Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Edward IV (Although he is mostly known as Edward IV, he was actually the seventh King Edward. Therefore, he is sometimes known as Edward VII.) (28 April 1442 — 9 April 1483) was the King of England from 1461 until he was deposed in 1470 and again from 1471 where he was restored to the throne until his death in 1483. He was a main figure in the Wars of the Roses. The Wars of the Roses were a series of civil wars in England. They were fought between the Yorkist and Lancastrian groups between 1455 and 1487.
Edward fled to Flanders. In Flanders, he gathered support. His forces invaded England in March 1471. After winning the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury, he became king again. Soon after this, Henry VI was found dead in the Tower of London. Edward ruled in relative peace for the next twelve years. He died suddenly in April 1483. He was succeeded by his son Edward V, but Edward IV's brother Richard III soon took the throne.

Popularity 
Edward was seen as a strong and popular king. He was also tall at . This was very tall for a man in the 15th century. His height, as a monarch, was only passed by Peter I of Russia who was  tall.

References

1442 births
1483 deaths
House of York
People from Rouen
15th century in England
Pterosaurs were flying reptiles which lived in the Mesozoic era at the same time as the dinosaurs. 

Many pterosaurs were fairly small, but in the Upper Cretaceous some grew larger than any other flying animals. The pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus had a wing-span of up to 12 metres (~40 feet).

The first fossils occur in the Upper Triassic, and the group continues until the K/T extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous (220 to 65.5 million years ago). Pterosaurs are the earliest vertebrates known to have evolved powered flight. Their wings were made from a flap of skin between their bodies and a big fourth finger (sometimes called the "wing finger"). The pterosaurs fall into two groups. The earlier Rhamphorhynchoids (e.g. Rhamphorhynchus) had long tails and toothed jaws; The pterodactyloids (e.g. Pterodactylus) had short tails, and many had beaks with no teeth.
The first pterosaur fossil was discovered in the Late Jurassic Solnhofen limestone in Germany in 1784. This was exactly the same place as Archaeopteryx was found years later. Georges Cuvier first suggested that pterosaurs were flying creatures in 1801. Since the first pterosaur fossil was found, twenty-nine species of pterosaurs have been found in those deposits alone. A famous early UK find was an example of Dimorphodon by Mary Anning, in 1828 at Lyme Regis, Dorset, England. The name Pterosauria was coined in 1834.

Pterosaurs were genuine fliers, able to flap or soar. Their bodies were covered with fine hairs, so they were able to regulate their temperature (they were warm-blooded). They are a close sister-group to the dinosaurs, part of the Archosauria.

Rhamphorhynchoids
Rhamphorhynchoids

This early group did well from the Upper Triassic to the Lower Cretaceous. When we first see them in the fossil record they have split into three families, so biologists know their early evolution is not yet revealed.p240, 246 These three families are represented by the three genera Rhamphorhynchus, Dimorphodon and Eudimorphodon. At least one more family appears at the start of the Jurassic, the Anurognathidae.

The group had a long tail, usually stiffened by rod-like bony tendons to keep it straight. This shows that their flight was extremely stable, which means it kept on course, rather than darted about. This feature is also found in Archaeopteryx and in early bats, and in insects like dragonflies.
To understand this, it helps to know some basic things about flight aerodynamics and stability. Early planes were highly stable, and so are airliners. To dart about quickly requires special advanced brains and reflexes, which later birds and pterosaurs had, but early ones did not. The analogy in planes would be fighter planes, which need such fast reactions that the details are worked out by computer, with the pilot indicating where to go. It requires more brains to control unstable flight than it does stable flight.

All species in the group have teeth. This again has a parallel with birds; Archaeopteryx and many Cretaceous birds have teeth; modern birds do not. The disadvantage of teeth is that they are quite heavy; when the animal can do without them, they will gradually get selected out. Obviously, without teeth food cannot be chewed, but there are ways around that. Stones in the gizzard do the grinding in birds.
For a long time it was thought that the group died out at the end of the Jurassic, which was a minor extinction event. Even near the end of the Jurassic, Rhamphorhynchus was the most common pterosaur found at the famous Archaeopteryx site at Solnhofen in Bavaria, Germany, and now it is known that the group survived until the Lower Cretaceous. "Until recently, it was thought that rhamphorhynchoids died out at the end of the Jurassic, but new finds in the Jehol sequence of northeast China [show] that in this part of the world they survived until at least the middle of the Lower Cretaceous".

A single specimen of the insect-eating Anurognathus was also found at Solnhofen. It had a shorter tail than any other rhamphorhynchoid. This suggests its need to dodge about to catch insects: "agile and highly manoeuvrable".p270

Pterodactyloids
Pterodactyloids

Fossil pterodactyloids appear in the Upper Jurassic. They were short-tailed pterosaurs, suggesting that they had more sophisticated control of their flight, which no doubt gave them some advantages. 2–300 specimens of 17 different species of pterosaur have been found at Solnhofen from eight different genera.p263 They include the earliest examples of Pterodactylus, and Germanodactylus, a genus which is also found in England and China. Ctenochasma, also from Solnhofen, had a comb of 260 thin teeth showing it to be a filter-feeder that may have waded or swam in the water. There were several other genera with similar life-styles.
In the Lower Cretaceous there were many pterodactyloids, mostly quite small. Gradually, larger versions evolved, and by the Upper Cretaceous most pterosaurs had huge wing-spans and clearly covered huge distances soaring on upcurrents in a warm environment. Pteranodon, with a wing-span of over 20 feet (7m), and Quetzalcoatlus, with a wingspan of 40 feet (12m) are famous examples. The many dozens of partial skeletons of Pteranodon were found in areas where, in the Cretaceous of North America, there was a gigantic inland sea, the Western Interior Seaway. That makes it more or less certain that Pteranodon was mainly a fish-eating pterosaur. And, other sites in England and Argentina were also, at the time, shallow, warm inland seas. The general conclusion is that most pterosaurs were fish-eaters.
However, it's worth remembering that animals from forest areas fossilize poorly. We can't say much about areas which are not fossiliferous. We do know that the land in the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous was in part forested with Araucarian conifers like cypresses, and with yews. The forests would have had many insects.

Since birds were already common in the Lower Cretaceous, they would have competed vigorously with the smaller pterodactyloids. That may explain the extinction of the smaller pterosaur species, though the lack of fossils from the forested areas makes it difficult to judge. The huge Upper Cretaceous types pterosaurs clearly lived a different life-style from the smaller species, and one which was not yet accessible to birds. As the climate changed in the Upper Cretaceous, becoming colder and more seasonal, the number of pterosaurs became fewer. Recent publications have shown that more pterosaurs survived to the end-Cretaceous event than was previously thought.
Like most of the larger species on Earth, the huge pterosaurs did not survive the K/T extinction event. At least some families of birds did. So ended the competition between the two types of flying reptile through the long 79 million years of the Cretaceous period.p346

Pterosaur lifestyle

Food

There are many adaptations of the head and jaws of pterosaurs, so it is quite certain that different forms used different feeding methods, as birds do. Overall, most fossils have been found in marine strata, which suggests that they could fly well over water, and that fish were on the menu for many species. The jaws of fish-eaters was long and often held forward-pointing teeth, good for catching fish (see Anhanguera). Remains of a last fish supper have been found in Pteranodon.
Fossils show that one pterosaur, the Pterodaustro found in Argentina, had comb-like strainers in its mouth. The pterosaur probably ate by filling its lower jaw with water and pushing the water out of its mouth through the strainers. The strainers could catch any plankton or other small creatures that were in the water, and when the water was gone, the animal could eat what was left. Other species had long, compressed lower jaws, which suggest they were skimmers at the top of the water.

The other main item of diet was the insects. Flying insects were abundant in the Mesozoic, and many pterosaur species give clear signs that this was their food. These pterosaurs have a broad mouth, often with short peg-like teeth.p339–341

Pterosaur flight
Pterosaur flight

For a long time people thought pterosaurs could only glide and soar, and were not strong enough to flap their wings. In the 20th century, after aeroplanes had been invented, our understanding of flight advanced. English palaeontologists showed that pterosaurs could fly, and Tilly Edinger showed that by the end of the Jurassic, pterosaur brains were more like that of modern birds than of Archaeopteryx. Recent work has used working model to simulate their flight.p218 The wing membrane was about 1mm thick, with a tough skin and had long fibres reinforcing it. This can be clearly seen in some of the fossils.p332 The structure helped the wings survive the stresses of flight. The larger pterosaurs were mainly soarers, as is the case with birds today.
How pterosaurs moved on the ground has been something of a mystery. It is most likely that they walked on four legs while on the ground, as fossil tracks have been found showing they used both their legs and hands to support them.p210–222 
Pterosaurs also had special bones. They were extremely light (even more than bird's wings – some were almost as thin as a piece of paper), and some were almost hollow. Tiny holes in the bones are evidence of air sacs which extended into the vertebrae and limb bones, as it does with birds. Also present were supporting struts which made these bones stronger. With these special bones, even the largest of pterosaurs, Quetzalcoatlus, probably weighed less than 200 pounds.
Reproduction and development
Pterosaurs were probably egg-layers, and some eggs have been found at pterosaur sites. There is evidence that some species, such as Pteranodon, had sexual dimorphism (sexes looked different). The skeletons with large cranial (head) crests and small pelvic canals were presumably males. Where several specimens occur at the same location, adults can be distinguished from juveniles. Evidence of tooth wear in Eudimorphodon suggests the young were insectivorous, while the adults ate fish.p343 Development took place rapidly in these warm-blooded reptiles, and much of their life-style parallels that of birds. The high energy-level needed for flight explains why both reptilian forms (pterosaurs and birds) developed similar metabolism. In many respects, birds and pterosaurs are good examples of convergent evolution.

Related pages
 List of pterosaurs

References
References

Further reading
Unwin, David M. 2006. The pterosaurs: from deep time. Pi Press, N.Y. ISBN  0131-46308-X
Witton, Mark 2013. Pterosaurs: natural history, evolution, anatomy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691150611

Pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus  was a huge pterosaur, the largest animal ever to fly. It had a 10 to 12 meters wing-span (33/40 feet), but was light in construction (~200 pounds). 

Quetzalcoatlus had an unusually long neck, and when it stood on the ground it was as tall as a giraffe. 

Its fossil record is from the Upper Cretaceous of North America, 70–65.5 million years ago. Quetzalcoatlus became extinct at the K/T extinction event.
Its discovery 
A college student found the first Quetzalcoatlus fossil in Big Bend National Park in Texas. His name was Douglas Lawson, from the University of Texas in Austin. When he was in the park, he saw a bone sticking out of a rock. Since the bone looked hollow, like the bone of a bird, he thought it was part of a flying creature – and he was right. With his professor's help, he kept digging until lots of bones from an arm and wing were found. The rest of the animal's body was missing. Many others have looked for the rest of that huge pterosaur, but it has never been found. Other fossils of Quetzalcoatlus have been found, but none are as big as the one Lawson found.
Flight 
Since Quetzalcoatlus was so large, two researchers suggested it was too heavy to fly. This would have been astonishing, because in the whole fossil record there is no flightless pterosaur. It has been thought their mobility on the ground was too poor for them to survive without flight. However, a recent discussion of this idea concluded they probably could fly after all. Another analysis suggested their flight was quite strong. Since we have only a few bones, the question of weight cannot be settled at present.

Lifestyle 
The feeding habits of Quetzalcoatlus (which had a long beak with no teeth) are unknown. This question, and its flight, are still being discussed. The lack of a more detailed skeleton is the main problem in reaching conclusions. Two theories have been proposed.
One idea is that it ate fish, by flying with its jaw in the water, and snapping up fish when it hit them. Texas was largely covered by the Western Interior Seaway at the time. "Of these proposed lifestyles, in-flight piscivory [fish-eating] appears to have gained the most acceptance, with skim-feeding being a frequently suggested foraging method.

The other theory is that it fed on land, partly as a carrion feeder, like vultures and buzzards, and foraged for small animals. This view is gaining ground, because the jaw does not show the adaptations for skimming found in modern birds who catch fish this way.

In flight, it was certainly a soarer, flying on up-currents of air in a warm environment, and its remains come from a site which was far inland in the Cretaceous.

Media 
Quetzalcoatlus was shown in the movie When Dinosaurs Roamed America eating a dead Triceratops carcass.

References 

Pterosaurs
Mozilla was a web browser that was made open source. It was developed by Mozilla Foundation. It was the base of Mozilla Firefox.

Other websites

 Mozilla's official website

Related pages

 Internet Explorer
 Google Chrome

Web browsers
Mozilla
Fedora Linux is a distribution (or distro) of Linux developed by the community-supported Fedora Project and sponsored by Red Hat.  It is designed to be safe and is used by companies and governments. Fedora's mission statement is: "Fedora is about the rapid progress of Free and Open Source software."

Linus Torvalds, author of the Linux kernel, says he uses Fedora because it had fairly good support for PowerPC when he used that processor architecture.  He became used to the operating system and continues to use it.

Releases

Fedora Core 1 - 4

Fedora Core 1 was the first version of Fedora and was released on November 6, 2003, and was codenamed Yarrow. Fedora Core 1 was based on Red Hat Linux 9 and shipped with version 2.4.19 of the Linux kernel, version 2.4 of the GNOME desktop environment, and version 3.1.4 of KDE (the K Desktop Environment).
Fedora Core 2 was released on May 18, 2004, codenamed Tettnang. It shipped with Linux 2.6, GNOME 2.6, KDE 3.2.2, and SELinux XFree86 was replaced by the newer X.org, a merger of the previous official X11R6 release, which additionally included a number of updates to Xrender, Xft, Xcursor, fontconfig libraries, and other significant improvements.

Fedora Core 3 was released on November 8, 2004, codenamed Heidelberg. This was the first release of Fedora Core to include the Mozilla Firefox web browser, as well as support for the Indic languages. This release also replaced the LILO boot loader with GRUB. SELinux was also enabled by default, but with a new targeted policy, which was less strict than the policy used in Fedora Core 2. Fedora Core 3 shipped with GNOME 2.8 and KDE 3.3. It was the first release to include the new Fedora Extras repository.
Fedora Core 4 was released on June 13, 2005, with the codename Stentz. It shipped with Linux 2.6.11, KDE 3.4 and GNOME 2.10. This version introduced the new Clearlooks theme, which was inspired by the Red Hat Bluecurve theme. It also shipped with the OpenOffice.org 2.0 office suite, as well as Xen, a high performance and secure open source virtualization framework. It also introduced support for the PowerPC CPU architecture, and over 80 new policies for SELinux.

Fedora Core 5 - 6

The last two cores introduced specific artwork for that version. This is a trend that has continued in later Fedora versions.
Fedora Core 5 was released on March 20, 2006, with the codename Bordeaux, and introduced the Fedora Bubbles artwork. It was the first Fedora release to include Mono and tools built with it such as Beagle, F-Spot and Tomboy. It also introduced new package management tools such as pup and pirut (see Yellow dog Updater, Modified). This release replaced the old LinuxThreads, with the Native POSIX Thread Library.

Fedora Core 6 was released on October 24, 2006, codenamed Zod. This release introduced the Fedora DNA artwork, replacing the Fedora Bubbles artwork used in Fedora Core 5. The codename is derived from the infamous villain, General Zod, from the Superman DC Comic Books. This version introduced support for the Compiz compositing window manager and AIGLX (a technology that enables GL-accelerated effects on a standard desktop). It shipped with Firefox 1.5 as the default web browser, and Smolt, a tool that allows users to inform developers about the hardware they use.
None of these distributions are maintained by the Fedora Project.

Fedora 10 

Fedora 10, codenamed Cambridge, was released on November 25, 2008.

Version history

Fedora gallery

Package 
Fedora's official software package repository includes, for example, UNetbootin.

Related pages
 List of Linux distributions

References

Other websites 
 Fedora Project homepage
 

Fedora Core
X86-64 Linux distributions
Operating systems
Bagels are a type of bread made with flour. They look like doughnuts, and they are leavened with yeast. They have a crisp, shiny crust and a dense inside. Bagels are glazed, and in a ring-shaped roll. They are different from doughnuts because they are boiled before baked. Bagels are sometimes called "the cement doughnuts". 
The bagel is regarded as a special kind of Jewish food. They are eaten usually for breakfast or a snack.

Bagels are made from the basic bread ingredients of flour, yeast, salt, and sweet kinds of spices. Flour gives the bread its chewy taste, which can be made more light by eggs, milk, and butter. They are the only bread product that is boiled before it is baked.

Serving 
Bagels are often toasted in a toaster and then paired with foods like cream cheese (a soft cheese that tastes a little sweet) and jam, or with butter. Bagels can also be used to make sandwiches, with meat (for example smoked salmon) and egg and cheese. Bagel sandwiches are usually eaten for breakfast or lunch.
History 
Bagels were formally an obscure ethnic treat found only in the city's Jewish neighourhoods. Bagels were first sold in grocery stores in the 1950s. Frozen bagels were first introduced in 1960.

When Polish Jews went away to America, they brought the beugel with them. The first beugel bakeries were founded in New York City in the 1920s. Later the name was changed and called a bagel. Bagels have been used as a symbol of the continuous cycle of life—without beginning and without end.

In the East End of London, the bagel is known as a beigel, and poplar in many of the areas where many Jewish immigrants first arrived in London in the 19th century, such as Whitechapel and Spitalfields, and Brick Lane in particular, home to the Beigel Bake.

References 

Breads
Breakfast foods
A doughnut (spelled donut in various marketing sectors) is a type of deep fried dessert food made out of dough or batter.

How they are made
Round ringed doughnuts are made by joining the ends of a long, thin piece of dough into a ring or by using a doughnut cutter, which perfectly cuts the outside and inside shape, leaving a doughnut-shaped piece of dough and a doughnut hole from dough removed from the center. This smaller piece of dough can be cooked or re-added to the batch to make more doughnuts. A disk-shaped doughnut can also be stretched and molded into a torus until the center breaks to form a hole. Or, a doughnut depositor can be used to place a circle of liquid dough (batter) into the deep fryer. Doughnuts can be made from a yeast-based dough for more puffy doughnuts or a special type of cake batter. Yeast-raised doughnuts contain about 25% oil by weight, whereas cake doughnuts' oil content is around 20%, but they have extra fat in the batter before frying. Cake doughnuts are fried for about 90 seconds at about 190 °C to 198 °C, turning once
. Yeast-raised doughnuts absorb more oil because they take longer to fry, about 150 seconds, at 182 °C to 190 °C. Cake doughnuts normally weigh between 24 g and 28 g, whereas yeast-raised doughnuts normally are 38 g and are mostly larger when finished. Some types of cake doughnuts are also baked,  as opposed to fried, which greatly reduces the fat content.
Types

The two most common types of doughnut are ring doughnuts, which are shaped like rings, and filled doughnuts, which are round and have jam, jelly, custard, whipped cream, or chocolate inside them. There are also "doughnut holes" or "munchkins" which come in the shape of small balls. Most doughnuts have an icing (also called a "frosting") made with icing sugar, water, and flavourings (such as chocolate). Some doughnuts are rolled in sweet foods such as sugar or shredded coconut.

Serving
Doughnuts are often eaten in the morning, along with a cup of hot coffee. Doughnuts are sold at doughnut shops, bakeries, or grocery stores. People also eat doughnuts as a dessert, or as a snack.

Pictures

Related pages

Pastry
Cake
Dough

References

Cakes
Breakfast foods
Sweet breads
Mary was born at St. James Palace in London on 30 April 1662. Her father was James, Duke of York, and her mother was his first wife, Lady Anne Hyde. She was their oldest daughter. Mary's uncle was Charles II. Her grandfather by her mother's side was Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. He served for a long time as Charles's chief advisor. Her mother gave birth to eight children, but only Mary and her younger sister Anne lived to adulthood.

The Duke of York became a Roman Catholic in 1668 or 1669, but Mary and Anne had a Protestant education, as Charles II had commanded. Mary's mother died in 1671, and her father married again in 1673. He took Mary of Modena, a Catholic, as his second wife. She was also known as Mary Beatrice d'Este. Before her marriage, Mary wrote many letters to Frances Apsley, the daughter of James II's hawks keeper. However, she did not return Mary's interest.
Mary went to the Netherlands and lived there as William's wife. The Dutch people liked her because of her lively, friendly nature, and Mary loved William deeply. However, the marriage was often unhappy. Her three pregnancies ended in miscarriage or stillbirth, and Mary was very sad that she did not have a child. Her husband was often cold to her, and he had an affair with Elizabeth Villiers, one of Mary's ladies-in-waiting, for a long time. After some time, though, he grew warmer towards Mary.

The Glorious Revolution
When Charles II died without any  children in 1685, the Duke of York became King as James II in England and Ireland. He also became James VII in Scotland. He tried to give freedom of religion to non-Anglicans. He did this by making the acts of Parliament invalid by Royal Decree. The public did not like this. Several Protestant politicians and noblemen entered into negotiations (trying to reach agreements through discussion) with Mary's husband as early as 1687. In May 1688, James forced Anglican clergymen to read the Declaration of Indulgence. The Declaration of Indulgence was a statement that gave religious freedom to those who did not agree with the Church of England. This made him much less popular. Protestants became even more fearful when his wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to a son–James Francis Edward–in June 1688. They were fearful because the son would, unlike Mary and Anne, be raised a Roman Catholic
. Some said that the boy had been secretly carried into the Queen's room in a bed-warming pan instead of her stillborn baby. There was no strong proof to support this story, but Mary publicly doubted the boy's legitimacy. She sent a list of suspicious questions to her sister, Anne, about the boy's birth.
William agreed to attack. He declared that James' newborn son was the "pretended Prince of Wales". He also gave a list of what the English people wanted, and said that he only wanted to have "a free and lawful Parliament assembled". The Dutch army, which had been turned back by a storm in October, landed on 5 November. The English Army and Navy went over to William. At this time, the English people's confidence in James was very low. They did not even try to save their King. On 11 December, the King tried to run away, but failed. He tried to run away again on 23 December. This second attempt was successful, and James escaped to France. He lived there in exile until his death.

Though Mary was sad because of the deposition of her father, William ordered her to look happy when they arrived in London. Because of this, people thought she was being cold to her father. James also thought his daughter was unfaithful to him. This hurt Mary deeply.
Even after this was declared, there was still strong support for James in Scotland. John Graham of Clevehouse, the Viscount of Dundee, raised an army and won a victory at Killiecrankie on 27 July. But Dundee's army suffered great losses, and he was seriously wounded at the start of the battle. This stopped the only effective resistance to William, and the revolt was quickly crushed. The next month, there was a great defeat at the Battle of Dunkeld.

Rule 

In December 1689 Parliament passed one of the most important documents in English history. This was the Bill of Rights. This measure gave several rights to Parliament and the people. Among other things, it declared that the Sovereign could not break laws passed by Parliament, demand taxes if the Parliament did not agree, raise an army during a time of peace if the Parliament did not agree, or punish members of the House of Parliament for anything they said during discussions.
William had crushed the Irish Jacobites by 1692, but he continued with campaigns away from England to begin a war against France in the Netherlands. When William was away, Mary acted in her own name but on his advice. When he was in England, Mary never joined in political matters, as had been agreed in the Bill of Rights. However, she did join in the affairs of the Church, and all church matters passed through her hands.

Mary died of smallpox at Kensington Palace on 28 December 1694. She was buried at Westminster Abbey. When she died, Henry Purcell was called to write her funeral music, titled Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary.  William had grown to depend on Mary more and more, and was very sad when she died. It is reported that he said that "from being the happiest" he was "now going to be the miserablest creature on earth".
Legacy 
After Mary II's death, William III continued to rule as King. Princess Anne's last living child, William, Duke of Gloucester, died in July 1700. Parliament saw that William would have no more children. Because of this, it passed the Act of Settlement 1701. After Anne, the Crown would go to their nearest Protestant relative, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and her Protestant heirs. When William III died in 1702, he was succeeded by Anne. She was succeeded by the son of Electress Sophia, George I.

Mary gave money to the College of William and Mary (in the present day Williamsburg, Virginia) in 1693. She also began the Royal Hospital for Seamen, Greenwich.

Modern portrayals 
 In the 1969 mini-series, The First Churchills, Mary is acted by Lisa Daniely
 In the 1992 movie, Orlando, Mary is acted by Sarah Crowden
 In the 1995 movie, England, My England, Mary is acted by Rebecca Front
 In the 2005 movie, The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse, Mary is acted by Victoria Wood

Title, styles, honours and arms
Titles and styles 
 30 April 1662 – 13 February 1689: Her Highness The Lady Mary
 4 November 1677 – 13 February 1689: Her Highness The Princess of Orange
 13 February 1689 – 28 December 1694: Her Majesty The Queen

William III and Mary II called themselves "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc." when they began their rule. On 11 April 1689, the Estates of Scotland recognized them as Sovereigns. From then on, William and Mary called themselves "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc.".
Arms 
The arms used by the King and Queen were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheon Azure billetty and a lion rampant Or (for the House of Orange-Nassau).

References 

Notes

1662 births
1694 deaths
House of Stuart
Princesses of Orange
Kings and Queens of Scotland
17th century in Scotland
17th century in England
Goal can mean more than one thing. These meanings are listed below:
Goal (sport), the result of a score (it is like getting a point). It can also be the actual thing the player aims at to make a score, e.g. a goalpost in football.
 A goal can be a task.
 Game Oriented Assembly Lisp
The 1936 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad, were held in Berlin, Germany. 

The games were thought to be successful. The costs of the games was mostly paid for by the German government.

Participating nations 
A total of 49 nations sent athletes to compete at the Berlin games.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes
 Olympic football tournament 1936 (Austria)
 Jesse Owens

References

Other websites

 IOC page for the 1936 Summer Olympics

1936 Summer Olympics
Mesopotamia (Ancient Greek: Μεσοποταμία - "land between rivers") is a historical region in the Middle East. It included most of today’s Iraq, and parts of modern-day Iran, Syria and Turkey. The 'two rivers' of the name referred to the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers.

The land was called Al-Jazirah ("the island") by the Arabs, and Egyptologist J.H. Breasted later included it in the Fertile Crescent. The region is bounded in the northeast by the Zagros Mountains and in the southeast by the Arabian Plateau.

The area is often called the cradle of civilization. The ancient writing called cuneiform was first used around 3000 BC by the Sumerians. Historically important cities in Mesopotamia included Uruk, Ur, Nippur, Nineveh, and Babylon.
Major territorial states were the Akkadian kingdom, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the Assyrian Empire. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon of Akkad (the founder of the Akkadian kingdom), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), and Tiglath-Pileser I (who started the Assyrian Empire).

Many advances in technology were made by the ancient Sumerians, such as irrigation, trade by river, and flood control. Sumerians had agriculture and domesticated animals, or livestock, from the earliest records. Babylon is likely the first city built by settled people. Mesopotamia was also the place where the wheel was first used. First it was a potter's wheel that was used to make clay pots, then Sumerians adapted it for transport.
Geography 
Mesopotamia is made up of different regions. Northern Mesopotamia is made up of hills and plains. The land is quite fertile due to seasonal rains, and the rivers and streams that come from the mountains. Early settlers farmed the land and used timber, metals, and stone. Southern Mesopotamia is made up of marshy areas and wide, flat, plains. Cities developed along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers which flow through the region. Early settlers had to irrigate the land along the banks of the rivers in order for their crops to grow.
People of Mesopotamia 
Mesopotamia has been conquered many times by many different people. It was the heartland of the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires. As each new group moved into the region they adopted some of the culture, traditions, and beliefs of the people who had come before. It was conquered by Alexander the Great (332 BC), the Parthians (150 BC), the Romans, the Persian Empire, and the Arabs (7th century). It is still one of the most fertile (and therefore valuable) parts of the Middle East.
Ancient Mesopotamia begins in the late 6th millennium BC, and ends with either the rise of the Achaemenid Persians in the 6th century BC or the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia in the 7th century CE. This long period may be divided as follows:
 Pre-Pottery Neolithic:
 Jarmo (~7000 BC– ~6000 BC)
 Pottery Neolithic:
 Hassuna (~6000 BC–? BC), Samarra (~5700 BC–4900 BC) and Halaf (~6000 BC–5300 BC) cultures
 Chalcolithic or Copper Age:
 Ubaid period (~5900 BC–4400 BC)
 Uruk period (~4400 BC–3200 BC)
 Jemdet Nasr period (~3100 BC–2900 BC)
 Early Bronze Age
 Early Dynastic Sumerian city-states (~2900 BC–2350 BC)
 Elam 2700 (BC–570 BC).
 Akkadian Empire (~2350 BC–2193 BC).
 Third Dynasty of Ur ('Sumerian Renaissance' or 'Neo-Sumerian Period') (~2119 BC–2004 BC)
 Middle Bronze Age
 Early Babylonia (20th–18th century BC)
 Early Assyrian kingdom (20th–18th century BC)
 First Babylonian Dynasty (18th–17th century BC)
 Late Bronze Age
 Kassite dynasty (16th–12th century BC)
 Bronze Age collapse (12th–11th century BC)
Iron Age
 Neo-Hittite or Syro-Hittite regional states (11th to 7th century BC)
 Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th–7th century BC)
 Chaldea, Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th–6th century BC)
 Classical Antiquity
 Persian Babylonia, Achaemenid Empire (6th–4th century BC)
 Seleucid Mesopotamia (4th–3rd century BC)
 Parthia, then Asuristan (3rd century BC–3rd century AD)
 Osroene (2nd century BC–3rd century AD)
 Adiabene (1st–2nd century AD)
 Roman Mesopotamia, Roman Assyria (2nd century AD)
 Late Antiquity
 Sassanid Asuristan (3rd–7th century AD)
 Arab conquest of Mesopotamia (7th century AD)
Epic of Gilgamesh 

The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient story about a relationship between Gilgamesh and his close companion, Enkidu. Enkidu is a wild man created by the gods as Gilgamesh's equal to distract him from oppressing the citizens of Uruk. Together they undertake dangerous quests that incur the displeasure of the gods. Firstly, they journey to the Cedar Mountain to defeat Humbaba, its monstrous guardian. Later they kill the Bull of Heaven that the goddess Ishtar has sent to punish Gilgamesh for turning down her advances.
The second part of the epic is about Gilgamesh's distressed reaction to Enkidu's death, which takes the form of a quest for immortality. Gilgamesh attempts to learn the secret of eternal life by undertaking a long and perilous journey to meet the immortal flood hero, Utnapishtim. The words addressed to Gilgamesh in the midst of his quest foreshadow the result:
"The life that you are seeking you will never find. When the gods created man they allotted to him death, but life they retained in their own keeping".

Related pages
 Fertile crescent
 Sumerian Empire
 Akkadian Empire

References

Other websites 
 Mesopotamia—introduction to Mesopotamia from the British Museum
 Mesopotamia

Ancient history
Middle East
Joss Hill Whedon (born June 23, 1964) is an American writer, director and producer. He was born Joseph Hill Whedon in New York City. He created the well-known television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Angel, and Firefly, and has also written several movie scripts and several comic book series. He went to high school at a school in New York and Winchester College in England. After leaving high school, he received a film degree from Wesleyan University in 1987. Whedon is the director of the films The Avengers (2012) and Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015).

Whedon and Zack Snyder directed Justice League (2017).

Television work 
After moving to Los Angeles, Whedon got his first writing job on the television series Roseanne. After working on movie scripts for several years, he went back to television, where he created three television series. Joss has had Cameo appearances (brief 'fun' appearances) in his series Buffy, Angel, and Firefly. He has also been in an episode of Veronica Mars.
Whedon has been said to be the world's first third-generation television writer. His father is Tom Whedon, a writer for The Electric Company in the 1970s and The Golden Girls in the 1980s. His grandfather is John Whedon, a writer for The Donna Reed Show in the 1950s. His brother, Zack Whedon, is a writer on HBO's Deadwood.

Buffy the Vampire Slayer 
The movie Buffy the Vampire Slayer, filmed by director Fran Rubel Kuzui after a script of Whedon's, was not well-liked by critics and audiences. Years after, Whedon picked up its idea again and turned it into a hugely successful television series, also called Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

The episode "Hush" (written by Whedon) got an Emmy Award nomination for Best Writing in a Drama Series in 2000. Another episode that got an Emmy Award nomination was "Once More, With Feeling", written and directed by Whedon. This was a musical episode, in which the actors were singing and dancing.
The series aired on The WB Network for five seasons, then moved to UPN for its last two seasons. It was the first series in television history to change networks between seasons without being cancelled and then picked up by a different network. Though Buffy first aired on Mondays at 9pm, from the middle of the second season it ran on Tuesdays at 8pm. In the musical episode, Buffy makes the comment, "Dawn's in trouble. Must be Tuesday."
Angel 
Angel was a spin-off of Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The series was named after Buffy's vampire-with-a-soul boyfriend. It was created by Whedon and David Greenwalt. Tim Minear also helped at times. First shown in September 1999 on the WB, the series was on after Buffy on Tuesday evenings. When Buffy switched networks in 2001, Angel aired in a number of different time slots. The series' last episode had more people watching than the final Buffy episode. Joss Whedon was briefly in the series as the character 'Numfar' in its second season. The WB cancelled the series in May 2004 while it was in its fifth season. As Whedon had not planned to end Angel, he had to change the story and ending of both the final season and the series.
Firefly 
The series Firefly did not go smoothly. Fox cancelled it in 2002, after airing only 11 of the 14 episodes and airing them out of order. The original two-hour pilot was the last episode aired. The contract with Fox did not allow the series to be shown by another network. Because of how Fox handled Firefly, Whedon has said that he will not work with Fox again, under any circumstances.

Whedon had been writing a movie script about the Firefly series for Universal Studios. When the television series came out on DVD, the sales of the DVD were good enough to make sure the movie could be produced. In early 2004 Whedon said that a Firefly movie had been accepted by Universal, and shooting started in July 2004. The movie, called Serenity, was in movie theaters in the United States on September 30, 2005. It was well liked by critics and fans, but did not make much money in theaters.
Dollhouse 
Although Whedon has said that he would not work with Fox again, it was announced on November 1, 2007 that this was changed. Whedon was hired to create seven episodes of a new series named Dollhouse starring Eliza Dushku. Dushku and Whedon have worked together before on Buffy. The series is about people who have memories, skills and even complete personalities put into their minds for special jobs. After the job, their minds are erased until the next job. Dollhouse tells the story of Dushku's character, Echo, as she starts to remember things about herself even though her mind is constantly being erased. The series is about her trying to learn who she really is.

Dollhouse first aired on February 13, 2009.

Movies 
Whedon has written and helped write several movies including Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Toy Story, Alien: Resurrection and Titan A.E.. He was nominated for an Academy Award for Toy Story'''s screenplay.
He also wrote helped edit and rewrite the scripts of Speed, Waterworld, Twister and X-Men. Except for Speed, not much of Whedon's work stayed in the final versions of any of these screenplays. He has said that he had a good script for Alien: Resurrection, which was ruined by its director Jean-Pierre Jeunet. His Waterworld script was thrown out. Only two of his lines were kept in the final script of X-Men. Even the Buffy movie was very different from what he originally wrote. According to Graham Yost, the writer of Speed, Whedon wrote most of its dialogue.

He wrote and directed 2005's Serenity, based on his television series Firefly. Serenity won the 2006 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form.

In 2006, Whedon was scheduled to write and direct Warner Bros.' version of Wonder Woman. He eventually stopped working on the script. Universal Pictures agreed to a script by Whedon called Goners which he will also direct.
Parts of the storyline in the movie X-Men: The Last Stand are very similar to what he wrote in the Marvel comic book Astonishing X-Men. The idea of a cure for mutation was his story. The scientist who finds the cure in the movie is named Dr. Kavita Rao. This is the same name as the scientist in the comic book. Simon Kinberg has said someone at the studio who had read Whedon's comics asked the writers to use a mutant cure idea in their script.

In an interview with Empire Online, Whedon said he would like to direct a Harry Potter movie. However, he has not seen any of the movies and will not watch any until J.K. Rowling is done writing the series
In 2012, two movies produced by Whedon were released. The horror movie Cabin in the Woods was released in April. Whedon wrote the script for the movie with director Drew Goddard. On May 4th, the Marvel Comics superhero movie The Avengers was released in the United States. Whedon wrote and directed the movie. The Avengers was released internationally one week before it was released in the United States. This release did not include some of the largest international markets, including China, Russia and Japan. It still made $185M in it international opening week. It was the 9th highest foreign opening ever.

 Comic books 
Whedon has loved comic books all his life. He wrote the Dark Horse Comics series Fray. The story takes place in the far future of the Buffyverse.

He was also involved with the Buffy comic book series. He wrote the main storyline of the five-issue mini-series Tales of the Vampires and three stories in the Tales of the Slayers. One of those stories was about Melaka Fray from Fray.
The three-issue mini-series Serenity: Those Left Behind was based on the Firefly series. It took place just before the movie Serenity. It was released from June to August 2005. The first two issues sold out before going into a second printing.

Whedon has said that more Serenity comics are planned for the near future.
Whedon and other Buffy writers write more for the Buffy series. These stories would take place after the final episode. They would be considered "Season 8". The first 6-issues are due out in March 2007. Both projects will be published by Dark Horse Comics. In August 2007, Dark Horse Comics began a series on online comics on MySpace. One of the series shown, Sugarshock, is written by Whedon

Whedon is also writing Astonishing X-Men in Marvel Comics' popular series about the X-Men. This has been one of Marvel's best-selling comics in 2006. It has been nominated for many awards. It won the award for "Best Continuing Series" in 2006.
It has also been said that Whedon helped writers with the ending to the comic Civil War.

Whedon will become the new writer of the Marvel comic Runaways when series creator Brian K. Vaughan finishes his run. Whedon is actually a fan of the series. He had a letter published in the first volume. The letter was included in the Volume 1 hardcover version.

 Common themes and motifs in Whedon's writing 
 Feminism 
Whedon sees himself as a feminist. Feminist themes are common in his work. The best example is what he says is his habit of writing about "teenage girls with superpowers". This is seen in Buffy, Firefly, and Serenity. Whedon says his mother is the reason for his feminist idea. When Roseanne Barr asked him how he could write so well for women, he replied, "If you met my mom, you wouldn't ask."
The character Kitty Pryde from the X-Men comic was an early model for Whedon's strong teenage girl characters: "If there's a bigger influence on Buffy than Kitty, I don’t know what it was. She was an adolescent girl finding out she has great power and dealing with it."   Many of Whedon's young female characters went through the same type of thing. Whedon has now come full circle, writing the character of Kitty Pryde in the Astonishing X-Men comic.
Homosexuality 
Whedon is interested in the homosexual community. He is strongly for LGBT rights. In his works, including Buffy the Vampire Slayer, he has gay characters as both the major and the minor characters. In Buffy, he used scenes that suggested that either Xander Harris or Willow Rosenberg might be homosexual. At the time, he did not know which character he wanted to be gay. He decided that Willow would take part in a lesbian relationship with another young woman, fellow college student Tara Maclay. Two more minor characters in the series, Larry and Scott, were also homosexuals. In Angel, the script hinted at a homosexual experience between Spike and Angel. In Firefly, Inara Serra was shown as being bisexual. She accepted both male and female clients.
Dialogue 
The dialogue in Joss Whedon's series and movies is notable. It is often very witty and has many pop culture references. Some are easy to notice other are more difficult. He also likes to turn nouns into adjectives by adding a "y" at the end of the word ("Vampires are fangy"). According to one of the Buffy writers, "It's just the way that Joss actually talks." 

 Death 
Many characters die in Whedon's series. This is very true in Buffy. It is common for extras and even minor characters to die in action-based series and movies. Whedon also kills off main characters. He gets the audience to care about the character before their death. It is a part of "doing [his] job". On the 'Serenity' DVD commentary, Whedon says that he'd rather have fans say 'Why'd they kill (that guy)? I liked him!' than 'Oh. He's dead. Turn the page'. Whedon often kills off characters right after something very good happens to them.
Relationships 
As seen in Buffy, Firefly, and Angel'', nearly all of the romantic relationships Whedon series end badly. One member in the relationship will usually end up dying or turning evil. The break-up will end up being very painful.

Family 
There is a strong theme that family is the group of people that a person lives their life with, not the people who raised them as a child. This is a major theme for the main characters in all of his television series.

Fatherhood 
Whedon often shows fathers in a bad way. Most of them are not around. Wes' father was shown several times to be abusive. While mothers play a big part in his works, characters rarely talk about or seem to be ever affected by their fathers. Whedon's characters often find someone to take the place of a father in their lives.

References

Other websites