Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Despite plural forms being written using the letter(s) -(e)s, the pronunciation of the letter(s) will pronounced as /-s/, /-z/, or /-ız/ depending on which type of phoneme, or unique sound, comes before it. These variations of the plural morpheme are called allomorphs.

Some dictionaries list "busses" as an acceptable plural for "bus". Presumably, this is because the plural "buses" looks like it ought to rhyme with the plural of "fuse," which is "fuses." "Buses" is still listed as the preferable plural form. "Busses" is the plural for "buss," a seldom used word for "kiss."

There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms. Plurals formed in this way are sometimes called mutated (or mutating) plurals.
 more than one child = children
 more than one woman = women
 more than one man = men
 more than one person = people
 more than one goose = geese
 more than one mouse = mice
 more than one deer = deer
more than one ox = oxen
more than one tooth = teeth
Many of the above irregular plural forms stem from Old English, which had more complex rules for making plural forms.

And, finally, there are nouns that maintain their Latin or Greek form in the plural. 
 more than one nucleus = nuclei
 more than one syllabus = syllabi
 more than one focus = foci
 more than one fungus = fungi
 more than one cactus = cacti (cactuses is acceptable)
 more than one thesis = theses
 more than one crisis = crises
 more than one phenomenon = phenomena
 more than one index = indices (indexes is acceptable)
 more than one appendix = appendices (appendixes is acceptable)
 more than one criterion = criteria
 more than one octopus = octopedes is correct (as the word is ). However, octopuses is acceptable, more used and simpler.
Possessives 
Nouns are words for things, and since things can be possessed, nouns can also change to show possession in grammar. In English, we usually add an apostrophe and an s to nouns to make them possessive, or sometimes just an apostrophe when there is already an s at the end, like this:
 This is Sam. This is Sam's cat.
 The woman's hair is long.
 There are three cats. The cats mother is sleeping.

How adjectives become nouns 

Most adjectives become nouns by adding the suffix -ness. Example: Take the adjective 'natural', add 'ness' to get 'naturalness', a noun. To see a list of 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here.

Word order in noun phrases 
A noun phrase is a phrase where the head word is a noun. In English, the word order of most noun phrases is that determiners, adjectives, and modifying nouns in respective order must appear before the head word, and relative clauses must appear after the head word.

References

Other websites
Nouns

Parts of speech
The words nature and natural are used for all the things that are normally not made by humans. The word comes from the Latin natura meaning "birth". Nature includes many things like weather, organisms, landforms, celestial bodies. Scientists study the way the parts of nature work. Things that have been made by people are said to be man-made or called artifacts.

There are natural sciences that study different parts of nature, for example the science of ecology is about plants and animals as a whole, while biology studies every type of living thing.

From one point of view, humans are a prime example of nature, and are the most widely studied natural inhabitants of the planet earth. Humans interact with each other in their natural environment on a day-to-day basis. Every part of nature  everything from the air outside to the dirt on the ground  is interdependent. Medicine studies humans in health and sickness.
From another point of view, humans and nature can be said to be in conflict. People always use natural resources. They cut down trees, mine ores, grow crops and manufacture things from natural material. Fires, cars, and factories make a lot of smoke and harm many places. People who like to leave nature unharmed and those who feel they need to use more of nature often fight about what they should do. In the modern world, with many more people and many big cities, these problems are becoming more serious.

Nature, in the broadest sense, means the physical world as a whole. This is the meaning that physics, the study of nature (etymologically), takes.

A useful definition of natural is 
"Happening or operating in accordance with the ordinary course of nature". Oxford Shorter English Dictionary says the word in this sense is first found in 1477.

Related pages 
 Human nature
 Life timeline
 Nature timeline
Nature versus nurture

Other websites

References 

 
Bionics
A natural resource is what people can use which comes from the natural environment. Examples of natural resources are air, water, wood, oil, wind energy, natural gas, iron, and coal. 

The dividing line between natural resources and man-made resources is not clear-cut. Hydro-electric energy is not a natural resource because people use turbines to convert the energy from moving water. Petroleum and iron ores are natural, but need work to make them into usable refined oil and steel. Atomic energy comes from metallic nuclear fuel, like fissionable uranium and plutonium, but rocks need technical work to make them into these nuclear fuels.
Supply 
We often say there are two sorts of natural resources: renewable resources and non-renewable resources.
A renewable resource is one that can be used again and again. For example, soil, sunlight and water are renewable resources. However, in some circumstances, even water is not renewable easily. Wood is a renewable resource, but it takes time to renew, and in some places, people use the land for something else. Soil, if it blows away, is not easy to renew.
A non-renewable resource is a resource that does not grow and come back or a resource that would take a very long time to come back. For example, coal is a non-renewable resource. When we use coal, there is less coal afterward.  The non-renewable resource can be used directly (for example, burning oil to cook), or we can find a renewable resource to use (for example, using wind energy to make electricity to cook).
Most natural resources are limited. This means they will eventually run out. A perpetual resource has a never-ending supply. Some examples of perpetual resources include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy. There may be a limit to how much can be taken in a given day or year, but that amount can be taken again next day or next year.
Non perpetual resources include Fossil fuels such as Petroleum, coal, etc. They have a limit of usage.

Some of the things influencing the supply of resources include whether it is able to be recycled, and the availability of suitable substitutes for the material. Non-renewable resources cannot be recycled. For example, fossil fuels cannot be recycled.
Demand 
The demand for resources can change with new technology, new needs, and new economics (e.g. changes in cost of the resources). Some material can go completely out of use, if people do not want it any more. Demand of many natural resources is very high, but availability of some, such as precious metals, is very low.

Availability 
Different places have different natural resources.  When people do not have a certain resource they need, they can either replace it with another resource, or trade with another country to get the resource.  People have sometimes fought to have them (for example, spices, water, arable farmland, gold, or petroleum).
When people do not have some resources, their quality of life can get lower.  So, people protect resources.  When they can not get clean water, people may become ill; if there is not enough wood, trees will be cut and the forest will disappear over time (deforestation); if there are not enough fish in a sea, people can die of starvation.  Renewable resources include crops, wind, hydroelectric power, fish, and sunlight.  Many people carefully save their natural resources so that others can use them in future.

References

Other websites 
Earth's natural wealth 

 
Economics
Factors of production
Negentropy is reverse entropy. It means things becoming more in order. By 'order' is meant organisation, structure and function: the opposite of randomness or chaos. One example of negentropy is a star system such as the Solar System. Another example is life. 

As a general rule, everything in the universe tends towards entropy. Star systems eventually become dead. All energy has gone, and everything in the system is at the temperature of the surrounding space. The opposite of entropy is negentropy. It is a temporary condition in which certain things are hotter and more highly organised than the surrounding space. This is the second law of thermodynamics:
The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system always increases over time.
Life is considered to be negentropic because it converts things which have some order, such as food, into things with more order, such as cells in the body, tissues, and organs. In doing so, it gives off heat.  Another example of negentropic things are societies, or social systems, because they take disorderly things such as communications, and make them more orderly and useful.

Notes 

Thermodynamics
North America is a large  in the Northern and Western Hemispheres of Earth. It is to the east of the Pacific Ocean, the west of the Atlantic Ocean, the south of the Arctic Ocean, and it is the northern part of the Americas. The southernmost part is Central America. It is the third largest continent in the world after Asia and Africa. North America has a population of around 371 million and is the 4th most populous continent in the world.  

North America has three subregions which are the Caribbean, Central America, and North America. Depending on how it is used, "North America" can be used to mean as the continent as a whole to include all 23 countries or as a subregion to mean Canada, Mexico, and the United States only.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, North America was part of a larger ancient supercontinent named Laurasia. A few million years ago, a new land bridge arose and connected North America to South America. Beringia connected North America to Siberia a few times during ice ages in the past 20,000 years. North America has many warm tropical islands such as the Bahamas. North America is currently north of South America.

Countries

Related pages
 Central America
 South America

References

 
Laurasia
Neptune is the eighth and farthest planet from the Sun in the Solar System. It is an ice giant. It is the fourth-largest planet in the system. 

Neptune's mass is 17 times Earth's mass and a little bit more than Uranus's mass. Neptune is denser and smaller than Uranus. Because of its greater mass, Neptune's gravity makes its atmosphere smaller and denser.

It was named after the Roman god of the sea, Neptune. Neptune's astronomical symbol is ♆, the trident of the god Neptune.

Neptune's atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium. It also contains small amounts of methane which makes the planet appear blue. Neptune's blue color is much darker than the color of Uranus. Neptune also has the strongest winds of any planet in the Solar System, as high as 2,100 km/h or 1,300 mph.
Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams were the astronomers who discovered Neptune. Neptune was not discovered using a telescope. It was the first planet to be discovered using mathematics. In 1821, astronomers saw that Uranus' orbit was different from what they expected. Another nearby planet's mass was changing Uranus's orbit. They found Neptune was the cause.

Voyager 2 visited Neptune on 25 August 1989. It was the only spacecraft to visit the planet. Neptune used to have a huge storm known as the "Great Dark Spot". Voyager 2 discovered the spot in 1989. The dark spot was not seen in 1994, but new spots were found since then. It is not known why the dark spot disappeared. Visits by other space probes have been planned.

Neptune has five rings. These rings are hard to see from the Earth.

History
History

Discovery 
Galileo Galilei was the first person who saw Neptune. He saw it on 28 December 1612 and 27 January 1613. His drawings showed points near Jupiter where Neptune is placed. But Galileo was not credited for the discovery. He thought Neptune was a "fixed star" instead of a planet. Because Neptune slowly moved across the sky, Galileo's small telescope was not strong enough to see that Neptune was a planet.
Heinrich d'Arrest, a student at the Berlin Observatory, suggested that a newly drawn map of the sky in the region of Le Verrier's predicted area could be compared with the current sky. This map was needed to look for the change of position of a planet, compared to a fixed star. Neptune was discovered the same night on 23 September 1846. It was found 1° from where Le Verrier had thought it would be. It was about 1.5° from Adams' prediction. Challis later found out that he had seen the planet twice in August. He did not recognize it at the time because of his careless work approach. Neptune became the first planet to be discovered by mathematical calculations instead of a telescope.
Crediting and naming 
When Neptune was discovered, the French and the British could not agree on who would get credit for the discovery. Later, an international agreement decided that both Le Verrier and Adams deserved credit. However, historians reviewed the topic after the rediscovery in 1998 of the "Neptune papers" (historical documents from the Royal Greenwich Observatory). It had seemingly been stolen by astronomer Olin Eggen for nearly three decades. It was only found again (in his ownership) shortly after his death. After looking at the documents, some historians now think that Adams does not deserve equal credit with Le Verrier.
Shortly after its discovery, Neptune was temporarily called "the planet exterior to Uranus" or "Le Verrier's planet". The first suggestion for a name came from Galle. He proposed the name Janus. In England, Challis suggested the name Oceanus. In France, Arago suggested that the new planet be called Leverrier, but a lot of people outside France disagreed with this. French almanacs quickly reintroduced the name Herschel for Uranus and Leverrier for the new planet.

Meanwhile, Adams suggested changing the name Georgian to Uranus, while Le Verrier (through the Board of Longitude) suggested Neptune for the new planet. Struve supported the name Neptune on 29 December 1846, to the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Soon Neptune was internationally agreed among many people. It was the official name for the new planet. In Roman mythology, Neptune was the god of the sea, identified with the Greek god, Poseidon. Neptune's astrological symbol is Neptune's trident (♆).

Structure
Structure

Mass and composition 
Neptune's mass is between that of the Earth and the largest gas giants.

Neptune is the fourth largest planet in the solar system and the third most massive. Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth, but just  the mass of Jupiter. Neptune is a little bit more massive than Uranus, though Neptune is denser and physically smaller than Uranus. Neptune and Uranus are often considered to be part of a sub-class of a gas giant known as "ice giants". They are smaller in size than Jupiter and Saturn, and have differences from them in composition. In the search for extrasolar planets, Neptune has been used as a reference to compare the size and structure of the discovered planet. Some discovered planets that have similar masses like Neptune are often called "Neptunes".
The atmosphere of Neptune is made up mostly of hydrogen, with a smaller amount of helium. A tiny amount of methane was also detected in the atmosphere. The methane gives Neptune its blue color. The color of Neptune is much darker than the color of Uranus.

Because of Neptune's far distance from the Sun, it gets very little heat. The average surface temperature on Neptune is about −201°C (−331 °F; 72 K). Therefore, at its surface Neptune is the coldest planet in the Solar System.
The structure inside Neptune is thought to be similar to the structure inside Uranus. There is likely to be a core, thought to be about 1.5 Earth masses. It is made up of molten rock and metal surrounded by rock, water, ammonia, and methane. This mixture is referred to as icy. It is called a water-ammonia ocean. More mixtures of methane, ammonia, and water are found in the lower areas of the atmosphere. 

At a depth of 7,000 km of Neptune, the conditions may be such that methane decomposes into diamond crystals. These diamond crystals look like hailstones.

Weather and magnetic field
One difference between Neptune and Uranus is the level of its meteorological activity. When the Voyager spacecraft flew by Uranus in 1986, the winds on that planet were observed not so strong as on Neptune. When Voyager flew by Neptune in 1989, powerful weather events were observed. The weather of Neptune has very active storms. Its atmosphere has the highest wind speeds in the Solar System. It may be powered by internal heat flow. Regular winds in the equatorial region have speeds of around 1,200 km/h (750 mph). Winds in storm systems can reach up to 2,100 km/h, near-supersonic speeds.
In 1989, the Great Dark Spot, an anticyclonic storm system, was discovered by NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft. On 2 November 1994, the Hubble Space Telescope did not see the Great Dark Spot on the planet. Instead, a new storm similar to the Great Dark Spot was found in the planet's northern hemisphere. The reason why the Great Dark Spot has disappeared is unknown. The Scooter is another storm, a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot. Its nickname was given when first noticed in the months leading up to the Voyager encounter in 1989. It moved faster than the Great Dark Spot. Later images showed clouds that moved even faster than Scooter. The Wizard's Eye/Dark Spot 2 is another southern cyclonic storm, the second strongest storm seen during the 1989 encounter. It originally was completely dark, but as Voyager came closer to the planet, a bright core developed.
In August 2023, the clouds vanished. The possible reason is solar flare.  30 years of Neptune' weather observations by Hubble Space Telescope showed that cloud activity is related to solar cycles. 

Neptune also has similarities with Uranus in its magnetosphere. However, Uranus's magnetosphere is weaker than Neptune's magnetosphere. The magnetic field is strongly tilted compared to its rotational axis at 47°. It is offset at least 0.55 radii (about 13,500 kilometres, bigger than the Earth's diameter, for scale) from the planet's physical center. The unusual course may be caused by flows in the interior of the planet.

Neptune has a similar axial tilt to Earth, so it will have seasons. Seasons last about 40 years.

Neptune's rings
Neptune's rings 

There are five rings around the planet. They are not as well known as the rings of Saturn. The rings were discovered by a team led by Edward Guinan in 1968. Then, in the mid-1980s astronomers thought that the rings might not be complete.  Stellar occultations were found that rarely showed an extra "blink" just before or after the planet moved in front of the star. However, Voyager 2 showed that they were complete. The planetary rings of Neptune have a weird "clumpy" arrangement. Scientists think that it may be because of the gravitational contact with small moons that orbit near them. Pictures showed that the ring system had several faint rings. The farthest ring, Adams, has five arcs now named Courage, Liberté, Egalité 1, Egalité 2 and Fraternité (Courage, Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity).
Arcs are a puzzle. The laws of motion predict that arcs spread out into one ring in a very short time. But the arcs in Neptune's rings did not. A moon's gravity may have created the arcs. Galatea is a moon just inside the Adams ring.

In 2005, scientists figured out that Neptune's rings were more unstable than had been believed. The Liberté arc may disappear in less than 100 years.

Neptune's moons 

Neptune has 14 known moons. As Neptune was the Roman god of the sea, the planet's moons were named after lesser sea gods or goddesses.
The largest moon of Neptune is Triton. Triton was discovered on October 10, 1846, by British astronomer William Lassell. Unlike all other large planetary moons, Triton orbits in the other direction to the other moons. This shows the moon was probably captured and maybe was once a Kuiper belt object. It is close enough to Neptune to be locked into a synchronous orbit. It is also slowly moving into Neptune and may one day be torn apart when it passes the Roche limit. Triton is the coldest object that has been measured in the Solar System, with temperatures of −235 °C (38 K, −392 °F).

Neptune's second known moon (by order of discovery), the odd moon Nereid, has one of the most unusual orbits of any satellite in the Solar System. Nereid is so far from Neptune that it requires 360 Earth days to make one orbit. It causes the largest elliptical orbit and the largest deviation from a circular path. It is also considered that Nereid may be a captured asteroid or Kuiper Belt object.
From July to September 1989, Voyager 2 discovered six new moons of Neptune. Of these, Proteus is the second most massive Neptunian moon. It has only one quarter of 1% of the mass of Triton. Neptune's closest four moons, Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, and Galatea, orbit close enough to be inside Neptune's rings. The next farthest out, Larissa was discovered in 1981 when it had covered up a star. The moon was credited for causing Neptune's ring arcs when Voyager 2 observed Neptune in 1989. Five new unusual moons discovered between 2002 and 2003 were announced in 2004. The latest moon, Hippocamp, was discovered from examining Hubble Telescope images on 16 July 2013.
Observation 
Neptune can not be seen by just looking at the sky with the naked eye. To see it, a telescope or binoculars is needed. This is because Neptune has a normal brightness between magnitudes +7.7 and +8.0. It can be out-shined by Jupiter's Galilean moons, the dwarf planet Ceres, and the asteroids 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, 7 Iris, 3 Juno and 6 Hebe. A telescope or strong binoculars show Neptune as a small blue dot that looks similar to Uranus. The blue color comes from the methane in its atmosphere. Its small size in the night sky has made it difficult to study visually. Most telescopic data was quite limited until the arrival of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics.

The average distance between Neptune and the Sun is about 4.5 billion km. Therefore, Neptune completes its orbit once every 164 years. On 12 July 2011, Neptune completed its first orbit since its discovery in 1846.

Exploration
Exploration 

Currently, only one spacecraft has visited Neptune. NASA's Voyager 2 probe made a quick flyby of the planet with its closest encounter on 25 August 1989.

One of Voyager 2'''s important discoveries was its very close fly-by of Triton, where it took pictures of several parts of the moon. The probe also discovered the Great Dark Spot. However, it had now disappeared after the Hubble Space Telescope took pictures of Neptune in 1994. Originally thought to be a large cloud or cyclonic storm system. It was later guessed to be a hole in the visible cloud deck.

The pictures sent back to Earth from Voyager 2 in 1989 became the basis of a PBS all-night program called Neptune All Night''.
Proposed missions 
 Interstellar Express—Two probes by CNSA to explore the heliosphere. The second probe would come within 1,000 km of Neptune in 2038.
 ODINUS—This mission uses two spacecraft to study the Neptunian and Uranian systems. 2034 is launch date.
 OSS mission—This is a mission by ESA and NASA. Its focus is to map the gravitational fields in deep space, including the Outer Solar System (up to 50 AU).
 Triton Hopper—A NIAC plan for a mission to Neptune to land on Neptune's moon Triton and then fly to several places.
 Trident—This is a finalist in the Discovery program. It will fly close to Neptune once in 2038 and closely study its largest moon Triton.
 Neptune Odyssey—An idea for a NASA mission to observe Neptune's atmosphere and the weather, and its moon Triton. It would launch in 2033 and arrive at Neptune in 2049.

References

Other websites
Other websites 

 NASA's Neptune fact sheet
 Neptune Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
 Planets - Neptune A kid's guide to Neptune.
 Mission to Neptune Under Study (Universe Today)
 Neptune by amateur (The Planetary Society)
Negative may mean:

Something negative can be something bad.
A negative number is a number that is less than zero. 5 - 8 = -3.
Some people also use negative the same way as "no", or other related words. "Not", "Never", "Nowhere" etc. are all negative words. On two-way radios the word "negative" is used instead of "no" to be clearer. 
In film photography, a film negative is an exposed picture or movie film that has been processed, and is ready to be used to make a print. In a negative, everything in the picture has the opposite color. Things that are white will be black, things that are red will be green, and things that are orange will be blue.
Negative binary numbers
Negative charge
Negative exponent
Negative feedback, a basic concept of cybernetics; it is the basis of regulation and control. It is important in engineering and physiology. In biology and physiology negative feedback is known as homeostasis
Negative gravity
Now is the time span between the past and the future. It can be long (like an eon in geologic time) or short (like a picosecond) but it is almost always used to refer to the span between the present instant to some time horizon when a decision must be made. It can be used to ask or demand that someone make a decision even if they want to delay.

"I want to know what you think, now."

"What do you think now?"

"Now is the time for all good people to come to the aid of their country."

Mathematics and measurement assume that everything used in one equation equals the same quantities at the beginning of calculation or axiomatization as at the end. That means it is mathematically correct to say that the idea of "equal" means "equal from the time the process starts to the time it ends." In General Semantics and E Prime the words equal, remain (for the past until now) and become (for now into the future) replace the verb "to be" for this reason.
Algebra is now often called snapshot algebra or algebra of seeing because of this dependence on time. If any action or event were possible between steps in algebraic analysis, then, in theory, one would have to start over as if one had no knowledge of the new state at all. For these reasons the idea of statistics and also knowledge and knowledge management are sometimes questioned, for instance, in the book Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics. A major issue is the comparing of numbers gathered in the past, and now, after some key conditions change.

Basic English 850 words
New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city by population in the United States. It is at the southern end of the U.S. state of New York. Over 8 million people currently live in the city, and over 22 million people live in the bigger New York metropolitan area. It is the financial capital of the U.S. because it is home to the nation's stock market, Wall Street, and the One World Trade Center.
New York City started as a trading post created by colonists from the Dutch Republic in 1624 on Lower Manhattan; the post was named New Amsterdam in 1626. In 1664, the English controlled the city and the areas around it, and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England gave the lands to his brother, the Duke of York. New York was the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790, and has been the biggest U.S. city since 1790. The Statue of Liberty welcomed millions of immigrants as they came to the U.S. by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and it is a symbol of the U.S. and its ideals of liberty and peace. In the 21st century, New York has grew into a global hub of creativity and entrepreneurship and environmental sustainability, and as a symbol of freedom and cultural diversity. In 2019, New York was voted the best city in the world in a survey of over 30,000 people from 48 cities worldwide, because of its cultural diversity.
Many districts and landmarks in New York City are well known, including three of the world's ten most visited tourist places in 2013. A record 62.8 million tourists came to New York City in 2017. Times Square is the colorful area of the Broadway Theater District, one of the world's busiest pedestrian intersections, and a famous area for the world's entertainment industry. Many of the city's landmarks, skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattan's real estate market is one of the most expensive in the world. New York has more Chinese people outside of China than anywhere in the world, with many Chinatowns across the city. The New York City Subway is the biggest single-operator rapid transit system worldwide, with  rail stations. The city has over 120 colleges and universities, including Columbia University, New York University, Rockefeller University, and the City University of New York system, which is the biggest urban public university system in the United States
. The world's two largest stock exchanges, the New York Stock Exchange, located on Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, and NASDAQ, headquartered in Midtown Manhattan, are both in Manhattan.
History

Name
In 1664, the city was named after the Duke of York, who would become King James II of England. James's older brother, King Charles II, had chosen the Duke proprietor of the former territory of New Netherland, including the city of New Amsterdam, which England had recently taken from the Dutch.

Early history
Early history

The oldest part of the city, the island of Manhattan, still has its original Lenape name. Although Native people such as the Lenape and Canaries had lived there for many thousands of years, New York City was first explored by Europeans in the 1500s. When Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano found the entrance to New York Harbor in the year 1524, he gave to this site the name of New Angoulême in the honor of Francois 1st. In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson rediscovered New York Harbor while looking for the Northwest Passage to the Orient for the Dutch East India Company. Hudson's first mate said it was "a very good Harbour for all windes" and the river was "a mile broad" and "full of fish".
Juan Rodriguez (transliterated to Dutch as Jan Rodrigues) was one of the first people associated with Europe to live there. He was a merchant from Santo Domingo. He was born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent, and he came to Manhattan during the winter of 1613–14. He trapped for pelts and traded with the local people as a representative of the Dutch. Broadway, from 159th Street to 218th Street in Upper Manhattan, is named Juan Rodriguez Way in his honor.

Dutch control

New York City was settled by Europeans from The Netherlands in 1624. The Dutch called the whole area of New York Netherland (New Netherland) and they named a fort and town on the south end of Brooklyn.
In 1626, the Dutch colonial Director-General Peter Minuit, acting for the Dutch West India Company, bought the island of Manhattan from the Canarsie, a small Lenape band. He paid "the value of 60 guilders" (about $900 in 2018). A false story says that Manhattan was bought for $24 worth of glass beads. 1626 was also the year the Dutch began to bring black slaves there.

After the purchase, New Amsterdam grew slowly. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant started his job as the last Director-General of New Netherland. During this time, the number of people of New Netherland grew from 2,000 to 8,000.

Island New Amsterdam (New Amsterdam), after the capital city of the Netherlands, which was to become present-day New York. The English took over the colony in 1664 during the second Anglo-Dutch War. They changed the name to New York, to honor the Duke of York, who later became King James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The Dutch surrendered Nieuw Amsterdam without fighting.

English control
English control

By the time the English took New York, there were many other Dutch towns in what would become New York City, including Breukelen (Brooklyn), Vlissingen (Flushing), and Nieuw Haarlem (Harlem). There were already some English towns in the area also, such as Gravesend in Brooklyn and Newtown in Queens. Dutch, English and other people had been living together in New York for a long time.

New York became more important as a trading port while under British rule in the early 1700s. It also became a center of slavery as the British increased the slave trade and built a slave market in the city. 42% of households owned slaves by 1730, the highest percentage outside Charleston, South Carolina.
The 1735 trial and acquittal in Manhattan of John Peter Zenger, who had been accused of seditious libel after criticizing colonial governor William Cosby, helped to create the freedom of the press in North America. In 1754, Columbia University was created under charter by King George II; it was called King's College, and it was in Lower Manhattan.

American Revolution

New York quickly grew to become a large and important port city. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in October 1765, as the Sons of Liberty. It organized in the city, and they skirmished over the next ten years with British troops stationed there. The  important Battle of Long Island of the American Revolution was fought in Brooklyn in 1776; it was the biggest battle of the war. The Americans lost the battle. The British used the area as its headquarters for the war in North America.
New York was the capital of the United States under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1788.  When the US Constitution was made, it stayed as the capital from 1789 until 1790. In 1789, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was inaugurated; the first United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States each met for the first time, and the United States Bill of Rights was written, all at Federal Hall on Wall Street. By 1790, New York grew bigger than Philadelphia, so it become the biggest city in the United States. By the end of 1790, because of the Residence Act, Philadelphia became the new capital.

Nineteenth century
During the nineteenth century, New York City's population grew from ~60,000 to ~3.43 million. The number of black people in New York City reached more than 16,000 in 1840. Even though slavery and the slave trade were abolished in New York, the slave trade continued illegally for many years.
The Great Irish Famine brought a many Irish immigrants; more than 200,000 were living in New York by 1860, more than a quarter of the city's population. There was also many people from German provinces, and Germans made up another 25% of New York's population by 1860.

During the American Civil War, many white people in the city supported the Confederate States of America, and July 1863 they killed many black New Yorkers in a riot.

Modern history
In 1898, the cities of New York and Brooklyn came together with the Bronx, Staten Island, and the western towns in Queens County to make Greater New York. This is the total area of the City of New York today.  Around this time, many new immigrants came into New York City.  They came in at Ellis Island, an island in New York's harbor near the Statue of Liberty.  Many of them then moved to the Lower East Side neighborhood in Manhattan, which had over a million people living in just a few square miles.
Early in the twentieth century, with better transportation, more people moved to outer parts of the greater city, and many commuted to Manhattan. Many skyscrapers and other big buildings were put up to provide places to work.

In the 1970s, many jobs were lost due to industrial restructuring. This caused New York City to have economic problems and high crime rates. Though the financial industry grew, which greatly helped the city's economy in the 1980s, New York's crime rate continued to increase through that decade and into the beginning of the 1990s. By the mid 1990s, crime rates started to drop a lot due to different police strategies, better economic opportunities, gentrification, and new residents, both Americans and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America. Important new sectors, such as Silicon Alley, started in the city's economy. New York's population reached all-time highs in the 2000 census and then again in the 2010 census.
New York had most of the economic damage and biggest loss of human life from the September 11, 2001 attacks. Two of the four planes taken over that day were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, destroying them and killing 2,192 civilians, 343 firefighters, and 71 police officers. The North Tower became the tallest building ever to be destroyed anywhere.

Hurricane Sandy brought a destructive storm surge to New York City on the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels and subway lines in Lower Manhattan and other areas of the city and cutting off electricity in many parts of the city and its suburbs.

Geography 

During the Wisconsin glaciation, 75,000 to 11,000 years ago, the New York City area was at the edge of a big ice sheet over  deep. Erosion and the ice moving lead to the creation of what is now Long Island and Staten Island. It also left bedrock at a shallow depth, providing a solid foundation for most of Manhattan's skyscrapers.
Water divides several parts of the city. The Hudson River flows through the Hudson Valley into New York Bay. Between New York City and Troy, New York, the river is an estuary. The Hudson River separates the city from the U.S. state of New Jersey. Part of the Hudson River forms the border between Manhattan and the Bronx on one side, and the State of New Jersey on the other side. The East River forms the border between Manhattan on one side, and Brooklyn and Queens on the other side. The Harlem River forms the border between Manhattan and the Bronx (except for a small part of Manhattan that is on the mainland). Part of Long Island Sound separates the Bronx and Queens. Newtown Creek is part of the border between Brooklyn and Queens. Some parts of the city are very separate from the others because of water, such as Rockaway in Queens and City Island in the Bronx. A small piece of land in Manhattan is international territory and belongs to the United Nations Headquarters
. The country of Somalia is the only country whose national flag copied the colors of the UN. The Bronx River, which flows through the Bronx and Westchester County, is the only entirely fresh water river in the city.
The city's total area is , including  of land and  of this is water. The tallest place in the city is Todt Hill on Staten Island. It is at  above sea level, and it is the tallest place on the Eastern Seaboard that is south of Maine. The summit of the ridge is mostly woodland as part of the Staten Island Greenbelt.

The hallmark of New York city is its many skyscrapers, especially in Manhattan. In New York City there are about 5600 skyscrapers. 48 of them are over 200 metres tall, which is the highest number of skyscrapers in one area in the world.

Boroughs

New York City has five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Staten Island.

Manhattan

Manhattan (New York County) is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough. It has Central Park and most of the city's skyscrapers. It is sometimes locally known as The City.

Brooklyn
Brooklyn

Brooklyn (Kings County), on the western end of Long Island, has the most people living in it than any other borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, unique neighborhoods, and unique architecture.

Queens

Queens (Queens County), on Long Island north and east of Brooklyn, is geographically the biggest borough and the most ethnically diverse county in the United States. It is also the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world.

The Bronx
The Bronx

The Bronx (Bronx County) is New York City's northernmost borough. It is the only New York City borough with most of the land being on the mainland United States. The Yankee Stadium, the baseball park of the New York Yankees, and the biggest cooperatively owned housing complex in the United States, Co-op City, are in the Bronx. The Bronx Zoo, the world's largest metropolitan zoo, is also in the Bronx. It is  big and has more than 6,000 animals. Rap and hip hop culture were created in the Bronx. Pelham Bay Park is the biggest park in New York City, at .

Staten Island
Staten Island

Staten Island (Richmond County) is the most suburban of the five boroughs. Staten Island is connected to Brooklyn by the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge. It is connected to Manhattan by way of the free Staten Island Ferry, a daily commuter ferry which has clear views of the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island, and Lower Manhattan. In central Staten Island, the Staten Island Greenbelt is about  big, including  of walking trails and one of the last untouched forests in the city.

Climate 
Under the Köppen climate classification, New York City experiences a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) and a humid continental climate (Dfa). The average temperature in January, the area's coldest month, is . However, temperatures in winter could for a few days be as low as  and as high as . Summers are typically hot and humid with a July average of . New York City gets some snow in winter.
People
New York City currently has over 9 million people. Over 20 million people live in the New York metropolitan area including the city. The majority of the people in New York City belong to ethnic groups that are minorities in the US.  New York City has had large numbers of immigrants for centuries. In the early 19th Century, they came from Ireland and Germany. Later in the 19th century, they came from Italy, Russia and Eastern Europe. Today, many are from Puerto Rico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Colombia. Other ethnic groups living in New York City are Turks, Indians, Mexicans, Filipinos, Eastern Europeans, Jamaicans, Trinidadians, Caribbeans and Chinese. New York City has one of the largest Hispanic and Latino population in the United States.

Economy
Economy

New York City is a global hub of business and commerce, as a center for banking and finance, retailing, world trade, transportation, tourism, real estate, new media, traditional media, advertising, legal services, accountancy, insurance, theater, fashion, and the arts in the United States. The Port of New York and New Jersey is also a big part of the economy. It received a record cargo volume in 2017, over 6.7 million TEUs. New York City's unemployment rate fell to its record low of 4.0% in September 2018.

Many Fortune 500 companies are headquartered in New York City, as are many multinational corporations. One out of ten private sector jobs in the city is with a foreign company. New York City has been ranked first among cities around the world in getting capital, business, and tourists. New York City's role as the top global center for the advertising industry can be seen with "Madison Avenue". The city's fashion industry has about 180,000 employees with $11 billion in annual wages.
Chocolate is New York City's biggest specialty-food export, with up to $234 million worth of exports each year. Entrepreneurs were creating a "Chocolate District" in Brooklyn , while Godiva, one of the world's biggest chocolatiers, continues to be headquartered in Manhattan.

Wall Street

New York City's biggest economic part is the U.S. financial industry, also known as Wall Street. The city's securities industry, which has 163,400 jobs in August 2013, continues to be the biggest part of the city's financial sector and an important economic part. In 2012, Walls Street made 5.0% of the city's private sector jobs, 8.5% ($3.8 billion) of its tax revenue, and 22% of the city's total wages, including an average salary of $360,700.
In Lower Manhattan, there is the New York Stock Exchange, on Wall Street, and the NASDAQ, at 165 Broadway, representing the world's biggest and second biggest stock exchanges, respectively. Investment banking fees on Wall Street totaled about $40 billion in 2012, while in 2013, senior New York City bank officers who manage risk and compliance functions earned as much as $324,000 every year. In fiscal year 2013–14, Wall Street's securities industry made 19% of New York State's tax revenue.

Many of the world's biggest media conglomerates are also in the city. Manhattan had more than 500 million square feet (46.5 million m2) of office space in 2018, making it the biggest office market in the United States. Midtown Manhattan, with 400 million square feet (37.2 million m2) in 2018, is the biggest central business area in the world.

Media and entertainment

WNBC NBC

WCBS CBS

WABC American Broadcasting Company

USA Network

Showtime (TV channel)

HBO
HBO

New York is an important place for the American entertainment industry, with many movies, television series, books, and other media being set there. , New York City was the second biggest center for filmmaking and television production in the United States, making about 200 feature films every year, making about 130,000 jobs. The filmed entertainment industry has been growing in New York, providing nearly $9 billion to the New York City economy as of 2015. By amount, New York is the world leader in independent film production—one-third of all American independent films are created there. The Association of Independent Commercial Producers is also based in New York.
More than 200 newspapers and 350 magazines have an office in the city, and the publishing industry has about 25,000 jobs. Two of the three national daily newspapers with the biggest circulations in the United States are published in New York: The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times, which has won the most Pulitzer Prizes for journalism. Big tabloid newspapers in the city include The New York Daily News, which was created in 1919 by Joseph Medill Patterson, and The New York Post, created in 1801 by Alexander Hamilton. The city also has a many ethnic presses, with 270 newspapers and magazines published in more than 40 languages. El Diario La Prensa is New York's biggest Spanish-language daily newspaper, and it is the oldest in the United States. The New York Amsterdam News, published in Harlem, is a big African American newspaper
. The Village Voice, historically the biggest alternative newspaper in the United States, announced in 2017 that it would end publication of its print version, and it will only publish online.
New York is also an important place for non-commercial educational media. The oldest public-access television channel in the United States is the Manhattan Neighborhood Network, created in 1971.

Education
The New York City Public Schools system, managed by the New York City Department of Education, is the biggest public school system in the United States. It serves about 1.1 million students in more than 1,700 different primary and secondary schools.

The New York City Charter School Center helps the creation of new charter schools. There are about 900 additional private secular and religious schools in the city.
College and university
More than 600,000 students are enrolled in New York City's more than 120 colleges and universities, which is the most of any city in the United States and more than other major global cities such as London, and Tokyo. More than half a million are just in the City University of New York (CUNY) system , including both degree and professional programs. New York City's colleges and universities had also higher average scores than those two cities in 2019, according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities. New York City has many famous private universities such as Barnard College, Columbia University, Cooper Union, Fordham University, New York University, New York Institute of Technology, Rockefeller University, and Yeshiva University; many of these universities are ranked as some of the best universities in the world.

Government