Aarushhh/wikipedia-simple-splitted huggingface dataset:
Howard Phillips Lovecraft (August 20, 1890 – March 15, 1937) was an American writer of fantasy, horror and science fiction. 

He wrote many scary short stories. These often were about odd creatures that Lovecraft made up by himself or with his friends, including August Derleth, who wrote mysteries. The creatures did not really care about human people at all, so they were not out to hurt people, but if they did, they did not care. They looked at us like we would be ants. Their behaviour, attitude and look also tended to make people go crazy.

One of his most famous creations was Cthulhu, a giant and powerful alien being that some humans worship as a god. He also made up many other strange alien gods, like Yog-Sothoth, Nyarlathotep, and Azathoth. Together his works and ideas about these characters are called the Cthulhu Mythos.

Lovecraft's stories were inspiration for lots of other writers.The spirit of his works, presenting a world that does not care, is present in many works of fiction.
Lovecraft was born in Providence, Rhode Island on August 20, 1890. He was the only child in the family. He died of small intestine cancer there.

Works

Other websites 

American novelists
Deaths from small intestine cancer
Cancer deaths in Rhode Island
Writers from Providence, Rhode Island
1890 births
1937 deaths
Hormones are the chemical messengers of the endocrine system. Hormones are the signals which adjust the body's internal working, together with the nervous system. Every multicellular organism has hormones. The cells which react to a given hormone have special receptors for that hormone. When a hormone attaches to the receptor protein a mechanism for signalling is started. The cell or tissue that gets the message is called the 'target'. Hormones only act on cells which have the right receptors.

Many different kinds of cells can send a message. There are some cells whose main job is to make hormones. When many of these cells are together, they are called a gland. Glands are groups of cells that make something and release it (put it outside the cell). Many glands make hormones.
"Endocrine" means secreting directly into the blood. Most internal secretions are from endocrine glands. The opposite word is "exocrine", which means secreting through a duct or tube. Some hormones are produced by exocrine glands, and some exocrine secretions release outside the body. Sweat glands and salivary glands are examples of exocrine glands whose products are released outside the body.

The first discovery of a hormone was made in 1902. The hormone was secretin. The word 'hormone' was first used in 1905.
Actions 
Hormones do many things. They regulate metabolism. Metabolism is the chemical and energy reactions that happen in a living thing. Hormones cause the growth and death of cells and of whole organisms. Hormones also start and control sexual development. For example, the hormones estrogen and progesterone make girls go through puberty. Hormones help keep homeostasis in an organism. Homeostasis means to keep a constant state inside the body like temperature, amount of water and salts, and amount of sugar. Hormones released by one gland can also tell other glands to make different hormones.
Types of hormones 
There are four types of hormones in most vertebrates. They are grouped by the chemicals from which they are made. 
 Steroid hormones – these are made from cholesterol. Examples of steroid hormones include the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone as well as the stress hormone cortisol.
 Eicosanoids: these are lipid hormones – hormones made from lipids, kinds of fats. These are mostly hormones that send messages near the cell that makes the hormones.
 Amino acid derived. Melatonin works on the brain, and thyroxine acts on almost all cells in the body. Many of these hormones are neurotransmitters, hormones that one nerve cell sends to another nerve cell.
Peptides, polypeptides and proteins – small peptide hormones include TRH and vasopressin. Peptides composed of scores or hundreds of amino acids are referred to as proteins. Examples of protein hormones include insulin and growth hormone. More complex protein hormones bear carbohydrate side-chains and are called glycoprotein hormones. Luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone are examples of glycoprotein hormones.
Regulation of hormones 
In biology regulation means to control something. So regulating hormones means controlling how much hormones are made and released from cells.

Negative feedback 
Hormone regulation is mostly done by negative feedback. In negative feedback, a hormone causes an effect. The cells that make the hormone detect this effect and its production ceases.
A good example of negative feedback is with the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced by the pancreas. Insulin is released by the pancreas in response to consumption of glucose. The amount of glucose in the blood rises, and the pancreas detects the increase. It then secretes insulin into the blood. Insulin increases glucose uptake in target cells. Some glucose is used by the cells but some is also converted to and stored in the form of glycogen.  Glucose uptake by cells decreases blood glucose levels. This decrease is detected by the pancreas and in response, it stops secreting insulin in to the bloodstream. As insulin levels in the blood decrease, so does glucose uptake by cells.

This negative feedback therefore helps to maintain normal blood glucose levels and prevents extreme changes.
There are three main types of hormones. Steroid hormones are non-polar and do not need a receptor. The second type is peptide hormones.  The third is Tyrosine derived hormones. An example is the T3 and T4 hormones produced by the thyroid gland.

Counter-regulatory hormones 
Often two hormones control the same product, one increasing and the other decreasing the target. Blood glucose is very important to an organism, and is controlled by more than one hormone. Other hormones also make the glucose level go up or down. If the glucose level gets too low, the body releases hormones that do the opposite of insulin. They do not tell the cells in the body to take up glucose from the blood. They tell the cells to put glucose back into the blood. These kind of hormones that work opposite of other hormones are called counter-regulatory hormones. Counter-regulatory hormones for insulin are glucagon and epinephrine.
Positive feedback 
Most important things in an organism are kept in homeostasis by negative feedback and counter-regulatory hormones. However a few things are controlled in different ways. One rare way is positive feedback. In negative feedback, the hormone's effect makes a gland stop making hormones. In positive feedback the opposite happens. The effect of the hormone tells the gland to make even more hormones.
Comparison with neurotransmitters 
There are clear distinctions between hormones and neurotransmitters:
 A hormone can act over a wider space and time scale than a neurotransmitter.
 Hormonal signals can travel anywhere in the circulatory system, but neural signals go along pre-existing nerve tracts
 Neural signals can be transmitted much more quickly (milliseconds) than can hormonal signals (seconds, minutes, or hours). Neural signals can be sent at speeds up to 100 meters per second.
 Neural signalling is an all-or-nothing (digital) action, whereas hormonal signalling is an action that can be continuously variable. It depends on hormone concentration
Receptors 
Most hormones start a cellular response by binding to cell membranes or receptors inside the cell. A cell may have several different receptor types that recognize the same hormone but activate different signal transduction pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway.

Chemical classes 
Hormones are defined functionally, not structurally. They may have various chemical structures. Hormones occur in multicellular organisms (plants, animals, fungi, brown algae and red algae). These compounds occur also in unicellular organisms, and may act as signalling molecules,

Peptide hormone 
Peptide hormones are hormones with a short chain of amino acids.

Related pages 
Endocrine system
Neurosecretion

References
Testosterone is an androgen sex hormone. A hormone is one that is made from cholesterol. A sex hormone is one that regulates sexual changes in the body. An androgen is the male type of sex hormone.

The testicles of men make lots of testosterone. Ovaries and adrenal glands make testosterone too. But they make much less than the testicles do. So men have much higher testosterone levels than women. The process takes place during the ages of puberty for both males and females

Testosterone has two different kinds of effects. One effect is anabolic. This effect causes growth of muscle and bone. The other effect of testosterone is androgenic. These effects make the body look male. This includes the effects that boys have at puberty: growing a beard, making the penis and testicles bigger, and making the voice deeper.

Related pages
List of chemicals in doping cases in sport

Steroid hormones
Male reproductive system
A patio is a paved area in a garden often used for barbecues or relaxing outside.
Construction
Cholera is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.  It infects the small intestine.

There are many types (strains) of the Vibrio cholera bacteria.  Some of them cause more serious illnesses than others.  Because of this, some people who get cholera have no symptoms; others have symptoms that are not very bad, and others have very bad symptoms.

The most common symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea.  In the worst cases, diarrhea can be so bad that people can die in a few hours from dehydration.

Cholera is a very old disease.  Writings about cholera (written in Sanskrit) have been found from the 5th century BC.  Throughout history, there have been many outbreaks and epidemics of cholera.
Cholera still affects many people throughout the world.  Estimates from 2010 say that between 3 million and 5 million people get cholera every year, and 58,000–130,000 people die from the disease every year.  Today, cholera is considered a pandemic.  However, it is most common in developing countries, especially in children.
Cause
People usually get cholera by eating food or drinking water that is unclean.  When people have cholera, they have a lot of diarrhea, and the cholera bacteria stays alive in their feces.  In developing countries, often there is not good sanitation.  Cholera can spread if this diarrhea gets into water that other people use.  For example, if sewage (human waste) gets into a river, people can get cholera if they:
 Drink the water from the river.
 Eat food that they have washed in the river.
 Eat fish that live in the river, if they are not cooked well enough to kill the cholera bacteria.
This is the most common cause of cholera in developed countries.  People eat seafood like oysters that were taken from waters with the cholera bacteria in them and sent to stores in developed countries.

Cholera is very rarely spread directly from person to person.

Signs and symptoms
Cholera's main symptoms are bad diarrhea and vomiting clear fluid.  These symptoms usually start suddenly.  They start half a day to five days after the person gets infected.  (This is called cholera's "incubation period".)

If they do not get treatment, about half of people with serious cholera die.  People with bad cholera may have so much diarrhea that they do not have enough water and electrolytes (salts) left in their bodies to survive.  Cholera has been nicknamed the "blue death" because a person dying of cholera may lose so many body fluids that their skin turns bluish-gray.

Other symptoms may include:

 Lethargy (having no energy)
 Eyes that look sunken into the head, dry mouth, and saggy skin (from dehydration)   
 Changes in breathing
 Confusion
 Hypotension (low blood pressure)
 Tachycardia (fast heart rate)
 Shock caused by dehydration (called hypovolemic shock)
 Seizures (especially in children)
 Coma, especially in children
Prognosis
If people with cholera get good, quick medical treatment, less than 1% die from the disease.  However, if cholera is not treated, at least half of people with the disease (50% to 60%) die.

Some strains of the Vibrio cholera bacteria have different genes than others, which make them more dangerous.  These more dangerous strains of cholera bacteria caused the 2010 epidemic in Haiti and the 2004 outbreak in India.  A person who gets these strains of cholera can die within two hours of getting sick.  This means there is very little time to get the person treated.

Treatment
Treatment 

There are antibiotics for cholera. There are various treatments which can help.  For example:
 Giving fluids to treat dehydration, either by mouth or through a needle placed into a vein (intravenously).
 Giving important electrolytes like potassium and sodium chloride (salt)
 Giving antibiotics.  These make symptoms go away faster and not be so bad.  However, people may recover without them if they are not too dehydrated. Some advice is that antibiotics are suggested for people who have bad cholera and are dehydrated.
 Patients should keep eating; this helps their intestines return to normal.

Prevention

Individuals 

There is a cholera vaccine that can be taken by mouth.  It provides some protection from cholera for about six months.
People can also do some other things to prevent cholera.  For example:
 Wash their hands with soap and/or ash after using the toilet, and before touching food or eating.
 Sterilize (remove germs from) all water used for drinking, washing, or cooking.  The best and least expensive ways to do this are to boil water or to add chlorine.  If this is not possible, using a cloth filter for water is better than nothing.
 Wash all fruits and vegetables using safe water.  Peel fresh fruits before eating them.
 Not put their untreated feces in rivers, oceans, or anywhere in the open environment. This can be avoided by using dry toilets, especially if governments do not properly treat sewage.
 Follow all suggestions from public health agencies like the World Health Organization and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention about how to prevent spreading cholera (or other diseases).

Governments
Governments could stop outbreaks or epidemics from happening by improving sanitation.  For example, cholera is very uncommon in developed countries because they have good sanitation and because they add chemicals to their water to kill germs.  Even after people start to get cholera, it is possible for governments to stop the disease from spreading, though:
 Sterilization:  Any material that touched a cholera patient should be  cleaned with disinfectant and washed in hot water, using chlorine bleach if possible.  Hands that touched cholera patients or their things, like clothing or blankets, should be carefully cleaned and disinfected with water that has chlorine in it, or with other effective antimicrobial agents (chemicals that will kill bacteria).
 Sewage: Proper treatment can kill enough cholera bacteria for wastewater to go back into the environment. Dry toilets can be promoted where sewage treatment is not so good.
History 

Cholera probably started in the Indian subcontinent.  As early as the 5th century BC, people in the Ganges River delta area wrote about cholera.  The disease first spread to Russia in 1817 by trade routes (over both land and sea).  Later, cholera spread to the rest of Europe, and from Europe to North America and the rest of the world.

Seven cholera pandemics have happened in the past 200 years.  The latest started in Indonesia in 1961.  There have also been many serious outbreaks.  The worst outbreak in recent history happened in Haiti after the earthquake there in 2010.  Between October 2010 and August 2015, more than 700,000 Haitians got cholera, and over 9,000 died.  The outbreak was caused by a United Nations base where Nepalese soldiers were living.  The soldiers would dump human waste into the Artibonite River, which many Haitians used for drinking, cooking, and bathing.
Cholera was common in the 19th century. It has killed tens of millions of people.  Just in Russia, between 1847 and 1851, more than one million people died of cholera.  During the second pandemic, which lasted from 18271835, the disease killed 150,000 Americans.  Between 1900 and 1920, in India, up to eight million people died of cholera.

in 1854, an English doctor named John Snow was the first person to realize that contaminated water caused cholera.
The English engineer Joseph Bazalgette solved the problem for London in the middle of the 19th century. He invented the system for cleaning foul water, a system which is still used world-wide. Cholera has come back to the world because cities have hugely increased populations, and the treatment of sewage has overrun the facilities. It was the British who built most of the world's sewage plants, and until about 1950 they were able to work well unless they were damaged by warfare. Later governments did not invest money in their infrastructure, which meant the increased population eventually caused cholera to return.

Cholera is not the only problem with water supply. Blooms of red algae occur from time to time in hot weather, and they have to be killed off. Emergency control is got by adding chlorine to the water supply. This works, but makes the water rather distasteful.
Fortunately, infections transmitted in bad water can be cured. There is at least one antibiotic which works well against amoeboid parasites, and another which usually works against bacteria. Treatment costs money, of course, and in many countries that means the treatment is not widely available.

References

Other websites 
 Information about cholera in Simple English from the CDC
 CDC facts about cholera
 WHO facts about cholera
 Rehydration Project talks about ORSs (oral rehydration solutions)

Diseases caused by bacteria
History of medicine
For the type of plant, see Mandrake

Mandriva (formerly Mandrake Linux) is a Linux distribution.

The last release was the 2011 version released in August that year. Most Mandriva Linux developers who were laid off went to Mageia.

In May 2015, Mandriva went into administration, as of the 27th of May the organizations website was offline.

Brief history 
Mandriva was first made public by a French software company MandrakeSoft. Its first release was based on Red Hat Linux 5.1 and was released in July 1998. Mandriva Linux was originated by Gaël Duval, and intended to focus on ease of use for new users.

Name changes 

From its first release to version 8.0, Mandrake named its flagship distribution Linux-Mandrake. From version 8.1 to 9.2 it was called Mandrake Linux.

In February 2004, MandrakeSoft lost a court case for infringement. And it renamed its products. Starting from version 10.0, Mandrake Linux became known as Mandrakelinux, and its logo changed accordingly. Similarly, MandrakeMove became Mandrakemove.
In April 2005, Mandrakesoft announced the corporate acquisition of Conectiva,. As a result of this acquisition and the legal dispute with Hearst Corporation, Mandrakesoft announced that the company was changing its name to Mandriva, and that their Linux distribution Mandrake Linux would henceforward be known as Mandriva Linux.

Versions
Since 2007, Mandriva is released on a 6-month fixed-release cycle, similar to Ubuntu and Fedora. However, while newer features are added during each release, the timing of the Spring release stays the same as the first release, so as to ensure the stability each year.

Latest version
The latest stable version is Mandriva Linux 2011.0 (2011.0), released on 2011-08-28.

Development version
The development tree of Mandriva Linux has always been known as Cooker. This tree is directly released as a new stable version.

The current release is named 2009.1 and was released in April 2009.

Table of versions

Related pages
List of Linux distributions

References
References

Other websites 
Mandriva Official website 
Mandriva Community Wiki 
Mandriva Development Community Wiki (Cooker)

Linux distributions
X86-64 Linux distributions
Action theory is an area in philosophy that talks about theories about the processes that cause intentional (willful) human body movements.

The philosophy of action
Some Philosophers ask the question 'What is an action?' or 'What makes somebody do an action?'. Here are two theories.

The belief-desire (want-think) theory
Some philosophers say that an action is caused by a person wanting something and thinking that by doing that action they can get it. For example, if I want an apple and think that by walking to a table with some apples on it I can get one, then I will walk to the table. It is important to have both a want (desire) and a thought about how to get it (belief).
If I think that by walking to a table with some apples on it I can get an apple, but want an orange and not an apple, then I will not walk to the table. If I want an apple, but think that the table across the room is just a picture of a table, then I will not walk to the table.
The neurological (brain) theory
Other philosophers say that the want-think theory is not true. They say that it is my brain and my nerves that causes an action. They see the brain as working like a computer that directs small electric packages from some nerves to other nerves and stores some for a while in memory. These packages cannot be named, they are just like computer bits and bytes. These philosophers say that we talk about what we want and what we think because the brain is very complicated and we do not understand it yet.

These questions form part of the philosophy of mind.

Branches of philosophy
Xiangqi is a form of chess that started in China. In English it is called Chinese chess.

Though derived from the original Indian Chaturanga, Chinese chess is quite different from modern international chess. The board is different, there are different pieces, and they have different moves. The general and his mandarin may not leave the nine-pointed fortress; they have only limited movement. Clearly, this is more similar to the old Indo-Arabic game than to modern chess.

Xiangqi is a chess game for two people to play. Each player has 16 pieces to move on the board. One player's set is red, and one is black. The way to win is to kill the other player's Jiang (Shuai). Each kind of piece has different ways to move. Xiangqi is one of the most popular chess games in China.p78

Related pages
 History of chess
 Shogi

References 

Chess variants
A governor is a leader of some kind. In some countries which are federations, the governor is the leader of a state or a province.  

For example, in the United States, all 50 states have a governor elected by its own people. While the President is the leader of everyone in the United States, Governors are the leaders of the people living in or visiting their state. The governor is the executive for the state's administrative processes. 

In some other countries, a governor is the title of the viceroy. This is the case in Australia, Canada and other Commonwealth realms, where the governor represents the monarch in ceremonies. In many countries such as Pakistan a provincial governor is appointed by the central government acting as the ceremonial head of the provinces. 

Territories still under British rule all have a governor who represents the monarch in that area. 

Government occupations
The United States Republican Party is one of the two big political parties in the United States of America, along with the Democratic Party, the Republican Party's main opponent. The United States has many other small parties known as third parties. The Republican Party is a center-right party, contrast to the center-left Democratic Party.

The Republicans are sometimes called "the right" or "conservatives". The Republican Party itself is also called the GOP, which stands for "Grand Old Party". Ideologically, it favours fiscal and social conservatism, opposing abortion, euthanasia, labor unions, affirmative action, marijuana legalisation, and a high minimum wage, whilst advocating low taxes, limited government, gun rights, free markets, and free trade, although it held protectionist opinions during its early days, in Theodore Roosevelt’s presidency, and held anti-free trade opinions in Donald Trump’s presidency.
The symbol of the Republican party is the elephant. This symbol was first used in 1874 in a political cartoon by Thomas Nast.

The Republican National Committee, or "RNC", is the main organization for the Republican Party in all 50 states. The Republican Party is not the same political party as the Democratic-Republican Party. A state where most voters vote for Republican politicians is called a "red state".

History
History

The Republican Party was founded in Ripon, Wisconsin in 1853, with the help of Francis Preston Blair. The Republican Party was formed by people who did not like the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which would let each territory allow slavery. The Republican Party was founded by past members of the Free Soil Party and the Whig Party who wanted to stop the expansion of slavery. The founders of the Republican Party wanted to stop the expansion of slavery because they believed it was against the ideals of the Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Some founders of the Republican Party wanted to abolish slavery everywhere in the United States. The Republican Party's first candidate for President of the United States was John C. Frémont in 1856.
As the Whig Party collapsed, the Republicans became one of two major political parties in the United States (the Democratic Party was the other major political party). In 1860 Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican president, was elected. For the rest of the second half of the 19th century, the country had mostly Republican presidents. From 1860 until 1912 the Republicans lost the presidential election just twice (non-consecutively to Democrat Grover Cleveland in 1884 and 1892).

Republicans believed in protectionism (the belief that raising taxes on trades with other countries would protect the economy) during the second half of the 19th century and during the early half of the 20th century.
After World War I, the 1920s had three Republican presidents: Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover. It was called the Republican Decade for that reason. Harding and Coolidge made a plan for the economy which lowered taxes, made the government spend less money, and got rid of rules and laws that affected the economy.

Near the end of the 1920s, the stock market crashed and the Great Depression began. During the Great Depression, the Republican Party became less popular. No Republicans were president between 1933 and 1953, when Dwight Eisenhower began his first of two consecutive terms as president (he was re-elected in 1956). Richard Nixon lost the election in 1960, but was elected president on the Republican ticket in 1968 and again in 1972.
Ronald Reagan, an actor and conservative political activist, was elected as president in 1980. Ronald Reagan became the first Republican president who was a former member of the Democratic Party. Ronald Reagan served two terms and his successor George H.W. Bush served one term. Reagan wanted fewer laws to affect the economy, and wanted the military to be stronger.

Bill Clinton (a Democrat) was elected president in 1992, and re-elected in 1996. However, a new Congress was elected in 1994, and Republicans gained control of both the House of Representatives and the Senate. They voted against many of Clinton's ideas and proposed ideas of their own such as a line item veto and a balanced budget amendment. In 2000, George W. Bush was elected president, defeating Al Gore in a very close election. Bush was re-elected in 2004.
After elections held in 2006, Republicans lost control of Congress. Democrat Barack Obama was elected in 2008 and re-elected in 2012. Republican John Boehner was elected the Speaker of the House of Representatives in 2010 and re-elected in 2012. In 2014, Republicans gained control of the Senate and the House. Boehner resigned in early October 2015 and was eventually succeeded by Paul Ryan of Wisconsin on October 29, 2015. On November 9, 2016, Donald Trump was elected president, defeating Democrat Hillary Clinton in the Electoral College. Trump was the first Republican to take office as president since January 20, 2001, when George W. Bush was inaugurated. The Republicans lost the House and won the Senate in 2018. Paul Ryan retired in 2019 and was succeeded by Nancy Pelosi, who is a member of the Democratic Party.

In 2020, the Republicans lost the presidency when Joe Biden defeated Donald Trump. In 2022, they were able to get control back of the House of Representatives, but not the Senate.
Current Republican Beliefs 
Currently, the Republican Party is identified by classical liberalism, conservatism, and right-wing policies.

Not all Republicans believe in the same things, but generally, these are the things many Republicans support in all:
Small government
Federalism and subsidiarity 
 Capitalism, laissez-faire, and supply-side economics
 Reduced government spending
 Aiding the State of Israel, the United States' allies, and defending American interests in the Middle East.
 Lower taxes
 A strong military and strong national defense with increased military spending
 The 2nd Amendment and allowing people to own guns
 Educational Choice, e.g. a voucher system such as the D.C. Opportunity Scholarship Program.
 Oppose illegal immigration and support of deportation
 Oppose government-run health care
 Oppose letting students go to college or university for free
 Oppose declaring Washington D.C. an official state.   
 Oppose Abortion
Most supporters for the Republican Party come from states in the Southern, Deep South, parts of the Midwest, and the rural Northeast areas of the US, as well as from Montana; though they come from all over the United States, including the northern portion of California.

U.S. Presidents 
Republican presidents in the 19th Century

 Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865) (under the name the National Union Party)
 Andrew Johnson (1865–1868) (Johnson in 1868 switched to the Democratic Party)
Ulysses S. Grant (1868–1877)
Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–1881)
James A. Garfield (March 4, 1881–September 19, 1881)
Chester A. Arthur (1881–1885)
Benjamin Harrison (1889–1893)
William McKinley (1897–1901)
Republican presidents in the 20th Century
Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909)
 William Howard Taft (1909–1913)
 Warren G. Harding (1921–1923) (died in office of natural causes)
 Calvin Coolidge (1923–1929)
 Herbert Hoover (1929–1933)
 Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961)
 Richard Nixon (1969–1974) (resigned in 1974)
 Gerald Ford (1974–1977)
 Ronald Reagan (1981–1989)
 George H. W. Bush (1989–1993)

Republican presidents in the 21st Century
George W. Bush (2001–2009)
Donald Trump (2017–2021)

Other Famous Republicans
Spiro T. Agnew (Vice President under President Richard Nixon)
Buzz Aldrin (US astronaut)
Susan B. Anthony (women's rights activist, abolitionist activist)
Clara Barton (Union Army Civil War nurse, humanitarian, Red Cross founder)
 Jeb Bush (Former governor of Florida, son of Former President George H. W. Bush and brother of Former President George W. Bush)
 Jan Brewer (Former Governor of Arizona)
Dr. Ben Carson (U.S. Secretary of HUD under President Trump, retired neurosurgeon)
 Dick Cheney (Vice President under President George W. Bush)
 Chris Christie (Former Governor of New Jersey)
Bing Crosby (American singer and actor)
 Thomas Dewey (Presidential candidate in 1944 and 1948)
 Bob Dole (presidential candidate in 1996, former Senator from Kansas)
Elizabeth Dole (former Senator from North Carolina, former U.S. Secretary of Labor under President George Bush, former U.S. Secretary of Transportation under President Reagan)
John Ford (American film director and producer)
Newt Gingrich (former speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives)
 Rudy Giuliani (former mayor of New York City, former presidential candidate, former US attorney)
 Barry Goldwater (presidential candidate in 1964, former Senator from Arizona)
 Chuck Hagel (a former senator from Nebraska, former U.S. Secretary of Defense)
Nikki Haley (UN Ambassador, former Governor of South Carolina)
Sean Hannity (a well-known talk show host on Fox News)
 Dennis Hastert (former speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives)
Orrin Hatch (former President Pro-tempore of the Senate)
 Jack Kemp (vice-presidential candidate in 1996)
Jeane Kirkpatrick (former UN Ambassador, professor)
 Henry Kissinger (former U.S. Secretary of State)
 Rush Limbaugh (a radio talk show host)
 Richard Lugar (former senator from Indiana)
 John McCain (presidential candidate in 2008, former Senator from Arizona)
 Mitch McConnell (Senate Majority Leader)
 Sarah Palin (vice presidential candidate in 2008, former Governor of Alaska)
Dr. Rand Paul (Senator from Kentucky, physician)
Dr. Ron Paul (former U.S. Congressman from Texas, physician, author)
 Colin Powell (general during Persian Gulf War, Secretary of State)
Paul Robeson (American singer, actor, and Civil Rights activist)
 Nelson Rockefeller (Vice President under President Gerald Ford, former Governor of New York)
 Mitt Romney (former Governor of Massachusetts, presidential candidate in 2012, Senator from Utah)
 Paul Ryan (former Speaker of the US House of Representatives, vice presidential candidate in 2012, U.S. Congressman)
 Condoleezza Rice (former U.S. Secretary of State)
 Karl Rove (former strategist to President George W. Bush)
 Donald Rumsfeld (U.S. Secretary of Defense under President George W. Bush)
 Mark Sanford (Governor of South Carolina)
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (abolitionist activist, women's rights activist)
 Kenneth Starr (U.S. prosecutor of Democrat Bill Clinton)
 Michael Steele (Former chairman of the Republican National Committee)
Ted Stevens (Former Senator from Alaska)
Dr. Mary Edwards Walker (Union Army Civil War doctor and surgeon, abolitionist activist, women's rights activist)
John Wayne (American actor)
Arnold Schwarzenegger (American actor, Former governor of California)
References

Other websites
 Official website 

 
1854 establishments in the United States
Conservative parties
The United States Democratic Party is a center-left party that is one of the two biggest political parties in the United States of America. The other is the Republican Party, which is the Democratic Party's main opponent, and positioned on the center-right of the political spectrum. The U.S. also has several smaller political parties known as third parties. Members of this party are known as Democrats.
Every four years the party holds a National Convention where they agree on their candidate for president.  The Democratic National Committee coordinates most of the activities of the Democratic Party in all 50 United States. Since Andrew Jackson's inauguration in 1829, there have been 16 Democratic presidents (17 if including John Tyler, who, though originally elected to the Vice Presidency as a Whig, was expelled from his party shortly after taking office, became an independent, and allied with Democrats), the most recent (and current) being former Vice President Joseph R. Biden Jr. (D-DE) who took office as President of the United States in 2021.

The Democratic Party represents a broad spectrum of liberal and left-wing ideologies,including—but not limited to—classical liberalism, social democracy, progressivism, and social (modern) liberalism.
Philosophy and role in government 
Democrats, also sometimes called 'the left', 'liberals' or 'progressives' make up one of the two main political parties in the United States. A mostly Democratic state is sometimes called a 'blue state'. This comes from the party’s main color, which is blue, referring to a state supporting ‘blue’ candidates.

Democrats believe in a strong government with social assistance programs to help members of society. They prefer diplomatic solutions to conflicts, and take generally multilateralist views on trade, believing that trade must be free, but fair to protect American workers, consumers, local communities, and the environment. Some Democrats are economic centrists.

Socially, most Democrats believe in sociocultural liberalism, taking pro-immigration, pro-marriage equality, and pro-choice views.

Current Democratic beliefs
Currently, the Democratic Party is identified by progressivism, liberalism, and left-wing policies.
Not all Democrats believe in the same thing, but generally these are the things many Democrats support:

 Progressive income tax.
 Higher corporate taxes and recapturing income from overseas profits.
 Spending on business, education, infrastructure, clean-energy.
 Expanding spending on government programs.
 Ending the death penalty.
 Expanding rights to Abortion.
 Gun control to prevent citizens from owning firearms.
 Support Same-sex marriage.
 Universal healthcare.
 Declare Washington D.C. an official state.
 Helping students go to college or university for free without having to pay back the government.
 Allow undocumented immigrants in the U.S. to stay, pay taxes, and oppose mass deportation.

Most support for Democrats comes from states in the Northeast, Upper Midwest, and the Pacific Coast, as well as from the state of Hawaii.

Symbols 

The symbol of the Democratic Party is the donkey. Since the election of 2000, the color blue has become a symbol for Democrats.
Historically, Thomas Jefferson, whom the party claims as its founder, has been often seen as symbols of the Democratic Party, particularly emphasized in the annual celebrations of Jefferson Day Dinners held since the days of Andrew Jackson. As such, the Democratic Party is also often referred to as the “Party of Jefferson.”

Democratic U.S. Presidents

 Andrew Jackson (1829 – 1837)
 Martin Van Buren (1837 – 1841)
 John Tyler (1841 – 1845) (A Democrat for most of his life, Tyler was elected as the Whig candidate for vice president, but allied with Democrats after assuming the presidency after William Henry Harrison’s death.)
 James K. Polk (1845 – 1849)
 Franklin Pierce (1853 – 1857)
 James Buchanan (1857 – 1861)
 Andrew Johnson (1865 – 1869) (A Democrat for most of his life, Johnson was elected as the National Union candidate for vice president, but allied with Democrats after assuming the presidency after Abraham Lincoln’s assassination.)
Grover Cleveland (1885–1889 and 1893–1897)
Presidents during the 20th century

 Woodrow Wilson (1913 – 1921)
 Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 – 1945)
 Harry S. Truman (1945 – 1953)
 John F. Kennedy (1961 – 1963)
 Lyndon B. Johnson (1963 – 1969)
 Jimmy Carter (1977 – 1981)
 Bill Clinton (1993 – 2001)

Presidents during the 21st century

Barack Obama (2009 – 2017)
Joe Biden (2021 – present)

Other famous Democratic Politicians
Kamala Harris (California), Vice President and Senator from California
 John Kerry (Massachusetts), former Secretary of State, former Senator, former presidential nominee
 Patrick Leahy (Vermont), former President Pro Tempore, Senator, and Dean of the Senate
 Hillary Clinton (New York), former Secretary of State, former Senator, former First Lady, former presidential nominee
 Jim Clyburn (South Carolina), Representative and Assistant Democratic Leader
 Howard Dean (Vermont), former Governor and former head of the Democratic National Committee
 Christopher Dodd (Connecticut), former Senator
 Mario Cuomo (New York), former Governor 
 Dick Durbin (Illinois), Senate Whip
 George Moscone (California), former Mayor of San Francisco
 Chuck Schumer (New York), Senator and Senate Minority Leader.
 Harvey Milk (California), Member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors
 William M. Daley (Illinois), candidate for Governor of Illinois, former White House Chief of Staff
 Frank Lautenberg (New Jersey), former Senator
Pat Quinn, Governor of Illinois
 Paul Simon (Illinois), former Senator
 Arlen Specter (Pennsylvania), former Senator
 Bob Menendez (New Jersey), Senator
 Richard M. Daley (Illinois), former Mayor of Chicago
 Richard J. Daley (Illinois), former Mayor of Chicago
 Al Gore (Tennessee), former presidential candidate and vice-president
 Robert F. Kennedy, former Senator, former presidential candidate, and brother of John F. Kennedy
 Daniel Inouye (Hawaii), former President Pro Tempore, former Senator, and former Dean of the Senate
 Steny Hoyer (Maryland), House Minority Whip
 Robert Byrd (West Virginia), former President Pro Tempore, former Senator, and former Dean of the Senate
 Tim Kaine (Virginia), Governor, 2016 vice presidential nominee and former head of the Democratic National Committee
 Dennis Kucinich (Ohio), Representative
 Janet Napolitano (Arizona), Secretary of Homeland Security
 Nancy Pelosi (California), Speaker of the House
 Brian Schweitzer (Montana), former Governor
Harry Reid (Nevada), former Senate Minority Leader
 Rahm Emanuel (Illinois), Mayor of Chicago, former White House Chief of Staff
 Harry F. Byrd, Jr. (Virginia), former Senator
 Bill Richardson (New Mexico), Governor
 Debbie Wasserman Schultz (Florida), Representative and former head of the Democratic National Committee
 Mark Warner (Virginia), Senator and former Governor
 Elizabeth Warren, Senator from Massachusetts
 Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (New York), Representative
Independents who caucus with Democrats 
 Bernie Sanders, Senator from Vermont
 Angus King, Senator from Maine
 Kyrsten Sinema, Senator from Arizona

Former Democrats

 Ronald Reagan (California), 40th President of the United States (1981–1989). Registered Democrat until 1962.
 Condoleezza Rice (Alabama), 66th United States Secretary of State (2005–2009). Registered Democrat until 1982.
 Rudy Giuliani (New York), 107th Mayor of New York City (1994–2001). Registered Democrat until 1975.
 Rick Perry (Texas), 14th United States Secretary of Energy (2017–2019), 47th Governor of Texas (2000–2015). Registered Democrat until 1989.
 Jesse Helms (North Carolina), United States Senator (1973–2003). Registered Democrat (1942–1970).
 Donald Trump (New York), 45th President of the United States (2017–2021), Registered Democrat on and off until 2009.

Related pages
 Libertarian Party (United States)
 Green Party (United States)
 Democratic-Republican Party

References

Other websites

 www.democrats.org
www.democrats.org

 
1828 establishments in the United States
Taste is one of the senses experienced by humans and other animals. It is felt by the tongue while eating, and is used to sense the flavor of food that is in the mouth. Humans can sense five tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami.

Humans have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The perception of taste is organised by a special part of the cerebral cortex. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.

Basic tastes

Bitterness 

Many common foods are bitter, like coffee, bitter melon, olives and citrus peel.
Bitterness is of interest to those who study evolution, as well as various health researchers. Many naturally bitter compounds are toxic. The ability to detect bitter-tasting, toxic compounds at low thresholds may have a protective function, but some test have not confirmed this. Plant leaves often contain toxic compounds, and among leaf-eating primates there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves. Young leaves tend to be higher in protein and lower in fiber and poisons than mature leaves. Amongst humans, various food processing techniques are used worldwide to detoxify otherwise inedible foods and make them palatable.

Animals which eat a lot of bitter plant material, such as browsers do have ways of dealing with it.  They produce tannin-binding proteins, which other animals do not.  Tannins are bitter compounds common in material from trees and bushes, though not grass.

Saltiness 
Saltiness is felt when there is sodium in the food.  A common spice that is salty is common salt, sodium chloride.
Savouriness 
Savouriness (or savoriness) is the taste of savoury foods. It is also known by the Japanese word , and comes from umai, which means 'yummy'. This taste was known for a long time, but only became an official scientific term in 1985.

To taste savoriness, your tongue has special parts that detect amino acids that are in foods like meats and cheeses.

Sourness 
Sourness is tasted when acids are on your tongue. Many foods have acid in them and are sour, like lemons and vinegar.

Sweetness 
Sweetness is a taste felt when sugars are in the food. Most people consider sweetness to be a pleasant taste.

Taste-related

Spicy/hot 
This sensation is not a special sense of taste because it does not have specific taste buds. It is a complex sensation.

Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation called chemesthesis, piquance, spiciness, hotness, or prickliness. Two main sources of  this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers and piperine from black pepper.
Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly giving the sensation of "hot". Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye (cornea) or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat or sometimes pain, when exposed to such chemicals.

Other sensations 
The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system.

Also, it is known that smell and sight contribute to the overall sensation of eating and drinking. The temperature of food makes a difference to its appreciation.

The strange coolness of spearmint, menthol and camphor is caused by their molecules triggering a sensory system which normally works to sense low temperatures.

There is still much to learn about the taste system. Consider, for example, the tastes of ginger and horseradish.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Sensory system
This article is about one of the five main senses. For other uses, see Touch (disambiguation)

Touch is one of the five main senses that animals have. It can be called the sense of body or the sense of touch. The system also has internal sensory receptors, and includes sensing temperature and pain. There is a special area in the brain used to processing input of touch. It is in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex.

An animal knows if something is against a part of its body. This is called the sense of touch. The process of touching something may be called feeling.

Tiny touch sense organs under the skin help animals feel hardness, softness, and sharpness, for example. Animals also have sense organs which feel temperature and pain. Some parts of the body, such as fingertips have many more sense organs than others.

When animals touch things, nerve fibres attached to the sense organ sends messages to the brain through the central nervous system. The brain interprets the messages, and animals feel things.
Touch as communication 
Humans, and mammals in general, often touch each other. Touch is a kind of non-verbal communication. Behaviours based on touch are very important for keeping family and group members together ('bonding'). It is part of the 'glue' of their social life. Monkeys grooming each other's fur is a good example.

Related pages 
 Braille
 Proprioception
 Touchscreen

References 

Sensory system
Non-verbal communication
Classical mechanics is the part of physics that describes how everyday things move and how their motion changes because of forces. If we know how things are moving now, classical mechanics allows us to predict how they will move in the future and how they were moving in the past. We can use classical mechanics to predict how things like planets and rockets move.

Classical mechanics is not accurate when things are the size of atoms or smaller: for those things, we use quantum mechanics instead. Classical mechanics is also not accurate when things move close to the speed of light: for those things, we use special relativity instead.

Position, velocity, and acceleration