaches out his hand and touches his finger to give him Life.

In the next picture, Adam is asleep and God makes Eve from one of Adam's ribs.

In the third picture there are two scenes. Adam and Eve are tricked by the Devil to eat fruit from the tree that they have been told not to touch. In the other scene, an angel chases them out of God's Garden of Eden. This story tells how sin came into the world.
The last three pictures are about Noah's Ark. They tell about a sad and sinful world. Because of human sin and unkindness, God sends a flood. Only Noah and his family escape in the large boat that they build. When the flood has ended, they make an altar and kill a sheep as a sacrifice to God. But then Noah grows grape vines, makes wine and gets drunk. One of his sons sees Noah lying naked and laughs at his father. Noah is ashamed and curses his son. These stories show how people keep acting the wrong way, even when they get a second chance.

All around the wall, Michelangelo painted twelve big figures of wise men and women. These were the prophets and sibyls who told people that God would send Jesus Christ to save them from sin.

Also painted on the ceiling are 20 beautiful young men called the ignudi. No-one knows what they are for sure, but perhaps they are angels.
When the ceiling was finally uncovered, everyone was amazed. Giorgio Vasari, who wrote Michelangelo's life story, says that hundreds of people came every day to stare and stare.

The Last Judgement 
Michelangelo was happy to get back to his sculpture. But in 1537 Pope Paul III ordered him to paint another large fresco. This time it was on the wall above the altar. It was finished in 1541.

Michelangelo painted The Last Judgement which shows Jesus judging the people of the Earth and sending some to Hell while others are welcomed into Heaven by Saints. He painted most of the figures naked. This made some of the priests in the church very angry. They paid another artist to paint clothes onto the Blessed Virgin Mary and many of the other figures.

Related pages
 St. Peter's Basilica
 Michelangelo
 Roman Catholic Church
 Vatican
 Fresco
 Italian Renaissance art

References 

 Gabriel Bartz and Eberhard Konig, Michelangelo, Konemann, 
 Massimo Giacometti, editor, The Sistine Chapel, Harmony Books,
Churches in Rome
Buildings and structures in Vatican City
Roman Catholic churches in Italy
15th-century buildings and structures‎
Pope Paul III (; February 29, 1468 – November 10, 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 221st Pope from 1534 to 1549.

Early life
Alessandro Farnese was born in an ancient Roman family.  His grandfather was commander-in-chief of the papal troops under Pope Eugenius IV.

Cardinal
In 1493, Pope Alexander VI made Farnese a cardinal.

Pope
Cardinal Farnese was elected Pope in 1534; and he chose to be called Paul III.

Pope Paul was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

Council of Trent
He convened the Council of Trent in 1545.

Related pages
 List of popes

References

Other websites

 

  Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Paul III
 Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church,  Cardinal Farnese 

1468 births
1549 deaths
Paul 3
Deans of the College of Cardinals
Pope Sixtus IV (; 21 July 1414 - 12 August 1484), originally Francesco della Rovere, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 213th Pope from 1471 until his death in 1484.

He is known for beginning construction of the Sistine Chapel.

Early life
Della Rovere was born in Celle Ligure, a town near Savona in Liguria. His family was important.

As a young man, he joined the Franciscan Order.  He rose in the order to head of the Franciscans in Liguria.

Della Rovere studied philosophy and theology at the University of Pavia; and he lectured at Padua, Bologna, Pavia, Siena, and Florence.

Cardinal
In 1467, Pope Paul II raised della Rovere to the rank of Cardinal.

Pope
He was elected pope on August 9, 1471.  He took the name Sixtus because the first day of the conclave which elected him pope was the Feast Day of St. Sixtus.

Pope Sixtus was involved in Italian and European political disputes.
Papal actions 
 1474 – Christian I of Denmark was received in Rome.
 1479 – University of Copenhagen established
 1482 – St Bonaventura was canonized.

Legacy
Sixtus ordered the building of the Ponte Sisto (Sistine Bridge) across the Tiber River.

The Vatican Library was enlarged during the reign of Sixtus; and the number of manuscripts grew ten times larger—from 360 during the reign of Pope Nicholas V to 3650.

Related pages 
 List of popes
 List of popes from the della Rovere family

References

Other websites

 
  Catholic Hierarchy, Sixtus IV
  Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Cardinal della Rovere 

Italian popes
1414 births
1484 deaths
House of della Rovere
Pope Julius II (; December 5, 1443 - February 21, 1513), born Giuliano della Rovere, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 217th Pope  from 1503 until his death in 1513.  He was known as "the Warrior Pope."

He was the nephew of Pope Sixtus IV.

Early life 
Giuliano della Rovere was the son of Rafaello della Rovere.

His uncle would become Pope Sixtus IV.

Cardinal
In 1471, Sixtus made Rovere a cardinal.

Pope
Rovere was elected pope in 1503; and he chose to be called Julius II.

Pope Julius was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

In 1506, Pope Julius he established the Swiss Guard.

Related pages 
 List of popes
 List of popes from the della Rovere family

References

More reading
 Shaw, Christine. (1993). Julius II: the Warrior Pope. Oxford: Blackwell. ;  OCLC 417355755

Other websites

 
  Catholic Hierarchy, Julius II
  Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Cardinal della Rovere 

 

Italian popes
1443 births
1513 deaths
House of della Rovere
Donato Bramante (c. 1444 - April 11, 1514) was an architect who introduced the High Renaissance style to architecture.

1440s births
1514 deaths
Italian architects
Alexandre Dumas (born 24 July, 1802 at Villers-Cotterêts, died 5 December 1870 at Dieppe) was a French writer of Haitian descent. He is famous for writing The Three Musketeers (1844), Queen Margot, The Count of Monte Cristo (1844-1845) and about the Man with the iron mask.

Dumas's father was a general, who fought in the French Revolution. When his father died, his mother raised him. They didn't have much money when he was growing up.

Dumas wrote his first plays in 1825 and 1826 after reading Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Friedrich von Scholler and Lord Byron.

Dumas was also a gourmand (lover of food), and wrote Le Grand Dictionnaire de cuisine, an encyclopædia of food and cooking with 1152 pages. He finished it weeks before his death. It is not thought very reliable, because it relies on Dumas' opinions rather than fact.

Dumas was a member of the Club des Hashischins, or Hashish Club. The group of French writers experimented with hashish to get ideas.
Related pages
Alexandre Dumas, fils, son of this writer

References

Further reading

Other websites

 

1802 births
1870 deaths
Writers from Hauts-de-France
People from Aisne
People with foods named after them
Beastie Boys were an American rap group. According to an interview with Charlie Rose, the word "Beastie" is the backronym of Boys Entering Anarchic States Towards Internal Excellence.  They formed in 1981 as a punk rock band. Their most famous albums are probably Licensed To Ill (1986) and Paul's Boutique (1989). Licensed To Ill is their first album, and it is an album that is given credit for starting the type of music "rap rock", which is rapping done over rock guitar or beats. Paul's Boutique is an album famous for its use of samples, or snippets of music, and the fact that the samples were put together in creative, interesting ways.

Adam Yauch (1964-2012) was one of the founding members of the band until his death on May 4, 2012 after almost 3-years with cancer of the parotid salivary gland. Former original guitarist, John Berry (1963-2016), died on May 19, 2016 from dementia at 52.
Members 
 John Berry – guitar (1981–1982; died 2016)
 Mike D – singing, drums (1981–2012)
 Kate Schellenbach – drums, percussion (1981–1984)
 MCA – singing, bass guitar (1981–2012; died 2012)
 Ad-Rock – singing, guitar (1982–2012)

Discography 
 1982 - Polly Wog Stew (EP) 	
 1984 - Rock Hard (EP) 	
 1986 - Licensed to Ill
 1989 - Paul's Boutique
 1992 - Check Your Head
 1994 - Ill Communication
 1995 - Root Down (EP) 	
 1995 - Aglio e Olio (EP) 	
 1998 - Hello Nasty
 2003 - In A World Gone Mad (EP) 	
 2004 - To the 5 Boroughs
 2007 - The Mix-Up
 2011 - Hot Sauce Committee Part Two

Other websites 
 Official site
 Mic To Mic
1981 establishments in New York (state)
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
2012 disestablishments in the United States
American rap music groups
American rock bands
Grammy Award winners
Hip hop bands
Musical groups disestablished in 2012
Musical groups established in 1981
Musical groups from New York City
Webby Award winners
Public Enemy is an American rap group. They are also known as PE. They formed in 1982, and are still together today. They became famous for their politically charged, militant messages in their songs. They are also famous for using lots of jazz and funk samples in their songs, doneto create a loud, noisy sound and back their angry, powerful rapping. Group members include Chuck D. and Flavor Flav, as well as Terminator X and Professor Griff, who left the group in 1990, but rejoined in the late 1990s.

1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
Musical groups from New York (state)
American rap music groups
Not to be confused with the king of Scotland Macbeth of Scotland

Macbeth is a play by William Shakespeare. Shakespeare wrote three types of plays: histories, comedies and tragedies. Macbeth is his shortest tragedy. Shakespeare wrote it between 1603 and 1607, during the reign of King James I of England.

In the play, the characters of Macbeth, Macduff, and Duncan are roughly based on records of real people. Shakespeare read these records in Holinshed's Chronicles, a history book from 1587. However, the things that happen in the play are very different from what happened in real life.
Characters 
 Duncan – King of Scotland
 Malcolm – Duncan's eldest son
 Donalbain – Duncan's youngest son
 Macbeth – A general in the army of King Duncan, Thane of Glamis, then Thane of Cawdor and later King of Scotland
 Lady Macbeth – Macbeth's wife, later Queen of Scotland
 Banquo – Macbeth's friend and fellow general in Duncan's army
 Fleance – Banquo's son
 Three Witches
 Macduff – Thane of Fife
 Lady Macduff – Macduff's wife
 Macduff's son
 Ross, Lennox, Angus, Menteith, Caithness – Thanes
 Seyward – General of the English forces
 Young Seyward – Seyward's son
 Seyton – Macbeth's servant
 Three Murderers
 Porter – in charge of the gate at Macbeth's castle
 English Doctor
 Scottish Doctor – Lady Macbeth's doctor
 Gentlewoman – Lady Macbeth's servant

Story
Story

Act 1 
The first characters we see in the play are the three Witches. They talk to each other in a mysterious way, and agree to meet with Macbeth on the heath. This scene includes the famous line "fair is foul, and foul is fair", a subject which becomes a main part of the play.

In Act 1 Scene 2, there is a war going on. King Duncan is at a camp, listening to reports from the battlefield. An injured officer (some scripts say a captain, others a sergeant) is brought in. He saved Malcolm's life. The officer tells Duncan about the battle. He says that it was going badly, until Macbeth fought his way to the rebel leader Macdonald and disembowelled him. But as soon as that happened, the Norwegians, led by their king Sweno, also attacked. They were joined by a traitor, the Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth and Banquo fought bravely until they were defeated. Duncan is pleased by the news. He orders that the Thane of Cawdor be executed and his title given to Macbeth.
Ross and Angus come to find Macbeth, and tell him that the King has given him the title of Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth is surprised and happy, but he starts thinking of ways to become king. This frightens him, because he thinks that the only way he can become king is to murder Duncan.

In I.iv, Macbeth and Banquo return to Forres and Duncan thanks them for their courage and hard work. He also says that his son Malcolm will be his heir. Macbeth realizes that he will have to get past both Duncan and Malcolm to become king. Duncan says he is going to Macbeth's castle for the night.

In I.v, Lady Macbeth is reading a letter from Macbeth that tells her about the witches and their prophecy. She is very excited, and starts planning to murder Duncan. A messenger tells her that Duncan will be staying at their castle that night. She calls on evil spirits to make her strong and evil so that she can murder Duncan. Macbeth comes in and she tells him of her plans.
I.vi shows Duncan, Banquo, Donalbain, Malcolm, Macduff and some of the thanes entering Macbeth's castle. Duncan and Banquo agree that the castle is sweet and pleasant. Lady Macbeth enters and greets them.

I.vii is the last scene in Act I. Macbeth is talking to himself about why it is wrong to kill the king. He knows that it is a bad thing to do, especially because he is the host and Duncan trusts him. Lady Macbeth enters and scolds him for being a coward and says that he is not brave enough to be a man. She works out how they are going to kill Duncan, and convinces Macbeth to do it.

Act 2 
Act II starts with Banquo and his son Fleance walking in a courtyard in Macbeth's castle. They meet Macbeth, who lies to Banquo and says that he has not thought about the witches' prophecy. When they leave, Macbeth sees a hallucination of a knife. He knows it is not real, but before his sight it changes and becomes covered in blood. He leaves to kill Duncan.
Act 3 
Banquo is alone on stage at the start of Act III. He realizes that Macbeth has become everything the witches said he would become. He thinks that Macbeth did wrong to get the crown, but he does not want to say anything. He hopes that his son will also be king, as the witches said. Macbeth, Lady Macbeth, and the lords enter. Macbeth asks Banquo if he is going riding that afternoon, and if Fleance is going with him. Banquo says yes to both. Two men come to see Macbeth, and he goes to meet them. He is angry that he has risked everything to become king, but that Banquo's sons will be kings after him. The men are actually murderers.
Macbeth tells them that Banquo is the reason they are unhappy and have bad lives, and orders them to kill Banquo and Fleance.
Macbeth talks to Lady Macbeth in scene ii. He says that he has nightmares and cannot sleep. He is jealous of Duncan, because he is dead and does not need to worry anymore. Macbeth also says that he is worried about Banquo being alive, but he does not tell his wife about the murderers.

In III, the two murderers meet another one, also sent by Macbeth. They kill Banquo, but Fleance escapes.

In Scene iv Macbeth has a banquet with the nobles. The murderers come in and inform him of Banquo's death and Fleance's escape. He returns to the table where the nobles are eating, and looks for a seat. Even though there is one empty, he cannot see it. He has a vision of the murdered Banquo sitting in his seat, and becomes hysterical talking to the vision. Lady Macbeth explains it to the nobles as an illness, and asks them to leave as Macbeth becomes more and more upset.
Many editors say that scene v of Act III, along with a song in IV.i, is not written by Shakespeare. This is because the writing is different to the way Shakespeare usually writes. It has a witch called Hecate in it, who is not previously mentioned in the play. She seems to be in charge of the other witches and is scolding them for dealing with Macbeth without informing her.

In the final scene, Lennox is talking to another lord. They find out that Macduff has gone to England to convince Malcolm to return and claim his throne, and to ask for the help of King Edward of England.
Act 4 
Scene (i) starts with the witches, who are standing in a circle around their cauldron, throwing things in, like the tongue of a dog. Then suddenly Macbeth arrives and asks them to tell him some more prophecies. As the first prophecy they tell him to be careful of Macduff, Thane of Fife. As the second prophecy they say he can't be killed by anyone who was born of a woman and as the third prophecy the witches say if Birnam Wood stays at its current position Macbeth is okay but if the wood moves he will have problems. Macbeth is happy because he thinks that all of these things are impossible. He wants to know a fourth thing but suddenly the witches dance crazily and then run away.
Next Lennox enters and tells Macbeth that Macduff has fled to England. Macbeth orders Macduff's castle to be seized.

In scene ii Macbeth’s men arrive at Macduff’s castle and kill Macduff´s family and everybody else in the castle.
In scene iii Macduff finds out what Macbeth did to his family. He is very sad and angry, so he decides to go back to Scotland with Malcolm and they plan to kill Macbeth.

Act 5
Scene i takes place in Macbeth’s castle. A doctor and a servant are talking about Lady Macbeth. They’re talking about Lady Macbeth’s sickness. She is sleepwalking and while she sleepwalks she says that she regrets having told her husband to kill Duncan and Banquo.

In scene ii Lennox and other Scottish thanes think that Macbeth is crazy and that he is killing too many people. Together they go to Malcolm and king Edward of England and tell them that they want to fight against Macbeth with the English army.

Scene iii takes place in Macbeth’s castle. He is told that Malcolm and Macduff are coming with the English army and want to kill him. The doctor tells him that his wife is ill. She has become crazy and is sleepwalking.
In scene iv Malcolm, Macduff and the English army hide in Birnam Wood. They don’t want to be seen, so they cut off some branches and cover themselves with them.

In scene V, the doctor comes to Macbeth and tells him that his wife is dead. Macbeth is depressed, and then he has a monologue about how meaningless life is. After that, a servant says that Birnam Wood is moving, but Macbeth doesn't believe him, so the servant shows him.

In scene VI, Macduff, Malcolm and the English army are planning to attack Macbeth.

In scene VII, Macbeth and an English Lord fight, and Macbeth says he cannot be killed by anyone born of a woman. Macbeth then kills him. Meanwhile, Macduff is looking for Macbeth.

Scene VIII shows the fight between Macduff and Macbeth, who says again that he cannot be killed by anyone born of a woman. Macduff replies that he was cut out of his mother‘s stomach (c-section). He then kills Macbeth. In the last scene Malcolm is declared king.
Performance 
Many actors think it is bad luck to say the word "Macbeth", and will not say the play's name. Instead, they call it "The Scottish Play". One theory about where this superstition came from is that the play deals with witchcraft.

References

Related pages
Daemonologie
Macbeth - opera by Giuseppe Verdi

Plays by William Shakespeare
Scotland in fiction
1600s plays
Love's Labour's Lost is a comedy play by William Shakespeare which was written between 1588 and 1597.

The play contains a lot of wordplay and many characters are based off real kings and noblemen from around those years. This makes the play harder to understand for modern audiences, which is why it is less famous than most of Shakespeare's plays. However, it has been performed more often since the 20th century.

Plot 
Ferdinand, the King of Navarre, and three of his men meet together and talk about their intellectual plans. Their plans then go wrong when the Princess of France and three of her ladies arrive. The men find that they are in love with the ladies and cannot hide it.

Name 
The exact original title is unknown. In early written versions of the script, it varied as to how many apostrophes were used in the title. In the first quarto, it is called Loues labors lost, as a "u" was often used for a "v" sound back then. The title is now most often given as Love's Labour's Lost.

References
References 

Plays by William Shakespeare
1590s plays
Titus Andronicus (c. 1589–1592) is the first tragedy play by William Shakespeare.  Most of its theme, structure and language comes from The Spanish Tragedy by Thomas Kyd. It is believed to be Shakespeare's first play, and also the  bloodiest and least respected of his works. 

Plays by William Shakespeare
1580s plays
The Comedy of Errors (c. 1589–94) is one of the first plays by William Shakespeare. It is a comedy. Shakespeare's sources were Menaechmi by Plautus and Amphitruo by Plautus.

References 

Plays by William Shakespeare
1590s plays
The Pietà is a statue by Michelangelo. It is now in the first temple on the right of Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City.

Related pages
The following are other statues by Michelangelo:
 David
 Moses

Statues
Art by Michelangelo
15th-century works
Raffaello Sanzio, usually known as Raphael (April 6, 1483 - April 6, 1520) was a Renaissance painter and architect. With Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, he is one of the three greatest painters of the High Renaissance.

He is best known for his paintings of the Madonna and Christ Child and for his paintings in the Vatican in Rome, Italy.

Perugia 
Raphael was born in Urbino, in the region of Umbria, Italy. He was the son of Giovanni Santi (d. 1494), who was also a painter, and Magia di Battista Ciarla (d. 1491). Giovanni Santi was Raphael's first teacher, but he died when Raphael was only eleven.
Perugino was known to have expert ways of painting (technique), and was good at getting paintings finished on time which made him popular with his patrons. He painted some portraits of people alive in his day, but most of his pictures are of religious figures of the past. Some of his paintings are small pictures of the Madonna and Child that could be used in a family chapel for private worship. Because he was famous, Perugino also got lots of work from wealthy patrons and from churches, so he painted many very large pieces to go above the altars in churches. To do this, he needed the help of his apprentices.
Raphael was able to learn a great deal from Perugino - drawing, the anatomy of the human figure, paint chemistry, and the technique of putting the paint onto the picture in smooth layers. The figures in Perugino's paintings often have very sweet gentle faces. Many of Raphael's paintings are also sweet and gentle. Some painters, such as Leonardo, were quick to change their style and make their paintings show their own touch. But Raphael continued to paint in the style that Perugino taught him. He added new ideas that he learned by looking at the work of other artists. Unlike Leonardo and Michelangelo, Raphael did not give the world anything new in the Art of Painting. He is famous simply because he was so expert at what he did, and because people loved his paintings so much.

First Works
First Works 

The painting that is thought to be his earliest known work is a small picture called The Vision of a Knight. In this painting a knight lies asleep. In his dream there are two beautiful women. One woman, dressed in soft flowing clothes, offers him flowers. The other woman, dressed in dark clothing, offers the knight a sword and a book. The path behind the pretty woman runs beside a river. The other path leads up a steep mountain. Raphael was thinking about choices. Should the knight take the easy road, or should he try to change things?

Other early pictures by Raphael are Three Graces, and Saint Michael.

Raphael's first major work was The Marriage of the Virgin which was painted in 1504. It was influenced by Perugino's painting for the Sistine Chapel of Jesus giving the Keys to Saint Peter. It is now in the Brera Gallery in Milan, Italy.

Florence
Florence 

In about 1504 Raphael went with another painter, Pinturicchio, to Florence, Italy. Florence was famous for its artworks, its artist's workshops, its new Renaissance buildings and its huge cathedral. Raphael wanted to see the work of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and other important painters and sculptors.

The Madonnas 
Florence had a very strong tradition of making images of the Madonna and Child because the city was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. On almost every street corner there was a painting or a brightly coloured statue of the Madonna and Child.
While he was in Florence, Raphael painted many of his famous Madonna paintings. The most famous of these paintings are:
 The Madonna of the Goldfinch (c. 1505), which is now in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy.
 the Madonna del Prato (c. 1505), which is in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, in Vienna, Austria.
 the Esterházy Madonna (c. 1505 – 07), which is in Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, Hungary.
 La Belle Jardinière (The Madonna of the Beautiful Garden) (c. 1507), which is in the Louvre Museum, in Paris, France.

Rome 
In 1508 Raphael was called to Rome by Pope Julius II. He became so popular whilst he was in Rome that he was known as the "Prince of Painters". He spent the last 12 years of his life in Rome and created many of his most famous paintings.
While he was in Rome he was commissioned (given a job), to paint a fresco of the Prophet Isaiah in the Church of Sant'Agostino. While he was working on the painting, he went to visit his friend, the architect, Donato Bramante. Bramante was at the Vatican while Michelangelo was painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Of course Raphael wanted to see what the famous master was doing. While Michelangelo was away, Bramante took Raphael into the chapel. When Raphael saw the way that Michelangelo had painted the prophets, he was so excited that he went back to Sant'Agostino's Church, scraped his painting off the wall and started all over again. It is easy to see that Raphael's painting is in the style of Michelangelo. Raphael was not ashamed of this. He did it to give honour to the great master.

The Stanze
The Stanze 

Among Raphael's most famous paintings are the frescos that are painted on the walls of Julius II's own rooms in the Vatican Palace, known as the Stanze. The paintings in the Stanza della Segnatura and the Stanza d'Eliodoro were created by Raphael himself, whilst the Stanza dell'Incendio was designed by Raphael and painted by his assistants.

One of the frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura is of the greatest importance. This painting is called The School of Athens. It shows a group of learned people from Ancient Greece, philosophers, poets, dramatists, mathematicians and others. They are listening to the central figure, who is the philosopher, Plato. The painting is meant to show that at that time, the early 1500s, there was a new birth of ideas and learning among the people of Rome that was equal to the learning of Ancient Athens.
To make this message clear, Raphael used the faces of the people that he knew. Michelangelo, with his broken nose, is sitting with his chin on his hand. The tall figure of Plato with long hair and flowing beard is a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci.

One of the excellent things about this painting is the way that Raphael has painted the building in which the figures are standing. The architecture looks as if it is opening up from the real room.

Architecture 
In the 1500s, painters were often asked to design architecture. Raphael's first work as an architect was the funeral chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo. Pope Leo X also chose Raphael to help design Saint Peter's Basilica alongside Donato Bramante. After Bramante died, Raphael took over the designing of the basilica and changed its groundplan from a Greek Cross to a Latin Cross. Michelangelo went back to Bramante's plan but made it simpler. Then another architect, Maderna, made the building longer, as Raphael had planned.
The Transfiguration 
Raphael's last work of art was a painting of the Transfiguration. This was an altarpiece, but Raphael died before he could complete it. It was instead finished by Giulio Romano, who was one of Raphael's assistants.

Death 
Raphael died on his 37th birthday. He was buried in the Pantheon in Rome. His funeral was at the Vatican. His Transfiguration altarpiece was put at the head of Raphael's funeral carriage.

Related pages
 List of Italian painters

References 

1483 births
1529 deaths
16th-century Italian painters
Italian architects
A non-governmental organization (NGO)  is a group of people from different countries acting together, but not connected with the government of any country. Usually non-governmental organizations are non-profit - that is, they are trying to do something other than make money for the people who run them. They include organisations such as 'Oxfam' and 'World Vision'.

Non-governmental organization (NGO) is a term that has become widely accepted as referring to a legally constituted, non-governmental organization created by natural or legal persons with no participation or representation of any government. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status and excludes government representatives from membership in the organization.
Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according David Rieff, writing in The New Republic, "the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter."

Unlike the term intergovernmental organization, "non-governmental organization" is a term in general use but is not a legal definition. In many jurisdictions these types of organization are defined as "civil society organizations" or referred to by other names.

Top 6 NGOs In India 

 Child Rights and You (CRY).
 Help Age India. …
 Human Rights Action Forum(HRAF)
 K. C. Mahindra Education Trust (Nanhi Kali) …
 LEPRA India.
 Pratham Education Foundation
Purpose Of NGO 
NGO’s work for uplifting the poor and backward sections of the community. Moreover, the main function which is performed by NGOs is to bridge the gap of inequalities and unfair treatments.

Related pages 
International organization
Nonprofit organization
Transparency International
Quango

References
Wikipedia() is a free online encyclopedia website in 336 languages of the world. 324 languages are currently active and 12 are closed. People can freely use it, share it, and change it, without having to pay. It is also one of the biggest wiki organizations. People can choose to donate to the Wikimedia Foundation to fund Wikipedia and its sister projects. It is an open content website. This means anyone can copy or edit it and make changes to it if they follow the rules for copying or editing. 

Wikipedia is owned by an American organization, the Wikimedia Foundation, which is in San Francisco, California.

Wikipedia's name is a portmanteau of two words, wiki and encyclopedia.

Wikipedia was started on January 9, 2001, by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger as part of an earlier online encyclopedia named Nupedia. On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia became a separate website of its own. It is a wiki that uses the software MediaWiki (like all other Wikimedia Foundation projects).
Anyone who wishes to can change the pages on Wikipedia, or even make new ones. Wikipedia has a standard page layout for all pages in the encyclopedia.

As of September 2011, Wikipedia had about 18 million pages in about 300 languages and more than 3.50 billion words across all Wikipedias. The regular English Wikipedia is the largest Wikipedia edition. It helps people all across the world to access definitions, examples and more.

History 
Wikipedia began as a related project for Nupedia. Nupedia was a free English-language online encyclopedia project. Nupedia's articles were written and owned by Bomis, Inc which was a web portal company. The important people of the company were Jimmy Wales, the person in charge of Bomis, and Larry Sanger, the editor-in-chief of Nupedia. Nupedia was first licensed under the Nupedia Open Content License which was changed to the GNU Free Documentation License before Wikipedia was founded and made their first article when Richard Stallman requested them.
Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot, and from people who looked it up. It grew to about 20,000 articles, and 18 languages by the end of 2001. By late 2002 it had 26 languages, 46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the end of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia both existed until Nupedia's servers were stopped in 2003. After this, its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the 2 million-article mark on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, even larger than the Yongle Encyclopedia (1407), which had held the record for exactly 600 years.

The English Wikipedia reached 3 million articles in August 2009. The number of articles and contributors appeared to be growing less quickly around the spring of 2007.

In October 2014, the Wikipedia Monument was unveiled to the public in Poland to honor all the contributors of Wikipedia.
According to the TechCrunch website, on 23 January 2020, Wikipedia had surpassed more than 6 million articles on the English Wikipedia.

On 13 January 2021, the English Wikipedia reached one billion edits, where the billionth edit was made by Steven Pruitt.

MIT Press published an open access book of essays Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Unfinished Revolution, edited by Joseph Reagle and Jackie Koerner with contributions from prominent Wikipedians, Wikimedians, researchers, journalists, librarians and other experts reflecting on particular histories and themes.

By November 2021, Wikipedia had fallen to the thirteenth-placed website in the world for global internet engagement.

20th anniversary 
In January 2021, Wikipedia's 20th anniversary was noted in the media.

Gallery

Related pages 
 Simple English Wikipedia
 Epistemic community

Notes

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 Wikipedia - multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions of the project)
 Wikipedia  at the Open Directory Project
 CBC News: I, editor
 Wikipedia - Citizendium

2001 establishments in the United States
Wikimedia
Wikis
Websites established in 2001
Encyclopedia websites
A conservation law is a statement used in physics that says that the amount of something does not change in time. That thing could be as simple as mass or charge, or something that has to be calculated, like energy, or angular momentum.

For example, the "law of conservation of mass" is the conservation law that says that the amount of mass is always conserved, even if it is changed into another form. This means that if the mass of the universe could be measured right now, its mass would be known tomorrow because it will not change.

History 
For a long time, people thought that these laws were true for the amount of mass and energy in the universe. Later on, Albert Einstein said that they were not completely true. He said that mass could change into energy (or the other way around). If this happened, it would be against the conservation laws because if mass was changed into energy, the total amount of mass goes down, and the total amount of energy goes up.
Einstein said that conservation laws could still be used if all the mass and all the energy were combined. He said that even though the mass changes or the energy changes, the sum when they are added together does not change. So now there is just one conservation law for mass and energy together.

Problems 
Of course, mass is measured in kilograms, and energy is measured in joules. They cannot be added together directly, but Einstein found a way to add them together. He created the equation . This equation means is that before adding the amount of mass to the amount of energy, the mass must be multiplied by the speed of light and then by the speed of light again.

Purpose 
Some of the things that are thought to be conserved are:
 momentum
 mass and energy added together
 Conservation of energy
 Conservation of mass
 angular momentum
 charge
Conservation laws are helpful for people when they do problems in Physics. This is because if they know that a thing is conserved, it gives them more mathematical information about the thing they are doing the problem about.

Emmy Noether showed that conservation laws can be said to arise from symmetries in the laws of physics. This theorem, called Noether's theorem gives physicists an extremely powerful tool to try and solve complicated problems.

For example: 
 Since there is no absolute position, only relative position, we can get that the total momentum of a closed system is conserved. 
 Since there is no absolute time, only relative time, we can get that the total energy of a closed system is conserved.
 Since there is no absolute orientation or preferred direction in space, only relative orientation, we can get that the total angular momentum of a closed system is conserved.
 There are more sophisticated symmetries, like local gauge invariance which lead to the conservation of charge.
Types of Conservation laws 
Conservation laws can come in two types, global, or local.

Global conservation 
A global conservation law just says that the total amount of something in the universe does not change in time.

Local conservation 
A local conservation law says a little bit more than that. It says that if the amount of something changed in one place, it is because it moved into or out of that place, and we can measure that movement.

Basic physics ideas
Animal rights is a term used for the general belief that non-human animals deserve rights. Most people that support animal rights believe that humans should not use animals in food, clothing, experimentation, and entertainment.

People that support animal rights also believe that just as you have human rights simply because you are a human, other animals deserve animal rights simply because they are an animal.

Related pages
Speciesism
Veganism
Vegetarianism
Animal cruelty
Animal Farm (novel)
Animal Rights Militia
Animal rights movement
Animal Rights (song)
Animal welfare

Other websites

Animal Rights Library

 
Political movements
Aaron Benjamin Sorkin (born June 9, 1961) is an American screenwriter and movie director. He was born in New York City, New York. He is most famous for creating and writing The West Wing, a television series about the lives of people who work in the White House. He also wrote the movies The American President and A Few Good Men (which he took from a play he had written with the same name), and created and wrote the television series Sports Night. 

A director, he is known for his works in Molly's Game, The Trial of the Chicago 7 and Being the Ricardos.

Golden Globe Award winning writers
Screenwriters from New York City
Movie directors from New York City
1961 births
Living people
American television writers
American television producers
Academy Award winning writers
American playwrights
Events
 476 – The last Western Roman Emperor in Rome was removed by Odoacer the Ostrogoth.
 Peter the Fuller is restored as Patriarch of Antioch.
Events 
 1061 Normans conquer Messina in Sicily
 1062 Marrakech starts.
 1066 Normans conquer England
 1066 William the Conqueror became King of England on Christmas Day in Westminster Abbey.
 1068 Japan changes emperors.

Important people 
 William the Conqueror
 Harold Godwinson
 Harald Hardrada
Events 
 Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII of Egypt at the Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC). On August 30 BC Octavian captures Alexandria. Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra suicide (kill themselves). Romans kill Cleopatra's son and co-ruler (this means they ruled the country together) Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Egypt becomes part of the Roman Republic and Octavian becomes the ruler of Rome and all Romans. Rome will soon become an Empire not a Republic.
 Herod the Great builds Masada (37–31 BC) as a place to escape to if Jewish people attack him.

Significant people 
 Mark Antony, Roman politician and general (83–30 BC).
 Pharaoh (Egyptian Queen) Cleopatra VII of Egypt (lived 70/69 – 30 BC, ruled 51–30 BC).
 Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian) Roman politician and general (62 BC – 14).
 Pharaoh Ptolemy XV Caesarion (lived 47–30 BC, ruled 44–30 BC).
Aristophanes (born around 450/445 BC – died around 385 BC) was a Greek writer who wrote 40 plays. However, only 11 of his plays survive in their entirety. He is famous for writing comedies. They were biting satires aimed at famous men of his day, and the all-too-human weaknesses of ordinary people.

His most famous play, Lysistrata, is about a group of women who protest against a war by not having sexual intercourse with their husbands until the war is ended.

Ancient Greek theatre was first presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia, dedicated to the god Dionysus. The interesting thing is that Aristophanes did not always win first prize. The plays which won ahead of his have been lost, so we cannot make comparisons.
A licence for slander 
George Grote said of Aristophanes:
"Never probably will the full power of unshackled comedy be so exhibited again...the unsparing licence of attack upon the gods, the institutions, the politicians, philosophers, poets, private citizens... and even upon the women of Athens".
"[Athenians] bore with good-humoured indulgence the full outpouring of ridicule... upon those democratic institutions to which they were sincerely attached... The democracy was strong enough to tolerate unfriendly tongues either in earnest or in jest.p450/452
Surviving plays 
 The Acharnians (425 BC) Aristophanes shows he will not give in to political intimidation. The play is notable for absurd humour, and an imaginative appeal for an end to the Peloponnesian War
 The Knights (424 BC) The play is a satire on the social and political life of Athens and a scurrilous attack on the pro-war populist Cleon. Cleon had prosecuted Aristophanes for slandering the city in an earlier play, The Babylonians (426 BC: it has not survived). Aristophanes had promised revenge in The Acharnians, and it was in The Knights that his revenge was taken.
 The Clouds (original 423 BC, uncompleted revised version from 419 to 416 BC survives) It pokes fun at Socrates and intellectual fashions in classical Athens. The first known "comedy of ideas".
 The Wasps (422 BC) Aristophanes ridicules the law courts, which provided Cleon with his power-base. Also. has a young man vs old man theme which re-appears in several plays.
Peace (first version, 421 BC) just a few days before the end of the ten year old Peloponnesian War. The play is notable for its celebration of a return to life in the countryside. But the ending is not happy for everyone. As in all Aristophanes' plays, the jokes are numerous, the action is wildly absurd and the satire is savage. Cleon, the pro-war populist leader of Athens, is once again a target, even though he had died in battle just a few months earlier.
 The Birds (414 BC) A fantasy about birds? No, it's a critique of the Athens of his day, disguised as a conversation between birds. It's one of the few works of the day which have been fully recovered. A critic remarks "A masterpiece, one of the greatest comedies ever written, and probably Aristophanes' finest".
 Lysistrata (411 BC) The best-known of his plays, often produced in modern versions. The play is notable for being an early exposé of sexual relations in a male-dominated society.
Thesmophoriazusae (The Festival Women, first version, c. 410 BC) A parody of Athenian society, with a focus on the role of women in a male-dominated society, the vanity of poets such as Euripides and Agathon, and the shameless vulgarity of ordinary Athenians.
 The Frogs (405 BC) A play on the theme “old ways good, new ways bad”. The Frogs tells the story of the god Dionysus, who travels to Hades with his slave Xanthias, who is smarter and braver than he is, to bring the playwright Euripides back from the dead.
 Ecclesiazousae (The Assemblywomen, c. 392 BC) is similar in theme to Lysistrata. Much of the comedy comes from women involving themselves in politics. The play is much more infused with gender issues than Lysistrata.