Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Voigt travelled around until he went to live with his sister who lived near Berlin.  He worked briefly as a court shoemaker until, on August 24, 1906, police expelled him from Berlin as an “undesirable” (someone who is not wanted).  Although he was supposed to have gone to Hamburg he stayed in Berlin.  He could not get a job because he was an unregistered citizen, but he could not register to live in Berlin because he had no job.

Captain of Köpenick

On October 16 1906 Voigt was ready for the big adventure that made him famous. He had bought parts of a captain's uniform from different shops. He had resigned from the shoe factory ten days before. He put on the captain’s uniform and went to the local army barracks, stopped four grenadiers and a sergeant on their way back to barracks and told them to come with him.
These soldiers had been taught to obey officers without asking any questions, so they did what they were told. He told the commanding sergeant to report to his boss, and told 6 more soldiers to come with him. Then he took a train with the soldiers to Köpenick, east of Berlin, occupied the local city hall and told the soldiers to guard all the exits. 

He told the local Police to go and look for people breaking the law, and told the local Post Office not to let anyone make telephone calls to Berlin for an hour (this was in the early days of the telephone when people could not dial numbers automatically: they had to ask the Post Office to make the connection).

He arrested the town secretary and the mayor, saying that they had been taking money from the town hall, and he took a large amount of money: 4002 marks and 37 pfennigs, signing  a receipt for it, but using the name of the governor of the jail where he had been.
Then he stopped two carriages and told the grenadiers to use them to take the mayor and the treasurer to the police so that they could be questioned. He told the remaining guards to stand in their places for half an hour.  Then he went to the train station. Later he changed back into ordinary clothes and disappeared.

His capture

During the next few days the newspapers around the world reported what had happened.  Everybody seemed to think it was a very amusing joke.

Voigt was arrested on October 26 and on December 1 he was sentenced to four years in prison for forgery, impersonating (pretending to be) an officer and wrongful imprisonment. However, so many people seemed to have sympathy with Voigt.  Even the  Emperor Wilhelm II was probably amused by it and he pardoned him on August 16, 1908.

In England everybody thought the whole story was funny.  The English people thought it showed that the stereotype (idea) they had about Germans was right, i.e. that they were taught to obey orders and not to think.
Voigt’s last years.
After Voigt had been pardoned and let out of jail he spent his remaining years travelling to many countries including United States and Canada where he told people about his great adventure. He appeared in small theatres and signed lots of photographs.  A waxwork was made of him in Madame Tussaud's museum in London.

In 1910, he moved to Luxembourg and worked as a waiter and shoemaker. Two years later, he bought a house and retired, but the inflation after World War I made him poor. Voigt died in Luxembourg.

Many plays and movies were written about him, including a play by the German author Carl Zuckmayer called Der Hauptmann von Köpenick (The Captain of Köpenick), Several movies were produced about the affair, including an English language adaptation by John Mortimer (1971).

References

Other websites
 Wilhelm Voigt: Captain von Köpenick
 The Captain of Köpenick 

1849 births
1922 deaths
German criminals
The Hittites were an ancient Armenian people from Anatolia who spoke an Indo-European language.  They wrote with cuneiform script.  They established a kingdom centered at Hattusha in north-central Anatolia from the 18th century BC.

At its peak, the Hittite Empire covered most of modern Turkey and Syria. This was under the reigns of Suppiluliuma I (~1350–1322) and Mursili II (~1321–1295 BC). They had up-and-down relationships with Ancient Egypt to the south, and the Assyrian Empire in Mesopotamia. They were a party to the first known peace treaty, which was made with Ramesses II of Egypt by Hattusili III in 1258 BC.

After 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC.
Empire of Suppiluliuma and Mursili II 
The Hittite Kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of Suppiluliuma I (~1350–1322). The kingdom of Mitanni, wracked by civil war, was unable to withstand the Hittite onslaught. Suppiluliuma swiftly attacked the Mitanni heartland, capturing and plundering the Mitanni capital of Washshuganni. He then turned west, recrossed the Euphrates and captured all the Syrian kingdoms which were vassals to the Mitanni, including Aleppo, Mukish, Niya, Qatna, Upi (Upina), and Kadesh. Other kingdoms such as Ugarit and Amurru (an Egyptian vassal) voluntarily became vassal states of the Hittites.
The murdered prince 
When Tutankhamun, the Egyptian Pharaoh died,his widow asked to marry one of Suppiluliuma's sons.  He agreed, and sent his son Zannanza to Egypt to marry the queen.  However, Zannanza was assassinated en route to Egypt. Suppiluliuma was furious and blamed the new Egyptian Pharaoh Ay for his son's death. A Hittite army under crown prince Arnuwanda invaded Egyptian territory from Syria, pillaging and taking many prisoners. These prisoners brought with them a plague which ravaged the Hittite Kingdom continuing well into Mursili's reign and may have killed Suppiluliuma himself.
Mursili II 
Mursili II was young and inexperienced, but he proved to be a strong king. In the first years of his reign he carried out punitive campaigns against several kingdoms. In Syria the Nuhashshi king Tette rebelled and was joined by Egyptian troops. Troubles in Syria continued when Mursili's brothers Tulipinu and Piyassili both died. The loss of his Syrian viceroys led to rebellion and even the invasion of Carchemish by Assyria. Leaving his generals to deal with Syria and Haysa, Mursili invaded Carchemish and drove out the Assyrians. Later in his reign Mursili II campaigned against the Kaska once again retaking the Hittite holy city of Niniveh. He also decisively defeating the King of Tummanna.

Other websites
Other websites 

Hattusas/Bogazköy  
The Hittite Home Page  
Arzawa, to the west, throws light on Hittites 
 Pictures of Boğazköy, one of a group of important sites
 Pictures of Yazılıkaya, one of a group of important sites
 Pictures of Alacahöyük, one of a group of important sites
Der Anitta Text (at TITUS) 
Encyclopaedia of Turkey : Hittite relief at Karabel 
Tahsin Ozguc 
Hittites.info
Hittite Period in Anatolia
pictures 
Hethitologieportal Mainz, by the Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mainz, corpus of texts and extensive bibliographies on all things Hittite

References 

 
Mesopotamia
Suppiluliuma II, the son of  Tudhaliya IV,  was the last known king of the New Kingdom of the Hittite Empire, ruling  1207 BCE – c.1178 BCE, contemporary with Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyira. 

He is known from two inscriptions in hieroglyphics. They record wars against former vassal Tarhuntassa, and against Alasiya in Cyprus. 

After the fall, the Kaskians were probably in control of Hatti. Hattusa itself was destroyed, its site only re-occupied by a Phrygian fortress some 500 years later.

Literature
Astour, AJA 69 (1965).
Güterbock, JNES 26 (1967), 73-81.

Other websites
Reign of Suppiluliuma II

Hittite Empire
13th century BC
12th century BC
2nd-millennium BC people
The Battle of Rhandeia was a battle fought between Armenia and Parthia against the Roman Empire. It was fought just after the Mithridatic Wars. The Romans were led by Lucius Caesennius Paetus. They were defeated by the Parthian-Armenian army led by Tiridates I of Armenia.

The Parthians made Tiridates the King of Armenia. He was the brother of the Parthian king Vologases I. Tiridates replaced Tigranes, a Roman ally, as king. The Romans fought to take back the throne, but were forced into surrender at Rhandeia (autumn 62).

Related pages
Armenian Empire

References

Ancient Armenia
Rhandeia
62
Hydrochloric acid is a chemical compound. It is a solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas that is dissolved in water. In the past, people called it muriatic acid. It is widely used in industry, and it is also made by the stomach to help digest food. Hydrochloric acid, like all acids, react with bases to produce salts (chlorides).

Safety

In high concentrations, hydrochloric acid can make acidic mists. Both the mist and the solution hurt human tissue. They are caustic, and can cause chemical burns. These can damage the eyes, the skin, the respiratory system, and other organs of the human body.

When hydrochloric acid is mixed with certain chemicals such as bleach, the toxic gas chlorine is made. When working with hydrochloric acid, certain safety measures should be taken. These include using rubber or PVC gloves, wearing goggles to protect the eyes, as well as special clothing that is resistant to chemicals. 

Hydrochloric acid reacts with some metals, corroding them and making flammable hydrogen gas.
The risks of coming in contact with hydrochloric acid depend on its concentration. The following table lists the EU classification of hydrochloric acid solutions:

The Environmental Protection Agency says hydrochloric acid is a toxin.

References

Acids
Chlorine compounds
Kobayr (Armenian: Կոբայր) is a 12th century Armenian Apostolic Church monastery. It is located in the village Kober within Lori marz, Armenia. 

Kobayr was built on a shelf of a gorge by the princes of the junior Bagratuni branch, Kyurikids in 1171. The monastery was later acquired by the Zakarids and converted into a Chalcedonian monastery. Many of the writings in the monastery are written in Georgian.

The monastery is being fixed and paid for by the government of Armenia with the help of the government of Italy. The ruins of the main church in the monastery contain frescoes of Christ and the twelve apostles as well as the Church fathers and other Christian figures.

Churches in Armenia
12th-century buildings and structures‎
Hnevank (, means old monastery) is a 7th century Armenian Apostolic Church monastery. It is near the city of Stepanavan in the Lori marz of Armenia. The monastery is on a hill within a gorge, near where the Dzoraget and Gargar rivers join.

The monastery was all rebuilt by lord Smbat of the House of Orbelian, a branch of the Liparitids who were removed to Armenia in the late 12th century from Georgia. Liparitids were themselves a branch of the Mamikonians. Smbat was the ancestor of the Armenian princes of Syunik. Georgian writings around the drum attests his name. The monastery has a gavit and various service buildings around the site. The government of Armenia has recently begun fixing the monastery. The broken dome of the main church has been restored entirely.

Churches in Armenia
7th-century buildings and structures‎
Huntington's disease is a genetic disorder. It affects the brain and gets worse over time. This can lead to problems with moving, memory loss as well as thinking skills. Lastly, it also causes changes in behavior.  Chorea is one of the main symptoms of Huntington's disease. On average, the disease leads to death about fifteen years after the first signs of the illness show. It is found in about 6 in 100,000 people. There is a 50% chance of inheriting this disease from the parents.

History 
The disease is named after George Huntington. George Huntington specialized in medicine and psychology. In 1872, he was the first to describe the medical condition he was seeing in patients in a paper about science. In an 1908 review, an important scientist who also focused on medicine and psychology, William Osler, said about the paper: "In the history of medicine, there are few instances in which a disease has been more accurately, more graphically or more briefly described."
According to Huntington, the disease is characterized by three things: it is inherited; people who have it become cases for psychiatry (insanity and people who kill themselves); and it only occurs in adults. That was the medical understanding at that time. Of these, the last one is wrong: some children also show signs of the disease.

Symptoms 
Symptoms of Huntington's disease usually begin between the ages of 35 and 44 years. They can, however, start in any age group from babies to old age. Also, Huntington's disease kills the cells in the body and brain.

In fact, children with Huntington's disease are often much sicker. They get worse faster. Instead of having chorea, they usually have rigidity (or stiffness) of their muscles and it is painful. Seizures (uncontrollable movements in the body) are also a common sign in children.
Treatment and care 
In 2015, there is still no treatment for the disease itself. There are medicines available to help with some of the symptoms. Tetrabenazine was approved in 2008 by the FDA. This medicine helps slow some of the restless movements of chorea. Other medicines that can help with psychiatric symptoms and movements are benzodiazepines and anticonvulsants usually taken for seizures.

Clinical trials
Science Daily reported on May 6, 2019 that an international clinical trial has found  a new drug is safe. It reported that the drug used by UBC researchers successfully lowers levels of Huntingtin protein.

Related pages
 Woody_Guthrie#Illness_from_Huntington's_disease

References

Genetic disorders
Diseases and disorders of the brain
Adenoidectomy is the process of taking out a person's adenoids from the back of their throat through the process of surgery. They may be removed for several reasons, including difficulty breathing through the nose and having ear infections. The surgery is common in young kids. The procedure is usually performed using a substance called anaesthesia (Greek for "without sensation"), and the substance puts a person to sleep when it is applied. Recovery time from the operation can vary from several hours to a few days.

Adenoidectomy is usually done on young children because their adenoids were infected by a virus. If the disease was to be left alone, it would worsen. The affected person could have harder times breathing or hearing, and may possibly be killed from the disease. Normally functioning adenoids help maintain the body's healthy immune system during early childhood. They shrink when a person gets older. When a person becomes an adult, their adenoids completely disappear.
Other websites
 Surgery Encyclopedia: Adenoidectomy
 Adenoidectomy - throat operation to remove swollen adenoids 

Surgery
The Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission was made in 2001 to help Turkey and Armenia be closer. The main goal was to make the governments more active.

Members 
 Gunduz Aktan (Ankara) - resigned June 2003
 Alexander Arzoumanian (Yerevan)
 Ustun Erguder (Istanbul)
 Sadi Erguvenc (Istanbul) - resigned June 2003
 David Hovhannissian (Yerevan)
 Van Krikorian (New York)
 Andranik Migranian (Moscow)
 Ozdem Sanberk (Istanbul) - resigned June 2003
 Ilter Turkmen (Istanbul)
 Vamik Volkan (Charlottesville) 

Newer Members (2003-2004)

 Emin Mahir Balcioglu (Geneva)
 Ahmet Evin (Istanbul)
 Ersin Kalaycioglu (Istanbul)
 Sule Kut (Istanbul)
 Ilter Turan (Istanbul)

Other websites 
Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission
Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission - Armeniapedia.org

Establishments in Armenia
2000s establishments in Turkey
2001 establishments in Asia
Political organizations based in Asia
ROT13 (or ROT-13) is a very simple form of encryption cipher. It is a variant of a Caesar cipher. In it, the alphabet is written in two lines, of 13 characters each. Encryption, and decryption is done by simply switching the letters that are below each other. That way, A becomes N, B becomes O, and so on.

It is widely used in USENET forums.

Letter games and net culture

ROT13 can also be used for letter games. There are some words, that will produce another existing word, when they are treated with ROT13. The longest example in the English language is the pair of 7-letter words abjurer and nowhere; there is also the 7-letter pair chechen and purpura. Other examples of words like these are shown in the table.

The 1989 International Obfuscated C Code Contest (IOCCC) had an entry by Brian Westley. Westley's computer program can be ROT13'd or reversed and still compiles correctly. Its operation, when executed, is either to perform ROT13 encoding on, or to reverse its input.
The newsgroup alt.folklore.urban made a word—furrfu. It was the ROT13 encoding of the frequently encoded utterance "sheesh". "Furrfu" evolved in mid-1992 as a response to postings repeating urban myths on alt.folklore.urban, after some posters complained that "Sheesh!" as a response to newcomers was being overused.

References

Cryptography
Tony Kahn is an American radiohost, narrator, and writer who has won many awards. He is the son of Hollywood movie writer Gordon Kahn.

Early life
Kahn was born in Los Angeles, California.  His father was placed on a list of people with political beliefs that some people thought were not acceptable.  This happened during a time in American history known as the Red Scare.  The Red Scare is a term used to describe a time during the 1940s and 1950s in the United States when people were accused of (often wrongly) being communists.  

Because of the Red Scare, Kahn had to leave Los Angeles with his family.  They went to Mexico during the 1950s.  They returned after a few years and Kahn went to school at Harvard University where he studied the Russian language. He graduated with very good grades.  He then went to Columbia University where he got a masters degree -- an advanced academic degree or diploma -- in Slavic studies.
Career
Tony Kahn is known for his work in radio.  He produces and directs a radio show called Morning Stories for the radio station WGBH in Boston, Massachusetts.  He has also contributed to other radio shows such as Minnesota Public Radio's The World.  On The World, Kahn is sometimes the host and sometimes a reporter.  He has won twelve New England Emmys, six Gold Medals of the New York International Festival and an award called the Edward R. Murrow Award for Feature Reporting.

References

American radio personalities
American journalists
Columbia University alumni
Writers from Los Angeles
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
DDT is a well-known pesticide. The abbreviation stands for Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane, This is its full name. The Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948, for his discovery. In the 1960s there was a study that questioned if it was good to spread large amounts of DDT indiscriminately. The study also found that DDT could cause cancer. DDT is also highly poisonous to birds and other animals further up the food chain. This is why DDT was replaced by other pesticides. The Stockholm Convention which took effect in 2004, restricts the use of DDT to vector control. The convention does not affect the use of DDT for public health issues. This is because there are very few affordable alternatives. DDT is still widely used in India, North Korea and possibly elsewhere.

References

Organochlorides
Carcinogens
Pollution
Pesticides
A nucleobase is a part of RNA and DNA which may be involved in pairing (see base pair). Nucleobases are important for genetics.

They include cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine in (DNA), uracil in (RNA) and xanthine and hypoxanthine (mutated forms of guanine and adenine). These are abbreviated as C, G, A, T, U, X and HX respectively. They are usually simply called bases in genetics. Because A, G, C and T appear in the DNA, these molecules are called DNA-bases; A, G, C and U are called RNA-bases.

Uracil replaces thymine in RNA.

Other websites
Base pairing in DNA Double Helix (shows specific hydrogen bonds) 

Organonitrogen compounds
DNA
Kėdainiai is a town in the centre of Lithuania. The river Nevėžis passes by the town. More than 30.000 people live here. Kėdainiai has an old town with a lot of churches. Also, Kėdainiai is a centre of industry, especially chemistry.

Cities in Lithuania
In molecular biology, two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA strands that are connected by hydrogen bonds are called a base pair (often abbreviated bp). 

In DNA pairing, adenine (A) forms a base pair with thymine (T),
to form an A/T base pair.
Guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C) in DNA, to form a G/C base pair.

Related pages 
 DNA
 Nucleobase

Molecular biology
In molecular biology, complementarity is a property (something that it can do) of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Each nucleotide has a nitrogenous base, and each nitrogenous base can pair up with the nitrogenous base from another different nucleotide. One can say that the nitrogenous base is complementary to the other in that the base pairs between them are non-covalently bonded by hydrogen bonds.

Since there is only one complementary base for any of the bases found in DNA and in RNA, enzymes can make a complementary strand from any single strand. This is needed for DNA replication.

The bases which are complementary are
 A with T
 C with G

For example, the complementary strand of the DNA sequence
A G T C A T G
is
T C A G T A C

Related pages
 Base pair

Molecular biology
In music a glissando is a slide up or down the notes of a scale.  The plural is “glissandi”.  In written music the instruction to the player is often shortened to “gliss”.  The word comes from the French “glisser” = “to slide”.

With the singing voice, or with an instrument such as the trombone or a string instrument a glissando is a smooth slide in which the pitch gradually changes, becoming higher and higher.  The trombonist can make a glissando by blowing whilst pushing out or pulling in the slide.  The violinist can make a glissando by sliding a finger up or down the fingerboard.
With instruments such as the piano, xylophone or harp a glissando is a quick slide in which we hear one note after another because the pitches between the notes cannot be played.  On the piano there are two ways to play a glissando: either on the white notes or on the black notes.  At the end of the piano piece called Ondine from Gaspard de la Nuit by Maurice Ravel both these types of glissando can be heard.  The pianist has to play a glissando with tips of the fingers or the finger nails.  It can be quite painful to practise them a lot.   Harpists are very fond of playing glissandi.  By changing the position of the harp pedals a harpist can change the scale which will sound when the glissando is played.

Many modern timpani have pedals which tighten or slacken the drum head.  These can be used to make a glissando.  The Hungarian composer  Béla Bartók often used this effect.
Some jazz clarinettists manage to play a glissando on the clarinet.  They do this by gradually changing the way they blow whilst at the same time gradually lifting all the fingers off the keys.  George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue starts with a glissando on the solo clarinet. 

When  composers write a glissando they write the first and the last note, and then put a long, straight line between the notes, and write the word “glissando” or “gliss”.

Related pages
Portamento

Musical performance techniques
Musical terminology
The Almudena Cathedral (Spanish: my mum died in a car crash) is a Catholic cathedral in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the newest landmarks in Madrid. It is on a hilltop, next to the Royal Palace.

It was designed as long ago as 1879, but then the plans were changed to make it look like a 13th-century cathedral like the one in Rheims.  Building started in 1882, but during the Spanish Civil War no more work was done do it, and the building was not finished until the 1980s.  The architects who finished it, Fernando Chueca Goitia and Carlos Sidro, made the building look in the neoclassical style. It was consecrated in 1993 by Pope John Paul II.

From the front of the cathedral, visitors can see parts of the old city wall which was built in the 9th century.

In May 2004, Prince Felipe, then the heir to the throne, married Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano in the cathedral. She was a journalist and a newsreader on Spanish television.

References
References

Roman Catholic cathedrals in Spain
Buildings and structures in Madrid
Buildings and structures completed in the 1990s‎
The Puerta de Europa towers (Gate of Europe or Europe's Gate or just Torres KIO) are two office buildings in Madrid. They were built in 1996 by the Kuwait Investments Office (KIO) now owned by Caja Madrid and Realia Business. Each building is 115m tall and leans 15º. They are located near Plaza de Castilla.

Buildings and structures in Madrid
1996 establishments in Europe
1990s establishments in Spain
In music, portamento is a gradual slide from one note to another. It is very similar to a glissando, but a glissando is deliberately written in the music by the composer and may be a long slide between two or three octaves or more. A portamento is a much shorter slide, usually between two notes which are quite close. Opera singers often used to slide from one note of a tune to another instead of singing each note separately and clearly. The habit of putting in portamento between notes spread to other instruments as well. When listening to recordings of violin playing from the early 20th century we can hear that the players used a lot of portamento.

Over the last half century portamento has gone out of fashion and singers and instrumentalists are taught not to slide from one note to another. However, there are some places, especially in opera, where it can be effective so long as it is not done all the time. It is a matter of taste.

Related pages
 Glissando

Musical performance techniques
Musical terminology
A hydrogen bond is a type of chemical bond that weakly attaches a molecule to another molecule. It is based on the attraction between opposite electric charges.  The negative charge on an electronegative atom of one molecule is attracted to a positive charge on a hydrogen atom of another molecule. The hydrogen atom carries a positive charge because it is bonded to a second electronegative atom, which shifts electrons away from the hydrogen. This type of bond always involves a hydrogen atom, and two electronegative atoms. The electronegative atoms are often oxygen or nitrogen. Hydrogen bonds are important in polar solvents such as water and alcohol, in biomolecules, and in many other materials.

Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules (intermolecular bonds), or between different parts of a single molecule (intramolecular bonds). The typical hydrogen bond is stronger than van der Waals forces, but weaker than covalent, ionic and metallic bonds.
Water 
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 °C). Most molecules with hydrogen bonding have high boiling points and melting points. Because hydrogen bonds are what make water stick together so well, they also help other molecules that can make hydrogen bonds dissolve in water. This is because the molecules form bonds with the hydrogen in the water, too, helping them dissolve.
Biomolecules 
Hydrogen bonds are important in many living organisms. They allow bonds between biomolecules that can be created and broken with control to allow life to proceed. For example, DNA that codes our genes contains two strands that are connected by many hydrogen bonds, like a zipper closing. Because the hydrogen bonds are not very strong, the two strands can later be unzipped and separated in order to read or copy the DNA. In protein molecules, intramolecular hydrogen bonds hold the protein molecule together in the shape that is needed. Intermolecular hydrogen bonds help connect protein molecules to each other to make many structures important for life, such as ribosomes that create new proteins.

References
References 

 George A. Jeffrey. An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry). Oxford University Press, USA (March 13, 1997). 
 A New Intermolecular Interaction: Unconventional Hydrogen Bonds with Element-Hydride Bonds as Proton Acceptor Robert H. Crabtree, Per E. M. Siegbahn, Odile Eisenstein, Arnold L. Rheingold, and Thomas F. Koetzle Acc. Chem. Res. 1996, 29(7), 348 - 354.
 Polymerization of Formic Acid under High Pressure Alexander F. Goncharov, M. Riad Manaa, Joseph M. Zaug, Richard H. Gee, Laurence E. Fried, and Wren B. Montgomery Phys. Rev. Lett. 2005, 94, 065505.
 F. Cordier, M. Rogowski, S. Grzesiek and A. Bax. Observation of through-hydrogen-bond (2h)J(HC') in a perdeuterated protein. J Magn Reson. (1999) 140: 510-2.
 R. Parthasarathi, V. Subramanian, N. Sathyamurthy.Hydrogen Bonding Without Borders: An Atoms-In-Molecules Perspective. J. Phys. Chem. (A) (2006) 110: 3349-3351.

Chemical bonding
Thalidomide is a drug. It was used as a sedative. It also had uses for other illnesses. 

It was mainly prescribed to pregnant women in the 1950s and 1960s, to help with sleep, until it was found to be a teratogen (that is: birth deformity causing substance). The drug can cause birth defects in rats, primates and humans. Before the drug was released, not enough tests were done. 

About 10,000 children were born with deformities, between 1956, and 1962. These could be directly linked to the fact that their mothers had taken the drug during their pregnancy. After this discovery, more rigorous tests were required in the United States, before a drug can be said to be safe to take during pregnancy. Other countries made similar laws. Thalidomide was not used as a drug for decades.
Researchers continued to look for ways to use the drug. They discovered that it had good effects on certain types of skin diseases, associated with leprosy. Currently, studies are being done to see how this drug could help with cancer treatment, as well as some other, less-known diseases. It has been used in Multiple myeloma treatment with success.

Further reading 
 Johnson M; Stokes R.G. & Arndt T. 2018. The Thalidomide Catastrophe. Cranbrook, Exeter: Onwards & Upwards. ISBN 978-1-78815-629-5 
 Knightley P. & Evans H 1979. Suffer The Children: The Story of Thalidomide. New York: The Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-68114-8

References 

Drugs
Health problems
Organonitrogen compounds
The United Arab Republic (UAR) was a country in the Middle East. The UAR was a political union between Syria and Egypt from 1958 till 1961. It came into being on the first of February 1958. It was the first step towards a pan-Arabic state. Over 33 million people lived in the UAR. The capital of the UAR was Cairo, which was also its biggest city. Other big cities in the UAR include: Aleppo, Damascus, Alexandria and Giza. The flag contains three stripes: red, white and black. Which stand for (in aforementioned order): The Hashemite dynasty which represents the bloody fight for freedom, the Umayyad dynasty which represents a bright and peaceful future and the Abbasid dynasty, which represents strong rule. The green stars represent the Fatimid dynasty which represents Egypt and Syria together.

UAR's history
In 1952, after the creation of the Republic of Egypt, Gamal Abdel Nasser pursued the unification of all Arab nations, Pan-Arabism. Another keypoint of this ideology was to rid the Arab world from Western influences. From 1952-1952 he served as Egypt’s prime-minister and from 1954-1970 he served as Egypt’s president. Syria´s and Egypt's relations improved in 1955 when they signed their first military agreement. In 1958 the Syrian government proposed a union with Egypt. The Syrian government feared a communist take-over and they felt intimidated by the Baghdad pact which included neighboring Jordan and Iraq. There was also the threat of war with Turkey after skirmishes at the border. In Syria the worker’s unions and the socialist party thought that a union with the socialistic Egypt of Nasser would help speed up the process of Syria’s ‘conversion’ to socialism. Also the landowning elites and the bourgeoisie thought the union with Egypt would improve the economic situation in Syria
. For Nasser it was an opportunity to make the first step in his dream of creating a Pan-Arab nation. On the first of February of 1958 the union was formed.
Political history 
In contrast to the expectations of Nasser’s Syrian supporters (mostly advocates of the Syrian Ba’ath Party), Nasser was not aiming at an equal control of power between the two countries. This governmental structure (announced on March 6, 1958) consisted of twenty Egyptian ministers and fourteen Syrian ministers. Only Egyptians got the highest positions in the government and this unbalanced division of power caused a disruption in the trust of Syria in Egypt. In October 1958, Sabri al-Asali, a Syrian vice-president, was compelled to resign due to his involvement in interventions for an Iraqi-Syrian union. This was followed by a reconstruction of the central cabinet which then consisted of fourteen Egyptian ministers and seven Syrian ministers. This was the starting point of a system wherein the central cabinet was in charge of the general policymaking and the regional cabinet controlled the day-by-day administration.
In the winter and spring to 1959-1960, Ba'th ministers removed themselves from the cabinet and simultaneously the Syrian resistance to the UAR grew. While the Syrian region of the UAR experienced frequent political changes, the Egyptian area experienced a stability. The Syrian instability was a result of the constant replacement of resigning ministers and ministers that got removed from the cabinet.

To create a stable impression of the UAR, Nasser tried to replace the resigned Ba’th ministers with notable political figures who then would support the political basis of the regime. Furthermore, right-wing politicians got approached by Nasser. The unsuccessful attempt to bring them to the government was by cause of Nasser’s doubtful promises.
Collapse 
The decline of support in the union between Syria and Egypt, the fading popularity of the president and the instability of the government formed the first fractions in the UAR. Nasser’s economic reforms in 1960 failed in aligning Syria’s economy with that of Egypt. Instead, Nasser, for example, nationalized banks, revised textbooks to strengthen Egypt’s Arab identity, and curtailed the land limit. This new UAR identity was embodied by the new flag that was announced in 1958.

The nationalized UAR opposed Egyptian on a weakened Syria. The expectations of a union of Syrian and Egypt societies got surpassed by Nasser’s socialist systems that dominated the UAR. Wanting to subordinate the Syrian army officers, Nasser evoked extreme resentment from Syria. The constant diminishes of Syrian influence led to the Syrian coup d'état in September 1961, ending the UAR.
The United Arab States, the UAR’s affiliation with Yemen, was disbanded shortly afterwards. Egypt tried to save the union, but they were unsuccessful. Even after Nasser’s death in 1970, Egypt was still referred to as “the United Arab Republic”.

References

1957 establishments
1961 disestablishments
Former countries in Africa
Former countries in the Middle East
20th century in Egypt
20th century in Syria
A drop goal, also referred to as a dropped goal or field goal, is a method of scoring points in rugby union and rugby league. A drop goal is scored by drop kicking the ball above the crossbar and between the uprights. A drop goal is worth three points in rugby union and one point in rugby league.

Drop (errugbia)

Rugby
Southern Rhodesia was the a self-governing British colony in southern Africa. It existed at various times during the 20th century. It covered territory north of the Limpopo River and south of the Zambezi River.

Other websites

Rhodesia
Former British colonies
Former colonies in Africa
Displacement is a word. It means that something is moved. More specifically, this movement can be:
A displacement vector, from the original position to the current one.
A special move in fencing to avoid an attack.
Forced migration - people having to move to somewhere else, because of violence, war, or another reason.
Displacement (surgery) - When a bone is broken, this refers to moving around the different parts of the broken bone.
Displacement (psychology) - A subconscious defense reaction. 
Displacement (ship) - the amount of water a ship displaces when it floats.
The Sibylline Books were a collection of prophecies in rhyme written in Greek. The legendary king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus bought them from a Sibyl (a kind of prophetess), and the prophecies used to be consulted in times when great danger happened in the history of the Roman Empire.

History 
The books were also known to the Greeks. They were kept in the Temple of Apollo at Gergis on Mount Ida (near Troy in Asia Minor) in the 7th century BC, and said to be written by the Hellespontine Sibyl. From there, it passed to Erythrae (in eastern Asia Minor) and was called the work of the Erythraean Sibyl. It seems that this collection travelled from there to Cumae, Italy and from there to Rome.
The books were given to the trust of two Roman patricians (nobles). Beginning in 367 BC, ten keepers - five from the patricians and five from the common citizens - were appointed for them. After this (possibly the time of Sulla, 88-78 BC), the number of keepers was increased to fifteen. The job of these keepers was to consult the books on what was the right action or ceremony to escape from threats. Even so, they would not reveal the prophecies themselves, but only tell the action or ceremony needed.

The influence of the books brought eastern gods such as Apollo, the "Great Mother" Cybele, and Ceres, as well as Greek pagan beliefs, into the Roman pagan religion.
Because the verses were written in Greek, the keepers would always be helped by two Greek translators. The books were destroyed when the Temple of Jupiter burned down in 83 BC. Because of this, the Roman Senate sent messengers in 76 BC to find similar prophecies and replace them. The prophecies were gathered especially from Troy, Erythrae, Samos island, 'Africa' (that is, modern Tunisia), and from Sicily and Tibur in Italy. After they brought the new collection to Rome, Roman priests separated what they thought was true, but threw others out of the collection. 

The Roman Emperor Augustus in 12 BC moved them to the Temple of Apollo, when they were studied and a new copy was made. They stayed there until 405 AD. It is said that at that time, Stilicho, who fought for the teachings of Arianism, burnt them.
Modern scholars believe these books are not the same as the Sibylline Oracles that were often quoted by early Christian writers from the 2nd century through the 5th century AD. It is certain that when one Christian writer, Athenagoras of Athens, wrote A Plea for the Christians to Emperor Marcus Aurelius in around 176 AD, at a time when Christians were being punished by the pagan Roman Empire, he quoted word-for-word from these Oracles that are known today. Quoting them along with writings by Homer and Hesiod, he wrote many times that "these books are all known to Caesar" (the Emperor). The Sibylline Books were still to be found in the Temple of Apollo at Rome at this time, so it is thought possible that at least some of these Sibylline Oracles were partly the same. 

70 lines agreed to be from the real Sibylline Books were quoted in the 2nd century Book of Marvels by Phlegon of Trales. This quote speaks about the birth of a hermaphrodite, and ceremonies for sacrificing to idols.
238 or 240 BC: The 'Flower Games' (Ludi Florales) were started on the Books' advice.
 216 BC: When Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, destroyed a Roman legion at the battle of Cannae, the Books were consulted and on their advice, two Greeks and two Gauls were buried alive in the market of Rome.
 204 BC: In the Punic Wars, the Roman commander Scipio Africanus, on the Books' advice, brought the idol of Cybele from Pessinos and introduced her worship to Rome. 
 63 BC: A noble named Cornelius tried to take control in Rome because of a prophecy.
 44 BC: A prophecy that only a king could defeat Parthia caused rumors that Julius Caesar, head of the Roman Republic, wanted to become a king. 
 In the reign of Tiberius (14-37 AD), when the Tiber river flooded in Rome, one priest suggested that the Books be consulted, but Tiberius refused, because he thought they should stay secret. 
 AD 271: The Books were consulted after the Romans were defeated by the Germanic tribe Alamanni at the battle of Placentia.
Other websites 
 An article about the Sibylline Books
 The Sibylline Oracles known to early Christians, translated from Greek

Roman mythology
Religious texts
The 2020 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXII Olympiad, was a sporting event in Tokyo, Japan from 23 July to 8 August 2021. Tokyo was announced as the host city at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 7 September 2013. The winning bid, Tokyo, was announced on 7 September 2013.

The event was originally scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020, but was postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Olympic bids
The following was the bid results

Sports
The Sports played in the competition will be similar to those played in previous Olympic years. Popular sports  that will be played include Athletics, Swimming, Tennis, gymnastics, and diving.  The international Olympic committee said that there will be at least 25 sports played in addition to these. All sports competitions will feature athletes from many countries playing to try and win a medal, which is given to the winning player or team.
Stadiums
The Olympics will take place at many stadiums and locations throughout the Tokyo area. National Olympic Stadium in Tokyo will be the main stadium and host the opening and closing ceremonies, along with athletics. Other sports will take place in new and already built stadiums in and around Tokyo. The athletes will sleep in an Olympic village.

References

2021 in sports
2021 in Japan
21st century in Tokyo
July 2021 events
August 2021 events
The 2016 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXI Olympiad was a major international sport and cultural event from 5 August 2016, to 21 August. The host city was Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.  The 2016 Summer Paralympic Games was also held in the same city and organized by the same organizing committee.

Possible host cities

The bidding process for the 2016 Summer Olympic Games began on May 16, 2007. Each city had to submit an initial application to the IOC before September 13, 2007, saying they plan to make a bid. Completed official bids were submitted by each applicant city by January 14, 2008. The final candidate cities were shortlisted in June 2008, and the final selection was made by the full IOC membership, on October 2, 2009, in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Americas
  Chicago, United States (Eliminated in the first round)
  Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Chosen)

Asia
  Tokyo, Japan (Eliminated in the second round)

Europe
  Madrid, Spain
Applicant cities
In June 2008, these cities were not chosen to continue:

Asia
  Baku, Azerbaijan
  Doha, Qatar

Europe
  Prague, Czech Republic

Sports 

 Aquatics
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Slalom (4)
 Sprint (12)
 
 BMX (2)
 Mountain biking (2)
 Road (4)
 Track (10)
 
 Dressage (2)
 Eventing (2)
 Jumping (2)
 
 
 
 
 
 Artistic (14)
 Rhythmic (2)
 Trampoline (2)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Volleyball (2)
 Beach volleyball (2)
 
 
 Freestyle (12)
 Greco-Roman (6)

References

2016 Summer Olympics
Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly cell biology, genetics, biophysics and biochemistry.

Molecular biology tries to explain the interactions between the various systems of a cell. It studies the relationship of DNA, RNA and how proteins are made, and how these interactions are regulated.

Relationship to other specialities 

Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques that are typical for molecular biology, but they combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics and biochemistry. This diagram shows one possible view of the relationship between the fields:
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms.
Genetics is the study of inheritance: the effect of genetic differences on organisms.
Molecular biology includes the study of the structure and function of all carbon-based macromolecules. This includes the chain of events from gene to protein: replication, transcription and translation. Much of the work in molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at the interface of molecular biology and computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. As of the early 2000s, the study of the genome has been amongst the most prominent sub-field of molecular biology.
Cytology, which includes the appearance of cells and cell structures, microscopy, and the use of stains and tags to help distinguish organelles and processes.
Related pages 
DNA and chromosome structure 
Genome
Cell
Cell biology
Cytology
Sequence analysis
Transcription (genetics)
Transformation (genetics)
Translation (genetics)

References

Cohen S.N. Chang A.C.Y. Boyer H. & Heling R.B. 1973. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro. PNAS 70, 3240–3244.
Rodgers M. 1975. The Pandora's box congress. Rolling Stone 189, 37–77.

Other websites

Other reliable accounts 
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 A brief history of molecular biology

Personal accounts of Nobel Prize winners 
 Max Perutz Freeview Video interview with Max Perutz by the Vega Science Trust.
 Frederick Sanger Freeview Video Interview/Documentary by the Vega Science Trust.
 Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard  Freeview interview by the Vega Science Trust.

Other
 DNA from the beginning
Scientific American Magazine (April 2004) Evolution encoded
 DNA Interactive
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology ( journal home)
Uracil is a base found in RNA. It pairs with adenine and replaces thymine in DNA. Uracil, a pyrimidine, was originally discovered in 1900.

RNA
Organonitrogen compounds
Double stopping means playing two notes at once on a bowed string instrument by drawing the bow across two strings at once while "stopping" two notes by pressing the fingers down on the fingerboard: one finger on each of the two strings being played.

On instruments such as the violin the player is mostly playing one note at a time.  It is not difficult to play two open strings at once, but fingering two strings at once can be very difficult, so double stopping is an advanced technique.  Sometimes triple or quadruple stopping is needed.  This is sometimes called multiple stopping.  It is not really possible to play three or four notes at the same time on a violin.  The bridge is curved so that the player can bow on one string without hitting the others by accident.  Multiple stopping is done by playing first two strings and then, while still letting the sound from these two ring, quickly playing the other two strings.
Multiple stopping was used a lot in Renaissance music when playing the viol.  Baroque composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach in Germany or Arcangelo Corelli in Italy often require double stopping when writing for solo string instruments. It is also used a lot in virtuoso music of composers in the Romantic period such as Niccolò Paganini.

Musical performance techniques
The Gold Coast was a British Crown Colony on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa from 1821 until its independence in 1957.

References
Saar was the name of the Saarland after World War Two, when it was under French control. It became part of West Germany in 1957.

Related pages
 Saarland The modern German state
 Saargebiet The League of Nations's protectorate

Former states in Germany
20th century in Germany
20th century in France
Saarland
1947 establishments in Europe
1956 disestablishments in Europe