Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Autocephalous churches – 166 million
 Russian Orthodox Church – 100 million
Romanian Orthodox Church – 17–18.8 million
 Church of Greece – 10 million
 Serbian Orthodox Church – 8-12 million
 Bulgarian Orthodox Church – 8-10 million
 Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople – 5.25 million
 Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch – 4.3 million
 Georgian Orthodox Church – 3.5 million
 Church of Cyprus – 0.7 million
 Polish Orthodox Church – 0.6 million
 Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria – 0.5 million
 Albanian Orthodox Church – 0.4 million
 Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem – 0.4 million
 Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church – 0.075 million
Autonomous churches – 13 million
 Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 7.2 million
 Metropolitan Church of Chișinău and All Moldova (Moscow Patriarchate) – 3.2 million
 Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia – 0.4 million
 Metropolitan Church of Bessarabia (Moldova) (Romanian Patriarchate) – 0.72 million
 Orthodox Ohrid Archbishopric (North Macedonia) – 0.34 million
 Estonian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 0.3 million
 Finnish Orthodox Church (Ecumenical Patriarchate) – 0.06 million
 Chinese Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 0.03 million
 Japanese Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 0.03 million
 Latvian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) – 0.02 million
 Estonian Orthodox Church (Ecumenical Patriarchate) – 0.02 million

Churches in communion with the above Orthodox Churches but with disputed autocephaly – 1 million
 Orthodox Church in America – 1 million
Non-universally recognized churches – 18-24.27 million
 Orthodox Church of Ukraine – 12–18 million
Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church – 2.4 million
Macedonian Orthodox Church – 2 million
Orthodox Church of Greece (Holy Synod in Resistance) – 0.75 million
Old Calendarist Romanian Orthodox Church – 0.50 million
Old Calendar Bulgarian Orthodox Church – 0.45 million
Orthodox Church in Italy – 0.12 million
Montenegrin Orthodox Church – 0.05 million

Other separated Orthodox groups – 6 million

 Old Believers – 5.5 million
 Greek Old Calendarists – 0.86 million
 True Orthodox Church – 0.85 million
 Evangelical Orthodox Church – 0.07 million

Oriental Orthodoxy – 62 million
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are those descended from those that rejected the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Despite the similar name, they are therefore a different branch of Christianity from the Eastern Orthodox (see above). There are an estimated 62 million Oriental Orthodox Christians, worldwide.
Autocephalous churches – 61.7 million
 Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church – 37 million
 Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria – 10 million
 Armenian Apostolic Church – 9 million
Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin – 6 million
 Holy See of Cilicia – 1.5 million
 Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople – 0.5–0.7 million
 Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem – 0.34 million
 Syriac Orthodox Church – 1.7 million
Jacobite Syrian Christian Church – 1.2 million
 Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church - 2 million
 Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church - 2 million

Autonomous churches – 0.01 million
 French Coptic Orthodox Church – 0.01 million
Churches not in communion – 0.07 million
 Malabar Independent Syrian Church – 0.06 million
 British Orthodox Church – 0.01 million

Non-trinitarian Restorationism – 35 million
A sixth group is composed by Non-trinitarian Restorationists. These groups are quite distinct from orthodox Trinitarian restorationist groups such as the Disciples of Christ, despite some shared history.
Latter Day Saint movement (Mormonism) – 16.7 million
 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints – 16.5 million
 Community of Christ – 0.25 million

Jehovah's Witnesses – 8.5 million

Oneness Pentecostalism – 6 million
 United Pentecostal Church International – 4 million
 Pentecostal Assemblies of the World – 1.5 million
Minor denominations – 4.4 million
 Iglesia ni Cristo – 2.3 million
 The Unification Church (aka Moonies) – 1–2 million
 La Luz del Mundo – around million (See La Luz del Mundo#Statistics)
 Unitarian Universalism – 0.6 million
Unitarian Universalist Association – 0.2 million(Unitarian Universalism developed out of Christian traditions but no longer identifies as a Christian denomination.)
 Church of Christ, Scientist – 0.4 million
 Friends of Man – 0.07 million
 Christadelphians – 0.06 million
 Family International – 0.01 million

Miscellaneous branches – 2 million
Protestant Eastern Christianity – 1.1 million
 Mar Thoma Syrian Church – 1.1 million

Former Church of the East (Nestorianism) – 0.6 million
 Assyrian Church of the East – 0.5 million
 Ancient Church of the East – 0.1 million

Messianic Judaism – 0.3 million

References

Other websites 
 Adherents.com 
 Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches 
 National Council of Churches USA
 Pew Research Center 

Religion-related lists
Christendom or the Christian world, in the widest sense, means Christianity as a territorial phenomenon. That means: those countries where most people are Christians and because of that are part of Christendom.

People have used the term Christendom for the medieval and Renaissance understanding of the Christian world as one single Body of Christ with Christ as the head.  With the rise of Modernity and the Reformation during the early 16th century the understanding changed to a modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society that consists of many different communities.

Related pages
 Caliphate (an Islamic analog to the Medieval political concept)
 Muslim World and Ummah

References

Other websites
Catholic Encyclopedia: Christendom

Christian terminology
Christianity of the Middle Ages
Cultural geography
A creed is a statement or confession of belief — usually religious belief — or faith. The word comes from the Latin credo for I believe. It is  called symbol (Greek, συμβολον), that means a "token" by which persons of like beliefs might recognize each other.

Christian creeds

It is likely that the earliest creed of Christianity that deserves the title in full is the Apostles' Creed.  The Apostles' Creed seems to have been formulated to resist Gnosticism; it emphasizes the birth, physical death, and bodily Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It reads:
I believe in God, the Father almighty,
creator of heaven and earth.
I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord.
He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit
and born of the Virgin Mary.
He suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died, and was buried.
He descended into hell.
On the third day he rose again.
He ascended into heaven
and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
He will come again to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit,
the holy catholic Church,
the communion of saints,
the forgiveness of sins,
the resurrection of the body,
and the life everlasting.

The Nicene Creed is clearly derived from the Apostles' Creed, and represents an elaboration of its basic themes.  The most important additions to this creed are much more elaborate statements concerning Christology and the Trinity. 
Christians today probably use the Nicene Creed most widely, followed by the Apostles' Creed.
Jewish Creed: the "Shmah"
The Jewish faith recognizes a single creed called the Shmah or Shema Yisrael, a statement of faith in strict unitarian monotheism, the belief in one God. This creed is embodied in a single prayer recited twice a day: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One", also translated as "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is unique [or alone]."

In Hebrew:  שמע ישראל אדני אלהינו אדני אחד

This is pronounced phonetically in Hebrew: Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad.

Islamic creeds
The most basic attempt to put the religion of Islam in a brief statement of doctrine is the shahada, the proclamation that there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His prophet.

More detailed credal declarations of Islamic dogma constitute aqidah.
The six Sunni articles of belief are:
Belief in God (Allah), the one and only one worthy of all worship (tawhid).
Belief in all the Prophets (nabi) and Messengers (rusul) sent by God.
Belief in the Books (kutub) sent by God (including the Qur'an).
Belief in the Angels (mala'ika).
Belief in the Day of Judgement (qiyama) and in the Resurrection (life after death).
Belief in Predestination (qadar).

Also from the Aqidah of the Salaf is the belief that the faith (i.e. Eemaan) consists of (both) speech and action and that it increases and decreases. This differs from the Murji’ah a sect who uphold the belief of “Irjaa’”-to hold that sins major and minor, do not affect the faith and that faith neither increases nor decreases.
And they uphold the belief that the Quran is the Speech of Allah, His Revelation and Light. It is not created, since the Quran is from Allah and that which is from Allah is not created. One of the attributes of Allah is his Speech. Since His attributes have been with Him eternally, His Speech cannot be created and therefore, the Quran is not created. According to the Salaf, debating about it is disbelief. It is not denied except by a Jahmee. A Jahmee is one who denies Allah’s attributes.

Related pages
 Thirty-Nine Articles
Doctrine

Further reading
 Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition . Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss. Published by Yale University Press in 2003.

Other websites 
 The Creeds of Christendom - A website linking to many formal Christian declarations of faith.
 www.iclnet.org

Christian genres
A creed is a statement of belief, usually religious.

Creed may also refer to:

Religion 
 Apostles' Creed, an early statement of Christian belief
 Nicene Creed, the most widespread or ecumenical Christian statement of faith
 Athanasian Creed, a statement of Christian Trinitarian doctrine
 Chalcedonian Creed, adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor
 Social Creed (Methodist), a social creed of the American Methodist Episcopal Church
 Masai Creed, a creed composed in about 1960 by Western Christian missionaries for the Masai people of East Africa
 A New Creed, an affirmation of faith used widely in the worship services of the United Church of Canada
 Islamic Creed, see Shahada or Aqidah

Government 
 American's Creed, a forerunner to the Pledge of Allegiance
 United States Postal Service creed (unofficial)
Military
 Rifleman's Creed, also known as "the Creed of the United States Marine," though unofficial
 Ranger Creed, official creed of the US Army Rangers
 U.S. Soldier's Creed, a set of values and morals that all U.S. Army personnel are encouraged to live by

People 
 Creed Bratton, American singer and actor
 Frederick G. Creed, Canadian inventor, founder of Creed & Company
 Helios Creed, American musician, guitarist of Chrome
 Linda Creed, Philadelphia songwriter
 Percy Redfern Creed
 Martin Creed, British artist
 Michael Creed, Irish politician
 Creed Taylor, American record producer

Fictional
 Creed Bratton (The Office character), a character from the U.S. television series, The Office
 Graydon Creed, a character in Marvel Comics
 Ursarkar E. Creed, a character from Warhammer 40,000 universe
 Apollo Creed, a boxer
 Creed Diskenth, the antagonist in anime and manga series Black Cat (manga)

Other 
 Assassin's Creed, a video game
Companies
 Creed (perfume), a perfume manufacturer
 Creed & Company, a British telecommunications company

Literature
 Creed, a poem by Steve Turner (writer)
 Creed (comics), a Lightning Comics series

Music
 Creed (band), a post-grunge rock band
 Creed, one of the most popular songs from Christian rock group, Petra on their album, Beyond Belief

Places
 Creed, Cornwall, a village in Cornwall, England
 Creede, Colorado

Related pages
 Credo, a musical setting of the Nicene Creed
The Shahadah (, ) is the first pillar of Islam. The saying is "Lā ʾIlāha ʾIllā Allah, Muḥammadun Rasūl Allah", meaning "There is no deity but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God".

In one of the many ayahs (proofs, evidence, verses, signs, revelations, etc.) within the Quran. The ayah says 3:18 

3:18

شَهِدَ ٱللَّهُ أَنَّهُۥ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ وَٱلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةُ وَأُو۟لُوا۟ ٱلْعِلْمِ قَآئِمًۢا بِٱلْقِسْطِ ۚ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْحَكِيمُ ١٨

  Allâh bears witness that Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He), and the angels, and those having knowledge (also give this witness); (He always) maintains His creation in Justice. Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He), the All-Mighty, the All-Wise.

Arabic words and phrases
Islamic theology
According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, Purgatory is the "final purification of the elect": "All who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven." 

“In Purgatory there are different levels; the lowest is close to hell and the highest gradually draws near to Heaven. It is not All Souls Day, but, Christmas, that the greatest number of souls leave Purgatory.

There are in Purgatory, souls who pray ardently to God, but for whom no relative or friend prays on earth. God makes them benefit from the prayers of other people.

It happens that God permits them to manifest themselves in different way, close to their relatives on earth, in order to remind men of the existence of Purgatory and to solicit their prayers to come close to God who is just, but good.

Purgatory in art and culture
Perhaps the best-known instance of purgatory in the arts is Dante's Purgatorio, the second book of his Divine Comedy. Likewise, the Ghost in William Shakespeare's Hamlet may also presuppose a belief in purgatory,

Related pages
 The Divine Comedy
 Hades
 Heaven
 Hell

Footnotes

Sources 
 Akin, James. How to explain Purgatory to Protestants
  Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity  (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999)
 Catechism of the Catholic Church, available online 
  Catechism of St. Philaret (Drozdov) of Moscow
 Catholic Encyclopedia of 1914, Purgatory
 Clendenin, Daniel B.  (ed.). Eastern Orthodox Theology  (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995)
 Demetry, Constas H. Catechism of the Eastern Orthodox Church
 Dragani, Anthony. From East to West: Purgatory
 O' Collins, Gerald and Mario Farrugia. Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)

Other websites
CatholicBridge.com, Purgatory  — Ecumenical article by David MacDonald concerning Evangelical and Catholic belief
 Catholic Answers, Purgatory  — Catholic apologetic article
 NewAdvent.org, Purgatory — 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article
 philvaz.com/apologetics  — Readings from the Church Fathers and other sources on Purgatory, by Phil Porvaznik
 EWTN.com library, Heaven, Hell and Purgatory according to Pope John Paul II  — Article from the newspaper of the Holy See, L'Osservatore Romano, July-August 1999
 JewishEncyclopedia.com, Purgatory — Article by Kaufmann Kohler in the online Jewish Encyclopedia 
 New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Purgatory — Article by C. A. Beckwith in the 19th century Protestant encyclopedia (ed. Philip Schaff)
 Purgatory account in the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica.
 I Believe in Purgatory... — excerpt from C. S. Lewis's Letters To Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer, chapter 20 
 Frequently Asked Questions  at Holy Souls Online
Purgatory and praying for the dead on Catholic Apologetic
 "Prisoner of the King: Thoughts on the Catholic Doctrine of Purgatory", H. J. Coleridge, 1889. retrieved 24 May 2007
Roman Catholicism
Afterlife
William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, visionary, painter, and printmaker. He was born and died in London.

During his lifetime he was not very well known. Today Blake's work is thought to be important in the history of both poetry and the visual arts. Blake's first collection of poems, Poetical Sketches, was printed around 1783. His most famous poem "And did those feet in ancient time" was, over 100 years later, put to music by Hubert Parry. The hymn is called "Jerusalem".

Blake was voted 38th in a poll of the 100 Greatest Britons organised by the BBC in 2002.

Books about Blake

References

Other websites
Recent Discovery of the Location of William Blake's Grave. 
 The William Blake Archive, a multi-media archive, sponsored by the Library of Congress
 
 Blake250: 2007 London festival celebrating 250 years of William Blake's influence 
 Paintings of William Blake 
 William Blake Society 
 Friends of William Blake 
 Blake Society
 Making facsimiles of Blake's prints
 William Blake at the British Library
Profiles
 Profile at the Academy of American Poets
 Profile at the Poetry Foundation
  William Blake profile, video on BBC Poetry Season and BBC etching gallery
 Tate William Blake learning resource 
 Profile at Jacob Boehme Online
Archives
 The William Blake Archive – A Comprehensive Academic Archive of Blake's works with scans from multiple collections
 Single Institution Holdings:
 The G.E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Special Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
The G.E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Digital Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
 William Blake collection  at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin
 Links to articles, manuscripts and films relating to William Blake. From the British Library's Discovering Literature website.
 William Blake Digital Material From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
Digital editions and research
 
 
 
 Settings of William Blake's poetry in the Choral Public Domain Library
 William Blake's America and Europe  at Auckland Libraries
1757 births
1827 deaths
Artists from London
British abolitionists
British esotericists
Christian mystics
English activists
English painters
English poets
English Protestants
English Christian writers
Printmakers
Writers from London
An institution is a social structure in which people cooperate and which influences the behavior of people and the way they live.

An institution has a purpose. Institutions are permanent, which means that they do not end when one person is gone. An institution has rules and can enforce rules of human behavior. The word "institution" can be used in two ways. It can mean a very broad idea, or a very "specific" (narrow) one. For example: 
 Government is an institution in the broad sense. Westminster Parliament is an institution in the specific sense. 
 Education is an institution in the broad sense. Harvard University is an institution in the specific sense.
Institutions, in the broad sense, are found in every society. The way that each institution works is different in different cultures. Some important institutions are: 
 Marriage- This is how society protects itself by controlling the way people live together, have children and care for them. 
 Education- A society controls how young ones are prepared to be useful adult members of society. 
 Kinship- Society controls how people who are related, or not related, should act to each other. This includes inheritance. 
 Religion- Societies have ways in which people's religious beliefs are celebrated.
 Law- Societies decide what is right and wrong, and what punishments there are for doing wrong. 
 Trade- Societies have ways of controlling the way food and other goods pass from one person to another. 
 Defence- Societies set up institutions to protect themselves against attack.
Some societies have many institutions in the "specific" sense. These societies have an organised government, schools, hospitals, churches, clubs, armies, markets, courts and places for entertainment. Some societies have very few of these things, but this does not mean that there are no "institutions". The way in which the people relate to each other may have just as many "controls" as in a society with schools, markets and a government. An example of a society that has lots of "specific" institutions is Western Europe. 
 
Historians look at institutions to find differences between eras or periods. They sometimes judge political and military events by the effect that they had on institutions.

Sources
Sources 

 Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1966), The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Anchor Books, Garden City, NY.
 Greif, Avner (2006), Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade , Cambridge University Press.
 North, D. (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
 Schotter, A. (1981), The Economic Theory of Social Institutions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Related pages 
 State
 Establishment

Other websites 
 International Society for New Institutional Economics
 Institutional reform

References 

Social sciences
In biology, races are distinct populations within the same species with relatively small morphological and genetic differences. 

The populations are ecological races if they arise from adaptation to different local habitats or geographic races when they are geographically isolated. 

If sufficiently different, two or more races may be described as subspecies, which is an official biological taxonomy unit below 'species'. 

If not, they are called races, which means that a formal rank should not be given to the group, or taxonomists are unsure whether or not a formal rank should be given. 

According to Ernst Mayr, "a subspecies is a geographic race that is sufficiently different taxonomically to be worthy of a separate name"

Example
The key lime is a shrub that grows to a size of about 5 metres in height. It has many thorns. It produces a fruit that is yellow when it is ripe. This fruit is preferred by bartenders to mix cocktails. They prefer this lime, rather than the Persian lime.
The lime plant originally came from southeast Asia, where it is native. It was taken to the Middle East, and Crusaders took it to Europe and North Africa. Spanish explorers took it to the West Indies and the Florida Keys. In 1926, a hurricane destroyed most of the commercially-grown limes in the region. The Persian lime was reintroduced then.

Some of the original shrubs grew wild in the Florida Keys.  It became clear that the originally introduced shrubs (now known as Mexican limes) had modified their fruits. These were darker green than the original Persian limes, they also had a thicker skin.
More detail 
In biological taxonomy, race is an informal rank below the level of subspecies. It may be used as a higher rank than "strain". There are various definitions. Races may be genetically distinct populations in the same species, or they may be defined in other ways, e.g. geographically, or physiologically. Genetic isolation between races is not complete (some interbreeding takes place between the groups).
However, the genetic differences are not (yet) enough to put the groups into separate species. The term race is recognized by some, but is not governed by any of the formal codes of biological classification.

Human beings 

In former times, scientists often divided human beings into races. For example, they called people with a dark skin  "Negroid" or "black race". But, human gene sequences are very similar compared to many other animals. This is one reason why modern biology says that there is only one human race.

References 

Taxonomy
The phenotype of an organism is the whole set of characters (or traits) of that organism.

It does not mean just 'what you can see on the surface'. Rather, it means anything which can be made visible by suitable means. For example, blood groups are definitely a part of the phenotype. However, they are not visible just by looking at a person.

In biology, the phenotype is distinguished from the genotype. This was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces. The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between germ plasm (gametes or their stem cells) and somatic cells (the body).

The phenotype is important because it is exposed to natural selection:
"From Darwin to the present day most evolutionists have considered the individual organism to be the principal object of selection. Actually, it is the phenotype which is the part of the individual that is “visible” to selection". Ernst Mayr
Phenotypes are determined mainly by genes and are influenced by environmental factors. So, knowing the genome of an organism does not give an exact prediction of its phenotype.

Traits vary greatly in how much they owe to heredity (nature vs nurture). The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:

genotype + environment → phenotype

Extensions 
The term 'phenotype' must include characteristics that can be made visible by some technical procedure (such as blood types). Another extension adds behaviour to the phenotype since behaviours are also affected by both genotypic and environmental factors.
The idea of the extended phenotype has been developed by Richard Dawkins to mean all the effects a gene has on the outside world that may influence its chances of being inherited. These can be effects on the organism carrying the trait, the environment, or other organisms. For instance, a beaver dam might be considered a phenotype of beaver genes, the same way beavers' powerful incisor teeth are phenotype expressions of their genes. Dawkins also cites the effect of an organism on the behaviour of another organism (such as the devoted nurturing of a cuckoo by a parent clearly of a different species) as an example of the extended phenotype.

Related pages 
Nature versus nurture

References

Classical genetics
Developmental biology
The Key lime is a citrus fruit. Its Latin name is  Citrus aurantiifolia (often, less correctly: C. aurantifolia), or Citrus x aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle. It is also known as the Mexican lime, West Indian lime or Bartender's lime. It is a shrub that grows to about 5m in height. 

Its fruit is 2.5-5 cm in diameter (1-2 in). The fruit is yellow when ripe but usually, it is picked green. It is smaller, seedier, has higher acidity, a stronger aroma, and a thinner rind than that of the more common Persian lime. It is valued for its unique flavor compared to other lime.  The Key lime usually has a more tart and bitter flavor. It is perhaps most distinguished as an ingredient in the Key lime pie.
C. aurantiifolia is a shrubby tree, that grows to 5 m (16 ft), with many thorns. Dwarf varieties are popular with home growers and can be grown indoors in winter in colder climates. The trunk rarely grows straight, with many branches that often originate quite far down on the trunk. The leaves are ovate 2.5–9 cm (1–3.5 in) long. They resemble orange leaves (the scientific name aurantiifolia refers to the leaves' resemblance). The flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. They are yellowish-white with a light purple tinge on the margins. Flowers and fruit appear throughout the year but are most abundant from May to September  .
C. aurantiifolia originally came from  Southeast Asia.  It was introduced through the Middle East to North Africa and Europe during the Crusades. Spanish explorers then took it to the West Indies (at some point including the Florida Keys) contemporaneously with Columbus, then tropical and sub-tropical North America including Mexico, Florida, and later California .  The English name "lime" was derived from the Persian name لیمو Limu in this course.  "Key" would seem to have been added sometime after the Persian lime cultivar became more important commercially in the United States. This was after the hurricane of 1926. The hurricane destroyed most U.S. C. aurantiifolia plants.  Some plants growing in the wild in the Keys survived the hurricane.  Since the North American Free Trade Agreement came into effect, many Key limes are grown in Mexico and Central America. They are also grown in Texas and California.

Footnotes
Footnotes

  Alphabetical List of Plant Families with Insecticidal and Fungicidal Properties
  Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle
  Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle

Citrus
The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century that continued into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners.

They were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans met people and mapped lands previously unknown to them. Among the most famous explorers of the period were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, John Cabot, Yermak, Juan Ponce de León, Juan Sebastian Elcano, Bartholomeu Dias, Ferdinand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Tasman, Jean Alfonse, Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, and Willem Blaeu.
Portuguese Empire 
Henry the Navigator started by paying Portuguese sailors to explore the west coast of Africa. In 1419 Joao Goncalves Zarco discovered the Madeira Islands. Later in the 15th century, Vasco da Gama reached the southwestern tip of Africa and established the city of Cape Town, a Portuguese colony. This opened the way to the Indian Ocean. In the next two centuries, the Portuguese created a great trading empire on coasts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India. The Portuguese Empire eventually weakened after the Dutch East India Company rose as the major power in Indian Ocean trade.

Spanish Empire 
In a hurry to compete with Portugal for a colonial empire, Spain sent Christopher Columbus to the opposite route of the Portuguese. Instead of going south along the west coast of Africa, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean. He believed that he came to Asia. Later, some Spanish sailors found out that this land was a different continent than Asia. It is now called the Americas.
In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadores gained the whole of what later became Latin America, except some British and French colonies in northeastern South America, and Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. The Spanish concentrated on conquest, unlike the Portuguese who focused on trading. They eventually developed a vast colonial empire, in contrast to the Portuguese who ruled a few islands and coastal cities along the Indian Ocean. During the Iberian Union of Spain and Portugal under King Philip II of Spain , their combined empire was the largest on earth.

In 1522 the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan returned to Spain. The survivors were the first ever to sail all the way around the world.
Britain, France, and the Netherlands 
In the 17th century, political and religious wars with Britain, France, and the Netherlands weakened the Iberian Peninsula. These three nations emerged as the main winners of the wars and became major powers like Spain and Portugal. In the next two centuries, the world became a battlefield of the three nations. Britain and France held land in North America, in India and other distant places. The Dutch colonized smaller parts of the Americas, took the former Portuguese trading centers around the Indian Ocean, and conquered Indonesia. These three new great powers also had influence all around the world.
Eventually, the result was a series of wars that were fought both in Europe and overseas, with Britain emerging victorious. The British took the former land of French Canada and India in the 18th century. They seized power in the Indian Ocean and defeated the Dutch navy. By 1763, the British Empire had become the second global empire after Spain. However, in 1776, thirteen colonies of British America declared independence. With help from the French, Dutch and Spanish, they defeated Britain in the American Revolution.

Exploration of the Southern Pacific Ocean
In 1778, Captain James Cook of Britain sailed across the South Pacific Ocean looking for a mysterious continent in the Southern Hemisphere. He landed on two large islands. Then he sailed west and found a bigger piece of land. The first, was modern New Zealand; the second was Australia. Captain Cook claimed these lands for Britain. He then explored the Pacific world for another year and died in a fight with the Hawaiians.
Effects of the Age of Discovery 
Many slaves brought from Africa were brought to the Americas which was claimed to be found by Christopher Columbus himself. In conclusion, the Portuguese were weakened after the Dutch rose in the Indian Ocean trade route. Spain gained almost all of Latin America and a massive amount of silver.

When Christopher Columbus tried to find a new trade route to Asia, he thought that he could travel around the world.  Instead, he had found a New World.  Vikings had briefly visited Vinland around 1000 A.D.

Related pages
 Colonialism
 Exploration

References
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

History of Europe
Periods and ages in history
Persian Lime (Citrus x latifolia), also known as Tahiti lime or Bearss lime is a kind of citrus fruit. It is the primary citrus fruit grown commercially in the U.S. It is sold simply as a "lime". The fruit is about 6 cm in diameter. Very often, it has slightly nippled ends. It is usually sold quite green, although it yellows as it reaches full ripeness. It is larger, thicker-skinned, and less aromatic than the key lime. The key lime is grown more often worldwide. The Persian lime is bigger than the key lime, and has fewer seeds. The plant is also hardier, and has no thorns on the bushes. The fruit also has a longer shelf life.
Persian limes are less acidic than key limes and do not have the bitterness that lends to the key lime's unique flavour. Persian limes are sold primarily in six sizes, known as 110's, 150's, 175's, 200's, 230's and 250's. They are grown primarily in Florida in the U.S. The Persian lime became more important when key lime orchards were wiped out by a hurricane in 1926. Persian lime orchards themselves were devastated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Large numbers of Persian limes are grown, processed and exported every year primarily from Martínez de la Torre, Veracruz, Mexico, to the American, European and Asian markets. U.S. Persian lime imports from Mexico are handled mostly through McAllen, Texas.

References 
 Tahiti lime botany, agriculture, and history
 history and use of limes 
 history and varieties of limes 
 Key limes and others

Citrus

ss
The Kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC., Rutaceae), also known as kieffer lime, makrut or magrood, is a citrus fruit native to Indonesia. It is widely grown worldwide as a garden shrub. It is usually grown it for its fruit, the lime. The leaves are used for cooking. Vegetable oil obtained from the leaves is used to make perfumes.

The plant
The plant is a  very thorny bush with aromatic leaves. The oil obtained from the rind of the fruit can be used as an insecticide. The plant is well suited to being grown in a container. The green fruits are different from other limes because of their bumpy and rough exterior. They are also quite small, about 4 centimetres across. The leaves are shaped like an hourglass. The leaves and the leaf-shaped stem are widely used in the cuisine of Cambodia, Thailand and Laos.
Citrus x hystrix leaves are also popular in Cambodia but less so in Vietnam. Malay, Burmese and Indonesian (especially Balinese and Javanese; see also Indonesian bay leaf) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish.

The leaves can be used fresh or dried and can be stored frozen.

Although the most common product of the Citrus x hystrix tree is its leaves (which give a sharp Lime/neroli flavour to Cambodian base paste known as Krueng, Thai dishes such as tom yum and Indonesian food such as sayur assam - literally sour vegetables), the juice and rind of the small, dark-green gnarled fruit (known as jeruk obat - literally medicine citrus) are used in traditional Indonesian medicine.

The zest is widely used in Creole cuisine and to impart flavour to "arranged" rums on Réunion and Madagascar.
Other names
Other names for Citrus x hystrix:
 Burma: shauk-nu, shauk-waing
 Cambodia: krauch soeuch
 China: fatt-fung-kam
 Malaysia: limau purut
 Indonesia: jeruk purut, jeruk sambal
 Philippines: swangi
 Sri Lanka: kahpiri dehi, odu dehi, kudala-dehi
 Thailand: makrut, som makrut

Terminology
The Oxford Companion to Food () recommends that the name kaffir lime should be avoided in favour of makrut lime because Kaffir is an offensive term in certain cultures and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant. However kaffir lime appears to be much more common.

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Citrus
Herbs
Spices
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Plants of Asia
Medina (; ,  , "the radiant city"; or ,  (), "the city"), also transliterated as Madīnah, is a city in the Hejaz, and the capital of the Al Madinah Region of Saudi Arabia. The city contains al-Masjid al-Nabawi ("the Prophet's Mosque"), which is the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and is the second-holiest city in Islam after Mecca.

Medina was Muhammad's destination after his Hijrah from Mecca, and became the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire, first under Muhammad's leadership, and then under the first four Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. It served as the power base of Islam in its first century where the early Muslim community developed. Medina is home to the three oldest mosques, namely the Quba Mosque, al-Masjid an-Nabawi, and Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("the mosque of the two qiblas"). Muslims believe that the chronologically final surahs of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad in Medina, and are called Medinan surahs in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs.
Similar to Mecca, non-Muslims are forbidden from entering the sacred core of Medina or the center of the city.

Overview 
Medina currently has a population of  more than 1,300,000 people (2006). The city was originally known as Yathrib, but later its name was changed to Madīnat al-Nabī (مدينة ﺍﻟﻨﺒﻲ  "city of the prophet") or Al Madīnah al Munawwarah ("the enlightened city" or "the radiant city"). The short form Madīnah simply means "city". Madina is the second holiest city of Islam, after Mecca (Makkah).

Medina's religious significance in Islam
Medina is the second holiest site in Islam after Mecca that's why Medina is very important to Muslims. This is because Prophet Muhammad is buried in a mosque known as 'Masjid-e-Nabawi' or 'The Mosque of The Prophet' located in Medina. The Mosque was built on a site next to Muhammad's home. Muslims believe  that Prophets must be buried at the very same place that they die. Accordingly, Muhammad was buried in his house. The tomb later became part of the mosque when it was expanded by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I. The first mosque of Islam is also in Medina. It is known as Masjid Quba, (the Quba Mosque).
Like Mecca, the city of Medina only permits Muslims to enter. The haram (area closed to non-Muslims) of Medina is much smaller than that of Mecca, though. Many facilities on the outskirts of Medina are open to non-Muslims. In Mecca the area closed to non-Muslims extends well beyond the limits of the built-up area. Both cities' numerous mosques are the destination for large numbers of Muslims on their annual pilgrimage. Hundreds of thousands of Muslims come to Medina each year to visit the 'Tomb of Prophet' and to worship at mosques in a unified celebration. Muslims believe that praying once in the Mosque of the Prophet is equal to praying at least 1000 times in any other mosque.

References

Other websites 

 Beautiful Masajids Of Madina Munawara, Details And Pictures  

 Satellite map of Medina - Google
 Pictures of Medina Munawwara 
 Medina's religious significance in Islam
Doctrine (Latin: doctrina) is a code of beliefs or "a body of teachings".

Doctrine often means several religious dogmas that a church teaches. 
But it can also mean a principle of law, in the common law traditions, established through a history of past decisions, such as the doctrine of self-defense, or the principle of fair use.

In matters of foreign policy, a doctrine, also known as dogma, is group of fundamental rules for a nation's foreign policy. Examples include the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Kirkpatrick doctrine, and the Bush Doctrine.

Religious usage 

Examples of religious doctrines include:
 Christian Trinity and Virgin birth of Jesus
 Roman Catholic transubstantiation and immaculate conception
 Pentecostal Jesus-Only doctrine
 Calvinist predestination
 Methodist Prevenient Grace

One department of the Roman Curia is called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.

Military usage
Military usage 

The term also applies to the concept of an established procedure to a complex operation in warfare. The typical example is tactical doctrine in which a standard set of maneuvers, kinds of troops and weapons are employed as a default approach to a kind of attack.

Examples of military doctrines include:
 Blitzkrieg of World War II
 Hit-and-run tactics
 Shock and Awe
 Guerre de course
 Mahanian of late 19th up to mid-20th Century

Christian genres
Politics
Christian theology
The citron (Citrus medica) is a species of citrus fruit. It usually has a thick rind and small sections. Originally, the tree came from Southeast Asia. Today it is mainly grown in Sicily, Morocco, Crete, and Corsica, as well as Puerto Rico. The tree can grow to a size of about 3 metres. The fruit can grow to a size of about 25 cm in length, and about 4 kg in weight. The pulp of the fruit is hardly ever used. The rind is used. It is made into an additive for cooking. Jam can also be made from the rind. The rind is also used to make vegetable oil, which is used for perfumes.
Generally, it is eaten preserved or in bakery goods, such as fruitcakes. (The candied peel rather than the fruit is often used in cooking.) In some cultures, it is made into a fruity tea. Pliny the Elder states that in his time , the citron could only be grown in Media and Persia (HN xii.7). The Romans tried to transport it into the Roman Empire in tightly packed pots, but failed, according to Pliny. There is evidence, however, which shows it was cultivated in the Mediterranean during Pliny's lifetime. Zohary and Hopf believe this tree was first domesticated in India. They think that its wild forms, along with those of the mandarin and pomelo, were the original citrus species.
The citron has many names in different countries; one popular reference is Cedrat, which is the French name for the fruit. Theophrastus referred to the citron as the Persian or Median Apple, and the fruit later came to be known as the Citrus Apple. Pliny calls the tree the Assyrian, or the Median, "apple" (the generic Greco-Roman name for globose fruits). Other citrus crops were not introduced to the Mediterranean basin until Islamic times.

In many languages other than English, a normal lemon is called a "citron" and a Lime is called a "limon". Although the East Asian citrus fruit yuzu (also called yuja) is sometimes called a citron, it is actually a separate species, Citrus junos.
Cultivation and uses 
The citron fruit is slow-growing. The citron tree is typically grown from cuttings that are two to four years old; the tree begins to bear fruit when it is around three years old. The fruit is oblong in shape, and sometimes as much as six inches in length. Its skin is thick, somewhat hard, fragrant, and covered with protuberances; the pulp is white and subacid. 

In Pliny's time the fruit was never eaten (it began to be used in cooking by the early 2nd century), but its intense perfume was used, penetrating clothes to repel noxious insects (compare Citronella). 

In Hebrew, the citron is known as the etrog (). It is one of the Four Species used during the holiday of Sukkot each fall. The role of the citron in that holiday was portrayed in the Israeli movie Ushpizin. Citrons that have been bred with lemon (in order to increase output per tree and make the tree less fragile) are not kosher for use as part of the Four Species.
In Korea, it is used to create a syrupy tea (called Yuja cha) where the slices of whole fruit are eaten with the sweet tea. The fruit is thinly sliced (peel, pith and pulp) and soaked or cooked in honey or sugar to create a chunky syrup. This syrupy candied fruit is mixed with hot water as a fragrant tea, where the fruit at the bottom of the cup is eaten as well. Often perserved in the syrup for the cold months, Yuja tea served as a source of fruit in winter. It is also popular in Taiwan, where it is known as 柚子茶 (Youzi cha).
[Note: The Korean Yuja is the same as the Japanese Yuzu 柚子 and must be different from the citron being described in this article. The Japanese Yuzu = Citrus junos.]

Notes

Related pages 
List of Citrus fruits

Other websites 
 Citrus medica used as a medicinal plant.
Citric acid is a weak organic acid. It can be found in citrus fruits. It is used by organisms for Krebs cycle. It acts like a preservative when added to food. It is also used to add a sour (acidic) taste to foods and soft drinks. In the European Union it is known as E 330, as a food additive.

Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first who could extract citric acid from lemons, in 1782. The substance was probably known to alchemists, perhaps with a different name. The Arabian alchemist Geber is said to have discovered citric acid in the 9th century. Citric Acid contains 6 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms and 7 Oxygen atoms. Its chemical formula is C6H8O7.

Main uses 
 As a water softener
 It is often used in detergents, to avoid the smell of acid, esp. Acetic acid
 As a preserving agent
 Citric acid and its salts prevent blood clotting. Blood donations are kept liquid using citric acid.

References

Other websites 
 Citric acid analysis - free spreadsheet for titration of acids and pH calculation
Carboxylic acids
Citrus
Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (; ; died between 806 and 816), is the name for the writer of a great number of writings in Arabic. The writings together have the name Jabirian corpus. The most important subjects of these writings are: alchemy, cosmology, numerology, astrology, medicine, magic, mysticism, and philosophy.

Jabir's writings have in them the oldest known list of chemical substances. For the first time, the writings gave an explanation of how to produce an inorganic substance (ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair).

Modern scholars doubt the historical existence of Jabir. It is probable that one person did not write all of the writings in the Jabirian corpus. Instead, scholars see Jabir ibn Hayyan as a pseudonym that a group of writers used.

Translations into Latin of some of Jabir's Arabic writings (like the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") came into existence in the Middle Ages. In Latin, Jabir had the name "Geber", a transliteration of "Jabir".
In 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, called pseudo-Geber, started to produce new writings about alchemy under the name Geber. People still read the  in the 17th century. The  was one of the writings that pseudo-Geber produced in the 13th century. It was an influence on early modern chemists like Robert Boyle (1627–1691).

References

Works cited 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Chemists
Muslim scholars
Philosophers
Physicians
Physicists
Pharmacists
9th-century deaths
8th-century births
Carl Wilhelm Scheele (December 9, 1742 - May 21, 1786) a German-Swedish pharmaceutical chemist, born in Stralsund, Western Pomerania, Germany (at the time under Swedish rule), was the discoverer of many chemical substances, most notably discovering oxygen before Joseph Priestley and chlorine before Humphry Davy.

1742 births
1786 deaths
German chemists
People from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Swedish scientists
Micheline Calmy-Rey (born 8 July 1945) is a Swiss politician. She was Switzerland's foreign minister as head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. She was also a member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2003. She was President of the Confederation in 2007 and again in 2011. She resigned her office as member of the Federal Council on 31 December 2011.

Other websites

Official website

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1945 births
Living people
Presidents of the Swiss Confederation
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
People from Sion District