Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Vin Diesel (born Mark Sinclair Vincent; July 18, 1967) is an American actor, director, producer and screenwriter. He is known for his roles in the movies The Fast and the Furious series, The Chronicles of Riddick trilogy, the voice of Groot in the Marvel Cinematic Universe and in XXX.

Diesel was born in Alameda County, California. He studied at Hunter College. He is partners with Paloma Jimenez. His father is African-American and his mother is of English, German, Irish and Scottish descent.

References

Other websites
 

1967 births
Living people
Actors from Alameda County, California
Actors from New York City
African American actors
American movie actors
American Roman Catholics
American television actors
American video game actors
American voice actors
Movie directors from New York City
Movie producers from New York City
Screenwriters from New York City
Juno Violet Temple (born 21 July 1989) is an English movie, television, stage, and voice actress who is known for her roles in Atonement, Dirty Girl, St Trinian's, Killer Joe and in The Dark Knight Rises.

Temple was born on 21 July 1989 in London, England to Amanda Pirie and to Julien Temple. She studied at Enmore Primary School, Bedales School, and at King's College.

References

Other websites

1989 births
Living people
English movie actors
English television actors
English stage actors
English voice actors
English child actors
Actors from London
Klara Hitler (born Klara Pölzl, 12 August 1860 - 21 December 1907) was an Austrian woman. She was the widow of Alois Hitler and the mother of German dictator Adolf Hitler.

Family background and marriage
Klara was born in the Austrian village of Spital, Weitra, Lower Austria. Her father was Johann Baptist Pölzl and her mother was Johanna Hiedler. Either Hiedler's father, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, or his brother, Johann Georg Hiedler, was the biological father of Alois Hitler, the man she would later marry. It is presumed and accepted by most that the father was Johann Georg Hiedler. Klara and Alois were first cousins once removed.
Adolf was born 20 April 1889, followed by Edmund on 24 March 1894 and Paula on 21 January 1896. Edmund died of measles on 28 February 1900, at the age of five. Klara's adult life was spent keeping house and raising children. According to Smith, Alois had little understanding or interest in raising children. Historian Alice Miller later wrote, "The family structure could well be characterized as the prototype of a totalitarian regime. Its sole, undisputed, often brutal ruler is the father. The wife and children are totally subservient to his will, his moods, and his whims; they must accept humiliation and injustice unquestioningly and gratefully. Obedience is their primary rule of conduct."

Klara was very devoted to her children. According to William Patrick Hitler, she was a typical stepmother to her stepchildren, Alois Jr. and Angela.

Klara was a devout Roman Catholic. She worshipped at church regularly with her children. Of her six children with Alois, only Adolf and Paula survived childhood.
Alois's and Klara's children were:

Gustav Hitler (born 10 May 1885, died of diphtheria on 8 December 1887 in Braunau am Inn)
Ida Hitler (born 23 September 1886, died of diphtheria 2 January 1888 in Braunau am Inn)
Adolf Hitler (born 20 April 1889 in Braunau Am Inn, died in Berlin on 30 April 1945) Nazi German dictator
Otto Hitler (born 17 June 1892, died of hydrocephalus on 23 June 1892 in Passau) 
Edmund Hitler (born 24 March 1894 in Passau, died of measles, 28 February 1900 in Leonding)
Paula Hitler (born 21 January 1896 and died 1 June 1960), the last surviving member of Hitler's immediate family.
Later life and death
When Alois died in 1903, he left her a government pension. She sold the house in Leonding and moved with young Adolf and Paula to an apartment in Linz. Three or four years later, she was diagnosed with breast cancer. After many painful iodoform treatments given by her doctor, Eduard Bloch, Klara died at home in Linz from the toxic medical side-effects on December 21, 1907. Adolf and Paula were at her side.  Klara was buried in Leonding near Linz.

Adolf Hitler had a close relationship with his mother. He was crushed by her death and carried the grief for the rest of his long life. Bloch later recalled that, after Klara's death, he had seen in "one young man never so much pain and suffering broken fulfilled". Decades later, in 1940, Hitler showed gratitude to Bloch (who was Jewish) by letting him and his wife to leave Austria and go to the United States.

References
References

1860 births
1907 deaths
Austrian Roman Catholics
Cancer deaths in Austria
Deaths from breast cancer
Hitler family
People from Lower Austria
Sylvia Maria Kristel (28 September 1952  18 October 2012) was a Dutch erotic actress who acted in many movies. She was most notable for her role in the Emmanuelle movies from the 1970s through to the early 1990s.

The most successful film in her career was Private Lessons (1981). She played the housekeeper who initiates a 15-year-old to the wonders of sex. The film grossed over $50,000,000 worldwide.

Kristel was born on 28 September 1952 in Utrecht, Netherlands. She died on the afternoon of 18 October 2012 in Amsterdam, Netherlands from oesophageal and lung cancer, aged 60. She is survived by her son.

In September 2006, Kristel's autobiography Nue (Nude) was published in France. It was translated into English as Undressing Emmanuelle: a memoir, by Fourth Estate, 2007. . She told of her turbulent personal life blighted by addictions to drugs and alcohol. Her quest for a father figure led to some destructive relationships with older men. The book received some positive reviews.

References

Other websites
Other websites 

1952 births
2012 deaths
Cancer deaths in the Netherlands
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Deaths from lung cancer
Dutch movie actors
Dutch stage actors
Dutch television actors
Dutch voice actors
People from Utrecht (city)
Paul Berg (June 30, 1926 – February 15, 2023) was an American biochemist (a person who studies chemistry in living things).  He was given the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1980, with Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger. The award recognized their contributions to basic research on nucleic acids.

Early life
Berg was born in New York City. He received his undergraduate education at Penn State University, where he majored in biochemistry.  He received his Ph.D. in biochemistry from Case Western Reserve University in 1952.

Career
After 1959 Berg worked at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.  There he taught biochemistry from 1959 until 2000. He served as director of the Beckman Center for Molecular and Genetic Medicine from 1985 until 2000.  He is now professor emeritus at Stanford University.

In addition to the Nobel Prize, Berg was given with the National Medal of Science in 1983 and the National Library of Medicine Medal in 1986.
Berg was famous for his pioneering work involving recombinant DNA, the process of inserting DNA from another species into a molecule, leading to the development of modern genetic engineering.  After developing the technique, Berg used it for his studies of viral genomes.

Death
Berg died on February 15, 2023 at his home in Stanford, California at the age of 96.

References 

1926 births
2023 deaths
American biochemists
American Nobel Prize winners
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
American molecular biologists
Stanford University faculty
The following is a list of sovereign states and territories where Tamil is an official or language of government.

Sovereign Countries

Dependent entities where Tamil is an official language

Recognized as minority language

Partially recognized and unrecognized territories

Former territories resp. dependent entities where Tamil was an official language

Countries where Tamil is used and has cultural impact but not official

References

Other websites 
 tamilNet.com
 tamilfunda.com
 tamilsiragugal.com

Tamil language
Tamil
Tamil Eelam is a proposed state for Tamils in Sri Lanka. It was one of the reasons for the Sri Lankan Civil War. The main leader was Velupillai Prabhakaran, the leader of the Tamil Tigers.

Tamils number just over 11 percent of the Sri Lankan population. They live mostly in the coastal regions of north, east and west Sri Lanka. The dominant Sinhalese people are just under 75% of the population.

Related pages
 Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Other websites
Articles about Tamil Eelam at Times of India 

National liberation movements
Tamils
Sri Lankan Civil War
Politics of Sri Lanka
Thomas Robert Cech (born December 8, 1947 in Chicago) is an American chemist who shared the 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Sidney Altman. They discovered that RNA was a catalyst. Cech discovered that RNA could itself cut strands of RNA, which showed that life could have started as RNA.

Career 
Cech also studied telomeres, and his lab discovered an enzyme, TERT (telomerase reverse transcriptase), which helps to restore telomeres after they are shortened during cell division. 

As president of Howard Hughes Medical Institute, he promoted science education, and he teaches an undergraduate chemistry course at the University of Colorado.

Research
Cech's main research area is transcription in the nucleus of cells. He studies how the genetic code of DNA is transcribed into RNA. In the 1970s, Cech discovered that an unprocessed RNA molecule could splice itself.
In 1982, Cech became the first to show that RNA molecules are not restricted to being passive carriers of genetic information  they can have catalytic functions and can take part in cellular reactions. RNA-processing reactions and protein synthesis on ribosomes are catalysed by RNA. RNA enzymes are known as ribozymes and are now used for gene technology. They also cut and destroy invading viral RNAs.

References

Other websites

 Tom Cech iBioMagazine talk: "Discovering Ribozymes" 
 Chemical and Engineering News
 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1989: Sidney Altman, Thomas R. Cech
 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1989: Illustrated Presentation
 Nobel autobiography

1947 births
Living people
Academics from Maryland
American molecular biologists
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Chicago
Academics from Colorado
A reverse transcriptase is an enzyme which works 'backwards' from RNA to DNA. Normal transcription involves the synthesis of RNA from DNA; reverse transcription is the reverse of this. It is a DNA polymerase enzyme that transcribes single-stranded RNA into single-stranded DNA. It also synthesizes a second strand of DNA complementary to the reverse-transcribed single-stranded cDNA. 

Well studied reverse transcriptases include:
 HIV-1 reverse transcriptase from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 ()
 M-MLV reverse transcriptase from the Moloney murine leukemia virus
 AMV reverse transcriptase from the avian myeloblastosis virus
 Telomerase reverse transcriptase that maintains the telomeres of eukaryotic chromosomes
History 
Reverse transcriptase was discovered by Howard Temin at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in a cancer virus. It was independently isolated by David Baltimore in 1970 at MIT from two RNA tumour viruses. For their achievements, they shared the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (with Renato Dulbecco).

The idea of reverse transcription was very unpopular at first because it contradicted the central dogma of molecular biology. This states that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into proteins. However, in 1970 when Howard Temin and David Baltimore both independently discovered the enzyme responsible for reverse transcription, the possibility that genetic information could be passed on in this manner was finally accepted.
Out of this work has come the idea that the first genomes were made of RNA genes. The RNA genes surviving today might be all that remain of this early condition. Reverse transcriptase might be the remnant of a stage when DNA genes were made by copying RNA genes. This theory is relevant to the earliest stages of evolution. Reverse transcription is also used by various semi-independent elements called transposons.

References 

Enzymes
Stephen Richard Turnbull (born 6 February 1948) is a British academic, historian and writer. He is a specialist in Far Eastern military history.  He is best known for his writing about the samurai of Japan.

Early life
Turnbull earned a degree at Cambridge University. 

Further studies led to his earning an MA in Theology and an MA in Military History.  He was awarded a PhD from the University of Leeds.

Career
Turnbull is a lecturer in Far Eastern Religions at Leeds.

Selected works
In an overview of writings by and about Louis-Frédéric, OCLC/WorldCat lists roughly 100+ works in 400+ publications in 15 languages and 15,000+ library holdings. 
This list is not finished; you can help Wikipedia by adding to it.
Samurai armies, 1550–1615, 1979
 The Mongols, 1980
 The Book of the Samurai, 1982
 The Book of the Medieval Knight, 1985
 Samurai Warriors, 1987
 Samurai Warlords: The Book of the Daimyō, 1989
 Ninja: The True Story of Japan's Secret Warrior Cult, 1991
 The Samurai: A Military History, 1996
 Samurai Warfare, 1997
 The Samurai Sourcebook, 1998
 Nagashino 1575: Slaughter at the Barricades, 2000
 Ashigaru 1467–1649: Weapons, Armour, Tactics, 2001
 The Knight Triumphant: The High Middle Ages, 1314–1485, 2001
 Samurai Heraldry, 2002
 Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War, 1592–1598, 2002
 War in Japan: 1467–1615, 2002
 Genghis Khan & the Mongol Conquests 1190–1400, 2003
 Japanese castles, 1540–1640, 2003
 Japanese Warrior Monks AD 949–1603, 2003
 Kawanakajima 1553–1564: Samurai Power Struggle, 2003
 Ninja AD 1460–1650, 2003
 Tannenberg 1410: Disaster for the Teutonic Knights, 2003
 The Walls of Constantinople: AD 324–1453, 2004
 Warriors of Medieval Japan, 2005
 Samurai Commanders, 2005
Samurai: the world of the warrior, 2006
 The Samurai Swordsman: Master of War, 2008
Honors
 British Association for Japanese Studies, Cannon Prize.

References

Other websites
  Turnbull, Stephen R. at Virtual International Authority File (VIAF)

British Japanologists
1948 births
Living people
Academics of the University of Leeds
Renato Dulbecco (February 22, 1914 – February 19, 2012) was an Italian-born American virologist who won the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on oncogenes. Oncogenes are genes in viruses that cause cancer when they infect animal cells. 

The prize was shared with Howard Temin and David Baltimore.
Dulbecco studied at the University of Turin under Giuseppe Levi. His fellow students Salvador Luria and Rita Levi-Montalcini also moved to the U.S. with him and won Nobel prizes. He was drafted into the Italian army in World War II, but later joined the resistance.

References

1914 births
2012 deaths
Scientists from California
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
People from Turin
Virologists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Italian Nobel Prize winners
Italian biologists
WorldCat is a very big online catalog, a list of books and things like books in tens of thousands of libraries in many countries.

WorldCat was built by OCLC, which is an organization of libraries. WorldCat is maintained by the group of libraries in OCLC.

History
In the 1970s, OCLC grew from a regional computer system for 54 Ohio colleges into an international network.

In 1979, the first Canadian and the first international library joined OCLC.

Timeline
On August 26, 1971, the OCLC Online Union Catalog, now called WorldCat, went online.
1975 – Library and Archives Canada begins adding records
 1978 – Koninklijke Bibliotheek (National Library of the Netherlands) begins to participate
 1985 – British Library begins adding UKMARC records
 1987 – National Library of Scotland begins adding 
 1987 – National Library of Wales begins contributing 
 1987 – National Central Library, Taiwan begins adding 
 1991 – Six staff members from the National Library of China help OCLC to add a computerized catalog of Chinese books
 1991 – National Library of Turkey becomes an OCLC member
 1992 – The National Library of Australia begins contributing 
 1992 – National and University Library of Iceland begins adding 
 1995 – National Library of the Czech Republic begins contributing 
 1997 – National Library of New Zealand begins contributing
 1998 – National Library of Ireland begins adding
 1999 – National Diet Library of Japan begins adding records for Western-language materials 
 1999 – National Library of Lithuania begins contributing
1999 – National Library of South Africa begins adding 
 2002 – Singapore National Union Catalog is added 
 2003 – Deutsche Nationalbibliothek (German National Library), the Library of Congress and OCLC agree to develop a Virtual International Authority File
 2003 – Chilean Directorate of Libraries, Archives, and Museums (DIBAM) of the National Library begin contributing
 2004 – Bibliothèque nationale de France begins contributing
 2005 – National Library of Finland begins adding
 2005 – Iraqi National Library and Archive begins adding 
 2006 – Deutsche Nationalbibliothek adds 4 million new records 
 2006 – Dutch Union Catalog is added
 2007 – National Library of Mexico begins adding
 2007 – Swiss National Library adds
 2007 – Kungliga biblioteket (National Library of Sweden) adds
 2008 – National Library Service, Barbados adds
 2008 – National Library of Israel adds 
 2008 – National Library of Spain adds
 2008 – Royal Library of Denmark and Danish Bibliographic Centre add
2009 – National and University Library of Slovenia begins adding 
 2010 – National Library of Serbia begins adding
 2012 – National Library of Norway begins adding
References

More reading

Other websites 
 WorldCat website
 WorldCat Identities
   What is OCLC?

1971 establishments
Websites
The Buddha Dhatu Jadi (; also known as the Bandarban Golden Temple) is a Buddhist temple. It is located close to Balaghata town, in Bandarban City, in Bangladesh. Skandha or Dhatu means material remains of a holy person. In this temple, the relics belong to Buddha. It is the largest Theravada Buddhist temple with the second largest Buddha statue in Bangladesh.

The Bandaban Golden Temple belongs to the Theravada Buddhism order, which is practiced by the Chittagonian tribal people, a dominant ethnic group of Bandarban. It was built in 2000 in Arakanese architecture, an adoption of South East Asia style.

Gallery

References

Buildings and structures in Bangladesh
Buddhist temples
Somapura Mahavihara (Sanskrit;  Shompur Môhabihar) in Paharpur, Badalgachhi Upazila, Naogaon District, Bangladesh is among the best known Buddhist viharas in the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the most important archaeological sites in the country. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985.

Buildings and structures in Bangladesh
Buddhist buildings
World Heritage Sites in Asia
8th-century buildings and structures‎
Islam is the state religion of Maldives, and adherence to it is legally required of citizens by a revision of the constitution in 2008: Article 9, Section D states that a non-Muslim may not become a citizen of the Maldives.

Maldives
Maldives
Islam in Lebanon is divided between four Muslim sects; Shias, Sunnis, Alawites, and Ismailis including the Druze. 
Muslims (including Druze) account for 59% of the total population of Lebanon, where 39% are Christians. Shiites - about 27%  of the total population of Lebanon - live mostly in the northern area of the Beqaa Valley, Southern Lebanon and southern areas of Beirut. About 26% of the Lebanese population is Sunni, concentrated largely in coastal cities like west Beirut, Tripoli and Sidon.  The Druze account for 5% of the population.

References

Lebanon
Religion in Lebanon
The State of Judea (, ) is a proposed halachic state in the West Bank. The idea was put forward by Israeli Jewish settlers.

Judaism in Israel
Politics of Israel
Politics of Palestine
Arab–Israeli conflict
West Bank
Ludovico Ariosto (Reggio Emilia, 8 September 1474 – Ferrara 6 July 1533) was an Italian poet. He is best known as the author of the romance epic Orlando Furioso (1516). The poem is a continuation of Matteo Maria Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato. It tells about the adventures of Charlemagne, Orlando, and the Franks as they fight the Saracens with diversions into many side plots. Ariosto composed the poem in the ottava rima rhyme scheme and introduced narrative commentary throughout the work.

Ariosto spent the greater part of his life at Ferrara including many years in the service of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este and then of Duke Alfonso I. His poem Orlando Furioso is designed to exalt the Este family; in its final form it was first published in 1532. It is the greatest of the Italian romantic epics. Ariosto also wrote lyric poetry in Italian and Latin, some satires and four comedies.
Minor works
 La Tragedia di Tisbe (1493) 
 La Cassaria (1508) 
 I Suppositi (1509) 
 Il Negromante (1520) 
 La Lena (1528) 
 Studenti (1518)

References 

1474 births
1533 deaths
Italian poets
Javier Ángel Encinas Bardem (born 1 March 1969) is a Spanish movie, television, stage, and voice actor who is known for his roles in Skyfall, No Country for Old Men, Biutiful, Vicky Cristina Barcelona, Before Night Falls, Jamón, jamón and in Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales. He has won an Golden Globe Award, an BAFTA Award, and an Academy Award. In 2021, he played Desi Arnaz in Being the Ricardos.

Bardem was born on 1 March 1969 in Las Palmas of the Canary Islands. His parents were Pilar Bardem and José Carlos Encinas Doussinague. He has been married to Penélope Cruz since 2010. They have two children.

References

Other websites

1969 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
BAFTA Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Spanish movie actors
Spanish television actors
Spanish voice actors
Spanish stage actors
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Actors who played Bond villains
The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) is a United States federal law which was signed by the then-President Bill Clinton on September 21, 1996. The law defines that marriage can only be between one man and one woman in regard to federal or inter state recognition purposes in the United States. Under this law, no U.S. State or political subdivision is required to recognize same-sex marriage from other States. However, the Obama Administration, in 2011, announced that Section 3 was declared unconstitutional and would no longer defend it in courts. The Section 3 part of DOMA had been marked as not constitutional by eight federal courts as of 2012.

On June 26, 2013, Section 3 of the act was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States. On December 13, 2022, it was officially repealed, or canceled, by the Respect for Marriage Act.

References

Other page 
Same-sex marriage in the United States
Same-sex marriage
LGBT rights in the United States
United States federal legislation
1996 in the United States
1990s in law
Blake Ellender Lively (née Brown; born August 25, 1987) is an American movie, television, stage, voice actress and model who is known for her television role as Serena van der Woodsen on Gossip Girl. She is also known for her roles in Accepted, The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants, The Private Lives of Pippa Lee, The Town, Green Lantern, The Age of Adaline, and Savages.

Lively was born on August 25, 1987 in Tarzana, California. She studied at Beverly Hills High School. She married Ryan Reynolds in September 2012 and shares three daughters with him. In September 2022, it was announced that the couple are expecting their fourth child.

References

Other websites

1987 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American voice actors
Actors from Los Angeles
Queen Heonae (; 962-1029) was a queen of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. She was also a politician. She was the second wife of the 5th king, Gyungjong. She was also mother of the 7th king, Mokjong, and the elder sister of the 6th king, Seongjong. Heonae ruled as Regent from 997 to 999 during the early years of her son King Mokjong's reign.

Other websites 
 Queen Heonae:Navercast 
 남성우월 시각이 만든 ‘음탕한 천추태후’ 중앙일보 2009.02.20 
 헌애·헌정 자매의 싸움… 고려 王씨 왕조가 김씨 왕조가 될 뻔 조선일보 2009.09.19 

964 births
1029 deaths
Korean politicians
Kings and Queens consort
Korean monarchs
Transfection is the process of deliberately introducing DNA or RNA into cells. The word is formed from
transformation and infection. 
The term is used for:
Transformation of bacterial cells with viral nucleic acids
Transformation of animals cells in tissue culture with purified DNA. The DNA is added to the cells' genome.
Transformation of cells or embryos with single or double-stranded RNA. This causes the building of particular proteins, or the silencing of particular genes. 
Gene therapy using a modified virus as a vector.

Transfection can result in unexpected morphologies and abnormalities in target cells. Transfection with RNA molecules produces changes which cannot be permanently transmitted down a line of cells.

DNA constructs 
A DNA construct is an artificially constructed bit of nucleic acid which is going to be 'transplanted' into a target tissue or cell. It may include a DNA insert, which contains the gene sequence coding for a protein of interest.
The DNA insert is the heart of the molecular biology vector. This is a general term for a vehicle used to transfer foreign genetic material into another cell. Transfection of animal cells usually involves opening temporary pores (holes) in the cell membrane, to allow the cells to take up the vector.

References 

Cell biology
DNA
Purity means that a substance is all the same. There are no contaminants or other things added. The word also means no badness in a person's character.

Purity may also refer to:
An indication of the amount of other gases in a particular gas
Purity, a 1916 movie.
A measure of correlation between a system and its environment,
"Purity", a song by Slipknot on their debut self-titled album
Purity in Buddhism, a spiritual purity of character or essence
Purity Dairies, a dairy company in Nashville, Tennessee, United States
Purity Factories, a food processing company in St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Purity Distilling Company, an alcohol manufacturer involved in the Boston Molasses Disaster in the United States
Black oil (also known as Purity), a fictional alien virus in the TV series The X-Files
Purity, a former supermarket brand owned by Woolworths Limited
Purity, the colorfulness of a light source.
Antibiotics kill certain types of bacteria. Over time, those bacteria change to develop resistance to the antibiotics. Called antibiotic resistance, this is one of the most serious problems facing modern surgery and medicine. It is also one of the best examples of evolution in action.  According to The Lancet, at least 1.2 million people died because of drug-resistant bacterial infections in 2019, more than from HIV or malaria.

Antibiotic resistance spreads very quickly, far faster than microbiologists expected. "As long as new drugs keep coming, resistance is not a problem. But there has not been a new class of antibiotics discovered since the 1980s".  Some scientists have developed new antibiotics to combat resistant bacteria.  However, there is a lag-time of about eight years between discovery and possible availability for general use. The process is also extremely costly.
The National Health Service is encouraging  pharmaceutical companies to create new treatments by paying  up to £20 million a year for new antibiotics no matter how many are prescribed, so they so they get paid even if the drugs are just kept in reserve for special cases or an emergency.

Natural selection in action 

A well-known example of natural selection in action is the development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms. Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. Natural populations of bacteria contain, among their vast numbers of individual members, considerable variation in their genetic material, as the result of mutations. When exposed to antibiotics, most bacteria die quickly, but some may have mutations that make them slightly less susceptible. If the exposure to antibiotics is short, these individuals will survive the treatment.
Prediction 
In Fleming's 1945 Nobel Prize lecture he said:
"It is not difficult to make microbes resistant to penicillin in the laboratory by exposing them to concentrations not sufficient to kill them, and the same thing has occasionally happened in the body... The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant".

Mechanism 
The mechanisms of which the bacteria undergo to become antibiotic resistant are via genetic mutation and horizontal gene transfer.

Effect on surgery and medicine 
All surgery that involves cutting open the body poses massive risks of infection. Antibiotics given before and after surgery allow surgeons to do operations that would have been deadly before. Open-heart surgery is one obvious example.
Cancer treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy damage the immune system. Antibiotics are prescribed to boost the body's natural defences. Patients with organ transplants always use drugs to suppress the immune system, otherwise it attacks the transplant. Therefore, antibiotics are used to protect the body. Without effective antibiotics, both sets of patients might die from infections which their immune systems could no longer control.

"It's a pretty grim future, I think a lot of major surgery would be seriously threatened," said Professor Richard James of the University of Nottingham.
Medical uses are also threatened. The number of tests coming back with resistance to carbapenems, one of the most powerful groups of antibiotics, has soared from a handful of cases in 2003 to more than 300 cases by 2010. "My lab is seeing an increasing number of resistant strains year on year," said Prof Neil Woodford, of the Health Protection Agency's antimicrobial resistance unit. Most cases are resistant to some drugs. Even worse, there are a few cases of strains which no antibiotic can touch.

Many infections which were almost eliminated are coming back. The sexually transmitted disease gonorrhoea is becoming increasingly difficult to treat. Around the world, multi-drug resistant and extremely-drug resistant tuberculosis is a growing problem. Only a couple of drugs still work.
Infections that hit the elderly when they are  in hospital are one of the main concerns. The greatest threat in the UK is opportunistic bugs which live in the gut such as E. coli and Klebsiella. They are now the most common form of infection which patients get in hospital. They show rising levels of resistance to antibiotics.

Official warnings 
The UK Cabinet Office has issued a warning by the National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies. It says "the number of infections complicated by antimicrobial resistance could increase markedly over the next 20 years". "Without effective antibiotics, even minor surgery and routine operations could become high-risk procedures, leading to increased duration of illness and ultimately premature mortality".
World Health Organization 
The WHO has issued similar assessments:
"The use and misuse of antimicrobials... over the past 70 years has led to a relentless rise in the number and types of microorganisms resistant to these medicines – leading to death, increased suffering and disability, and higher healthcare costs".
Deaths from acute respiratory infections, diarrhoeal diseases, measles, AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis account for more than 85% of the mortality from infection worldwide. Resistance to first-line drugs in most of the pathogens causing these diseases ranges from zero to almost 100%. In some instances resistance to second- and thirdline agents is seriously compromising treatment outcome. The bacteria that cause tuberculosis (TB) can develop resistance to the antimicrobial drugs used to cure the disease. Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is TB that does not respond to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the 2 most powerful anti-TB drugs (WHO, 2018)
The WHO has now listed the world's most threatening superbugs. Antibiotic resistant infections are being seen all over the world.  In 2023 it said AMR has been associated with almost 5 million deaths a year and had cost the world $100 trillion in global economic losses.

Shareholders 
About 70 per cent of antibiotics are given to farm animals to prevent disease. .Campaigners against misuse of antibiotics have raised the issue of antibiotics used in farming at company meetings, especially North American fast-food restaurant companies.
Examples 
Given enough time, and repeated exposure to the antibiotic, a population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria will emerge. This leads to what is known as an evolutionary arms race, or co-evolution, in which bacteria continue to develop strains that are less susceptible to antibiotics, while medical researchers continue to develop new antibiotics that can kill them. A similar situation occurs with pesticide resistance in plants and insects, and with malarial resistance to quinine.

Gonorrhoea 
A man in the UK has caught the "world's worst-ever case" of gonorrhoea, a sexually-transmitted disease. The main treatment by antibiotics azithromycin and ceftriaxone has failed to cure the disease. An authority said "This is the first time a case has displayed such high-level resistance to both of these drugs and to most other commonly used antibiotics".
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus 
New strains of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) have emerged that are resistant the next generation of drugs.

Tuberculosis 
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. It is caused by various types of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The disease usually attacks the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. The pathogen can travel through the air, and spread from one person to the next. Experts believe that one third of the world population is infected with M. tuberculosis.  New infections occur at a rate of one per second.

Drug-resistant TB is a serious public health issue in many developing countries, as its treatment is longer and requires more expensive drugs. MDR-TB is defined as resistance to the two most effective first-line TB drugs: rifampicin and isoniazid. Extensively drug-resistant TB is also resistant to three or more of the six classes of second-line drugs.
Totally drug-resistant TB was first observed in 2003 in Italy, but not widely reported until 2012. It is resistant to all currently used drugs.

Malaria 
Malaria infections are not caused by bacteria: they are caused by a protozoan parasite injected into the blood by a mosquito. They are normally treated by a combination of two drugs, artemether-lumefantrine. In 2017 four cases occurred in Britain where the drugs have failed. The patients got the disease in Africa. A doctor said "It is an early sign and we need to take it quite seriously as it may be snowballing into something with greater impact".

Teixobactin 
Teixobactin is an antibiotic discovered in 2015, the first new antibiotic discovered for forty years. It is not yet licensed for general use. It works against all gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and against some other bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

References 

Evolutionary biology
Infectious diseases
Antibiotics
Stanford Robert Ovshinsky (November 24, 1922 – October 17, 2012) was an American inventor and scientist. He had well over 400 patents over fifty years. Most of these were in the areas of energy and information.  Many of his inventions have had many uses. Among the most important are: 
An environmentally friendly nickel-metal hydride battery. These are used in laptop computers, digital cameras, cell phones, and electric and hybrid cars
solar energy laminates and panels
Flat screen liquid crystal displays
Rewritable CD and DVD discs
Hydrogen fuel cells
Nonvolatile phase-change memory.

References 

Scientists from Akron, Ohio
American inventors
1922 births
2012 deaths
Wilhelm Theodor H. Wulff (27 March 1892 – 9 June 1979) was a German-Austrian astrologer and writer. He is best known for the 1973 book Zodiac and Swastika. The book tells about his time as an astrologer in Nazi Germany near the end of World War II. He was Heinrich Himmler's astrologer.

References

1892 births
1979 deaths
Astrologers
Austrian people of World War II
Austrian writers
German esotericists
German people of World War II
German writers
Peter Mark Richman (born Marvin Jack Richman, April 16, 1927 – January 14, 2021) was an American movie, television, stage, voice, and radio actor who was known for his roles in productions like Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan, The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear, Friendly Persuasion, Agent for H.A.R.M and Dark Intruder. He also provided his voice in cartoons such as Spider-Man: The Animated Series. His career began in 1949.

Richman was born on April 16, 1927 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to Yetta Dora Peck and to Benjamin Richman. Richman studied at the Actors Studio. He married to Helen Richman in 1953. They had five children. Richman died of natural causes on January 14, 2021 at his Los Angeles home, aged 93.

References

Other websites 
 
 Peter Mark Richman Official Site

1927 births
2021 deaths
Jewish American actors
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American voice actors
American radio actors
Actors from Philadelphia
Jada Koren Pinkett Smith (born September 18, 1971) is an American movie, television, voice actress, movie produer and director, singer-songwriter, writers, and businesswoman. She is known for her roles as Carla Purty in The Nutty Professor and as Gloria the Hippo in Madagascar, Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa, and in Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted. Jada was also entangled with August Alsina in 2016. She won an Image Award in 2010.

Smith was born on September 18, 1971 in Baltimore, Maryland. She studied at the Baltimore School for the Arts and at North Carolina School for the Arts. Smith was married to Will Smith since 1997. They have three children.

Filmography

References

Other websites
 
 
 
 

1971 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
American movie directors
American movie producers
American singer-songwriters
Actors from Baltimore
Singers from Baltimore
Writers from Baltimore
John Carradine (Richmond Reed Carradine; February 5, 1906 – November 27, 1988) was an American movie, television, voice, stage, and radio actor who is known for his roles in House of Dracula, House of Frankenstein, The Grapes Wrath, Stagecoach, Billy the Kid vs. Dracula, and in House of the Long Shadows. He has won an Daytime Emmy Award.

Carradine was born on February 5, 1906 in New York City, New York. Carradine was married to Ardanelle McCool from 1935 until they divorced in 1944. Then he was married to Sonia Sorel from 1944 until they divorced in 1956. Then he was married to Doris Rich from 1957 until her death in 1971. Then he was last married to Emily Cisneros from 1975 until his death in 1988. He has five children, Bruce (his McCool's son whom he adopted), David, Christopher, Keith and Robert.

Carradine died on November 27, 1988 in Milan, Italy from multiple organ failure, aged 82.

References

Other websites
1906 births
1988 deaths
Deaths from multiple organ failure
Actors from New York City
American movie actors
American radio actors
American stage actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Disease-related deaths in Italy
Emmy Award winning actors
Addison Mitchell "Mitch" McConnell, Jr. (born February 20, 1942) is the senior United States Senator from Kentucky. A member of the Republican Party, he is the Minority Leader of the Senate, succeeding Chuck Schumer. He is the longest-serving U.S. Senator in Kentucky history. McConnell holds conservative positions, despite regarding as a moderate Republican early in his career.

Early life
Mitch McConnell was born to Julia (née Shockley) and Addison Mitchell McConnell at Helen Keller Memorial Hospital in Sheffield, Alabama on February 20, 1942. He grew up in segregated Athens, Alabama. They moved to southern Louisville, Kentucky and McConnell attended the duPont Manual High School. In 1964, he graduated with honors from the University of Louisville with a B.A. in political science. He graduated in 1967 from the University of Kentucky College of Law.
Career
In 1984, McConnell ran for the United States Senate against two-term Democratic incumbent Walter "Dee" Huddleston. The election race wasn't decided until the last polls returned came in, and McConnell won by a thin margin—only 5,200 votes out of more than 1.8 million votes cast, just over 0.4%. 

McConnell was the only Republican Senate challenger to win that year, despite Ronald Reagan's landslide victory in the presidential election. Part of McConnell's success came from a series of television campaign spots called "Where's Dee", which featured a group of bloodhounds trying to find Huddleston, implying that Huddleston's attendance record in the Senate was less than stellar. It is likely that he was helped by Ronald Reagan's 21-point win in Kentucky that year. His campaign bumper stickers and television ads asked voters to "Switch to Mitch".

McConnell has repeatedly been found to have the lowest home state approval rating of any sitting senator.
Personal life
McConnell is a member of the Baptist Church. His first wife was Sherrill Redmon, from whom he was later divorced; they have three daughters.  His second wife, whom he married in 1993, is Elaine Chao, the Secretary of Transportation under Donald Trump and the former Secretary of Labor under George W. Bush (the first Asian American woman to serve in the Cabinet).

Senator McConnell's personal fortune was between $9,839,049 to $44,587,000 in 2010 and he was ranked as the 10th wealthiest member of the U.S. Senate.

References

Other websites
 Senator Mitch McConnell official U.S. Senate site
 Mitch McConnell For U.S. Senate official campaign site
1942 births
Living people
Republican Party (United States) politicians
United States senators from Kentucky
Lawyers from Alabama
Minority leaders of the United States Senate
Majority leaders of the United States Senate
Politicians from Alabama
Politicians from Louisville, Kentucky
People from Tuscumbia, Alabama
People from Sheffield, Alabama
Lawyers from Kentucky
21st-century American politicians
The leopard gecko, also known as the panther gecko or the common leopard gecko, is a medium-sized lizard. They live in the southern part of Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, northwest India, and parts of Iran. They live in dry rocky regions, dry grasslands and deserts.

Description
Leopard geckos are around 7-9 inches (17.8-22.9 cm avg female)& (20-28 avg male) long, with large heads, big eyes with oval-shaped pupils, thin toes, and, unlike other reptiles, they have eyelids. They have thick tails that narrow to a point and, like their bodies and heads, are slightly flattened from top to bottom. Most of their scales are small and rough. Spaced rows of larger, bumpy scales give them a knobby, rough look, but they are actually soft when touched.
Baby leopard geckos are 85
mm long when they hatch, and when they hatch they have dark bands which go around their bodies.These bands lighten as the babies grow into adults which have spots instead of bands. Leopard geckos are normally lavender or yellow in colour, but pet leopard geckos come in different "colour morphs" like albino, "Banana blizzard", "Blizzard", "Ghost", "High Yellow", "Hyper Xanthic", "Jungle", "Leucistic", "Normal" or "Wild", "Patternless", "Red-stripe", "Snow", "Tremper Albino" and many more.

Like many lizards, the leopard gecko has a tail that breaks off when grabbed by a predator. The tail breaks at a crack in the vertebra, and the surrounding muscles are arranged so that they separate neatly and instantly. A muscle closes around the artery in the tail at the point of the break and stops blood loss. Normally a new tail grows back. This method helps the leopard gecko to escape when attacked. Leopard geckos also have teeth and they are born with about 100 teeth.
Habitat
The leopard gecko is found in dry rocky regions, dry grasslands and deserts of southern Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, northwest India, and parts of Iran.
The temperatures of these areas during winter can be quite low, below , forcing the animals underground into semi-hibernation, called brumation, and they live on fat reserves. Leopard geckos are crepuscular reptiles; during the day they hide in burrows, but they are active at dawn and dusk when the temperature is favorable.

Behavior
Leopard Geckos are friendly, docile creatures by nature, but they sometimes bite. If held in a human hand they will only bite if they mistake a finger for food, or if the person is holding the gecko too tightly.

Feeding In the wild, leopard geckos feed mainly on insects, centipedes, spiders, snails, small lizards, birds, and bird eggs. In captivity they feed on mealworms, crickets, and sometimes baby mice.
Reproduction
Leopard geckos reach sexual maturity at the age of one to three years. Mating usually happens during the rainy season. During courtship, the male walks alongside the female, licking and lightly biting her side. He then grasps her neck in his mouth. If she accepts to mate with him, she lifts her tail allowing the male to insert one of his paired copulatory organs, called hemipenes. Female leopard geckos can store sperm in their reproductive tracts for 15 months or more. They can lay up to five clutches of one or (usually) two eggs during the five month breeding season, and may use some of the stored sperm to fertilize each clutch. The eggs hatch after around 55 days.

Subspecies
There are five subspecies of the Leopard gecko:
 Afghan leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius afghanicus
 Eublepharis macularius fasciolatus
 Eublepharis macularius macularius
 Eublepharis macularius montanus
 Eublepharis macularius smithi

References

Reptiles of Pakistan
Lizards
Reptiles of Asia
Pitchblende is a radioactive, uranium-rich mineral and ore. It has a chemical composition that is largely UO2, but also contains UO3 and oxides of lead, thorium, and rare earth elements. It is known as pitchblende due to its black color and high density. It is also commonly referred to as Uraninite.  

The mineral has been known at least since the 15th century from silver mines in the Ore Mountains, on the German/Czech border.  Pitchblende found in Germany was used by M. Klaproth in 1789 to discover the element uranium.

Pitchblende contains a small amount of radium as a radioactive decay product of uranium. Because the uranium isotopes 238U and 235U will decay to form the lead isotopes 206Pb and 207Pb, pitchblende also always has small amounts of lead. Small amounts of helium are also present in pitchblend as a result of alpha decay. 

Helium was first found on Earth in pitchblende after having been discovered  in the Sun's atmosphere.

Occurrence

Pitchblende is a major ore of uranium.
Some of the highest grade uranium ores in the world were found in the Shinkolobwe mine in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the initial source for the Manhattan Project) and in the Athabasca Basin in northern Canada.  

Another important source of pitchblende is at Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories of Canada, where it is found in large quantities associated with silver. It also occurs in Australia, Germany, England, and South Africa. In the United States it can be found in the states of New Hampshire, Connecticut, North Carolina, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico.

Uranium ore is generally processed close to the mine into yellowcake, which is an intermediate step in the processing of uranium.

Related pages
List of minerals
Uranium
Uranium 235

References

Other websites

Minerals