Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Phototrophs (photo = light, troph = nutrition) or photoautotrophs are organisms which carry out photosynthesis. 

With their plastids and the help of energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are converted into sugar by photosynthesis. Sugar is then converted into other organic molecules which can be used in cellular functions. Such a function might be, for example, respiration. 

Botany
NTFS is a file system developed by Microsoft. NTFS stands for New Technology File System. A file system is a way of storing computer files. Microsoft introduced it with the Windows NT operating system. 

It was made to replace the old file-system used by earlier versions of Windows, like Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 98SE. That file system was also used by MS-DOS and is called FAT.

A newer version of NTFS (v3.1) was used in Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista, and the most recent version of operating system, Windows 10. NTFS can be accessed from non-Windows operating systems such as Linux using the NTFS-3G driver.

Software
Microsoft
A File system (or filesystem) is a way of storing all data on a data storage device. The data is usually organized in computer files in directories. Below the file system there is usually a physical device where the files are stored.  This might be a hard disk, USB flash drive, compact disc, or DVD. The file system might also talk to a remote server over a network where the file is stored. The file system might also only use RAM to store the files. 

The underlying storage mechanism usually has no concept of a file. A hard disk knows of disk blocks, which are numbered in a certain way. These disk blocks contain binary data (usually: large numbers). 

The file system does the translation between the large numbers, and the view the users see, that is that of files, organized in a certain way.
More recently, concepts from databases have been used to develop file systems. That way, there are two different kinds of data:
Data that holds the files
Data that is used to describe what state the files are in. This is called metadata.
It then becomes possible to always keep the file system in a consistent state. With databases, this is known as ACID. That way, an operation on a file is either done, or it is not done. There are however, no states in between. The file being written to the filesystem is no longer visible. This is usually done using transactions. But with filesystems, it is called journaling.

References 
software
Systems
David II (5 March 1324 – 22 February 1371) King of Scots, son of King Robert the Bruce by his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (d. 1327), was born at Dunfermline Palace, Fife.

He was married on 17 July 1328, aged only four, to Joan of the Tower (d. 1362), daughter of Edward II of England and Isabella of France. Joan was only seven years old.

At the age of five, David became King of Scotland after the death of his father on 7 June 1329. He was crowned at Scone in November 1331.
Edward Balliol, with support from Edward III of England fought against David, so that he could become king. He defeated David at the Battle of Dupplin on 12 August 1332. Balliol was crowned king, and in July 1333, the nine year old David and his queen were sent to France for their safety. In June 1341 he came back and began to rule. In 1346 he invaded England, but was defeated and taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346, and remained in England for eleven years, living mainly in London and at Odiham in Hampshire. In October 1357 he was allowed to go back to Scotland for a payment of 100,000 marks. The money was never paid completely. 
In 1371 David died in Edinburgh Castle.

References
References

 Andrew of Wyntoun, The orygynale cronykil of Scotland, edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872–1879)
 John of Fordun, Chronica gentis Scotorum, edited by W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1871–1872)
 J. H. Burton, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1905)
 Andrew Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1900)

Further reading
 Michael Brown, The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371. The New Edinburgh History of Scotland, volume 4. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004.
 Ranald Nicholson, Scotland. The Later Middle Ages. Edinburgh: Mercat Press, 1975.
 Michael Penman, David II, 1329–71: The Bruce Dynasty in Scotland. East Linton: Tuckwell Press, 2003.

1324 births
1371 deaths
Kings and Queens of Scotland
14th century in Scotland
Lied (pronounced “leet”) is the German word for “song” (the plural is Lieder – pronounced “leader”).  

The word Lied is used in music to describe the songs that were written by German-speaking composers of classical music.  Songs composed by classical composers are sometimes called “art songs”.

Lieder are normally songs for a singer with piano accompaniment.  They were mostly composed in the 19th century which was the period known as the Romantic period.  The most famous composers of Lieder were Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf and Richard Strauss.
In German culture the Lied as an art song goes back to the Middle Ages.  Walther von der Vogelweide was a 12th-13th century minnesinger who composed and sang songs for important people at the royal court.  Like most minnesinger, he was a poet as well as a composer, writing words for his own songs.
The Lied in the Romantic period was usually written by two different people: the poet wrote the words and then the composer “set the words” to music.  19th century composers mostly took great care to choose good poetry for their songs.  The poetry was often by famous poets such as Goethe and Schiller.
Although most Lieder were composed in the Romantic period, the beginnings were there in the Classical music period.  Mozart wrote a song called Das Veilchen (The Violet) and Beethoven wrote several songs.
It was Schubert who was to be the greatest of all Lieder composers.  Schubert wrote over 600 songs.  Very often he wrote in a form which had been used by Walther von der Vogelweide: three verses of which the first two have the same music (A-A-B, or as von der Vogelweide called them: “Stollen, Stollen, Abgesang”).  Other songs of his are what is known as “durchkomponiert” (“through composed”).  Here each verse is different, so that the composer can express the words of each verse with different music.  The wonderful thing about Schubert’s songs is the way in which the piano accompaniments help the voice and show the meaning of the words. The piano was a fairly new instrument at the time and could do things that would have been impossible on the harpsichord.   One of his earliest songs is the famous Erlkönig (Erlking).  The piano accompaniment is very difficult to play because the right hand has continuous repeated octaves which describe the galloping of the horse in the wild, stormy night
.  Grettchen am Spinnrade is a song which sets a poem from Goethe's Faust.  The young girl is sitting at the spinning-wheel thinking of her lover.  The piano has a rippling accompaniment which sounds like the gentle clatter of the spinning-wheel.  At the moment when the girl imagines her lover's kiss the piano part comes to a stop, then gradually starts up again as the girl wakes up to the world around her.
Composers often composed groups of songs which belong together.  These are called a “song cycle” (“Liederkreis” in German).  Schubert wrote two long ones: Die Winterreise (The Winter Journey) and Die schöne Müllerin (The Miller’s beautiful daughter).  Both are about love affairs which end sadly. 

Robert Schumann wrote many fine songs.  He was a pianist before he became a composer, so it is not surprising that the piano parts of his songs are at least as important as the voice part.   His song-cycle Dichterliebe (Poet’s love) contains some of his best songs. They often have a dream-like atmosphere.  He especially liked setting words by the poets Joseph von Eichendorff and Heinrich Heine.
Johannes Brahms always made the singer’s part more important than the piano part.  He learned a lot by studying Schubert’s songs and wrote some very famous Lieder.  One of his best is the humorous Vergebliches Ständchen (Serenade in vain).  His Four Serious Songs are very powerful.  His famous Wiegenlied (Lullaby), a tune which everybody knows, is one of his songs.

Hugo Wolf is known almost only for his songs.  They are very dramatic and he used some unusual harmonies which he had learned by listening to Wagner’s music.  Some of Wolf’s songs are very short, he says a lot in a short space of time.  His Italian song book and Spanish song book have some of his best songs.

Richard Wagner and Gustav Mahler both wrote wonderful Lieder, although they are mostly with orchestral accompaniment.  Mahler’s songs are inspired by folksong.  He even uses them in his symphonies.  Das Lied von der Erde is a song cycle for two singers (mezzo soprano and tenor) and orchestra.
Richard Strauss is one of the last great Lieder composers.  His Four last songs (with orchestra) seem to be saying “goodbye” to a great period of music history.

Song forms
An aurora, also called polar light, northern light or southern light, is a natural light display in the sky. They are usually seen in the high latitudes (Arctic and Antarctic) regions. Auroras are produced when the Earth's magnetosphere is disturbed by the solar wind.

 

An aurora around the North Pole is called the Aurora borealis or 'northern lights'. Around the South Pole is the Aurora australis or 'dawn of the south' or 'southern lights'. It can be seen from long distances, stretching in the sky many hundreds of miles.

Auroras can happen at any time, however, they can only be seen at night because their light is not as intense as the light of day. Faint stars can even be seen through the aurora.

Many legends are associated with the aurora in all countries where this phenomenon regularly occurs.
How it happens 
An aurora occurs when the Sun sends off small particles into space. These particles are mainly electrons, with charge and energy, which means they contribute to electricity. Earth has a protective shield of energy around it. This is called the "magnetic field" and forms an elongated sphere around the Earth called the "magnetosphere". The Earth’s magnetic field keeps off most solar wind. 

At high-latitude areas (polar areas), the magnetic field is vertical. It does not keep off particles of the solar wind which can come from the magnetosphere and hit the particles of the air (Earth's atmosphere). When they hit, the atmosphere is heated and excited and the excess gets away, a phenomenon which we see as moving lights in the sky above 100 km altitude typically. An aurora can be especially bright following a solar flare and coronal mass ejection (CME) when the charged particles rips through the electromagnetic field because of their power.

On other planets
On other planets 

Auroral phenomena have been observed on other planets that have a magnetic field, such as Jupiter, and Saturn. It is believed to be a widespread phenomenon in the Solar System and beyond.

References 

Earth sciences
Meteorology
Nordic countries are a group of countries in Northern Europe. These countries include Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, and the territories of Svalbard, the Åland Islands and the Faroe Islands. Though often confused as such, Scandinavia is not equivalent to the Nordic countries. Scandinavia is a peninsula while the Nordic countries are recognized states. Sweden and Norway (and a small part of Finland) rest on the Scandinavian peninsula. Scandinavia and Finland together belong to a larger peninsula, Fennoscandia. Finns speak a non-Germanic language.

Nordic countries have similar state, law and culture. Historically, Nordic countries have maintained close connections. Nordic countries are primarily socialist democracies. Nordic countries have some political co-operation, such as the Nordic council. Cooperation with a larger group, the European Union, makes the Nordic cooperation even smaller.
Nordic countries have long, cold winters with warm days in the summer, but only a small part of Northern Norway and approximately half of Iceland is arctic, although Iceland lies below the Arctic Circle except for one small island.

References
"Going Underground" was The Jam's first number one song on the UK charts. The song is arguably The Jam's finest moment in their career. Although it did not appear on any of their studio albums, it did appear on several 'best of' Jam albums.

1980 songs
Paasselkä devils (Finnish "Päässelän pirut") are stories about balls of light at lake Paasselkä, Finland. Local people say that bright balls sometimes move above lake Paasselkä or near the lake in the forest. This kinds of lights are said to appear around the world. They are sometimes called ghost lights or will o' the wisps. Scientists does not know what ghost lights or will o' wisps are. 

People have told these stories for a long time, so it is a part of folklore there. People thought that balls of light are devils. Some still believe that balls are alive or have mind, because they seem to act like that. Ball can follow fishermans boat of go to hide if you use your torch.

Lake Paasselkä appeared when big stone dropped from the sky millions of years ago. Such lake is called crater-lake. Magnetism in the middle of the lake is not normal.

Related pages
Ghost lights

Video
You can see the balls from this website
Book
Sulo Strömberg: Kerimäen ja Savonrannan kyliä kiertämässä. Tarinoita Paasveen piruista ja pohuista (2006)

Folklore
Finnish mythology
The phenomena that can be seen in the atmosphere is at Aurora

Aurora was the ancient Roman equivalent of Eos. Eos was the ancient Greek goddess of the dawn. Aurora is the Latin word for dawn.

Aurora renews herself every morning at dawn and flies across the sky. She announces the morning's arrival. She has a brother and a sister. Her brother is the sun, and her sister is the moon. She also has many husbands and four sons, one for each cardinal direction: North, East, South, and West.

Aurora is comparable to Eos in Greek mythology and to Ushas in Hindu mythology.

One of her lovers was Tithonus. Aurora asked Zeus to grant immortality to Tithonus. However, she failed to ask him for eternal youth. As a result, Tithonus ended up aging eternally. 

In Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (i.i) Montague says of his lovesick son Romeo
But all so soon as the all-cheering sun
Should in the farthest east begin to draw
The shady curtains from Aurora's bed,
Away from the light steals home my heavy son...
In the poem "Tithonus" by Lord Alfred Tennyson, Aurora is described as folllows:

Once more the old mysterious glimmer steals
From thy pure brows, and from thy shoulders pure,
And bosom beating with a heart renewed.
Thy cheek begins to redden through the gloom,
Thy sweet eyes brighten slowly close to mine,
Ere yet they blind the stars, and the wild team
Which love thee, yearning for thy yoke, arise,
And shake the darkness from their loosened manes,
And beat the twilight into flakes of fire.

The asteroid 94 Aurora was named after her.

Other websites 
 Aurora in Encyclopædia Mythica 

Roman gods and goddesses
Ukko was the most important god in Finnish paganism, a religion that was in Finland before Christianity. Ukko was god of sky and thunder. Ukko was an old man and he lived on the sky. He had a weapon - hammer or axe called Ukonvasara. Lightning is from this weapon.

Finnish pagans had an image of this weapon made from metal on their necks. They believed that lightning does not hit people who have this image.

At Midsummer Finns gathered together and drank beer to honour Ukko. That was called "toast of Ukko".

Ukko is similar to Thor that was a sky god of most Scandinavians and Perun that is a Baltic sky god.

Finnish mythology
Väinämöinen is an important person in Finnish mythology. He was a wise man and he knew magic. He was a hero and had many adventures.

Väinämöinen was also a god. As such, he was worshipped.

Magic of Väinämöinen was in his songs. When he sings hills shake and water moves. He sings his enemy, Joukahainen, to sink in swamp.

Väinämöinen was born before Earth. He was floating in the sea. He was born a grown man. Her mother, Ilmatar got pregnant by the water and wind and carried her son for 30 years. A bird (Sotka) made a nest on Ilmatar´s knee and when the bird hatched her eggs (six of them made of iron, one pure gold), it burned Ilmatar´s knee and finally Ilmatar moved her knee and all the eggs flew into the sky and on the earth and were broken. From those pieces the Earth and sky, the stars, The sun and the moon were born.

Finnish mythology
Ilmarinen is an important person in Finnish mythology. He is a very good smith who made the sky. He also made the Sampo, a magical machine that makes salt, gold and food. He tried to create a new moon and a sun, but failed. Ilmarinen married one of Louhi´s daughters.

Finnish mythology
Finnish paganism was a pagan religion in Finland and Karelia before the Finnish people were Christian. Finnish paganism is close to Scandinavian paganism and Baltic paganism. The Finns believed that there were many gods. 

Finnish paganism was animistic. This means that people believed nature was full of small and big spirits. The biggest spirits were gods who had names, the god of the sky was Ukko, the god of the forest was Tapio and the god of water was Ahti. There were many other spirits known by specific names.

A Shaman was a wise person who could perform magic. With the help from spirits, he could heal ill people and curse enemies.

Humans had a soul that was divided. "Self" and "me" were two different parts of the soul. If one's "self"-soul left him, he was not dead, but very ill. A Shaman could go to the spirit world to bring the soul back.
The Bear was considered a holy animal. If a bear was hunted down, he or she was celebrated with a ritual called Peijainen, usually a big celebration involving food and drink. The purpose of the ritual was to pacify the soul of the bear. A happy soul would then be reincarnated into another bear, so that people could eat bears in the future. The swan was a holy bird and people believed that killing a swan would cause the killer to die.

Some trees and stones were holy to Finns, along with some forests. These places were often used to offer gods or spirits a sacrifice sacrifice. The sacrifice was gift intended to make the spirit happy. This spirit would then help humans. For example, a happy spirit of the sea would guarantee a plentiful catch for a fisherman. At later times things that were given to spirits were small, such as: money, flowers, pieces of silver, alcohol or food.
The Finns believed that Earth was flat like a disc. Above Earth was sky-dome, a pot that was upside down. In the middle of the Earth was a pillar holding the sky, so that it did not drop. The North star was a nail in the top of this pillar. Land of the dead, Tuonela, was under Earth. The way to Tuonela was at the base of pillar that holds the sky. The rotational movement of the pillar caused a great whirl of water at the base of the pillar called Kinahmi and this could be used as access way to Tuonela.

People hoped that their dead relatives would go to Tuonela, because they did not like ghosts. However some times dead relatives were asked to help living people. Sometimes shamans went to Tuonela to ask souls for help.

Finnish mythology
Paganism
Feedback is a connection, a loop, between the cause and effect of a process.

Electronic 

Sometimes, output from an electronic source affects future input.  This can form what is called a "feedback loop". In some cases the output reinforces the input, making it stronger; this is called "self-reinforcing", "positive", "runaway" or "amplifying". In other cases, the output blocks or stops some of the input; this is called a negative feedback loop.

Positive feedback 

Think about a sound system with input from a microphone and output to a loudspeaker. If the sound coming out of the loudspeaker is heard by the microphone, a loop is created, from speaker, to the microphone, through the cord, and back into the speaker.  The loop is made up of sound and the electrical energy that the microphone and loudspeaker use to create that sound.  If nothing stops the sound and electricity in the loop, it will travel faster and faster, which is why feedback starts out as a low hum and turns into a high squeal very quickly
This is an example of a positive feedback loop: the output reinforces the input; it makes the input stronger.

Negative feedback 

Think about two mirrors that face each other.  The mirrors reflect each other infinitely, or forever, but in each reflection, the image in the mirror is slightly smaller than the image it reflects.  The images get smaller and smaller until they are no longer visible.  This is an example of a negative feedback loop: the output (the reflection) reduces the input; it makes the input smaller.

The runaway global warming hypothesis 
Warm temperature caused a glacier to melt. As the glacier melts, areas that were at one time covered by snow and ice are now water or land. Because snow and ice reflect heat but water and land absorb heat, this causes the glacier to melt faster as more snow and ice is melted. This type of positive feedback is an example of thermal runaway.

Cybernetics
Cybernetics 

American mathematician Norbert Wiener made feedback loops more well known in 1948 in his book Cybernetics. Cybernetics is the study of feedback loops and their role in communication and control.

Engineering
Systems theory
A phosphate is a salt of phosphoric acid. Phosphates are important in biochemistry.
Phosphates have the formula PO43- and a molar mass of 94.973 g/mol. An example of a phosphate is sodium phosphate. Three different types of phosphates are known.  They are orthophosphate, PO43-; metaphosphate, PO32-; and pyrophosphate, P2O73-. They have a combining power of 3.

Structure 
Phosphates are made of one phosphorus atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms. 
Many phosphates do not dissolve in water.

Sources

Phosphorus compounds
Ions
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is in the front part of the brain. It contains about 15 billion cells, and is the latest brain structure to have evolved.

Function 
The cerebrum takes in data from sight and other sense organs, and 'makes sense' of it (interprets it). It controls consciousness and action (voluntary muscular activity). It plans, thinks, judges, and organises speech and information. These are the so-called 'higher mental functions'.

Structure 
The cerebrum is divided into two cerebral hemispheres. These two cerebral hemispheres are connected by three bands of nerve fibres, or commissures, which connect the two halves. The outer layers of the cerebrum are made up of the grey matter, and is called the cerebral cortex. The inner layers are made up of the white matter (nerve fibres), and the basal ganglia.
In the cerebrum, there are specific regions for each kind of stimulus and its response. For example, occipital lobe is the region for visual reception, temporal lobe for auditory reception, and parietal lobe for touch, smell, temperature and conscious association. The frontal lobe takes action, based on sensory input and other factors.

References 

Anatomy of the brain
Karelia (Karelian and Finnish: Karjala, Finnish pronunciation: [ˈkɑrjɑlɑ]; Russian: Каре́лия, tr. Karélija, is an area in the eastern Nordic region.

Most of Karelia belongs to Russia today. Small parts of Karelia belong to Finland. On the Russian side of Karelia is the Republic of Karelia. On the Finnish side are the provinces of North Karelia and South Karelia.

The original people of Karelia are Karelians. Karelian people speak Karelian, a Finnic language very close to Finnish and Estonian. Karelians knew many old poems. Many poems of the Finnish book Kalevala are from the Karelians. Today in the Republic of Karelia, Karelians are a minority and Russians are a majority. Some people fear Karelian culture and language will die out, due to Soviet immigration to destroy the culture.

History of Russia
History of Finland
Kalevala is the Finnish national epic. This means it is a book that is very important to Finnish people.

Kalevala has many stories and folklores in it. The stories of Kalevala are poems that are very old. Long ago, people sang these poems. The poems have a unique metre that is not known outside Finnic languages. There are many themes in these stories from different times in the past. The oldest themes are from the Stone Age. Many of the poems are collected from Karelia and areas nearby.

Heroes have adventures in these stories. The most important heroes are Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, Lemminkäinen and Kullervo. The enemies of heroes are Louhi and Joukahainen. Many stories in Kalevala are about two countries fighting each other. These countries are the land of Kalevala and land of Pohjola. The Land of Kalevala is the land of Heroes. Pohjola is the land of enemies. Pohjola is an evil and cold place somewhere far north.
Elias Lönnrot was a man who collected these poems and made a book of them. Kalevala has been translated into many languages. There is also an English Kalevala.

Finnish mythology
King Edred or Eadred (c. 923 – November 23 955) was King of England from 946 until his death. He was a son of King Edward the Elder and Edgiva of Kent. He was king after his brother, King Edmund I. Like both his older brothers, Edred was successful against the Vikings. Edred was a very religious man, but had very poor health (he could barely eat his food). He died on November 23 955, in Frome, Somerset, and was buried in the Old Minster at Winchester. His nephew, King Edwy, became king after him.

Family tree

923 births
955 deaths
House of Wessex
People buried in Winchester Cathedral
Plant pathology, or phytopathology, is the study of plant diseases. Like animals, plants can get infected and damaged by viruses, bacteria and fungi.

It includes not only the harm done by pathogens (infectious organisms), but also harm done by environmental conditions.

Organisms which cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, plant viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants.

Not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by eating plant tissues. Plant pathology involves the study of pathogen identification, disease cycles, economic impact, plant disease epidemiology, plant disease resistance, how plant diseases affect humans and animals, and how to manage plant diseases.

Plant pathology is of fundamental importance to agriculture.

References 

Plants
Branches of botany
Pathology
Chytridiomycota is a phylum of the Fungi kingdom. The name comes from chytridium (from the Greek chytridion, meaning "little pot"): the structure containing unreleased spores.

The chytrids are the most primitive of the fungi. Many chytrids are found in fresh water. There are approximately 1,000 chytrid species, in 127 genera, distributed among 5 orders.

Chytrids get their energy mostly from non-living organic matter.

Both zoospores and gametes of the chytrids are mobile by their flagella, one whiplash per individual.

Some chytrid species are known to kill amphibians in large numbers. The actual process, however, is unknown.

References

Other websites 
 Chytrid Fungi Online : by the University of Alabama
 Impact of chytrid fungus on frogs (Foundation for National Parks & Wildlife) 
 'Amphibian Ark' aims to save frogs from fungus. . Unresponsive 2022.
 The Aquarium Wiki on Chytrid Fungus and how it impacts amphibians kept as domestic pets.

Fungi
Protista
This is a list of traditional abbreviations for U.S. states and territories These abbreviations (short names) were used in mailing addresses before the introduction of two-letter U.S. postal abbreviations. The traditional abbreviations are still commonly used in other ways besides mailing addresses. For example, they can be used in writing after a city (like in "Miami, Fla."). In 1987 the Secretary of Commerce switched to the two-letter State Alpha Code for state abbreviations.

States

Territories

References 
 The Riverside Publishing Company. (1984). Webster's II New Riverside University Dictionary.    
 Chicago Manual of Style and AP Style Manual state abbreviations
 FIPS State Codes of the US and Outlying Areas

Traditional abbreviation, List of U.S. states by
A saprophyte or saprotroph is an organism which gets its energy from dead and decaying organic matter. This may be decaying pieces of plants or animals. This means that saprophytes are heterotrophs. They are consumers in the food chain. 

This is the typical life-style of fungi. Some fungi are parasites on living organisms, but most are saprophytes. Many bacteria and protozoa are also saprophytes. Most dead organic matter is eventually broken down and used by bacteria and fungi. Slime moulds are also saprophytes, as well as consuming bacteria. Examples of saprophytes are cheese mold, and yeast. The term "saprophyte" refers specifically to fungal and bacterial saprotrophs; animal saprotrophs are known as saprozoites.
Other terms, such as 'saprotroph' or 'saprobe' may be used instead of saprophyte. Strictly speaking, -phyte means 'plant'. The problem is that no embryophytes (land plants) are true saprotrophs, and bacteria and fungi are no longer considered plants. Nevertheless, saprophyte is such a well-known term that most writers continue to use it.

Myco-heterotrophy 
A heterotroph is a general term for an organism that needs organic material to get its carbon for growth and development. Many plants which lack chlorophyll need fungi to break down organic material for them. Traditionally, they were called saprophytes. Now the process is given a new name: myco-heterotrophy. 

Biology
Ecology
Giacomo Puccini (23 December 1858 - 29 November 1924) was the most famous Italian opera composer after Verdi. He wrote 16 operas. Most of them are performed very often today. Many of his operatic songs are known by many people, especially the aria Nessun dorma from Turandot which was sung by Luciano Pavarotti for the BBC’s television coverage of the Football World Cup which was held in Italy in 1990.
Early life 
Puccini was born in Lucca, Tuscany into a musical family. He was expected to follow the family tradition and become a church organist. He started playing the organ in churches near Lucca. He liked to improvise on the organ, playing popular tunes from Verdi’s operas. He soon realized that he wanted to be an opera composer. Eventually he persuaded his family to let him study at the Milan Conservatory. His earliest compositions showed that he had a great talent for writing beautiful melodies and that he was good at writing for the orchestra. His first opera to be published, Edgar, had a story similar to that of Bizet’s Carmen, but it was not a suitable story for Puccini.
Works
Manon Lescaut was the first opera for which Puccini chose the story himself. It is the same story as Massenet’s opera Manon. This made Puccini internationally famous. His next opera, La bohème, produced in 1896, is often thought to be his best opera. He worked with two poets on this opera and, although they quarrelled a lot, the result was a work in which the music flowed beautifully like a conversation. 

His next opera was Tosca. When it was first performed in Rome in 1900 there were rumours that a bomb would be thrown, but nothing happened. Tosca was a great success. However, Madama Butterfly was hissed and booed at its first performance in Milan’s famous opera house La Scala in 1904.
It was at this time that Puccini married. He already had a son by Elvira, his wife, who had been married to someone else. When her husband died, she was able to marry Puccini. The marriage was not without difficulties. Elvira accused Puccini of having an affair with their servant girl. This servant girl committed suicide and there was a court case which resulted (after an autopsy) in Elvira being found innocent. Puccini was very upset by all this and did not compose much for several years.

When he finally started writing again his new opera La fanciulla del West was set in the American West at the time of the Goldrush. The music has very Impressionistic harmonies like that of Debussy. The way he writes for the orchestra shows the influence of Richard Strauss. The opera was first performed in New York. The world-famous tenor Enrico Caruso sang the main hero part and Arturo Toscanini was the conductor. With such a star cast it had to be a great success.
Puccini followed this by writing an operetta and two one-act operas. The best of these is Gianni Schicchi His last opera is Turandot, which has a fairy-tale like story. While he was working very hard at it he developed throat cancer. He died of complication of the disease in autumn 1924 in Brussels. The whole of Italy went into mourning and Mussolini spoke at the funeral. Puccini had not quite managed to finish Turandot. A man called Franco Alfano finished it using the sketches that Puccini had left.

1858 births
1924 deaths
20th-century Italian composers
Cancer deaths in Belgium
Deaths from throat cancer
People from Lucca
Romantic composers
The Pharaoh Hound or Tesem is a breed of dog. He's Face was taken as modell for  Anubis. Pharaoh Hounds always have a bright orange colour coat. They may have a small white spot on the front of their body. They need lots of physical exercise, and they are fast runners and can jump high. They need little brushing because their fur is very short. In the past, people used them to hunt rabbits. Now people keep them as pets.

Dog breeds
Rare dog breeds
FCI breeds
National symbols of Malta
The mycelium is the part of a fungus that is usually underground (or inside some another substance). It is composed of hyphae, which look like threads, or rootlets. The mat of hyphae may be very thickly woven. The fungus uses it to extract nutritients. The hyphae are usually syncytic, that is, they do not have complete cell walls. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other natural materials.  

A mycelium may be tiny, forming a colony that is too small to see, or it may be extremely large and cover the floors of a large forest.

The part of the fungus which is most visible is the reproductive body. This is often, but not always, the stem and hat of the mushroom.

Fungi
Lviv () is the capital city of Lviv Oblast in Ukraine. 860,000 people live in Lviv. 88% of the people living there are Ukrainian, 8% are Russian, and 1% are Polish. An extra 200,000 people commute to Lviv every day for work.

During the city's history, it was ruled by many countries. When part of Poland it was called Lwów (pronounced and sometimes spelled Lvov). In German, it was known as Lemberg, that was part of the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empires and again under Nazi German occupation. From 1350 until 1772 it belonged to the Kingdom of Poland and from 1918 to 1939 to the Republic of Poland.

References 

 
1240s establishments in Europe
Capital cities in Europe
An orchestra pit is the space where an orchestra plays in a theatre or opera house.  The actors or singers are on the stage, and the orchestra pit is normally lower than the stage so that the audience can watch the play or opera.  Depending on where they sit, the audience may just be able to see the heads of the musicians in the orchestra pit.  It is important that singers can see the conductor so that they can watch the beat out of the corner of their eye.  Opera houses nowadays often have close-circuit television monitors at the sides so that singers can watch the conductor even when they are not facing him.

The orchestra pit in the Bayreuth Festspielhaus is unusual.  This opera house was designed by the composer Richard Wagner for the performance of his own operas.  He did not want the audience to be able to see the orchestra at all, so it is very low.  The orchestra members do not have to dress up in ties and jackets because they cannot be seen anyway.

Theater
A will-o'-the-wisp or ignis fatuus (Medieval Latin: "foolish fire") is a ghostly light.  It is seen by travellers at night, especially over bogs, swamps or marshes. 

Usually will o' the wisp looks like a ball of light or a small flame. UFOs and some ghost lights are different, they are usually in the sky while will o' the wisps are near ground.

It looks like a flickering lamp and is said to go farther back if approached.  This draws travellers from the safe paths. This is a folk belief in a lot of English folklore and in much of European folklore.  They are often said to be the work of fairies or elemental spirits.  Some people think will o' the wisps are souls, spirits or spaceships.
Scientists try to use a natural explanation. Some say they are a gas, like methane, that goes up from the ground and burns. Other people say they are electric things, like ball lightning. One flying ball of light was explained: it was an owl that had a bright stomach. Sometimes animals or fungus make some light - this is called bioluminescence by scientists or foxfire. Sometimes diphosphine (P2H4) is also produced over marshes, which are highly flammable. Therefore, it burns in air and causes a flickering glow.

There are many old and new stories about will o' the wisps around the world. These lights have different names in different cultures and languages. Some of the names are jack-o'-lantern, hinkypunk, hobby lantern in English.

Reported light locations

Europe
 Ferbane in Ireland
 Hessdalen light in Norway
 Martebo lights in Sweden
 Paasselkä devil in Finland
 Virvatuluke in Estonia

North America
Canada
 Fireship of Baie des Chaleurs in New Brunswick
 St. Louis Light in Saskatchewan
United States
 Arbyrd/Senath Light of Missouri
 Bragg Road ghost light (Light of Saratoga) of Texas
 Brown Mountain Lights of North Carolina
 Gurdon light of Arkansas
 Hornet ghost light or Spooklight of Missouri-Oklahoma state line
 Maco light of North Carolina
 Marfa lights of Texas
 Oviedo Lights of Florida
 The Paulding Light of Michigan's Upper Peninsula
 Skinwalker Ranch lights of Utah

Related pages
 Omphalotus olearius

References

Folklore
Ghost lights are lights in the air that are not well understood by scientists. There are few reports of ghost light sightings. Ghost lights can be close to ground or in the sky. Ghost lights close to ground are commonly called "will o' the wisp" while ghost lights in the sky are often called UFOs. There are very different kinds of ghost lights: some resemble balls of light, others look like flame, and some look like a bright cloud. Many ghost lights move.

Different cultures have understood ghost lights differently. People believed that they are dragons, spirits or ghosts. Today some believe they are spaceships. There are many theories about what ghost lights are. Some people say they are methane gas that comes from ground and burns in the air. Others say they are electric things like ball lightning. The fact that some animals and fungus glows may explain some ghost lights.

Examples

These are examples of known ghost lights at different places:
Australia
 Min Min lights
Finland
Paasselkä devil
 Norway
 Hessdalen light
 Canada
 Baie Chaleur Fireship
 St. Louis Light
 Sweden
 Martebo lights
 Thailand
 Mekong lights (Nekha lights)
Italia
Fuoco Fatuo
 United States
 Arkansas
 Crossett Light
 Gurdon Light
 North Carolina
 Brown Mountain Lights
 Maco light
 Georgia
 Surrency Spooklight
 Indiana
 Moody's Light
 Michigan Upper Peninsula
 The Paulding Light
 Missouri
 Hornet ghost light
 Ozark Spooklight
 Oklahoma
 Spooklight (same as Hornet ghost light, at the Oklahoma-Missouri line)
 Texas
 Bragg Road ghost light ( Light of Saratoga )
 Marfa lights
 Utah
 Skinwalker Ranch
 Virginia
 Cohoke light

Folklore
Light
Roman Jacek Giertych is a former Minister of Education in Poland.  He was born February 27, 1971 in Śrem.

Biography 
Roman Giertych comes from a family of Polish politicians, being a son of Maciej Giertych and a grandson of Jędrzej Giertych.

His brother (holding a Ph.D. himself) said he was a young bookworm who made dozens of books, especially on history. He improved in history throughout his school years while his grades in other subjects remained normal.

He graduated from Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań with a master's degrees in both law and history. In 1989, he reactivated the far-right "All-Polish Youth" (Młodzież Wszechpolska) organization, becoming its chairman; he remains honorary chairman to this day. For several years he was a member of the National-Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne) and the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe), which went with several other organizations to form the League of Polish Families (Liga Polskich Rodzin, LPR) in 2001.
Other websites 
Roman Giertych - sejm page  (in Polish)
The page of opponents Giertych (Polish)

Giertych, Roman
1971 births
Living people
Polish lawyers
Smoothies are a type of cold drink made from a liquid (either milk, fruit juice, or water), crushed ice or ice cubes, different fruits (such as banana, strawberries, or pineapple). Sometimes other foods are added to smoothies, such as yogurt, honey, maple syrup or ice cream. Smoothies are blended with an electric blender until the fruit and ice is puréed (made smooth). 

People usually drink smoothies from a tall glass or cup, and use a plastic drinking straw to suck it into their mouth. Some dieticians think that drinking smoothies is not as good as eating the original fruit, because the smoothie has less fibre, and does not provide exercise for the jaw and other digestive processes which eating the fruit would give.

Smoothies are similar to milk shakes. Milk shakes are also a cold drink made with an electric blender. Milk shakes are usually made with milk, ice cream, and sweet syrups, such as chocolate syrup.

Related pages

 Milk shake

Smoothie
Groove could mean:
 Groove (engineering), a slot cut into hard material
 Groove (joinery), a slot cut parallel to the grain
 Groove (music)
 Groove (film)
 Microsoft Office Groove
 Groove metal, a subgenre of heavy metal music
 The Groove, a US radio station.
 The Groove (band), an Australian rock/pop band of the 1960s.

Related pages
 Groovy
A sheave (pronounced "sheev") is a wheel or roller with a groove along its edge for holding a belt, rope or cable.  When hung between two supports with a belt, rope or cable, one or more sheaves make up a pulley.  The words sheave and pulley are sometimes used interchangeably.

Tools
A UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) is any object flying in the sky which cannot be identified by the person who sees it. Sometimes the object is investigated. If people can still not figure out what the object is after an investigation, it is called a UFO. If they figure out what the object is, it can no longer be called a UFO because it has been identified.

Even though UFOs can be anything, people often use the word UFO when they are talking about alien spacecraft. Flying saucer is another word that is often used to describe an unidentified flying object.

Identified flying objects (IFOs) 
Studies estimate that 50-90% of all reported UFO sightings are identified later. Usually 10-20% are never identified. Studies also show that very few UFO sightings are hoaxes (people trying to trick other people). Most UFOs are actually natural or man-made objects that looked strange.
80-90% of IFOs are identified as one of three different things: 
 astronomical causes (for example: planets, stars, or meteors)
 aircraft
 balloons (including weather balloons)

10-20% of IFOs are other causes (such as birds, clouds, mirages, searchlights, etc.)

References 
 Allan Hendry, The UFO Handbook: A Guide to Investigating, Evaluating, and Reporting UFO Sightings, 1979, Doubleday & Co.,

Other websites 
 Wikinews - UFO Archive
 CIA educational summary on UFO  (working link or what? Maybe it should be used this link  instead?)
 NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts
 BBC article on Mexican Air-force videotape
 NASA UFO Hacker Video Interview 
 Popularmechanics Article - When UFOs Arrive: February 2004 Cover Story 

 
Pseudoscience
The Second War of Scottish Independence began in 1333 when Edward III of England did not accept the 1328 Treaty of Northampton any more, under which England recognised the legitimacy of the dynasty established by Robert Bruce.  Edward was determined to support the claim of Edward Balliol, the son of the former king, John Balliol, over David II, Bruce's son and heir.  Balliol had ruled in Scotland for a short time in the autumn of 1332, but was thrown out of the country later in the year.  The war itself lasted until 1357, when David II was released from English captivity.  English involvement in Scotland was also one of the factors that lead to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France in 1337.

Related pages
Wars of Scottish Independence
First War of Scottish Independence

References
PRIMARY
References
PRIMARY

 Anonimalle Chronicle, 1333-81, ed. V. H. Galbraith, 1927.
 Bower, Walter, Scotichronicon, ed. D. E. R. Watt, 1987-96.
 Brut, or the Chronicles of England, ed. F. W. D. Brie, 1906.
 Capgrave, John, The Book of the Illustrious Henries, ed. F. Hingeston, 1858.
 Calendar of Documents Relating to Scotland, ed. J. Bain, 1857.
 Fordun, John, Chronicles of the Scottish Nation, ed. W. F. Skene, 1872.
 Gray, Thomas, Scalicronica, ed. H. Maxwell, 1913.
 The Lanercost Chronicle, ed. H. Maxwell, 1913.
 Wyntoun, Andrew, The Original Chronicle of Scotland, ed. F. J. Amours, 1907.

SECONDARY
SECONDARY

 Balfour-Melville, E. W. M, Edward III and David II, 1954.
 Campbell, T., England, Scotland and the Hundred Years War, in Europe in the Late Middle Ages, ed. J. Hale et al., 1970.
 Duncan, A. A. M., Honi soit qui mal y pense: David II and Edward III, in the Scottish Historical Review, vol. 67, 1988.
 Nicholson, R., Edward III and the Scots, 1965.
 Nicholson, R., Scotland: the Later Middle Ages, 1974.
 Brown, C.K., "The Second Scottish War of Independence", 2001
 Paterson, R. C., Edward Balliol, in Military History, April 2003.
 Reid, R. C., Edward de Balliol, in Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Antiquarian and Natural History Society, vol. 35 1956-7.    

Wars of independence
History of the British Isles
Wars involving England
14th century in Scotland
This is a list of postal code abbreviations used by the United States Postal Service. They are used to help the postal service process mail.  In other contexts, such as newspaper articles, the traditional abbreviations for the states are used.

States 

In alphabetical order by postal abbreviation (not by state):

Other codes

Federal districts

Territories

Freely associated states

Armed Forces

Codes that are no longer used

References

United States Postal Service
Booing means shouting "BOO!" several times. When people do this, it means that they do not like it. It is the opposite of applause (clapping to show that the performance was good).

If people shout "boo" after a performance (for example, a concert, play or opera) they are showing that they did not like it. 

Booing and hissing used to be very common, especially at the opera. In the early days of opera (from the 17th to the early 19th century) opera audiences often behaved badly. They went to the opera to chat with their friends, to cheer their favorite singers and to boo the singers they did not like, not to listen carefully to the music.

Booing has recently become less common in Western culture except at sports events because people think it is rude. Audiences today are more likely simply not to clap if they do not like a performance. Slow hand-clapping is also a way of showing sarcastic applause.

Related pages
Applause
Claque

Non-verbal communication