Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Sham 69 is a punk rock band from England. The band was formed in Hersham in 1975.

Albums 
 1978: Tell Us the Truth
 1978: That’s Life
 1979: The Adventures of Hersham Boys
 1980: The Game
 1988: Volunteer
 1991: Information Libre
 1993: Kings & Queens
 1993: BBC1 – Live in Concert
 1995: Soapy Water & Mr. Marmalade
 1997: A Files CD
 2001: Direct Action: Day 21
 2007: Western Culture
 2010: Who Killed Joe Public

Other websites 
The Official Sham 69 Website

English punk bands
Visual acuity (VA) is acuteness or clearness of vision, especially form vision, which depends on the sharpness of the retinal focus within the eye, the sensitivity of the nervous elements, and the interpretative faculty of the brain.

VA is a quantitative measure of the ability to identify black symbols on a white background at a standardized distance when the size of the symbols is varied. The VA represents the smallest size that can be reliably identified. VA is the most common clinical measurement of visual function.

Some people may suffer from other visual problems, such as color blindness, reduced contrast, or inability to track fast-moving objects and still have normal visual acuity. Thus, normal visual acuity does not mean normal vision. The reason visual acuity is very widely used is that it is a test that corresponds very well with the normal daily activities a person can handle, and evaluate their impairment to do them.

References
References

Other websites 
 20/20 Eyesight is Not Necessarily Perfect  Catalog of Stories by Parents of Children Who Tested 20/20, Optometrists Network
 Visual acuity measurement  The Ophthalmology Teaching Website, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto
Visual Acuity of the Human Eye 
Golovin-Sivtsev Table for testing visual acuity  - used in the USSR and post-Soviet states
Visual Acuity  Chapter from the Webvision reference, University of Utah
Blur simulator (for eyeglass prescriptions)

Optometry
Robert "The Grinder" Baker (October 26, 1926 - April 23, 2002) also known as Bob Baker, was an American boxer. He was one of the world's leading heavyweight boxers in the 1950s. Bob "The Grinder" Baker was born in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. He started fighting out of Pittsburgh. One of his most notable accomplishments was winning the 1949 Pennsylvania Intercity Golden Gloves championship in the heavyweight division.

Baker died on April 23, 2002, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Professional career 
Baker started his professional career with twenty-six straight victories before drawing against Kid Riviera and losing the next fight to another leading boxer, Clarence Henry.

From April 1955 until February 1956, Baker and Archie Moore were both ranked as the leading challengers to Rocky Marciano's heavyweight title. On Wednesday, December 7th, 1955, Baker beat Nino Valdez.
After 13 wins, Baker lost to Tommy Hurricane Jackson on February 3, 1956, in New York's Madison Square Garden. It was a split-decision win for Jackson. In May 1956, Baker easily defeated John Holman. Baker also lost another split decision rematch with Jackson on September 26, 1956. Opinions on both Baker-Jackson fights were divided in many publications with most of them giving the fight to Baker. The September match was given to Baker by The United Press. It scored the fight 7-5 for Baker. A poll of 13 ringside writers favored Baker 9-4 and it reported that many of the fans were very surprised with the split decision.

After 1956, Baker's success was limited. His most notable victory was a sound defeat of Canadian George Chuvalo, the future Canadian heavyweight champion, by unanimous decision on September 9, 1957. Chuvalo was also a multiple-time top contender in the 1960s and 1970s.

Other websites
 Baker's Boxing Record 
 Ring Magazine's 1950s heavyweight ratings
American boxers
Sportspeople from Pennsylvania
1926 births
2002 deaths
Her Excellency the Rt. Hon. Michaëlle Jean (born September 6, 1957, in Port-au-Prince, Haiti) is a Haitian-born Canadian politician and journalist. She was the Governor General of Canada, replacing Adrienne Clarkson on 27 September 2005, until 1 October 2010 when David Lloyd Johnston took over. She is the Secretary General of Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 2015 and multilingual who speaks English, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Haitian Creole.

Jean was formally appointed Special Envoy for Haiti for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization on November 8, 2010, for a four-year term.

References

Canadian journalists
Haitian politicians
1957 births
Living people
Order of Canada
Governors General of Canada
Knights of Justice of the Order of St John
Port-au-Prince
Pascal Duquenne is a Belgian actor. He was born in Vilvoorde, Flanders, Belgium on 8 August 1970. He was diagnosed with Down syndrome.

It was Jaco van Dormael who noticed him (as Ducquenne was playing theatre). Dormael offered him his first roles in movies.

In 1996 Pascal Duquenne and Daniel Auteuil were awarded a prize (for best male interpretation) at the Cannes Film Festival. Duquenne received the prize for the role of a boy who has Down syndrome. The movie was called Le Huitième Jour (The Eighth Day).

He also has acted in other movies. Currently he lives in Brussels.

Films he acted in
 Toto le hèros (Toto the Hero), by Jaco van Dormael (1991)
 Le Huitième Jour (The Eight Day), also by van Dormael (1995)
 Lumière et compagnie (Light & Co.); a documentary made by about 40 authors (1996)
 The Room, by Giles Daoust (2006)
 Un Noël pas comme les autres  (A Christmas not like the others), by Nancy Franck (1997, Television)
 An episode of the Series Commissaire Moulin (2004, Television)

References
References

1970 births
Living people
Belgian movie actors
Belgian stage actors
Belgian television actors
Belgian voice actors
People from Flemish Brabant
Sister Anne Catherine Emmerich (September 8, 1774 - February 9, 1824) was a German Augustinian nun. She is remembered for her mystical visions of Jesus' and Mary's lives. What she saw was written in books, for example, The Dolorous Passion of Our Lord, Jesus Christ. The book later had an important part as a main source of information for Mel Gibson's movie The Passion of the Christ.

Stigmata 
She was stuck in bed when marks of stigmata showed up she had doctors and physicians examine her markings, and it was found to be a genuine stigmatic case.

Other websites 

Sister Emmerich and Gibson

1774 births
1824 deaths
German Roman Catholics
Nuns
Stigmata
The New Year is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next year. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have New Year celebrations. On January 1, 1600 Scotland, was the first country to adopt January 1 as the first day of the New Year. Now, many countries celebrate the New Year on 1st of January.

Related pages

 New Year's Eve
 New Year's Day

New Year
Polyethylene (also called polyethene, usually shortened to PE) is a thermoplastic. It is used in consumer goods, typical examples are transport wraps, and garbage bags. Other uses include pre-fabricated plastic parts, plastic tubes, and insulation of electric cables. 

Polyethylene plastic wrap is usually less adhesive than Polyvinyl chloride, but this can be remedied by adding linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), which also increases the film's tensile strength. The world makes over 80 million tonnes of polyethylene per year.

References

Thermoplastics
Polyvinyl chloride, also called Polychloroethene or PVC, is a thermoplastic. It turns soft when heated and hard when cooled. Polyvinyl chloride is made by polymerization of the monomer vinyl chloride (chloroethene) CH2=CHCl. PVC can be made softer and more flexible by adding plasticizers. Phthalates are often used to soften PVC in this way.

Vinyl polymers are the most common type of plastic. "Vinyl" is actually Ethylene, a gas that is used to make those plastics including PVC. In popular usage, "vinyl" is often short for PVC, but there are two other vinyl polymers which are more common. The most common is polyethylene, the second-most common is polypropylene. Another, less used, is polystyrene.

Uses 

Softened PVC is used in clothing, upholstery, electrical cable insulation, and other products instead of rubber. In the 1950s PVC became the usual material of phonograph records. Some audiophiles use the word "vinyl" to mean records made of PVC.
About half of the polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured each year is used to make pipes. PVC pipes are 66% of the newer water pipes in the US.  PVC pipes are 75% of new sewer pipes. PVC is useful because of its light weight, high strength, and low reactivity. Also, PVC pipes can be glued together, or they can be connected by heating (similar to joining HDPE pipe). Both kinds of connections make permanent joints that do not leak.

PVC plastics can be recycled.  Their recycling code is "3".

References

Thermoplastics
Chlorine compounds
A polyamide is a polymer made of amides which are joined by peptide bonds. Examples for polyamides that occur naturally are proteins, such as wool and silk. It is also possible to artificially produce polyamides, one growth-step at a time. Examples for artificially-made polyamides are nylons, aramids and Sodium poly(aspartate).

Polymers
Clarence Henry (b. March 27, 1926, d. February 28 1999) was an American heavyweight boxer. Contender for Rocky Marciano's title. 

He was a leading boxer in the heavyweight division in the early to mid-1950s. Henry was 1948 Los Angeles Times Golden Gloves Heavyweight Champion. 

He was elected into the World Boxing Hall of Fame in 1998.

Other websites
Boxing record 

American boxers
Sportspeople from San Antonio, Texas
1926 births
1999 deaths
The Supreme Leader of Iran is the head of state of the Islamic Republic of Iran. 

The Supreme Leader is also the highest ranking Islamic cleric in the country.

The position of Supreme Leader was created after the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran.

The Supreme Leader is more powerful than the President of Iran and chooses the heads of many powerful posts in the military, the government, and the judiciary.

Ayatollah Khomeini (died 1989) and Imam Khamenei have become Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic so far.

References

Related pages 
 President of Iran

Iran
Heads of state
Iranian Islamic religious leaders
1979 establishments in Asia
1970s establishments in Iran
The President of Iran is the head of government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The president is chosen by direct popular vote, that is the voters choose the president, they do not vote for other people to choose as in the USA. Unlike other countries, in Iran, the President is not the leader of the country. The President does many of the things that are normally done by a head of state but the Supreme Leader is the person who is actually in control of the country. The current President of Iran is Ebrahim Raisi.

List of presidents of Iran 
Abolhassan Banisadr
Mohammad Ali Rajai
Ali Khamenei
Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani
Mohammad Khatami
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Hassan Rouhani
Ebrahim Raisi

References

Other websites
 The President's Office
 Iran Electoral Archive - President 

 
Iran, President of
Ayatollah Khomeini was born Sayyed Ruhollah Mustafavi Khomeini, 17 May 1900 in Khomein, Central Iran (then Persia), – 3 June 1989 in Tehran; Persian: روح الله موسوی خمینی). He was also known as 'Imam Khomeini'. Khomein was the political leader of the Islamic Revolution in 1979 and the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1989.

Khomeini died of intestinal cancer and a heart attack on June 3, 1989, in Tehran at the age of 89.

Political life 
On June 5, 1964, Khomeini was arrested and sent into exile (kicked from his country). He was exiled to Iraq, Turkey and then to France. Khomeini gave many speeches in France against Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran. On January 16, 1979, Pahlavi left Iran. Two weeks later, on February 1, Khomeini returned to Iran.
He received a traditional religious education in Qom (city in Iran). When he lived in Najaf (a holy city in Iraq) for some years, he spoke about Islam ideas about Government. During that time, he refined his theory of velayat-e faqih ("government of the jurist").

On February 11, 1979, Khomeini appointed his first own prime minister, Medhi Bazargan. On March 30, 1979 a referendum took place in Iran and as a result, the monarchy was replaced with an Islamic Republic. After the Islamic Revolution, Khomeini became Supreme Leader of Iran.
Rushdie fatwa 
In early 1989 Khomeini issued a fatwā calling for Muslims to kill Salman Rushdie and "all those involved in the publication" of his book called The Satanic Verses. This controversy centred on the novel's suggestion of the Quran containing verses about deception from the devil during the life of Muhammad. As part of the fatwa, Rushdie was stabbed on August 12th, 2022, resulting in him losing vision in one eye. The Japanese translator of Rushdie's book, Hitoshi Igarashi, was stabbed to death due to the fatwa, his body being found at the University of Tsukuba.

Gallery

References

Other websites 
 Imam Khomeini

1902 births
1989 deaths
Cancer deaths in Iran
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Heads of state
Iranian clerics
Iranian Muslims
Iranian politicians
Former dictators
Time People of the Year
In Theocracy, a form of government, the institutions and people that govern the state are very close to the leaders of the main religion or are religious leaders themselves. If the religious leaders do not directly run some bodies of the state, they influence them very much. The word theocracy comes from two Greek words literally meaning God-government, and meaning the government is run by "The Church".

Modern-day states that are theocracies

Andorra 
The Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgell as the Co-Prince, is one of the two heads of states of Andorra (the other Co-Prince as head of state is the President of France). His role is mostly ceremonial, and while Roman Catholicism is the official religion of the country, it is not a theocracy.

Iran 
Iran is a theocratic Islamic republic. In Iran, two bodies, the Supreme Leader and Guardian Council consist of members who are not elected by the people. These two bodies are staffed by Shia clerics. The highest elected official is the President of Iran.
Mohammad Khatami, the former president, said that this model is an alternative to democracy, as it brings in religious elements. He called it a religious democracy.

Vatican City 
The Vatican City is a true theocracy, with no separation of church and state. The head of the Catholic Church is the leader of the country.  The pope is elected by the Papal Conclave.   Most popes have stayed for the rest of their lives, but some have resigned.  One who resigned was Pope Benedict XVI.

State religion 
Many states have a state religion (also called official religion). Israel, for example mixes some aspects of Halakha and civil law, even though Judaism is not a state or official religion of the country. Also, the state hires rabbis. In some such states, religious leaders also have civil duties, not only religious ones.

Some historic theocratic states 

Some (now extinguished) states throughout history had characteristics of a Theocracy, as for example:
In Ancient Egypt the Pharaoh was a god.
 In the Empire of Japan (1868 - 1947), Shinto, the indigenous religion of Japan, was the official state religion (State Shinto), besides, the Emperor of Japan was worshipped, and viewed as, a living deity. 
 Bhutan was formerly governed as a Buddhist theocracy. 
 Though the Byzantine Empire was not de facto a theocracy, it was caesaropapist, and the Greek Orthodox Church and in matters where the Church had a considerable interest, its concerns would have been taken into account and influenced the ruler's decision.

References

Forms of government
Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati (born 1926) has been the secretary of the Guardian Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran since 1988.

Other websites 
Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati to U.S.: Invade Iran, If You Dare

Iranian politicians
Iranian Islamic religious leaders
1926 births
Living people
The Guardian Council is part of the government of Iran. It ensures the laws passed by Iran's legislature conform to Islam. It was created in 1979.

Government agencies
Courts (law)
1979 establishments in Asia
1970s establishments in Iran
Organisations based in Iran
An incumbent is the current holder of a  political office or position.  This word is usually used when talking about elections, which are often between the incumbent and one other person or several other people.  For example, Joe Biden is the incumbent President of the United States since he is still president. It can also be used in sports to let people know if a sportsman still holds the position or award in question.

Related pages 
Inauguration

Voting
The Assembly of Experts was created after the Islamic Revolution in Iran.  It is an assembly of Islamic clerics who have the power to choose the successor of the Supreme Leader of Iran.

Other websites 
 Assembly of Experts - Official website 
 Assembly of Experts in the Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran 
 Understanding Iran's Assembly of Experts 
Results of Assembly of Experts elections in 6 provinces 
Results of Assembly of Experts elections in four provinces 
Results of Assembly of Experts elections in some provinces 

Organisations based in Iran
Islamic organizations
Electoral colleges
Ayatollah Ali Meshkini (1922-30 July 2007) was the chairman of the Assembly of Experts of the Islamic Republic of Iran from 1984 to 2007.

Other websites
 Ayatollah Meshkini In A Friday Sermon in Qom: An Islamic Rule Under Ayatollah Sistani Is Required in Iraq , video clip, 2004

Iranian Islamic religious leaders
1922 births
2007 deaths
Legislative speakers
The judiciary or judicial system is the system of courts that administers (or makes decisions about) justice. This kind of system, does its work in the name of the state (or country) or the sovereign. A judicial system is used to resolve disputes.

The term is also used to refer collectively to the judges and magistrates who form the basis of the judiciary, as well as the other people who help keep the system running properly.

Separation of powers 
Separation of powers causes separate branches of government that each has a different purpose. The judiciary is the branch of government that interprets the law. Such systems may have three branches: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. Often the judiciary branch has courts of first resort, appellate courts, and a supreme court or constitutional court. Decisions of the lower courts may be appealed to the higher courts.

Judiciary in the USA
In the United States the federal Judicial Branch is an integrated system of courts headed by the Supreme Court of the United States. Each state also has a judicial system.

Law occupations
Courts (law)
Ayatollah Seyyed Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi (15 August 1948 – 24 December 2018) was an Iranian politician. He was the Chief Justice of Iran from 1999 to 2009. He was born in Najaf, Iraq.

Ayatollah Shahroudi was best known for ordering a moratorium on stoning as a form of the death penalty. However, later it was shown that executions by stoning are still being carried out, in spite of his claims that they have stopped. Stoning is still happening inside prisons, where the public cannot see it.

From August 2017 to December 2018, Shahroudi was Chairman of Expediency Discernment Council.

He died on 24 December 2018 from cancer in Tehran at the age of 70.

References

Other websites
 Text: Human Rights Watch Protests Media Crackdown, Detentions in Iran  (April 2000)
 Iran veil crackdown criticised APRIL 24, 2007

Chief Justices of Iran
Cancer deaths in Iran
1948 births
2018 deaths
The Expediency Discernment Council is a governmental body for resolving disputes between the Guardian Council and the legislature in the Islamic Republic of Iran.

Other websites 
 Official Website 
 GlobalSecurity.org on the Expediency Discernment Council

Organisations based in Iran
Mata Hari was the stage name of Margaretha Geertruida (Grietje) Zelle (7 August 1876, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands – 15 October 1917, Vincennes, France). 

She was  a Dutch-Frisian exotic dancer and spy. She was executed by a firing squad of the French Army. French authorities thought she was a spy during World War I. Because she had relationships with both German and French officers, they thought she was a double agent (working for both sides). Her dossier (file) was released in 2017, a hundred years after her death.

Guilty 
German documents unsealed in the 1970s proved that Mata Hari was truly a German agent. In the autumn of 1915, she entered German service. 

On the orders of section III B-Chief Walter Nicolai, she was instructed about her duties by Major Roepell during a stay in Cologne. Her direct handler was Captain Hoffmann, who gave her the code name H-21.

References 

1876 births
1917 deaths
Dutch artists
Erotic dancers
People executed by firearm
People from Leeuwarden
Spies
Father Damien, also Saint Damien of Molokai, born as Joseph de Veuster in Belgium on January 3, 1840 and died on April 15, 1889, was a Roman Catholic Priest and missionary. He was known for helping people with leprosy in the colony of Kalaupapa on the island of Molokai in Hawaii. Father Damien came to Hawaii in 1864. During this time, many Native Hawaiians were dying from many of the diseases they caught from the white settlers. The King of Hawaii, made the people who had leprosy live in a colony away from other people. Father Damien went to help the sick people and gave them hope. Father Damien also died from leprosy, but what he did helped many people. 

In 1995, he was beatified (made an important person) by the Pope, and he is recognized by both the Catholic and Anglican churches. Father Damien was canonized by Pope Benedict XVI on Sunday October 11, 2009.
His is Patron Saint of the Diocese of Honolulu, as well as all of Hawaii, of  people with leprosy, and of outcasts, as well as people suffering from HIV and AIDS as well.

References

1840 births
1889 deaths
Belgian Roman Catholic priests
Christian saints
People from Hawaii
Roman Catholic missionaries
People from Flemish Brabant
William Harrison "Jack" Dempsey (June 24, 1895 – May 31, 1983) was an American boxer who held the world heavyweight title between 1919 and 1926  Known as "The Manassa Mauler", Dempsey was a tremendous puncher famous for his exciting fights, many of which set financial and attendance records.

He won the title by beating Jess Willard on July 4, 1919. He defended the title six times before losing it to Gene Tunney in 1926. They had a rematch in 1927 and Tunney again beat Dempsey. It was during this fight where the "Long Count" took place. Dempsey knocked Tunney down in the seventh round. The referee would not start counting until Dempsey went to a neutral corner, so it is estimated that Tunney had as many as fourteen seconds to rise (instead of the usual ten).

Dempsey retired in 1928. He fought exhibitions after his retirement, served as a commander in the Coast Guard during World War II, and opened a restaurant in New York City.

Dempsey died in 1983.

Other websites
 Boxing record
American boxers
Sportspeople from Colorado
1895 births
1983 deaths
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
Jess Willard (December 29, 1881–December 15, 1968) was an American boxer. He was the heavyweight best puncher in the world from 1915 to 1919. When Jack Johnson was the Black world champion, Willard was one of the many "White Hopes" who wanted to take the title. He succeeded when he beat Johnson by a 26th round out-cold punch in Cuba in 1915. He fought to keep the title and won once before losing it to Jack Dempsey in 1919.

References

Other websites
 Boxing record
 Biography of Jess Willard

1881 births
1968 deaths
American boxers
Sportspeople from Kansas
Nicholas II redirects here, for other people named Nicholas II, see Nicholas.

Nicholas II of Russia, (May 6, 1868 – July 17, 1918) was the last Tsar (Emperor) of the Russian Empire. He became Tsar in 1894 after his father, Tsar Alexander III died. His reign lasted until the 1917 Russian Revolution.

He married Princess Alix of Hesse, who was the daughter of Princess Alice of the United Kingdom and the  granddaughter of Queen Victoria , and they had five children, Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Alexi. Alexi suffered from a disease called haemophilia, which caused his parents great sadness. After 1905, the royal family became friends with Grigori Rasputin, whom they believed could treat Alexi.
In the first 20 years of his reign, Nicholas tried to make Russia more modern, but these plans were held back by the nobles and the Tsar's weak leadership.  He and his chief ministers Sergei Witte and Pyotr Stolypin encouraged railways, land reform, education, the borrowing of money and friendship with France and the United Kingdom.  In 1905, after Russia lost a war with Japan and the killing of protestors on Bloody Sunday, there were large protests against his government by people who wanted a parliament.  He created one (the Duma), but he would not allow it to have many powers. His reign also saw the Khodynka Tragedy, attacks on the Russian Jews, anger over the power of Rasputin, and the imprisonments and executions of people who opposed the government.
In 1914, he led Russia into World War I, but the war went badly for Russia and caused great hardship. It led to the fall of the monarchy in the 1917 Russian Revolution. He abdicated (quit being Tsar) in March of that year. He and his family were held as prisoners under house arrest. On July 17, 1918, Nicholas, his wife and their children were killed by a firing squad, on the orders of the new Bolshevik government. In 1981, the Tsar and his family were made Saints by the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1990, the bones of the Tsar and his family were found in the woods and given a proper burial in St Petersburg in 1998.

The historians of the Soviet Union often described Nicholas as a tyrant. Modern historians see him as a man who tried to do what was right for his country but did not have the skills and was easily led by people who gave him bad advice.

References

Other websites 
 alexanderpalace.org
 FrozenTears.org A media library of the last Imperial Family.
1868 births
1918 deaths
House of Romanov
Assassinations in the Russian Revolution
Russian tsars
Russian Orthodox saints
Emperors and Empresses of Russia
William Tell was a folk hero from Switzerland. In the story, William Tell is a man who refused to bow down to pole that was set up by an army who had taken over the place where he lived. He was arrested and forced to shoot an apple off his son's head with a crossbow. If he did not, both he and his son would be killed. So he shot the apple off the son's head and did not harm his son. He is considered a legend and his actions helped form Switzerland as a nation.

Adaptions 
 Wilhelm Tell (William Tell), a play by Friedrich Schiller
 Guillaume Tell (William Tell), an opera by Gioachino Rossini, based on Schiller's play

Swiss people
Legendary people
Antioch on the Orontes was an ancient city on the eastern side (left bank) of the Orontes River on the site of the modern city of Antakya, Turkey.

It was founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals. Antioch became a rival of Alexandria as the chief city of the nearer East and the cradle of gentile Christianity. It was one of the four cities of the Syrian tetrapolis.

The geographical character of the district north and north-east of the elbow of Orontes makes it the perfect natural centre of Syria, so long as that country is held by a western power; and only Asiatic, and especially Arab, dynasties have neglected it for the oasis of Damascus. During the Crusades, the Christian crusaders laid siege to Antioch. One Wijerd Jelckamas ancestors from his father's side of the family had died at the Siege of Antioch.
The siege of Antioch (lost by the Crusaders, initially), was a turning point in the Crusades.
History of Antioch
Alexander the Great is said to have camped on the site of Antioch, and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus

After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his generals divided up the territory he had conquered. Seleucus I Nicator won the territory of Syria, and he founded four "sister cities" in north-western Syria - Antioch, Seleucia Pieria, Apamea and Laodicea-on-the-Sea. Although Seleucia Pieria was at first the Seleucid capital city in north-western Syria, Antioch soon rose above it to become the Syrian capital.
The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the plan of Alexandria by the architect Xenarius. 
The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers, Athenians brought from the nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning). The total free population of Antioch at its foundation has been estimated at between 17,000 and 25,000, not including slaves and native settlers. During the late Hellenistic period and Early Roman period, the population reached its peak of over 500,000 inhabitants (estimates vary from 400,000 to 600,000) and it was the third largest city in the world after Rome and Alexandria. By the 4th century, Antioch's declining population was about 200,000 according to John Chrysostom, a figure which again does not include slaves.

Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid empire under Antiochus I, its counterpart in the east being Seleucia on the Tigris.
The Romans both felt and expressed boundless contempt for the hybrid Antiochenes; but the Roman emperors favoured the city from the first, seeing in it a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could ever be, because of the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. 
The chief interest of Antioch under the empire lies in its relation to Christianity.
 Evangelized perhaps by Peter, according to the tradition upon which the Antiochene patriarchate still rests its claim for primacy (cf. Acts xi.), and certainly by Barnabas and Paul, who here preached his first Christian sermon in a synagogue, its converts were the first to be called Christians (Acts 11:26).

In 638, during the reign of the emperor Heraclius, Antioch was conquered by the Muslim Arabs during the Battle of Iron Bridge, and became known in Arabic as أنطاكيّة Antākiyyah.

Antakya
Antakya 

In recent years, what remains of the Roman and late antique city have suffered severe damage as a result of construction related to the expansion of Antakya. In the 1960s, the last surviving Roman bridge was demolished to make way for a modern two-lane bridge. The northern edge of Antakya has been growing rapidly over recent years, and this construction has begun to expose large portions of the ancient city, which are frequently bulldozed and rarely protected by the local museum.

Antakya was badly damaged and many people died in the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake.

References

Other websites 

 Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Antioch on the Orontes (Antaky), Turkey"
 Antioch (Antakya) Includes timeline, maps, and photo galleries of Antioch's mosaics and artifacts
 Antakya Museum Many photos of the collection in Antakya's museum, in particular Roman mosaics
 The Ancient City of Antioch  Map

4th-century BC establishments
Hatay Province
Board could mean: 
Board (wood), a piece of lumber, or other rigid material made of wood, milled or sawn flat
Surfboard
Skateboard
Snowboard (often made of fibreglass)
Board of directors or a similar governing or advisory committee
Sound Board, an audio mixing console
Bulletin board system or Internet forum
Board (bridge), a device used in playing duplicate bridge
Board or level, a distinct area in or stage of a video game 
Chalkboard, Blackboard or whiteboard, a reusable writing surface
Board, use accommodation in a house or hotel; to stay at school during term time, and sleep in a dormitory

Basic English 850 words
The Pitman arm is a part used in automobiles, trucks, SUVs and other vehicles to steer the wheels. When the steering wheel is turned right or left the pitman transmits the motion it receives from the steering gearbox to the tie rod. A "drop pitman arm" is used to correct the steering when a vehicle has a suspension lift.

References 

Auto parts
F1 is a function key on the keyboard. It is mainly used to open help pages about an application or a part of it. On some keyboards and computers, it's also a volume key muting the computer.

Computer keyboard
A solvent is a substance that becomes a solution by dissolving a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute. A solvent is usually a liquid, but can also be a solid or gas. The most common solvent in everyday life is water.  

Solvents help dissolve, suspend, or extract other materials, usually solids, without changing them chemically. That means they help in mixing things at a molecular level but don't participate in any chemical change of the substance dissolved.
For example, water acts as a solvent when sugar is poured into a glass of it. The sugar molecules get surrounded by water molecules and spread out in the glass, so it seems like the sugar has disappeared, but it’s really just mixed in very well. This process is known as dissolution. Water also acts as a solvent when it's used to clean food off a plate. The water molecules surround the food molecules and separates them from each other, causing the mass of food to dissolve. In both cases, water is breaking the physical bonds holding ions or molecules together, but the substances dispersed or dissolved in the water retain their chemical identity.
Polar Solvents 
Water is able to dissolve more substances than any other liquid due to its polar nature. That's why water is often referred to as the “universal solvent." Polarity refers to how evenly distributed the positive and negative charges are within a molecule. In non-polar molecules like oil, the charges are evenly spread out. The molecule has no areas that are more positive or negative. In polar molecules like water, the charges are unevenly distributed. Parts of the molecule are more positive or negative. This creates a "pole" - a positive end and a negative end. The polarity of a chemical causes differences in properties like how they dissolve or react.
The charge imbalance of polar chemicals like water makes them act like magnets, they surround and hold onto other charged or polar substances, “pulling” them into solution. A water molecule's two hydrogen atoms make up its positive side. It's negative side is its one oxygen atom. Because opposite charges attract, the positive side of one water molecule is attracted to the negative side of another molecule.   

When a negatively charged atom is attracted to a positively charged hydrogen atom, we call this attraction a hydrogen bond. Water has a positively charged hydrogen, so it is very good at forming hydrogen bonds with a wide variety of compounds, such as sugar which is also polar. When water encounters sugar, the positive end of the sugar is attracted to the negative side of water, and the negative end of the polar molecule is attracted to the positive side of water. This interaction allows water to surround and dissolve the polar molecules.
When water encounters an ionic compound (a compound made of ions, which are electrically charged atoms or molecules), like table salt, the positively charged ion (cation) is attracted to the negative oxygen side of the water molecule, and the negatively charged ion (anion) is attracted to the negatively charged hydrogen side of the water molecule. This attraction helps to separate the ions from each other, dissolving the ionic compound in water.

Non-polar Solvents 
Although water is an excellent solvent, it cannot dissolve everything. Non-polar substances like oils and fats do not dissolve well in water because they do not form hydrogen bonds and are not attracted to polar water molecules. A common saying in chemistry is “like dissolves like,” meaning polar substances dissolve well in polar solvents, and non-polar substances dissolve well in non-polar solvents. Non-polar solvents usually do not mix well with water, which is where the expression "oil and water don't mix" comes from.
Organic Solvents 
Most other commonly-used solvents are organic (carbon-containing) chemicals. These are called organic solvents. Solvents usually have a low boiling point and evaporate easily or can be removed by distillation, thereby leaving the dissolved substance behind.  Solvents should therefore not react chemically with the dissolved compounds - they have to be inert.  Solvents can also be used to extract soluble compounds from a mixture, the most common example is the brewing of coffee or tea with hot water.  Solvents are usually clear and colorless liquids and many have a characteristic smell. The concentration of a solution is the amount of compound that is dissolved in a certain volume of solvent.  The solubility is the maximal amount of compound that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature.
Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e.g. tetrachloroethylene), as paint thinners (e.g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish removers and glue solvents (acetone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate), in spot removers (e.g. hexane, petrol ether), in detergents (citrus terpenes), in perfumes (ethanol), and in chemical syntheses. Inorganic solvents are used in research chemistry and in a few technological processes.

Health and safety 

Some solvents including chloroform and benzene (an ingredient of gasoline) are carcinogenic. Many others can damage internal organs like the liver, the kidneys, or the brain. Many also can catch fire easily. Ways to work safely include:
Avoiding the generation of solvent vapors by working in a fume hood, local exhaust ventilation (LEV), or a well ventilated area
 Keeping the storage containers tightly closed
 Never using open flames near flammable solvents, use of electrical heating instead
 Never flush flammable solvents down the drain to avoid explosions and fires
 Avoiding the inhalation of solvent vapors
 Avoiding contact of the solvent with the skin – many solvents are easily absorbed through the skin. They also tend to dry the skin and may cause sores and wounds.

Properties table of common solvents 
The solvents are grouped into non-polar, polar aprotic, and polar protic solvents and ordered by increasing polarity. The polarity is given as the Dielectric constant. The density of nonpolar solvents that are heavier than water is bolded.
Other websites 
 Table and text  O-Chem Lecture
 Tables  Properties and toxicities of organic solvents
 Miscibility Table  Phenomex Solvent Miscibility Table (includes Polarity Index)
 Miscibility Table  GLS Solvent Miscibility Table (includes Dielectric Constant)
 Solvent definition

Chemistry
In chemistry, the term inert is used to describe something that is not chemically active.  The noble gases were described as being inert because they did not react with the other elements or themselves. 

Inert gases are completely inert to basic chemical reactions (such as combustion, for example) because their outer valence shell is completely filled with electrons. With a filled outer valence shell, an inert atom is not able to acquire or lose an electron, and is therefore not able to participate in any chemical reactions. For inert atoms or molecules, a lot of energy is involved before it can combine with other elements to form compounds. A high temperature and pressure is necessary, and sometimes requires the presence of a catalyst.

For example, elemental nitrogen is inert under standard room conditions and exists as a diatomic molecule, N2. The inertness of nitrogen is due to the presence of the very strong triple covalent bond in the N2 molecule.
Inert atmospheres of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen and argon are routinely used in working with processes that will go wrong if air or water is present. For example, some welding must be done in argon so the material will not burn.

Chemical nomenclature
Noble gases
An electron shell, or main energy level, is the part of an atom where electrons are found orbiting the atom's nucleus.

In chemistry and atomic physics, an electron shell may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom's nucleus. All atoms have one or more electron shell(s), all of which have varying numbers of electrons.  

Each electron shell has one or more electron sub-shells, or sub-levels. Electron shells make up the electron configuration of an atom. The number of electrons that can be in a certain shell is equal to , where  is the number of a shell.

The name for electron shells came from the Bohr model, which states that electrons orbit the nucleus at certain distances so that their orbits form "shells". This term was presented by Niels Henrik David Bohr.

Valence shell
The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom in its neutral state. The valence shell contains the electrons most likely to be involved in reactions.
In a noble gas, an atom tends to have eight electrons in its outer shell (except helium, which is only able to fill its shell with two electrons). Noble gases serve as the model for the octet rule, which states that atoms tend to form bonds or create ions so that they can have eight electrons in their outermost shell. This is mostly applicable to the main-group elements of the second and third periods.

For coordination complexes containing transition metals, the valence shell consists of 18 electrons. This is referred to as the eighteen electron rule.

Sub-shells 

Electron sub-shells are identified by the letters s, p, d, f, g, h, i, etc., corresponding to the azimuth quantum numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. Each shell is able to hold 2, 6, 10, 14, and 18 electrons respectively.

References 

 Tipler, Paul & Ralph Llewellyn (2003).  Modern Physics (4th ed.).  New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.  

Physics
Quantum mechanics
Chemical bonding
A wheelchair is a type of chair usually used by disabled people.

A wheelchair is moved either manually (by pushing the wheels with the hands, or pushed from behind with handles by somebody who is not sitting in the wheelchair) or by automated systems such as electric motors which can be controlled by the wheelchair user (the person sitting in the chair) or by somebody walking behind or beside the wheelchair if the wheelchair user needs help to move their wheelchair. 

Wheelchairs are used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. Wheelchairs can have extra cushions and other parts added to improve support if the wheelchair user cannot keep their body in a good sitting position, or to make the wheelchair more comfortable to sit in. The earliest record of the wheelchair in England dates from the 1670s [Oxford English Dictionary, (2nd Ed.), 1989, Vol. XX., p. 203.], and in continental Europe this technology dates back to the German Renaissance.
In 1655, Stephan Farffler, a 22-year-old paraplegic watchmaker, built the world's first self-propelling chair on a three-wheel chassis using a system of cranks and cogwheels. However, the device resembled a hand bike more than a wheelchair since the design included hand cranks mounted at the front wheel.

References

Other websites

 Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center on Wheeled Mobility 
 Dept of Transportation   Information for air travelers with disabilities and their rights in the US
 Etiquette: Wheelchair users  Suggestions for better communication with people who use wheelchairs

Disability
Human-powered vehicles
Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue at the oil refinery.

Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except oils having a flash point of approximately +40 °C and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners. In this sense, diesel is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. The term fuel oil is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, heavier than gasoline and naphtha.
Six classes
Fuel oil in the United States is classified into six classes, according to its boiling temperature, composition and purpose. The boiling point, ranging from 175 to 600 °C, and carbon chain length, 20 to 70  atoms, of the fuel increases with number. Viscosity also increases with fuel oil number and the heaviest oil has to be heated to get it to flow. Price usually decreases as the fuel number increases. 

No. 1 fuel oil, No. 2 fuel oil (heating oil), and No. 3 fuel oil are referred to as distillate fuel oils, diesel fuel oils, light fuel oils, gasoil or just distillate. For example, No. 2 fuel oil, No. 2 distillate and No. 2 diesel fuel oil are almost the same thing. Diesel is different in that it also has a cetane number limit which describes the ignition quality of the fuel. Distillate fuel oils are distilled from crude oil.

Related pages
Diesel
Gasoline
Kerosene
Naphtha
Sources
Bunkerworld - media site for the marine fuels industry
National Park Service - Fuel Oil 
How Stuff Works - Oil Refining
The True Cost of #6 Oil
Burning #6 Fuel Oil 
Identity and Analysis of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Poten & Partners: Advisors to the Fuel Oil Industry
Classification of Fuel Oils
Marine Fuel Oil (ISO 8217) 

Fossil fuels
Oils
This is a list of large wind farms, with a generating capacity of 100 megawatts (MW) or more, which are currently operating, under construction, or proposed. Wind power capacity has expanded quickly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy production was about 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing fast. 

Wind power is widely used in Europe, and more recently in the United States and Asia. Wind power accounts for approximately 19% of electricity generation in Denmark, 11% in Spain and Portugal, and 9% in the Republic of Ireland.

Operational wind farms
Many of the largest onshore wind farms are in the USA. As of January 2014, the Alta Wind Energy Center is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 1,020 MW.

Many of the largest offshore wind farms are in Europe. As of January 2014, the London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 630 MW.
Related pages
 List of renewable energy topics
 Wind power in Denmark
 Wind power in Germany
 Wind power in South Australia
 Wind power in Texas
 Wind power in the United States
 Clyde Wind Farm
 Markbygden Wind Farm
 Gwynt y Môr Wind Farm

Notes

Science-related lists
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center is a large wind farm with 735.5 megawatt (MW) capacity.  It consists of 291 GE 1.5 MW wind turbines and 130 Siemens 2.3 MW wind turbines spread over nearly 47,000 acres (190 km²) of land in Taylor and Nolan County, Texas. 

The first phase of the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center consisted of 213 MW and was completed in late 2005; phase two consisted of 223.5 MW and was completed in the second quarter of 2006; phase three which consisted of 299 MW, was completed by the end of 2006.

Related pages
Wind power
List of large wind farms

References

Other websites
Jury Sides With Horse Hollow Wind Farm  

Wind farms in Texas
This is a list of solar thermal power stations. These include the 354 megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems power plant in the US, Solnova solar power station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol solar power station (Spain, 100 MW), Nevada Solar One (USA, 64 MW), PS20 solar power tower (Spain, 20 MW), and the PS10 solar power tower (Spain, 11 MW). Many other plants are under construction or planned, mainly in Spain and the USA. In developing countries, three World Bank projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-turbine power plants in Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco have been approved.

Operational

Related pages
 List of renewable energy topics
 List of large wind farms
 Solar power in Spain

References

Science-related lists
Environment