Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Mosses are bryophytes, a group of plants without tissue to move water. Mosses evolved from liverworts.p75

Moss tissue does not have cells that move water. This means that they are non-vascular plants. Water must soak into mosses like a sponge. A patch of moss is made of many tiny moss plants packed together so that they can hold water for as long as possible. They do not have roots. Because mosses cannot find water, they live in two ways. They can live in places that are always wet like near a spring, a river, or in a place where there is a lot of fog or has a lot of rainfall. They can also pause their natural processes when they dry up. Mosses can survive months in this paused state. However, they eventually need water to live. This means they can never live in dry places like deserts.

Mosses cannot grow very large because they could not move water to the top of their growth. The largest moss grows in New Zealand. It is about 30 cm tall.
Scientists divide the mosses into eight groups. Five of these groups are small, with just a few species; most mosses are in the group called Bryopsida.

References

Other websites
 
 
 

Bryophytes
In mathematics, a function is a mathematical object that produces an output, when given an input (which could be a number, a vector, or anything that can exist inside a set of things).

So a function is like a machine, that takes a value of x and returns an output y. The set of all values that x can have is called the domain, and the set that contains every value that y can have is called the codomain. A function is often denoted by italic letters such as , , .

If this happens, then we say that y is a function of x, and we write . Here,  is the name of the function, and one writes  (function from X to Y) to represent the three parts of the function: the domain (X), the codomain (Y), and the pairing process (the arrow).

An example of a function is . One gives a natural number  as the input, and gets a natural number , which is . For example, giving 3 as input to  results in an output of 4.
A function doesn't have to be an equation. The main idea is that inputs and outputs are paired up somehow—even if the process might be very complicated.

Metaphors

Tables 

The inputs and outputs can be put in a table like the picture; this is easy if there is not too much data.

Graphs 

In the picture, one can see that both 2 and 3 have been paired with c; this is not allowed in the other direction, as 2 could not output c and d at the same time (each input can only have one output).
All of the  (c and d in the picture) are usually called the image set of , and the image set can be the entire codomain or one of its subset. 

One can say that the image set of a subset A of the domain is f(A).
If the inputs and outputs have an order, then it is easy to plot them on a graph:

In that way, the image comes on the image of the set A.

History 
In the 1690s, Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli used the word "function" in letters between them, so the modern concept began at the same time as calculus.
In 1748, Leonhard Euler gave the following definition for function:"A function of a variable quantity is an analytic expression composed in any way whatsoever of the variable quantity and numbers or constant quantities."and then in 1755:"If some quantities so depend on other quantities that if the latter are changed the former undergoes change, then the former quantities are called functions of the latter. This definition applies rather widely and includes all ways in which one quantity could be determined by other. If, therefore, x denotes a variable quantity, then all quantities which depend upon x in any way, or are determined by it, are called functions of x."Usually, Peter Dirichlet is credited with the first modern definition of function (formulated in 1837). It is often used in schools until the second half of the 20th century:"y is a function of a variable x, defined on the interval a < x < b, if to every value of the variable x in this interval there corresponds a definite value of the variable y
. Also, it is irrelevant in what way this correspondence is established."In 1939, the Bourbaki generalized the Dirichlet definition, and gave a set-theoretic version of the definition as a correspondence between inputs and outputs; this was used in schools from about 1960.
Finally in 1970, Bourbaki gave the modern definition as a triple , with  (i.e.  and ).
 is called the domain of ,  its codomain, and  its graph. The set of all elements of the form , where  ranges over the elements of the domain , is called the image of . The image of a function is a subset of its codomain and might not coincide with it.
Types of functions 
 Elementary functions - The functions that are usually studied in school: fractions, square roots, the sine, cosine and tangent functions and some other functions.
 Non-elementary functions - Most of them use operations that we don't learn in school (like + or -, or powers). Many integrals, for example, are non-elementary.
 Inverse functions - Functions that undo another function. For example: if F(x) is the inverse of f(x)=y, then F(y)=x. Not all functions have inverses.
 Special functions: Functions that have names. These include trigonometric functions such as sine, cosine and tangent. Functions like f(x)=3x (three times x) are not called special functions. Special functions can be elementary, non-elementary or inverses.
Related pages
 Constant function
 Continuous function
 Function composition
 Special functions
 Gamma function
 Matrix function
 Linear function
 Lucy Joan Slater - British mathematician who studied about mathematical functions
 MATLAB, Wolfram Mathematica - software to compute mathematical functions
 Relation (mathematics)

References
Miami is a city located on the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Florida. It is a known tourist stop and it is well known for its Cuban, Puerto Rican and Haitian culture. Miami has one of the largest Hispanic communities in the United States, with over 70% of the population being of Hispanic and Latino American descent. Miami is also the county seat (and largest city) of Miami-Dade County.

Miami is nicknamed "The Magic City" because of its rapid growth.

History 
The Tequesta tribe lived in what is now Miami before Spain claimed it. In 1566, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Florida's first governor, claimed the area from the Tequesta for Spain. Spain ruled Florida until Spain gave it to the United States in 1821. Florida became a state in 1845. On July 28, 1896, Miami officially became a city. It was named after the Mayaimi tribe.
Miami experienced rapid growth during the Florida land boom of the 1920s. However, this land boom was affected by the 1926 Miami hurricane. Many Cubans migrated to Miami after Fidel Castro rose to power in Cuba following the 1959 Cuban Revolution, and the population rapidly increased. The majority of these Cuban immigrants now live in Little Havana.

During the 1980s, Miami was a primary location for drug trafficking from South America, mainly Colombia. This brought in millions of dollars into the city's economy, and it allowed the construction of luxury hotels, skyscrapers, nightclubs and car dealerships.

Climate
Miami has a tropical monsoon climate. Summers have average temperatures of  during the day and  at night, with average monthly rainfall around . Winters have average temperatures of  during the day and  at night, with average monthly rainfall around .
Education
Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the school district for public schools in Miami. There are also some private schools there. There are many colleges and universities in and around Miami. A few of these include: Florida International University, University of Miami, Miami Dade College, and Florida Atlantic University.

Sports
There are several professional sports teams that play in and around Miami, including the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball, the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association, the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League, the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League, and Inter Miami CF of Major League Soccer.
Also, three universities in and around Miami are members of NCAA Division I, the top division of college sports in the U.S.:
 Miami Hurricanes, in the suburb of Coral Gables – Atlantic Coast Conference
 FIU Panthers, in the city of Miami – Sun Belt Conference; moved to Conference USA in July 2013
 Florida Atlantic Owls, in Boca Raton – Sun Belt Conference

Demographics 
The population of Miami, Florida as of 2011 is 1.3 Million, with 41.4% suffering from poverty. According to the DNA North American Studies Institute, the racial-makeup of Miami is:
 54.75%: European. 
 23.14%: African.
 20.39%: Mixed. 
 1.72%: Others.

**Others** includes Asians, Arabs, and among others.

References 

Notes

Other websites 

 City of Miami official site 

County seats in Florida
 
1896 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Florida
Grunge music or Seattle sound (as it is called sometimes) is a style of rock music that has elements of punk rock and heavy metal. It started in the mid- 1980s in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, especially in the states of Washington and Oregon. It became more popular in the early 1990s. Grunge songs often had lyrics with nihilism, depression, unhappiness, or apathy as themes. The widespread use of heroin as a recreational drug found its way into the lyrics and careers of numerous grunge rockers, notably Kurt Cobain and Layne Staley of "Alice in Chains".

The songs often had light (or clean) guitar sounds in the verses, and the high energy boost of distorted (or dirty) guitars in the choruses. The line-up for these bands was the typical rock band of guitars, bass, drums and vocal.
Although grunge as a movement became less popular by the last 1990s, its influence is still heard in many bands. Grunge musical sounds were copied by post-grunge bands such as Foo Fighters and Nickelback and nu metal bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit.

Sound
Grunge music uses music from punk rock and heavy metal. Grunge guitar players use distorted electric guitar. Like punk and heavy metal, grunge bands use electric guitar, bass guitar, a drummer and a singer.

Grunge artists

Some well known grunge artists were:
 Alice in Chains
 Bush
 Smashing Pumpkins
 Hole
 Melvins, The
 Mother Love Bone
 Mudhoney
 Nirvana
 Pearl Jam
 Screaming Trees
 Soundgarden
 Stone Temple Pilots
 Tad
 Temple of the Dog

References 

Rock music
Alternative music
Music in Seattle
Punk rock
Carly Simon (born June 25, 1945) is an American singer-songwriter and occasional children's book writer. She was born in New York City to businessman Richard L. Simon (1899-1960) and Andrea Heinemann Simon (1909-1994). She was raised in Riverdale, The Bronx. She has two sisters - singer Joanna Simon (born 1940) and composer Lucy Simon (born 1943). She also has a brother, photographer Peter Simon.

Simon's songs include: "You're So Vain", "Nobody Does It Better", "Coming Around Again" and "Let the River Run", and "Why".

Other websites 

1945 births
Living people
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
Golden Globe Award winners
Grammy Award winners
Singers from New York City
Warner Bros. Records artists
Toto is a soft rock group that formed in Los Angeles in 1977, that was popular in the early 1980's. Their best known song is "Africa" (1982).

The current band members are Joseph Williams, Steve Lukather, David Paich, and Steve Porcaro.

The former band members were David Hungate, Fergie Frederiksen, Mike Porcaro, Jeff Porcaro, Simon Phillips, Greg Phillinganes, Jean-Michel Byron, Bobby Kimball, and Keith Carlock.

References 

American rock bands
Musical groups from Los Angeles
1970s American music groups
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
James Warren "Jim" Jones (May 13, 1931 – November 18, 1978) was an American cult leader and preacher. His church was called the "People's Temple". It began as a Christian church (a member church of the Disciples of Christ) (Jones was an atheist). Over time, it became a cult. Jones and most of the members of his group died on November 18, 1978 in Guyana. Jones died when he committed suicide on that day after forcing most of the members of his group to drink poison.

Visit by Congressman Ryan, murders 
In November 1978, U.S. Congressman Leo Ryan led a fact-finding mission to Jonestown to investigate allegations of human rights abuses. Ryan's delegation included relatives of Temple members, Don Harris, an NBC network news reporter, an NBC cameraman and reporters for various newspapers. The group arrived in Georgetown on November 15. On November 17, Ryan's delegation traveled by airplane to Jonestown.
As members of Ryan's delegation boarded two planes at the airstrip, Jones' "Red Brigade" armed guards arrived in a tractor-pulled trailer and began shooting at the delegation. The guards killed Congressman Ryan and four others near a twin engine Otter aircraft. At the same time, one of the supposed defectors, Larry Layton, drew a weapon and began firing on members of the party that had already boarded a small Cessna. An NBC cameraman was able to capture footage of the first few seconds of the shooting at the Otter. The five killed at the airstrip were Congressman Ryan; Don Harris, a reporter from NBC; Bob Brown, a cameraman from NBC; San Francisco Examiner photographer Greg Robinson; and Temple member Patricia Parks. Surviving the attack were future Congresswoman Jackie Speier, then a staff member for Ryan; Richard Dwyer, the Deputy Chief of Mission from the U.S
.S. Embassy at Georgetown; Bob Flick, a producer for NBC News; Steve Sung, an NBC sound engineer; Tim Reiterman, a San Francisco Examiner reporter; Ron Javers, a San Francisco Chronicle reporter; Charles Krause, a Washington Post reporter; and several defecting Temple members.<
Deaths in Jonestown 
Later that same day, 909 inhabitants of Jonestown, 303 of them children, died of apparent cyanide poisoning, in and around a pavilion. This was the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a non-natural disaster until the September 11, 2001 attacks. No video was taken during the mass suicide, though the FBI did recover a 45-minute audio recording of the suicide in progress.
Jones was found dead in a deck chair with a gunshot wound to his head that Guyanese coroner Cyrill Mootoo stated was consistent with a self-inflicted gun wound. However, Jones' son Stephan believes his father may have directed someone else to shoot him. An autopsy of Jones' body also showed levels of the barbiturate Pentobarbital which may have been lethal to humans who had not developed physiological tolerance. Jones' drug usage (including LSD and marijuana) was confirmed by his son, Stephan, and Jones' doctor in San Francisco.

References 

1931 births
1978 deaths
American agnostics
American atheists
American communists
Christian religious leaders
Former Christians
Cults
People from Indiana
Religious violence
Suicides by firearm
Democrats (United States)
"Saludemos la Patria orgullosos" (; "Salute the Motherland Proudly") is the national anthem of El Salvador.

Lyrics

Short version

Full version
Spanish original 
Coro:
Saludemos la patria orgullosos
De hijos suyos podernos llamar;
Y juremos la vida animosa,
Sin descanso a su bien consagrar.
 
De la paz en la dicha suprema,
Siempre noble soñó El Salvador;
Fue obtenerla su eterno problema,
Conservarla es su gloria mayor.
Y con fe inquebrantable el camino
Del progreso se afana en seguir
Por llenar su grandioso destino,
Conquistarse un feliz porvenir.
Le protege una férrea barrera
Contra el choque de ruin deslealtad,
Desde el día que en su alta bandera
Con su sangre escribió: ¡LIBERTAD!
 
Coro
 
Libertad es su dogma, es su guía
Que mil veces logró defender;
Y otras tantas, de audaz tiranía
Rechazar el odioso poder.
Dolorosa y sangrienta es su historia,
Pero excelsa y brillante a la vez;
Manantial de legítima gloria,
Gran lección de espartana altivez.
No desmaya en su innata bravura,
En cada hombre hay un héroe inmortal
Que sabrá mantenerse a la altura
De su antiguo valor proverbial.
 
'Coro'
 
Todos son abnegados, y fieles
Al prestigio del bélico ardor
Con que siempre segaron laureles
De la patria salvando el honor.
Respetar los derechos extraños
Y apoyarse en la recta razón
Es para ella, sin torpes amaños
Su invariable, más firme ambición.
Y en seguir esta línea se aferra
Dedicando su esfuerzo tenaz,
En hacer cruda guerra a la guerra:
Su ventura se encuentra en la paz.
English translation 
CHORUS:
Let us salute the motherland,
Proud to be called her children.
To her well-being let us swear
Boldly and unceasingly to devote our lives.

Devote our lives! (repeat 4 times)
Of peace enjoyed in perfect happiness,
El Salvador has always nobly dreamed.
To achieve this has been her eternal proposition,
To keep it, her greatest glory.
With inviolable faith, she eagerly follows
The way of progress
In order to fulfil her high destiny
And achieve a happy future.
A stern barrier protects her
Against the clash of vile disloyalty,
Ever since the day when her lofty banner,
In letters of blood, wrote "Freedom",
Wrote "Freedom", wrote "Freedom". 

CHORUS
CHORUS 

Freedom is her dogma and her guide;
A thousand times she has defended it,
And as many times has she repelled
The hateful power of atrocious tyranny.
Her history has been bloody and sad,
Yet at the same time sublime and brilliant,
A source of legitimate glory
And a great lesson in Spartan pride.
Her innate bravery shall not waver:
In every man there is an immortal hero
Who knows how to maintain the level
Of the proverbial valour of old.

CHORUS

All are self-denying and faithful
To the tradition of warlike ardour
With which they have always reaped fame
By saving the motherland's honour.
To respect the rights of others
And base her actions on right and justice
Is for her, without infamous intrigue,
The constant and most firm ambition.
And in following this line she persists,
Dedicating her tenacious efforts
In giving hard battle for battle;
Her happiness is found in peace.

CHORUS

Nawat version

Other websites 
 http://saludemos-la-patria-orgullosos.ask.dyndns.dk/
North American anthems
National symbols of El Salvador
Eritrea is a country on the eastern coast of Africa. Its official name is The State of Eritrea.

Geography 

Eritrea is located on the coast of the Red Sea. It is north of the Bab-el-Mandeb and the Horn of Africa. Eritrea has borders with the countries of Sudan, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. The land area of Eritrea is 101,000 km², and it is one of the smallest countries in Africa.

History 
Eritrea became an independent country on May 24, 1993. It is one of the newest countries in the world.

Many different countries have ruled the land that is now called Eritrea. Between 1885 and 1941 it was a colony of Italy. Between 1941 and 1952, the United Nations put it under the protection of the United Kingdom. After 1952, Eritrea became a part of Ethiopia. This was the reason for a long civil war between the Eritreans and the government of Ethiopia.

Eventually, in 1993, Eritrea became an independent country after a vote by its people.

Eritreans
Eritreans 

Eritreans are the native inhabitants of Eritrea, as well as the global diaspora of Eritreans displaced by the Eritrean War of Independence and seeking refuge from human rights violations by the Eritrean government. Eritreans constitute several component ethnic groups, many of which are closely related to ethnic groups in Ethiopia and other parts of the Horn of Africa.

The Eritrean national identity began to develop during the Scramble for Africa, when Italy claimed Eritrea as one of its colonies. This marked the establishment of Eritrea's present-day borders. Following Italy's defeat in World War II and the subsequent British administration of Eritrea, the former colony was federated with Ethiopia in 1952. Tensions increased through the 1950s between Eritreans wishing for independence and the Ethiopian government, culminating in the Eritrean War of Independence.

Component Ethnicities
Tigrinya 
The majority of the Tigrinya inhabit the highlands of Eritrea; however, migration to other parts of the country has occurred. Their language is called Tigrinya. They are the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting about 60% of the population. The predominantly Tigrinya populated urban centers in Eritrea are the capital Asmara, Mendefera, Dekemhare, Adi Keyh, Adi Quala and Senafe, while there is a significant population of Tigrinya in other cities including Keren, and Massawa.

They are 96% Christians, (of which 90% are of the Eritrean Orthodox faith, 5% Roman Catholic and Eastern Catholic (whose mass is held in Ge'ez as opposed to Latin), and 5% belonging to various Protestant and other Christian denominations, the majority of which belong to the (Lutheran) Evangelical Church of Eritrea).
Tigre 
The Tigre reside in the western lowlands in Eritrea. Many also migrated to Sudan at the time of the Ethiopian-Eritrean conflict and lived there since. They are a nomadic and pastoralist people, related to the Tigrinya and to the Beja people. They are a predominantly Muslim nomadic people who inhabit the northern, western, and coastal lowlands of Eritrea, where they constitute 30% of local residents. Some also inhabit areas in eastern Sudan. 95% of the Tigre people adhere to the Islamic religion Sunni Islam, but there are a small number of Christians among them as well (often referred to as the Mensaï in Eritrea). Their language is called Tigre.

Jeberti 
The Jeberti people in Eritrea trace descent from early Muslim adherents. The term Jeberti is also locally sometimes used to generically refer to all Islamic inhabitants of the highlands. The Jeberti in Eritrea speak Arabic and Tigrinya. They account for about 4% of the Tigrinya speakers in the nation.
Afar 
According to the CIA, the Afar constitute under 5% of the nation's population. They live in the Debubawi Keyih Bahri Region of Eritrea, as well as the Afar Region in Ethiopia, and Djibouti. They speak the Afar language as a mother tongue, and are predominantly Muslim. Afars in Eritrea number about 397,000 individuals, the smallest population out of the countries they reside in. In Djibouti, there are about 780,000 group members, and in Ethiopia, they number approximately 1,300,000.

Saho 
The Saho represent 4% of Eritrea's population. They principally reside in the Debubawi Keyih Bahri Region and the Northern Red Sea Region of Eritrea. Their language is called Saho. They are predominantly Muslim, although a few Christians known as the Irob live in the Debub Region of Eritrea and the Tigray region of Ethiopia.
Bilen 
The Bilen in Eritrea represent around 2% of the country's population. They are primarily concentrated in the north-central areas, in and around the city of Keren, and south towards Asmara, the nation's capital. Many of them entered Eritrea from Kush (central Sudan) in the 8th century and settled at Merara, after which they went to Lalibela and Lasta. The Bilen then returned to Axum in Ethiopia's Tigray Province, and battled with the natives; in the resulting aftermath, the Bilen returned to their main base at Merara. The Bilen include adherents of both Islam and Christianity. They speak the Bilen as a mother tongue. Christian adherents are mainly urban and have intermingled with the Tigrinya who live in the area. Muslim adherents are mainly rural and have interbred with the adjacent Tigre.
Beja 
The Beja in Eritrea, or Hedareb, constitute under 5% of local residents. They mainly live along the north-western border with Sudan. Group members are predominantly Muslim and communicate in Hedareb as a first or second language. The Beja also include the Beni-Amer people, who have retained their native Beja language alongside Hedareb.

Kunama 
According to the CIA, the Kunama constitute around 2% of Eritrea's population. They mainly live in the country's Gash Barka Region, as well as in adjacent parts of Ethiopia's Tigray Region. Many of them reside in the contested border village of Badme. Their language is called Kunama. Although some Kunama still practice traditional beliefs, most are converts to either Christianity (Roman Catholic and Protestant) or Islam.
Nara 
The Nara represent under 5% of the nation's population. They principally reside along the south-western border with Sudan and Ethiopia. They are generally Muslim, with a few Christians and some practising their indigenous beliefs. Their language is called Nara.

Rashaida Arabs in Eritrean 
The Rashaida are one of Eritrea's nine recognized ethnic groups. They represent around 2% of the population of Eritrea. The Rashaida reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea and the northern eastern coasts of Sudan. They are predominantly Muslim and are the only ethnic group in Eritrea to have Arabic as their communal language, specifically the Hejazi dialect. The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the 19th century from the Arabian Coast.

Italians in Eritrea 
A few monolingual Italian Eritreans remain. As of 2008, they were estimated at 900 people, down from around 38,000 residents at the end of World War II. They contributed with the development of the Eritrean language with a local "Pidgin".
Eritrean diaspora 
 Eritrean Americans
 Eritrean Australians
 Eritrean Canadians
 Eritreans in Italy
 Eritreans in the United Kingdom
 Eritreans in Denmark
 Eritreans in Israel
 Eritreans in Norway
 Eritreans in Sweden
 Ethiopians
 Habesha peoples
 Eritrean people of Ethiopian descent
 Ethiopian people of Eritrean descent

Government 
Eritrea is known for being the most oppressive country in Africa, sometimes considered to be the "North Korea of Africa". The nation has been accused of many human rights violations, severely limited freedoms, and many arbitrary (made-up) arrests.

Administrative divisions
Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions. These areas are then divided into 58 districts.

Culture 
The population of Eritrea is about 3.6 million. About 0.5 million people live in Asmara. People from Eritrea are called Eritreans. Most of them speak Tigrinya or Tigre as their first language. The people usually use Tigrinya or Arabic for official business.
Eritrea has nine ethnic groups. These are the Afar people, the Bilen people, the Hedareb people, the Kunama, the Nara, the Rashaida, the Saho, the Tigre, and Tigray-Tigrinya.

The currency of Eritrea is called the Nakfa. Eritrea is a very poor country. Almost half of Eritrea's economy comes from Eritreans who live abroad. They send money home to their families. Most of the rest comes from farming.

Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea. In recent years, Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena.

Related pages
 Eritrea at the Olympics
 Eritrea national football team
 List of rivers of Eritrea

References 

1993 establishments in Africa
 
Italian-speaking countries
Least developed countries
Current dictatorships
States and territories established in the 1990s
Sanford Dole (April 23, 1844 – June 9, 1926) was an American politician. Dole was a part of a group of businessmen who first forced a new Hawaiian national constitution on the country during King David Kalakaua's reign and then after his death removed Queen Liliuokalani from the throne and took control of the country in 1893. They removed the queen by threatening to use the warships of the U.S. Navy had in Honolulu harbor. 

Queen Liliuokalani did not want her people to be harmed so she agreed to do what the revolutionists wanted.  The Queen went to Washington and talked to the American President, Grover Cleveland.  Cleveland decided that this had been an act of war against the Hawaiian Kingdom.  Cleveland ordered Sanford Dole, the President of the newly formed republic, to make Liliuokalani the queen again.
Dole refused to do this. He said that President Cleveland was interfering.  Dole remained the president of Hawaii from 1894 until 1900 after Cleveland was elected out of office.  The newly elected American president William McKinley signed the Newsland Resolution. The Newsland Resolution made Hawaii a territory of the United States.  This ended any legal or military chance of restoring the Queen and the Hawaiian Kingdom.

Dole served as governor of Hawaii from 1900 until 1903, he was the first when he accepted a position as United States District Court judge. He remained a judge until 1915.

Governors of Hawaii
1844 births
1926 deaths
Ancient Egypt, or the Kingdom of Kemet, was a society that began about 3150 BC, and lasted until 30 BC when it was invaded by the Roman Empire.

Egypt grew along the River Nile and was at its most powerful in the second millennium BC. Its land went from the Nile delta to Nubia, a kingdom which today is mostly in the Sudan.

For most of its history, Egypt was doing well, since the water from the Nile made sure that the Egyptians would have good crops.  Crops were grown after the Nile flood water went down.

The Egyptians created a way of writing using hieroglyphs, built huge temples and tombs, traded with other areas, and had a powerful army. Their religion had many gods, and its priests were powerful and rich. Their Egyptians rulers, called Pharaohs, were thought to be close to the gods.
History 
Archaeologists, who study objects left by ancient people, have found that people have lived along the Nile for a very long time. The fertile flood plains of the Nile allowed people to begin farming. By the 10th millennium BC, the people in Egypt had begun growing cereal grains like wheat and barley. Because they were farming, they stayed in one place, and because they were settled, their society became more complex. This was an important step in the history of human civilization.
This period in Egyptian history is called predynastic, as it happened before the large dynastic kingdoms were formed.
By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures. Each had begun farming crops and animals. Each had their own types of pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. In Upper Egypt, the south part of the country, the Badarian was one of the earliest cultures. It is known for its high quality pottery, stone tools, and its use of copper. They were followed by the Amratian and Gerzian cultures.
The different periods of ancient Egyptian history are:
 Predynastic Period (5500 – 3000 BC)
 Early Dynastic Period (1st & 2nd Dynasties, 3000 – 2700 BC)
 Old Kingdom (3rd to 6th Dynasties, 2700 – 2180 BC)
 First Intermediate Period (7th to 11th Dynasties, 2180 – 2050 BC)
 Middle Kingdom (11th to 14th Dynasties, 2080 – 1640 BC)
 Second Intermediate Period (15th to 17th Dynasties, 1640 – 1560 BC; the Hyksos)
 New Kingdom (18th to 20th Dynasties, 1560 – 1070 BC)
 Third Intermediate Period (21st to 25th Dynasties, 1070 – 664 BC)
 Late Period (26th to 31st Dynasties, 664 – 323 BC; the Persians)
 Greco-Roman Egypt (323 – 30 BC; Ptolemaic to Roman)

The Intermediate periods included times when the traditional system broke down, the country was split, or invaded by foreign rulers. Egypt's culture and climate was relatively stable, compared to other parts of the Middle East. Nevertheless, they had some periods when their government was challenged and sometimes overthrown.

Government
Government 

Ancient Egypt was split up into many different districts called sepats. The first divisions were created during the Predynastic Period, but then, they were small city-states that ruled themselves. When the first pharaoh came to power, the sepats remained and were much like the counties in many countries today. They stayed basically the same for a long time – there were 42 of them, and each was ruled by a governor chosen by the pharaoh. In later years the districts were called nomes and the governor was called a nomarch.
Ancient Egypt had a lot of different taxes, but there was no real money, so people paid each other with goods or work. The person who watched the tax collection was a scribe, and every tax collector in Egypt had to tell him every day how many taxes they had collected. Each person paid different taxes based on the work that they did: craftsmen paid in goods, hunters and fishermen paid with food, and every single household in the country had to pay a labour tax every year by helping with work for the country like mining or for canals. A lot of rich Egyptians paid poorer people to do this for them.

Language and writing
Language 
The language can be divided into six time periods:
Archaic Egyptian (before 3000 BC). This language was found on carvings on pottery.
Old Egyptian (3000 BC to 2000 BC). This language was used during the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. It was found in pyramids, or Egyptian tombs, and was the first version of the language that had plural tense, which shows that there was more than one object being talked about.
Middle Egyptian (2000 BC to 1300 BC).  This language is called Classic Egyptian.  It is found all over objects and tombs in Egypt, including Egyptian coffins.  Books on science and society were written during this time, and a lot of the things we know about religion of the time are written in Classic Egyptian. Even after people stopped speaking this kind of Egyptian, writers still used it when they wrote books.
Late Egyptian (1300 BC to 700 BC). This is the language of the New Kingdom, which was the best time in Egypt's history. There was a lot of knowledge being shared during this time, so we have a lot of very old books that were written in Late Egyptian. Many people believe that this version of the language was much like what Egyptians spoke.
Demotic Egyptian (700 BC to 400 AD)
Coptic Egyptian (300 AD to 1700 AD)
Writing

Hieroglyphics 
Egypt had writing called hieroglyphics, which is one of the two oldest written languages (the other is Sumerian cuneiform). 
Hieroglyphic writing dates to c. 3200 BC, and is composed of some 500 symbols. A hieroglyph represents a word, a sound, or a symbol to show what the sign means. The same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs on stone monuments and in tombs were for public purposes. It was art, and often it was propaganda.

Hieratic script 
The script used by priests for everyday writing on "papyrus", wood or cloth.
In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows.
Demotic script 
The script used by ordinary people. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the main writing style. It is this form of writing  and formal hieroglyphs  which accompanies the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.

Coptic script 
The Coptic script is a modified Greek alphabet. The Coptic language is the last stage of the Egyptian language (modern Egyptians speak a dialect of Arabic).
Literature 
Some ancient Egyptian literature has survived to the present day. There are teaching texts, such as the Maxims of Ptahhotep, the Instructions of Amenemope, and the Ebers papyrus. The Ebers papyrus is one of the earliest medical texts ever found.
There are also poems and stories. 
 The story of Sinuhe
An Ancient Egyptian murder mystery written around 1800 BC.
 Ipuwer papyrus
A poem about the ruin of Egyptian society--some think it is about the story in Exodus, a book in the Jewish/Christian Bible.
 Westcar papyrus
A series of stories about the Pharaoh Khufu told by his sons.
 Papyrus Harris I
The longest papyrus ever found in Egypt.
 Story of Wenamun
An ancient adventure story about a priest who goes to collect gifts from a king.

Religion
Religion 

Religion was very important to Ancient Egyptians. To Egyptians, animals were holy and were worshipped. Because of this, Egyptians domesticated, or made pets of, animals very early and took very good care of them. The centre of any Egyptian town was the temple, and this building was used for everything from the town hall to a university in addition to its religious services.

Because they were so religious, Egyptians created a lot of art of their gods. This art shows all different kinds of divine, or holy, creatures including the pharaoh, who was thought to be a god.

The afterlife was also very important to Egyptians and they are known for mummifying their dead. These mummies are important to scientists today because they tell them about how the Egyptians lived.
All the gods were important but some were more important than others. An example of a goddess is Isis who is the goddess of the sky. Another example of a major god is Ra who was the god of the sun. The less well known god of The Nile and the crocodiles was named Sobek, which is a rather unusual name. Bastet was the goddess of cats, so the Ancient Egyptians mummified cats in honour of her, she was also the goddess of protection, joy and families.

Agriculture 

The rich fertile soil came from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. In ancient Egypt taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.
Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.p514 From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.p506
Flax plants were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.p577; 630

Most animals were kept as food. Some animals were kept as pets. All kinds of animals were important to Egypt. Ancient Egyptians understood the animals. Animals they kept were goats, pigs, ducks, cows and geese.
Medicine 
Ancient Egyptians had some advanced medical knowledge for their time. They performed surgery, set broken bones and even knew about medicines. Some medicines the Ancient Egyptians used are honey and breast milk or gazelle's milk. Not only did they have medicinal values, they also are believed to have been used to ward off evil spirits and demons. The easiest way to see how good they were at medicine is to look at the medical papyri which have survived to the present day. The Edwin Smith papyrus is the world's oldest surviving surgical document, from about 1600 B.C. The text describes anatomy, and the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of 48 types of medical problems in detail.
Pyramids 
Ancient Egyptian pyramids are shaped stone masonry structures. They are the best known pyramid structures, and are some of the largest ever buildings. Over 130 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. Most were built on the western side of the River Nile in desert areas. Egyptian pyramids are often contain chambers and passages. The pyramids were built as the burial places of the Egyptian kings before the start of the old kingdom until the end of the middle kingdom. Because the Egyptians kept written records, we know about the building of some pyramids.

The Great Pyramid at Giza is the largest and most famous pyramid. It was built for Pharaoh Khufu. It is over 140 metres high and took 20 years to build. It is listed as one of the seven wonders of the world. The step pyramid at Saqqara is the earliest pyramid which is still standing today. This was built in 2630 BC. It was a burial place of the Pharaoh Djoser. The architect of the step pyramid was Imhotep.
Other achievements 
Engineering was an important activity in Egypt. Engineers were able to measure and survey the distance between two points. They designed and made the pyramids, which are nearly perfect geometrically. They could make cement, and developed large irrigation networks.

Science was also important. Mathematics was used in Egypt, and the golden ratio was used in the construction of the Pyramids.

Another ability of the Egyptians was glass making. Archaeologists have found many pieces of beads, jars, figures and ornaments in tombs across the nation. In 2005, the remains of an ancient glassmaking factory was found.

Timeline

Predynastic 
 3500 BC: Senet, a board game, is invented
 3500 BC: Egyptian faience, the world's oldest earthenware, or pottery, is created. It is not the same as modern faience pottery.
Dynastic 
 3300 BC: Bronze works are first created
 3200 BC: Hieroglyphs are developed
 3100 BC: Decimal system in use
 3100 BC: Mining occurs on Mount Sinai
 3100 BC: Ships are built in Abydos, an Egyptian city
 3000 BC: Trading takes place between Egypt and Palestine
 3000 BC: Copper plumbing in use
 3000 BC: Papyrus, or ancient paper, is first used
 3000 BC: First documented use of medicine
 2900 BC: Perhaps the first steel use in the ancient world
 2700 BC: First surgery performed
 2700 BC: Surveying used by engineers
 2700 BC: Hieroglyphs no longer just show little pictures of words, but become based on sounds
 2600 BC: The Great Pyramids of Giza created
 2600 BC: Shipping expeditions occur
 2600 BC: First use of barges
 2600 BC: Pyramid of Djoser created
 2600 BC: Menkaure's Pyramid and the Red Pyramid created
 2200 BC: Government in Egypt collapsed, meaning many different people tried to become King
 1900 BC: Possible Nile to Red Sea canal created
1650 BC: The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is written, which shows knowledge of geometry, arithmetic and algebra
 1600 BC: The Edwin Smith Papyrus is written, which shows knowledge of advanced medical techniques
 1550 BC: The Ebers Medical Papyrus is written, the first document on the topic of tumours
 1500 BC: Glassmaking
 1258 BC: First known peace treaty (Ramesses II)
 1160 BC: The Turin Papyrus is written, the first geologic and topographic map
Related pages 
 Old Kingdom of Egypt
 Middle Kingdom of Egypt
 New Kingdom
 Hatshepsut
 Ramesses II
 Cleopatra VII

References
Alexander the Great was Alexander III of Macedon (, ; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC) He was king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon from 336 BC until his death in 323 BC. He has been known by various titles, such as Basileus of Macedon, Ruler of the Hellenic League, Shahanshah of Persia, Pharaoh of Egypt, Lord of Asia, and Dhu al-Qarnayn.

By the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was one of the greatest military leaders of all time. He was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia.

Alexander was the son of Philip II, King of Macedonia, and Olympias, the princess of neighboring Epirus. Alexander spent his childhood watching his father turn Macedonia into a great military power, and watching him win victory on the battlefields in the Balkans. 

Alexander the Great spoke the Greek language. He spread the Greek culture through out Asia.
When he was 13, Philip hired the Greek philosopher Aristotle to be Alexander’s personal tutor. During the next three years, Aristotle gave Alexander a training in rhetoric and literature, and stimulated his interest in science, medicine, and philosophy. All of these are important for a ruler, which Alexander later became.

Alexander's war 
In 340 BC, Philip assembled a large Greek army and invaded Thrace. He left 16 year old Alexander with the power to rule Greece in his absence as regent. But as the Macedonian army advanced deep into Thrace, the Thracian tribe of Maedi bordering north-eastern Macedonia rebelled and posed a danger to the country. Alexander assembled an army, led it against the rebels, and with swift action defeated the Maedi, captured their stronghold, and renamed it Alexandroupolis.
Alexander became king of Macedonia in 336 BC after his father was assassinated. He became strategos (general or supreme commander). He used this authority to launch his father's military expansion plans. In 334 BC, he invaded Persian-ruled Asia Minor. He began series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He overthrew the Persian King Darius III and conquered the entire Persian Empire. He married the king's daughter to symbolize the unity of his new empire. At that point, Alexander's empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.

He attacked the subcontinent in 326 BC, and defeated King Porus, who ruled a region in the Punjab. Afterwards they became allies. India at that time was divided into hundreds of kingdoms. The army refused to cross the Indus and fight the kings on the other side, so Alexander led them out of Pakistan.
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, of unknown causes. Poison, murder, or a fever after a battle have all been suggested. At his death, he was planning a series of campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart. Several states were then ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs. They fought and conquered each other. The largest surviving piece was the Seleucid Empire.

Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion of Greek ideas and language.  He started some twenty cities that were named after him, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Macedonian colonists resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization. Signs of this can be seen in the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century AD. There were Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the 1920s.

Alexander died from Malaria when he was only 32 years old. He was never defeated in battle.
In the Hebrew Bible, the Greek king mentioned in Daniel 8:5–8 and 21–22 (who will conquer the Medes and Persians but then die at the height of his power and have his kingdom broken into four kingdoms) is often taken as a reference to Alexander. Alexander is also mentioned in the first Book of the Maccabees. In the Qur'an, Alexander is known by the Arabic epithet "Dhu al-Qarnayn" (The Two-Horned One).

Gallery

References

Other websites 

 
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356 BC births
320s deaths
Ancient Greek generals
Emperors and empresses
Unexplained deaths
Brisbane (, ; local nickname Brissie) is the seaport capital city and biggest city of Queensland in Australia. It has a population of 2.2 million people and is the third biggest city in Australia, after Sydney and Melbourne.

The central city is on the Brisbane River,  inland from Moreton Bay.

Brisbane is named after the Brisbane River, which is named after Sir Thomas Brisbane who was Governor of New South Wales from 1821 - 1825.

A penal colony was founded at Redcliffe,  to the north, in 1824. It was moved to North Quay in 1825. The first free settlers moved to Brisbane in 1842. Brisbane became the capital city when Queensland became a separate colony from New South Wales in 1859.

Brisbane has more than 50 skyscrapers more than  tall.

Climate 
Brisbane has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa). Summers are hot and wet. Winters are warm and quite dry.