Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Differences 
The letters in Urdu are derived from the Persian/Farsi alphabet, which is derived from the Arabic alphabet. The additional letters that are found in Urdu include ٹ ,ڈ ,ڑ (ṫ, ḋ, ṙ). To make the alphabet more enriched, two letters were created for the sounds ه (h) and ی (y). By adding these letters to the existing Persian letters, the Urdu alphabet became more suitable for the people of Pakistan and for some people of North India, who primarily use nastaliq script. Both are also Indo-Iranic languages descending from Proto-Indo-Iranic, but deriving from separate subbranches, Iranic and Indo-Aryan respectively.

Similarities 
Urdu is written right to left like Farsi (Persian) script. Urdu is also written in the Nasta’ liq style of Persian Calligraphy. Nastaliq style is a cursive script invented by Mīr ʿAlī of Tabrīz, a very famous calligrapher during the Timurid period (1402–1502). Both belong to the Indo-Iranic language subfamily.

Levels of formality
Informal 
Urdu in its less formalized register has been called a rekhta (ریختہ, ), meaning "rough mixture". The more formal register of Urdu is sometimes called zabān-e-Urdu-e-mo'alla (زبان اردو معلہ ), the "Language of Camp."

In local translation, it is called Lashkari Zabān ( []) meaning "language of battalions" or "battalion language." This can be shortened to Lashkari.

The etymology of the word used in the Urdu language, for the most part, decides how nice or well done your speech is. For example, Urdu speakers would distinguish between پانی pānī and آب āb, both meaning "water" for example, or between آدمی  ādmi and مرد mard, meaning "man." The first word is ad derivative from Adam (آدم) Arabic means from Adam, and it can be used for both man and woman in place of human being. The second word مرد mard  refers to a gender or can be used for manly hood as well.
If a word is of Persian or Arabic origin, the level of speech is thought to be more formal. If Persian or Arabic grammar constructs, such as the izafat, are used in Urdu, the level of speech is also thought more formal and correct. If a word is inherited from Chagatai, the level of speech is thought more colloquial and personal.

Formal 
Urdu is supposed to be a well-formed language; many of words are used in it to show respect and politeness. This emphasis on politeness, which comes from the vocabulary, is known as Aadab (Courteous) and to sometimes as takalluf (Formal) in Urdu. These words are mostly used when addressing elders, or people with whom one is not met yet. Just like French Vous and Tu. Upon studying French and other forms of Language, similar formal language constructs are present. The whole grammatical layout appears to be almost identical to French language structure. The rules for forming sentences and structuring them are identical

Poetics
Poetics 

Two well-respected poets who are not only celebrated in the South Asian subcontinent, but are famous in many other communities worldwide are Mirza Ghalib and Sir Dr. Muhammed Iqbal.

Mirza Ghalib 

Ghalib (1797-1869) is well-known for his classic satire and sarcasm, as seen in the following verse;

(Latin/Roma alphabet):

Umer bhar hum yun hee ghalati kartey rahen Ghalib

Dhool ch-herey pei thee aur hum aaina saaf karte rahe

(translation):

O Ghalib (himself) all my life I kept making the same mistakes over and over,

I was busy cleaning the mirror while the dirt was on my face.

Sir Dr Muhammed Iqbal
Iqbal (1877-1938) was a poet, and an active politician. He focused his poetry on bringing out the plight of the suffering Muslim community of British India. In his poetry, he very boldly highlighted the missing virtues and values in the morally corrupt Indian society. Despite much opposition in the beginning, he ended up leaving a considerable impact. He is also called the “Poet of the East” and the “Poet of Islam”. His work is displayed in the following verse;

(Latin/Roma Alphabet):     

Aapne bhe khafa mujh sei beganey bhe na khush

Mein zeher-e-halahal ku kabhi keh na saka qand

(translation):

I could not keep happy either my loved ones or the strangers,

as I could never call a piece of poison a piece of candy.  

Iqbal is considered by many an inspirational poet. He played a large role in the Pakistan Movement, with many claiming that he was the one to imagine and initiate it.

Common Words/Phrases in Urdu 
Formal Urdu:

Aap tashreef rakhein = Please have a seat
Main mu'azzarat chahta/chahti hun = Please excuse me/I apologize

Informal Urdu: Aap bethein (You sit) or Tum betho (Sit, more informal)

Main maafi chahta/chahti hun= I ask for forgiveness

*************

Aap kaisay hein? = How are you?

Main theek hun = I am fine

Assalam O Alaikum = Peace be upon you (It basically means hello, and it is a common greeting used in Islamic countries or among Muslims in general)
Urdu vs. Hindi--What's the difference? 
Although often misunderstood as two separate languages, Urdu and Hindi are two registers of the same Hindustani language, often called Hindi-Urdu. Urdu is the official language of Pakistan and spoken by 71 million people in India. Urdu's vocabulary borrows primarily from Chagatai, Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic.
Hindi, also historically known as Hindui (हिंदुई), is the most spoken language of India, which replaces much of Urdu's Farsi, Chagatai and Arabic terminology with Sanskrit derived vocabulary. They are grammatically the same. Everyday words are often shared between the two registers, while formal vocabulary can differ significantly. Urdu and Hindi speakers can understand each other with little to no difficulty, largely from using shared, or English vocabulary, rather than using highly Arabized or Sanskritized vocabulary. Hindi speakers are more likely to use words of Arabic/Persian origin (Kitaab, Dil, Mahobbat), than Urdu speakers are to use words of Sanskrit origin (Pustak, Man, Prem), as Urdu-speaking Pakistani's have less exposure to Hindi, than Hindi-speaking Indians do to Urdu. This can be seen in Bollywoods extensive use of the Urdu register, and India being a nation where both registers are natively spoken.
Example

English: I want to know how your mind is feeling.

Literary Urdu: Mujhe aap ke dimaagh ki jazbaat maatloob hai.

Literary Hindi: Mujhe aap ke mastishk ka bhaav vaanchit hai.

Casual Hindustani: Main tere man* ka haal* jaanna chaata hun.

*man is of Sanskrit origin, while haal is of Arabic origin

References

Further reading
ترتیب وڈیزائننگ ایم پی خاؿ اردولشکری زبان (sample texts)

Other websites

National symbols of Pakistan
 
Languages of India
Languages of Jammu and Kashmir
Zakat () is one of the five most important aspects of Islam. Zakat means giving charity to the poor. Generally, a Muslim is expected to give zakat as long as they are able. Through Zakat wealth reaches to the poor class of the society. It is considered to be a personal responsibility for Muslims to help those in need and eliminate inequality. It is often 2.5% of what the Muslim has.

References

Related pages 
 Altruism
 Five Pillars of Islam

Islamic culture
Giving
Ṣalāt (, ) also known as  () and also spelled , is the practice of prayer in Islam. It is one of the five most important duties for Muslims. To perform Salat, a person's mind must be ritually pure, which comes from ritual ablution, wuḍūʾ, or the washing and cleansing of his or her body.

Name
 ( ) is an Arabic word that means to pray. Outside the Arab world, the most widespread and common term is the Persian word  ().

Sunni
For Sunni Muslims, salat must be performed at five periods each day. These periods are measured according to the Sun’s movement. The call to prayer is essential before every obligatory prayers. Muhammad said: "The one who responds to Azan out of faith and seeking Allah's pleasure will be admitted to paradise."
Quranist 
Quranist prayer is set three times a day. This is similar to the combined prayer into 3 by Shias. In Islamic countries, the public call to prayer from the mosques sets the rhythm of the day for the entire population, including non-Muslims. Carrying it out is not only highly spiritual, but connects each Muslim to all others around the world, and to all those who have uttered the same words and made the same movements at different times in Islamic history.

Prayer for a Quranist involves uniting mind, soul, and body in worship; so a Muslim carrying out these prayers will perform a whole series of set movements that go with the prayers’ words. Quranists make sure that they are in the right frame of mind before they pray; they put aside all everyday cares and thoughts so that they can focus only on God. If a Quranist prays without the right attitude of mind, it is as if they had not bothered to pray at all.
Shia 
There are different subsets of Shia Islam. Some of them pray 3 times combined, others 5 times. Allah does not need human prayers because he has no needs at all. Muslims pray because God has told them that they are to do this, and because they believe that they obtain great benefit in doing so.

Ritual washing 
Muslims must be clean before they pray. They make sure of this by performing ritual washing, called wudhu. Mosques have washing facilities for Muslims to clean their body before they begin prayer.

References

 
Worship
Fasting in Islam or Sawm () is the practice of abstaining, usually from food, drink, smoking, and sexual activity. Fourth of the Five Pillars of Islam, Sawm is observed between dawn and nightfall during the holy month of Ramadan.

Islamic culture
Some exceptions or accommodations for Sawm are made in the case of pregnancy, illness, travel, and for young children.
Franz Peter Schubert (31 January 1797, Vienna  19 November 1828, Vienna) was an Austrian composer. Although he died at the age of 31, he composed over one thousand pieces of music. There were other great composers who lived and worked in Vienna: Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but Schubert is the only one who was born in Vienna. He was the last great composer of the Classical music period, and one of the first of the Romantic period.

Early years 

Schubert’s father was a schoolteacher. Twelve children were born into the family, but only four of them lived to become adults. Schubert's father tried to persuade his sons to help at the school when they grew up. As a boy, the young Franz learned the violin, piano, organ, singing and harmony. He soon became very good at them all. His teachers were all amazed at how quickly he learned. He was also very good at other subjects in school.
In the holidays he played string quartets with his two brothers and his father. He wrote his first string quartets for them to play. By the age of 16 he had composed a lot of music, including his first symphony. His mother died. His father soon remarried. His stepmother was very kind to him and often lent him money. He had one strange thumb on his right hand.

Rising fame
At the age of 17, Schubert was teaching at his father’s school. He had been rejected by the army because he was too short (shorter than five feet) and his sight was very poor. He still took composition lessons from Antonio Salieri. He often went to the opera where he heard some of the finest music of the time. He liked reading. One of his favourite books was Goethe’s Faust. He wrote a song called "Gretchen am Spinnrade" which is about the young girl in the book sitting at a spinning wheel dreaming of her lover. The piano has a gentle accompaniment which sounds like the throbbing of the spinning wheel. The music stops for a moment when the girl imagines her lover is kissing her, then the piano gradually starts again. It is a very famous song. Another song which soon made him famous in all Europe was "Erlkönig". When it was first published another composer whose name was also Franz Schubert, thought that somebody had published a song in his name because the music publishers sent it to him for a correction
. He sent a very angry letter back saying he had not composed that rubbish.
Adulthood 

It was difficult to find enough time to compose because he was a teacher. A man called Schober persuaded Schubert to give up teaching so that he could spend all his time composing. Soon he had become well known in all the drawing-rooms in Vienna where he met famous people, many of them musicians. These meetings were called “Schubertiads” because they played and sang his music. He wrote so many wonderful pieces that it seems strange that the music publishers did not want to publish them. They were only interested in publishing works written by performers, but were not very interested in people like Schubert who just composed. For a time he became music teacher for the two princesses of Count Johann Esterházy, but then he returned to Vienna to live with the Schober family. During the last few years of his life Schubert was ill. He had to leave the Schober’s house and find his own rooms. He was often desperately poor and composed in bed to keep warm.
Although Beethoven and Schubert lived in the same town they only met once, although they knew one another’s music. Schubert visited Beethoven on 19 March 1827. Beethoven was dying. Schubert was one of the torch-bearers at his funeral. A year and a half later Schubert, too, had died. He asked to be buried near Beethoven. Their graves were just three places apart.

His music
His music 

Schubert’s pieces are among the greatest ever written. They are all settings of German poems. German art songs are called Lieder (pronounced “leader”), and Schubert made his Lieder very special by making the piano accompaniments describe the action of the songs in many different ways. If you try to sing them in a translation it is difficult to make it sound good. It is best to hear them in German and to have a translation so that you understand what is being sung. Some of the last songs he wrote make up a cycle called “Die Winterreise” (“The Winter Journey”). The poems are about a man who is unhappy because his lover does not want him. He goes out into the cold winter woods and all nature seems to reflect the way he feels inside. The songs are usually sung by a male singer (tenor, baritone or bass).
Schubert wrote nine symphonies. The last one is known as the “Great” symphony in C major. The eighth is called the “Unfinished”. There are only two movements instead of the usual four. A lot of people still argue about why he left it unfinished. Some people even think that he completed it and that the last two movements are either lost, or are now known as movements from a piano duet. We shall probably never know for certain.

Most of his life he was supported by his friends who gave him manuscript paper when he could not afford it. Many of his greatest works only became widely known in the 1860s, long after his death. The house in Vienna where Schubert was born is now a museum which people can visit. There visitors can also see the Benignus Seidner piano that Schubert was using for composing. Other instruments that composer was playing on were a piano by Anton Walter & Sohn (now in the Kunsthistorisches museum in Vienna) and a piano from Viennese piano builder Conrad Graf.

References
References

Austrian composers
Classical era composers
Writers from Vienna
Romantic composers
1797 births
1828 deaths
Cowpox is a disease. This disease affects the skin. It is caused by a virus (cowpox virus) that is related to the Vaccinia virus. People (or animals) who have the disease have red blisters. The disease can be spread by touch from cows to humans. The virus that causes cowpox was used to perform the first successful vaccination against another disease. The disease vaccinated against was the deadly smallpox. Smallpox is caused by the related variola virus. Therefore, the word "vaccination" has the Latin root vaca meaning cow.
In 1798, the English physician Edward Jenner made a curious observation. Jenner lived in the countryside, not in the city. 
Some of his patients had gotten cowpox, and recovered from it. He observed that those patients did not get the disease again, they seemed to be immune against it. What was more, they also seemed to be immune against smallpox. Smallpox was a deadly disease then, that killed most of the people it infected. So he used the fluid he got from cowpox lesions, and scratched it into healthy people. That way, he could make those people immune against smallpox.
The Cowpox (Catpox) virus is found in Europe and mainly in the UK.  Human cases are very rare and most often contracted from domestic cats.  The virus is not commonly found in cows; the reservoir hosts for the virus are woodland rodents particularly voles.  It is from these rodents that domestic cats get the virus.  Symptoms in cats include lesions on the face, neck, forelimbs, and paws, and less commonly upper respiratory tract infection.  Symptoms of infection with cowpox virus in humans are localized, pustular lesions generally found on the hands and limited to the site of introduction.  The incubation period (the time between an infection and the first signs of the disease) is 9–10 days.  The virus can be found mostly in late summer and autumn.
Historical use
Cowpox was the original vaccine of sorts for smallpox. After infection with the disease, the body (usually) gains the ability recognise the similar smallpox virus from its antigens and so is able to fight the smallpox disease much more efficiently.

Later, and still today, another vaccine was used: vaccinia. Vaccinia is similar to cowpox, but not the same.

Related pages
Chickenpox
List of diseases

References

Diseases caused by viruses
Animal diseases
Events 
 January 18 – Lima, Peru founded by Francisco Pizarro
 April – Jacques Cartier discovers the Iroquois city of Stadacona, Canada (now Quebec) and in May, the even greater Huron city of Hochelaga
 June 24 – The Anabaptist state of Münster (see Münster Rebellion) is conquered and disbanded.
 May 19 – French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail for his second voyage to North America with 3 ships, 110 men, and Chief Donnacona's 2 sons  (who Cartier kidnapped during his first voyage).
 October 2 – Jacques Cartier discovers Montreal, Quebec.
 October 4 – The first complete English-language Bible is printed, with translations by William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale.
 Combined Swedish and Danish fleets defeat the Hanseatic navy.
 Manco II appointed puppet Inca Emperor by Spanish Conquistadors
 Second unsuccessful attempt by Spanish forces to conquer Yucatán
 Carlos Quinto conquers Tunis
Anabaptist rebellion in some cities in the Netherlands, including a famous incident of seven men and five woman walking nude in the streets of Amsterdam.
 The Charterhouse London is closed, as part of Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries.
Events 
 Louis XIV of France passed the "Code Noir," allowing the full use of slaves in the French colonies.
 January 11 – The Parliament of England declares King James II of England deposed.
 February 13 – William III and Mary II are proclaimed co-rulers of England, Scotland and Ireland. Scotland and Ireland do not yet recognize them.
 April 11 – The Estates of Scotland declare King James VII of Scotland deposed.
 April 11  – Crowning of co-rulers King William III and Mary II as King and Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland. Ireland does not recognize them yet.
 May 12 – King William's War: William III of England joins the League of Augsburg starting the war.
 May 24 – The Act of Toleration passes the English Parliament protecting Protestants (Roman Catholics are intentionally excluded).
 May 25 – Last collection of the Hearth Tax n England and Wales. It was abolished by William III of England
May 31 – Leisler's Rebellion – Calvinist Jacob Leisler deposes lieutenant governor Francis Nicholson and assumes control of New York colony
 July 27 – Glorious Revolution: Battle of Killiecrankie ends
 August 5 – 1,500 Iroquois attack village of Lachine, in New France.
 August 27 – China and Russia signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk.
 December 16 – The official declaration of the English Bill of Rights
532 was a leap year.

Events 
January 11 – Nika riots in Constantinople; the cathedral is destroyed. They are put down a week later by Belisarius and Mundus; up to 30,000 people are killed in the Hippodrome.
Justinian I orders the building of a new cathedral – beginning of the construction of the Hagia Sophia.
Justinian  signs a peace treaty with the Sassanian shah Chosroes I.

Births 
Áedán mac Gabráin, king of Dál Riata

Deaths 
October 17 – Pope Boniface II
1658 was a common year.

Events 
 January 13 – Edward Sexby, who had plotted against Oliver Cromwell, dies in Tower of London
 February 6 – Swedish troops of Charles X Gustav of Sweden cross The Great Belt (Storebælt) in Denmark over frozen sea
 May 1 – Publication of Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and The Garden of Cyrus by Thomas Browne
 September 3 -Oliver Cromwell dies. His son Richard assumes his father's former position as Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.
 The peace between Sweden and Denmark was concluded in Roskilde with Treaty of Roskilde.
 France joins England in the war against Spain, which began in 1654. The Spanish were defeated at the Battle of the Dunes in June. England was then given Dunkirk for their assistance in the win.
 Portuguese traders are expelled from Ceylon by Dutch invaders.
 After his father Shah Jahan completes the Taj Mahal, his son Aurangzeb deposes him as ruler of the Mughal Empire.
408 was a leap year.

Events 
In the summer of this  year, the usurper Constantine III captures Spain, destroying the loyalist forces defending it.
September – Alaric, king of the Visigoths, lays siege to Rome.
1696 was a leap year.

Events 
 April – Fire destroys the Gra Bet (or Left Quarter) of Gondar, the capital of Ethiopia.
 August 22 – Forces of Venice and Turkish troops clash near Molino
 October 29 – Fuller Baptist Church founded in Kettering, England.
 December 24 – Inquisition burns number of Marrano Jews in Evora, Portugal
 Peter the Great becomes sole tsar of Russia.
 Polish replaces Ruthenian as an official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
 A famine wipes out almost a third of the population of Finland.
 Abington, Pennsylvania, is settled.
 William Penn offers an elaborate plan for intercolonial cooperation largely in trade, defense, and criminal matters.
 The Second Pueblo Revolt took place
 Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville captured and destroyed St. John's, Newfoundland.
1647 was a common year.

Events 
 March 14 – Thirty Years' War: Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign the Truce of Ulm.
 April 3 – In England, letter from the Agitators of the New Model Army, protesting delay of pay, is read in the House of Commons
 May 29 – The Rhode Island General Assembly drafts a constitution that separates church and state, and permits public  referenda and initiatives on legislation.
 August 8 – The battle of Dungans Hill, Irish forces are defeated by British Parliamentary forces.
 August – Peter Stuyvesant appointed Director of New Amsterdam by the Dutch West India Company.
Johann von Werth tried to take his troops over the Austrian border, but they refused
Events 
 January 4 – Palace of Whitehall in London is destroyed by fire.
 June 19 – Volcano of Carguarazon erupts in the Andes and causes a rain of fish
 August 25 – Peter the Great arrives back to Moscow – general Patrick Gordon has already crushed the streltsy rebellion – 341 rebels sentenced to be decapitated. Tradition holds that tsar Peter decapitated some of them himself
 September 5 – In an effort to move his people away from Asiatic customs, Tsar Peter I of Russia imposes a tax on beards; All men except priests and peasants, are required to pay a tax of one hundred rubles a year and the commoners had to pay one kopek each
Whigs sponsor Captain Kidd of New York as a privateer against French shipping
 Darien Scheme – First Scottish settlers leave for an ill-fated colony in Panama
 Isaac Newton calculates the speed of sound
 Tani Jinzan, astronomer and calendar scholar, observes a fire destroy Tosa (now Kochi) in Japan at the same time as a Leonid Meteor storm, taking it as evidence to reinforce belief in the "Theory of Areas".
 Thomas Savery patents an early steam engine.
 A congress begins in Sremski Karlovci to discuss a treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League.
 Humphrey Hody is appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford.
 Bucharest becomes capital of Wallachia (now part of Romania).
 Mombasa and Zanzibar are captured by Oman.
 George Louis (who would in 1714 become King George I of Great Britain) becomes Elector of Hanover.
Margaret Eleanor Atwood  (born November 18, 1939) is a Canadian writer. She is best known for writing novels. She has also published 15 books of poetry. The Edible Woman was her first novel, published in 1969.

Her novel The Handmaid's Tale was the first winner of the Arthur C. Clarke Award, in 1987. The sequel, The Testaments, was released on September 10, 2019.

Her book The Blind Assassin won the 2000 Booker Prize.

References

1939 births
Living people
Canadian novelists
Agnostics
Award winning writers
Booker Prize winners
Canadian activists
Canadian feminists
Canadian poets
Children's writers
Feminist writers
Harvard University alumni
Canadian science fiction writers
University of Toronto alumni
Rainbow Bride

Is A 1997-2019 Canadian and French Animated Children's Educational Television Series Produced By CINAR Corporation and Medialab Studio LA, In Co-production With Canal J Ravensburger (S1-4) WIC Entertainment Limited TF1 and TiJi (S3-4) and Produced In Association With TVOKids Knowledge Kids (S6-20) SCN (S8-20) and Access (S8) and With The Fancai Assistance Of The Shaw Children's Programmee Inatvie (S1-3) and Produced With the Participation of the Canada Television and Cable Production Fund (S1)

A tie-in movie, Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer, came out in 2005. And Rainbow Brite

Animated television series
English-language television programs
Chickenpox, also known as chicken pox, is a disease. Usually, it is children who get the disease, but adults can also get it.  People who have it get blisters or spots, mostly on the body and in the face. Those blisters are filled with a liquid. At some point, the blisters will drain, and the person will want to scratch them. Burst blisters usually become healthy without leaving scars, unless they become infected.  The symptoms come in two or three waves, and they usually include fever. If there are no complications, the disease will last between three and five days in children. Chickenpox is very common and by the age 14, more than 90% of children will have had the disease. 

Getting chickenpox during a pregnancy is dangerous, as it can hurt both the mother and the child. 

Chickenpox is caused by a virus of the herpes family. People who had chickenpox in the past can also get a related disease called shingles later.  Shingles are caused by the same virus but usually is only one part of the body.
There is a vaccine against chickenpox. Usually, the vaccine is given to children if they did not have the disease before the start of puberty, that is aged 9–13 years old. Sometimes to help your child not to scratch when they have chicken pox, you can get a special cream for it such as e45.

Diseases caused by viruses
Events 
January 24 – Charles VII Albert becomes Holy Roman Emperor.
February 16 – Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington, becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain.
February 18 – British attack La Guayra.
April 13 – The first performance of George Frideric Handel's oratorio Messiah, in Dublin.
 May 17 – Frederick the Great's army defeats Austrians in Chotusitz; later Austria cedes Silesia to Prussia
May 25 – A battle is fought at Sahay.
December 2 – The Pennsylvania Journal first appears in print.
Daniel le Pelley succeeds Nicolas le Pelley as Seigneur of Sark.
Kingdom of Prussia captures Jihlava.
Christian Goldbach formulates Goldbach's conjecture.
Colin Maclaurin publishes his Treatise on Fluxions.
Anders Celsius proposes the Celsius temperature scale.
James Bradley succeeds Edmond Halley as Astronomer Royal.
Henry Fielding publishes Joseph Andrews.
John Carteret, 2nd Lord Carteret becomes Secretary of State for the Northern Department.
Rigging of Chippenham by-election causes a political scandal.
William Pulteney created as 1st Earl of Bath.
Robert Walpole was elevated to the peerage and thus moved from the House of Commons to the House of Lords, (see February 16, above).
University of Erlangen is founded.
Lopukhina Conspiracy at the Russian court.
Molde in Norway becomes a city.
Construction starts on the Foundling Hospital in London.
Eisenach builds its Stadtschloss (city castle).
 In Peru, Juan Santon takes the name Atahualpa II and begins an ill-fated rebellion against the Spanish rule
 Afghan tribes unite as a monarchy.
Events 
 January 24 – Alfonso Mendez, appointed by Pope Gregory XV as Prelate of Ethiopia, arrives at Massawa from Goa.
 The Netherlands establish a trading colony at Kaohsiung on Taiwan.
 Thirty Walloon families settle in the New Netherland colony.
 Oslo is destroyed by fire. When rebuilt by Christian IV, it would be renamed Christiania.
 Claudio Monteverdi publishes Tancredi e Clorinda.
 Jean Louis Guez de Balzac publishes his Lettres.
 Bernardo de Balbuena publishes El Bernardo.
 Santa Rosalia makes a miraculous appearance during a plague in Palermo.
 Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) first recorded in America.
 Jakob Bartsch records the constellation Camelopardalis.
 Dr Challoner's Grammar School is founded.
 The Palace of Versailles is first built, as a hunting lodge.
 Chateau Cheverny begins construction.
 Pembroke College, Oxford founded.
 The Japanese Shogun expels Spanish from the land and severs trade with the Philippines
 Mail service begins in Denmark
 University founded in Bolivia
War between England and Spain
 Cornelius Drebbel discover gases
 Cardinal Richelieu appointed by Louis XIII to be his advisor
 Henry Briggs publishes Arithmetica Logarithmica
Events 
 March 5 – Lithuanian forces led by Traidenis defeat the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Aizkraukle.
 The first of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed under king Edward I of England, which prevents land from passing into possession of the church.
 The second of two main surveys of the Hundred Rolls, an English census seen as a follow up to the Domesday Book completed in 1086, is begun; it lasts until 1280.
 Al-Razi's important medical writings are translated into Latin by Faraj ben Salim some 350 years after Al-Razi's death.
 The Royal Mint of England moves into the Tower of London.
 Haapsalu town (Estonia) is founded.
Events 
 First contact between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuks.
 Vatha Pagan Revolt in Hungary – Gerard Sagredo martyred in Budapest.
 Pope Gregory VI accused of simony at Council of Sutri – abdicates
 Henry III crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement II.
 March 5, Naser Khosrow begins the seven-year Middle Eastern journey which he would later describe in his book Safarnameh.

Births 
 Margaret Atheling, Queen of Scotland; Wife of King Malcolm III of Scotland and second daughter of Edward the Exile (died 1093)
 probable date
 Pope Paschal II (died 1118)
Music has tonality if it uses the notes of a major or minor scale. Such music is tonal. It is in a particular "key". Nearly all Western music is tonal.

All tonal music is based on a major or minor scale. If the tune “Twinkle, twinkle little star” is played starting on the note C, the notes of a C major scale will be used. The note C will sound like the home note (the “tonic”) and, indeed, the tune finishes on a C. The tune could have started on any other note (C sharp, D, E flat, E etc.) but a knowledge of scales would be needed as some sharps or flats (black notes) will be required. When singing the tune there is no need to think about the sharps and flats: the singer does them quite naturally.
A piece of tonal music will usually modulate after a while. This means that it changes key. But the music will not sound finished until it goes back to the original key. If one sings The Star-Spangled Banner and stops after the words “our flag was still there” the song sounds as if it has stopped in mid-air. It will not sound finished until it goes back to the first key in the last two lines.

Most Western music from about 1600 onwards is based in a major or minor key. This system of tonality was used by all the great composers up to the 20th century and in popular music and most folk music. Listening to a symphony by Beethoven is like going on a journey through various key areas, always returning to the original tonic at the end. In some cases, such as Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, it may start in the minor and finish in the major. This is because minor keys can sound disturbed, full of tension, but major keys sound happier and more relaxed.
The opposite of “tonality” is atonality. An atonal piece is one where there is no feeling of a home key. Playing lots of random notes and of chromatic scale will sound atonal. Schoenberg was one of the most famous composers of atonal music. Of course, his music is not just random notes (although it may sound like it to the listener at first), so he had to find another way of giving his music shape. That is why he invented the twelve-tone system.

Music theory
Toucans are a South American bird in the family Ramphastidae. This bird lives in small flocks in lowland rainforests in countries such as Costa Rica. It flies short distances between trees. Toucans rest in holes in trees. They mostly eat fruit, but sometimes they also eat insects and small lizards.

They are brightly marked and have large, often-colorful bills. The family includes five genera and over forty different species.

Toucans are resident breeders and do not migrate. Toucans are usually found in pairs or small flocks. They sometimes fence with their bills and wrestle, which scientists think is to find out who is the top bird amongst them.
Beak 
Toucans are known for their huge beaks, which can grow larger than their bodies. The beak may also be used to cool the bird off. They use their beaks for reaching over and plucking fruit from branches of trees. The bright colors (usually orange) on the beak may help the toucans to recognize each other, and to scare off other birds. The structure of their beaks consists of a keratin exterior and a bony foam interior. The beak is loaded in bending and foraging and fencing activities, although it has a low compressive strength.

Diet 
The diet of toucans consists mainly of fruit, they are frugivorous. Although they sometimes consume small animals such as small birds, insects, and lizards. They also eat eggs from nests, and nestlings.

References 

Piciformes
Birds of South America
Birds of Central America
The elbow is a hinge-joint between the bones of the upper and lower arm. It joins the humerus of the upper arm and the radius and ulna of the forearm together. Everyone has 2 elbows. It allows the lower arm to be extended or retracted (moved in). The elbow also allows the arm to turn. It moves by using three ligaments: the anterior, posterior, ulnar collateral and radial collateral ligaments.

Joints
The wrist is the joint that links together the lower arm and the hand.

Other websites 
 The ligaments in the wrist

Joints
The knee is the joint that links 4 of the upper and lower bones of the leg, which are called the femur, tibia, fibula and the patella. The knee joint is the largest joint in the body and is an extensive network of ligaments and muscles. Basically, it is a hinge which allows movement of the lower leg in only one direction. The lower leg (tibia+fibula+foot) can swing back from the knee, and that is all.

The knee is held together by ligaments which connect the bones and produces fluid which lubricates the movement at the joint. The meniscus is a cartilage 
that lies on the inner and outer edges of the upper surface of the tibia. These are the shock
absorbers of the knee and supply proper weight distribution.

Basic English 850 words
Joints
In chemistry and physics, the atomic theory explains how our understanding of the atom has changed over time. Atoms were once thought to be the smallest pieces of matter. However, it is now known that atoms are made of protons, neutrons, and electrons. These subatomic particles are made of quarks. The first idea of the atom came from the Greek philosopher Democritus. A lot of the ideas in the modern theory came from John Dalton, a British chemist and physicist.

The theory applies to solids, liquids and gases. It does not apply in the same way to plasmas or neutron stars.

Democritus' atomic theory
Democritus thought that if you cut something in half again and again, you would at last have to stop. He said that this last piece of matter could not be cut any smaller. Democritus called these small pieces of matter atoms, which means "indivisible". He thought that atoms would last forever, never change and could not be destroyed. Democritus thought that there was nothing between the atoms and that everything around us could be explained if we could understand how atoms worked. 

Some other philosophers agreed, and others disagreed. They had no way to experiment to show whether his theory was true or not.

Boscovich's atomic theory 
In 1758, Roger Joseph Boscovich described a precursor of the atomic theory.

Dalton's atomic theory
In 1803, the English scientist John Dalton reworked Democritus' theory, as follows:
All matter is formed of atoms.
 That atoms are indivisible and invisible particles.
 That atoms of the same element are of the same type and mass.
 The atoms that make chemical compounds are present in set proportions.
 Chemical changes correspond to a reorganisation of the atoms taking part in the chemical reaction.

Dalton defined the atom as the basic unit of an element that can take part in a chemical combination. Dalton and another chemist, Joseph Proust had discovered two laws: the law of definite composition and the law of multiple proportions. They discovered these laws when they measured how elements combined into compounds. These were the basis for Dalton's theory.
The law of definite composition says that the masses of elements that join to form a compound are always in the same ratio, or proportions.
The law of multiple proportions says that when two chemical elements combine with each other to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other are in a ratio of small whole numbers.

Together, these were good evidence that atoms existed.

Thomson's atomic model 

In 1850, Sir William Crookes constructed a 'discharge tube', that is a glass tube with the air removed and metallic electrodes at its ends, connected to a high-voltage source. When creating a vacuum in the tube, a light discharge can be seen that goes from the cathode (negatively-charged electrode) to the anode (positively-charged electrode). Crookes named the emission 'cathode rays'.
After the cathode ray experiments, Sir Joseph John Thomson established that the emitted ray was formed by negative charges, because they were attracted by the positive pole. Thomson knew that the atoms were electrically neutral. He established that, for this to occur, an atom should have the same quantity of negative and positive charges. The negative charges were named electrons (e-).

According to the assumptions established about the atom's neutral charge, Thomson proposed the first atomic model. It was described as a positively-charged sphere in which the electrons were inlaid (with negative charges). It is known as the plum pudding model.

In 1906, Robert Millikan determined that the electrons had a Coulomb (C) charge of -1.6 * 10−19. This allowed calculation of its mass as tiny, equal to 9.109 * 10−31 kg.
In the same time, experiments by Eugene Goldstein in 1886 with cathode discharge tubes allowed him to establish that the positive charges had a mass of 1.6726 * 10−27 kg and an electrical charge of +1,6 * 10 −19 C. Lord Ernest Rutherford later named these positively charged particles protons

Rutherford's atomic model 

In 1910, the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford put forward the idea that the positive charges of the atom were found mostly in its center, in the nucleus, and the electrons (e-) moved around it.

Rutherford showed this when he used an alpha radiation source (from helium) to hit the very thin gold sheets, surrounded by a Zinc sulphide lampshade that produced visible light when hit by alpha emissions. This experiment was called the Geiger–Marsden experiment or the Gold Foil Experiment.
By this stage the main parts of the atom were clear. It was known that atoms of an element may occur in isotopes. Isotopes vary in the number of neutrons present in the nucleus. Although this model was well understood, modern physics has developed further. Present-day ideas cannot be made easy to understand. Some idea of present-day atomic physics can be found in the links in the table below.

Modern physics 
Atoms are <u/l>not</u/l> elementary particles, because they are made of subatomic particles like protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are also not elementary particles. They are made of even smaller particles called quarks joined together by other particles called gluons (because they "glue" the quarks together in the atom). Quarks are elementary because quarks cannot be broken down any further.

References

Nuclear physics
Chemistry
Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies tiny pieces of elements, known as particles. These particles are extremely small pieces that build up the world around us. They are best described in the language of math: calculus, the imaginary number, and group theory (which describes symmetry).

Fundamental forces 
Particles can carry fundamental forces. For example, the electromagnetic force is carried by photons. The four fundamental forces are responsible for almost everything in all of physics. These fundamental forces are gravity, electromagnetism,  weak interaction, and  strong interaction.

The Standard Model 
One of the important concepts of particle physics is called the Standard Model. The Standard Model is a theory that tries to explain the fundamental forces. The Standard Model combined with general relativity is currently the most accepted explanation of how the universe works.
Collider 
Physicists find out about particles by studying collisions between different particles. A good analogy of how physicists study particles through colliding is the car crash example. Imagine a person who wanted to look inside cars. By crashing two cars together at very high speeds, we can break the cars apart and see inside. In the same way, physicists crash two particles together to break them and study the inside.

If particles are moving at very high speeds, some of them will break apart when they collide. When they break, they create new smaller particles. These particles are very hard to find and detect because they decay (change into lighter particles) very quickly. Modern particle physics involves colliding particles together very energetically to create new particles inside a particle accelerator. This is called high-energy physics, due to the large amount of energy needed.
However, many particles do not simply break apart, such as electrons. Because it does not break apart, the electron is called a fundamental particle. If you were to smash two super-fast electrons against each other, they would not break, but instead, they might create more particles around them without breaking (this is another form of decay, known as a hadron jet). The Standard Model says that there are 17 types of fundamental particles, but there are 61, because most can be created out of antimatter, and some can have a color charge.

Application 

Particle physics can help us learn about the early universe because conditions that are similar to the early universe (which was a much more energetic place than it is now) can be made in a small volume of space using the collisions of these particles. The biggest particle accelerator in the world is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Europe.

Nuclear physics
X Japan is a Japanese rock band. They were formed in 1982 by Yoshiki. They have sold over 30 million albums and singles and over 2 million videos to date. X Japan stopped making music in 1997, but reunited in 2007. They performed their first world tour live in Hong Kong in 2009. They played to 20,000 people in two days.

Some visual kei bands are influenced by X Japan.

Name
The band was first called "X" but because the letter X was already the name of another band they changed their name to "X Japan" to avoid confusion.

Albums
 Vanishing Vision (1988)
 Blue Blood (1989)
 Jealousy (1991)
 Art of Life (1993)
 Dahlia (1996)

References

Japanese heavy metal bands
Speed metal bands
Power metal bands
Progressive metal bands
Glam metal bands
Visual kei bands
1982 establishments in Japan
The State Anthem of the Soviet Union , ) was the national anthem of the Soviet Union from 1944 until 1991. It replaced the old one, which was a Russian translation of The Internationale. Currently it is the State Anthem of the Russian Federation.

History
The music was created around 1938 by Alexander Alexandrov, a great Russian composer who earlier started the Alexandrov Ensemble. The original lyrics were by Sergey Mikhalkov and Gabriel El-Registan and were first written in 1943. They mentioned Joseph Stalin by his name as well as the Great Patriotic War. When Stalin died in 1953, the lyrics were no longer appropriate and so the music was performed without them. For the 60th anniversary of the October Revolution in 1977, the lyrics were brought back, but changed so that they do not mention Stalin or the war.
This song was in use until the Soviet Union broke down in 1991. Until then, most of the republics of the Soviet Union also had their anthem, but the Russian SSR did not until 1990. After Russia became independent, the Russian SSR anthem, which used a melody by Mikhail Glinka and had no official words, became the Russian national anthem. But in 2000, the newly elected president, Vladimir Putin, decided to bring back the melody of the Soviet anthem. He had new words written to it by Sergey Mikhalkov, the same person who wrote the original Soviet anthem.

Below are the Russian and the English versions of the lyrics; both can be sung to the music. Like "The Internationale", there are also other versions of the Soviet anthem in different languages.

1977 lyrics

Official Russian lyrics

Official English translation
The official version of lyrics endorsed by CPSU:
Unbreakable Union of freeborn Republics,
Great Russia has welded forever to stand.
Created in struggle by will of the people,
United and mighty, our Soviet land!

Chorus:
Sing to the Motherland, home of the free,
Bulwark of peoples in brotherhood strong.
O Party of Lenin, the strength of the people,
To Communism's triumph lead us on!

Through tempests, the sunrays of freedom have cheered us,
Along the new path where great Lenin did lead.
To a righteous cause he raised the peoples,
Inspired them to labor and valorous deed.

Chorus

In the victory of Communism's deathless ideal,
We see the future of our dear land.
And to her fluttering scarlet banner,
Selflessly true we always shall stand!

Chorus

Original 1944 version
The 1944 text had three different refrains following three different stanzas; in each refrain, the second line was consequently modified with references to friendship, then happiness and finally the glory. In 1977, these refrains were replaced by a uniform refrain following all stanzas.
Official Russian lyrics

English translation of 1944 version
The Russian [Soviet] republics, in freedom united,
Have mustered their power, their glory, their pride,
And thus they created the great Soviet Union,
The will of the nations that spread far and wide!

Great shall your glory be, Motherland proud and free,
Bulwark of friendship for nation and man!
Flag of the Soviet, lead us to victory,
Flag of the people since freedom began!

The sunlight of freedom has shone through the tempest,
And Lenin has lighted our path with his flame,
While Stalin has shown us that faith in the people
Inspires us to action, deeds, and fame.

Great shall your glory be, Motherland proud and free,
Bulwark of happiness for nation and man!
Flag of the Soviet, lead us to victory,
Flag of the people since freedom began!

Our army in action has grown in its power,
And soon it will wipe out the enemy horde;
The fate of the future is sealed by our bravery,
And honor and glory shall be our reward!