Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
People
 Pope John Paul II, Pope from 1978 to 2005
 Pope Benedict XVI, Pope from 2005 to 2013
 Elizabeth II, Monarch of the United Kingdom and other commonwealth countries since 1952
 Vladimir Putin, President of Russia from 2000 to 2008
 Dmitry Medvedev, President of Russia from 2008 to 2012
 Bill Clinton, President of the United States from 1993 to 2001
 George W. Bush, President of the United States from 2001 to 2009
 Barack Obama, President of the United States from 2009 to 2017
 Joseph Estrada, President of the Philippines from 1998 to 2001
 Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, President of the Philippines from 2001 to 2010
 Fidel Castro, President of Cuba from 1959 to 2008
 Raul Castro, President of Cuba from 2008
 Johannes Rau, President of Germany from 1999 to 2004
 Horst Koehler, President of Germany from 2004 to 2010
 Gerhard Schröder, Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005
 Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany from 2005
 Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007
Gordon Brown, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2007 to 2010
 Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq from 1979 to 2003
 Jalal Talabani, President of Iraq from 2006 to 2014
 Jacques Chirac, President of France from 1995 to 2007
 Nicolas Sarkozy, President of France from 2007 to 2012
 Hu Jintao, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 2002 to 2012
 Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, President of Indonesia from 2004 
 John Howard, Prime Minister of Australia from 1996 to 2007
 Kevin Rudd, Prime Minister of Australia from 2007 to 2010
 Akihito, Emperor of Japan since 1989
 Hugo Chávez, President of Venezuela from 1999 to 2013
 Robert Mugabe, President of Zimbabwe since 1987 to 2017
 Yoweri Museveni, President of Uganda since 1986
 Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011
 Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali, President of Tunisia from 1987 to 2011
 Muammar Gaddafi, Leader of Libya from 1969 to 2011
 Ali Abdullah Saleh, President of Yemen from 1990 to 2012
Bhumibol Adulyadej, Monarch of Thailand from 1946 to 2016
 Jiang Zemin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1989 to 2002
 Michel Suleiman, President of Lebanon from 2008 to 2014
 Thabo Mbeki, President of South Africa from 1999 to 2008
 Klagema Motlanthe, President of South Africa from 2008 to 2009
 Jacob Zuma, President of South Africa from 2009
 Omar al-Bashir, President of Sudan from 1989
 Hafez al-Assad, President of Syria from 1971 to 2000
 Bashar al-Assad, President of Syria from 2000
 Ezer Weizman, President of Israel from 1993 to 2000
 Moshe Katsav, President of Israel from 2000 to 2007
 Shimon Peres, President of Israel from 2007 to 2014
 Benjamin Netanyehu, Prime Minister of Israel from 2009
 Ehud Barak, Prime Minister of Israel from 1999 to 2001
 Ariel Sharon, Prime Minister of Israel from 2001 to 2006
 Ehud Omert, Prime Minister of Israel from 2006 to 2009
 Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, President of Liberia from 2006
 Queen Beatrix, Monarch of Netherlands from 1980 to 2013
King Albert II, Monarch of Belgium from 1993 to 2013
 King Abdullah II, Monarch of Jordan from 1999
 Juan Carlos I, Monarch of Spain from 1975 to 2014
Stuttgart (; Swabian:  ) is a city in Germany. It is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg and of the Administrative District of Stuttgart (Regierungsbezirk). Stuttgart is on the river Neckar. In December 2011, 613,392 people lived there. This makes it the most populous city in Baden-Württemberg.

Stuttgart is the sixth largest German city and Stuttgart Region is the nation's third largest region. The city is divided into 23 city districts.

Stuttgart is the home of two car manufacturers: Mercedes Benz and Porsche. Porsche is in Zuffenhausen (North) and Mercedes in Untertürkheim (Southeast).

Stuttgart has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).

Population 
Stuttgart has 613,392 people within city limits. It is the 6th largest city in Germany after Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne and Frankfurt am Main. According to a 2005 estimate, the Stuttgart urban area had between 1,238,000 and 1,250,000 people. Its metropolitan area has a population of 5.3 million (2008).
Education 
The University of Stuttgart is one of the city's higher education institutions.

References

Other websites 

 stuttgart.de
 Pictures of the Stuttgart Metropolitan Area
Schwerin (, , ; Mecklenburgian Low German: Swerin; (, Suerinum) is the capital city of the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. It has a population of 97,000. It is the second biggest city (behind Rostock) in the state. It is the smallest capital of a German state.

Gallery

References

Other websites

States of the Holy Roman Empire
Urban districts of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
German state capitals
Schwyz was one of the first cantons of Swiss canton (Urkanton).

The capital is Schwyz and the main language is German (91%). It has an area of 908 km² and 130200 inhabitants. Schwyz is near to Lucerne.

Districts and Municipalities 
The Canton of Schwyz is divided into six districts and 30 municipalities, although the districts Einsiedeln, Küssnacht and Gersau simply contain the municipality of the same name.

 District Schwyz
 with municipalities Schwyz, Arth, Ingenbohl, Muotathal, Steinen, Sattel, Rothenthurm, Oberiberg, Unteriberg, Lauerz, Steinerberg, Morschach, Alpthal, Illgau, Riemenstalden
 District Einsiedeln with municipality Einsiedeln
 District Gersau with municipality Gersau
 District Höfe
 with municipalities Wollerau, Freienbach, Feusisberg
 District Küssnacht with municipality Küssnacht am Rigi
 District March
 with municipalities Lachen, Altendorf, Galgenen, Vorderthal, Innerthal, Schübelbach, Tuggen, Wangen, Reichenburg

References

Other websites 
 Company formation in Schwyz (English)
1291 establishments
Establishments in Switzerland
 
1290s establishments in Europe
Russia (, ), or the Russian Federation, is a country in Eastern Europe and North Asia. It has land from the Baltic Sea to the Bering Strait. It is the largest country in the world, followed by Canada, the United States, and China. Russia's population is about 146.7 million people. It is the most populous country in Europe. Moscow is its capital city. It is also the largest city in Europe. Other big cities include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, and Kazan. Russia's official language is Russian. Russian is the most spoken language in Europe. It is also the most widely spoken Slavic language. Many regions of Russia have their own official languages alongside Russian.
The economy of Russia is one of the largest in the world. It ranks 11th in the world for highest nominal GDP. This is mainly because of the large amount of natural resources found in Russia. The ruble is the official currency of Russia. 

The Eastern Orthodox Church is the largest religion in Russia. Russia has the most followers of Eastern Orthodoxy out of any other country. About 75% of Russians are followers of Eastern Orthodoxy.
Etymology 
The name Russia comes from a Medieval Latin name for the Kievan Rus'. Rus comes from the name of the Rus' people. They were Norse merchants who settled in northern Russia. Another Medieval Latin name for Rus' was Ruthenia. The current Russian name for Russia ( / ) comes from the Byzantine Greek name for Rus' ( / ).

 History 

 Prehistory 

The first humans went to Russia in the Oldowan period of the Lower Paleolithic. Homo erectus migrated to the Taman Peninsula of Southern Russia. Flint tools have been found in Dagestan. Some of them were over 1.5 million years old. Many fossils of ancient humans were found in Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains. Russia had some of the last living Neanderthals around 45,000 years ago. They were found in Mezmaiskaya Cave in Adygea.
The first known Homo sapiens (Ust'-Ishim man) in Russia lived around 45,000 years ago. They lived in Western Siberia. Fossils of humans from around 40,000 years ago were found at the archaeological sites of Kostyonki–Borshchyovo and Sungir. Both of these places are in European Russia. Humans got to Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago. Fossils and artifacts were found at Mamontovaya Kurya in the Komi Republic.

The Kurgan hypothesis says that the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine is the homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. The Indo-Europeans moved across many parts of Eurasia and spread the Indo-European languages and Yamnaya ancestry. Artifacts from these civilizations were found in Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, and Pazyryk. The earliest known use of horses in war was found in these places as well. This region is known as the Pontic–Caspian steppe. It was named Scythia in classical antiquity.

 Antiquity
Antiquity 

In the late 8th century BC, Ancient Greek traders settled Scythia. They made trading posts that turned into cities such as Tanais and Phanagoria. In the 5th century BC, the Bosporan Kingdom was created after Greek colonization of Crimea and the coast of the Sea of Azov. It became part of the Kingdom of Pontus in 107 BC until Pontus was conquered by the Roman Empire. The Bosporan Kingdom became a client state of the Roman Empire until the Bosporan Kingdom was conquered by the nomadic Huns and Pannonian Avars. The Khazars ruled the lower Volga basin steppes until the 8th century AD. They were important allies of the Eastern Roman Empire.

 Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus' 

Russia's history began when the East Slavs settled Western Russia between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. The Varangians and their descendants made the first East Slavic state of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century. They adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988. This form of Christianity influenced Russian culture greatly. Kievan Rus' eventually broke up and the lands were divided into many small feudal states. The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was the Grand Duchy of Moscow. This area served as the main force in later Russian unification and the fight against the Golden Horde from Asia. Moscow slowly gained control of the regions around it and took over the cultural and political life of Kievan Rus'.

 Tsardom of Russia 
Tsardom of Russia existed from 1547 to 1721. Ivan the Terrible was the main ruler of the Tsardom of Russia. He created oprichnina and annexed many lands (Astrakhan, Siberia).

 Russian Empire
Russian Empire 

In the 18th century, the nation had expanded through conquest, annexation and exploration. So Russian Empire, the third-largest empire in history, was formed. It stretched from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth eastward to the Pacific Ocean and Alaska. The empire was ruled by an emperor called the Tsar.

Peter the Great ruled Russia from 1689 until 1725. Peter moved the capital from Moscow to a new city named Saint Petersburg. He made Russian society more modern in many ways. For example, his inspectors shaved off the beards of passers. The government began building ships for the Russian navy.

The Russo-Japanese War started in 1904 and ended in 1905 with Japan winning the war. The Russian defeat was one of the reasons for later revolutions.

 Russian Republic
Russian Republic 

1917 was period of revolutions in Russia. The Government was dissolved after October Revolution in 1917.  The Bolsheviks (later called "Communists") took over the country. They murdered the Tsar Nicholas II, as well as other people who stood against them. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky, created the first Marxist communist state. The Duma declared a Provisional Government. It was better known as Russian Republic. Vladimir Lenin was the head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1924. Russian Republic has existed from 1917 to 1918.

 USSR
USSR 

From 1924 to 1953, Joseph Stalin ruled as the absolute dictator of Soviet Union. He destroyed anything and anyone that was against his rule. For example, he took the property of farmers and shopkeepers. Many millions of people starved and died in famines because of this. Stalin also removed, or "purged", all military members who were not loyal to him.  Many people were killed or sent to prison camps, or gulags, for many years. Many prisoners died in gulags.

Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany agreed not to attack each other in 1939. In June 1941, Germany broke the agreement and attacked in Operation Barbarossa. The attack was part of World War II. The war lasted in Europe until May 1945, and Russia lost more than 20 million people during that time. In spite of this large loss, Russia was one of the winners of the war and became a world superpower.
In 1961, Yuri Gagarin flew into space. He was the first man who was in space. Since this period USSR was considered to be a space power.  It was during the space race between USSR and USA.

From 1922 to 1991, Russia was the largest part of the Soviet Union, or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). People sometimes used the name "Russia" for the whole Soviet Union, or sometimes "Soviet Russia". Russia was only one of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics. The republic was in fact named the "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic" (RSFSR).

The Soviet Union fell apart in 1991. Russia took over the place of the USSR in the United Nations (UN).

 History of present Russian Federation
Boris Yeltsin was made the President of Russia in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history. Wide-ranging reforms took place, for example privatization and free trade laws. Radical changes (shock therapy) were recommended by the United States and International Monetary Fund. A major economic crisis followed. There was 50% decline in GDP and industrial output between 1990 and 1995.

The privatization largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government system. Many of the newly rich business people took billions in cash and assets outside of the country. The depression of state and economy led to the collapse of social services. Millions went into poverty, from 1.5% of people being in poverty in the late Soviet era to 39–49% by mid-1993. The 1990s had extreme corruption and lawlessness, and the rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.
The 1990s had many armed conflicts in the North Caucasus. There were both local ethnic battles and separatist Islamist insurrections. Because the Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, a Chechen War was fought between the rebel groups and the Russian military. Terrorist attacks against civilians caused hundreds of deaths. The most notable of these were the Moscow theater hostage crisis and Beslan school siege.

Russia took responsibility for settling the USSR's external debts, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution. High budget deficits caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis and resulted in more GDP decline.
On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin resigned (quit being the president). The job of president was given to the recently appointed Prime Minister, Vladimir Putin. Putin then won the 2000 presidential election. Putin stopped the Chechen rebellion quickly, but violence still occurs in the Northern Caucasus at times.

High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years. This improved the standard of living and increased Russia's influence on the world stage. While many reforms made during the Putin presidency have been criticized by Western nations as un-democratic, Putin's leadership led to stability and progress. This won him widespread popularity in Russia.

On 2 March 2008, Dmitry Medvedev was elected President of Russia, whilst Putin became Prime Minister. Putin went back to being the president after the 2012 presidential elections, and Medvedev was made the Prime Minister.
On 24 February 2022, the Russian Federation attacked Ukraine, starting the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

On 23 June 2023, the Wagner Group, a Russian paramilitary organization, initiated a rebellion against the government of Russia. The revolt arose amidst escalating tensions between the Russian Ministry of Defense and Yevgeny Prigozhin, the leader of Wagner.

 Size and resources 
At , Russia is the largest country in the world. It covers more than one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the world's eighth most populous nation with 140 million people as of 2022. Russia produces a lot of energy made from oil and natural gas.
Russia extends from eastern Europe across the whole of northern Asia. Russia spans eleven time zones and has a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources, and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas in the world. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves,FAO. 2010. Global Forest Resources Assesment 2010. Main Report. FAO Forestry Working Paper 163, Rome, Italy   and its lakes contain about one-quarter of the world's fresh water.

 Constitution 
Russia is a federal semi-presidential republic. It has a president and a parliament. Russia has 85 federal subjects (territorial units). All subjects of the federation shall be equal. All entities are subject to uniform federal law. Subjects of the federation have two representatives in the parliament. Subjects of the Russian Federation do not have the right to secede from it. Important issues are decided by the Federation President. Lesser powers are given to the member republics.
At the end of the twentieth century, Russia experienced many political changes. Some people fought to leave the federation.

Elections are held at all levels. According to Steve White, the present government made it clear that they had no plans of making a "second edition" of the American or British political system. Instead they wanted a system that was closer to Russia's own traditions. Richard Sakwa wrote that the Russian government is considered legitimate by the majority of the Russian people. It seeks to deliver a set of public goods without trying to fit to extra-democratic logic to achieve them. Whether the system is becoming less autocratic (dictatorial) is debatable.

 Politics 
There are four big political parties in Russia. United Russia (Единая Россия) is the biggest party.
The United Russia is the ruling party, which supports the government. The other parties in the Duma (Russian parliament) do not criticize the government strongly, for fear of losing their places in the Duma. Many opposition parties, for the People's Freedom Party and the Other Russia, have been unable to register due to the strict rules. In the 2000s, the government led a war in Chechnya, and in the process, civil liberties and independent media were restricted. Corruption is widespread and human rights, especially in the North Caucasus, are frequently violated. In 2008, Putin's government was in a war with Georgia in a dispute over a region with many ethnic Russians.
Geography 
The most western point of Russia is near Kaliningrad, formerly named Königsberg. The most eastern point of Russia is Diomid Island, 35 km from mainland Chukotka (Russia) and  from Alaska (USA). The most southern point is in Caucasus, on the border with Azerbaijan. The most northern point is on the Franz Josef Land archipelago in Arctic Ocean,  from the North Pole.

 Cities and towns 

Russia's capital and biggest city is Moscow. The second biggest city is Saint Petersburg, which was the capital of Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries.

 Administrative divisions 

Russia is divided into many different types of administrative divisions. Some of these are called federal subjects. They are the top-level subdivision of Russia. Other types of Russian subdivisions include federal districts and economic regions.

 Demographics
Demographics 

Russia has a population of 142 million people. Most people (73.7%) live in cities. The population decreased by 5 million people after the fall of the Soviet Union. The current population growth is close to zero, and the population went down by 0.085% in 2008.

Russia's area is about 17 million square kilometers (6.5 million sq. mi.). It is the largest country in the world. Its population density is about 8.3 people per square kilometre (21.5 per sq. mi.). This is one of the lowest country densities in the world. The population is most dense in the European part of the country, centering around Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Siberia has a very low density.

 Religion 

The main religion in Russia is the Russian Orthodox Church. It is one of the Eastern Orthodox Churches. 

 Culture 
 Music and ballet
Some very famous composers that were born in Russia during the 20th century were Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Sergei Prokofiev, and Dmitri Shostakovich. Russia has produced some of the greatest pianists: Anton Rubinstein, Vladimir Horowitz and Vladimir Ashkenazy are among the all-time greats.

Russian composer Tchaikovsky created famous ballets, for example The Nutcracker. The impressario Sergei Diaghilev was responsible for the development of ballet in the early 20th century with the Ballets Russes. Dance companies at the Mariinsky Theatre and the Bolshoi Ballet produced many famous dancers.

 Literature 

Russians have made many famous works of literature. Alexander Pushkin is considered a founder of modern Russian literature. He was a poet from the 19th century.
Other famous poets and writers of the 19th century were Anton Chekhov, Mikhail Lermontov, Leo Tolstoy, Nikolai Gogol (he was born in what is now Ukraine, but during his lifetime Ukraine was a part of Russia), Ivan Turgenev and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Many people think Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky are two of the greatest novelists ever. Three Russians won the Nobel Prize for Literature in the 20th century: Boris Pasternak (1958), Mikhail Sholokhov (1965) and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1980).  Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the most popular writers of the 20th century.   

 Sports 
Soccer, ice hockey and basketball are some of the most popular sports in Russia. Boxing, gymnastics, weightlifting, and tennis are also popular sports. Track suits are popular clothing items for many Russians. Some examples of famous Russian sports people are former tennis world number one Maria Sharapova, who has won three Grand Slam titles, and was the world's highest paid female athlete in 2008.
After the 1952 Olympic Games, Soviet and later Russian athletes have been third place in gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics. The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were hosted in Moscow, while the 2014 Winter Olympics were hosted in Sochi.

For the 2018 Winter Olympics, which were held in Pyeongchang, South Korea, a lot of athletes could not compete because the International Olympic Committee found out they had been doping. Those who were not caught doping were able to play in the 2018 Olympics as "Olympic Athletes from Russia". They won two gold medals, and one in ice hockey.

In 6 appearances, Russian athletes have won a total of 425 medals at the summer Olympics and 121 at the winter Olympics. However, more than 30% of these medals were taken from Russia and its teams.

 Chess 
Chess is the main intellectual sport in Russia. In the 20th century, there were nine Russian World Chess Champions, more than all other nations combined.

 Food
Food 

Russian cuisine is one of the most famous in the world. It was divided: Old Russian cuisine, Old Moscow cuisine, Petersburg cuisine. The main thing of Russian food is variety of products used for cooking.

Typical Russian food includes: bliny, pelmeni, olivier salad, pies (called pirogi) etc. Russians have many soups such as okroshka, shchi, borsch, ukha, rassolnik. Russian traditional drinks are kvass, mors, sbiten, medovukha, vodka, birch sap.

Related pages

 Crime in Russia
 List of rivers of Russia
 Russia at the Olympics
 Russia national football team
 Soviet Union
 Russia at the Olympics

 References 

 Notes 

Further reading
Bartlett, Roger P. A history of Russia  (2005) online
 Breslauer, George W. and Colton, Timothy J. 2017.  Russia Beyond Putin (Daedalus) online 
 Brown, Archie, ed. The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1982) online
 
 Florinsky, Michael T. ed. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1961).
 Frye, Timothy. Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia (2021) excerpt 
 Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia (Yale UP, 2019) excerpt
 Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia and the Russians: a history (2011) online
 Kort, Michael. A Brief History of Russia (2008) online
 
 Lowe, Norman. Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History (2002) excerpt 
 Millar, James R. ed. Encyclopedia of Russian History (4 vol 2003). online
 Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia (9th ed. 2018) 9th edition 1993 online
Rosefielde, Steven. Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy (2020) excerpt 
 Service, Robert. A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) excerpt 
 Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture (2014) excerpt ; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.
 Walker, Shauin. The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past (2018, Oxford UP) excerpt
Other websites Government Official Russian governmental portal
 Chief of State and Cabinet MembersGeneral information 
 
 Russia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
 Russia at UCB Libraries GovPubs
 Russia from BBC News
 Russia at Encyclopædia Britannica
 Key Development Forecasts for Russia from International FuturesOther'
 Post-Soviet Problems from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives

 
G8 nations
Federations
Current dictatorships
1991 establishments in Asia
1991 establishments in Europe
Moscow ( , US chiefly  ; ) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city is on the Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population of around 13 million people in the city limits, over 17 million people in the urban area, and over 20 million people in the metropolitan area. The city has an area of . Moscow's urban area has an area of . Moscow's metropolitan area has an area of over . Moscow is one of the world's largest cities. It is the most populous city that is only in Europe. It is also the largest urban and metropolitan area in Europe and the largest city by land area on the European continent.
It was first wrote about in 1147. Moscow grew to become a powerful city that was the capital of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Moscow stayed the political and economic center of the country when the Tsardom of Russia was made. When the Tsardom turned into the Russian Empire, the capital was moved from Moscow to Saint Petersburg which lowered the influence of the city. The capital was  moved back to Moscow after the October Revolution. This brought the city back as the political center of the Russian SFSR and then the Soviet Union. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Moscow stayed the capital city of the new Russian Federation.
Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity in the world. It has a history that goes through eight centuries. Moscow is a federal city of Russia since 1993 that is the political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe. Moscow has one of the world's largest urban economies as an alpha world city. The city is one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations in the world, and it is one of Europe's most visited cities. Moscow is home to the seventh-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world.  The Moscow International Business Center is one of the largest financial centers in Europe and the world. Moscow has most of Europe's tallest skyscrapers. Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, and one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
Moscow is the home of many Russian artists, scientists, and sportspeople. The city also has several UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Moscow is well known for its Russian architecture. This includes its historic Red Square, and buildings such as the Saint Basil's Cathedral and the Moscow Kremlin. The Moscow Kremlin is the seat of power of the Government of Russia. Moscow is home to many Russian companies in different industries. It has a large transit network, which includes four international airports, ten railway terminals, a tram system, a monorail system, and the Moscow Metro. The Moscow Metro is the busiest metro system in Europe. It is one of the largest rapid transit systems in the world. The city has over 40 percent of its land covered by greenery. This makes it one of the greenest cities in Europe and the world.

A person from Moscow is called a "" (moskvich) for male or "ка" (moskvichka) for female. In English, people from Moscow are called Muscovites.

Geography
Geography

It is by the Moskva River in the Moscow Oblast, in the European part of Russia. Moscow sits on the center of three parts of Earth's crust. It was once the capital of the Soviet Union (1918-1991), Russian Empire, Tsardom of Russia and the Grand Duchy of Moscow (1480-1703). It is the place of the Moscow Kremlin, one of the World Heritage Sites in the city, which is the home of the President of Russia. The Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council of Russia (Federation Council) and the Government of Russia also are in Moscow. 

The city has a humid continental climate. The winter (usually cold) is lasting from mid-November to the end of March. The average temperature in winter is about −10 °C (−14 °F). The summer is usually warm or even hot with  temperature ranging from 15 to 35 °C (50 to 95 °F) .

Economy
Economy

Moscow has a large economic infrastructure. It is home to the most billionaires in the world. In 2008 Moscow was named the world's most expensive city for non-Russian workers for the third year in a row. In 2009, however, Moscow went down to third after Tokyo and Osaka came in first and second.

History 
The city is named after the river (old , which means "the city next to the Moskva River"). The beginning of the name is not known, but some people have a few ideas. One is that the name might be from a very old Finnic language, in which it means "dark" and "cloudy". In 12th century tribes of Vyatichi and Krivichs lived on that land. The first Russian reference to Moscow is from 1147 when Yuri Dolgoruki called upon the prince of Novgorod-Severski to "come to me, brother, to Moscow."
Under Ivan I the city replaced Tver as a political center of Vladimir-Suzdal and became the only collector of taxes for the Mongol-Tatar rulers. By paying high taxes, Ivan worked out an important deal with the Khan. Unlike other principalities, Moscow was not divided among his sons but was passed whole to his oldest. However, Moscow did not like the Mongol rule. In 1380, prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a Russian army to an important victory over the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo. Only two years later Moscow was raided by the Khan Tokhtamysh. In 1480, Ivan III finally broke the Russians free from Tatar control, allowing Moscow to become the center of power in Russia. Under Ivan III the city became the capital of an empire that would eventually include all of  Russia and other countries.

In 1571, the Crimean Tatars raided Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin.
The plague of 1654–1656 killed half the population of Moscow. The city stopped being Russia’s capital in 1712, after the building of Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great near the Baltic coast in 1703. The Plague of 1771 was the last big plague in central Russia, killing 100,000 people in Moscow alone. During the French invasion of Russia in 1812, the Muscovites burned the city and ran away, as Napoleon’s army was coming near to the city on 14 September. Napoleon’s army, which was very hungry and cold, had to leave and was nearly destroyed by the freezing Russian winter and some attacks by the army.

In January 1905, Alexander Adrianov became Moscow’s first mayor. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, on 12 March 1918 Moscow became the capital of the Soviet Union. During World War II (known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War), after the German invasion of the USSR, the Soviet State Defense Group and commanders of the Red Army were placed in Moscow.
On 1 May 1944, a medal For the defence of Moscow and in 1947 another medal In memory of the 800th year of Moscow were given to Moscow. In commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany, on 8 May 1965, Moscow became one of twelve Soviet cities awarded the title of Hero City.

In 1980, Moscow hosted the Summer Olympic Games, which the United States and several other countries did not go to because of the Soviet Union's war in Afghanistan in the end of 1979. In 1991, Moscow was the scene of a failed overthrow attempt by government members opposed to Mikhail Gorbachev. When the USSR ended in the same year, Moscow continued to be the capital of Russia.

Since then, the beginning of a market economy in Moscow has caused an explosion of Western-style stores, services, architecture, and lifestyles. In 1998, it hosted the first World Youth Games.

Transportation

Metro
Moscow metro is one of the largest and the beautiful ones in the World. It was opened for passengers in 1935.
Trams
The first electric tram began operating in 1899.

Buses

Trolleys 
The Moscow trolley system was the largest in the World before ending of 2010s. In 2020 it was closed.
Sister cities 
Moscow has many sister cities:
  Algiers, Algeria
  Almaty, Kazakhstan
  Amman, Jordan
  Ankara, Turkey
  Astana, Kazakhstan
  Athens, Greece
  Baku, Azerbaijan
  Bangkok, Thailand
  Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
  Beijing, China
  Beirut, Lebanon
  Belgrade, Serbia
  Berlin, Germany
  Brussels, Belgium
  Bucharest, Romania
  Cairo, Egypt
  Chicago, United States
  Cusco, Peru
  Delhi, India
  Donetsk, Ukraine
  Dubai, United Arab Emirates
  Dushanbe, Tajikistan
  Düsseldorf, Germany
  Ganja, Azerbaijan
  Hanoi, Vietnam
  Havana, Cuba
  Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
  Ingolstadt, Germany
  Jelgava, Latvia
  Kharkiv, Ukraine
  Kolomna, Russia
  Kraków, Poland
  Limoges, France
  Ljubljana, Slovenia
  London, England, United Kingdom
  Madrid, Spain
  Manila, Philippines
  Naryan-Mar, Russia
  Nicosia, Cyprus
  Paris, France
  Podgorica, Montenegro
  Prague, Czech Republic
  Pyongyang, North Korea
  Rasht, Iran
  Reykjavík, Iceland
  Riga, Latvia
  Seoul, South Korea
  Tallinn, Estonia
Tallinn, Estonia
  Tel Aviv, Israel
  Tehran, Iran
  Tirana, Albania
  Tokyo, Japan
  Tunis, Tunisia
  Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
  Valenciennes, France
  Vienna, Austria
  Warsaw, Poland
  Yerevan, Armenia
Related pages 

List of cities and towns in Russia by population

References 

 
Capital cities in Russia
Olympic cities
1140s establishments
Round cities
St. Gallen is a canton in Switzerland. St. Gallen is in the north-east corner of Switzerland. North of St. Gallen is the canton Thurgau. West of St. Gallen is Zürich. South of St. Gallen is Schwyz, Glarus, and Graubünden. East of St. Gallen are the countries Austria and Liechtenstein. The cantons Appenzell Innerrhoden and Appenzell Ausserrhoden are inside the canton St. Gallen (the canton St.Gallen sourrounds them). 

St. Gallen has been a Swiss canton since 1803. 

St. Gallen is near Lake Constance. At the south of St. Gallen there are big mountains over 3000m high. The best known mountain in St. Gallen is the Säntis, which is 2503m high. At the east of St. Gallen there is the river Rhine. The people in St. Gallen speak German. 

There are about 455,000 people (2002) in the canton St. Gallen. It has an area of 2,026 km². 

The biggest town in St. Gallen is the town with the same name St. Gallen. There are 70,000 people in the town St. Gallen.

Other websites 
 Official website of the government of St. Gallen
1803 establishments
19th-century establishments in Switzerland
1800s establishments in Europe
Canton can mean many different things.

A canton is a way to divide the land of a country. It is like dividing the country into different regions or states.
Cantons of Costa Rica
Cantons of France
Cantons of Luxembourg
Cantons of Switzerland

canton (liqueur), a ginger-flavored liqueur that is made in the Guangdong province in China
the upper left part of a flag
Places:
 Canton, an old English name for the city of Guangzhou, China
 Canton, an old English name for the province of Guangdong, China
 Canton, Connecticut, USA
 Canton, Georgia, USA
 Canton, Illinois, USA
 Canton, Baltimore neighborhood and park in Baltimore, Maryland, USA
 Canton, Massachusetts, USA
 Canton Township, Michigan, United States
 Canton, Mississippi, USA
 Canton, Missouri, USA
 Canton, New York
  Canton (village), New York , USA
  Canton (town), New York , USA
 Canton, North Carolina, USA
 Canton, Ohio, USA
 Canton, Oklahoma, USA
 Canton, Pennsylvania, USA
 Canton, South Dakota, USA
 Canton Township, Michigan, USA
 Canton Township, Pennsylvania, USA
 Canton, Texas, USA
 Canton, Cardiff, a district of the Welsh capital
 Kanton Island (used to be "Canton Island"), part of Kiribati
Saarland (, also , ;  ; Rhine Franconian: Saarlond) is a Bundesland (state) of Germany. It has an area of  and 1,014,000 people living in it (2011). Saarland lies in the south-west of Germany, near the French border near Metz. The capital is Saarbrücken.

History 
In 1920, the Treaty of Versailles made Saarland from parts of the Prussian Rhine Province () and the Rhine Palatinate (). The area was put under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. After a plebiscite (vote) in 1935, Germany got the land back. After World War II the Saarland came under French administration.  The Saar Protectorate was allowed its own government for most things in 1947 but not independence. Germany got the Saarland back in 1957 and it became a Bundesland.

Geography 
In the south is France, in the north-west Luxembourg and in the north and east is Rhineland-Palatinate.
Saarland is divided in 6 districts:
 Merzig-Wadern (the largest district)
 Neunkirchen
 Saarbrücken
 Saarlouis
 Saarpfalz (Saar-Palatinate)
 Sankt Wendel

City and towns 
 Saarbrücken (city)
 Neunkirchen
 Saarlouis
 Homburg
 Merzig

Related pages
 Saargebiet
 Saar (protectorate)

References
1974 (MCMLXXIV) was .

Events 
February 7 – Grenada becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
March 3 – a Turkish Airlines DC-10 crashes outside Paris, France, killing all 346 people on board; the cause of the crash was a design flaw in the plane's rear cargo door.
February 22 – Bangladesh is recognized by Pakistan
April 25 – Portuguese Revolution or the Carnation Revolution. – A half-century of fascist rule was ended.
May 18 – India tests nuclear weapons.
July 15- Christine Chubbock, a TV host in Sarasota, Florida commits suicide during the taping of her show live on air.
August 8 – United States President Richard Nixon announces his resignation (Watergate scandal).
December 8 – Greek voters reject a proposal to restore the Greek monarchy.
December 19 – Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh becomes the fifth President of Ireland, in a state inauguration in Dublin Castle.
December 24-December 25 – Darwin, Australia almost completely destroyed by Cyclone Tracy.
Date unknown
The Ellice Islands decide to split from the Gilbert Islands in a referendum.
Births 
January 16 – Kate Moss, English model
January 21 – Linda Rosing, Swedish model
January 28 – Magglio Ordóñez, Venezuelan baseball player
January 30 – Christian Bale, Welsh actor
February 8 – Seth Green, American actor
February 8 – Kimbo Slice American mixed martial artist
February 13 – Robbie Williams, English singer
February 15 – Omarosa Manigault Newman, American television personality
February 22 – Chris Moyles, English disc jockey
March 6 – Anthony Carelli, American wrestler
March 13 – Linda Bengtzing, Swedish singer
March 24 – Alyson Hannigan, American actress
May 17 – Andrea Corr, Irish lead-singer of the music group The Corrs
May 23 – Ken Jennings, Jeopardy! champion
June 1 – Alanis Morissette, Canadian singer
July 28 – Justin Lee Collins, English television presenter
August 17 – Tomomi Kahala, Japanese singer
August 25 – Mario Jeckle, German computer scientist (d. 2004)
September 6 – Tim Henman, English tennis player
September 14 – Nas, American rapper
October 5 - Alex Walkinshaw, English actor
October 28 – Joaquin Phoenix, American actor
November 2 – Nelly, American rapper
November 11 – Leonardo DiCaprio, American actor
November 15 – Chad Kroeger, Canadian singer and guitarist
December 3 – Albena Denkova, Bulgarian ice dancer
December 6 – Jens Pulver, American mixed martial artist
December 10 – Meg White, American singer and drummer (The White Stripes)
December 13 – Sara Cox, English television presenter
Deaths

January 
 January 2 – Tex Ritter, American country musician (b. 1905)
 January 6 – David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mexican painter (b. 1896)
 January 31 – Samuel Goldwyn, Polish-American movie producer (b. 1879)
 January 31 – Glenn Morris, American track and field athlete (b. 1912)

February 

 February 4 – Satyendra Nath Bose, Indian physicist and polymath from Bengal (b. 1894)

March 
 March 27 – Eduardo Santos Montejo, President of Colombia (b. 1888)

April 

 April 2 – Georges Pompidou, President of France (b. 1911)
 April 19 – Ayub Khan, President of Pakistan (b. 1907)
 April 24 – Franz Jonas, President of Austria (b. 1899)
 April 24 – Bud Abbott, American actor and comedian (b. 1895)
 April 30 – Agnes Moorehead, American actress (b. 1900)

May 

 May 7 – Fred Kelly, American hurdler (b. 1891)
 May 24 – Duke Ellington, American pianist and jazz musician (b. 1899)

June
June 

 June 4 – Mamerto Urriolagoitía, 43rd President of Bolivia (b. 1895)
 June 11 – Eurico Gaspar Dutra, 16th President of Brazil (b. 1883)
 June 18 – Georgy Zhukov, Soviet general during World War II (b. 1896)

July 

 July 1 – Juan Perón, President of Argentina (b. 1895)
 July 9 – Earl Warren, 14th Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1891)
 July 24 – James Chadwick, English physicist (b. 1891)
 July 29 – Cass Elliot, American singer and actress (b. 1941)
 July 29 – Erich Kästner, German children's writer (b. 1899)

August 

 August 26 – Charles Lindbergh, American pilot (b. 1902)

September 

 September 21 – Walter Brennan, American actor (b. 1894)

October 

 October 5 – Zalman Shazar, 3rd President of Israel (b. 1899)
 October 9 – Oskar Schindler, German businessman (b. 1908)
 October 13 – Ed Sullivan, American television personality (b. 1901)
 October 28 – Everaldo, Brazilian footballer (b. 1944)

November
November 

 November 13 – Vittorio De Sica, Italian film director (b. 1901)
 November 17 – Erskine Hamilton Childers, 4th President of Ireland (b. 1905)
 November 25 – U Thant, Secretary-General of the United Nations (b. 1909)

December

Nobel Prizes 
Nobel Prize in Physics – Sir Martin Ryle, Antony Hewish
Chemistry – Paul J Flory
Medicine – Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, George E Palade
Literature – Eyvind Johnson, Harry Martinson
Peace – Séan MacBride, Eisaku Sato
Economics – Gunnar Myrdal, Friedrich von Hayek
Mars may mean:

 Mars, the planet
 Mars (mythology), the Roman god
 Mars (TV series), a Taiwanese drama which has had Alan Kuo in it
 Mars, Pennsylvania, United States, a place in the U.S. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
 Mars, Ardèche, southern France, a commune in the Ardèche département
 Mars, Gard, southern France, one of the Communes of the Gard department
 Mars, Loire, central France, one of the Communes of the Loire department
 Mars, Incorporated, makes M&M's

People 
 Bruno Mars (born 1985), American singer-songwriter and music producer
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun.

Jupiter may also mean:

 Jupiter (mythology), supreme Roman deity

 Jupiter, Florida, United States

 PGM-19 Jupiter missile, a kind of missile removed from Turkey after the Cuban Missile Crisis

 "Jupiter, the Bringer of Jollity", the fourth movement in Gustav Holst's The Planets suite

 Jupiter, disc 1 of Stadium Arcadium by the Red Hot Chili Peppers

 Jupiter (company), a Japanese games company that made games such as Pokémon Pinball
Venus is a planet in the Solar System. It may also mean:

 Venus (mythology), the Roman goddess
 Venus, Florida, United States, a town
 Venus, Texas, United States, a town
 Venus, Romania, a resort

Art 
 Venus figurines, figurines that show women
 Venus of Tan-Tan, a very old venus figurine
 Venus de Milo, an ancient Greek statue
 Venus of Willendorf, an 11.1 cm (4 3/8 inches) high statuette of a female figure
Venus (Bananarama song), on the list of "Weird Al" Yankovic polka medleys
Venus (Frankie Avalon song), on the list of Hot 100 number-one singles during 1958–1969 (U.S.)
Venus (Shocking Blue song), on the list of Hot 100 number-one singles of the 1980s (U.S.)

People 
Venus Williams, American tennis player
Saturn is a planet in the Solar System. It might also mean:

 Saturn (mythology), the Roman god
 Saturn Corporation, an automobile company owned by General Motors
 Saturn Award, honors the top works in science fiction, fantasy, and horror in movie, television, and home video
 Saturn Moscow Oblast, a Russian football team from the Moscow suburb of Ramenskoye
 Sega Saturn, a 32-bit video game console made by Sega

People 
 Perry Saturn (born 1966), retired American professional wrestler who is best known for wrestling with WWF and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW)
Uranus is one of the planets in the Solar System. It might also refer to:

Uranos, a god in Greek mythology
Uranus (movie) is a film from 1990 starring Gérard Depardieu
Neptune is a planet in the Solar System. It might also mean:

 Neptune (god), the Roman god of the sea 
 Neptune (ship), a prison ship in the Second Fleet of ships to Australia
 Neptune, New Jersey, United States
 Windows Neptune, a Microsoft Windows computer operating system that didn't get made
Pluto is a dwarf planet in Earth's solar system.

Pluto can also mean:

Pluto (mythology), the Roman god
Pluto (Disney) is the name of the dog of Mickey Mouse
Iceland (; ) is an island country in the North Atlantic, between Greenland and Norway, formerly a possession of Denmark.  It is culturally considered to be part of Europe.  Iceland is 301 kilometers east of Greenland and 1001 kilometers west of Norway.  There are about 329,100 people who live in Iceland. Iceland has an area of 103,000 km².

History 
The first people who lived on Iceland are thought to have been Irish monks. They came to Iceland around the year 800.

Iceland became a Christian nation in the year 1000 CE, when Christianity became the religion by law. In Icelandic, this event is known as the kristnitaka literally, "the taking of Christianity".

In the 9th century, Norsemen went to live in Iceland. The first Norseman who lived in Iceland was Flóki Vilgerðarson. He was also the one who gave Iceland its name. Ingólfur Arnarsons was the first permanent settler on the island. This chieftain from Norway went to live in South West Iceland and founded the city of Reykjavík.
In 930, the Icelandic rulers wrote a constitution. They created the Althing, a kind of parliament in a place called Þingvellir. Therefore, Iceland is the oldest existing republic.

In 985, Erik the Red was sent away from the island because he had killed someone. He sailed to the west and discovered Greenland. Eric's son Leif Ericson discovered America in the year 1000. He called it Vinland. The voyages of Eric, Leif and others were written down in the sagas (long stories).

In 1262, Iceland became part of Norway. This lasted for 400 years. In 1662, it became part of Denmark. In the 19th century, many Icelandic's wanted to be independent from Denmark. In 1918, Iceland got many powers of its own, but the king of Denmark was still king of Iceland.
When Germany took over Denmark on April 9 1940, the Althing decided that Icelandic’s  should rule the country themselves, but they did not declare independence yet. British and later American soldiers occupied Iceland to prevent it from being attacked by the Germans. In 1944, Iceland finally became fully independent.

After World War II, Iceland became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), but not of the European Union. Between 1958 and 1976, there were three debates between Iceland and the United Kingdom about the rights to catch codfish. They were called the Cod Wars.

In 1980, Vigdís Finnbogadóttir was elected president of Iceland. She was the first woman ever to be elected president of a country.

In 2016, Guðni Th. Jóhannesson become president of Iceland.

Politics