Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
The greenhouse effect was first proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824. Mars, Venus and other planets with atmospheres also have greenhouse effects. The effect on Venus is especially strong because Venus has so much CO2. This is why Venus is hotter than Mercury, even though Mercury is closer to the sun. The first person to predict that carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels (and other combustion processes) could cause global warming was Nobel Prize winner Svante Arrhenius.

Related pages
 Greenhouse gas
 Greenhouse gas emissions
Global warming

References

Other websites 
 The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on the greenhouse effect
 Study of Ice Age bolsters carbon and warming link February 28, 2013 The New York Times
 Rutgers University: Earth Radiation Budget 
 Greenhouse effect -Citizendium

Weather
Greenhouse gases
Ecology
A World War is a war in which most of the countries in the world fight or help. 

There have been 2 World Wars so far, World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945).  The long Cold War between the Soviet Union and NATO has sometimes been considered to be World War III, as has the Ukraine War that started in 2022.  Several earlier wars such as the Seven Years' War were fought in many places around the world, but they were wars among European countries.

After World War II, many people were scared that a World War III might start, probably between the United States and Western Europe on one side and the Soviet Union and maybe China on the other.  After World War II, countries had many powerful weapons, including jet bomber airplanes, which could carry many powerful bombs fast and far; nuclear weapons which could destroy many buildings and kill many people instantly; and missiles which could carry nuclear weapons to other countries very fast.
Many people were afraid that World War III might start during the Cold War.  After the end of the Soviet Union, people were less afraid that World War III would begin.  However, many countries still have powerful weapons and can still use them. 

Albert Einstein is supposed to have said, "I don't know what weapons countries might use to fight World War III, but wars after that will be fought with sticks and stones". That is because World War III would probably be so large that it would destroy civilization.

References

War
European may mean:
A person or attribute of the continent of Europe 
A person or attribute of the European Union 
A person descended from a European ethnic group 
A Citizen of the European Union
European windstorm, an extratropical cyclone that affects Europe

Biology 
European ash, a tree. It is a kind of ash. It can be found throughout Europe. It is a deciduous tree that grows to a height of 20–35 metres
European magpie, a bird that lives in Europe, much of Asia, and Northwest Africa. It is one of several birds in the crow family named as magpies
European robin, a small bird that is found in many parts of Europe

European badger, a species of badger. Its genus is Meles. It is native to almost all of Europe. 
European honey bee, a species of bee
European sprat, a kind of fish
Ionizing radiation is a process in physics where something sends out particles or waves that can ionize an atom or molecule through atomic interactions. 

The strength of ionizing radiation depends on the energy of the individual particles or waves, and not a function of the number of particles or waves present. The material that the radiation can ionize depends on the ionization energy of the material.

Ionizing radiation can be electromagnetic radiation or subatomic particles. 
Electromagnetic:
 Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves of highest energy.
 X-rays are less energetic. 
 Ultraviolet radiation only ionizes some materials.

Subatomic particle radiation includes:
 Alpha particle radiation, made of helium nuclei
 Beta particle radiation, made of energetic electrons or positrons
 Neutron radiation, made of neutrons
Some radiation can go through the human body and other objects. Usually when people use the term radiation, they are talking specifically about potentially harmful types of ionizing radiation. If something produces this sort of radiation, we can say it is radioactive.

There is a little radiation all around us all the time, which people's bodies are used to, but larger amounts of radiation can make people sick or kill them. Natural ionizing radiation is produced by radioactive decay of some chemical elements, such as uranium. Stars and other things in outer space also make radiation. See cosmic ray. Some isotopes that are radioactive only stay radioactive for much less than a second. Other things can stay radioactive for thousands of years. 

People and anything that lives gives off radiation naturally, because of the potassium and Carbon-14 inside. 

Some of the machines that make radiation are called particle accelerators. Scientists use these machines to make radiation so they can study it.
X-ray machines also make radiation, so doctors can see the inside of the human body and help people. Nuclear weapons (atomic weapons) use a nuclear reaction to produce massive amounts of energy, in the form of heat, light, and radiation. This radiation is spread by the dust, ash, and smoke produced by the blast.

Nuclear reactors are used to make electricity. They make a lot of radiation, but the reactors are built carefully to keep the radiation inside the reactor. But many people are afraid that if there were a problem with the reactor, radioactive material could escape into the environment, harming or killing many animals and people. Also, the parts of the reactor stay radioactive, and can kill people, for hundreds or thousands of years, so people are not sure where they can keep parts of old reactors safely away from people.
Uses 
X-ray machines also make radiation, so doctors can see the inside of the human body and help people. Nuclear weapons (atomic weapons) use a nuclear reaction to produce massive amounts of energy, in the form of heat, light, and radiation.

Nuclear reactors are used to make electricity. They make a lot of radiation, but the reactors are built carefully to keep the radiation inside the reactor.

Alpha radiation is used in static eliminators and smoke detectors. Ionizing radiation are used to sterilize medical instruments. It is also used in radiation therapy, food irradiation and the sterile insect technique.

Related pages 
Acute radiation syndrome
Dirty bomb
Radiology
Other websites 
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulates most commercial radiation sources and non-medical exposures in the US: 
Biological Effects of Low Level Exposures: Radiation Hormesis 
Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Ionizing Radiation
RISC-RAD  is a European research project on assessment of low dose cancer risk
UNSCEAR 2000 Report, Volume 1: Sources
UNSCEAR 2000 Report, Volume 2: Effects
Beginners Guide to Ionising Radiation Measurement 
Quantities, units and their relationships 
Plans for homemade ionizing radiation meter
List of common household radioactive items 
Ionizing radiation -Citizendium

Nuclear physics
Click is an onomatopoeia.
 Some languages, such as Xhosa language use click consonants.
 Pressing the button on a computer mouse sometimes is called a "mouse click".

Computing
Dr. Edwin Eugene "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr., retired Colonel (born January 20, 1930) is an American pilot and astronaut. He was one of the Apollo 11 astronauts and the second person to have ever walked on the moon.

Early life
Aldrin was born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey. He earned a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the military academy West Point in 1951. After postgraduate studies, he received a ScD in Aeronautics and Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963.From his earlier activity as a fighter pilot in the Korean War he won several medals, including the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.

Apollo 11 mission
Aldrin was the second person in history to set foot on the Moon (after Neil Armstrong, during the Apollo 11 mission).

The Lunar Lander Module landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969.

He was 39 when he set foot on the moon.
He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the NASA Exceptional Service Medal. After the death of Michael Collins in 2021, Aldrin became the last surviving member of the Apollo 11 crew.

Later life 
Aldrin left NASA in March 1972. He has been married four times: to Joan Archer, to Beverly Zile, and to Lois Driggs Cannon and to Anca V Faur. He had three children with Joan, named James, Janice and Andrew. He married Cannon on Valentine's Day, 1988. He is the oldest contestant on the television series Dancing with the Stars. He competed in 2010.

References 

1930 births
Living people
American astronauts
American aviators
Apollo astronauts
People from Glen Ridge, New Jersey
Scientists from New Jersey
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. In the past, people called it consumption.

TB is caused by several types of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The disease usually attacks the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body.

How it spreads 
The bacteria can travel through the air and spread from one person to the next. This happens when infected people cough, sneeze, or spit.

Of every 100 people with TB, between five and ten people show symptoms.  In these people, the disease is called active.  Tuberculosis kills more than half of the people who are infected if they do not get treatment.

Detection and treatment

Diagnosis of active TB relies on radiology. Doctors often look at an X-ray of the chest. In addition, they check body fluids. These fluids have microbes in them, which are grown in cell cultures. The cell cultures are then analysed to see if the person is infected with TB.
If the patient has TB, but does not show symptoms, the disease is 'latent'. Doctors use a skin test, called the Mantoux test, to detect latent TB. They often do blood tests too.

There is a vaccine against some forms of tuberculosis. It is called the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin vaccine.

TB used to be easily treated and cured with antibiotics. However, the bacterium is now highly resistant to most antibiotics. This resistance makes treatment difficult. Many different kinds of antibiotics need to be given over a long period of time. There is a form of tuberculosis that is resistant to all drugs.
Symptoms 
Tuberculosis can have many symptoms.  The most common include:
 A cough that does not go away, especially if the person is coughing up blood (this is called hemoptysis)
 Chest pain
 Not having any appetite
 Weakness
 Weight loss
 Chills
 Very pale skin
 Listless eyes 
 Fever
 Sweating a lot at night
 Difficulty breathing
 Feeling very tired
 People are also more likely to get tuberculosis if they live close to other people who have TB.  For example, TB can spread easily in homeless shelters, prisons, and immigrant communities.

How common is TB?

Experts believe that one third of the world population is infected with M. tuberculosis.  New infections occur at a rate of one per second. In 2007, about 13.7 million chronic cases were active globally. In 2010, about 8.8 million new cases developed and nearly 1.5 million people died from the disease, most of them  in developing countries. The number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2006, and new cases have decreased since 2002.
Tuberculosis does not happen at the same rate around the world. About eighty percent of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive for TB, but only five to ten percent of people in the United States do.

People usually get tuberculosis because of a weakened immune system. Many people with HIV and AIDS can also get tuberculosis.

References

Other websites 
 Frequently asked Questions about TB at CDC.gov
 ExplainTB: Multilingual audiovisual information on tuberculosis

Diseases caused by bacteria
Pulmonology
The word American is used to mean a person or a thing from the United States or any country in the Americas - North America, Central America, and South America. In English, the most common use of this word is to mean a person or a thing from the United States.

Even though the islands in the Caribbean Sea are close to the Americas, people who speak English do not usually use the word "American" for people or things from these islands.

Due to the ambiguity of the word, some languages avoid using the word to refer to someone and/or thing from the United States and use more specific demonyms instead, such as Spanish estadounidense, Esperanto usonano, Finnish yhdysvaltalainen and German US-Amerikaner, for example. Yankee is sometimes used within the English language too (though the word historically refers specifically to an inhabitant of New England). Usonian (from Usonia) is an alternative demonym to "American" proposed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright.
A Native American is someone who is mostly descended from the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans arrived. Native Americans are also called First Nations and Indians.

There is no language "American." Some important languages used in the Americas are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Some people still use Native American languages. Quechua is the largest.

North America
South America
Grain is the seeds of some special kinds of grass. The main types of commercial grain crops are cereals. People grow different kinds of grain as food. The different kinds of grain are perhaps one of the most important foods in the world. 

Some kinds of grain are:
Barley
Maize or Indian corn (or simply as "corn")
Millet
Oats
Rice
Wheat

87% of all grain grown by farmers around the world is maize. Grains contain carbohydrates that people can eat. In poorer countries, grains are a large part of the food supply. In richer countries, they are still important as food, but not as important as in poorer countries. Growing grain uses a lot of water. About 1,000 tons of water is needed to grow one ton of grain.

Many different foods are made from different types of grain. The part of the grain that people can eat is called the grist, and the part they can not eat is called chaff. The grist is often ground into a powder called flour. Flour can be made into breads, cakes, or noodles.
Different kinds of beer are made from barley malt, wheat, and other grains.

Tortillas are made from a special flour of dried maize (corn) called masa.

References

Basic English 850 words
A clause is a part of a sentence. Each clause is made up of a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a predicate (what happens in a sentence). Each predicate has only one main verb. I love you is a sentence which has only one clause. I love you and I will always love you is a sentence which has two clauses. The two clauses are I love you and I will always love you. These clauses are joined together by the word and, which is a conjunction. Clauses may be independent or dependent.

In use 
Two clauses can be joined with a pronoun. For example: I live in London, which is in England. Here, I live in London is the first clause, and which is in England is the second clause. The word which is a pronoun which takes the place of London. It joins the two clauses. A sentence can contain many clauses. But sentences with fewer clauses are easier to understand.
Dependent and independent clauses 
A simple sentence may also be called an independent clause. It may be a part of a compound or complex sentence, but it can also stand on its own as a simple sentence (or independent clause). 
A subordinate clause also called a dependent clause is one which cannot stand by itself. This is because it does not express a complete thought. It contains both a subject and a verb. A subordinate clause always depends on a main clause. The main clause is almost always an independent clause, therefore the main clause by itself makes sense and can stand on its own. However, the subordinate clause does not. For example, I love you makes perfect sense left on its own. However, and always will, does not. The only time a sentence can be made up of only dependent clauses is when they are joined by correlative conjunctions: conjunction pairs like "either/or", "neither/nor", and "not only/but also".

References
References

Other websites 
 Clauses: the Essential Building-Blocks 
 Purdue Owl: Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses

Grammar
Marxism is the name for a set of political and economic ideas.

The basic ideas are that:

 The world is split into multiple classes (groups) of people. The two main classes are the working class and the ruling class. The working class is exploited by the ruling class.
 There is a class conflict 
When workers realize their exploitation, they will revolt and take over ownership of factories and materials (dictatorship of the proletariat)
 Communism (stateless, classless society with free enterprise).

These ideas come from the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and their most notable work is The Communist Manifesto. They have had a lot of influence in many countries. Marxism influenced other political views, such as social democracy and reformist socialism. Both believe that the ideas of Marx and Engels can be achieved through what Marx called 'bourgeois democracy'.
People disagree a lot on how a Marxist society should be organized: "Marxist political economists differ over their definitions of capitalism, socialism and communism. These differences are so fundamental, the arguments among Marxist political economists have sometimes been as intense as their oppositions to capitalism".

Marxism is placed on the left-wing to far-left of the political spectrum.

Key ideas

The working class vs. the capitalist class 
Marxism says that people in the world are organized into different groups, or classes, based on what they do for work.

Most people are called "workers" because they work in factories, offices, or farms for money. They belong to the "working class" (or "proletariat"). These people do not own the places they work in or the materials they need for their work.
Another group, who are not as big as the working class, are "capitalists" (or "bourgeoisie"). They own the factories, land, and buildings that the workers work in.  They also own some of the tools the workers have to use. Marx calls capitalists the "Ruling Class" because they live off of the work of all the workers. He also says that the capitalists own the government, army, and courts.

In Marxist views, capital is the "means of production" and money which the capitalist can invest in different places of business, so that they can "profit" or gain more capital.
Most workers work for companies owned by either capitalists or "petit-bourgeois" (small-time exploiters). The capitalist pays the worker in exchange for the worker's time. The capitalist has bought a period of time from the worker, which the worker must then use to labor for the capitalist. According to Marxist thinking, this is the only way that a capitalist can create extra money from a commodity (a piece of merchandise).  The capitalist exploits the worker's time as much as they can. The capitalist receives a certain price for the commodity the worker made.  The capitalist builds up capital by paying the worker less than that price.  In this way, the capitalist exploits the worker's labor by:
 Not paying the worker what their labor was worth
 Keeping the extra money that they did not pay the worker
Here is an example of exploitation of labor.  Jane is a shoemaker. She works for Michael, who owns a shoe factory that can make 60 pairs of shoes in a day. Jane makes 60 pairs of shoes every day. Michael pays Jane $20 a day.  However, Michael sells each pair of shoes for $2 each.  This means he makes $120 in a day.  After he pays Jane her $20 wage, Michael has $100 left over. However he then has to pay for materials which cost $1 for each pair, so that's $60 each day. Then running expenses of the factory cost him $10 a day. So he only gets $30 at the end of the day for managing the business.  This remaining wealth is called "Profit" or "Surplus [extra] Value." In other words, even though Jane makes 60 shoes every day, she only gets paid the value of 10 pairs of shoes. The rest of the day, while she is making the other 50 shoes, she is creating money for her boss.  Her labor is making him richer and helping him earn money.
It is this Surplus Value, or Profit, which Marxism thinks as an exploitation of labor. This exploitation allows the smaller class (capitalists) to live without working while making a profit, while the bigger class (the workers) have to work for the capitalists to survive under usually poor working conditions.

Marxism says that factories, tools, and work places cannot create new value on their own. They are like a blueberry bush: it has no value on its own. People have to create that value by laboring. For example, someone spends a day picking blueberries. Those blueberries can now be traded or eaten because of the labor that was put in to pick them.

Class struggle
Class struggle 

Marxist thinking claims that capitalists and workers are constantly struggling. They call this "Dialectical Materialism."  This is the idea that the history of humans is the history of conflict between classes. Different classes with different interests argue or fight each other. Social change (or in its absence, social stagnation) is the result.

Marxism says that capitalists want to exploit the workers as much as possible and make their pay as low as they can. The capitalists do this to create as much profit for themselves as possible, as quickly as possible.  Workers, on the other hand, have to struggle to keep their wages up and to keep the "rate of exploitation" low, so that they can live more peaceful lives. This is what Marxism calls "class struggle": where workers and their bosses fight against each other to gain for themselves.
Marxists think that all of written human history has been divided by economic classes. One example is feudal society (a medieval society controlled by feudal lords and nobles). The ruling class got their power and wealth from the labor of peasants (farmers). But as peasants demanded more and more for themselves, small shopkeepers and tradespeople began to appear. Many of these people formed guilds and eventually began to employ workers.  These workers were able to gain wealth for themselves at these jobs. These historical events created capitalism.

In this way, Marxists think that history has been pushed forward by class struggle. They think that change will be born from this struggle, just like capitalism was.  However, they also think that capitalism will give way to communism; as the exploitation of workers becomes worse it will lead workers to revolt against their capitalist rulers.
Materialism 
The core of Marxist thinking is called Materialism. Materialism is a philosophical view that says that communities develop from the "ground up".  It says that the "higher" qualities of culture (like art, manners, customs, and religions) are actually founded on the "lower" or simpler qualities of life.  These qualities include having enough of what people need to survive, like food and shelter; who has money and what they have to do to get it; who is allowed to work, and who is forced to work.
Changes in the higher qualities of culture (sometimes called the "Superstructure") are often linked to changes in the lower qualities of life (sometimes called the "Base"). One example is that in medieval times,  people thought "honor" or duty to people with more power than them was very important.  Today, in Western countries, many people see ambition (being someone who works hard for their own goals) as more important.  This is because, in medieval times, people worked their entire lives under lords who depended on them not only for work but for war.  Today, people work for themselves more, and our society lets some people move up from being poor to being rich. In this case, what people see as good and important depends on how the rulers get value out of their workers.
A "classless society" 
Marxism recognizes that in earlier time periods, we lived first under rulers who owned everything.  Then we lived under lords who owned land with workers who lived and worked on that land. In Marx's time, people lived under governments that allowed many people to own property. Eventually, Marxists believe that we will move to a society where everyone owns everything in common. This will be called communism.

In other words, human society has always been based on the economic forces that human beings can control. For Marxism, this means that each society would take its form based on its "mode of production."
Marxists believe that humans' ability to produce goods and services today means people can move beyond the conflicts of a society that is divided into classes. Many Marxists believe that there will always be revolts and, with the right conditions, revolutions. In these revolutions, the workers will fight the capitalists. If they win, they will set up a socialist "workers' state" (a form of government where the workers are the rulers of society). This workers' state will only be temporary.  Its job will be to take power away from the capitalists, until all the capitalist countries in the world are defeated, and social classes no longer exist.
Marxists believe that if the working class makes itself the ruling class, and destroys the basis for class society (private property, or what Marx called "Bourgeois Property"), there will be a "classless society."  In a Marxist society, no social classes are in conflict, and there is no government anymore.  The state will no longer be needed. There would be no countries. The world will have no borders. There will be communes around the world.  Workers will organize production of goods and services based on what people need, not based on profits.
Beliefs about modern communism 
Some Marxists say that modern "communism" is not communism at all. They say that "communist" countries like the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, Cuba, and Vietnam are really using different forms of capitalism, often with heavily "nationalized" industries. A thinker named Tony Cliff was one of the biggest supporters of these ideas. He wrote that states like the Soviet Union and Communist China (before 1980) were "State-Capitalist."

Not all communists, socialists, or Marxists agree on this question. However, many strong supporters of Marxism agree that: 
 With socialism, workers have democratic control over economic decisions and social justice 
 An economy produces things (makes goods and services) based on what people need 
 Socialism will die and change into communism when capitalism is defeated

Distinction between Marxism, communism and socialism 
People use these terms interchangeably but this is incorrect. These concepts have different meanings:
Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism.
 Socialism is a way of organizing a society in which the means of production are owned and controlled by the working class, instead of the capitalists.
Communism is the theoretical classless, stateless society that Marx proposed would arise after the demise of capitalism.

Related pages 
 Karl Marx
 Friedrich Engels
 The Communist Manifesto, by Marx and Engels
 Socialism
 Communism
 Marxist economics
 Secular religion

Reading

Footnotes
The words sacred or holy are sometimes used interchangeably and are often misunderstood to mean "important" or "special"  instead of "set apart" and "pure."

According to Websters 1828 Dictionary (the more accurate definition given the spiritual context- Christian and beyond), sacred means "...separated from that which is common, vulgar, polluted, or open... or Holy." Holy, means "Properly, whole, entire or perfect, in a moral sense. Hence, pure in heart, temper or dispositions; free from sin and sinful affections. Applied to the Supreme Being, holy signifies perfectly pure, immaculate and complete in moral character..."

Most religions have sacred books that provide teachings or doctrines associated with the religion. These books are "set apart," from other books published and associated with the religion. There is a deeper connection to these books over the others.
For Christians this book is called the Bible.  Muslim peoples have another book, they call the Qur'an. Jews call their book the Torah. Similarly, the Book of Mormon is also considered as a sacred book in Mormonism. 

Some religious people deem specific places sacred because of their mention in the sacred books. Jerusalem is seen as sacred by Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Mecca is sacred in Islam, and Ise Grand Shrine in Mie Prefecture is sacred in Japanese Shinto. In Hinduism the river Ganges is seen as holy.

Related pages
Pilgrimage
Icon

Other websites
Holiness in the Bible

Religious terminology
Zürich or Zurich ( ; Swiss German: Züri [ˈt͡syɾi]) is a city in Switzerland. Zürich is the capital city of the Canton of Zürich. About 415,000 people live in the city and over 1.5 million live in the metropolitan area. This makes Zürich the biggest city in Switzerland.

Geography 
Zurich is in the North of Switzerland, and it is 408 m (1,339 ft) above sea level. It is at the northern end of Lake Zurich and is surrounded by hills; at the left side of the lake, there is the Albis mountain range, including the Felsenegg (accessible by Zurich's only cable car)  and Zurich’s "house mountain" Uetliberg. At the right side of the lake, there are the hills Zollikerberg, with the prominent Dolder hotel and Zürichberg. The rivers Limmat and Sihl flow through the city. The Limmat and the Sihl flow through the city, whereby the river Sihl is connected to the Lake Zurich through the Schanzengraben, which used to be a part of the city fortress.

Left side of the Lake:
The architectural beauty of the Enge station, made of Ticino granite, the Rietberg Museum with its beautiful park, the Enge bathing establishment and the Rote Fabrik give this district a Mediterranean feel.

Right side of the Lake:

This district starts behind the Opera House and stretches as far as the Tiefenbrunnen lakeside resort. Boutiques, villas, the Chinawiese (Chinese meadow) and, of course, the Utoquais lakeside establishment are the highlights of this area.

The city is divided into twelve districts (known as Kreis in German), numbered 1 to 12. The first district is the old town of Zurich.
History 
The history of Zurich starts with prehistoric settlements that were found at the border of today’s Lake Zurich. There were different settlements and some date back to 500 BC. From 100 BC, Celtic people inhabited the area. When the Romans arrived, they built a military base, which they called ‘Turicum’. This is where the term Zurich originated . The Alemanni and the Franks (Germanic tribes) also took hold of Zürich later.

In 1218, the last member of Zürich ’s ruling family died. After that, Zürich became a free city. Its location in Europe contributed to its economic development.

In 1336, Rudolf Brun and the tradesmen of the city stormed the Town Hall. After that, half of the government was made up of tradesmen. The tradesmen grouped themselves into guilds.

The Canton joined Switzerland in 1351.
During the Protestant Reformation period (16th century), the city became the head of Protestant Switzerland. It was in contact with other Protestant Swiss cities, like Bern and Geneva. Protestant refugees came to Zürich, and further contributed to the city’s economic development.

During the 17th and the 18th century, the city grew culturally and economically.

Economy 
In the city of Zürich, most of the people work in the commerce part of the economy. Zürich is one of the largest financial centres in the world. Many famous banks and insurance companies are located here, for example UBS, Credit Suisse, Swiss Life and Swiss Re.

The airport of Zürich is located about  to the north, in a town called Kloten. Zürich Airport ("Flughafen Zürich", IATA:ZRH) is the biggest airport in Switzerland. Zürich Main Station is the busiest train station in Switzerland with many national and international connections.

The headquarters of FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) is also in Zürich.
Public transport 
Many people in Zurich use public transport. Roughly 50% of people who live in Zurich use it to get to work or school. The ZVV network uses at least four types of transport – trains, trams, buses (both diesel and electric, also called trolley buses) and boats on the lake and river. The public transport network also includes funicular railways and even cable cars like the one between Adliswil and Felsenegg. Tickets are valid on all main types of public transportation. The boats run on the Limmat and the Lake Zürich. It connects surrounding towns between Zurich and Rapperswil.

Education 
Zurich has two universities. ETH Zürich is ranked among the top universities in the world. Over 20 Nobel Prize winners have studied or worked there, for example Albert Einstein. The other university is the University of Zürich. It is the largest university in Switzerland.

Zurich’s Educational System:
After grade 6 of primary school, the students have two different options. They either pass on to secondary school or change over to baccalaureate school (Gymnasium). To change over to long-term baccalaureate school, the students need to pass an admission examination.

After primary school, students pass on to secondary school, which takes 3 years to complete. During this time, students acquire the skills to successfully transition to a Vocational Education and Training School (VET School) or they enter Intermediate School after having passed the admission examination. (https://www.zh.ch/en/bildung/bildungssystem.html#-1461266662)

Primary and Secondary Schools:
The total number of scholars in public schools in the Canton of Zurich in 2019 was 275260, 49.7% of them were women. Instead, in Private schools the number of scholars was 29021, 48.1% of them were women. Since the 2014 school year, there has been a sharp increase in the number of primary school pupils in the canton of Zurich.The growth from the 2018 school year to the 2019 school year 2019 was 2.4%, i.e. around 100 classes.

The number of public schools in the Canton of Zurich is 504.

The number of teachers teaching in public schools is 15962.

(https://www.zh.ch/content/dam/zhweb/bilder-dokumente/themen/bildung/bildungssystem/zahlen/die_schulen_im_kanton_zuerich_2019_2020.pdf)

ETH Zürich

Zurich has two universities: ETH and UZH.
ETH Zürich is a public research university in the city of Zürich, that was founded by the Swiss Federal Government in 1854 with the stated mission to educate engineers and scientists. The school focuses primarily on science, technology, engineering and mathematics. ETH Zürich is ranked among the top universities in the world. Typically, popular rankings place the institution as the best university in continental Europe and ETH Zurich is consistently ranked among the top 1-5 universities in Europe, and among the top 3-10 best universities of the world. Over 20 Nobel Price winners have studied or worked there, for example Albert Einsteins. For Swiss students, ETH Zurich is not selective in its undergraduate admission procedures. Like every public university in Switzerland, ETH Zurich is obliged to grant admission to every Swiss resident who took the Matura. ETH Zurich has two campuses
. The main building was constructed 1858–1864 outside and right above the eastern border of the town, but nowadays it is located right in the heart of the city. In the year of ETH Zurich's 150th anniversary, an extensive project called "Science City" for the Hönggerberg Campus was started with the goal to transform the campus into an attractive district based on the principle of sustainability. The annual Polyball is the most prestigious public event at ETH Zurich, with a long tradition since the 1880s. At the end of November, the Polyball welcomes around 10,000 dancers, music-lovers and partygoers in the extensively decorated main building of ETH Zurich. The amicable rivalry between ETH Zurich and its neighbor, the University of Zurich, has been cultivated since 1951 (Uni-Poly). There has been an annual rowing match between teams from the two institutions on the river Limmat.
UZH UNIVERSITY

The University of Zurich was founded in 1833 and it was the first university in Europe to be founded by the state rather than the church or a monarch. It is closely linked with ETH in the fields of bioscience and finance.  According to the GWTS Leiden Ranking, the University of Zurich ranked 37th in the world in social sciences and humanities. Bachelor courses are taught in Swiss German but use of English is increasing in many faculties. The only bachelors program taught entirely in English is the English language and literacy program.All Master courses at the Faculty of Science are held in English. Master courses in Economics and Finance are mainly held in English, while the Master of Science in Quantitative Finance is held completely in English.

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Stadt Zürich  – official website 

 
Imperial free cities
Translation means to copy writing or speech from one language into a different language.

The people who do translation are called translators. A translator who is copying a book into another language may use a language dictionary to find out how a word is written in another language. A translator who works with the spoken word is also called an interpreter. Translators can work independently as freelancers or by being hired by translation agencies. People who translate poetry, novels, drama, or short stories are called literary translators. 

In computer technology, translation from a programming language to a machine language is called compiling.

There are free translators on the internet. A notable example of this is Google Translate.

Related pages 
Bible translations
Concept
Compiler
Machine translation

Useful resources related to the subject:
The Impact of Translation in New York City 
 Choosing the Perfect Translation Agency for your Company 
 Adapt your Translation for a better Understanding of Inter-culture
An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person who goes into outer space. The Soviet Union and countries that it was friends with used the word cosmonaut. Western countries including the United States said astronaut. Astronauts are also called "taikonauts" in China or "spationaute" in France.

The first person to go into space was a Russian from the Soviet Union. His name was Yuri Gagarin. This happened on April 12, 1961. The first and second people to walk on the Moon were the Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. This happened on July 20, 1969. No astronauts have gone to the moon since 1972. No people have visited any other planets yet.

Astronauts used to go into space using many different ways, but now they only go on the American SpaceX Crew-1, the Russian Soyuz, or the Chinese Shenzhou. Several countries have worked together to build an International Space Station where people stay and work in space for long periods of time.
A few countries and companies are trying to make more ways to get people into space. The United States is building a very big rocket called the Space Launch System. Some American companies, for example Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and SpaceX, are being paid by the United States to make ways for people to go to space.

Related pages 
 Spaceflight
A hacker is someone who tries to get into another person's computer using computer software. The computer software could be Trojan horse programs, computer viruses, and worms. It used to mean someone who likes to do new things with computers.  The correct name for a person doing these illegal things was cracker, but many news stories used the word hacker even though it was in error. Another meaning of hacker is someone who can change or program something, like how people can change or program a Furby to say something insulting or humorous.

A person doing something illegal with a computer belonging to someone else without asking for permission from the owner is also called a hacker.

In the recent years computers were becoming increasingly more complex. This also means that people with bad intentions have more opportunities to use them for criminal purposes. Computer engineers aren't always able to find vulnerable places in the computer code. Hackers find such places, and use them.
There are also hackers who use the same skills for good purposes. Such hackers are called white hat hackers. They help computer engineers to find vulnerable places and correct problems.

A lot of skills are often required to be a hacker. A hacker should be able to find problems or solutions that most other people cannot find.

References
In communications, such as radio and television, broadcasting means sending information such as television shows or music electronically to a large audience.  The information is sent through the air in radio waves, through a wire, or by a communications satellite, and then the television viewers or radio listeners pick up the signal using their television sets and radio receivers.  Gugliemo Marconi invented wireless telegraphy, in December 1901 he transmitted first radio signals across the Atlantic Ocean.  This was point to point. Experiments with voice broadcasting began a few years later, and it grew rapidly in the 1920s.

Types of broadcasters
Different broadcasters use different radio waves and different modulating methods. amplitude modulation on medium waves was the first to be much used. 

Some television networks are said to be broadcasting, even if they are only or mainly on cable TV rather than by radio waves.
Public broadcasters 
Many countries have Public broadcasting, using money from the government to broadcast television shows and radio programs. Examples include the BBC in Britain, NHK in Japan, and the CBC in Canada. 

In the United States, most public broadcast radio and television stations are run by educational groups (such as colleges or universities) or by a state's educational department.  Public broadcasters, by law, cannot accept or display commercial advertising.  However, businesses can make donations to a public broadcaster.  Most are part of the Public Broadcasting System.

PBS is different than the other public broadcasters such as BBC, NHK and CBC, because the PBS gets a lot of its funding (money) from donations by viewers and listeners. Public broadcasters make programs that the private companies are not interested in making, such as educational children's shows, documentaries, and public affairs shows about current issues.
Private broadcasters 
As well, there are private broadcasting companies. These are companies that broadcast television and radio programs. To make money, private broadcasting companies sell advertisements called commercials.

Community broadcasters
A third type of broadcaster is community broadcasters. There are community television stations and community radio stations.

Community television stations are often provided on cable networks. Community television stations usually have shows about local issues and community events. Some community television stations film and broadcast community cultural activities, such as musical performances or town hall meetings.
Community radio stations play music and have public affairs shows about community issues. Community radio stations are usually small organizations that are run by volunteers. Community radio stations often get their funding (money) from local governments, local universities, and from donations by listeners. Some community radio stations also have poetry readings by local poets, or performances by local musicians or singers.

Other meanings
Broadcasting can also mean sending a message to many users on a computer network at exactly the same time, or sending a message from one computer to many other computers, giving information about itself, such as its name and location.

Sending information to a small selected group is called narrowcasting.

Mass media

el:Ραδιοφωνία
Socialism is a political ideology that aims to give workers shared ownership of the tools, land, and buildings that they use to make products or provide services (called the means of production). It is different from capitalism, where private actors, like business owners and shareholders, can own the means of production for themselves. Socialists believe that owning the means of production is a form of exploitation because it lets the owners get a portion of the money that workers produce, even though the owners haven't done any work.
Socialists believe that sharing ownership of the means of production equally among society would increase people's quality of life. Socialists want to give people free access to basic life necessities like food, housing, and healthcare. Some socialists also believe employment should be guaranteed as a human right. This is the Marxist theory not the definition of socialism which is simply, "a political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole."

There are lots of kinds of socialism. One big thing that splits socialists is how to make socialism happen: reformists think people can get socialism by joining elections and changing the government bit by bit, while revolutionaries believe that private owners are too powerful and will use their power to stop any reforms, so the only way to get socialism is to take their ownership by force.
Forms of socialism 
There are many kinds of socialism. In all types, at least in principle, the state or workers own the means of production. Mean of production is originally a  communist term which describes the tools that are needed to make goods. In a capitalist economy, these tools are normally owned by one person, and can range from a machine in a factory to an entire corporation. The one person hires workers for a wage, and keeps any profits made. The profit is not split up amongst the workers, and this can create inequality as the owner of the mean of production may be able to become very wealthy. 

The major differences between the different varieties are the role of the free market (market planning), how the means of production are controlled, the role of management of workers, and the government's role in the economy.
Collectivization 
One kind of socialism is "collectivization." In this system, money and goods are shared more equally among the people, with the government elites in control taking and its share. In theory, this system results in the gap between classes getting smaller, with the state helping the nation's poorest people, while the richest are subjected to higher taxes and economic restrictions.

Communism as a goal 
Socialists with more radical views believe that socialism will evolve into what they see as a more advanced system: communism, with no state, money, hierarchy or social classes whatsoever. In Marxist theory, socialism is a temporary social state between capitalism and communism, although some socialists have no intention of transitioning to communism.
Democratic socialism 
Democratic socialism is the belief that socialism can be achieved through reform of what Marxists call Bourgeois Democracy―as opposed to achieving socialism by a revolution. The goals of these reforms are aimed to achieve a more just society, so that ordinary people can participate in the many decisions that affect their lives, which should require voting.