Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Dimorphism in midges
Another discovery was the dimorphism in midges of the family Blepharicereidae. There are two female forms with different mouth-parts: one sucks blood, the other takes nectar, as does the male. To prove the point to skeptics, he sexed the flies carefully, and reared them from pupae.

Termites
By studying living termites Müller was able to correct many errors to be found in text-books. For example, their caste system is organised quite differently from ants, since the castes contain members of both sexes, whereas in hymenoptera the castes are unisexual and the males are haploid. Termites are placed in a different order from ants, the Isoptera.
Botanical work 
Much of Müller's botany was stimulated by the series of botanical works published by Darwin in the years after the Origin. Müller made contributions in all these fields. After Darwin's Fertilisation of Orchids (1862) he spent years of work on orchids, sending observations to his brother Hermann and to Darwin. Darwin used some of this work in his second edition of 1877, and Hermann later became famous for his work on pollination. On Climbing plants (Darwin 1867) Müller sent a letter to Darwin listing 40 genera of climbing plants classified by their method of climbing. The next few months saw more observations, which Darwin had translated and published as Müller's first paper in English.
Müller and Darwin 
Müller became a strong supporter of Darwin. He wrote Für Darwin in 1864, arguing that Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was correct, and that Brazilian crustaceans and their larvae could be affected by adaptations at any growth stage. This was translated into English as Facts and Arguments for Darwin in 1869. If Müller had a weakness it was that his writing was much less readable than that of Darwin or Wallace; both the German and English editions are hard reading indeed, which has limited the appreciation of this significant book.

Extensive correspondence exists between Müller and Darwin, and Müller also corresponded with Alexander Agassiz, Ernst Krause, and Ernst Haeckel.
Biographies 
 Alfred Möller, 1920. Fritz Müller. Werke, Briefe und Leben [virtually the sole biographical source for this significant biologist]
 Cezar Zillig, 1997. Dear Mr. Darwin. A intimidade da correspondência entre Fritz Müller e Charles Darwin. Sky/Anima Comunicação e Design, São Paulo, 241 pp. [letters between Müller and Darwin, with very interesting comments on the life of Fritz Müller. In Portuguese]
 David A. West, 2003. Fritz Müller: a naturalist in Brazil. Blacksburg: Pocahontas Press.  [modern, and most welcome, though the biographical information rests almost entirely on Möller's book. West adds excellent summaries and assessments of Müller's biological work]

Related pages
List of biologists

References 

1821 births
1897 deaths
German naturalists
German evolutionary biologists
German explorers
Brazilian scientists
John Adrian Louis Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow KT, GCMG, GCVO, PC (25 September 1860 - 29 February 1908), known as Viscount Aithrie before 1873 and as The 7th Earl of Hopetoun between 1873 and 1902, was the first Governor-General of Australia.

Hope was born at South Queensferry, West Lothian in Scotland. He was the eldest son of the 6th Earl of Hopetoun. He was educated at Eton College and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, where he passed in 1879 but did not join the Army. He looked after the family houses and lands. In 1883 he became active in the House of Lords. He served as a Lord in Waiting from June 1885 to January 1886 and August 1886 to August 1889.
Governor
In 1889 he was made the Governor of Victoria, where he served until 1895. He went back to the United Kingdom and was made a privy councillor. He became the Paymaster-General from 1895 to 1898, and then Lord Chamberlain until 1900. The Australian colonies joined together to form the Commonwealth of Australia from 1 January 1901. Hopetoun was well liked in Victoria and he knew all the important Australian politicians. This made him a good choice to be the first Governor-General of the Commonwealth, and he was appointed in July 1900. In India, on his way to Australia, he got typhoid fever and his wife got malaria. They arrived in December 1900.
Governor-General
Hopetoun's first job was to choose a Prime Minister to form a government, which would start on 1 January 1901. The first elections were not going to be held until March, so he could not choose the leader of the biggest political party in the House of Representatives. Instead, he asked Sir William Lyne, the Premier of the largest state, New South Wales, to be Prime Minister

While this was a reasonable choice, Lyne had opposed federation and was unpopular with the leading federalist politicians. Alfred Deakin and other important politicians told Hopetoun they would not work with Lyne. Hopetoun then asked Edmund Barton, the leader of the federal movement and the man everybody thought should be the Prime Minister. This became known as the "Hopetoun Blunder".
There were soon more problems. Hopetoun had brought his own Official Secretary, Captain Edward William Wallington. The Australians did not want an Englishman in charge of official business. They also did not like the regal pomp and ceremony that Hopetoun used in his position, and the money that this cost. He acted as if ruled Australia with the Prime Minister. This was not what writers of the Constitution had wanted.

Hopetoun became friends with Melbourne anarchist and union pioneer, John 'Chummy' Fleming. In May 1901, Fleming protested against unemployment in Melbourne by rushing onto the Prince's Bridge to stop the Governor-General's carriage. Hopetoun listened to Fleming talk about the problems of the unemployed. According to some reports, Hopetoun made the government speed up work projects.
Finally, there was a problem with how much the Governor-General should be paid to have a house in both Sydney, the largest city, and Melbourne, the home of the Australian government. The Commonwealth and Victorian parliaments would not pay Hopetoun more money. Hopetoun resigned in May 1902. He and his family left Australia (from Brisbane) on 17 July 1902. He knew he had failed in a historic role. He was created 1st Marquess of Linlithgow on 27 October 1902, while he still the  Governor-General. His term officially ended on 9 January 1903. He was made Secretary for Scotland in 1905.

He died suddenly on 29 February 1908, in Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France.

Marriage and children

On 18 October 1886 he married Hersey Everleigh-de-Moleyns, daughter of the fourth Baron Ventry. They had four children;
 Victor Alexander John (24 September 1887–5 January 1952)
 Charles (20 February 1892–?)
 Jacqueline Alice (16 June 1896–21 June 1896)
 Mary Dorothea; married the 16th Earl of Pembroke
His son Victor, the 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow became the longest-serving Viceroy of India 1936-43, a job he had always wanted.  His grandson Lord Glendevon married the daughter of the English novelist W. Somerset Maugham.

References

 Torrance, David, The Scottish Secretaries (Birlinn 2006)

Hopetoun, 7th Earl of
Scottish Earls
United Kingdom Marquesses
Knights of the Thistle
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Governors of Victoria (Australia)
People from West Lothian
Henry Walter Bates (Leicester, 8 February 1825 – London, 16 February 1892) was an English biologist who explored the Amazon Rainforest.

This naturalist and explorer gave the first scientific account of mimicry in animals. Batesian mimicry is named after him. He was most famous for his expedition to the Amazon River basin with Alfred Russel Wallace in 1848. He spent 11 years in the rain forest.

When Bates arrived home in 1859, he had sent back over 14,000 species (mostly of insects) of which 8,000 were new to science.

The great adventure 
In 1847 Wallace and Bates discussed the idea of an expedition to the Amazon basin. The plan was to defray expenses by sending specimens back to London, where an agent would sell them for a commission. Also, for the travellers to "gather facts towards solving the problem of the origin of species", as Wallace put it in a letter to Bates.
The two friends, who were both by now experienced amateur entomologists, met in London to prepare themselves by viewing South American plants and animals in the main collections.

Bates and Wallace sailed from Liverpool in April 1848, arriving in Pará (now Belém) at the end of May. For the first year they settled in a villa near the city, collecting birds and insects. After that they agreed to collect independently.

Eventually, Bates' health deteriorated and he returned to England, sending his collection by three different ships. He didn't want to put all his insects into one boat. Bates wrote a famous book on his experiences: The naturalist on the river Amazons.<ref>The Naturalist on the River Amazons Henry Walter Bates</ref>

 Bates H.W. 1863. The naturalist on the river Amazons. 2 vols, Murray, London.
 Bates H.W. 1878. Central America, the West Indies and South America, with ethnological notes by A.H. Keane''. Stanford, London; second and revised edition 1882.

References
References 

1825 births
1892 deaths
English evolutionary biologists
English naturalists
English explorers
Brazil
English science writers
Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, biologist and social activist. He is best known for proposing a theory of natural selection. This was published in 1858 together with Charles Darwin's idea.

Wallace did extensive natural history exploring. He went first to the Amazon River basin with Henry Walter Bates, and later to Malaya and Indonesia. He wrote books on both these adventures. While in Indonesia he drew the Wallace Line which divides Indonesia into two parts. On one side are animals of Australasia. On the other side are species mostly of Asian origin. He wrote a book on biogeography (the distribution of animals).

The great adventure 
After a few years of working as a railway surveyor with his brother, Wallace's life was changed by meeting Henry Walter Bates in Leicester in 1847.
The Amazon 
Wallace and Bates discussed the idea of an expedition to the Amazon. The plan was funded by sending specimens back to London, where an agent would sell them for a commission. Also, the travellers planned to to "gather facts towards solving the problem of the origin of species", as Wallace put it in a letter to Bates. The two friends, who were both by now experienced amateur entomologists, met in London to prepare themselves. They looked at South American plants and animals in the main collections.

Bates and Wallace sailed from Liverpool in April 1848, arriving in Pará (now Belém) at the end of May. For the first year they settled in a villa near the city, collecting birds and insects. After that they agreed to collect independently.
Wallace continued charting the Amazon for four years, collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples, the languages, the geography, flora, and fauna. On 12 July 1852, Wallace embarked for England on the brig Helen. After twenty-eight days at sea, balsam in the ship's cargo caught fire and the crew was forced to abandon ship. All of the specimens Wallace had on the ship, most of his collection, were lost. He could only save part of his diary and a few sketches. Wallace and the crew spent ten days in an open boat before being picked up by the brig Jordeson.

The East Indies 

From 1854 to 1862, age 31 to 39, Wallace travelled through the Dutch East Indies (now Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens for sale and to study nature.  Wallace collected more than 125,000 specimens in the Dutch East Indies (more than 80,000 beetles alone).  More than a thousand of them were species new to science.
His observations of the clear zoological differences across a narrow strait in the archipelago led to his proposing the zoogeographical boundary now known as the Wallace Line. Bali and Lombok were two islands in the archipelago only 17 miles apart at the widest (28 km), roughly the same size and with the same climate, soil, elevation and aspect. Yet their flora and fauna were so different. 

"In this archipelago there are two distinct faunas rigidly circumscribed, which differ as much as do those of Africa and South America... yet there is nothing on the map or on the face of the islands to mark their limits. The boundary line passes between islands closer together than others belonging to the same group. I believe the western part to be a separated portion of continental Asia, while the eastern is a fragmentary prolongation of a former west Pacific continent".
Why was it, he wondered, that the animals and plants on the Bali side of the channel were of Asian types, while those on the Lombok side were Australasian in type? This had to mean that the western group had evolved from common western stock, while the eastern group had evolved from a common eastern stock. 

While he was exploring the archipelago, he thought about evolution, and had his famous insight on natural selection. In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's own theory, in the same year.

Accounts of his studies and adventures there were eventually published in 1869 as The Malay Archipelago. It became one of the most popular natural history travel journals of the 19th century. It was praised by Charles Darwin and Charles Lyell and by others, such as the novelist Joseph Conrad, who called it his "favorite bedside companion".
Natural selection 
Unlike Darwin, Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist already believing in evolution. Both he and Bates had read Vestiges, a controversial work of popular science, published anonymously in 1844. This advocated an evolutionary origin for the Solar System, the Earth, and living things. He also read Malthus's Principle of population, which he says "twenty years later gave me the long-sought clue to the effective agent in the evolution of organic species". He meant by that the struggle for existence, which led Wallace to natural selection.
Wallace wrote his ideas on the small isle of Ternate, in what was then the Dutch East Indies. He was suffering from malaria. While the natives looked after him, his thoughts turned to Malthus's book. 
"I thought of [Malthus's] clear exposition of the 'positive checks to increase' – disease, accidents, wars, famine – which keep down the population... It then occurred to me that the same causes, or their equivalents, are
continually acting in the case of animals also... Why do some die and some live? And the answer came clearly, that on the whole the best fitted live... Then it suddenly flashed upon me, that this self-acting process would necessarily improve the race..." 
This was the origin of his letter to Darwin, which set out the idea of natural selection.

His views on human evolution
In 1864 Wallace published a paper, The origin of human races and the antiquity of Man deduced from the theory of natural selection, applying the theory to human beings. Huxley had already published his view that evolution applied to mankind as it did to other living things.

Wallace thought that natural selection could not account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, as well as metaphysical musings, wit and humour. He eventually said that something in "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded at least three times in history. The first was the creation of life from inorganic matter. The second was the introduction of consciousness in the higher animals. And the third was the generation of the higher mental faculties in mankind. He also believed that the purpose of the universe was the development of the human spirit.
Spiritualism 
Wallace was not a believer in revealed religion of any kind, but he did believe in spiritualism. This has puzzled biographers, who struggle to think why such a man would believe in spirits. Early in his life, he experimented with hypnosis, which was then doubted and criticised. He used some of his students in Leicester as subjects, with considerable success. Apparently, this persuaded him not to reject ideas which were doubted. Even when Huxley told him that one of his favourite mediums was a proven fraud, he refused to believe it. He preferred the evidence of his own experience.
Wallace's public support of spiritualism, and his defence of spiritualist mediums against allegations of fraud, damaged his scientific reputation. It strained his relationships with friends such as Bates, Huxley and Darwin, who felt he was overly credulous. Others became openly hostile to Wallace over the issue. Wallace and other scientists who defended spiritualism were subject to much criticism from the press, with The Lancet, the leading English medical journal, being particularly harsh. The controversy affected the public's idea of Wallace for the rest of his career, though he was always respected in other ways.
Other interests 
Wallace had a wide range of interests, and wrote books about all of them. He wrote against vaccination, for phrenology, for spiritualism, for land nationalisation, against the Moon having canals, and for social change and the progress and improvement of mankind. He did not believe in religion, but he did believe in spiritualism. He was a radical in politics, economics and social reform. He was a kind and honourable person, but he could be a tough opponent if he thought something unfair was going on. Even the titles of some of his books were sensational, as for example:
Bad Times: an essay on the depression of trade, tracing it to its sources in enormous foreign loans, excessive war expenditure, the increase of speculation and of millionaires, and their depopulation of the rural districts; with suggested remedies. With appendix on the nationalisation of house property. Macmillan, London. 1885.
 Land nationalisation: its necessity and its aims. Being a comparison of the system of landlord and tenant with that of occupying ownership in their influence on the wellbeing of the people. Swan Sonnenschein, London 1892.
Vaccination a delusion: its penal enforcement a crime. This essay was written for the purpose of influencing Parliament, and securing the speedy abolition of the unjust, cruel, and pernicious Vaccination laws. For this purpose, it has been necessary to speak plainly of the ignorance and incompetence displayed by the Royal Commission, proofs of which I give from their Final Report and the evidence they have collected and printed. (Preface). Reprinted as a separate from chapter XVIII of The wonderful century. Swan Sonnenschein, London 1898.
Books 
Wallace wrote about 22 books, depending on how one counts them.
His greatest works include:
 1853 Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro
 1858 On the tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the original type (this is the famous paper on natural selection)
 1869 The Malay Archipelago.
 1870 Contributions to the theory of natural selection.
 1876 The geographical distribution of animals
 1878 Tropical Nature, and other essays
 1880 Island Life
 1889 Darwinism

References 

1823 births
1913 deaths
British naturalists
British evolutionary biologists
British explorers
Spirituality
Order of Merit
Fellows of the Royal Society
Science writers
Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov  (25 November 1887 – 26 January 1943) was a Russian botanist and geneticist. He is best known for showing how and where crop plants evolved. He devoted his life to agriculture: the study and improvement of wheat, corn, and other cereal crops.

By 1940, Vavilov had accumulated a collection of 200,000 plant seeds from the Soviet Union and from abroad. He was widely admired, but his life came to a terrible end. Vavilov repeatedly criticised a powerful but poor scientist, Trofim Lysenko. As a result, Vavilov was arrested, and died of starvation in a prison in 1943. Today Vavilov's name stands high. The Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry in St. Petersburg is named after him. It maintains one of the world's largest collections of plant genetic material.
Vavilovian mimicry 
This is mimicry in plants where a weed comes to look like a crop plant. Before herbicides, weeds were plucked by hand. This has been done for thousands of years. The weeds come to look like the crop because the weeders pick those weeds which look most different. Vavilovian mimicry is caused by unintentional selection by humans. The weeds that survive pass on their genes. Gradually, all the weeds look more like the crop plant.

An example is rye, a common Mediterranean species. Rye was originally just a weed growing with wheat and barley. Weeding made it like the crop. Like wheat, it came to have larger seeds and more rigid spindles to which the seeds are attached.

Rye is a tougher plant than wheat: it survives in harsher conditions. Having become a crop like the wheat, rye was able to become a crop plant in harsh areas, such as hills and mountains.

References
References

Major works by Vavolov 
 The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of cultivated plants (translated by K. Starr Chester). 1951. Chronica Botanica 13:1–366
 Origin and geography of cultivated plants (translated by Doris Love). 1992. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 
 Five Continents (translated by Doris Love). 1997. IPGRI, Rome; VIR, St. Petersburg 

1887 births
1943 deaths
Evolutionary biologists
Geneticists
Russian botanists
Gilbert White (18 July 1720 – 26 June 1793) was a pioneering English naturalist and ornithologist.

Early life and education 
White was born in his grandfather's vicarage at Selborne in Hampshire. He was educated by a private tutor in Basingstoke before going to Oriel College, Oxford University. He obtained his deacon's orders in 1746, being fully ordained in 1749.  

Then he held several curacies in Hampshire and Wiltshire, including Selbourne. White also held the office of Junior Proctor at Oxford and was Dean of Oriel College. In 1784 he became curate of Selborne for the last time, remaining so until his death.
Publications 
White is best known for The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789). This was a collection of his letters to Thomas Pennant, the leading British zoologist of the day, and the Hon. Daines Barrington, an English barrister and Fellow of the Royal Society. These letters contained White's discoveries on local birds, animals and plants. White believed in observing birds rather than collecting specimens. He was one of the first people to separate the similar-looking Chiffchaff, Willow Warbler and Wood Warbler by means of their song.

White is regarded by many as England's first ecologist and one of the founders of modern respect for nature.

White, Gilbert 1789. The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, in the County of Southampton: with engravings and an appendix. London: Printed by T. Bensley; for B. White and Son.
White, Gilbert 1795. A Naturalist's Calendar, with observations in various branches of natural history, extracted from the papers of the late Rev. Gilbert White of Selborne, Hampshire, Senior Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Never before published. London: printed for B. and J. White, Horace's Head, Fleet Street. This posthumous collection of previously unpublished material was put together by J. Aikin.

1720 births
1793 deaths
Church of England clergy
British ecologists
English science writers
English naturalists
People from Hampshire
Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet,  (14 November 1797 – 22 February 1875) was a British geologist. He was the foremost geologist of his day, and an influence on the young Charles Darwin. His work was rewarded with a knighthood, and later he was created a hereditary baronet.

The house of his birth is in the Scottish Lowlands. it is in the valley of the Highland Boundary Fault, one of the great features of Scottish geology. Round the house is farmland, but within a short distance to the north-west are the Grampian Mountains in the Scottish Highlands. 

Charles would have seen this view from his house as a child. He was also fortunate that his family's second home was in a completely different area: at Bartley Lodge in the New Forest, England. Both these places lit his interest in the natural world.
Lyell was a rich man, and earned more money as an author. He came from a prosperous family, and worked briefly as a lawyer in the 1820s. He held was a Professor of Geology at King's College London in the 1830s. From 1830 onward his books gave him both income and fame.

Lyell's Principles of Geology was his most famous and most important book. It was first published in three volumes, in 1830–33. The book was about the ideas of James Hutton, but with many additions, improvements and examples. The book made Lyell to be known as an important geological theorist. It was a work of synthesis, backed by his own personal observations on his travels.
The central argument in Principles was that the present is the key to the past. This was called by William Whewell 'uniformitarianism'. Geological remains from the distant past are explained by processes we can see operating now. Lyell's interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a big influence on his young friend, Charles Darwin.

Other websites 
 Charles Lyell -Citizendium

1797 births
1875 deaths

British naturalists
British geologists
Scottish scientists
Knights Bachelor
Baronets
English science writers
John Ray (29 November 1627 – 17 January 1705) was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. Ray was the son of a village blacksmith who got to Cambridge University on a scholarship. This was in 1644, when the Puritans were making war against Charles I. When he got his bachelor's degree in 1648, he continued as a Fellow of Trinity College.

Ray was a Protestant dissenter who had accepted the return of Charles II. He was ordained as a priest of the Church of England, in London in 1660. By then, Charles II insisted that all priests sign an affadavit against the Puritan party. The Act of Uniformity of 1662 made the Book of Common Prayer compulsory in religious services, which was opposed by those of Puritan beliefs. Ray would not sign the affidavit, so he was forced to resign his Fellowship, and could not work as a priest.
Ray published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology. His classification of plants in his Historia Plantarum, was an important step towards modern taxonomy. Ray rejected the system by which species were classified according to an either/or type system. Instead he classified plants by observation according to similarities and differences. Thus he advanced scientific empiricism against the deductive rationalism of the scholastics. He was the first person to give a biological definition of the term species.

"Ray sweeps away the litter of mythology and fable... and always insists upon accuracy of observation and description and the testing of every new discovery".p10

Ray's works 
Ray published about 23 works, depending on how one counts them. The biological works were usually in Latin, the rest in English. For ease of reading, the titles below are in English.
1660: Catalogue of Cambridge plants.
1668: Tables of plants
1668: Catalogue of English plants plus Fasiculus (an *appendix)
1670: Catalogue of English proverbs.
1673: Observations in the Low Countries and Catalogue of plants not native to England.
1674: Collection of English words not generally used.
1675: Trilingual dictionary, or nomenclator classicus.
1676: Willughby's Ornithologia. "In fact, the book was Ray's, based on preliminary notes by Francis Willughby".p52 Chapter 12 "Willughby and Ray laid the foundation of scientific ornithology".
1682: New method of plants.
1686: History of fishes +frontis & 187 engraved plates. Plates subscribed by Fellows of the Royal Society. Samuel Pepys, the President, subscribed for 79 of the plates.
1686–1704: History of plants. 3 vols, vol 1 1686, vol 2 1688, vol 3 1704. The third volume lacked plates, so his assistant James Petiver published Petiver's Catalogue in parts, 1715–1764, with plates. The work on the first two volumes was supported by subscriptions from the President and Fellows of the Royal Society.
1690: Synopsis of British plants.
1691: The wisdom of God. 2nd ed 1692, 3rd ed 1701, 4th ed 1704 (each enlarged from the previous edition). This was his most popular work. It was in the vein later called natural theology, explaining the adaptation of living creatures as the work of God. It was heavily plagiarised (copied) by William Paley in his Natural theology of 1802.p92 p452
1692: Miscellaneous discourses concerning the dissolution and changes of the world. This includes some important discussion of fossils. Ray insisted that fossils had once been alive, in opposition to his friends Martin Lister and Edward Llwyd. "These [fossils] were originally the shells and bones of living fishes and other animals bred in the sea". Raven commented that this was "The fullest and most enlightened treatment by an Englishman" of that time.p426
1713 Three Physico-theological discourses. This is the 3rd edition of Miscellaneous discourses, the last by Ray before his death, and delayed in publication. Its main importance is that Ray recanted his former acceptance of fossils, apparently because he was theologically troubled by the implications of extinction.p37 Robert Hooke, like Nicolas Steno, was in no doubt about the biological origin of fossils. Hooke made the point that some fossils were no longer living, for example Ammonites: this was the source of Ray's concern.p327
1693: Synopsis of animals and reptiles.
1693: Collection of travels.
1694: Collection of European plants.
1695: Plants of each county (Camden's Brittania).
1696: Brief dissertation.
1700: A persuasive to a holy life. 
1705. Method and history of insects. (Post-mortem and unedited)
1713: Synopsis of birds and fishes.
Libraries holding Ray's works 
Including the various editions, there are 172 works of Ray, of which most are rare. The only libraries with substantial holdings are all in England.p153 The list in order of holdings is:
The British Library, Euston, London. Holds over 80 of the editions.
The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford.
The University of Cambridge Library.
Trinity College Library, University of Cambridge.
The Natural History Museum Library, South Kensington, London.

References 

1627 births
1705 deaths

English naturalists
English botanists
English science writers
The WWE Diva Search was a competition held by the World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) which ran from 2003 to 2007. The aim of the contest was to find a new WWE Diva, from the 2004 contest onwards the winner of the contest was offered a WWE Contract which was worth $250,000.

Despite only one winner of the competition each year (excluding 2003) the WWE has signed multiple diva search contestants, including Candice Michelle, Taryn Terrell and many others.

Contests

2003 
In 2003 the first Diva Search was held, however the winner of the first Diva Search Jaime Koeppe did not receive a contract. She did receive a photoshoot for an issue of WWE Magazine.

2004 

 Theme Songs:
 "Walk Idiot Walk" by The Hives
 "Time and Time Again" by Chronic Future
 "Open Your Eyes" by Alter Bridge
Contestants 
 Christy Hemme - Winner
 Carmella DeCesare - Runner-Up
 Joy Giovanni - 3rd Place
 Amy Weber - 4th Place
 Maria Kanellis - 5th Place
 Tracie Wright - 6th Place
 Michelle McCool - 7th Place
 Chandra Costello - 8th Place
 Camille Anderson - 9th Place
 Julia Costello - 10th Place

Despite Christy Hemme winning, the WWE hired many other Divas also featured within the contest, this included, Michelle McCool, Amy Weber, Candice Michelle, Maria Kennllis and Joy Giovanni.

2005 

 Theme Song:
 "Be Yourself" by Audioslave

Contestants 
 Ashley Massaro - Winner
 Leyla Milani - Runner-up
 Elisabeth Rouffaer - 3rd Place
 Kristal Marshall - 4th Place
 Summer DeLin - 5th Place
 Cameron Haven - 6th Place
 Simona Fusco - 7th Place
 Leilene "Alexis" Ondrade - 8th place

Like the previous year's Diva Search, Ashley Massaro was not the only Diva WWE hired, this included, Kristal Marshall, Trenesha Biggers and Elisabeth Rouffaer.
2006 
 Themes Songs:
 "Move Along" by The All-American Rejects
 "Face Down" by The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus
 "Out Here All Night" by Damone

Contestants 

 Layla El - Winner
 Jen England - Runner-up
 J.T. Tinney - 3rd Place
 Milena Roucka - 4th Place
 Erica Chevillar - 5th Place
 Rebecca DiPietro - 6th Place
 Maryse Ouellet - 7th Place
 Amy Zidian - 8th Place

Like the past two years this also featured the WWE hiring many losing Divas, this included, Milena Roucka, the Garcia Twins, Rebecca DiPietro, Amy Zidian and Maryse Ouellet.

2007 

 Theme Song:
 "Let it Roll" by Velvet Revolver

Contestants 
 Eve Torres - Winner
 Brooke Gilbertsen - Runner-up
 Lena Yada - 3rd place
 Taryn Terrell - 4th place
 Jessica Hatch - 5th place
 J. Kim - 6th Place
 Lyndy Frieson - 7th Place
 Naomi Kirk - 8th Place

WWE like in the previous years WWE hired runner-ups, this included, Taryn Terrell, Lena Yada  and Angela Fong.

References

Other websites 
 2006 Diva Search Official Websites
 Diva Search Official Websites
WWE
2003 establishments
2007 disestablishments
Vladimir Samoylovich Horowitz (, Vladimir Samojlovich Horovitz) (October 1, 1903 – November 5, 1989) was a Russian-American classical pianist. He is often said to be one of the best pianists of the 20th century.

Biography

Early life 

Horowitz was born in Kiev, which was a part of the Russian Empire at the time, to a Jewish family in 1903. He was the youngest of four children. His father was an engineer and his mother was a pianist. He first started piano lessons from his mother at an early age. In 1912 he joined Kiev University where he was taught by Vladimir Puchalsky, Sergei Tarnowsky, and Felix Blumenfeld. He performed Sergei Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3 in D Minor on his graduation. He then performed his first solo concert in Kharkiv in 1920.

Horowitz got more and more famous but was often paid in food rather than money because Russia wasn't very rich. Although performing in many concerts, he secretly wanted to be a composer. In 1925, he moved to the West, intending not to return.
Career in the West 

On January 2, 1926, Horowitz played his first concert outside of Russia. He then played in many other places, such as Berlin, Paris, and London. He gave his first concerts in the United States in 1928. 

When World War II started in 1939, Horowitz decided to live in the U. S. He became an American citizen in 1944. Horowitz was very proud of being an American, and decided to make a piano version of Sousa's The Stars and Stripes Forever.  He played many concerts to raise money for the war effort, and he asked people to call him "the American pianist."  Horowitz began playing music written by an American composer, Samuel Barber, and gave the world’s first performances of the Barber's Piano Sonata and Excursions.

During World War II, Horowitz also played a lot of Russian music, giving the first performances in America of Prokofiev's Piano Sonatas Nos. 6, 7 and 8 (which were called "War Sonatas") and Kabalevsky's Piano Sonatas Nos. 2 and 3.
Horowitz stopped playing concerts four times (1936 to 1938, 1953 to 1965, 1969 to 1974, and 1983 to 1985), as he was unsure that he was good enough, even when he was popular.

He made his television debut on September 22, 1968, in a concert at Carnegie Hall.

Style
Style 

Horowitz was most well known for playing music written between 1830 and 1920.  His 1932 recording of the Liszt Sonata is still considered by many to be the best ever, even though many other pianists have recorded it.  Other pieces he was famous for were Scriabin's Étude in D-sharp minor, Chopin's Ballade No. 1 in G minor, and many of Rachmaninoff’s short pieces, including Polka de W.R.  Horowitz was praised for his way of playing the Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 3, and the composer said "he swallowed it whole. He had the courage, the intensity, the daring."  Horowitz later became good friends with Rachmaninoff.  Horowitz was also well known for playing quieter works like Schumann's Scenes of Childhood, Scarlatti sonatas, and some Mozart and Haydn sonatas.
Horowitz's way of playing often used large contrasts between soft and loud volumes.  He was able to play louder than most other pianists, without making an ugly sound.  His playing was also known for many different kinds of sounds – sometimes called tone colors.  Horowitz was also famous for playing precise passages in octaves very fast.

Recordings

Horowitz began making recordings in 1928.  He recorded for several record labels.  His most famous early records were Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3 with Albert Coates and the London Symphony Orchestra (the first time that piece was recorded) and Franz Liszt's Sonata in B minor.  
When Horowitz was not playing in public, he sometimes made recordings in his house.  His recordings won many awards, and he continued recording until a few days before he died.
The last years
In 1986, Horowitz told his friends that “before I die, I want to see the land where I was born.”  So, he decided to play two concerts in Russia.  At the time, Russia and the United States were trying to be more friendly with each other, and Horowitz’s concerts were part of that effort.  The concert in Russia’s capitol, Moscow, was shown on TV, and people in the audience could be seen wiping tears from their eyes.

When Horowitz returned to the United States, President Ronald Reagan gave him the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Vladimir Horowitz died on November 5, 1989 in New York of a heart attack.  He was 86.

References

Other websites 
 Horowitz Scores Online - A website containing scores of Horowitz's Transcriptions and Compositions
1903 births
1989 deaths
20th-century American composers
American classical pianists
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American musicians
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Musicians from Kyiv
20th-century Russian composers
Russian Jews
Russian pianists
Soviet Jews
Soviet musicians
Ukrainian musicians
Ukrainian Jews
Thomas Henry Huxley PC PRS (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English biologist who  specialised in comparative anatomy. He was born in Ealing, Middlesex. He was a friend and supporter of Charles Darwin, and had a public career. He was a member of ten Royal Commissions.

Today he is sometimes called Darwin's Bulldog for his support of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. However, this term was not used during his lifetime. Huxley was slow to accept some of Darwin's ideas, but he was wholehearted in his public support of Darwin.

Huxley's 1860 debate with the English Bishop Samuel Wilberforce was a famous public event. The debate was about evolution, and it was widely reported in the press. Many thought Huxley won that debate, which helped Huxley's career, and the theory of evolution.
Huxley also developed scientific education in Britain, and fought against the more extreme forms of religion.  These activities had a big effect on the way people in Britain and elsewhere thought about the world.  Huxley used the term agnostic to say that he did not know if there is a god or not.  We continue to use the term agnostic today. Huxley was for many years a close friend of the Irish physicist John Tyndall. 

Huxley had little schooling, and taught himself almost everything he knew. Remarkably, he became a great anatomist and zoologist. Later, he discussed the evolution of man and the apes. Another of his ideas was that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs, which is now known to be true.

Huxley died in Eastbourne, Sussex. Three of his grandsons became famous in the 20th century.

Voyage round the world
As a young man, Huxley went on a long voyage of discovery to the southern continents. He was Assistant to the Surgeon on the Royal Navy ship HMS Rattlesnake. What he did was to collect sea animals, and study them. He went ashore in New Guinea and the eastern coast of Australia, to study the animals, and the native peoples. He fell in love with a girl in Sydney, Australia, and some years later they married and had children.

Huxley on Man 
For nearly ten years he worked on the relationship of man to the apes. This led him into a clash with Richard Owen, a man who was disliked for his behaviour, but admired for his skill. The struggle between them ended in some severe defeats for Owen.

Huxley's public lectures grew into his most famous work Man's place in Nature (1863). There he deals with the evolution of man, before Charles Darwin published his Descent of Man in 1871.
In the book Huxley gives evidence for the evolution of man and apes from a common ancestor. It was the first book devoted to the topic of human evolution. The book proposed to a wide readership that evolution applied as fully to man as to all other life.

1863: Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. Williams & Norgate, London.

Public work 

Huxley was an important public figure. When he was young there were virtually no biology degrees in British universities, and few courses. Most biologists of his day were either self-taught, or took medical degrees. By the time he retired there were professors in biology in most universities, and a broad agreement on what should be taught. Huxley was the single most influential person in this transformation. Huxley was for about thirty years evolution's most effective champion. For some, Huxley was "the leading English spokesman for science in the nineteenth century".
Schools and the Bible 
Huxley supported the reading of the Bible in schools. Huxley was against organised religion, but he thought the Bible's moral teachings and use of language helped English life. "I do not advocate burning your ship to get rid of the cockroaches".

However, what Huxley proposed was to create an edited version of the Bible, without "shortcomings and errors... These tender children [should] not be taught that which you do not yourselves believe". The London School Board voted against his idea, but it also voted against the idea that public money should be used to support students attending church schools. Vigorous debate took place on such points, and the debates were written down in detail. Huxley said "I will never be a party to enabling the state to sweep the children of this country into denominational schools". The Act of Parliament which founded board schools allowed the reading of the Bible, but did not permit any particular religious doctrine to be taught.
It may be right to see Huxley as helping the secularisation of British society which gradually occurred over the following century. Ernst Mayr said "It can hardly be doubted that [biology] has helped to undermine traditional beliefs and value systems". Huxley more than anyone else was responsible for this trend in Britain.

Royal Commissions 
Huxley worked on ten Royal and other commissions. The subjects included medical law, contagious diseases, vivisection; fisheries; universities in Scotland, and science education in Ireland. He was Inspector of Fisheries 1881–85, and held awards from many universities. He was President of the Royal Society from 1883–1885. The British state made him a Privy Councillor, as a reward for his public work.

Related pages 
Origin of birds

References 

Desmond, Adrian 1994. Huxley: vol 1 The Devil's disciple. London: Michael Joseph. 
Desmond, Adrian 1997. Huxley: vol 2 Evolution's high priest. London: Michael Joseph.
1825 births
1895 deaths
British anatomists
British zoologists
English evolutionary biologists
English science writers
Huxley family
People from Ealing
Presidents of the Royal Society
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Writers from Middlesex
Scientists from London
Theodosius Grygorovych Dobzhansky (; ; January 25, 1900 – December 18, 1975) was a noted geneticist and an evolutionary biologist.  

Dobzhansky was born in Ukraine (then part of Imperial Russia) and emigrated to the United States in 1927. He was a central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work on the fruit-fly Drosophila. He did research on these flies in California, mostly on populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. 

Dobzhansky was important in the modern evolutionary synthesis, which was the synthesis of evolutionary biology with genetics.

Ukraine and Russia 
At school Dobzhansky collected butterflies and beetles, and studied biology at Kiev University. After graduation he moved to St Petersburg (then called Leningrad), and studied under Yuri Filipchenko, who had a Drosophila lab. Dobzhansky collected Coccinellidae (ladybird beetles) in the wild, and explored their genetics.
America 
Dobzhansky emigrated to the United States in 1927. He worked with Thomas Hunt Morgan at Columbia University, who had pioneered the use of fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) in genetics experiments. He followed Morgan to the California Institute of Technology from 1930 to 1940. Dobzhansky took fruit fly research out of the laboratory and into the field. He discovered that regional varieties of flies were more similar to each other genetically than to flies from other regions.

In 1937 Dobzhansky published one of the major works of the modern evolutionary synthesis, entitled Genetics and the Origin of Species. He defined evolution as "a change in the allele frequency within a gene pool". It is through changes in the proportion of alleles in a population that evolution takes place. Also in 1937, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. During this time he had a falling out with one of his Drosophila collaborators, Alfred Sturtevant, based perhaps on professional competition.
Dobzhansky returned to Columbia University from 1940 to 1962. He was one of the signatories of the 1950 UNESCO statement The Race Question. He then moved to the Rockefeller University) until his retirement in 1971.

Other key publications 
 Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution  The American Biology Teacher 35: (March): 125-129.
 Genetics of the evolutionary process. Columbia University Press, New York 1970.
 Dobzhansky's Genetics of Natural Populations I-XLIII. R.C. Lewontin, J.A. Moore, W.B. Provine & B. Wallace, eds. Columbia University Press, New York 1981. (reprints the 43 papers in this series, all but two of which were authored or co-authored by Dobzhansky)

References 

1900 births
1975 deaths
American evolutionary biologists
American zoologists
Ukrainian scientists
American geneticists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Rockefeller University faculty‎
Columbia University faculty
California Institute of Technology faculty
Sir Julian Sorell Huxley FRS (22 June 1887 – 14 February 1975) was an English evolutionary biologist, humanist and internationalist. He was born in London, and died there. He was a proponent of natural selection, and a leading figure in the modern evolutionary synthesis.

He was Secretary of the Zoological Society of London (1935–1942), the first Director of UNESCO, and a founding member of the World Wildlife Fund.

Huxley came from the distinguished Huxley family. His brother was the writer Aldous Huxley, and his half-brother, a fellow biologist and Nobel laureate, Andrew Huxley; and his paternal grandfather was Thomas Henry Huxley, a friend and supporter of Charles Darwin and proponent of evolution.
Huxley was well known for his presentation of science in books and articles, and on radio and television. He was awarded UNESCO's Kalinga Prize for the popularisation of science in 1953, the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society in 1956, and the Darwin-Wallace medal of the Linnean Society in 1958. He was also knighted in that same year, 1958, a hundred years after Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace announced the theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1959 he received a Special Award of the Lasker Foundation in the category Planned Parenthood – World Population. Huxley was a prominent member of the British Eugenics Society.

Early work 

His particular interest was bird behaviour, especially the courtship of water birds. His observations on the ethology of the Great Crested Grebe, published in 1914, was a landmark in avian field research. His invention of vivid labels for the rituals (such as 'penguin dance', 'plesiosaurus race' etc.) made the ideas memorable and interesting to the general reader.