Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
When the cytoplasm and organelles are divided evenly between the two new cells, the plate then becomes less flimsy and soon becomes another cell wall separating the daughter cells. Cytokinesis splits the cell wall, unlike animal cells, where it splits the cytoplasm. The cell wall grows later as the two new cells expand.

References 

Cell biology
Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with females. Femininity is made up of both socially defined and biologically created factors. This makes it distinct from the simple definition of the biological female sex, as women, men, and transgender people can all exhibit feminine traits.

The colour pink is associated with femininity.

Femininity is also exhibited through certain natural instincts and biological traits like the broadening of the hips in females to support the baby in the womb during pregnancy and while reproduction, development of breasts and high pitched voice are the most common and evident in human beings.

Women
Gender
Cultural anthropology
Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. There is evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural and biological factors. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as both males and females can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.

References 

Gender
Sociology
Cultural anthropology
Battery is the crime or tort of intentionally touching someone else without permission (literally, the act of "battering" somebody). So, to start a fight would be to commit battery. In some states, the crime of battery is referred to as assault, or it may be referred to as "assault and battery."

Related pages
 Assault

Legal terms
Types of crime
An assault is when a person attacks another. In law, it is considered a crime or tort. In common law, it is when somebody threatens or tries to physically hurt someone else.  In order to be considered assault, the act must involve the ability to cause the harm. It does not necessarily have to involve touching the other person; that is called battery. In criminal law, an assault can be an attempted but unsuccessful battery. In some states or legal codes, the words "assault" and "battery" may mean the same thing.

There are several different kinds of assault. Each legal system has their own definitions.

A stronger form of assault is aggravated assault. This usually involves using a weapon that could easily be used to kill someone.

References 

Types of crime
Violence
Megaloblastic anemia is a kind of anemia. It can be caused by not having enough vitamins, especially Vitamin B12 or folic acid.

Blood disorders
A legal code is a written system of laws.  To codify the law is to write it down in a systematic manner.

Legal codes are typically written by legislatures.

Related pages 
Code of Hammurabi

Law
Code can mean:

 a way to show information in another form, for example, a cipher
 the commands given to a computer in a computer program
 a legal code
Peer may refer to:

 Peerage, a system of nobility in various countries
 Peer group, a group of people of the same age, ability, etc.
 Peer-to-peer computer network, in which users act as both client and server
 Peer (Belgium)
Plácido Domingo KBE (born 21 January 1941) is an Spanish operatic tenor and conductor. He is often regarded as one of the leading tenors of his generation.

Life and career

Born José Plácido Domingo Embil in Madrid, Spain, the son of singers who later moved to Mexico, where he made his vocal study. He began his career as a baritone singing in operettas but quickly retrained as a tenor. He made his official operatic debut in Mexico City in 1961, as Alfredo in La traviata. 

He sang in Tel Aviv from 1962 to 1965 in a wide variety of roles often in Hebrew. He made his American debut at the New York City Opera in 1965, and at the Metropolitan Opera in 1968. This was followed by La Scala in Milan (1969), the Royal Opera House in London (1971), the Paris Opéra (1973), and most of the great opera houses of the world.
Although mostly associated with the Italian and French repertoire, he has in recent years sung several Wagner roles, and turned to conducting. He is the General Director of the Washington National Opera and the Los Angeles Opera. 

He was one of "The Three Tenors", alongside Luciano Pavarotti and José Carreras, and got 1.5 million dollars each time they sang.

In August 2019, Domingo was accused by nine women of sexual harassment.

In March 2020, Dominago was diagnosed with COVID-19 and hospitalized in Mexico.

References

1941 births
Living people
Grammy Award winners
Musicians from Madrid
Spanish opera singers
Spanish singers
Tenors
Latin Grammy Award winners
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Josep Carreras i Coll (born 5 December 1946 in Barcelona, Spain), better known as José Carreras, is a tenor opera singer.

He was born in Sants, which is in neighborhood of Barcelona, Catalonia. His family moved to Argentina when he was very young. He started singing at the age of 6, and his first public performance happened when he was 8 years old.

Many years later, when he was in Paris, it turned out that he has leukemia. The long-term medications where successful and he survived from the disease. He established José Carreras International Leukaemia Foundation in Barcelona on July 14, 1988.

Carreras has received many awards both because of his musical and humanitarian work.

Related pages
 Luciano Pavarotti
 Plácido Domingo
 Andrea Bocelli

References 

1946 births
Living people
Grammy Award winners
Spanish opera singers
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Musicians from Barcelona
Spanish singers
Tenors
Leukemia or leukaemia is a cancer of white blood cells and bone marrow. When a person has leukemia, the body creates too many white blood cells (leukocytes).

There are many kinds of leukemia. Leukemia is part of a bigger group of diseases, the blood cancers (hematological neoplasms).  Without treatment, leukemia may lead to death within weeks, months, or years. The life of the person depends upon the type of leukemia.

In 2000, about 256,000 children and adults around the world developed some form of leukemia, and 209,000 died from it.  About 90% of all leukemias are seen in adults.

Four major types of leukemia 
Leukemia can be either acute or chronic.  Acute leukemia usually grows quickly.  Chronic leukemia grows slowly.

Leukemia can also affect two different types of white blood cells. These are lymphoid cells and young granulocyte cells (which are called myelocytes).
For this reason, all of the different forms of leukemia are divided into four main types:
 Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) is the most common type of leukemia. It is common in young children but can also be seen in old people.
 Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is usually seen in people over the age of 55. Children almost never have this.
 Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) is seen more commonly in adults than in children.
 Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) happens mostly in adults.

Causes and risk factors 
The causes of most types of leukemia are not known. In general, all cancers have a breakdown in the normal way cell division is controlled. Most likely, the different kinds of leukemias have different causes. The known causes account for relatively few cases. Most of the causes are outside our control.
Researchers believe that some things may influence whether a person develops leukemia:
 Exposure to Ionizing radiation
 Exposure to certain chemicals, for example benzene.
 Certain viruses
 Treatment with certain drugs that influence how cells develop; e.g. treatment of a tumor; Chemotherapy
 Certain genetic factors.

Viruses that are believed to cause leukemia include:
 Human immunodeficiency virus or HIV
 Human T-lymphotropic virus

Fanconi anemia is also a risk factor for developing acute myelogenous leukemia.

Treatment
Most cases of leukemia are treated with many drugs, which are usually combined into a chemotherapy program. In some cases, radiation therapies or bone marrow transplants are done.

Leukemia inhibitory factor 
Leukemia inhibitory factor, or LIF, is an interleukin 6 class cytokin. It affects cell growth by inhibiting differentiation. When LIF levels drop, the cells differentiate.

References

Cancer
Blood disorders
Blood cells
A tavern, also known as a saloon or bar, is a place where alcoholic drinks (such as beer, wine, or spirits) are served. While the word "tavern" used to be common in England, in the 19th century the word began to be seen as old fashioned. The current term today in England is "pub" which comes from public house. However, taverns remain a popular part of fantasy stories and games. The term is still commonly used in the United States.

Related pages
Public house (pub)
Bar (business)

 
Places where alcohol is served
Gaucho () or Gaúcho () is the term commonly used for people who live in the south regions of Brazil, mainly in Rio Grande do Sul. It can also be used for people from Uruguay, Argentina and Chile. They are similar to the North American cowboys, and, like them, gauchos of Argentina have become a symbol of freedom.

History 

Working with his horse, a laço, boleodoros, and a knife, gauchos rode around the Pampas, killing wild cattle whose hides he sold secretly. They were usually outlaws, and did not become respectable until they fought with San Martin for Argentine freedom. After some time, many gauchos began working for hacendados and spent their lives helping huge herds of cattle over the Pampas. They liked to choose where they worked and traveled from place to place.
Description 
Like cowboys, gauchos had a traditional outfit: a big hat, a collared shirt (mainly red), and baggy pants called bombachas, which were tucked into leather boots. Colorful pieces of cloth or a wide leather belt decorated with silver went around his waist, and silver spurs were on his boots. When working, gauchos often wore a big leather apron.

Today, though, most gauchos are disappearing. Trucks, roads, and fences are changing gauchos into farmers and assistants. Traditional dress is usually worn only on festival days, when they can remember their exciting old days.

References

Other websites 

Movimento Tradicionalista Gaucho  
Pagina do Gaucho 

South America
Brazil
Chile
Uruguay
Argentine people
The flag of Tunisia is a national flag.  It is red and white in colour with a star inside a moon.  It was created for the first time in 1831 by the Tunisian bey Hassine I. Since then, it has had some small changes.

Tunisia
National symbols of Tunisia
1831 establishments
19th-century establishments in Africa
Establishments in Tunisia
"Humat Al-Hima" (, ; "Defenders of the Homeland") is the national anthem of Tunisia since November 1987.

The text (words) of this anthem was written by two men, Mustapha Sadiq Al-Rafi'i and Abul-Qacem Ech-Chebbi. And the Egyptian musician Mohamad Abdul-Wahab made its music.

Words

References

1987 works
African anthems
National symbols of Tunisia
Nymphadora Tonks is a fictional character in the Harry Potter book series written by J. K. Rowling. The character is played by actress Natalia Tena in the Harry Potter movies. 

Tonks, as she is known, is the only daughter of Andromeda Black and Ted Tonks. She is a Half-Blood, but both of her parents are actually magical. Her mother is a pureblood from the ancient wizarding family of the Blacks, and her father is a muggle born, therefore considering that the majority of her father's family are muggles she is considered a half-blood, even though he is not a muggle himself. Tonks is a metamorphmagus, which means that she can change her appearance at will. Her Patronus is a jack rabbit, but it changed into a wolf (Remus's Patronus) due to her love for Remus Lupin.
Tonks is first described in the books as having a pale heart-shaped face, dark twinkling eyes, and short, spikey hair that was a violent shade of violet. She knocked over a plate in the Dursley's kitchen when the 'Advance Guard' came to pick up Harry to take to number twelve, Grimmauld Place. She also knocked over the troll umbrella stand, which made Sirius's mother, Walburga Black, start screaming. She is known as "seriously clumsy."

Nymphadora was born between 1st september 1972 and 31st august 1973. She attended Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry from 1984-1991, the time of Charlie Weasley, and was Sorted into Hufflepuff House. She never became a Prefect in her 5th year, because her Head of House, Pomona Sprout, said she lacked necessary qualities, such as the ability to behave herself.
She works as an Auror in the Ministry of Magic under the eye of Mad-Eye Moody. She worked as a spy for the Order of the Phoenix. So did Arthur Weasley, Kingsley Shacklebolt, and a few others, as they themselves worked inside the Ministry.

In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, she marries the werewolf Remus Lupin (even though she is much younger than him), and many people disapprove of her choice. Remus Lupin feels that he has endangered her and her son, and leaves her at the beginning of the Deathly Hallows. Harry, already lost his parents and his godfather, mocks him to be a coward, resulting in Harry was thrown into a wall by an angry Remus. But Remus Lupin decided that Harry was right and come back a few days later. They have a son named Edward Remus 'Teddy' Lupin. He is a metamorphmagus, just like his mother, Tonks, and is known for having aqua colored hair. Both Tonks and Lupin die during the Battle of Hogwarts, Lupin by Antonin Dolohov, and Tonks by Bellatrix Lestrange.
Teddy Lupin lives under the care of Andromeda, Tonks's widowed mother, and his godfather, Harry Potter.

Harry Potter characters
Tonks may mean: 

Henry Tonks, artist
Lewi Tonks, American quantum physicist known for the discovery of the Tonks-Girardeau gas
Nymphadora Tonks, a fictional character in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter novels
Andromeda Tonks or Ted Tonks, Nymphadora's parents
Rosemary Tonks, a British poet
Tonks Avenue in Wellington, New Zealand
Scelidosaurus was an early type of herbivorous dinosaur. It was a thyreophoran, a lightly plated, herbivorous dinosaur about 4 metres long. It lived during the early  Jurassic, 196 to 183 million years ago. Its fossils were found in Charmouth, Dorset, England. 

Scelidosaurus has been called the earliest complete dinosaur. 

It is one of the earliest and most basal of the armoured dinosaurs. A review by Serano had Scelidosaurus as the sister group (closest relative) to both the Stegosauria and Ankylosauria.

This genus lived on the supercontinent Laurasia. 
Its  length was about 4 metres (13 ft). Scelidosaurus was quadrupedal, with the hindlimbs longer than the forelimbs. It may have reared up on its hind legs to browse on foliage from trees, but its forefeet were as large as its hind feet. This suggests a mostly quadrupedal posture.
Scelidosaurus and its Jurassic relatives were herbivorous. Other ornithischians had teeth capable of grinding plant material, but Scelidosaurus had smaller, less complex teeth. Its jaw could only do simple up-and-down movements. In this aspect, they resembled the stegosaurids, which also had primitive teeth and simple jaws. Also, like stegosaurs, they may have swallowed gastroliths to aid processing of food (because of the lack of chewing ability). This is also done by modern birds and crocodiles. The diet of Scelidosaurus was low-lying plants like ferns and cycads. Seaweed has also been suggested as a food. Grass did not evolve until the Cretaceous period.

References 

Thyreophora
Inheritance is when people pass on property and debts when they die.

Inheritance or inheritor may also be:

In literature:
 The Inheritors by Nobel Prize winner William Golding
 Inheritor (novel), a 1996 science fiction novel by C. J. Cherryh
 Inheritance (novel), a 2011 book part of the Inheritance Cycle

In other fields:
 Heredity, the genetic information passed on by the father and mother
 Inheritance (computer science), a way to make new classes using others that are already made
The Nissan Stadium (previously called the International Stadium of Yokohama) is a sports stadium in Yokohama, Japan. It was built for the 2002 FIFA World Cup Final.

Events 
 2002 FIFA World Cup Final
 FIFA Club World Cup

Other websites 

Official Site

Football stadiums in Asia
Buildings and structures in Japan
Nissan
Yokohama
Scream 2  is a 1997 American slasher film directed by Wes Craven and written by Kevin Williamson. It stars David Arquette, Neve Campbell, Matthew Lillard, Dax Shepard, Courteney Cox, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Laurie Metcalf, Jamie Kennedy, Jerry O'Connell, Jada Pinkett and Liev Schreiber.
The film was released on December 12, 1997 by Dimension Films as the second installment in the Scream film series. Scream 2 takes place one year after Scream and again follows the character of Sidney Prescott (Campbell) and her brother Jerry (Lillard), now students at the fictional Windsor College, who becomes the target of a copycat killer using the guise of Ghostface. Sidney and Jerry are accompanied by film-geek Randy Meeks (Kennedy), Jerry's friend Tom Scott (Shepard) retired deputy sheriff Dewey Riley (Arquette) and news reporter Gale Weathers (Cox). Like its predecessor, Scream 2 combines the violence of the slasher genre with elements of comedy and "whodunit" mystery while satirizing the cliché of film sequels. The film was followed by two sequels, Scream 3 (2000) and Scream 4 (2011).
Williamson provided a five-page outline for a sequel to Scream when auctioning his original script, hoping to entice bidders with the potential of buying a franchise. Following a successful test screening of Scream and the film's financial and critical success, Dimension moved forward with the sequel while Scream was still in theaters, with the principal cast all returning to star, Craven to direct and Beltrami to provide music.

The film suffered controversy following its significant issues with plot information leaking onto the Internet, revealing the identity of the killers. Combined with the film's rushed schedule, the script was rewritten often; pages were sometimes completed on the day of filming. Despite these issues, Scream 2 earned $172 million, received several awards and nominations. The film also received positive reviews, with some critics arguing that the sequel surpassed the original in terms of quality.
Beltrami received positive critical reception for his score for evolving the musical themes of the characters created in Scream although some critics claimed that the most memorable pieces from the film were created by composers Danny Elfman and Hans Zimmer. Elfman's contribution had been specially written for the film, but Zimmer's score for Broken Arrow was controversially used in the film, replacing Beltrami's own work. The soundtrack received negative feedback from reviewers but achieved moderate sales success, reaching #50 on the Billboard 200.
Plot 
While attending a preview of the film Stab, a film within a film based on the Woodsboro murders, Windsor College seniors Maureen Evans, Hugh Daniels and Phil Stevens (Jada Pinkett Smith, David Spade and Omar Epps) are murdered by Ghostface. Phil is stabbed through the ear in a bathroom stall while trying to eavesdrop on strange whimpering noises. The killer, wearing a Ghostface costume, then returns to the screening and sits beside Maureen before mortally stabbing her. At first the audience believes the act to be a publicity stunt until she falls dead in front of the cinema screen, Hugh tries to call the police, but the killer stabs him in the back, killing him.
The following day, the news media including local journalist Debbie Salt (Laurie Metcalf), descend on Windsor College where Sidney Prescott (Neve Campbell) and her brother Jerry Prescott (Matthew Lillard) and Jerry's friend Tom Scott (Dax Shepard) now study alongside their best friend Hallie (Elise Neal) and Sidney's new boyfriend Derek (Jerry O'Connell), fellow Woodsboro survivor Randy Meeks (Jamie Kennedy), and Derek's best friend Mickey (Timothy Olyphant). Sidney receives prank calls but is oblivious to the recent killings until someone instructs her to watch the news. Two other Woodsboro survivors arrive at the campus: officer Dwight "Dewey" Riley (David Arquette) to help Sidney, Jerry and Tom and reporter Gale Weathers (Courteney Cox) to cover the case. Gale tries to stage a confrontation between Sidney, Jerry, Tom and Cotton Weary (Liev Schreiber), who is attempting to gain fame from his exoneration for the murder of Sidney and Jerry's mother
. After Gale forcibly confronts Sidney, Jerry and Tom with Cotton, Sidney angrily hits Gale and Jerry angrily scolds at Sidney for hitting Gale.
That afternoon, while Gale is talking to Dewey, Tom and Randy on the campus lawn, she receives a call from Ghostface hinting that he is watching them. They search for him, but Randy, who tries to keep the killer on the phone, is dragged into Gale's broadcast van and is murdered by Ghostface. As night falls, Dewey and Gale review the tape of Ghostface killing Randy hoping to find some clues but the killer attacks them and seemingly kills Dewey. Gale hides and eventually escapes.

In the wake of the escalating murders, two officers drive Sidney, Jerry, Tom and Hallie to a local police station, but the killer murders them. In the ensuing struggle, Ghostface is knocked unconscious. After they climb out of the car, Sidney, Jerry and Tom insist on unmasking him, while Hallie insists they escape. When Sidney, Jerry and Tom walk back to the car, they see that Ghostface has escaped, who then stabs Hallie to death, forcing Sidney, Jerry and Tom flee.
Sidney, Jerry and Tom go back to the campus and find Derek in the auditorium tied to a crucifix, his mouth gagged with duct tape. Once Sidney, Jerry and Tom untie him, they is confronted by Ghostface, who reveals himself as Mickey and tells Sidney, Jerry and Tom that Derek is his partners. Derek desperately tries to persuade Sidney, Jerry and Tom that he is innocent and while Sidney, Jerry and Tom are deciding who is telling the truth, Mickey kills Derek. Mickey details his plan to become famous in the ensuing trial and media spectacle. He then announces his real partner, Debbie Salt, who arrives holding Gale at gunpoint. Sidney, Jerry and Tom recognise that Salt is actually Billy Loomis' mother, seeking revenge for her son's death. Mickey explains that they met online and agreed that Mrs. Loomis pays for Mickey's tuition fee while Mickey does the actual killing. Mrs. Loomis betrays Mickey and shoots him, as she plans to blame the murders on Mickey
. Before he collapses, Mickey accidentally shoots Gale, causing her to fall off the stage, Sidney, Jerry and Mrs. Loomis fight, during their fight Mrs. Loomis shoots Tom in the stomach, killing him, until Cotton intervenes and eventually shoots Mrs. Loomis in the throat. As they debate whether or not she is still alive, they find Gale still alive. Mickey suddenly jumps to his feet, trying to attack them, only to be shot death by Sidney, Jerry and Gale. Sidney and Jerry then shoot Mrs. Loomis in the head to confirm her death, amd Jerry runs up to Tom and he gives Jerry some video tapes of he, Jerry, Dan, Sidney, Tatum, Billy, Stu, Randy, Cici, Martha, Jerry's old friends: (Justin Wilson, Douglas Harris, Karen James) and Sidney and Jerry's brother Steve, then Tom  slowly dies, and Jerry cries over Tom's body. When the police arrive the next morning, Gale finds Dewey badly injured but still alive and accompanies him and Tom to the hospital
. Sidney and Jerry instruct the press to direct questions to Cotton, rewarding him with the fame he has been chasing while removing the attention from herself as she and Jerry leave the university campus. A week later at Tom's funeral, Sidney and Jerry stand near Tom's grave.
Cast 
 Roger L Jackson as The voice of Ghostface 
 Dane Farwell as Ghostface 
 Neve Campbell as Sidney Prescott
 Matthew Lillard as Jerry Prescott (Sidney's brother)
 Dax Shepard as Tom Scott (Jerry's best friend)
 David Arquette as Dwight "Dewey" Riley (Sidney and Jerry's friend)
 Courteney Cox as Gale Weathers
 Jamie Kennedy as Randy Meeks
 Liev Schreiber as Cotton Weary
 Laurie Metcalf as Debbie Salt/Mrs. Loomis
 Jerry O'Connell as Derek Feldman 
 Elise Neal as Hallie
 Timothy Olyphant as Mickey
 Sarah Michelle Gellar as Casey "Cici" Cooper
 Duane Martin as Joel
 Jada Pinkett Smith as Maureen Evans
 David Spade as Hugh Daniels
 Omar Epps as Phil Stevens
 David Warner as Gus Gold
 Rebecca Gayheart as Lois
 Portia de Rossi as Murphy
 Philip Pavel as Officer Richard Andrews
 Christopher Doyle as Officer Andrew Richards
 Freddie Prinze Jr. as Guy at Party
Luke Wilson and Heather Graham cameo as actors in the in-universe Stab film. Tori Spelling and Donovan Patton appears as themselves, and Joshua Jackson cameos as one of Randy's classmates.
References

Other websites

1997 crime movies
1997 horror movies
1990s sequel movies
1990s serial killer movies
American sequel movies
Scream movies
American independent movies
DNA repair means the processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to its DNA molecules.

In cells, normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as UV light and radiation damage DNA. There are as many as a million  molecular lesions per cell per day. Many of these lesions cause structural damage to the DNA molecule and can alter or eliminate the cell's ability to transcribe the affected gene. Other lesions induce potentially harmful mutations in the cell's genome, which affect the survival of its daughter cells after it divides. The DNA repair process must be constantly active so it can respond rapidly to any damage in the DNA structure.
The rate of DNA repair depends on many factors, including the cell type, the age of the cell, and the extracellular environment. A cell that has accumulated a  lot of DNA damage, or one that no longer effectively repairs damage, can enter one of three states:
 an irreversible state of dormancy, known as senescence
 cell suicide, also known as apoptosis (programmed cell death)
 unregulated cell division, which can lead to the formation of a tumor that is cancerous

DNA repair 
The rate of DNA repair depends on many factors, including the cell type, the age of the cell, and the extracellular environment.  Many genes that were initially shown to influence life span have turned out to be involved in DNA damage repair and protection.
Damage and mutation 
DNA damages and mutation are fundamentally different. 
Damages are physical abnormalities in the DNA, such as single- and double-strand breaks. DNA damages can be recognized by enzymes, and so they can be repaired. Repair needs the undamaged sequence in the complementary DNA strand or in a homologous chromosome. If a cell retains DNA damage, transcription of a gene can be prevented, and, thus, translation into a protein will also be blocked. Replication may also be blocked or the cell may die.
A mutation is a change in the base sequence of the DNA. A mutation cannot be recognized by enzymes once the base change is present in both DNA strands, so a mutation cannot be repaired.  At the cellular level, mutations can cause alterations in protein function and regulation.  Mutations are replicated when the cell replicates. In a population of cells, mutant cells will increase or decrease in frequency according to the effects of the mutation on the ability of the cell to survive and reproduce.
Although different from each other, DNA damages and mutations are related because DNA damages often cause errors of DNA synthesis during replication or repair; these errors are a major source of mutation.  DNA damages in frequently dividing cells, because they give rise to mutations, are a prominent cause of cancer. In contrast, DNA damages in infrequently dividing cells are likely a prominent cause of aging.
2015 Nobel Prize research 
The 2015 Nobel Prize for Chemistry went to three scientists who each discovered part of the DNA repair story. 
Tomas Lindahl FRS, who is Swedish and works in the UK, discovered a mechanism called base excision repair. It counteracts the degradation of DNA.
Turkish-born Aziz Sancar, professor at the University of North Carolina, found  a different DNA repair called nucleotide excision repair.
American Paul Modrich, at Duke University in North Carolina, showed how how cells correct DNA flaws which occur in cell division. This mechanism, called mismatch repair, results in a 1,000-fold reduction in the error frequency when DNA is replicated.

References

Other websites 
Human DNA repair diseases
DNA Repair 
DNA Damage and DNA Repair

DNA
A person who has a coat of arms is sometimes called an armiger.  They are armigerous.

Originally an armiger was an Armour-Bearer or Esquire, who helped a Knight, but who had his own coat of arms.

The term "armiger" is well-defined only in countries such as the United Kingdom, Canada, Ireland, and Spain where there is a state or other heraldic body.  These bodies include the College of Arms in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the Office of the Chief Herald in the Republic of Ireland or the Court of the Lord Lyon in Scotland).

Someone can have a coat of arms either because they are descended from a person with a right to bear a coat of arms, or by having a new grant of arms  to him or herself.

References

Heraldry
The genome of an organism is the whole of its hereditary information encoded in its DNA (or, for some viruses, RNA). This includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA.
Professor Hans Winkler coined the term in 1920.

Winkler's definition, in translation, runs:
"I propose the expression genome for the haploid chromosome set, which, together with the pertinent protoplasm, specifies the material foundations of the species ...." p165

However, no single haploid chromosome set defines even the DNA of a species. Because of the huge variety of alleles carried by a population, every individual is genetically different. Even a diploid individual carries genetic variety. For that reason Dobzhansky preferred "set of chromosomes", and the definition now must be broader than Winklers' definition. The genome of a haploid chromosome set is merely a sample of the total genetic variety of a species.
The term 'genome' can be applied specifically to mean the complete set of nuclear DNA (the 'nuclear genome') but can also be used of organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the mitochondrial genome or the chloroplast genome.

Genome sizes 

Note: The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8 m (but at a width of ~2.4 nanometers).

Related pages
Bioinformatics
Gene
Sequence analysis
Human genome
ENCODE: the complete analysis of the human genome

References
References 

 Benfey P. and Protopapas A.D. 2004. Essentials of genomics. Prentice Hall.
 Brown T.A. 2002. Genomes 2. Bios Scientific Publishers.
 Gibson G. and Muse S.V. 2004. A primer of genome science. 2nd ed. Sinauer Assoc.
 Gregory T.R. (ed) 2005. The evolution of the genome. Elsevier.
 Reece R.J. 2004. Analysis of genes and genomes. Wiley.
 Saccone C. and Pesole G. 2003. Handbook of comparative genomics. Wiley. 
 Werner E. 2003. In silico multicellular systems biology and minimal genomes. Drug Discov Today. 8(24):1121-7. PubMed
 Witzany G. 2007. Natural genome editing competences of viruses. Acta Biotheoretica.
Other websites 
 DNA Interactive: the history of DNA science
 DNA from the beginning
 All about the human genome project from Genome.gov
 Animal genome size database
 Plant genome size database 
 GOLD:Genomes OnLine Database
 The Genome News Network
 NCBI Entrez Genome Project database
 NCBI Genome Primer
 BBC News - Final genome 'chapter' published
 Software that maps an Artificial Genome sequence to a Network and to a Lineage tree
 IMG The integrated microbial genomes system, for genome analysis by the DOE-JGI.

Genetics
Genome may refer to:

Genome — all genetic material carried by an organism
Human genome
Mitochondrial DNA
 Genome editing — a type of genetic engineering

 Genome (book) — a 1999 popular science book by Matt Ridley
 G-Nome — a mech PC game created by 7th Level
 Genome — a superior humanoid race in Square's console role-playing game Final Fantasy IX
 Genome (novel) - science fiction novel by Sergey Lukyanenko
Atomic force microscopes (AFMs) are a type of microscope. AFMs provide pictures of atoms on or in surfaces. Like the scanning electron microscope (SEM), the purpose of the AFM is to look at objects on the atomic level. In fact, the AFM may be used to look at individual atoms. It is commonly used in nanotechnology.

The AFM can do some things that the SEM cannot do. The AFM can provide higher resolution than the SEM. Further, the AFM does not need to operate in a vacuum. In fact, the AFM can operate in ambient air or water, so it can be used to see surfaces of biological samples like living cells.
There are many different operating modes for an AFM. One is the "contact mode", where the tip is simply moved across the surface and the cantilever deflections are measured. Another mode is called "tapping mode", because the tip is tapped against the surface as it travels along. By controlling how hard the tip is tapped, the AFM can move away from the surface when the needle feels a ridge, so that it will not hit against the surface when it moves across. This mode is also useful for biological samples, because it is less likely to damage a soft surface.
These are the basic modes most commonly used. However there are different names and methods such as "intermittent contact mode", "non-contact mode", "dynamic" and "static" modes and more, but these are often variations on the above described tapping and contact modes.

Related pages
 Microscope
 Electron microscope

References 

Microscopes
Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali (September 3, 1936 – September 19, 2019) was the second President of Tunisia from 1987 to 2011.

On January 14, 2011, he was forced to leave Tunisia and go to Saudi Arabia with his wife Leïla Ben Ali and their three children after a month of protests against his rule. The Arab Spring started in Tunisia.

Birth
Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali was born in Hammam Sousse on September 3, 1936.

Work before Presidency
He was assigned to manage (direct and take care) the Defense Military Security in 1964, and worked there until 1974. He was then promoted (his grade was changed to a superior one) to director-general of National Security at the Ministry of Interior in 1977. After that, he was assigned to take care of relations between Tunisia and the Kingdom of Morocco.

After being the ambassador of Tunisia in Poland, he returned to National Security.
Right before becoming the President of Tunisian Republic, Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali has been promoted to Prime Minister and the constitutional successor on October 1, 1987.

Five weeks after his promotion he, officially, became the Second President of Tunisia.

Controversy
The way that Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali governs had cause some problems with groups including the Al-Jazeera channel. Al-Jazeera does not believe it is correct for Ben Ali to say that Muslim women wearing headscarves (religious clothes) in public places must take then off and say that they will not wear them in public again.

Death
Ben Ali died at a hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia of prostate cancer on September 19, 2019 at the age of 83.

References

1936 births
2019 deaths
Deaths from prostate cancer
Presidents of Tunisia
Prime Ministers of Tunisia
Former dictators
Heraldry is the art and science of designing and using a coat of arms.  The study of coats of arms is also called armory.  The practice of using distinct markings on a person's shield started in the Middle Ages, when a knight's helmet covered his face, making everybody look the same in battle.  At first, only knights and nobility had coats of arms, but in the Middle Ages, some cities started using heraldry too.  By the end of the Middle Ages, other people began using coats of arms, now called burgher arms, which means they belong to a commoner and not a member of the nobility.  An official in charge of approving and recording coats of arms is called a herald.  The related study of flags is called vexillology.
Heraldry is described in English using a specialised jargon called Blazon which is based on French words.  Heraldry uses only bold, bright colors, called tinctures, with special names.  Gold, for instance, is called Or.  This word is often capitalised to distinguish it from the conjunction or.  Silver and white are sometimes treated as different colors, but in English Blazon both are called argent.  Some combinations of colors represent furs, and these have names that are only used in heraldry.  There are a number of geometric shapes, called ordinaries, that are used in heraldry, and each of these has a special name too.  The shield may be divided in a number of ways, usually following the lines of the ordinaries.
In the United Kingdom a baronet is a man who has the title Sir, like a knight, but who is neither
 a senior member of one of the orders of chivalry, sometimes called orders of knighthood, nor
 a Knight Bachelor.

Unlike the members of the orders of chivalry and a knight bachelor a baronet can pass his title to his children.

Baronets rank higher than knights, but below barons.

History 

Some baronets were created in the 1300s, but the modern Order of Baronets dates from King James I of England.

On 22 May 1611 King James I set up the present hereditary Order of Baronets in   England. He made 200 gentlemen of good birth baronets.  He did this partly to reward those people with more than a knighthood, without making them as important as a Baron.  The other reason was that the king needed money to keep soldiers in Ireland.  Each of the new baronets had to pay £1095, which was the cost of keeping thirty soldiers for   three years.

In 1619 James I set up the Baronetage of Ireland, to raise more money.
To explore Nova Scotia (New Scotland) in what we now call Canada, King James I of England was going a create  the Baronetage of Nova Scotia in 1624, but he died that year.  His son King Charles I  set up the Baronetage of Scotland and Nova Scotia in 1625.   The new baronets had to pay £2000 or to support six settlers for two years. 

Today over a hundred  baronets of Nova Scotia still exist. The Duke of Roxburghe, who is also Baronet of Innes-Ker of Innes is the Premier Baronet of Scotland  because the baronetcy is the oldest one still existing in Scotland.  It was created in 1625.

Insignia 

The Baronets of Nova Scotia were allowed to wear a badge from 1629. The design on the badge is the same as the flag of Nova Scotia

Baronets of England, of Ireland, of Great Britain or of the United Kingdom had no badge until 1929.

References
The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (German Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha) was a dual monarchy in Germany. This means that one ruler ruled over two countries, in this case the duchies of Coburg and Gotha. "Saxe" means of Saxony, because there were many small countries but all were ruled by members of the royal house of Saxony. Usually the royal house of Saxony means the rulers of the Kingdom of Saxony. The house of Wettin ruled the other states (Wettin is the family's surname).

The royal house of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was created in 1826. One dynasty of the House of Wettin (the Dukes of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg) became extinct because there were no more male children to inherit.

The remaining members of the family divided their various lands between them. The duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld gave up Saalfeld and instead got the duchy of Gotha. Saalfeld became part of Saxe-Meiningen, which also took Hildburghausen when the Dule of Saxe-Hildburghausen became Duke of Saxe-Altenburg.
On 12 November 1826 Ernst III of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld became Ernst I Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke of Jülich (Juelich), Cleves and Berg, also Engern and Westphalia, Prince of Lichtenberg, Landgrave in Thuringia, Markgrave of Meißen (Meissen), Count of Hennerberg, Count of the Mark and Ravensburg, Lord of Ravenstein and Tonna.

Ernst had two sons. His younger son, Albert, married his cousin Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. Saxe-Coburg and Gotha became the name of the royal house of the United Kingdom from 1901 until 1917 (the reign of Edward VII), when the name was changed the Windsor because of hatred of anything German in World War I.
Ernst I died in 1844 and his elder son and successor, Ernst II, ruled until he died in 1893. As he had no children childless, the throne of the Duchy passed to the male descendant's of Ernst's late brother Albert the Prince Consort, husband of Queen Victoria. But, the Duchies did not want to be joined to Great Britain, so their constitutions stopped the King and heir apparent of Great Britain from becoming Duke if other eligible male heirs exist. Therefore after Edward, Prince of Wales, came his next brother, Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. Alfred's only son, also named Alfred, committed suicide in 1899, so when Duke Alfred died in 1900, he was succeeded by his nephew, Charles Edward the Duke of Albany, the sixteen-year-old son of Queen Victoria's youngest son, Leopold. (Duke Arthur of Connaught and his son did not want to become Duke, so renounced (gave up) their right to succession.) The new Duke started using the German version of his name, and ruled as Duke Carl Eduard
. Until he came of age in 1905, the Hereditary Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg acted as Regent, Carl Eduard retained his British title Duke of Albany, but because he fought for Germany in the First World War, he was stripped of his British titles in 1919.
Carl Eduard reigned until 18 November 1918 when the Workers' and Soldiers' Council of Gotha deposed him during the German Revolution. The two Duchies became separate states, but soon joined with bigger states. Saxe-Coburg became a part of Bavaria, and Saxe-Gotha merged with other small states to form the new state of Thuringia in 1920 in the Weimar Republic.

The capitals of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha were Coburg and Gotha. By 1914 the area and populations of the two duchies were:

Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was the only European country to appoint a diplomatic consul to the Confederate States of America. The consul was named Ernst Raven, consul in the State of Texas. When Raven asked the Confederate Government for a diplomatic exequatur (permission to be act as consul) on 20 July 1861 he was accepted.
House 
Other members of the family became kings of Belgium and Bulgaria, and married into nearly all of the other royal families of Europe. More than 50 years after Bulgaria became a republic, King Simeon returned to Bulgaria and was elected Prime Minister. After the First World War the Kings of Belgium stopped using the name Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, but never officially changed their name. Simeon of Bulgaria's legal name is Simeon Borisov Sakskoburggotski

The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha stopped being independent in 1918, when Germany became a republic. Carl Eduard, the last reigning duke had his British titles taken away for supporting Germany in World War I. He died in 1954.

Gotha became part of the new state of Thuringia, and Coburg joined Bavaria.

References 

Belgian royalty
Coburg and Gotha
1826 establishments
1820s establishments in Europe
1918 disestablishments in Germany
19th-century establishments in Germany
Berkelium (IPA: ) is a synthetic, radioactive, chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Bk and atomic number 97. It is a metallic element and part of the actinide series. Berkelium was invented by scientists and does not exist in nature. Berkelium was first made by hitting americium with alpha particles or helium ions. It is named after Berkeley, California and the University of California, Berkeley.

Uses 
Its only uses are to create bigger elements and research.

References 
Los Alamos National Laboratory - Berkelium 
It's Elemental - Berkelium

Other websites 

WebElements.com - Berkelium

Actinides
Berkeley, California
Synthetic elements
BBC Learning English is a website hosted by the BBC World Service since 1996. It provides free learning materials for people who speak English as a second language and want to improve their English Language skills.

References 

BBC
Omarosa Manigault Newman (born February 5, 1974) known mononymously as Omarosa is a reality television personality and writer. She was a contestant on Donald Trump's television reality show The Apprentice. 

Omarosa was born in Youngstown, Ohio where she attended Rayen High School. She has gone on to appear on various talk shows and other reality shows, where her strong personality has often been the source of controversy. Her partner was late actor Michael Clarke Duncan.

The Apprentice 
Omarosa became famous for appearing on the first season of The Apprentice, a reality show where contestants fought for a job working for Donald Trump. Omarosa's appearance on Trump's The Apprentice ended on Week Nine, when she was "fired". 

She returned to the show a few years later as a contestant on The Celebrity Apprentice. She was eliminated once again, this time in Week 10. Omarosa returned a third time for the All-Stars season. She was fired in Week 5.
Donald Trump cabinet 
In 2016, President-elect of the United States Donald Trump selected Omarosa to be Director of Communications for the White House Office of Public Engagement and Intergovernmental Affairs. She resigned on January 20, 2018, a year after taking the position.

Post-White House Controversy
In August 2018 while on a book tour, she released controversial recordings of her time in the White House, including conversations with the president and white house chief of staff John Kerry. She also told MNSBC she had heard Trump use the N-word during the Apprentice.

Notable television appearances 

 The Apprentice (2004)
 The Surreal Life (2005)
 Celebrity Apprentice (2008)
 All-Stars Apprentice (2013)
 Celebrity Big Brother USA (2018)
 Big Brother VIP Australia (2021)

References

1974 births
Living people
Participants in American reality television series
People from Youngstown, Ohio
The Apprentice is a reality television show that first aired in 2004 in the United States. The person who came up with the show was Mark Burnett, who earlier successfully brought the British series Survivor to the US. Until 2016, it was hosted by then-businessman Donald Trump, but in 2005, there was a spin-off hosted by Martha Stewart. The American version of the show had fifteen seasons. In the first six seasons and the 10th season, the people who appeared on the show were ordinary people. In seasons 7 to 9 and from season 11 onwards, these people were celebrities, who try to win money for charities instead of running one of Trump's companies. This version of the show is called The Celebrity Apprentice.
Format 
In the program, a group of 14 to 18 people hope to get a job worth US$250,000 to run one of Trump's companies. In each episode, the contestants are split into two teams who each have to do a task. The task could be selling something, making an advertisement, or running a stall at an event. In the end, one team will win (usually because they have made the most money) and they will get a prize of some sort. The people on the team that loses have to explain to Trump what went wrong, and at the end of every episode, Trump will say "You're fired!" to one or more people from this team, who then no longer appears in the show for the rest of the season. However, in the very last episode, Trump says "You're hired!" to the person who wins the grand prize instead.

Seasons 

Seasons 7 to 9 were released under the title of Celebrity Apprentice because the contestants were famous. Because of this, the seventh version of the original show (with ordinary people) is titled as season 10.