Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The red-necked wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus) is a medium-sized macropod, common in  parts of eastern Australia. As one of the largest wallabies, it looks like a kangaroo. Males can weigh more than 20 kg and have a head-body length of 90 cm.

Red-necked wallabies have a black nose and paws, white stripe on the upper lip, and a medium grey coat with a red color on their neck.

Red-necked wallabies are found along the coast and forests of eastern Australia, from Rockhampton, Queensland to the South Australian border; in Tasmania and on many of the Bass Strait islands (many of these may have been introduced to the islands).

In Tasmania, north-east New South Wales and coastal Queensland, their numbers have got bigger over the past 30 years. This is because they are no longer hunted. A lot of forest has been cleared for grass where wallabies can feed at night, alongside trees where they can shelter by day. It is less common in Victoria.
Like most macropods, the red-necked wallaby lives by itself. Groups, also called mobs, share feeding areas. They feed at night and in the late afternoon, generally eating grass and herbs close to forest shelter.

There are two subspecies. The Tasmanian form, Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus, also called Bennett's wallaby is smaller, has longer fur, and breeds in the late summer, mostly between February and April. They can live close to people and are seen feeding on lawns in the suburbs of Hobart and other towns.

The mainland form, Macropus rufogriseus banksianus, breeds all year round. A female can have babies at the about 14 months old. A baby red-necked wallaby, called a joey, lives in the mothers pouch for 9 months, and continues to feed from the mother till about 12–15 months of age.

References 

Macropods
Marsupials of Australia
Kolo Touré (born 19 March 1981) is a Côte d'Ivoire football player. He plays for Liverpool and Côte d'Ivoire national team.

Club career statistics 

|-
|2002/03||rowspan="7"|Arsenal||rowspan="7"|Premier League||26||3
|-
|2003/04||34||1
|-
|2004/05||35||0
|-
|2005/06||33||0
|-
|2006/07||35||3
|-
|2007/08||30||2
|-
|2008/09||29||1
|-
|2009/10||Manchester City||Premier League||||
222||10
222||10
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|2000||1||0
|-
|2001||10||0
|-
|2002||5||0
|-
|2003||4||0
|-
|2004||5||0
|-
|2005||9||0
|-
|2006||11||1
|-
|2007||8||0
|-
|2008||11||0
|-
|2009||7||0
|-
|2010||||
|-
!Total||71||1
|}

References 

1981 births
Living people
Ivorian footballers
Manchester City F.C. players
The Battle of Baghdad in 1258 was a victory for the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan. Baghdad was captured, sacked, and over time burned.

Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Empire. This was an Islamic empire in what is now Iraq.  The Abbasid caliphs were the second of the Islamic dynasties.

The Mongol army, led by Hulagu (also spelled as Hulegu) Khan and the Chinese commander Guo Kan in vice-command, set out for Baghdad in November of 1257. Hulagu marched with what was probably the largest army ever fielded by the Mongols.  By order of Mongke Khan, one in ten fighting men in the entire Mongol Empire were gathered for Hulagu's army (Saunders 1971). The attacking army also had a large contingent of Christian forces and of Chinese military engineering troops.

The siege 

Hulagu demanded surrender; the caliph refused. Many accounts say that the caliph failed to prepare for the fight; he neither gathered armies nor strengthened the walls of Baghdad.
Hulagu divided his forces, so that they threatened both sides of the city, on the east and west banks of the Tigris.  The attacking Mongols broke some dikes and flooded the ground behind the caliph’s army, trapping them. Much of the army was slaughtered or drowned.

Under Guo Kan's order, the Chinese counterparts in the Mongolian army then laid siege to the city, constructing a palisade and ditch, wheeling up siege engines and catapults. The siege started on January 29. The battle was swift, by siege standards. By February 5 the Mongols controlled a stretch of the wall. Al-Musta'sim tried to negotiate, but was refused.

On February 10 Baghdad surrendered. The Mongols swept into the city on February 13 and began a week of massacre, looting, rape, and destruction.

Related pages
 Mongol Empire
 Abbasid Empire
 Baghdad
 Islamic Golden Age

References
References

Sources 
 Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 (first edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.  .
 Morgan, David.  The Mongols. Boston: Blackwell Publishing, 1990.  .
 Nicolle, David, and Richard Hook (illustrator). The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane. London: Brockhampton Press, 1998. .
 Saunders, J.J. The History of the Mongol Conquests. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. .
 Sicker, Martin. The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2000. .
 Souček, Svat. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. .

Other websites 
 An article  describing Hulagu's conquest of Baghdad, written by Ian Frazier, appeared in the April 25, 2005 issue of The New Yorker.
 Steven Dutch article 

1258
Baghdad
History of Islam
History of Baghdad
13th century in Asia
The Credo () is part of Christian Mass.  Credo is Latin, and means I believe. It is a statement of faith. In Catholicism, the Nicene Creed is used very often; but there are others, such as the Athanasian Creed or Apostles' Creed.

Very often it is sung by the crowd, or by a choir; many people have written credoes. One of them is Antonio Vivaldi

Media (Vivaldi: Credo in E minor (RV 591)) 

Christian prayers
Jerome David Salinger (January 1, 1919 – January 27, 2010), better known as J. D. Salinger, was an American writer of (partly) Jewish descent. He was best known for his 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye.

Early life
Salinger was born Jerome David Salinger in Manhattan, New York on January 1, 1919.

Career
Salinger began writing short stories while in secondary school. In 1936, he went to work in Austria, but left 2 years later, just before Germany took Austria over.

Salinger published several stories in the early 1940s before serving in World War II. In 1948 he published the story "A Perfect Day for Bananafish" in The New Yorker magazine, which also published most of his following work.

In 1951, his first novel The Catcher in the Rye was published. It became an immediate popular success.

Death
On January 27, 2010, Salinger died in his home in Cornish, New Hampshire of natural causes at age 91.
Personality
Salinger did not like publicity: He never published an original work after 1965 and was never interviewed after 1980. In fact, he told his agent to burn any mail that fans sent him. He also did not want his photograph on the jacket of his books.

Unpublished books
On November 28, 2013, scans of three unpublished Salinger stories were uploaded to the Internet. It was done by a user of What.CD, an invite-only BitTorrent tracker site. The file was quickly removed by administrators of the site. It is not currently clear how the unpublished material was uploaded, as the original gangster sources came from two different locations (the University of Texas and Princeton). This shows that the works may have been obtained on separate occasions and then put together. Salinger's unpublished works quickly spread over to open BitTorrent sites like The Pirate Bay and image-sharing sites such as Imgur.

Despite What.CD's quick response, Salinger's unpublished writings will forever be available on the internet.
Footnotes

References 

Salinger, Margaret (2000). Dream catcher: reflections on reclusion. Scribner, N.Y.

Other websites 

 The Letters to J. D. Salinger Web Site. 
 The J. D. Salinger "Bananafish" discussion list. 
 Implied meanings in J. D. Salinger stories and reverting (English Pdf)  (from http://www.tversu.ru/Science/Hermeneutics/1998-2.html  )
 Salinger.org - A Fan site
 Dead Caulfields. The early life and work of J.D. Salinger 

1919 births
2010 deaths
American novelists
Jewish American writers
Jews who converted to Christianity
Writers from Manhattan
Luca Toni (born 26 May 1977 in Pavullo nel Frignano, Modena) is an Italian football player. He plays for Genoa and Italy national team.

Club career statistics
|-
|1994/95||rowspan="2"|Modena||rowspan="2"|Serie C1||7||2||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||7||2
|-
|1995/96||25||5||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||25||5
|-
|1996/97||Empoli||Serie B||3||1||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||3||1
|-
|1997/98||Fiorenzuola||Serie C1||26||2||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||26||2
|-
|1998/99||Cisco Roma||Serie C1||31||15||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||31||15
|-
|1999/00||Treviso||Serie B||35||15||4||1||colspan="2"|-||39||16
|-
|2000/01||Vicenza||Serie A||31||9||2||0||colspan="2"|-||33||9
|-
|2001/02||rowspan="2"|Brescia||rowspan="2"|Serie A||28||13||4||1||2||0||34||14
|-
|2002/03||16||2||0||0||colspan="2"|-||16||2
|-
|2003/04||rowspan="2"|Città di Palermo||Serie B||45||30||2||0||colspan="2"|-||47||30
|-
|2004/05||Serie A||35||20||1||1||colspan="2"|-||36||21
|-
|2005/06||rowspan="2"|Fiorentina||rowspan="2"|Serie A||38||31||4||2||colspan="2"|-||42||33
|-
|2006/07||29||16||0||0||colspan="2"|-||29||16
|-
|2007/08||rowspan="3"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="3"|Bundesliga||31||24||4||5||11||10||46||39
|-
|2008/09||25||14||2||1||8||3||35||18
|-
|2009/10||4||0||1||1||1||0||6||1

|-
|2009/10||Roma||Serie A||||||||||||||||
349||161||17||5||2||0||368||166
60||38||7||7||20||13||87||58
409||199||24||12||22||13||455||224
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|2004||5||1
|-
|2005||10||5
|-
|2006||11||4
|-
|2007||5||4
|-
|2008||11||2
|-
|2009||5||0
|-
!Total||47||16
|}

Other websites 
 Official Website
  National Team statistics at FIGC official site

References 

1977 births
Living people
Footballers from Emilia-Romagna
Sara Gilbert (born Sara Rebecca Abeles on January 29, 1975 in Santa Monica, California) is an American actress most famous for being Darlene Conner in Roseanne. She has guest-starred on many primetime programs such as The Simpsons and Will & Grace. She was in the cast of The Big Bang Theory. She is a vegetarian. She is openly lesbian and was in a relationship with Allison Adler from 2002 until their relationship ended in 2011. They have a son born in 2004, and a daughter born in 2007. She has been in a relationship with musician Linda Perry since 2011. The couple became engaged in April 2013. Gilbert was born in Santa Monica, California, the daughter of Barbara Cowan (née Crane) and Harold Abeles.

References

Other websites 

1975 births
Living people
Actors from Santa Monica, California
American child actors
LGBT people from California
American movie actors
American television actors
Lesbians
LGBT actors
Vegetarians
Alicia Linda Goranson (born June 22, 1974, in Evanston, Illinois), also known as Lecy Goranson, is an American actress most famous for her role as Becky Conner in the TV show Roseanne.

1974 births
Living people
American television actors
American movie actors
Actors from Evanston, Illinois
Ape Escape, known in Japan as , is a platform video game for the PlayStation. It was made by Sony Computer Entertainment.

1999 video games
PlayStation games
PlayStation Portable games
is a tactical role-playing video game made by Square Enix for the Nintendo DS game console. It is a follow-up to Final Fantasy Tactics Advance.

2007 video games
2008 video games
Final Fantasy games
Nintendo DS games
Nintendo DS-only games
Kenneth Elton Kesey (September 17, 1935 – November 10, 2001) was an American writer best known for his novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest. He was born in La Junta, Colorado and moved to Springfield, Oregon in 1946.

References

1935 births
2001 deaths
Cancer deaths in Oregon
Deaths from liver cancer
Writers from Colorado
Writers from Oregon
Liver cancer is malignant tumors on, or in, a liver. The most common form of liver cancer is hepatocellular carcinoma, which is more common in those with cirrhosis of the liver, which may be caused by alcohol abuse, Wilson's disease, or hepatitis. Hepatoblastoma occurs most often in children.

Cancer
Liver disease
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest is a novel. It was written in 1959 by Ken Kesey. It was published in 1962. It is set in a mental asylum in Oregon which is run by the tyrannical Nurse Ratched and where the new patient Randle McMurphy rebels against her. It was made into a movie in 1975 that was directed by Miloš Forman. The movie stars Jack Nicholson as the patient Randle McMurphy and Louise Fletcher as Nurse Ratched. It was very popular, and won 5 Academy Awards. The novel's writer, Kesey, disliked the movie, because it did not take the perspective (view) of a Native American character, Chief Bromden (a more important character in the book than in the movie). It was a very controversial book when it was published. The novel is now considered a classic.

1959 books
20th-century American novels
Oregon
Suicide in fiction
Works about prostitution
Mental disorders in fiction
Fred Dalton Thompson (Freddie Dalton Thompson; August 19, 1942 – November 1, 2015) was an American politician, actor, attorney, and lobbyist. 

Thompson was born at Helen Keller Memorial Hospital in Sheffield, Alabama, He become famous during the 1970s during the Watergate Scandal because he discovered the Watergate tapes which would lead to President Richard Nixon's resignation in 1973.

He starred on Law & Order as Arthur Branch, the District Attorney of New York. He quit the show to run as the Republican candidate for the United States presidency in 2008, but he did not become the candidate. He was also the host of The Fred Thompson Show, one of Westwood One's most popular talk shows.

On November 1, 2015, Thompson died from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), a form of cancer, at the age of 73 in Nashville, Tennessee.

References

Other websites
Other websites

1942 births
2015 deaths
Actors from Alabama
American lobbyists
American movie actors
American television actors
Cancer deaths in Tennessee
Deaths from non-Hodgkin lymphoma
People from Sheffield, Alabama
Politicians from Alabama
2008 United States presidential candidates
United States senators from Tennessee
John Herschel Glenn Jr. (July 18, 1921 – December 8, 2016) was an American Marine Corps aviator, engineer, astronaut, businessman, and politician. He was the third American in space, and the first American to orbit the Earth, circling it three times in 1962. Following his retirement from NASA, he served from 1974 to 1999 as a U.S. Senator from Ohio; in 1998, he flew into space again at age 77.

Before joining NASA, Glenn was a distinguished fighter pilot in World War II, the Chinese Civil War and the Korean War. He shot down three MiG-15s, and was awarded six Distinguished Flying Crosses and eighteen Air Medals. In 1957, he made the first supersonic transcontinental flight across the United States. His on-board camera took the first continuous, panoramic photograph of the United States.
Various NASA video clips of John Glenn through the years.
He was one of the Mercury Seven, military test pilots selected in 1959 by NASA as the nation's first astronauts. On February 20, 1962, Glenn flew the Friendship 7 mission, becoming the first American to orbit the Earth, the third American and fifth person in history to be in space. He received the NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1962, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, was inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990, and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2012.

Glenn resigned from NASA in January 1964. A member of the Democratic Party, Glenn was first elected to the Senate in 1974 and served for 24 years, until January 1999. Aged 77, Glenn flew on Space Shuttle Discovery's STS-95 mission, making him the oldest person to enter Earth orbit, and the only person to fly in both the Mercury and the Space Shuttle programs. Glenn, both the oldest and the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven, died at the age of 95 on December 8, 2016.
Early life 
Glenn was born in Cambridge, Ohio, to John Glenn, Sr. and Teresa (née Sproat). He was raised in New Concord, Ohio. Glenn studied engineering at Muskingum College. He received his private pilot's license for physics course credit in 1941. He received a Bachelor of Science at Muskingum College.

Career 
Glenn joined the United States Navy in 1942 and became a pilot. He switched to the United States Marine Corps soon afterwards. He served as a pilot in World War II and flew missions over the Pacific Ocean.

Glenn stayed in the Marines after the war. In the Korean War, he shot down three enemy planes and flew in 63 combat missions. On July 16, 1957, then-Major Glenn set the transcontinental air speed record, flying a F8U-1 Crusader from NAS Los Alamitos to Floyd Bennett Field, Brooklyn, in 3 hours, 23 minutes, and 8.4 seconds.
Project Bullet, as the mission was called, provided both the first transcontinental flight to average supersonic speed, and the first continuous transcontinental panoramic photograph of the United States. Glenn was awarded his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross for the mission.

In 1958, Glenn joined Project Mercury. He was the oldest of the seven pilots selected. Although Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom flew in outer space before Glenn did, Glenn was the first American to orbit the earth, as neither of the previous two had made a full orbit. He flew a Mercury spacecraft called Friendship 7. His first words when reaching orbit were "Zero G and I feel fine." He retired from NASA and the military after his flight.
He went into business. He became an executive for Royal Crown Cola. Glenn was friends with Robert F. Kennedy. Kennedy, an Attorney General of the United States and US Senator, told Glenn he should run for office. He planned on running for Senate in 1964, but an accident at home made him decide not to. In 1974, he ran for Senate as a Democrat. He defeated Senator Howard Metzenbaum in the primary. Glenn later beat Ralph J. Perk in the general election. He was reelected to the Senate in 1980. In 1984, he ran for President but the Democratic nomination went to Walter Mondale. Glenn was a popular senator and was re-elected several more times.

In 1998, Glenn flew on the . He is the oldest person to fly in space and the only sitting US Senator to fly in space. He retired from the Senate in 1999. He helped set up the John Glenn School of Public affairs at Ohio State University. President Barack Obama gave him the Medal of Freedom in 2012.
Personal life 
On April 6, 1943, Glenn married his childhood sweetheart, Anna Margaret Castor. They had met in New Concord and played together in the school band. They were the parents of two children. Glenn lived in Columbus, Ohio with his wife.

Death
On December 8, 2016, Glenn died at a medical center after suffering from a "serious medical condition" in Columbus. He was 95 years old.

His body was buried at Arlington National Cemetery on April 6, 2017.

References

Other websites

 John Glenn Honored as an Ambassador of Exploration 
 John & Annie Glenn Historic Site and Home
 John Glenn School of Public Affairs, The Ohio State University 
 John Glenn's Official NASA Biography
 
  John Glenn's Flight on Friendship 7, MA-6 – complete 5-hour capsule audio recording
 John Glenn's Flight on the Space Shuttle, STS-95 
 Spacefacts biography of John Glenn
 John Glenn Archive 
 John Glenn: Unpublished Photos  — slideshow by Life magazine
1921 births
2016 deaths
American astronauts
American aviators
American military personnel of the Korean War
American military personnel of World War II
American Presbyterians
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
American colonels
Disease-related deaths in Ohio
1984 United States presidential candidates
United States senators from Ohio
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Businesspeople from Columbus, Ohio
Engineers from Ohio
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
Freemasons
Scientists from Columbus, Ohio
Politicians from Columbus, Ohio
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
United States Marine Corps personnel
Military people from Ohio
Super OS (formerly: Super Ubuntu) is a free Linux distribution. It is a modified version of Ubuntu made with reconstructor. Its main goal is to provide an ‘Out of the Box’ experience, containing various enhancements over Ubuntu. It has the goal of remaining compatible with Ubuntu.

Features 
Includes an easy way to run executable files and scripts.
Multimedia support: It is prepackaged with support for MP3 files and video-DVDs.
Internet codecs: It includes an additional web browser (Opera), Adobe Flash Player, and more communication software (aMSN and Skype).
Additional software: It also includes, Wine, the GUI for Uncomplicated Firewall, and other software installed by default.

Tools and software
Tools and software

App Runner 
App Runner is a script included in Super OS that allows any kind of executable or script to be launched without having to use the command line. App Runner was also subject of an article by Lifehacker, saying "App Runner would come in handy" and "there's plenty of scripts and closed-source apps that this would be useful for".

Live USB 
There is also a Windows tool called cd2usb to create Ubuntu and Super OS Live USBs. The program is already included in the DVD of Super OS.

RUNZ Framework
The RUNZ Framework  is a tool that allows the use of portable apps and something called SuperDebs (an installer with a .deb file + its dependencies that can be installed offline) in Super OS. It is already included in Super OS 9.04 SP 0.1+
Software repository
In addition to the official Ubuntu repositories, Super OS also includes its own repositories, which include third-party software like Adobe Reader, Skype, Real Player, TrueCrypt, PeaZip, Google Chrome or Ubuntu calendar, but also include tools/software developed by hacktolive, like App Runner and RUNZ.
Reception and adoption 
Super OS has been received mainly with positive reviews, with softpedia saying "it is a distribution with super powers […] [due to] the inclusion of applications, tools and technologies that are missing from a standard Ubuntu". Super OS (still with the name Super Ubuntu at the time), was also Lifehacker's featured download saying "It's basically just a re-compiled version of the official Ubuntu distribution, but with a whole bunch of features included that save you the time of grabbing them yourself".Super OS is also the OS that the Helios project  (a non-profit organization to give away computers to children without the money to buy them) pre-loads on most of the computers they give away. , Super OS is in the top 100 of the page hit ranking of DistroWatch,.

Related pages
List of Ubuntu-based distributions

References

Other websites 

Official website  
Super OS coverage and reviews 
Official blog 
Super OS at DistroWatch
Super OS Archive
Linux software
Ubuntu (operating system) derivatives
Linux distributions
Live CD
Sahelanthropus tchadensis is a fossil hominid. From evidence at the fossil site in Chad in the African Sahel, it is thought to have lived about 7 million years ago. 

The split of the line into humans and chimpanzees (known as human-chimpanzee divergence) probably happened between 6.3 and 5.4 million years ago. This can be seen from genetic data. Because the fossil is older than this spilt, its status is unclear. The first fossil found is known as Toumaï today.

Fossils 
Some fossils, a cranium (skull), five pieces of jaw, and some teeth, make up a head that has features that are like both modern and primitive humans. The braincase is only 340 cm³ to 360 cm³ in volume, about the same as chimpanzees. It is much less than the human volume of about 1350 cm³.
The teeth and structure of the face are very different from Homo sapiens. The cranium found is damaged, it is very distorted, so no 3D computer reconstruction has been made. There are no bones other than parts of the skull. It is unknown if Sahelanthropus tchadensis was bipedal (walked on two legs). The placement of the foramen magnum suggests they were, though. Its canine wear is similar to other Miocene apes.

Relationship to modern humans and great apes 
Sahelanthropus may be an ancestor of both humans and chimpanzees; no consensus has been reached yet by the scientific community. The difficulty is caused by its "mosaic of primitive and derived features". Probably it lived in semi-open woodland and savannah, rather than the rainforest of present-day apes.
Another possibility is that Toumaï is related to both humans and chimpanzees, but is the ancestor of neither. Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford, the discoverers of Orrorin tugenensis, suggested that the features of S. tchadensis are consistent with a female proto-gorilla. Even if this claim is upheld, the find would still be significant, for at present few chimpanzee or gorilla ancestors have been found anywhere in Africa. Thus, if S. tchadensis is an ancestral relative of the chimpanzees (or gorillas), it represents the first known member of their lineage. 

Furthermore, S. tchadensis does indicate that the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees is unlikely to resemble chimpanzees very much, as had been previously supposed by some paleontologists.

The fauna found at the site suggest an age of more than 6 million years, as these species were probably extinct already by that time.
Possiblility of much earlier split 
One study has suggested a much earlier split between the line which led to modern apes, and the line which led to modern humans.
The complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) molecule of the baboon Papio hamadryas was sequenced and included in a molecular analysis of 24 complete mammalian mtDNAs. The aim of the study was to time the divergence between the Old World monkeys (Cercopithidae) and the Hominoidea. That divergence, at 30 million years ago (mya), was a reference point for the split between chimpanzee, and Homo at 5 mya.
In the later study by Arnason and colleagues, two independent nonprimate molecular references were used. These two references  suggested that the Cercopithecoidea/Hominoidea divergence took place >50 mya. Also, all hominoid divergences receive a much earlier dating. Thus, the estimated date of the divergence between Pan (chimpanzee) and Homo is 1013 mya and that between Gorilla and the Pan/Homo linage approximately 17 mya. The same datings were obtained in an analysis of clocklike evolving genes.

Related pages 

 Human evolution

References

Other websites 

 Sahelanthropus.com
 http://toumai.site.voila.fr/ 
 Fossil Hominids: Toumai
 National Geographic: skull fossil opens window into early period of human origins
 image of the skull (nature.com)
 New findings bolster case for ancient human ancestor

Hominins
Prehistoric Africa
Miocene
Remastersys is a free software/open source (GPL) script for Linux distributions. Users can:
 Create a customized Live CD/DVD of Ubuntu.
 Backup all the system, including user data to an installable Live CD/DVD.

Other websites
 Remastersys forums 
 Wiki of Remastersys project
 How to make a customized Ubuntu Live CD/DVD with remastersys 

Live CD
Debian-based Linux distributions
Murray Langston (born 1945, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada) is a Canadian comedian and writer. His television work includes The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour, Make Me Laugh, and The Gong Show.

Langston is best known, oddly enough, as The Unknown Comic – a comedian who appears onstage wearing a paper bag over his head. He first appeared as the Unknown Comic on The Gong Show. He did not want his true identity known, because an appearance on an amateur show could have hurt his comedy career, when he was already well-known.

Audiences liked the Unknown Comic, and Langston began to appear as that character on other shows, and in live performances. In time, Langston was as famous for the character as for himself. When he was finally unmasked in public (on a television show called Real People), the two careers became one. Langston has performed both as himself and as the Unknown Comic ever since.

Langston partly retired from his career during the 1990s, to focus on raising his daughter.

References
References

1945 births
Living people
Canadian television actors
Canadian comedians
The term Australopithecine ('australos' for short) refers to any species in the related genera  Australopithecus or  Paranthropus. These genera occurred in the Pliocene–Pleistocene era, and were bipedal. The arrangement of their teeth, especially the dental arcade, was similar to humans. They did not have the large canine teeth characteristic of present-day apes.

They had a brain size not much larger than modern apes, lacking the large brain of the genus Homo. They were mainly bipedal, but probably capable of climbing and living at least partly in trees. Their arms were longer in proportion to their bodies, and this also suggests their inherited capacity to move above the ground. The efficiency of their walking is difficult to estimate, but they were not so well adapted to bipedalism as humans. The males were much larger than the females, which suggests a family arrangement with a dominant male and several females, as with modern apes. Nothing is known for certain about their use of tools.
They are in the hominins,and appeared in the late Miocene.

Australopithecus, about four million years ago (mya)
Paranthropus, about 2.7 mya

When used alone, the term refers to both genera together. Australopithecus is sometimes referred to as the "gracile (slender) australopithecines", while Paranthropus are also called the "robust australopithecines".
Other genera:
Kenyanthropus (3.5 to 3.2) mya is either a separate genus of australos, or a species of Australopithecus.
Ardipithecus (5.6 and 4.4) mya, is a Miocene hominin. It had a grasping big toe, and therefore could live in trees as well as on the ground. The term "facultative biped" is used. 
Sahelanthropus, also a Miocene hominin, lived about seven million years ago (mya). The relationships of this species to the australos is unclear.
Orrorin, at 6.1 to 5.7 mya is known from 20 pieces of bone, and its relationships are unclear. Orrorin is both earlier, by almost 3 million years, and more similar to modern humans than is A. afarensis. The main similarity is that the Orrorin femur is morphologically closer to that of H. sapiens than is Lucy's; there is, however, some debate over this point.
A likely ancestor of the australopithecines is the Ardipithecus genus, which lived in East Africa. The genus Homo (humans), appears about 2.4 million years ago with Homo habilis. Australos moved into mixed savannah/woodland habitats as the climate cooled in the later Miocene. This explains their adaptations to walking or walking plus climbing. It also explains the changes to their diet and teeth, though not in detail. The great increase in brain size of modern man began with the genus Homo: it did not start with the australos.

The australopithecines according to Briggs & Crowther.
Australopithecina 
Australopithecus
A. afarensis
A. africanus
A. anamensis
A. bahrelghazali
A. garhi
Paranthropus
P. robustus
P. boisei
P. aethiopicus
Ardipithecus
A. ramidus
Orrorin
'Orrorin tugenensis
Sahelanthropus
Sahelanthropus tchadensis

References 

 
Miocene
The Sahara Pump Theory attempts to explain how plants and animals from Africa moved into the Middle East and then Europe and Asia. 

At the time, Africa was rainier than it is today, and the Sahara was wetter, with bigger lakes and more rivers. 

African rainy periods are associated with a "wet Sahara" phase, during which larger lakes and more rivers exist.  This causes changes in the type of animals found in the area. 

Regardless of the aridity of the greater Sahara, migration along the river corridor was halted when, during a desert phase 1.8-0.8 million years ago, the Nile ceased to flow completely and possibly flowed only temporarily in other periods due to Nubian Swell uplift.
During the periods of a wet Sahara, the Sahara and Arabia become a savanna grassland and African flora and fauna become common. During the following dry period, the Sahara reverts to desert conditions usually as a result of the retreat of the West African Monsoon southwards. Evaporation exceeds precipitation, the level of water in lakes like Lake Chad falls, and rivers become dry wadis.  

Flora and fauna previously widespread retreat northwards to the Atlas Mountains, southwards into West Africa, or eastwards into the Nile Valley and thence either south-east to the Ethiopian Highlands and Kenya or north-east across the Sinai into Asia. This separates populations of some of the species in areas with different climates, forcing them to adapt, possibly giving rise to speciation (species splitting).

The Saharan pump has been used to date four waves of human emigration from Africa, namely:
Homo erectus (ssp. ergaster) into Southeast and East Asia
 Homo heidelbergensis into the Middle East and Western Europe
 Homo sapiens sapiens Out of Africa theory
 The spread of Afro-Asiatic languages.

References

Geography
Evolutionary biology
Prehistoric Africa
US Airways, Inc. was an airline that used to be owned by the US Airways Group, Inc. US Airways was previously known as USAir. It was the sixth largest airline in the United States.  Its headquarters were in Tempe, Arizona. US Airways owned 357 large jet aircraft and 329 smaller planes that flew to 240 places in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, Hawaii, and Europe. In May 2008, US Airways had 36,632 people working for them in the world and flew 3,512 flights each day.  The US in US Airways stands for United States.

Flights
US Airways had many flights from Charlotte, North Carolina, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Phoenix, Arizona. US Airways also ran smaller numbers of flights from Washington, DC, Las Vegas, Nevada, New York, New York, and Boston, Massachusetts.
Affiliates
The airline also had the US Airways Shuttle. It's a brand which operates frequent flights between cities in the northeast part of the United States. Other companies operate short flights for US Airways, which are called US Airways Express. After the AA combination, the brand is now known as the "American Shuttle".

History
In 2005, US Airways combined with America West Airlines, but they kept the US Airways name.

In 2013, US Airways announced it was going to be combined with American Airlines.  The combination was completed on April 8, 2015,  with the new airline keeping the "American Airlines" name.  US Airways had it's last flight on October 16, 2015.

Gallery

References

Airlines of the United States
Companies based in Arizona
Tempe, Arizona
1937 establishments in the United States
Star Alliance
Northwest Airlines' regional flights were operated under the name Northwest Airlink by Mesaba Airlines, Pinnacle Airlines, and Compass Airlines. Its frequent flyer program was WorldPerks. Northwest Airlines' tagline was "Now you're flying smart." 

On April 14, 2008, Northwest announced it would be merging with Delta Air Lines, subject to regulatory review. The merger was officially completed on January 31, 2010.

References 

Airlines of the United States
Companies based in Minnesota
1926 establishments in the United States
2010 disestablishments in the United States
JetBlue Airways is an American low-cost airline owned by JetBlue Airways Corporation. The company is headquartered in Long Island City, a neighborhood in New York City.  Its main base is John F. Kennedy International Airport. 

In 2001, JetBlue began a focus city operation at Long Beach in Los Angeles County, California. Another was opened at Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts in 2004. It also has focus city operations at Fort Lauderdale – Hollywood International Airport, Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport, and Orlando International Airport. The airline mainly serves destinations in the United States, along with flights to the Caribbean, the Bahamas, Bermuda, and Mexico. As of February 2021, JetBlue has 267 airplanes, with 8 on order, and flies to 99 cities.

Gallery

References 

Airlines of the United States
Companies based in New York City
Low-cost airlines
1999 establishments in the United States
Erich Wasicky (May 27, 1911 in Vienna, Austria - May 28, 1947 in Landsberg) was a pharmacist at the Mauthausen concentration camp. He was responsible for killing many inmates.

Wasicky joined the NSDAP and the SS (he had the rank of SS-Sturmbannführer). From 1941 to 1944, he worked in the concentration-camp Mauthausen. He was in charge of choosing victims to be killed, and of poisoning them with the gas Zyklon-B. He also drove trucks that were used for killing people by exhaust gas. Up to 15,000 people had been killed at Mauthausen as well as neighboring Hartheim.

After the end of World War II he was charged with murder by an US-military tribunal, found guilty, and was hanged on May 28, 1947.

References

Other websites 
 Erich Wasicky
 Dachau trials 
 Jewish Virtual Library
1911 births
1947 deaths
Austrian people of World War II
Austrian physicians
Austrian war criminals
Executed Austrian people
Executed Nazis
Holocaust perpetrators
Majors
People executed by hanging
Scientists from Vienna
SS officers
Waffen-SS people
Pharmacists
Indie pop is a genre of alternative rock which originated in the United Kingdom in the 1980s. Originally and often still a form of independent music, it is closely associated with indie rock, both genres are similar, yet there are differences between both. Indie rock tends to be edgier, rougher and harsher-sounding, contrasting the more melodious indie pop. Indie pop additionally takes influences from 1960s girl group music and power pop, often giving it retro elements, and makes usage of jangly guitars.

In 1986, British music magazine NME released a cassette called C86, which included indie pop and indie rock music; the artists in C86 made music which was described by About.com as "a twee, amateurish form of home-made music drawing deeply from sunny '60s acts like The Byrds and the Velvet Underground."

Early indie pop bands include The Shop Assistants or The Pastels. More recent bands in the genre include Point blank, Travis, The Research and Maritime.

References

Rock music
Alternative music
Travis are a Scottish Indie pop rock band. They have released many albums including The Man Who, The Invisible band and  The Boy with No Name. 

Their latest album was released in September of 2013 and is called Where You Stand

They are best known for their single "Why Does It Always Rain on Me?" from their 1999 release The Man Who.

History 
Travis were formed in 1993 

1990 establishments in the United Kingdom
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
British pop music groups
Indie bands
Musical groups from Glasgow
Scottish rock bands
1990s establishments in Scotland
The Boy with No Name is an album by Indie pop band Travis and was released in May 2007. The name of this record came from the fact it took Francis Healy (singer) a long time to name his son.

Songs
Songs

All songs written by Fran Healy, except where noted.
 "3 Times and You Lose" (Healy, Andy Dunlop) – 4:14
 "Selfish Jean" – 4:00
This track uses several lyrics and the overall theme from the 1997 B-side "Standing on My Own" (which was included on the single release of "Tied to the 90's").[3]
 "Closer" – 4:00
 "Big Chair" (Healy, Dunlop) – 4:07
 "Battleships" – 4:11
Backing vocals provided by Julia Stone.
 "Eyes Wide Open" – 2:59
 "My Eyes" – 4:08
 "One Night" – 4:00
 "Under the Moonlight" (Susie Hug) – 4:00
Backing vocals provided by KT Tunstall.
 "Out in Space" – 3:35
 "Colder" (Healy, Dougie Payne) – 4:06
 "New Amsterdam" – 2:37
 "Sailing Away" (hidden bonus track) – 3:31
 Starts at 5:52 into last track (5:38 on UK and Mexican release).
 "Perfect Heaven Space" (UK bonus track) – 3:50
 "Say Hello" (iTunes bonus track) - 3:33 (Only available on the release date)

"Closer" was the first single the band released from this album.

2007 albums
This page is about speech problems, the album can be found at Hands All Over

Stuttering or stammering is a problem of speech. It is a speech disorder some people have. Five to six percent of children have a stammer while one percent of adults have a stammer. Men are four times more likely to have a stammer than women. Stammers normally start at 2-6 years and run in families.  

The person knows what they want to say but the flow of their speech is ‘bumpy’ and may have some of the following features:
Repetitions (of sounds, parts of words or phrases) 
Blocks (stops before words)
Prolongations (making a sound longer, e.g. 'hhhhhhham' instead of 'ham')
Pauses
Rephrasing (saying something else instead)
Hesitations (struggling to say words)
Fillers (using key phrases such as ‘you know what I mean’ to hide their difficulties)
Tension (the muscles in their face and neck look tight)
Facial or body movements
Feelings and attitudes
Stammering can be very upsetting, and knock a person's confidence. Joseph Sheehan compared stuttering to an iceberg, with the bumpy parts you can hear (overt parts) of stuttering above the waterline, and the larger block of how the person feels (covert parts) invisible below the surface. These people may feel embarrassment, shame, frustration, fear, anger, and guilt. These feelings may increase stress and effort making the person stammer more.   Such negative feelings may be an important part of a treatment program.
Stammers affect peoples lives. They may lack confidence to apply for job interviews or make friends.

Treatment
Stuttering therapy
Fluency shaping therapy
This therapy is also known as "speak more fluently", "prolonged speech" or "connected speech."  It trains stutterers to speak fluently (without the ‘bumpy bits’) by controlling their breathing and how they move their lips, jaw, and tongue.
Stutterers are trained to slow down their speaking rate by stretching vowels and consonants.   Other methods include soft speech contacts. This helps to make very slow but non bumpy speech used only in the speech clinic. To make more normal sounding speech for daily life speed of speech is increased.  Many people find their speech does not sound natural at the end of therapy.  Fluency shaping approaches are normally taught in groups therapy programs, which may take two to three weeks to complete.  More recently the Camperdown program, using a much shorter schedule, has been shown to work well.
Stuttering modification therapy
The goal of stuttering modification therapy is not to get rid of stuttering but to change it so that stuttering is easier and less stressful. As fear and worry make people stutter by getting rid of these feelings stuttering will decrease. The most widely known approach was made by Charles Van Riper in 1973 and is also known as block modification therapy.  Stuttering modification therapy has four stages:	
In the first stage, called identification, the stutterer and speech and language therapist work out the core behaviours, secondary behaviors, and feelings that make the stuttering.
In the second stage, called desensitization, the stutterer works to reduce fear and anxiety.  This is done by freezing stuttering behaviors, confronting difficult sounds, words and situations, and stuttering on purpose ("voluntary stuttering").
In the third stage, called modification, the stutterer learns "easy stuttering." This is done by "cancellations" (stopping in a stammer, waiting a few moments, and saying the word again); "pull-outs," or pulling out of a stammer into ‘normal’ speech; and "preparatory sets," or looking ahead for words they may stutter on, and using "easy stuttering" on those words.
In the fourth stage, called stabilization, the stutterer prepares practice assignments, makes preparatory sets and pull-outs automatic, and changes how they feel about themselves from being a person who stutters to being a person who speaks fluently but who sometimes stutters mildly.
Famous stutterers
There were many famous stutterers:
Moses, a revered prophet in Islam, Judaism, and Christianity
 Muhammad, the final prophet and messenger in Islam
 Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, an Arab Umayyad governor
 Aristotle, a Greek philosopher and one of the tutors of Alexander the Great
 Demosthenes, a well-known Greek statesman and orator from ancient Athens
 Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, a Roman politician and general who won victories during the Sertorian War
 Ptolemy XV Caesar
 Claudius, the fourth Roman emperor
 Isaac Newton, an English physicist, mathematician and astronomer
 Gareth Gates, a British pop singer-songwriter and musical theatre actor
 Notker Balbulus, a Benedictine monk at the Abbey of Saint Gall active as a poet, scholar and (probably) composer
 Scatman John, an American jazz musician and singer
 Winston Churchill, an English politician
 King George VI
 Bruce Willis, an American actor
 Ozzy Osbourne, an English heavy metal singer
 Tiger Woods, an American professional golfer
Mel Tillis, an American country music singer and songwriter
 Ed Sheeran, a British singer-songwriter and guitarist
Evolutionary note 
Features developed later in evolution are usually more variable than features developed earlier. The classic example of this principle is the difficulties of many human births compared to the reliability of ape births. Languages in hominids is certainly one of their later accomplishments.<ref>Murphy E. & Benítez-Burraco A. 2017. Paleo-oscillomics: inferring aspects of Neanderthal language abilities from gene regulation of neural oscillations. Journal of Anthropological Sciences'. 96: 111–124.</ref>

 Sources 
 
 
Fraser, Jane (2005). If Your Child Stutters: A Guide for Parents''. Stuttering Foundation of America. ISBN 978-0-933388-44-4.

References

Speech disorders
Life expectancy is how long a person is expected to live. It is based on many factors such as country and life style including smoking, diet, and exercise.

There are great changes in life expectancy between different parts of the world, mostly caused by differences in public health, medical care and diet. Much of the excess mortality (higher death rates) in poorer nations is due to war, not enough food, and medical conditions or diseases (AIDS, Malaria, etc.). 

Over the past 200 years, countries with black or African populations have generally not had the same improvements in mortality rates that have been enjoyed by other peoples. Even in countries with a majority of white people, such as USA, Britain, Ireland and France, black people tend to have shorter life expectancies than their white counterparts (although the statistics are often not analysed by race). For example, in the U.S. white Americans are expected to live until age 79, but African Americans only until age 75 (as of the year 2013).
Climate may also have an effect, and the way data is collected may also influence the figures. According to the CIA World Factbook, Macau has the world's longest life expectancy of 84.4 years.

There are also significant differences in life expectancy between men and women in most countries, with women typically outliving men by around five years. Economic circumstances also affect life expectancy. For example, in the United Kingdom, life expectancy in the expensive areas like Kensington is several years longer than in the poorest areas such as Glasgow. This may reflect factors such as diet and lifestyle as well as access to medical care. It may also reflect a selective effect: people with chronic life-threatening illnesses are less likely to become wealthy or to live in expensive areas.

The COVID-19 pandemic reduced  life expectancy in Europe by more than a year.

References 

Demography
Health
Autrans is a village near Grenoble. About 1,541 people live there. It is a well-known ski resort. On 1 January 2016, it became a part of the new commune of Autrans-Méaudre-en-Vercors.

References 

Communes in Isère
Former communes in France
Claron McFadden (born 1961) is an American soprano singer. She became known because she sang in the opera Lulu by Alban Berg, at Glyndebourne Festival Opera.

1961 births
Living people
Singers from New York City
Sopranos
American opera singers