Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Erfurt is on the Way of St. James pilgrams' path (Spanish: Camino de Santigo; German: Jakobsweg). In the Middle Ages a number of monasteries were set up in the city. Martin Luther, the father of the Reformation, lived at St. Augustine's Monastery from 1505 until 1511. A famous philosopher and theologian called Meister Eckhart lived at the Dominican Monastery from about 1275 until 1311.

The city was part of the Holy Roman Empire. It became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1802. From 1949 until 1990 Erfurt was in the communist German Democratic Republic (East Germany).

Seventeen people were killed in a mass shooting in 2002.

Industry
Modern day Erfurt is a transport hub for high speed trains and other German and European transport networks. This makes logistics one of its main industries. Other important industries are agriculture, horticulture and microelectronics.

The German Federal Labour Court (German:Bundesarbeitsgericht) is in Erfurt.
Education
The University of Erfurt was first set up in 1379. It closed in 1816, but was reopened in 1994. Martin Luther studied there from 1501 to 1505. It is also thought that Johannes Gutenberg, who developed the printing press, enrolled there in 1418. Erfurt also has a Fachhochschule, a University of Applied Sciences.

Tourist attractions
Many visitors come to see the historic medieval town centre. One of the main tourist attractions is the Krämerbrücke (the Merchants' Bridge). The bridge was built in its current form in 1472. It has buildings with shops and houses on it. People still live on it.

The city is well known for its festivals throughout the year. Two million people visit the Christmas markets each year.
Other important sites in the city include:
 St. Augustine's Monastery, where Martin Luther lived from 1505 to 1511. It has been nominated as a World Heritage Site.
 The Old Synagogue, which dates back to the 11th and 12th centuries. It is one of the oldest synagogues in Europe and it has been nominated as a World Heritage Site.
 Erfurt Cathedral and the Severikirche (St. Severus Church), which overlook Domplatz, the Cathedral square.
 Petersberg Citadel, a 16th-century fortress on a hill overlooking the town centre. It is one of the largest and best preserved town fortresses in Europe.

Gallery

References

Other websites 

 Erfurt City official website 

 
Urban Districts of Thuringia
Magdeburg (;  ) is the capital of the state of Saxony-Anhalt, in Germany. The city covers an area of . About 236,000 people live there (2016).

A demonstration of air pressure (called the Magdeburg spheres) was done here by Otto von Guericke in 1656. Also, the 18th century composer Georg Philipp Telemann was born here.

References

Other websites 
 Official page 
 Magdeburg water cross

 
Urban districts of Saxony-Anhalt
The Romance languages (also sometimes called Romanic languages) are a language family in the Indo-European languages. They started from Vulgar Latin (in Latin, "vulgar" is the word for "common" and so "Vulgar Latin" means "Common Latin"). The most spoken Romance languages are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian.

They are called "Romance languages" because they originate from Latin, the language spoken by the Western Roman Empire. Their grammatical inflection system has been simplified and lost most of the complex case structure of classical Latin.

The area that the Romance languages are spoken in Europe is mostly extent of the Western Roman Empire. The Greek language superseded Latin in the Eastern Roman Empire. Latin survived in Romania, whose language, Romanian, is a Romance language. In Moldova it is sometimes called Moldovan.

Demographics 

The Romance language family is one of the biggest in the world, and in total, there are almost a billion first and second language speakers.
Spanish is the most widely used Romance language, with Portuguese as the second and then French coming in at third.

Spanish is spoken mainly in Spain and Latin America. Portuguese is mostly used/spoken in Brazil, Portugal and parts of Africa. French is spoken in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, and in some areas of Africa. Romanian is spoken in Romania and Moldova.

List of Romance languages

Eastern Romance languages 
Romanian
Moldovan
Istro-Romanian
Megleno-Romanian
Aromanian

Italo-Western Romance 
Sardinian

Italo-Dalmatian 
Italian
Neapolitan
Sicilian

Western Romance languages

Gallo-Iberian languages 
Catalan
Occitan

Gallo-Romance languages 
French
Gallo
Norman
Auregnais
Jèrriais
Sercquiais
Romansh
Venetian
Walloon

Iberian Romance languages 
Asturian
Galician
Leonese
Portuguese
Spanish
Aragonese

Other 
Ladino
Esperanto

Family tree of Romance languages

Other websites 
 Romance languages - Citizendium

References
Stellar evolution is the study of how a star changes over time. Stars can change very much between when they are first created and when they run out of energy. Because stars can produce light and heat for millions or billions of years, scientists study stellar evolution by studying many different stars in different stages of their life.

The stages in a star's life are: protostar, main-sequence star, red giant and either white dwarf followed by black dwarf, neutron star or black hole.

How a star is born
A star starts its life as a cloud of dust and gas called a nebula. This is pulled together by gravity which causes it to heat up. It also starts to spin and to look like a ball.  When it gets hot enough, it starts to release energy through nuclear fusion, changing hydrogen to helium. This makes it shine very brightly and become what astronomers think of as a main-sequence star. It may stay a main-sequence star, looking about the same, for billions of years.
How a star enters old age
Sooner or later, almost all of the hydrogen at the center has changed to helium. This causes the nuclear reaction in the middle of the star to stop and the center will start to get smaller due to the star's gravity. The layer of the star just outside the center will begin to change hydrogen to helium, releasing energy. 

The outer layers of the star will get much, much bigger. The star will make much more light, sometimes as much as ten thousand times as much as it did at first. Since the surface of the star will get bigger, this energy will be spread out over a much larger area. Because of this, the temperature of the surface will go down and the color will change to red or orange. It will become a red giant. It can swallow up any planets that orbit around it.
How a star dies
Later, the red giant that was left over from a star like ours stops burning. A cloud of gas is given off and a smaller star called a white dwarf is left behind. After a really long time, the white dwarf cools down into a black dwarf.

But, when a big red giant explodes, the explosion is a lot larger and is called a supernova. Instead of a white dwarf, it leaves behind a much smaller, much denser ball called a neutron star. A neutron star is created because the force of gravity is so strong that the atoms left behind would not have any electrons orbiting the nucleus of the atoms. A teaspoon of that matter might weigh as much as the entire Earth.
A much bigger red giant leaves behind a black hole. A black hole is created because gravity is so strong that even the protons and neutrons collapse in on themselves. Even light can no longer escape a black hole. Since there is nothing we know of stronger than the force that holds atomic nuclei (the plural of 'nucleus') together, some physicists think that a black hole collapses all the way down to a mathematical point called a singularity.

Astrophysics
Genetics is a discipline of biology. It is the science of heredity. This includes the study of genes, and the inheritance of variation and traits of living organisms. In the laboratory, genetics works by mating carefully selected organisms, and analysing their offspring. More informally, genetics is the study of how parents pass some of their characteristics to their children. It is an important part of biology, and gives the basic rules on which evolution acts.

The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been known since prehistoric times. It is used to improve crop plants and animals by selective breeding. The modern science of genetics tries to understand the process of inheritance. This began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-nineteenth century. Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel saw that organisms inherit traits via discrete units of inheritance, now called genes.

Modern genetics has expanded beyond inheritance. It studies the way genes work.
DNA 

Living things are made of millions of tiny self-contained components called cells. Inside each cell are long and complex molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid, known for short as DNA. Some DNA stores information for making proteins. The bits of DNA which do this are known as genes. People look different from each other mainly because they have different versions of the human set of genes. 

However, a large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding DNA. These sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences. What it does is code for important non-protein information. Examples are various important RNA molecules, and "scaffolding" bits and pieces like centromeres and telomeres.
Every cell in the same living thing has the same DNA, but only some of it is used in each cell. For instance, some genes that tell how to make parts of the liver are switched off in the brain. What genes are used can also change over time. For instance, a lot of genes are used by a child early in pregnancy that are not used later.

A person has two copies of each gene, one from their mother, and one from their father. There can be several types of a single gene, which give different instructions: one version might cause a person to have blue eyes, another might cause them to have brown. These different versions are known as alleles of the gene.
Since a living thing has two copies of each gene, it can have two different alleles of it at the same time. Often, one allele will be dominant, meaning that the living thing looks and acts as if it had only that one allele. The unexpressed allele is called recessive. In other cases, you end up with something in between the two possibilities. Both alleles are expressed.

Most of the characteristics that you can see in a living thing have more than one gene which influences them. And many genes have multiple effects on the body, because their function will not have the same effect in each tissue. The multiple effects of a single gene is called pleiotropism. The whole set of genes is called the genotype, and the total effect of genes on the body is called the phenotype. These are key terms in genetics.

History of genetics
Pre-Mendelian ideas 
We know that man started breeding domestic animals from early times, probably before the invention of agriculture. We do not know when heredity was first appreciated as a scientific problem. The Greeks, and most obviously Aristotle, studied living things, and proposed ideas about reproduction and heredity.

Imre Festetics, who published work in German in the first part of the 19th century, was totally forgotten until recently. He described several rules of genetic inheritance in his work  Die genetische Gesätze der Natur, 1819 (The genetic law of nature). His second law is the same as Mendel. In his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation. None of the histories of genetics published in the 20th century mentions him.
Probably the most publicized idea before Mendel was that of Charles Darwin, whose idea of pangenesis had two parts. The first, that persistent hereditary units were passed on from one generation to another, was quite right. The second was his idea that they were replenished by 'gemmules' from the somatic (body) tissues. This was entirely wrong, and plays no part in science today. Darwin was right about one thing: whatever happens in evolution must happen by means of heredity, and so an accurate science of genetics is fundamental to the theory of evolution. This 'mating' between genetics and evolution took many years to organise. It resulted in the modern evolutionary synthesis.

Mendelian genetics
The basic rules of genetics were discovered by Imre Festetics, a landowner (17641847), and a monk named Gregor Mendel around 1865. For thousands of years people had noticed how some traits in parents are passed to their children. However, Mendel's work was different because he designed his experiments very carefully.

In his experiments, Mendel studied how traits were passed on in pea plants. He started his crosses with plants that bred true, and counted characters that were either/or in nature (either tall or short). He bred large numbers of plants, and expressed his results numerically. He used test crosses to reveal the presence and proportion of recessive characters.
Mendel explained the results of his experiment using two scientific laws:
 1. Factors, later called genes, normally occur in pairs in ordinary body cells, yet separate during the formation of sex cells. These factors determine the organism's traits, and are inherited from its parents. When gametes are produced by meiosis, the two factors separate. A gamete only receives one or the other. This Mendel called the Law of segregation.
 2. Alleles of different genes separate independently of one another when gametes are formed. This he called the Law of Independent Assortment. So Mendel thought that different traits are inherited independently of one another. We now know this is only true if the genes are not on the same chromosome, in which case they are not linked to each other.
Mendel's laws helped explain the results he observed in his pea plants. Later, geneticists discovered that his laws were also true for other living things, even humans. Mendel's findings from his work on the garden pea plants helped to establish the field of genetics. His contributions were not limited to the basic rules that he discovered. Mendel's care towards controlling experiment conditions along with his attention to his numerical results set a standard for future experiments. Over the years, scientists have changed and improved Mendel's ideas. However, the science of genetics would not be possible today without the early work of Gregor Mendel.

Between Mendel and modern genetics 
Between Mendel's work and 1900 the foundations of cytology, the study of cells, was developed. The facts discovered about the nucleus and cell division were essential for Mendel's work to be properly understood.
1832: Barthélémy Dumortier, the first to observe cell division in a multicellular organism.
1841, 1852: Robert Remak  (1815–1865), a Jewish Polish–German physiologist, was the first person to state the foundation of cell biology: that cells only derive from other cells. This was later popularized by the German doctor Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), who used the famous phrase omnis cellula e cellula, meaning, all cells from other cells.
1865: Gregor Mendel's paper, Experiments on plant hybridization was published.
1876: Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs, by German biologist Oscar Hertwig (1849–1922).
1878–1888: Walther Flemming and Eduard Strasburger describe chromosome behaviour during mitosis.
1883: Meiosis was described at the level of chromosomes, by Belgian zoologist Edouard van Beneden (1846–1910), in Ascaris (roundworm) eggs.
1883: German zoologist Wilhelm Roux (1850–1924) realised the significance of the linear structure of chromosomes. Their splitting into two equal longitudinal halves meant each daughter cell got the same chromosome complement. Therefore, chromosomes were the bearers of heredity.
1889: Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries suggests that "inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles", naming such particles (pan)genes.
1890: The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance was described in 1890 by German biologist August Weismann (1834–1914). He noted that two cell divisions were necessary to turn one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes was to be maintained.
1902–1904: Theodor Boveri (1862–1915), a German biologist, in a series of papers, drew attention to the correspondence between the behaviour of chromosomes and the results obtained by Mendel. He said that chromosomes were "independent entities which keep their independence even in the resting nucleus... What comes out of the nucleus is what goes into it".
1903: Walter Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units. Edmund B. Wilson (1856–1939), Sutton's teacher, was the author of one of the most famous text-books in biology. Wilson called this idea the Sutton–Boveri hypothesis.
At this point, discoveries in cytology merged with the rediscovered ideas of Mendel to make a fusion called cytogenetics, (cyto = cell; genetics = heredity) which has continued to the present day.

Rediscovery of Mendel's work 
During the 1890s several biologists began doing experiments on breeding. and soon Mendel's results were duplicated, even before his papers were read. Carl Correns and Hugo de Vries were the main rediscoverers of Mendel's writings and laws. Both acknowledged Mendel's priority, although it is probable that de Vries did not understand his own results until after reading Mendel. Though Erich von Tschermak was originally also credited with rediscovery, this is no longer accepted because he did not understand Mendel's laws. Though de Vries later lost interest in Mendelism, other biologists built genetics into a science.
Mendel's results were replicated, and genetic linkage soon worked out. William Bateson perhaps did the most in the early days to publicise Mendel's theory. The word genetics, and other terminology, originated with Bateson.

Mendel's experimental results were later the object of some debate. Fisher analysed the results of the F2 (second filial) ratio and found them to be implausibly close to the exact ratio of 3 to 1. It is sometimes suggested that Mendel may have censored his results, and that his seven traits each occur on a separate chromosome pair, an extremely unlikely occurrence if they were chosen at random. In fact, the genes Mendel studied occurred in only four linkage groups, and only one gene pair (out of 21 possible) is close enough to show deviation from independent assortment; this is not a pair that Mendel studied.

Tools of genetics

Mutations
Mutations 

During the process of DNA replication, errors sometimes occur. These errors, called mutations, can have an effect on the phenotype of an organism. In turn, that usually has an effect on the organism's fitness, its ability to live and reproduce successfully.

Error rates are usually very low—1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the "proofreading" ability of DNA polymerases. Error rates are a thousandfold higher in many viruses. Because they rely on DNA and RNA polymerases which lack proofreading ability, they get higher mutation rates.
In organisms which use chromosomal crossovers to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations. Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—duplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation).

Punnett squares 
Developed by Reginald Punnett, Punnett squares are used by biologists to determine the probability of offspring having a particular genotype.

If B represents the allele for having black hair and b represents the allele for having white hair, the offspring of  two Bb parents would have a 25% probability of having two white hair alleles (bb), 50% of having one of each (Bb), and 25% of having only black hair alleles (BB).

Pedigree chart
Pedigree chart 

Geneticists (biologists who study genetics) use pedigree charts to record traits of people in a family.  Using these charts, geneticists can study how a trait is inherited from person to person.

Geneticists can also use pedigree charts to predict how traits will be passed to future children in a family.  For instance, genetic counselors are professionals who work with families who might be affected by genetic diseases. As part of their job, they create pedigree charts for the family, which can be used to study how the disease might be inherited.
Twin studies 
Since human beings are not bred experimentally, human genetics must be studied by other means. One recent way is by studying the human genome. Another way, older by many years, is to study twins.
Identical twins are natural clones. They carry the same genes, they may be used to investigate how much heredity contributes to individual people. Studies with twins have been quite interesting. If we make a list of characteristic traits, we find that they vary in how much they owe to heredity. For example:
Eye colour: entirely inherited
Weight, height: partly inherited, partly environmental
Which language a person speaks: entirely environmental.
The way the studies are done is like this. Take a group of identical twins and a group of fraternal twins. Measure them for various traits. Do a statistical analysis (such as analysis of variance). This tells you to what extent the trait is inherited. Those traits which are partly inherited will be significantly more similar in identical twins. Studies like this may be carried further, by comparing identical twins brought up together with identical twins brought up in different circumstances. That gives a handle on how much circumstances can alter the outcomes of genetically identical people.

The person who first did twin studies was Francis Galton, Darwin's half-cousin, who was a founder of statistics. His method was to trace twins through their life-history, making many kinds of measurement. Unfortunately, though he knew about mono and dizygotic twins, he did not appreciate the real genetic difference. Twin studies of the modern kind did not appear until the 1920s.
Genetics of prokaryotes and viruses 
The genetics of bacteria, archaea and viruses is a major field of research. Bacteria mostly divide by asexual cell division, but do have a kind of sex by horizontal gene transfer. Bacterial conjugation, transduction and transformation are their methods. In addition, the complete DNA sequence of many bacteria, archaea and viruses is now known.

Although many bacteria were given generic and specific names, like Staphylococcus aureus, the whole idea of a species is rather meaningless for an organism which does not have sexes and crossing-over of chromosomes. Instead, these organisms have strains, and that is how they are identified in the laboratory.

Genes and development
Gene expression 
Gene expression is how the heritable information in a gene, the sequence of DNA base pairs, is made into a functional gene product, such as protein or RNA. The basic idea is that DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins. Proteins make many of the structures and all the enzymes in a cell or organism.

Several steps in the gene expression process may be modulated (tuned). This includes both the transcription and translation stages, and the final folded state of a protein. Gene regulation switches genes on and off, and so controls cell differentiation, and morphogenesis. Gene regulation may also serve as a basis for evolutionary change: control of the timing, location, and amount of gene expression can have a profound effect on the development of the organism. The expression of a gene may vary a lot in different tissues. This is called pleiotropism, a widespread phenomenon in genetics.
Alternative splicing is a modern discovery of great importance. It is a process where from a single gene a large number of variant proteins can be assembled. One particular Drosophila gene (DSCAM) can be alternatively spliced into 38,000 different mRNA molecules.

Epigenetics & control of development 
Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene activity which are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence. It is the study of gene expression, the way genes bring about their phenotypic effects.

These changes in gene activity may stay for the remainder of the cell's life and may also last for many generations of cells, through cell divisions. However, there is no change in the underlying DNA sequence of the organism. Instead, non-hereditary factors cause the organism's genes to behave (express themselves) differently.
Hox genes are a complex of genes whose proteins bind to the regulatory regions of target genes. The target genes then activate or repress cell processes to direct the final development of the organism.

Extranuclear inheritance 
There are some kinds of heredity which happen outside the cell nucleus. Normal inheritance is from both parents via the chromosomes in the nucleus of a fertilised egg cell. There are some kinds of inheritance other than this.

Organelle heredity 
Mitochondria and chloroplasts carry some DNA of their own. Their make-up is decided by genes in the chromosomes and genes in the organelle. Carl Correns discovered an example in 1908. The four o'clock plant, Mirabilis jalapa, has leaves which may be white, green or variegated. Correns discovered the pollen had no influence on this inheritance. The colour is decided by genes in the chloroplasts.

Infectious heredity 
This is caused by a symbiotic or parasitic relationship with a microorganism.
Maternal effect 
In this case nuclear genes in the female gamete are transcribed. The products accumulate in the egg cytoplasm, and have an effect on the early development of the fertilised egg. The coiling of a snail, Limnaea peregra, is determined like this. Right-handed shells are genotypes Dd or dd, while left-handed shells are dd.

The most important example of maternal effect is in Drosophila melanogaster. The protein product maternal-effect genes activate other genes, which in turn activate still more genes. This work won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1995.
Aspects of modern genetics 
Much modern research uses a mixture of genetics, cell biology and molecular biology. Topics which have been the subject of Nobel Prizes in either chemistry or physiology  include:
Alternative splicing, where one gene codes for a variety of related protein products.
Genomics, the sequence and analysis the function and structure of genomes. 
Genetic engineering, the changing of an organism's genome using biotechnology.
Mobile genetic elements, types of DNA which can change position in the genome.
Horizontal gene transfer, where an organism gets genetic material from another organism without being the offspring of that organism.
Epigenetics, the study of changes in gene activity which are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence.
CRISPR: In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier suggested that CRISPR-Cas9 (enzymes from bacteria which control microbial immunity) could be used to edit genomes. This has been called one of the most significant discoveries in the history of biology. The two scientists shared the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Genetics of human behaviour 
Many well-known disorders of human behaviour have a genetic component. This means that their inheritance partly causes the behaviour, or makes it more likely the problem would occur. Examples include:
Autism
ADHD (attention deficit disorder)
Drug use and abuse
Risk taking
Schizophrenia

Also, normal behaviour is also heavily influenced by heredity:
Learning and cognitive ability
Personality.

Related pages 
ENCODE: the complete analysis of the human genome
Gene therapy
Epigenetics

References
References

Standard works 
Alberts B, Bray D, Hopkin K, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. 2013. Essential cell biology, 4th Edition. Garland Science. ISBN 978-1-317-80627-1.
Griffiths A.J.H. & others 2000. An introduction to genetic analysis. 7th ed, Freeman, New York.  
Hartl D. & Jones E. 2005. Genetics: analysis of genes and genomes. 6th ed, Jones & Bartlett. .
King R.C;  Mulligan P.K. & Stansfield W.D. 2013. A dictionary of genetics. 8th ed, Oxford University Press. 
Klug, William S. et al 2012. Concepts of genetics. 10th ed, Pearson. .
Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky LS, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, Darnell J(2000. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th ed, New York: Scientific American Books. ISBN 978-0-7167-3136-8
Works on genetic manipulation 
Jennifer A. Doudna and Samuel H. Sternberg. 2017. A Crack in Creation: gene editing and the unthinkable power to control evolution. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-1-847-92382-0
Carey, Nessa 2011. The epigenetics revolution: how modern biology is rewriting our understanding of genetics, disease and inheritance. London: Icon Books. ISBN 978-184831347-1
Carey, Nessa 2019. Hacking the code of life: how gene editing will write our futures. London: Icon Books. ISBN 978-1-78578-625-9
Church Square Park is a park in Hoboken, New Jersey between Garden Street and Willow Avenue and 5th and 6th Streets. The Hoboken Public Library is on its north side.

Geography of New Jersey
Parks in the United States
In economics, supply is the amount of something that companies are willing to provide in a market. The law of supply and demand will decide the price at which something will be bought and sold.

Description 
According to C.R. McConnell and S.L.Brue, a supply is a scale showing the amount of a good or service that sellers offer for sale in the market at different prices for a while

The volume of supply (volume of output) is the number of goods that a commodity producer (enterprise, firm) is ready to offer at a certain price for a certain period, all other things being equal.

Amount of supply is the amount of a product or service that is on sale at a certain price at a certain time.

It is possible to consider both an individual supply (the offer of a specific seller) and the total value of the supply (the offer of all sellers present on the market). In economics, it is mainly the total value of the supply for a product or service that is studied.
Supply law 
The law of supply is a direct relationship between the price and the value of the supply of goods or services during a certain period.

The increase in prices leads to additional profit, allowing the manufacturer to expand production, attracting new manufacturers to the market.

The manufacturer's main task is to solve the problem — how much product to make at a given price. There are 2 general ideas:

 the higher the price, the higher the offer;
 the lower the price, the lower the offer.
Factors affecting supply 
Various factors can make a seller more or less willing to produce and sell a good. The more common ones are:
 Price of variable inputs: Variable inputs refers to the factors of production used to produce a good. When the cost of using these factors increases, the overall cost of producing the good increases as the marginal cost of producing the good increases. Firms thus produce less for the same amount of resources used and supply becomes lesser.
 Productivity: When factors of production become more productive, they can produce a greater output for the same amount of resources used. Productivity improvements include improvements in technology, increased training for labor, better usage of resources, etc.
Government policies: When the government intervenes in the market, it can do so by subsidizing or taxing the production of the good. When a subsidy is provided, it lowers the marginal cost of producing the good, thus allowing firms to produce more for the same amount of resources used, thereby increasing supply. When a tax is used, the marginal cost of producing the good increases. Firms now produce lesser for the same amount of resources used and supply becomes lesser.
 Number and size of firms: When there are more firms in the market, more resources are being used to produce the good, thus increasing the supply of the good. When a firm gets bigger, the marginal cost of producing the good may decrease due to economies of scale, thus increasing the supply of the good.
Supply shocks: When there are natural disasters (such as earthquakes or epidemics), there is a decrease in the factors of production as capital may be destroyed and labor being unable to work. Man-made disasters such as industrial disputes (e.g. strikes) will also cause labor to be unable to work. As there is a decrease in the factors of production, the supply of the good becomes lesser.
There may be other factors that affect the supply of a good, especially since it depends on whether the seller is willing to produce and sell the good.
References

Microeconomics
Demand is the total amount of goods or services which people want to buy, for a set price. The demand for an item indicates how much it is needed or wanted. This is important in economics, because the law of supply and demand will decide the price at which something will be bought and sold.

Demand is the amount of goods that people want to buy at a given price. Prices go up when supply is less, and demand is more. It follows the law of demand where as price increases, demand decreases and vice versa showing an inverse relationship between quantity demanded and price. This is known as the law of demand which assumes that the consumer will want more. Demand forecasting tries to predict how demand will change in the future.

Sometimes the demand does not change much no matter what the price is. One example is when people are addicted to illegal drugs.  These people need to get their drugs, they will pay any price they can afford. This effect is known as elasticity. 

Microeconomics
A transaction is usually an exchange. Sometimes other things are referred to as transactions.

A business transaction is one where money, goods, or services are bought, sold or traded.

A bank transaction is when money is taken out of, put into, or moved around inside of a bank.

A database transaction is one where data is changed inside a computer system.

Commerce
The  (Latin for "British Encyclopædia"), previously published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., is a popular encyclopædia which since 2011 is published as an online encyclopædia. It is written in British English. It was originally only printed on paper, but late in the 20th century it expanded to have digital, or computer versions as well. Since 2010, it's out of print in paper versions. The encyclopædia is split into many books. The articles in the books are arranged in alphabetical order. There have been versions of it that are for children as well. It is the largest printed encyclopædia in English, and the second largest encyclopædia. The largest is Wikipedia.
The encyclopædia was once very small, the first edition in 1768 only had 3 books. Slowly it became bigger. The last edition, the 15th, started in 1974, has 29 books, plus two indexes. It includes an extra book called Propædia, to classify knowledge. The 29 books and made up of a Macropædia and a Micropædia. The Macropædia is a larger one, with more detailed articles that can be as long as 300 pages, made up of 17 books, while the Micropædia is the smaller one with many much shorter articles that are usually less than 750 words. The Micropædia is used for fast-checking, but for more detailed information, people have to use the Macropædia. Each book is very big, more than 1,000 pages per book. Every year, an update book was published. The last yearbook was for 2018, published in 2017.

In March 2012, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced it would no longer publish printed editions, and would focus instead on the online version, Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
The articles in the Britannica are for educated adults, not for children, and written by about 100 full-time editors and over 4,000 expert contributors. The Britannica is the oldest English-language encyclopædia now. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh, Scotland and grew very popular, with its third edition in 1801 comprising of 21 books.

The size of the Britannica is almost the same since the 1930s, with about 40 million words on half a million topics. The encyclopædia was once owned by British people. In the 20th century it was American-owned, but it is still written in British English. Over time, the encyclopædia has had difficulties trying to earn money, which almost every encyclopædia is facing.
History 
Many different people have owned the Britannica. They include Scottish publisher A & C Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck and William Benton. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. is owned by Jacqui Safra, a Swiss billionaire and actor. Information technology has become better and more electronic encyclopædias such as Microsoft Encarta and Wikipedia have made people not want to buy encyclopædias in print anymore. So that it still can survive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has kept on telling people that the Britannica is good and accurate, made the encyclopædia cheaper, and made electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD and the World Wide Web. Since the early 1930s, the company has also promoted spin-off reference works.

Editions
Editions 

There are 15 official editions of the encyclopædia, with some extensions to the 3rd and 5th editions (see the Table below). Actually, one can say that the 10th edition was only an extension to the 9th edition, and the 12th and 13th editions were extensions to the 11th edition. The 15th edition was reorganised in 1985, and the updated, current version is the 15th edition.

Through the encyclopædia's history, the Britannica wanted to be an excellent reference book and to provide learning materials for those who want to study. In 1974, the 15th edition had a third wish: to put together all that everyone knows. The history of the Britannica can be divided into five main eras, or lengths of time.
In its first years (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the Britannica was controlled by the people who first wrote it, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, and by their friends and relations, such as Thomas Bonar, George Gleig and Archibald Constable. The Britannica was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh, a city in Scotland, called the Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A dictionary of arts and sciences, compiled upon a new plan. It was written to replace the French Encyclopédie. Its logo, which is the floral emblem of Scotland, shows that the Britannica was a Scottish business. The encyclopædia being created is one of the most famous events that happened in the time when Scotland started inventing many things, or the Age of Enlightenment.  The Britannica started as three-book set ( in the 1st edition) written by one young editor—William Smellie— Many people said that the first edition of the encyclopædia was very inaccurate, and had many problems in it
. Slowly, the Britannica changed, in the first era, to a 20-book set written by many people. Although a few other encyclopædias had been fighting with the Britannica, such as Rees's Cyclopædia and Coleridge's Encyclopædia Metropolitana, these encyclopedias either went bankrupt or were not finished because the people writing them argued. When the first era was almost over, the Britannica had many people helping to write it, all having different types of skills. The encyclopædia managed to get so many people by inviting their friends to help.
Second era 

In the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the Britannica was owned by the Edinburgh company, A & C Black. Although some of the people who helped write the Britannica helped because they were friends of the most important editors, many other people wanted to help the Britannica because it was becoming very successful. These people came from many other countries, and some of them were very famous for the things they wrote about. An index of all the articles was written to add to the 7th edition of the encyclopædia, and they continued to make an index until 1974. The first English chief editor was Thomas Spencer Baynes, who led the making of the famous 9th edition, which is also called the "Scholar's Edition". The 9th edition is considered to be the Britannica most meant for students ever written. However, at the end of the 19th century, the 9th edition was already too old and the Britannica had many financial problems.

Third era
Third era 

In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the Britannica was owned by American people, who started to advertise a lot to earn more money. The American owners also slowly made the Britannica's articles simpler, so it could serve more people. The 11th edition is said by many people to be the best edition of the encyclopedia. Its owner, Horace Hooper, worked extremely hard to make the 11th edition perfect.  When Hooper had financial problems, the Britannica was managed by Sears Roebuck for about 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, owned the Britannica.
In 1936, he started to continuously revise the encyclopædia often (still done so today), in which every article is checked at least two times every ten years. This was a big difference from before, when the articles were not changed until they wrote a new edition, about every 25 years, with some articles used again without revising them. He also quickly made some educational products which made the encyclopedia even more well known by everyone. In 1943, William Benton managed the Britannica until his death in 1973. Benton also set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the Britannica until 1996. In 1968, near the end of this era, the Britannica celebrated its 200-year anniversary, and in 2014 published the last printed edition.

The Encyclopædia Now
2007 print version 
Since 1985, the Britannica has had four parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, the Propædia, and a two-book index. The Britannicas articles are found in the Micropædia and Macropædia, which contain 12 and 17 books, respectively, each book having about one thousand pages. The 2007 Macropædia has 699 detailed articles, which can be as short as 2 pages and as long as 310 pages, and having references and named writers. The 2007 Micropædia has about 65,000 articles, and about 97% contain less than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors. The Micropædia articles are supposed to be for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more information in the Macropædia. The Macropædia articles are supposed to be well-written articles on their subjects and articles of information where you cannot find anywhere else. The longest article (310 pages) is on the United States, and came from putting the articles on the individual states together.
Information can be found in the Britannica by following the notes telling where people can find more information in the Micropædia and Macropædia; but there are very little of this, with about only one of this every page. So, readers are asked to try to use the indexes or the Propædia, which organises what is in the Britannica volumes by topic.

The use of the Propædia is its "Outline of Knowledge," which wants to organise all of everything people know. The Outline is thought through by the Britannica'''s editors to decide which articles should be included in the Micropædia and Macropædia. The Outline is also intended to be a study guide, and to tell a student who wants to learn a topic in depth what articles to use. However, libraries say that very few people use it, and reviewers recommend the encyclopedias to not print it anymore. The Propædia also has diagrams printed on transparent paper of big topics and a section which lists the people working together to make the encyclopædia.
Altogether, the Micropædia and Macropædia have about 40 million words and 24,000 pictures. The index has 2,350 pages, which lists all the 228,274 topics written about in the Britannica,. The Britannica uses the British spellings and not American spellings. For example, it uses colour (not color), centre (not center), and encyclopædia (not encyclopedia). However, this rule is not always followed, for example defense and not defence. The other spellings of the word is sometimes shown with a link, for example "Color: see Colour."

Since 1936, the articles of the Britannica have been revised often, with about 10% of the articles brought to be re-written each year. One Britannica website said in 2007 that 46% of the articles were revised in the past three years; but another Britannica web-site says only 35% of the articles were revised.
The way the articles are arranged (in alphabet order) in the Micropædia and Macropædia is very accurate. Non-English letters are ignored and articles with numbers such as "War of 1812" are arranged as if the number had been written out ("War of Eighteen-twelve"). If the articles have the same names, articles about persons go first, then by places, then by things. People with the same names are arranged first alphabetically by country and then by their time. Similarly, places that have the same names are arranged by alphabet by the country they are in.
Other Britannicas 
 Printed
There are a few smaller versions of the Britannica encyclopedias. The Britannica Concise Encyclopædia, written in one book, has 28,000 shorter articles. Compton's by Britannica, published in 2007, with the old Compton's Encyclopedia, in it is written for teenagers who are 10–17 years old and has 26 books and 11,000 pages in it. A Children's Britannica was published by the company in 1960; this was edited by John Armitage and written for His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales; the writers were almost all British.   Other books are My First Britannica, written for children who are six to twelve years old, and the Britannica Discovery Library, written for children who are three to six years old (issued in 1974 to 1991). Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has published a Book of the Year every year, with information about the past year's events, which is written online since the 1994 edition (with the events of 1993)
. The company also publishes a few books on special topics, such as Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard (Wiley, 2006).
The Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2006 DVD contains over 55 million words and over 100,000 articles. It includes 73,645 Britannica articles, with the other articles from the Britannica Student Encyclopædia, the Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia and the Britannica Book of the Years (1993–2004), plus a few old articles from old editions of the encyclopædia. The whole DVD also includes other bonus tools including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links. It also has study tools and a dictionary and thesaurus from Merriam-Webster.Encyclopædia Britannica Online is a web site with more than 120,000 articles and is updated often. It has features, updates and links to news reports from The New York Times and the BBC every day. People need to pay to use the website. Special discounts are given to schools, colleges and libraries since these big groups of people are important in Britannica's business. Articles can be read online for free, but only the first few sentences can be seen
. Beginning in early 2007, the Britannica let people read the articles for free if they are linked to another website, since these links let the articles appear more often and easily in search engines.
On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. said that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to make an encyclopædia in phones. Users can send a question by text message, and AskMeNow will search Britannicas 28,000-article encyclopædia to answer the user.

An idea to use a wiki-Britannica was announced on the June 3, 2008. A lot of people will be involved, with the Britannica staff editing important parts. Wired Blog

Related pages
 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
 Macropædia, Micropædia, Propædia

 Further reading 
 
 
 
 
 Lee, Timothy. Techdirt Interviews Britannica President Jorge Cauz, Techdirt.com, June 2, 2008
 

 References 

 Other websites 

 Encyclopædia Britannica Online. The official website.