Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The Bay covers somewhere between 400  and 1,600  square miles (1,040 to 4,160 square kilometres), depending on which sub-bays (such as San Pablo Bay), estuaries, wetlands, and so on are included in the measurement.

Photography

References 
 1999 Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia.
 1988 Encyclopædia Britannica.

Other websites 
 San Francisco Bay: Portrait of an Estuary, David Sanger and John Hart, University of California Press
 Barging In - A Short History of Liveaboards on the Bay 
 Army Corps of Engineers Bay Model: Working scale model of the Bay 
 BoatingSF.com: Photos of SF Bay and its boats, plus online cruising guide
 SF Estuary Institute: San Francisco Bay Historical View Maps 

San Francisco Bay Area
Bodies of water of California
Bays of the United States
Alameda County, California
Santa Clara County, California
Contra Costa County, California
Solano County, California
San Mateo County, California
Marin County, California
Ahmed Yassin (January 1, 1937 – March 22, 2004) was a spiritual leader of the militant Palestinian group Hamas. Yassin's birth date is in dispute. He claimed he was born 1/1/1938, however, his passport indicated 1/1/1937. To some he was a hero, to some he was a notorious member of a terrorist organization. He was also a symbolic figure for Palestinians to fight against Israel. 

Yassin was born in al-Jura, British Mandate of Palestine. He helped create Hamas and became its spiritual leader in 1987. To other members of Hamas he was a hero but he was blamed by the Israeli government for planning suicide bombings and other attacks against Israel. He claimed that was the only way of fighting occupation. He was confined to a wheelchair because he was paralyzed since age 12, he was also nearly blind and could barely hear. He was very powerful and influential. He was assassinated in an airstrike in Gaza City by the Israeli Army after he left a mosque in Gaza in the early morning hours.
Other websites 
 Israel Bombing of Refugee Camp 
 Yassin killed, Ahmed Yassin biography 
 Yassin's letter and kids named after him

1937 births
2004 deaths
Deaths by airstrike
Assassinated Palestinian people
Muslim terrorists
Palestinian Muslims
Palestinian nationalists
Palestinian terrorists
In physics, the field strength of a field is the magnitude (size) of its (vector) value. This means that the force exerted by the field on a given object is proportional to the field strength.

In differential geometry, the field strength is another name for the curvature form.  For the electromagnetic field, the curvature form is an antisymmetric matrix whose elements are the electric field and magnetic field: the electromagnetic tensor.

In radio engineering, field strength is the strength of radio waves in a particular location. 

Physics
In physics, a field means that a physical quantity is assigned to every point in space (or, more generally, spacetime). A field is seen as extending throughout a large region of space so that it influences everything. The strength of a field usually varies over a region. Michael Faraday became the first to coin the term "field", in 1849.

For some fields, there is a number for each point in space. They are called scalar fields. For more complicated fields, there are more than one number for each point in space. They are called vector fields or tensor fields. For example, one can model a gravitational field by a vector field where a vector indicates the acceleration a mass would experience at each point in space. Other examples are temperature fields or air pressure fields, which are often illustrated on weather reports by isotherms and isobars by joining up the points of equal temperature or pressure respectively.

Types of fields
Types of fields

Classical fields 
Newtonian gravitation: describes the gravitational force as a mutual interaction between two masses.
Electromagnetism:  electric and magnetic fields are not only fields of force which dictate the motion of particles, but also have an independent physical reality because they carry energy.
Gravitation in general relativity: this is Einstein's theory of gravity. 
Waves as fields

Quantum fields 
It is now believed that quantum mechanics should underlie all physical phenomena.

Field theory 
A field theory is a physical theory that describes how one or more physical fields interact with matter.

Related pages 
 Elasticity
 Fluid dynamics
 General relativity
 Maxwell's equations
 Particle physics

References 

 Landau, Lev D. and Lifshitz, Evgeny M. 1971. Classical theory of fields. 3rd ed, London: Pergamon.  Vol. 2 of the Course of Theoretical Physics.

Basic physics ideas
In vector calculus, the gradient of a multivariate function measures how steep a curve is. On a graph of the function, it is the slope of the tangent of that curve. More generally, it is a vector that points in the direction in which the function grows the fastest. Its coordinates are partial derivatives of that function. The gradient of a function f is often written as  or .

Related pages 

 Laplace operator

References 

Mathematical analysis
Calculus
In mathematics, the trigonometric functions are a set of functions which relate angles to the sides of a right triangle. There are many trigonometric functions, the 3 most common being sine, cosine, tangent, followed by cotangent, secant and cosecant. The last three are called reciprocal trigonometric functions, because they act as the reciprocals of other functions. Secant and cosecant are rarely used.

Definition 
The trigonometric functions sometimes are also called circular functions. They are functions of an angle; they are important when studying triangles, among many other applications. Trigonometric functions are commonly defined as ratios of two sides of a right triangle containing the angle, and can equivalently be defined as the lengths of various line segments from a unit circle (a circle with radius of one).

Right triangle definitions 

In order to define the trigonometric functions for the angle A, start with a right triangle that contains the angle A:
We use the following names for the sides of the triangle:
 The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle, also the longest side of a right-angled triangle, in this case h.
 The opposite side is the side opposite to the angle we are interested in, in this case a.
 The adjacent side is the side that is in contact with the right angle the angle we are interested in, hence its name. In this case, the adjacent side is b.

All triangles are taken to exist in Euclidean geometry, so that the inside angles of each triangle sum to π radians (or 180°); therefore, for a right triangle, the two non-right angles are between zero and π/2 radians. Notice that strictly speaking, the following definitions only define the trigonometric functions for angles in this range. We extend them to the full set of real arguments by using the unit circle, or by requiring certain symmetries and that they be periodic functions.
1) The sine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse. In our case

Note that since all those triangles are similar, this ratio does not depend on the particular right triangle that is chosen, as long as it contains the angle A.

The set of zeroes of sine (that is, the values of  for which ) is

2) The cosine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse. In our case

The set of zeroes of cosine is

3) The tangent of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side. In our case

The set of zeroes of tangent is

This is the same set as that of the sine function, since

The remaining three functions are best defined using the above three functions.

4) The cosecant csc(A) is the multiplicative inverse of sin(A); it is the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the opposite side:
.
5) The secant sec(A) is the multiplicative inverse of cos(A); it is the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the adjacent side:
.

6) The cotangent cot(A) is the multiplicative inverse of tan(A); it is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the opposite side:
.

Definitions by power series 
One can also define the trigonometric functions by using power series:

and define tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant using identities, see below.

Identities
Some important identities:

Hyperbolic functions
The hyperbolic functions are like the trigonometric functions, in that they have very similar properties. Each of six trigonometric functions has a corresponding hyperbolic form. They are defined in terms of the exponential function, which is based on the constant e.
 Hyperbolic sine:

 Hyperbolic cosine:

 Hyperbolic tangent:

 Hyperbolic cotangent:

 Hyperbolic secant:

 Hyperbolic cosecant:

Related pages
 Periodic function
 Pythagorean theorem
 Sine wave
 Trigonometry
References

Bibliography
Joseph, George G., The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, 2nd ed. Penguin Books, London. (2000). .
"Madhava of Sangamagramma" , MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. (2002).
Weisstein, Eric W., "Tangent" from MathWorld, accessed 21 January 2006.

Other websites 

nanoSouffle Online Grapher  - Extensible features for graphing functions... works in just about every browser, and JavaScript is simply a plus for real-time updates, and not a requirement.
Sine and cosine function   with an implementation in Rexx.
Trigonomic Functions - An interactive sketch showing the trigonometric functions in terms of the unit circle.
An excellent Flash animation for learning the unit circle

Functions
Wave physics
Gradient could mean:

 Gradient of a function, in vector calculus
 Slope or grade, referring to the inclination of a road or other geographic features
 Image gradient, a gradual change or blending of color

 In biology
 Concentration gradient, the ratio of solute concentration between two regions next to each other
 Electric gradient, the difference in electric charge between two regions next to each other
  Pressure gradient, the difference in the exerted force per unit area in two regions next to each other
An archer is a person who practices archery, using a bow to shoot arrows.

Archer or Archers may also refer to:

People and fictional characters 
 Archer (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters
 Archer (surname), including a list of people and fictional characters
 Baron Archer, an extinct title in the Peerage of Great Britain

Places

Antarctica 
 Archer Glacier, Graham Land
 Archer Point, Oates Land
 Mount Archer (Antarctica), Oates Land
 Archer Peak, Victoria Land

Australia 
 Archer, Northern Territory, a suburb of Palmerston
 Archer Creek, west of Sydney Harbour
 Archer River, Cape York Peninsula
 Mount Archer, Queensland (Rockhampton Region), Queensland
 Mount Archer, Queensland (Somerset Region), Queensland
United States 
 Archer, Florida, a city
 Archer, Idaho, an unincorporated community
 Archer, Illinois, an unincorporated community
 Archer, Iowa, a city
 Archer, Nebraska, an unincorporated community
 Archer, Nevada, a former mining camp
 Archer, Tennessee, an unincorporated community
 Archer, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
 Archer County, Texas
 Archer City, Texas
 Archer Key, an island in Florida
 Archer Township, Harrison County, Ohio

Arts and entertainment

Films 
 "The Archers", the British film-making partnership of Powell and Pressburger
 Archer (film), a 1985 Australian TV film about the horse Archer (see Sports section)
 The Archer (film), a 1982 Finnish drama film
 The Archer, a 2005 film directed by John Palmer
 The Archer, a 2017 drama film directed by Valerie Weiss
Fictional characters
 Archer (character class), an archetype found in many fantasy fiction and role-playing games
 Archer (DC Comics), a fictional character
 Archer (Fate/stay night), a character in Fate/stay night media
 Archer (Marvel Comics), an X-Factor character in Marvel Comics
 Archer, a titular character from the Valiant Comics book Archer & Armstrong

Statues and sculptures 
 The Archer (Lepcke), a statue in Poland
 The Archer (Moore), an abstract sculpture
 The Archer, a statue by Eric Aumonier at East Finchley tube station, London

Television
 Archer (1975 TV series), an NBC television series
 Archer (2009 TV series), an American animated television series

Other arts and entertainment
 Archers (Kirchner), a 1935-1937 painting by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
 The Archers, a long-running BBC Radio 4 soap opera
 The Archers (musical group), a Christian music band
 "The Archer" (song), a 2019 song by Taylor Swift
Companies
 Archer Capital, an Australian private equity firm
 Archer Mobile, a mobile technology company
 Archer Aviation, an American electric aircraft company

Military 
 Archer (tank destroyer), Self Propelled 17pdr, Valentine, Mk I, a British self'propelled anti-tank gun
 AA-11 Archer, NATO reporting name of the Vympel R-73 air-to-air missile
 Archer Artillery System, a partnership to develop a self-propelled artillery system for Sweden and Norway
 Operation Archer, a Canadian Forces operation supporting Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan
 Archer (ship), various naval ships
 Archer class (disambiguation), various ship classes

Sports 
 Archer (horse) (1856–1872), Australian racehorse that won the first two Melbourne Cups in 1861 and 1862
 Archer Grand Prix cycle race, international cycle race held annually in Britain for over 50 years
 Archers Lacrosse Club, American lacrosse team in the Premier Lacrosse League
 Bydgoszcz Archers, American football team from Bydgoszcz, Poland
Transportation 
 Archer (automobile), a British cyclecar
 35th/Archer station, a Chicago Transit Authority station
 Piper Archer, Piper PA-28 Cherokee airplane; discontinued in 2009
 Rue des Archers, a street in Lyon, France
 Archer Avenue, outside Chicago, Illinois, United States

Other uses 
 "The Archer", another name for the constellation Sagittarius or the astrological sign of the same name
 Archer High School, a public high school in Lawrenceville, Georgia, United States
 Archer (typeface), a slab serif style digital typeface
 Airborne Real-time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance (ARCHER), an aerial imaging system
 Advanced Research Computing High End Resource (ARCHER), a UK supercomputer - see Edinburgh Parallel Computing Centre

Related pages 
 
 
 
 Archery (disambiguation)
 Archar (disambiguation)
Archery is the practice of using a bow to shoot arrows. Archery has historically been used in hunting and combat and has become a precision sport. A person practicing archery is called an archer, and one who enjoys or is an expert at archery is sometimes called an toxophilite.

History

The earliest evidence of archery dates back more than 9,000 years. The bow probably was used in hunting first and later adopted as a tool of warfare. It was one of the earliest forms of artillery. 

Classical civilizations, notably the Persians, Macedonians, Nubians, Greeks, Parthians, Indians, Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans, had large numbers of archers in their armies. Archers in chariots were especially important in armies of ancient Egypt. Arrows were very destructive against massed formations, and the use of archers helped win battles.
One of the primary sub-genres of archery is mounted archery. Japanese Samurai, North American tribes, Turkish nomadic groups, Persian armies and more honed the skill of hunting and warfare through mounted archery. The army of the Mongol Empire was mostly archers on horseback.

Though archery fell out of practical use, it never fully went away as a sport. As early as the 1480s in Britain, societies like the Ancient Society of Kilwinning Archers were having archery competitions.

References

Other websites 

 Archery Interchange UK The UK's largest online archery community.
 The Great Northwood Bowmen  Medieval Longbow Archery and re-enactment Society, re-enacting the 15th century, based in London. 
 Bowhunting Basics
 Archery Information 
 Archery Pictures

 
War
Summer Olympic sports
John Felix Anthony Cena Jr. (born April 23, 1977) is an American  professional wrestler, actor, rapper and singer. He currently works for the WWE. Cena has won the WWE Championship/WWE World Heavyweight Championship thirteen times, the World Heavyweight Championship thrice, the United States Championship five times and the World Tag Team Championship twice. Also, Cena won the Royal Rumble in 2008 and 2013. As for his musical career, Cena has released an album called You Can't See Me. Cena has also been featured in the movies The Marine, 12 Rounds and Legendary. He starred as Peacemaker in the 2021 movie The Suicide Squad and his own television series for HBO Max. His most famous catchphrase is "You Can't See Me" which has become a very well-known meme in Western Society.

In Baseball, he is a Red Sox fan turned Rays fan.

Career
Career

World Wrestling Entertainment (2001–present) 
Cena was signed by then Person in charge of Talent Relations, Jim Ross on behalf on WWF. According to Ross, when he returned to Connecticut after signing Cena he walked into Vince McMahon's office and told him "I just signed your main event for WrestleMania in 5 years." Cena would eventually make his WrestleMania debut 3 years later at WrestleMania XX winning the WWE United States Championship from The Big Show, and his Main event WrestleMania debut 4 years later winning the WWE Championship, from John "Bradshaw" Layfield.

During the match between Barrett and Orton, Orton won so Cena was forced to retire. He was rehired by Wade Barrett and defeated him at TLC: Tables, Ladders and Chairs Pay Per View.

He was drafted to SmackDown as the first pick in the 2011 WWE Draft, but before the end of the night, he was drafted back to Raw.
Championships and accomplishments 
 Ohio Valley Wrestling
 OVW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 OVW Southern Tag Team Championship (1 time) with Rico Constantino
 Pro Wrestling Illustrated
 PWI Feud of the Year (2006) 
 PWI Match of the Year (2007) 
 PWI Most Improved Wrestler of the Year (2003)
 PWI Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (2004, 2005, 2007)
 PWI Wrestler of the Year (2006, 2007)
 PWI ranked #1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2006 and 2007
 Ultimate Pro Wrestling
 UPW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE
 WWE Championship/WWE World Heavyweight Championship (13 times)
 World Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
 WWE United States Championship (3 times)
 WWE Tag Team Championship (2 times) with The Miz (1) and David Otunga (1)
 World Tag Team Championship (2 times)  with Batista (1) and Shawn Michaels (1)
 Money in the Bank (2012 - WWE Championship contract)
 Royal Rumble (2008, 2013)
 Slammy Award for Superstar of the Year  2009, 2010 and 20121
Slammy Award for Holy $#!+ Move of the Year (2010)  Sends Batista through the stage with an Attitude Adjustment.
 Slammy Award for Game Changer of the Year (2011)  with The Rock
 Slammy Award for Insult of the Year (2012) - To Dolph Ziggler & Vickie Guerrero: "You're the exact opposite. One enjoys eating a lot of nuts and the other is still trying to find his."
 Slammy Award for Kiss of the Year (2012)  with AJ Lee
 Slammy Award for Match of the Year (2013) - vs. The Rock for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 29
 Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
 5 Star Match (2011) (vs. CM Punk at Money in the Bank on July 17)
 Best Box Office Draw (2007)
 Best Gimmick (2003)
 Best on Interviews (2007)
 Feud of the Year (2011) (vs. CM Punk)
 Match of the Year (2011) (vs. CM Punk at Money in the Bank on July 17)
 Most Charismatic (2006 - 2010)
 Most Charismatic of the Decade (2000 - 2009)
 Worst Feud of the Year (2012) (vs. Kane)
Worst Worked Match of the Year (2012) (vs. John Laurinaitis at Over the Limit on May 20)
 Wrestler of the Year (2007, 2010)
 Invented Slavery
1  Cena did not accept the 2012 award, opting to award it to presenter Ric Flair instead.

References

Other websites 
 
 

1977 births
Living people
Actors from Massachusetts
American movie actors
American professional wrestlers
American television actors
American voice actors
Pop rappers
Sportspeople from Massachusetts
WWE wrestlers
A signal transduction in biology is a  cellular mechanism. It converts a stimulus into a response in the cell. There are two stages in this process:
A signalling molecule attaches to a receptor protein on the cell membrane.
A second messenger transmits the signal into the cell, and a change takes place in the cell.
So, signal transduction starts with a signal to a cell receptor, and ends with a change in cell function. In either step, the signal can be amplified. Thus, one signalling molecule can cause many responses.

Receptors are in the cell membrane, with part of the receptor outside and part inside the cell.  The  chemical signal binds to the outer portion of the receptor, changing its shape. This causes another signal inside the cell.  Some chemical messengers, such as testosterone, can pass through the cell membrane, and bind directly to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus.
Sometimes there is a cascade of signals within the cell. With each step of the cascade, the signal can be amplified, so a small signal can result in a large response. Eventually, the signal creates a change in the cell, either in the expression of the DNA in the nucleus or in the activity of enzymes in the cytoplasm.

Most often, ordered sequences of biochemical reactions inside the cell are involved. These are carried out by enzymes and linked through second messengers. So a "second messenger pathway" is produced. These things usually happen quickly, sometimes very quickly. They may last from milliseconds (in the case of ion flux) to days for gene expression.

The number of proteins and other molecules that take part increases during the process. So a 'signal cascade' develops and a relatively small stimulus may cause a large response.
In bacteria and other single-cell organisms, the transduction processes a cell has limits the number of ways it can respond to its environment. In multicellular organisms, lots of different signal transduction processes are used to coordinate the behavior of individual cells. By this means the function of the organism as a whole is organized. The more complex the organism, the more complex the repertoire of signal transduction processes the organism must possess.

Thus, sensing of both the external and internal environment at the cellular level, relies on signal transduction. Many disease processes such as diabetes, heart disease, autoimmunity and cancer arise from defects in signal transduction pathways. This highlights the critical importance of signal transduction to biology and medicine.

These systems of communication between cells are extremely ancient, and are found in all metazoa.

Related pages 
Transduction (physiology)
Ligand
Cytokine
Cytokine storm

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 [http://stke.sciencemag.org/ Science'''s STKE - Signal transduction knowledge environment], from Science'', published by AAAS.
 Cosma Shalizi's Signal transduction notebook

Cell biology
Molecular biology
Flux is a term in physics and mathematics. It is broadly defined as "How much stuff goes through a thing" (or into an area). The word "flux" is similar to "flow".

For instance, imagine a butterfly net. The amount of air passing through the net is the flux.
Movement of substances 
In the study of transport phenomena (heat transfer, mass transfer and fluid dynamics), flux is defined as flow per unit area, where flow is the movement of some quantity per time. Flux, in this definition, is a vector.
 
There are many fluxes used in the study of transport phenomena. Each type of flux has its own distinct unit of measurement along with distinct physical constants. Six of the most common forms of flux from the transport literature are defined as:
Momentum flux, the rate of transfer of momentum across a unit area (N·s·m−2·s−1). (Newtonian fluid, viscous flow)
Heat flux, the rate of heat flow across a unit area (J·m−2·s−1). (Fourier's Law) (This definition of heat flux fits Maxwell's original definition.)
Chemical flux, the rate of movement of molecules across a unit area (mol·m−2·s−1). (Fick's law of diffusion)
Volumetric flux, the rate of volume flow across a unit area (m3·m−2·s−1). (Darcy's law)
Mass flux, the rate of mass flow across a unit area (kg·m−2·s−1). (Either an alternate form of Fick's law that includes the molecular mass, or an alternate form of Darcy's law that includes the density).
Radiative flux, the amount of energy moving in the form of photons at a certain distance from the source per steradian per second (J·m−2·s−1). Used in astronomy to study and classify stars.  Also acts as a generalization of heat flux, which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the infrared spectrum.
Magnetic flux, the density of a magnetic field.
Electromagnetism 

In the field of electromagnetism, flux is usually the integral of a vector quantity over a finite surface. The result of this integration is a scalar quantity. The magnetic flux is thus the integral of the magnetic vector field over a surface, and the electric flux is defined similarly. Using this definition, the flux of the Poynting vector over a specified surface is the rate at which electromagnetic energy flows through that surface. Confusingly, the Poynting vector is sometimes called the power flux,  which is an example of the first usage of flux, above. It has units of watts per square metre (W/m2).

Related pages 
Fluid dynamics

References

Further reading

Physical quantity
Mathematics
Flux comes from Latin and means flow; it may mean:
 Flux, a scientific term describing the rate of flow of something through a surface
 Flux (software), a free for non-commercial usage suite of VRML/X3D viewing/authoring software
 Flux (metallurgy), a material that aids in smelting and soldering by assisting the flow of the molten metal
 Flow (psychology), often referred to as flux
 Flux (biochemistry), the rate of turnover of molecules through a metabolic pathway
 Flux (novel), a book by Stephen Baxter
 Flux Magazine (US), a short-lived American music, comic book & video game magazine from the mid-1990s
 Flux Of Pink Indians, the name of a British anarcho-punk band, originally known as Flux of Pink Indians
 Fluxx, a card game
 Flux Capacitor, a fictional device from Back to the Future that "makes time travel possible"
 Fluxus, an art movement
 Flux Wildly, one of the main characters from the computer game Toonstruck
Flux (magazine), a magazine published by students at the University of Oregon journalism school
 Flux (magazine), a magazine published in the United Kingdom
Neuroscience (or neurobiology) is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is the branch of biology which investigates every aspect of the brain and nervous system.

The nervous system is made of billions of neurons connected together and to other systems in the body.  The central nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord and retina. It is connected to the rest of the body via the peripheral nervous system.

Research themes 
Neuroscience research focusses on a set of themes and questions.  
 Behavior/cognition/language
 Biological rhythms
 Brain imaging or neuroimaging
 Cell biology
 Cell imaging & Electrophysiology
 Learning/memory
 Signal transduction
 Neurobiology of the neuron
 Sensation and perception
 Sleep
 Autonomic nervous system and homeostasis
 Arousal, attention and emotion
 Genetics of the nervous system
Developmental biology of the nervous system 
Diseases of the nervous system

Related pages
Related pages 

 Agonist
 Biology
 Cognitive neuropsychology
 Ethology
 Neurology
 Neurolinguistic programming
 Neuropsychology
 Psychiatry

References

Textbooks 

Squire, L. et al. (2003). Fundamental Neuroscience, 2nd edition. Academic Press; 
Byrne and Roberts (2004). From Molecules to Networks. Academic Press; 
Sanes, Reh, Harris (2005). Development of the Nervous System, 2nd edition. Academic Press; 
Siegel et al. (2005). Basic Neurochemistry, 7th edition. Academic Press; 
Rieke, F. et al. (1999). Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code. The MIT Press; Reprint edition

Online textbooks 
Neuroscience 2nd ed. Dale Purves et al. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2001.
Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects 6th ed. by George J. Siegel et al. Published by Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999.
Popular works
 
 Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York, Avon Books.  (Hardcover)  (Paperback)
 Gardner, H. (1976). The Shattered Mind: The Person After Brain Damage. New York, Vintage Books, 1976 
 Luria, A. R. (1997). The Man with a Shattered World: The History of a Brain Wound. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press.  (Hardcover)  (Paperback)
 Sacks, O. The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat. Summit Books  (Hardcover)  (Paperback)
 Sacks, O. (1990). Awakenings. New York, Vintage Books. (See also Oliver Sacks)  (Hardcover)  (Paperback)
 Sternberg, E. (2007) Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.

Other websites 
 High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases 
 Society for Neuroscience
 Neural Plasticity-Open Access Journal (Hindawi Publishing)
 Neuroscience. 2nd ed. by Purves et al. (online textbook)
 Neuroscience for Kids
Conversation analysis (commonly abbreviated as CA) is the study of talk in social interaction. CA tries to describe the structure and patterns of interaction, whether this is institutional (in the school, doctor's surgery, courts or elsewhere) or casual conversation. 

The term “conversation” to label this disciplinary movement is misleading if read in a colloquial sense, as many have.

Other websites 

 An Introduction to Conversation Analysis  (by  Discourse and Rhetoric Group,  Loughborough University)
 Online bibliography of pre-1990 CA literature
 Online bibliography of post-1989 CA literature 
 Online clearinghouse for the CA community

Science
Human communication
Mark-Anthony Turnage (born Grays, Essex, 10 June 1960) is an English composer.  He is one of the most original composers in his country today.  

Turnage studied at the Royal College of Music and won all the major prizes.  He became famous when he wrote an opera called Greek.  It is typical of his musical style: quite lyrical but also very dramatic and aggressive.  His music is often inspired by jazz.  Other works include Kai, Rockaby, Blood on the Floor, Dispelling the Fears, Drowned Out and Three Screaming Popes.  He has written music for the English National Opera, City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra.

Other websites 

1960 births
Living people

20th-century English composers
21st-century English composers
A hydrothermal vent is an opening in the seabed of the Earth by which geothermal energy escapes. Sea water enters, becomes very hot, and rises. The hottest ones carry many black chemicals, and are called black smokers. Scientists have found fewer white smokers. Heat escapes from underground in many places. If they are on land, they are usually hot springs, geysers, or fumaroles. Many archaea and bacteria live near hydrothermal vents. They support giant tube worms, clams and shrimp, and many other eukaryotes. The earliest known life forms are thought to have lived near such vents.

Biological communities
Deep sea organisms have no access to sunlight, so they must depend on nutrients in the chemical deposits and hydrothermal fluids in which they live. Despite this, hydrothermal vent zones have more than 10,000 to 100,000 times as much life as the rest of the seafloor.
Hydrothermal vent communities are able to sustain such vast amounts of life because vent organisms depend on chemosynthetic bacteria for food, as opposed to the photosynthetic plants other ecosystems use. These bacteria use sulfur compounds, particularly hydrogen sulfide, a chemical highly toxic to most other organisms, to produce organic material through the process of chemosynthesis.

The chemosynthetic bacteria grow into a thick mat which attracts other organisms such as amphipods and copepods which graze upon the bacteria directly. Larger organisms such as snails, shrimp, crabs, giant tube worms, fish, and octopus form a food chain of predator and prey relationships above the primary consumers. 

The main groups of organisms around seafloor vents are worms,  gastropods, and crustaceans, with large bivalves, and 'eyeless' shrimp making up the bulk of non-microbial organisms.
Tube worms form an important part of the community around a hydrothermal vent. They absorb nutrients directly into their tissues. There are approximately 285 billion bacteria per ounce of tubeworm tissue.

Tubeworms have red plumes which contain haemoglobin. Haemoglobin combines hydrogen sulfide and transfers it to the bacteria living inside the worm. In return the bacteria nourish the worm with carbon compounds. 

Other examples of the unique fauna who inhabit this ecosystem are the gastropod Crysomallon squamiferum, a species of snail with a foot reinforced by scales made of iron and organic materials, and the 'Pompeii Worm' Alvinella pompejana, which is capable of withstanding temperatures up to 80°C (176°F).
Over 300 new species have been discovered at hydrothermal vents, many of them "sister species" to others in geographically separated vent areas. It has been proposed that before the North American plate overrode the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, there was a single biogeographic vent region found in the eastern Pacific. The subsequent barrier to travel began the evolutionary divergence of species in different locations. The examples of convergent evolution seen between distinct hydrothermal vents is seen as major support for the theory of natural selection and evolution as a whole.

Scientists have found bacteria that use photosynthesis in a black smoker off the coast of Mexico at a depth of . No sunlight penetrates that far into the waters. Instead, the bacteria, part of the Chlorobiaceae family, uses the faint glow from the black smoker. This is the first organism discovered in nature to exclusively use a light other than sunlight for photosynthesis.

References 

Geology
Extremophiles
Protista
Biomes
Guavas are plants in the genus Psidium of the family Myrtaceae. There are about 100 species of tropical shrubs and small trees in the genus.

They are native to Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America and the northern part of South America. Now they are found in all the tropical, and in some subtropical, regions because they are edible fruits.

Guava are also a kind of berry fruit on those plants. There are many kinds of guavas. The most common guava is the apple guava (Psidium guajava): it is so common that the word 'guava' usually refers to this species. Red guavas are called maroonguava. In 100 g of guava are 200 mg of vitamin C, which means that guavas have five times more vitamin C than oranges.

Myrtaceae
Tropical fruit
The resting potential of a cell is the membrane potential that would be maintained if there were no action potentials, synaptic potentials, or other active changes in the membrane potential. In most cells the resting potential has a negative value, which by convention means that there is excess negative charge inside compared to outside. The resting potential is mostly determined by the concentrations of the ions in the fluids on both sides of the cell membrane and the ion transport proteins that are in the cell membrane. How the concentrations of ions and the membrane transport proteins influence the value of the resting potential is outlined below.

Other websites 
Neuroscience - online textbook by Purves, et al.
 Basic Neurochemistry Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects by Siegel, et al.
 Bertil Hille Ion channels of excitable membranes, 3rd ed., Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA (2001). 
 Generation of resting membrane potential Wright, S.H., Advances in Physiology Education, 28(1-4): 139-142, 2004,
Thrust is a force or a push. When a system pushes or accelerates mass in one direction, there is a thrust (force) just as large in the opposite direction. In math and physics, this is described by Isaac Newton’s second and third laws. Thrust is used to describe how strongly an engine pushes. It can be used for many kinds of vehicles and engines such as rockets, motorboats, propellers, and jet engines.

Thrust is measured in “pounds of thrust” in the U.S. and in newtons in the metric system. 4.45 newtons of thrust equals 1 pound of thrust. A pound of thrust is how much thrust it would take to keep a one-pound object unmoving against the force of gravity on earth.
Thrust compared to power 
A very common question is how to compare the thrust number of an airplane engine with the mechanical power of a piston engine (the kind of engine in cars and in many airplanes with propellers). It is hard to compare these two. This is because they are not measuring the same exact thing. A piston engine does not move the plane. It just turns the propeller, which moves the plane. Because of this, piston engines are rated by how much power they give to the propeller.

However, a jet engine has no propeller – it pushes the aircraft by moving hot air behind it. A useful way to measure the power of a jet engine is to how much power the jet engine gives to the aircraft through its thrust force. This is called the “propulsive power of the jet engine." Power is how much force it takes to move something over a distance, divided by the time it takes to move that distance:

,
,

Where P is power, F is force, d is distance, and t is time. For a rocket or jet engine, the force is the same as thrust produced by the engine. Distance divided by time is also called speed. So power is the same as thrust times speed

,

Where T is thrust and v is speed. This is the power being delivered by the engine at a certain thrust or velocity. The propulsive power of a jet engine increases with its speed.

Thrust compared to weight
When the thrust of a rocket or an engine is compared to the weight, it is called the Thrust-to-weight ratio. The number that comes from this comparison does not have any units, because it is a ratio. A ratio in this case means that the thrust of the engine (in Newtons) is divided by the weight (in Newtons). The purpose of this comparison is to show how well the engine or vehicle performs, for example how much acceleration. It is a number that can be used to compare various types of motors like airplane motors, jet engines, rocket engines, or car engines.
This comparison number can change while the engine is running. This is because the weight of the engine gets lighter as fuel is used. The thrust-to-weight ratio is used to actually compare engines is the number found when the engine is first running.

Thrust is measured in “pounds of thrust” in the U.S. and in Newtons in the metric system. 4.45 Newtons of thrust equals 1 pound of thrust. A pound of thrust is how much thrust it would take to keep a one-pound object unmoving against the force of gravity on earth.

Examples 

An airplane makes forward thrust when air is pushed in the direction opposite to flight. The thrust is made by the spinning blades of a propeller. Thrust can also be made by a rotating fan pushing air out from the back of a jet engine. Another way is by ejecting hot gases from a rocket engine.
Reverse thrust is the opposite of forward thrust. In this way air is pushed in the same way as the motion of the body. Reverse thrust can be used to help braking after landing. This can be done by redirecting the thrust in a turbofan or jet engine or by changing the blade angle of a propeller driven aircraft.

Birds normally achieve thrust during flight by flapping their wings.

A boat with a motor makes thrust or reverse thrust when the propellers are turned to push water backwards (or forwards). The thrust that this makes pushes the boat in the opposite direction than the water is being pushed.

A rocket is pushed forward by a thrust force as large as the force the exhaust gas makes when going out of the rocket nozzle. The force the exhaust gas makes is called the exhaust velocity. The velocity is measured compared to the rocket. For vertical launch of a rocket to work, the starting thrust must be more force than the weight of the rocket.

References

Force
Thrust is a reaction force described by Newton's Second and Third Law. For this meaning, see Thrust.

This word has other uses:
 For the land-speed record breaking car, see ThrustSSC and Thrust2
 For the computer game, see Thrust (computer game)
 For the rapper, see Thrust (rapper)
 For the Transformers characters, see Thrust (Transformers)
 For the Herbie Hancock fusion album, Thrust (album)
 For the semi-professional magazine which later changed its name to Quantum, see Thrust (magazine)
 Thrust fault in geology
Robert Anson Heinlein (July 7, 1907 – May 8, 1988) was an American writer. He mostly wrote science fiction books. He won the Hugo Award four times. Probably his best-known novels are Starship Troopers (1959, Hugo Award, was made into a film), and Stranger in a Strange Land (1961, Hugo Award). Two other Hugo awards were for Double Star (1956) and The Moon is a Harsh Mistress (1966). Together with Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke he is seen as one of the Big Three of Science Fiction.

References 

1907 births
1988 deaths
Hugo Award winning writers
Writers from Missouri
Libertarians
There are many computer and video game genres. Here is a list of some of the common ones.
 Role-playing game (RPG)
 Massively-Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG)
 Arcade
 Adventure
 First-person shooter
 Platformer
 Simulation
 Real-time strategy
 Survival
 Survival horror
 Battle Royale
 Sandbox
A fable is a type of story which shows something in life or has a meaning to a word. A fable teaches a lesson or suggests a moral from it. A fable starts in the middle of the story, that means, jumps into the main event without detailed introduction of characters. The characters of a fable may be animals, plants and legendary creatures. When animals are used in fables, they think and talk like people, even though they act like animals. For example, in a fable a clay pot might say that it is frightened of being broken.

The stories told by fables are usually very simple. To understand a fable, the reader or listener does not need to know all about the characters, only one important thing. For this reason animals are often used in fables in a way that is easily understood because it is always the same. They keep the same characteristics from story to story.
 A lion is noble
 A rooster is boastful
 A peacock is proud
 A fox is cunning
 A wolf is fierce
 A horse is brave
 A donkey is hard-working
The most famous fables are those attributed to Aesop (6th century B.C.). Many fables are so well known that their morals have become English sayings.

For example:
 If a person says "sour grapes!" then they are referring to "The Fox and the Grapes". This fable is about a fox who saw a beautiful bunch of grapes hanging on a vine. He wanted to eat them but they were high up. He tried and tried to jump high enough to pull them down. When he was too tired to jump anymore, he went away saying "I'll bet those grapes were sour!"

So, if a person sees a beautiful thing that they want, but cannot have, sometimes they say "I don't want it, anyway! I'll bet it is really no good!" This way of thinking is called "sour grapes".
"Crying wolf" is another well-known English saying. This comes from "The Boy Who Cried Wolf". This fable is about a boy who was sent to mind the sheep. The boy got lonely while minding the sheep, so he shouted "Wolf! Wolf!" The people came running. The next day, he did it again and they were very angry. On the third day the boy saw a wolf. He cried "Wolf! Wolf!" but no one came and the wolf ate him.

So if a person always makes a great fuss to get attention, or if a person says something bad has happened when it has not, then it is called "crying wolf" and people will stop bothering to pay attention, even when things go really wrong.

Related pages
 Children's literature
 Jean de La Fontaine
 Myth
 Fairy tale

Other websites
Other websites

 Animal Symbolism List of frequently described animals and their characteristics
 The Dragon-Tyrant
 Fables - Collection and guide to fables for children 
 Imaginexus  A collection of interconnected stories that anyone can edit
 Beast Fable Society  An academic society focused on fables and related genres

Fairy tales
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.  Many agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies.

Early history
The earliest archaeological record of an advanced system of drainage comes from the  Indus Valley Civilization from around 3100 BC in what is now Pakistan and North India. The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the civilization were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in some areas of modern Pakistan and India today. All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.

Reasons for artificial drainage
Wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture. In the northern USA and Europe, glaciation created numerous small lakes which gradually filled with humus to make marshes. Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches.

The largest project of this type in the world has been in process for centuries in the Netherlands. The area between Amsterdam, Haarlem and Leiden was, in prehistoric times swampland and small lakes. Turf cutting (Peat mining), subsidence and shoreline erosion gradually caused the formation of one large lake, the Haarlemmermeer, or lake of Haarlem. The invention of wind powered pumping engines in the 15th century permitted drainage of some of the marginal land, but the final drainage of the lake had to await the design of large, steam powered pumps and agreements between regional authorities. The elimination of the lake occurred between 1849 and 1852, creating thousands of km2 of new land.

Other websites
Other websites 

WebCom Systems, software created for designing soakaways and filter trenches.
NDS , drainage calculator.
Ancient drains, a series of images of the earliest drainage systems in the ancient Indus city of Mohenjo daro
Stormwater DesignInformation on stormwater design 
Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health by George E. Waring, 1867, from Project Gutenberg
 Drainage photos 

Agriculture
Civil engineering
Empoldering is a method of reclaiming land from the sea or from inland lakes, and a way to control floods.  Empoldering involves the use of a polder, a piece of land in a low-lying area that has been reclaimed from a body of water by building dikes and drainage canals.

Although empoldering is usually carried out in low-lying coastal areas, it can also be dome in inland areas such as lakes and rivers.  It is common in countries like the Netherlands, where much of the country is below sea level and subject to flooding.  About one-fifth of the land in the Netherlands has been reclaimed from the sea.  Their largest and most successful project is the Zuiderzee Works.

Polders have two distinct features.  Firstly, they are enclosed by dikes to keep the water out.  The dikes also serve to protect the polder from erosion.  Secondly, polders are continually maintained by systems of drainage canals and pumps which prevent them from becoming waterlogged and hence, suitable for cultivation.

Process
Process 

Stage 1: Dike constructed around the area to be reclaimed to keep water from coming in.

Stage 2: The area is drained using pumps and drainage canals.

Stage 3: "Reeds" (a type of salt tolerant plant) are sown by aircraft to help the soil form.

Stage 4: After 3 years, reeds are burnt and the ash is used as fertilizers for the soil.

Stage 5: After a period of up to 15 years, the polder is ready for growing crops, building houses and constructing roads.

Limits of land reclamation 

1. Cost of reclaiming from deeper waters 

2. Availability of sand 

3. Dispute over territorial boundaries

Physical geography