{"text": "Contents"}
{"text": "xiSection I: Events and Processes"}
{"text": "I. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe 3"}
{"text": "II. The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China 25"}
{"text": "III.Nationalism in India 4"}
{"text": "9"}
{"text": "Section II: Livelihoods, Economies and Societies"}
{"text": "IV. The Making of a Global World 77"}
{"text": "V.The Age of Industrialisation 97"}
{"text": "V"}
{"text": "I. Work, Life and Leisure 117"}
{"text": "Section III: Everyday Life, Culture and Politics"}
{"text": "VII. Print Culture and the Modern World 141"}
{"text": "VIII. Novels, Society and History 159"}
{"text": "Foreword iii"}
{"text": "Introduction ix      In 1848, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four"}
{"text": "prints visualising his dream of a world made up of \u2018democratic"}
{"text": "and social Republics\u2019, as he called them. The first print (Fig. 1) of theseries, shows the peoples of Europe and America \u2013 men and women"}
{"text": "of all ages and social classes \u2013 marching in a long train, and offering"}
{"text": "homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it. As you wouldrecall, artists of the time of the French Revolution personified Liberty"}
{"text": "as a female figure \u2013 here you can recognise the torch of Enlightenment"}
{"text": "she bears in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in theother. On the earth in the foreground of the image lie the shattered"}
{"text": "remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions. In Sorrieu\u2019s"}
{"text": "utopian  vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct"}
{"text": "nations, identified through their flags and national costume. Leading"}
{"text": "the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the United States"}
{"text": "and Switzerland, which by this time were already nation-states. France,"}
{"text": "The  Rise  of  Nationalism  in  Europe"}
{"text": "Fig. 1 \u2014 The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics \u2013 The Pact Between Nations, a print prepared by"}
{"text": "Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Sorrieu, 1848."}
{"text": "Chapter I"}
{"text": "The Rise of Nationalism in Europe"}
{"text": "New words"}
{"text": "Absolutist \u2013 Literally, a government or"}
{"text": "system of rule that has no restraints onthe power exercised. In history, the term"}
{"text": "refers to a form of monarchical"}
{"text": "government that was centralised,militarised and repressive"}
{"text": "Utopian \u2013 A vision of a society that is so"}
{"text": "ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist"}
{"text": "In what way do you think this print (Fig. 1)"}
{"text": "depicts a utopian vision?ActivityIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "4identifiable by the revolutionary tricolour, has just reached the statue."}
{"text": "She is followed by the peoples of Germany, bearing the black, redand gold flag. Interestingly, at the time when Sorrieu created this"}
{"text": "image, the German peoples did not yet exist as a united nation \u2013 the"}
{"text": "flag they carry is an expression of liberal hopes in 1848 to unify thenumerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-state under"}
{"text": "a democratic constitution. Following the German peoples are the"}
{"text": "peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy,Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia. From the heavens"}
{"text": "above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene. They have"}
{"text": "been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations ofthe world."}
{"text": "This chapter will deal with many of the issues visualised by Sorrieu"}
{"text": "in Fig. 1. During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as aforce which brought about sweeping changes in the political and"}
{"text": "mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was the"}
{"text": "emergence of the nation-state  in place of the multi-national dynastic"}
{"text": "empires of Europe. The concept and practices of a modern  state, in"}
{"text": "which a centralised power exercised sovereign control over a clearlydefined territory, had been developing over a long period of timein Europe. But a nation-state  was one in which the majority of its"}
{"text": "citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of commonidentity and shared history or descent. This commonness did notexist from time immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through"}
{"text": "the actions of leaders and the common people. This chapter will"}
{"text": "look at the diverse processes through which nation-states andnationalism came into being in nineteenth-century Europe.Ernst Renan, \u2018What is a Nation?\u2019"}
{"text": "In a lecture delivered at the University of"}
{"text": "Sorbonne in 1882, the French philosopher ErnstRenan (1823-92) outlined his understanding ofwhat makes a nation. The lecture  wassubsequently published as a famous essay entitled\u2018Qu\u2019est-ce qu\u2019une nation?\u2019 (\u2018What is a Nation?\u2019).In this essay Renan criticises the notion suggestedby others that a nation is formed by a commonlanguage, race, religion, or territory:"}
{"text": "\u2018A nation is the culmination of a long past ofendeavours, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past,great men, glory, that is the social capital uponwhich one bases a national idea. To havecommon glories in the past, to have a commonwill in the present, to have performed great deedstogether, to wish to perform still more, theseare the essential conditions of being a people. Anation is therefore a large-scale solidarity \u2026 Itsexistence is a daily plebiscite \u2026 A province is its"}
{"text": "inhabitants; if anyone has the right to beconsulted, it is the inhabitant. A nation neverhas any real interest in annexing or holding on toa country against its will. The existence of nationsis a good thing, a necessity even. Their existenceis a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost ifthe world had only one law and only one master.\u2019"}
{"text": "SourceSource A"}
{"text": "Summarise the attributes of a nation, as Renan"}
{"text": "understands them. Why, in his view, are nations"}
{"text": "important?DiscussNew words"}
{"text": "Plebiscite \u2013 A direct vote by which all the"}
{"text": "people of a region are asked to accept or reject"}
{"text": "a proposal5"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   Europe1  The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation"}
{"text": "The first clear expression of nationalism came with"}
{"text": "the French Revolution in 1789. France, as you"}
{"text": "would remember, was a full-fledged territorial state"}
{"text": "in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch.The political and constitutional changes that came"}
{"text": "in the wake of the French Revolution led to the"}
{"text": "transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to abody of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed"}
{"text": "that it was the people who would henceforth"}
{"text": "constitute the nation and shape its destiny."}
{"text": "From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries"}
{"text": "introduced various measures and practices that"}
{"text": "could create a sense of collective identity amongstthe French people. The ideas of la patrie (the"}
{"text": "fatherland) and le citoyen  (the citizen) emphasised"}
{"text": "the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under aconstitution. A new French flag, the tricolour,   was chosen to replace"}
{"text": "the former royal standard. The Estates General  was elected by the"}
{"text": "body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. Newhymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated,"}
{"text": "all in the name of the nation. A centralised administrative system"}
{"text": "was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizenswithin its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished"}
{"text": "and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted."}
{"text": "Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spokenand written in Paris, became the common language of the nation."}
{"text": "The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the"}
{"text": "destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europefrom despotism, in other words to help other peoples of Europe"}
{"text": "to become nations."}
{"text": "When the news of the events in France reached the different cities"}
{"text": "of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes"}
{"text": "began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and campaigns"}
{"text": "prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland,Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s. With the"}
{"text": "outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to"}
{"text": "carry the idea of nationalism abroad."}
{"text": "Fig. 2 \u2014 The cover of a German almanac"}
{"text": "designed by the journalist Andreas Rebmann in1798.The image of the French Bastille being stormedby the revolutionary crowd has been placednext to a similar fortress meant to represent thebastion of despotic rule in the German provinceof Kassel. Accompanying the illustration is theslogan: \u2018The people must seize their ownfreedom!\u2019 Rebmann lived in the  city of Mainzand was  a member of a German Jacobin group.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "6Within the wide swathe of territory that came under his control,"}
{"text": "Napoleon set about introducing many of the reforms that he had"}
{"text": "already introduced in France. Through a return to monarchyNapoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in"}
{"text": "the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles"}
{"text": "in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. TheCivil Code of 1804 \u2013 usually known as the Napoleonic Code \u2013"}
{"text": "did away with all privileges based on birth, established  equality"}
{"text": "before the law and secured  the right to property. This Code wasexported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic,"}
{"text": "in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified"}
{"text": "administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freedpeasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns too, guild"}
{"text": "restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems"}
{"text": "were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen"}
{"text": "Fig. 3 \u2014  Europe after the"}
{"text": "Congress of Vienna, 1815.ICELAND"}
{"text": "(DENMARK)"}
{"text": "NORWAY"}
{"text": "(SWEDEN)"}
{"text": "SWEDEN"}
{"text": "DENMARK"}
{"text": "HABOVER"}
{"text": "(G.B.)"}
{"text": "NETHERLANDSENGLANDWALESIRELAND GREAT"}
{"text": "BRITA NSCOTLAND"}
{"text": "FRANCE"}
{"text": "SPA N"}
{"text": "PORTUGAL"}
{"text": "MOROCCOALGERIATUNIS"}
{"text": "EGYPTPALEST NESYRIA"}
{"text": "CYPRUSMESOPOTAMIAARMENIAOTTOMAN EMPIRE"}
{"text": "CRETEGREECEBULGARIAROMANIA"}
{"text": "SERBIAHUNGARYAUSTRIAN EMPIRE"}
{"text": "AUSTRIAGALICIA"}
{"text": "BAVARIA"}
{"text": "SWITZERLANDPRUSSIA"}
{"text": "POLANDRUSSIAN EMPIRE"}
{"text": "SARDINIACORSICASMALL"}
{"text": "STATES"}
{"text": "KINGDOM"}
{"text": "OF  THE"}
{"text": "TWO"}
{"text": "SIC L ESGEORGIA"}
{"text": "PERSIA"}
{"text": "MEDITERRANEAN SEAATLANTIC  SEA7"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   Europeenjoyed a new-found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale"}
{"text": "producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform"}
{"text": "laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national"}
{"text": "currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goodsand capital from one region to another."}
{"text": "However, in the areas conquered, the reactions of the local"}
{"text": "populations to French rule were mixed. Initially, in many places suchas Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels,"}
{"text": "Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as"}
{"text": "harbingers of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility,as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not"}
{"text": "go hand in hand with political freedom. Increased taxation,"}
{"text": "censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required toconquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages"}
{"text": "of the administrative changes."}
{"text": "Fig. 4 \u2014 The Planting of Tree of Liberty in Zweibr\u00fccken, Germany."}
{"text": "The subject of this colour print by the German painter Karl Kaspar Fritz is the occupation of the town of Zweibr\u00fcckenby the French armies. French soldiers, recognisable by their blue, white and red uniforms, have been portrayed asoppressors as they seize a peasant\u2019s cart (left), harass some young women (centre foreground) and force a peasant"}
{"text": "down to his knees. The plaque being affixed to the Tree of Liberty carries a German inscription which in translation"}
{"text": "reads: \u2018Take freedom and equality from us, the model of humanity.\u2019 This is a sarcastic reference to the claim of theFrench as being liberators who opposed monarchy in the territories they entered."}
{"text": "Fig. 5 \u2014  The courier of Rhineland loses all that"}
{"text": "he has on his way home from Leipzig.Napoleon here is represented as a postman onhis way back to France after he lost the battle ofLeipzig in 1813. Each letter dropping out of hisbag bears the names of the territories he lost.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "8If you look at the map of mid-eighteenth-century Europe you will"}
{"text": "find that there were no \u2018nation-states\u2019 as we know them today."}
{"text": "What we know today as Germany, Italy and Switzerland were"}
{"text": "divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose rulers had theirautonomous territories. Eastern and Central Europe were under"}
{"text": "autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse"}
{"text": "peoples. They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identityor a common culture. Often, they even spoke different languages"}
{"text": "and belonged to different ethnic groups. The Habsburg Empire"}
{"text": "that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a patchwork ofmany different regions and peoples. It included the Alpine regions"}
{"text": "\u2013 the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland \u2013 as well as Bohemia,"}
{"text": "where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking. It alsoincluded the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia."}
{"text": "In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other"}
{"text": "half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spokePolish. Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within"}
{"text": "the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples \u2013"}
{"text": "Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croatsto the south, and Roumans to the east in Transylvania. Such"}
{"text": "differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The"}
{"text": "only tie binding these diverse groups together was a commonallegiance to the emperor."}
{"text": "How did nationalism and the idea of the nation-state emerge?"}
{"text": "2.1 The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class"}
{"text": "Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class"}
{"text": "on the continent. The members of this class were united by a"}
{"text": "common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They ownedestates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French"}
{"text": "for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families were"}
{"text": "often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was,however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population"}
{"text": "was made up of the peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land"}
{"text": "was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern andCentral Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by"}
{"text": "vast estates which were cultivated by serfs.2  The Making of Nationalism in Europe"}
{"text": "Some important dates"}
{"text": "1797"}
{"text": "Napoleon invades Italy; Napoleonic warsbegin."}
{"text": "1814-1815"}
{"text": "Fall of Napoleon; the Vienna PeaceSettlement."}
{"text": "1821"}
{"text": "Greek struggle for independence begins."}
{"text": "1848"}
{"text": "Revolutions in Europe; artisans, industrialworkers and peasants revolt againsteconomic hardships; middle classesdemand constitutions and representativegovernments; Italians, Germans, Magyars,Poles, Czechs, etc. demand nation-states."}
{"text": "1859-1870"}
{"text": "Unification of Italy."}
{"text": "1866-1871"}
{"text": "Unification of Germany."}
{"text": "1905"}
{"text": "Slav nationalism gathers force in theHabsburg and Ottoman Empires.9"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   EuropeIn Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial"}
{"text": "production and trade meant the growth of towns and the emergence"}
{"text": "of commercial classes whose existence was based on productionfor the market. Industrialisation began in England in the secondhalf of the eighteenth century, but in France and parts of the German"}
{"text": "states it occurred only during the nineteenth century. In its wake,"}
{"text": "new social groups came into being: a working-class population, andmiddle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, professionals.In Central and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller in number"}
{"text": "till late nineteenth century. It was among the educated, liberal middle"}
{"text": "classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition ofaristocratic privileges gained popularity."}
{"text": "2.2 What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?"}
{"text": "Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closelyallied to the ideology of liberalism. The term \u2018liberalism\u2019 derivesfrom the Latin root liber, meaning free. For the new middle classes"}
{"text": "liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all"}
{"text": "before the law. Politically, it emphasised the concept of government"}
{"text": "by consent. Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood forthe end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution andrepresentative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century"}
{"text": "liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property."}
{"text": "Yet, equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal"}
{"text": "suffrage . You will recall that in revolutionary France, which marked"}
{"text": "the first political experiment in liberal democracy, the right to vote"}
{"text": "and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men."}
{"text": "Men without property and all women were excluded from politicalrights. Only for a brief period under the Jacobins did all adult malesenjoy suffrage. However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited"}
{"text": "suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to"}
{"text": "the authority of fathers and husbands. Throughout the nineteenthand early twentieth centuries women and non-propertied menorganised opposition movements demanding equal political rights."}
{"text": "In the  economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets"}
{"text": "and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement"}
{"text": "of goods and capital. During the nineteenth century this was a strongdemand of the emerging middle classes. Let us take the example of"}
{"text": "the German-speaking regions in the first half of the nineteenth"}
{"text": "century. Napoleon\u2019s administrative measures had created out ofNew words"}
{"text": "Suffrage \u2013 The right to voteIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "10countless small principalities a confederation of 39 states. Each of"}
{"text": "these possessed its own currency, and weights and measures. Amerchant travelling in 1833 from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sellhis goods would have had to pass through 11 customs barriers andpay a customs duty of about 5 per cent at each one of them. Dutieswere often levied according to the weight or measurement of thegoods. As each region had its own system of weights and measures,"}
{"text": "this involved time-consuming calculation. The measure of cloth,"}
{"text": "for example, was the elle  which in each region stood for a different"}
{"text": "length. An elle  of textile material bought in Frankfurt would get you"}
{"text": "54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg 65.6 cm, inFreiburg 53.5 cm."}
{"text": "Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange"}
{"text": "and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the"}
{"text": "creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhinderedmovement of goods, people and capital.  In 1834, a customs unionor zollverein  was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by"}
{"text": "most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers andreduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two. The"}
{"text": "creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility,"}
{"text": "harnessing economic interests to national unification. A wave ofeconomic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentimentsgrowing at the time."}
{"text": "2.3 A New Conservatism after 1815"}
{"text": "Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments"}
{"text": "were driven by a spirit of conservatism . Conservatives believed"}
{"text": "that established, traditional institutions of state and society \u2013  like the"}
{"text": "monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family \u2013should be preserved. Most conservatives, however, did not proposea return to the society of pre-revolutionary days. Rather, they realised,from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could"}
{"text": "in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy. It could"}
{"text": "make  state  power more effective and strong. A modern army, anefficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalismand serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe."}
{"text": "In 1815, representatives of the European powers \u2013 Britain, Russia,"}
{"text": "Prussia and Austria \u2013 who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met"}
{"text": "at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The Congress was"}
{"text": "hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. The delegatesEconomists began to think in terms of the national"}
{"text": "economy. They talked of how the nation coulddevelop and what economic measures could helpforge this nation together."}
{"text": "Friedrich List, Professor of Economics at the"}
{"text": "University of T\u00fcbingen in Germany, wrote in 1834:"}
{"text": "\u2018The aim of the zollverein is to bind the Germans"}
{"text": "economically into a nation. It will strengthen thenation materially as much by protecting itsinterests externally as by stimulating its internalproductivity. It ought to awaken and raisenational sentiment through a fusion of individualand provincial interests. The German people haverealised that a free economic system is the onlymeans to engender national feeling.\u2019"}
{"text": "SourceSource B"}
{"text": "Describe the political ends that List hopes to"}
{"text": "achieve through economic measures.Discuss"}
{"text": "New words"}
{"text": "Conservatism \u2013 A political philosophy that"}
{"text": "stressed the importance of tradition, establishedinstitutions and customs, and preferred gradual"}
{"text": "development to quick change11"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   Europedrew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing"}
{"text": "most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the"}
{"text": "Napoleonic wars. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposedduring the French Revolution, was restored to power, and France"}
{"text": "lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon. A series of states"}
{"text": "were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansionin future. Thus the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included"}
{"text": "Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont"}
{"text": "in the south. Prussia was given important new territories on its westernfrontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy. But the"}
{"text": "German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon"}
{"text": "was left untouched. In the east, Russia was given part of Polandwhile Prussia was given a portion of Saxony. The main intention"}
{"text": "was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by"}
{"text": "Napoleon, and create a new conservative order in Europe."}
{"text": "Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not"}
{"text": "tolerate criticism and dissent, and sought to curb activities that"}
{"text": "questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.  Most of themimposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers,"}
{"text": "books, plays and songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedomPlot on a map of Europe the changes drawn"}
{"text": "up by the Vienna Congress.Activity"}
{"text": "Fig. 6 \u2014 The Club of Thinkers, anonymous caricature dating to c. 1820."}
{"text": "The plaque on the left bears the inscription: \u2018The most important question of today\u2019s meeting: How"}
{"text": "long will thinking be allowed to us?\u2019The board on the right lists the rules of the Club which include the following:\u20181. Silence is the first commandment of this learned society.2. To avoid the eventuality whereby a member of this club may succumb to the temptation ofspeech, muzzles will be distributed to members upon entering.\u2019What is the caricaturist trying to depict?DiscussIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "12associated with the French Revolution. The memory of the French"}
{"text": "Revolution nonetheless continued to inspire liberals. One of the majorissues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new"}
{"text": "conservative order, was freedom of the press."}
{"text": "2.4 The Revolutionaries"}
{"text": "During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove manyliberal-nationalists underground. Secret societies sprang up in many"}
{"text": "European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas. Tobe revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose"}
{"text": "monarchical forms that had been established after the Vienna"}
{"text": "Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom. Most of theserevolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary"}
{"text": "part of this struggle for freedom."}
{"text": "One such individual was the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini."}
{"text": "Born in Genoa in 1807, he became a member of the secret society"}
{"text": "of the Carbonari. As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in"}
{"text": "1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He subsequently foundedtwo more underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles,"}
{"text": "and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded"}
{"text": "young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural"}
{"text": "units of mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of"}
{"text": "small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unifiedrepublic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone"}
{"text": "could be the basis of Italian liberty. Following his model, secret"}
{"text": "societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.Mazzini\u2019s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of"}
{"text": "democratic republics frightened the conservatives.  Metternich"}
{"text": "described him as \u2018the most dangerous enemy of our social order\u2019."}
{"text": "Fig. 7 \u2014 Giuseppe Mazzini and the founding of"}
{"text": "Young Europe in Berne 1833.Print by Giacomo Mantegazza.13"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   Europe3  The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848"}
{"text": "As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power, liberalism"}
{"text": "and nationalism came to be increasingly associated with revolution"}
{"text": "in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and German states,"}
{"text": "the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland. Theserevolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists belonging to theeducated middle-class elite, among whom were professors, school-teachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes."}
{"text": "The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.  The Bourbon"}
{"text": "kings who had been restored to power during the conservative"}
{"text": "reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionarieswho installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at itshead. \u2018When France sneezes,\u2019 Metternich once remarked, \u2018the rest ofEurope catches cold.\u2019  The July Revolution sparked an uprising inBrussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United"}
{"text": "Kingdom of the Netherlands."}
{"text": "An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite"}
{"text": "across Europe was the Greek war of independence. Greece hadbeen part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. Thegrowth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle"}
{"text": "for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821."}
{"text": "Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exileand also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancientGreek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle ofEuropean civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support itsstruggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron"}
{"text": "organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of"}
{"text": "fever in 1824. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832recognised Greece as an independent nation."}
{"text": "3.1 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling"}
{"text": "The development of nationalism did not come about only throughwars and territorial expansion. Culture played an important role in"}
{"text": "creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music"}
{"text": "helped express and shape nationalist feelings."}
{"text": "Let us look at Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to"}
{"text": "develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artistsand poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and scienceIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "14Fig. 8 \u2014 The Massacre at Chios, Eugene Delacroix, 1824."}
{"text": "The French painter Delacroix was one of the most important French Romanticpainters. This huge painting (4.19m x 3.54m) depicts an incident in which20,000 Greeks were said to have been killed by Turks on the island of Chios. Bydramatising the incident, focusing on the suffering of women and children, andusing vivid colours, Delacroix sought to appeal to the emotions of the spectators,and create sympathy for the Greeks."}
{"text": "and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings."}
{"text": "Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, acommon cultural past, as the basis of a nation."}
{"text": "Other Romantics such as the German philosopher Johann Gottfried"}
{"text": "Herder (1744-1803) claimed that true German culture was to bediscovered among the common people \u2013 das volk . It was through"}
{"text": "folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of thenation ( volksgeist ) was popularised. So collecting and recording these"}
{"text": "forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building."}
{"text": "15"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   EuropeThe Grimm Brothers: Folktales and"}
{"text": "Nation-building"}
{"text": "Grimms\u2019 Fairy Tales  is a familiar name. The brothers"}
{"text": "Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born in theGerman city of Hanau in 1785 and 1786respectively. While both of them studied law,they soon developed an interest in collecting oldfolktales. They spent six years travelling fromvillage to village, talking to people and writingdown fairy tales, which were handed downthrough the generations. These were popularboth among children and adults. In 1812, theypublished their first collection of tales.Subsequently, both the brothers became activein liberal politics, especially the movementfor freedom of the press. In the meantime theyalso published a 33-volume dictionary of theGerman language."}
{"text": "The Grimm brothers also saw French domination"}
{"text": "as a threat to German culture, and believed thatthe folktales they had collected were expressionsof a pure and authentic German spirit. Theyconsidered their projects of collecting folktalesand developing the German language as part ofthe wider effort to oppose French dominationand create a German national identity.The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local"}
{"text": "folklore was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to"}
{"text": "carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were"}
{"text": "mostly illiterate. This was especially so in the case of Poland, whichhad been partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by theGreat Powers \u2013 Russia, Prussia and Austria. Even though Poland no"}
{"text": "longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept"}
{"text": "alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski, for example,celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turningfolk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols."}
{"text": "Language too played an important role in developing nationalist"}
{"text": "sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forcedout of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere.In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which"}
{"text": "was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy"}
{"text": "in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction.As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or"}
{"text": "sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their"}
{"text": "refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as asymbol of the struggle against Russian dominance."}
{"text": "3.2 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt"}
{"text": "The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. The"}
{"text": "first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in"}
{"text": "population all over Europe. In most countries there were moreseekers of jobs than employment. Population from rural areasmigrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums. Small producers"}
{"text": "in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of"}
{"text": "cheap machine-made goods from England, where industrialisationwas more advanced than on the continent. This was especially so intextile production, which was carried out mainly in homes or small"}
{"text": "workshops and was only partly mechanised. In those regions of"}
{"text": "Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggledunder the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of foodprices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in"}
{"text": "town and country."}
{"text": "The year 1848 was one such year. Food shortages and widespread"}
{"text": "unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads.Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee. ADiscuss the importance of language and"}
{"text": "popular traditions in the creation of national"}
{"text": "identity.DiscussBox 1India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "16National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all"}
{"text": "adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work. National"}
{"text": "workshops to provide employment were set up."}
{"text": "Earlier, in 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors"}
{"text": "who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished"}
{"text": "textiles but drastically reduced their payments. The journalist Wilhelm"}
{"text": "Wolff described the events in a Silesian village as follows:"}
{"text": "In these villages (with 18,000 inhabitants) cotton weaving is the"}
{"text": "most widespread occupation \u2026 The misery of the workers is"}
{"text": "extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantageof by the contractors to reduce the prices of the goods they"}
{"text": "order \u2026"}
{"text": "On 4 June at 2 p.m. a large crowd of weavers emerged from"}
{"text": "their homes and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their"}
{"text": "contractor demanding higher wages. They were treated with"}
{"text": "scorn and threats alternately. Following this, a group of themforced their way into the house, smashed its elegant window-"}
{"text": "panes, furniture, porcelain \u2026 another group broke into the"}
{"text": "storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth which theytore to shreds \u2026 The contractor fled with his family to a"}
{"text": "neighbouring village which, however, refused to shelter such a"}
{"text": "person. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army.In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot."}
{"text": "Fig. 9 \u2014 Peasants\u2019 uprising, 1848."}
{"text": "Describe the cause of the Silesian weavers\u2019"}
{"text": "uprising. Comment on the viewpoint of the"}
{"text": "journalist.Discuss"}
{"text": "Imagine you are a weaver who saw the eventsas they unfolded. Write a report on what you saw.Activity17"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   Europe3.3 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals"}
{"text": "Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants"}
{"text": "and workers in many European countries in the year 1848, a revolutionled by the educated middle classes was under way. Events of February"}
{"text": "1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch"}
{"text": "and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not"}
{"text": "yet exist \u2013 such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian"}
{"text": "Empire \u2013 men and women of the liberal middle classes combinedtheir demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They"}
{"text": "took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their"}
{"text": "demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentaryprinciples \u2013 a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom"}
{"text": "of association."}
{"text": "In the German regions a large number of political associations whose"}
{"text": "members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and"}
{"text": "prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided"}
{"text": "to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On 18"}
{"text": "May 1848,"}
{"text": "831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take"}
{"text": "their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of"}
{"text": "St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to beheaded by a monarchy subject to a parliament. When the deputies"}
{"text": "offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of"}
{"text": "Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose theelected assembly. While the opposition of the aristocracy and military"}
{"text": "became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded. The"}
{"text": "parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted thedemands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support."}
{"text": "In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced"}
{"text": "to disband."}
{"text": "The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial"}
{"text": "one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women"}
{"text": "had participated actively over the years. Women had formed theirown political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in"}
{"text": "political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this they were deniedHow were liberty and equality for women"}
{"text": "to be defined?"}
{"text": "The liberal politician Carl Welcker, an elected"}
{"text": "member of the Frankfurt Parliament, expressedthe following views:"}
{"text": "\u2018Nature has created men and women to carry"}
{"text": "out different functions \u2026 Man, the stronger, thebolder and freer of the two, has been designatedas protector of the family, its provider, meant forpublic tasks in the domain of law, production,defence. Woman, the weaker, dependent andtimid, requires the protection of man. Her sphereis the home, the care of the children, thenurturing of the family \u2026 Do we require anyfurther proof that given such differences, equalitybetween the sexes would only endangerharmony and destroy the dignity of the family?\u2019"}
{"text": "Louise Otto-Peters (1819-95) was a political"}
{"text": "activist who founded a women\u2019s journal andsubsequently a feminist  political association. The"}
{"text": "first issue of her newspaper (21 April 1849) carriedthe following editorial:"}
{"text": "\u2018Let us ask how many men, possessed by"}
{"text": "thoughts of living and dying for the sake of Liberty,would be prepared to fight for the freedom ofthe entire people, of all human beings? Whenasked this question, they would all too easilyrespond with a \u201cYes!\u201d, though their untiringefforts are intended for the benefit of only onehalf of humanity \u2013 men. But Liberty is indivisible!Free men therefore must not tolerate to besurrounded by the unfree \u2026\u2019"}
{"text": "An anonymous reader of the same newspaper"}
{"text": "sent the following letter to the editor on 25 June1850:"}
{"text": "\u2018It is indeed ridiculous and unreasonable to deny"}
{"text": "women political rights even though they enjoythe right to property which they make useof. They perform functions and assumeresponsibilities without however getting thebenefits that accrue to men for the same \u2026 Whythis injustice? Is it not a disgrace that even thestupidest cattle-herder possesses the rightto vote, simply because he is a man, whereashighly talented women owning considerableproperty are excluded from this right, eventhough they contribute so much to themaintenance of the state?\u2019"}
{"text": "SourceSource C"}
{"text": "New words"}
{"text": "Feminist \u2013 Awareness of women\u2019s rights and interests based on"}
{"text": "the belief of the social, economic and political equality of the gendersIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "18"}
{"text": "Fig. 10 \u2014 The Frankfurt parliament in the Church of St Paul."}
{"text": "Contemporary colour print. Notice the women in the upper left gallery."}
{"text": "Compare the positions on the question of"}
{"text": "women\u2019s rights voiced by the three writers cited"}
{"text": "above. What do they reveal about liberal"}
{"text": "ideology ?Discuss"}
{"text": "New words"}
{"text": "Ideology \u2013 System of ideas reflecting a"}
{"text": "particular social and political visionsuffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. When theFrankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, womenwere admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors\u2019 gallery."}
{"text": "Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements"}
{"text": "in 1848, they could not restore the old order. Monarchs werebeginning to realise that the cycles of revolution and repression could"}
{"text": "only be ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist"}
{"text": "revolutionaries. Hence, in the years after 1848, the autocraticmonarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the"}
{"text": "changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815."}
{"text": "Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in theHabsburg dominions and in Russia. The Habsburg rulers granted"}
{"text": "more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.19"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   Europe4  The Making of Germany and Italy"}
{"text": "4.1 Germany \u2013 Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?"}
{"text": "After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association"}
{"text": "with democracy and revolution. Nationalist sentiments were often"}
{"text": "mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achievingpolitical domination over Europe."}
{"text": "This can be observed in the process by which Germany and Italy came"}
{"text": "to be unified as nation-states. As you have seen, nationalist feelings werewidespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite"}
{"text": "the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state"}
{"text": "governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative to nation-buildingwas, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and"}
{"text": "the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia."}
{"text": "From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement fornational unification. Its chief minister, Otto von"}
{"text": "Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried"}
{"text": "out with the help of the Prussian army andbureaucracy. Three wars over seven years \u2013 with"}
{"text": "Austria, Denmark and France \u2013 ended in Prussian"}
{"text": "victory and completed the process of unification.In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I,"}
{"text": "was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony"}
{"text": "held at Versailles."}
{"text": "On the bitterly cold morning of 18 January 1871,"}
{"text": "an assembly comprising the princes of the"}
{"text": "German states, representatives of the army,important Prussian ministers including the chief"}
{"text": "minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the"}
{"text": "unheated Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versaillesto proclaim the new German Empire headed"}
{"text": "by Kaiser William I of Prussia."}
{"text": "The nation-building process in Germany had"}
{"text": "demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state"}
{"text": "power. The new state placed a strong emphasis"}
{"text": "on modernising the currency, banking, legaland judicial systems in Germany. Prussian"}
{"text": "measures and practices often became a model for"}
{"text": "the rest of Germany."}
{"text": "Fig. 11 \u2014 The proclamation of the German empire in the Hall of"}
{"text": "Mirrors at Versailles, Anton von Werner.  At the centre stands the"}
{"text": "Kaiser and the chief commander of the Prussian army, General vonRoon. Near them is Bismarck. This monumental work (2.7m x2.7m) was completed and presented by the artist to Bismarck onthe latter\u2019s 70th birthday in 1885.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "204.2 Italy Unified"}
{"text": "Like Germany, Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation."}
{"text": "Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the"}
{"text": "multi-national Habsburg Empire. During the middle of thenineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which"}
{"text": "only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house."}
{"text": "The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled bythe Pope and the southern regions were under the domination"}
{"text": "of the Bourbon kings of Spain. Even the Italian language had"}
{"text": "not acquired one common form and still had many regional andlocal variations."}
{"text": "During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a"}
{"text": "coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had alsoformed a secret society called Young Italy for the dissemination of"}
{"text": "his goals. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and"}
{"text": "1848 meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont underits ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through"}
{"text": "war. In the eyes of the ruling elites of this region, a unified"}
{"text": "Italy offered them the possibility of economic development andpolitical dominance."}
{"text": "Fig. 13 \u2014 Caricature of Otto von Bismarck in"}
{"text": "the German reichstag (parliament), from Figaro ,"}
{"text": "Vienna, 5 March 1870."}
{"text": "Describe the caricature. How does it represent"}
{"text": "the relationship between Bismarck and the"}
{"text": "elected deputies of Parliament? What"}
{"text": "interpretation of democratic processes is the"}
{"text": "artist trying to convey?Activity"}
{"text": "NORTH SEA"}
{"text": "SCHLESWIG-"}
{"text": "HOLSTE N"}
{"text": "MECKLENBURG-"}
{"text": "SCHWER N"}
{"text": "THUR NGIAN"}
{"text": "STATESHANOVER"}
{"text": "WESTPHALIA"}
{"text": "HESSEN  NASSARHINELANDBRUNSWICK"}
{"text": "BAVARIA BADENWURTTEMBERGAUSTRIAN"}
{"text": "EMPIRES LESIAPOSENBRANDENBURGPOMERANIAWEST PRUSSIAEAST PRUSSIABALTIC SEA"}
{"text": "PRUSSIA"}
{"text": "RUSSIAN"}
{"text": "EMP RE"}
{"text": "Prussia before 1866"}
{"text": "Conquered by Prussia in Austro-Prussia"}
{"text": "War, 1866"}
{"text": "Austrian territories excluded from German"}
{"text": "Confederation 1867"}
{"text": "Joined with Prussia to form German"}
{"text": "Confederation, 1867"}
{"text": "South German states joining with Prussia to"}
{"text": "form German Empire, 1871"}
{"text": "Won by Prussia in Franco-Prussia War, 1871"}
{"text": "Fig. 12 \u2014 Unification of Germany (1866-71).21"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   Europe"}
{"text": "Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions"}
{"text": "of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like manyother wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke"}
{"text": "French much better than he did Italian. Through a tactful diplomatic"}
{"text": "alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia- Piedmont"}
{"text": "succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Apart from regular"}
{"text": "troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of"}
{"text": "Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into SouthItaly and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning"}
{"text": "the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish"}
{"text": "rulers. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of unitedItaly. However, much of the Italian population, among whom rates"}
{"text": "of illiteracy were very high, remained blissfully unaware of liberal-"}
{"text": "nationalist ideology. The peasant masses who had supported Garibaldiin southern Italy had never heard of Italia, and believed that \u2018La  Talia\u2019"}
{"text": "was Victor Emmanuel\u2019s wife!"}
{"text": "Fig. 14(a) \u2014 Italian states before unification, 1858."}
{"text": "Fig. 14(b) \u2014 Italy after unification."}
{"text": "The map shows the year in which differentregions (seen in Fig 14(a) become part of aunified Italy.SWITZERLAND"}
{"text": "VENETIALOMBARDY"}
{"text": "SAVOY"}
{"text": "SARD NIA PARMA"}
{"text": "MODENA"}
{"text": "TUSCANYSAN MARINO"}
{"text": "PAPAL"}
{"text": "STATE"}
{"text": "KINGDOM"}
{"text": "OF BOTH"}
{"text": "SICIL ES"}
{"text": "TUNISMONACO1858"}
{"text": "1858-60"}
{"text": "18601866"}
{"text": "1870SWITZERLAND"}
{"text": "TUNIS"}
{"text": "4.3  The Strange Case of Britain"}
{"text": "The model of the nation or the nation-state, some scholars have"}
{"text": "argued, is Great Britain. In Britain the formation of the nation-stateAUSTRIALook at Fig. 14(a). Do you think that the people"}
{"text": "living in any of these regions thought of"}
{"text": "themselves as Italians?"}
{"text": "Examine Fig. 14(b). Which was the first region"}
{"text": "to become a part of unified Italy? Which was the"}
{"text": "last region to join? In which year did the largest"}
{"text": "number of states join?Activity"}
{"text": "1858India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "22was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the"}
{"text": "result of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British nationprior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people"}
{"text": "who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic  ones \u2013 such as English,"}
{"text": "Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural"}
{"text": "and political traditions. But as the English nation steadily grew in"}
{"text": "wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence"}
{"text": "over the other nations of the islands. The English parliament, whichhad seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a"}
{"text": "protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state,"}
{"text": "with England at its centre, came to be forged. The Act of Union(1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation"}
{"text": "of the \u2018United Kingdom of Great Britain\u2019 meant, in effect, that"}
{"text": "England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The Britishparliament was henceforth dominated by its English members. The"}
{"text": "growth of a British identity meant that Scotland\u2019s distinctive culture"}
{"text": "and political institutions were systematically suppressed. The Catholicclans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression"}
{"text": "whenever they attempted to assert their independence. The Scottish"}
{"text": "Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language orwear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven"}
{"text": "out of their homeland."}
{"text": "Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided"}
{"text": "between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants"}
{"text": "of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country."}
{"text": "Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed. After afailed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798),"}
{"text": "Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801."}
{"text": "A new \u2018British nation\u2019 was forged through the propagation of adominant English culture. The symbols of the new Britain \u2013 the"}
{"text": "British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble"}
{"text": "King), the English language \u2013 were actively promoted and the oldernations survived only as subordinate partners in this union."}
{"text": "New words"}
{"text": "Ethnic \u2013 Relates to a common racial, tribal, or"}
{"text": "cultural origin or background that a communityidentifies with or claimsThe artist has portrayed Garibaldi as holding on to the base of"}
{"text": "the boot, so that the King of Sardinia-Piedmont can enter it from"}
{"text": "the top. Look at the map of Italy once more. What statement is"}
{"text": "this caricature making?ActivityGiuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) is perhaps the"}
{"text": "most celebrated of Italian freedom fighters. He"}
{"text": "came from a family engaged in coastal trade andwas a sailor in the merchant navy. In 1833 hemet Mazzini, joined the Young Italy movementand participated in a republican uprising inPiedmont in 1834. The uprising was suppressedand Garibaldi had to flee to South America, wherehe lived in exile till 1848. In 1854, he supportedVictor Emmanuel II in his efforts to unify theItalian states. In 1860, Garibaldi led the famousExpedition of the Thousand to South Italy. Freshvolunteers kept joining through the course ofthe campaign, till their numbers grew to about30,000. They were popularly known as RedShirts."}
{"text": "In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to"}
{"text": "Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unificationof Italy, the Papal States where a French garrisonwas stationed. The Red Shirts proved to be nomatch for the combined French and Papal troops.It was only in 1870 when, during the war withPrussia, France withdrew its troops from Romethat the Papal States were finally joinedto Italy.Box 2"}
{"text": "Fig. 15 \u2013 Garibaldi helping King Victor"}
{"text": "Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont to pull on theboot named \u2018Italy\u2019. English caricature of 1859.23"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   Europe5  Visualising the Nation"}
{"text": "While it is easy enough to represent a ruler through a portrait or a"}
{"text": "statue, how does one go about giving a face to a nation? Artists in"}
{"text": "the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out bypersonifying a nation. In other words they represented a country as"}
{"text": "if it were a person. Nations were then portrayed as female figures."}
{"text": "The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did notstand for any particular woman in real life; rather it sought to give"}
{"text": "the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female"}
{"text": "figure became an allegory  of the nation."}
{"text": "You will recall that during the French Revolution artists used the"}
{"text": "female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the"}
{"text": "Republic. These ideals were represented through specific objects orsymbols.  As you would remember, the attributes of Liberty are the"}
{"text": "red cap, or the broken chain, while Justice is generally a blindfolded"}
{"text": "woman carrying a pair of weighing scales."}
{"text": "Similar female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth"}
{"text": "century to represent the nation. In France she was christened"}
{"text": "Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of apeople\u2019s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty"}
{"text": "and the Republic \u2013 the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues"}
{"text": "of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public ofthe national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with"}
{"text": "it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps."}
{"text": "Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In"}
{"text": "visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as"}
{"text": "the German oak stands for heroism."}
{"text": "New words"}
{"text": "Allegory \u2013 When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy,"}
{"text": "freedom, liberty) is expressed through a person or a thing. Anallegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolicFig. 16 \u2014 Postage stamps of 1850 with the"}
{"text": "figure of Marianne representing the Republic ofFrance."}
{"text": "Fig. 17 \u2014 Germania, Philip Veit, 1848."}
{"text": "The artist prepared this painting of Germania on acotton banner, as it was meant to hang from theceiling of the Church of St Paul where the Frankfurtparliament was convened in March 1848."}
{"text": "India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "24Box 3"}
{"text": "Meanings of the symbols"}
{"text": "Attribute Significance"}
{"text": "Broken chains Being freed"}
{"text": "Breastplate with eagle Symbol of the German empire \u2013 strength"}
{"text": "Crown of oak leaves Heroism"}
{"text": "Sword Readiness to fight"}
{"text": "Olive branch around the sword Willingness to make peace"}
{"text": "Black, red and gold tricolour Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by the Dukes of the"}
{"text": "German states"}
{"text": "Rays of the rising sun Beginning of a new era"}
{"text": "With the help of the chart in Box 3, identify the attributes of Veit\u2019s"}
{"text": "Germania and interpret the symbolic meaning of the painting."}
{"text": "In an earlier allegorical rendering of 1836, Veit had portrayed the"}
{"text": "Kaiser\u2019s crown at the place where he has now located the"}
{"text": "broken chain. Explain the significance of this change.Activity"}
{"text": "Fig. 18 \u2014 The fallen Germania, Julius H\u00fcbner, 1850."}
{"text": "Describe what you see in Fig. 17. What historical events could H\u00fcbner bereferring to in this allegorical vision of the nation?Activity"}
{"text": "25"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   Europe"}
{"text": "Fig. 19 \u2014 Germania guarding the Rhine."}
{"text": "In 1860, the artist Lorenz Clasen was commissioned to paint this image. The inscriptionon Germania\u2019s sword reads: \u2018The German sword protects the German Rhine.\u2019"}
{"text": "Look once more at Fig. 10. Imagine you were a citizen of Frankfurt in March 1848 and were present during the"}
{"text": "proceedings of the parliament. How would you (a) as a man seated in the hall of deputies, and (b) as a woman"}
{"text": "observing from the galleries, relate to the banner of Germania hanging from the ceiling?ActivityIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "266  Nationalism and Imperialism"}
{"text": "By the last quarter of the nineteenth century nationalism no longer"}
{"text": "retained its idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment of the first half"}
{"text": "of the century, but became a narrow creed with limited ends. During"}
{"text": "this period nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of eachother and ever ready to go to war. The major European powers, in"}
{"text": "turn, manipulated the nationalist aspirations of the subject peoples"}
{"text": "in Europe to further their own imperialist aims."}
{"text": "The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871"}
{"text": "was the area called the Balkans. The Balkans was a region of"}
{"text": "geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania,Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina,"}
{"text": "Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly"}
{"text": "known as the Slavs. A large part of the Balkans was under the controlof the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic"}
{"text": "nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the"}
{"text": "Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. All through thenineteenth century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen"}
{"text": "itself through modernisation and internal reforms but with very"}
{"text": "little success. One by one, its European subject nationalities brokeaway from its control and declared independence. The Balkan"}
{"text": "peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on"}
{"text": "nationality and used history to prove that they had once beenindependent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign"}
{"text": "powers. Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of"}
{"text": "their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence."}
{"text": "As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity"}
{"text": "and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict."}
{"text": "The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hopedto gain more territory at the expense of the others. Matters were"}
{"text": "further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of"}
{"text": "big power rivalry. During this period, there was intense rivalry amongthe European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and"}
{"text": "military might. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan"}
{"text": "problem unfolded. Each power \u2013 Russia, Germany, England,Austro-Hungary \u2013 was keen on countering the hold of other powers"}
{"text": "over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This"}
{"text": "led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.27"}
{"text": "Nationalism   in   EuropeNationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914."}
{"text": "But meanwhile, many countries in the world which had beencolonised by the European powers in the nineteenth century began"}
{"text": "to oppose imperial domination. The anti-imperial movements that"}
{"text": "developed everywhere were nationalist, in the sense that they allstruggled to form independent nation-states, and were inspired by"}
{"text": "a sense of collective national unity, forged in confrontation with"}
{"text": "imperialism. European ideas of nationalism were nowherereplicated, for people everywhere developed their own specific variety"}
{"text": "of nationalism. But the idea that societies should be organised into"}
{"text": "\u2018nation-states\u2019 came to be accepted as natural and universal."}
{"text": "Fig. 20 \u2014 A map celebrating the British Empire."}
{"text": "At the top, angels are shown carrying the banner of freedom. In the foreground, Britannia \u2014 the"}
{"text": "symbol of the British nation \u2014 is triumphantly sitting over the globe. The colonies are represented"}
{"text": "through images of tigers, elephants, forests and primitive people. The domination of the world isshown as the basis of Britain\u2019s national pride.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "28Discuss"}
{"text": "Project1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals.  What were the political, social"}
{"text": "and economic ideas supported by the liberals?"}
{"text": "2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism"}
{"text": "in Europe."}
{"text": "3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth"}
{"text": "century."}
{"text": "4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?"}
{"text": "5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?"}
{"text": "Find out more about nationalist symbols in countries outside Europe. For one or two countries,"}
{"text": "collect examples of pictures, posters or music that are symbols of nationalism. How are these"}
{"text": "different from European examples?"}
{"text": "DiscussWrite in brief"}
{"text": "1. Write a note on:"}
{"text": "a) Guiseppe  Mazzinib) Count Camillo de Cavour"}
{"text": "c) The Greek war of independence"}
{"text": "d)  Frankfurt parliament"}
{"text": "e) The role of women in nationalist struggles"}
{"text": "2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective"}
{"text": "identity among the French people?"}
{"text": "3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in"}
{"text": "which they were portrayed?"}
{"text": "4. Briefly trace the process of German unification."}
{"text": "5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more"}
{"text": "efficient in the territories ruled by him?"}
{"text": "Write in brief"}
{"text": "Project    Vietnam gained formal independence in 1945, before India, but"}
{"text": "it took another three decades of fighting before the Republic"}
{"text": "of Vietnam was formed. This chapter on Indo-China willintroduce you to one of the important states of the peninsula, namely,"}
{"text": "Vietnam.  Nationalism in Indo-China developed in a colonial context."}
{"text": "The knitting together of a modern Vietnamese nation that broughtthe different communities together was in part the result of"}
{"text": "colonisation but, as importantly, it was shaped by the struggle against"}
{"text": "colonial domination."}
{"text": "If you see the historical experience of Indo-China in relation to that"}
{"text": "of India, you will discover important differences in the way colonial"}
{"text": "empires functioned and the anti-imperial movement developed. Bylooking at such differences and similarities you can  understand  the"}
{"text": "variety of ways in which nationalism has developed and shaped the"}
{"text": "contemporary world."}
{"text": "The  Nationalist  Movement  in  Indo-China Chapter II The Nationalist Movement in"}
{"text": "Indo-China"}
{"text": "Fig.1 \u2013 Map of Indo-China."}
{"text": "India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "301  Emerging from the Shadow of China"}
{"text": "Indo-China comprises the modern countries of Vietnam, Laos and"}
{"text": "Cambodia (see Fig. 1). Its early history shows many different groups"}
{"text": "of people living in this area under the shadow of the powerful"}
{"text": "empire of China. Even when an independent country was establishedin what is now northern and central Vietnam, its rulers continued"}
{"text": "to maintain the Chinese system of government as well as"}
{"text": "Chinese culture."}
{"text": "Vietnam was also linked to what has been called the maritime silk"}
{"text": "route that brought in goods, people and ideas. Other networks of"}
{"text": "trade connected it to the hinterlands where non-Vietnamese peoplesuch as the Khmer Cambodians lived."}
{"text": "Fig. 2 \u2013 The port of Faifo."}
{"text": "This port was founded by Portuguese merchants. It was one ofthe ports used by European trading companies much before thenineteenth century."}
{"text": "1.1 Colonial Domination and Resistance"}
{"text": "The colonisation of Vietnam by the French brought the people of"}
{"text": "the country into conflict with the colonisers in all areas of life. The"}
{"text": "most visible form of French control was military and economic"}
{"text": "domination but the French also built a system that tried to reshape"}
{"text": "the culture of the Vietnamese. Nationalism in Vietnam emergedthrough the efforts of different sections of society to fight against"}
{"text": "the French and all they represented.31"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-ChinaFig. 3 \u2013 Francis Garnier, a French officer who led"}
{"text": "an attack against the ruling Nguyen dynasty,being killed by soldiers of the court.Garnier was part of the French team that exploredthe Mekong river. In 1873 he was commissionedby the French to try and establish a Frenchcolony in Tonkin in the north. Garnier carried outan attack on Hanoi, the capital of Tonkin, but waskilled in the fight."}
{"text": "French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858"}
{"text": "and by the mid-1880s they had established"}
{"text": "a firm grip over the northern region.After the Franco-Chinese war the"}
{"text": "French  assumed control of Tonkin and"}
{"text": "Anaam and, in 1887, French Indo-Chinawas formed. In the following decades"}
{"text": "the French sought to consolidate"}
{"text": "their position, and people in Vietnambegan reflecting on the nature of the"}
{"text": "loss that Vietnam was suffering. Nationalist"}
{"text": "resistance developed out of this reflection."}
{"text": "Fig. 4 \u2013 The Mekong river, engraving by the French Exploratory Force, in which Garnier participated."}
{"text": "Exploring and mapping rivers was part of the colonial enterprise everywhere in the world. Colonisers wanted to knowthe route of the rivers, their origin, and the terrain they passed through. The rivers could then be properly used fortrade and transport. During these explorations innumerable pictures and maps were produced.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "32The famous blind poet Ngyuyen Dinh Chieu (1822-88) bemoaned"}
{"text": "what was happening to his country:"}
{"text": "I would rather face eternal darkness"}
{"text": "Than see the faces of traitors."}
{"text": "I would rather see no manThan encounter one man\u2019s suffering."}
{"text": "I would rather see nothing"}
{"text": "Than witness the dismembering of the countryin decline."}
{"text": "1.2 Why the French thought Colonies Necessary"}
{"text": "Colonies were considered essential to supply natural resources andother essential goods. Like other Western nations, France also thought"}
{"text": "it was the mission of the \u2018advanced\u2019 European countries to bring"}
{"text": "the benefits of civilisation to backward peoples."}
{"text": "The French began by building canals and draining lands in the Mekong"}
{"text": "delta to increase cultivation. The vast system of irrigation works \u2013"}
{"text": "canals and earthworks \u2013 built mainly with forced labour, increasedrice production and allowed the export of rice to the international"}
{"text": "market. The area under rice cultivation went up from 274,000"}
{"text": "hectares in 1873 to 1.1 million hectares in 1900 and 2.2 million in1930. Vietnam exported two-thirds of its rice production and by"}
{"text": "1931 had become the third largest exporter of rice in the world."}
{"text": "This was followed by infrastructure projects to help transport goods"}
{"text": "for trade, move military garrisons and control the entire region."}
{"text": "Construction of a trans-Indo-China rail network that would link"}
{"text": "the northern and southern parts of Vietnam and China was begun.This final link with Yunan in China was completed by 1910. The"}
{"text": "second line was also built, linking Vietnam to Siam (as Thailand was"}
{"text": "then called), via the Cambodian capital of Phnom Penh."}
{"text": "By the 1920s, to ensure higher levels of profit for their businesses,"}
{"text": "French business interests were pressurising the government in Vietnam"}
{"text": "to develop the infrastructure further."}
{"text": "1.3 Should Colonies be Developed?"}
{"text": "Everyone agreed that colonies had to serve the interests of the mothercountry. But the question was \u2013 how? Some like Paul Bernard, aninfluential writer and policy-maker, strongly believed that theImagine a conversation between a French"}
{"text": "coloniser and a Vietnamese labourer in the"}
{"text": "canal project. The Frenchman believes he is"}
{"text": "bringing civilization to backward people and"}
{"text": "the Vietnamese labourer argues against it. In"}
{"text": "pairs act out the conversation they may have"}
{"text": "had, using evidence from the text.Activity33"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-Chinaeconomy of the colonies needed to be developed. He argued that"}
{"text": "the purpose of acquiring colonies was to make profits. If theeconomy was developed and the standard of living of the people"}
{"text": "improved, they would buy more goods. The market would"}
{"text": "consequently expand, leading to better profits for French business."}
{"text": "Bernard suggested that there were several barriers to economic"}
{"text": "growth in Vietnam: high population levels, low agricultural"}
{"text": "productivity and extensive indebtedness amongst the peasants. Toreduce rural poverty and increase agricultural productivity it was"}
{"text": "necessary to carry out land reforms as the Japanese had done in the"}
{"text": "1890s. However, this could not ensure sufficient employment. Asthe experience of Japan showed, industrialisation would be essential"}
{"text": "to create more jobs."}
{"text": "The colonial economy in Vietnam was, however, primarily based"}
{"text": "on rice cultivation and rubber plantations owned by the French and"}
{"text": "a small Vietnamese elite. Rail and port facilities were set up to service"}
{"text": "this sector. Indentured  Vietnamese labour was widely used in the"}
{"text": "rubber plantations. The French, contrary to what Bernard would"}
{"text": "have liked, did little to industrialise the economy. In the rural areas"}
{"text": "landlordism spread and the standard of living declined.New words"}
{"text": "Indentured labour \u2013 A form of labour widely"}
{"text": "used in the plantations from the mid-nineteenth"}
{"text": "century. Labourers worked on the basis of"}
{"text": "contracts that did not specify any rights oflabourers but gave immense power to"}
{"text": "employers. Employers could bring criminal"}
{"text": "charges against labourers and punish and jailthem for non-fulfilment of contracts."}
{"text": "Fig. 5  \u2013 A French weapons merchant, Jean Dupuis, in Vietnam in the late"}
{"text": "nineteenth century."}
{"text": "Many like him explored the regions in the hope of making profits from trade. He wasone of those who persuaded the French to try and establish a base in Vietnam.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "342  The Dilemma of Colonial Education"}
{"text": "French colonisation was not based only on economic exploitation."}
{"text": "It was also driven by the idea of a \u2018civilising mission\u2019. Like the Britishin India, the French claimed that they were bringing modern civilisationto the Vietnamese. They took for granted that Europe had developedthe most advanced civilisation. So it became the duty of theEuropeans to introduce these modern ideas to the colony even ifthis meant destroying local cultures, religions and traditions, becausethese were seen as outdated and prevented modern development."}
{"text": "Education was seen as one way to civilise the \u2018native\u2019. But in order"}
{"text": "to educate them, the French had to resolve a dilemma. How farwere the Vietnamese to be educated? The French needed an educatedlocal labour force but they feared that education might createproblems. Once educated, the Vietnamese may begin to questioncolonial domination. Moreover, French citizens living in Vietnam(called colons) began fearing that they might lose their jobs \u2013 asteachers, shopkeepers, policemen \u2013 to the educated Vietnamese. Sothey opposed policies that would give the Vietnamese full access toFrench education."}
{"text": "2.1 Talking Modern"}
{"text": "The French were faced with yet another problem in the sphere ofeducation: the elites in Vietnam were powerfully influenced byChinese culture. To consolidate their power, the French had tocounter this Chinese influence. So they systematically dismantled thetraditional educational system and established French schools forthe Vietnamese. But this was not easy. Chinese, the language used bythe elites so far, had to be replaced. But what was to take its place?Was the language to be Vietnamese or French?"}
{"text": "There were two broad opinions on this question. Some policy-"}
{"text": "makers emphasised the need to use the French language as themedium of instruction. By learning the language, they felt, theVietnamese would be introduced to the culture and civilisation ofFrance. This would help create an \u2018Asiatic France solidly tied toEuropean France\u2019. The educated people in Vietnam would respectFrench sentiments and ideals, see the superiority of French culture,and work for the French. Others were opposed to French beingthe only medium of instruction. They suggested that Vietnamese betaught in lower classes and French in the higher classes. The few35"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-Chinawho learnt French and acquired French culture were to be rewarded"}
{"text": "with French citizenship."}
{"text": "However, only the Vietnamese elite \u2013 comprising a small fraction"}
{"text": "of the population \u2013 could enroll in the schools, and only a few"}
{"text": "among those admitted ultimately passed the school-leavingexamination. This was largely because of a deliberate policy of failing"}
{"text": "students, particularly in the final year, so that they could not qualify"}
{"text": "for the better-paid jobs. Usually, as many as two-thirds of the studentsfailed. In 1925, in a population of 17 million, there were less than"}
{"text": "400 who passed the examination."}
{"text": "School textbooks glorified the French and justified colonial rule."}
{"text": "The Vietnamese were represented as primitive and backward, capable"}
{"text": "of manual labour but not of intellectual reflection; they could work"}
{"text": "in the fields but not rule themselves; they were \u2018skilled copyists\u2019 butnot creative. School children were told that only French rule could"}
{"text": "ensure peace in Vietnam: \u2018Since the establishment of French rule the"}
{"text": "Vietnamese peasant no longer lives in constant terror of pirates \u2026Calm is complete, and the peasant can work with a good heart.\u2019"}
{"text": "2.2 Looking Modern"}
{"text": "The Tonkin Free School was started in 1907 to provide a Western-style education. This education included classes in science, hygiene"}
{"text": "and French (these classes were held in the evening and had to be"}
{"text": "paid for separately). The school\u2019s approach to what it means tobe \u2018modern\u2019 is a good example of the thinking prevalent at that"}
{"text": "time. It was not enough to learn science and Western ideas: to be"}
{"text": "modern the Vietnamese had to also look modern. The schoolencouraged the adoption of Western styles such as having a short"}
{"text": "haircut. For the Vietnamese this meant a major break with their own"}
{"text": "identity since they traditionally kept long hair. To underline theimportance of a total change there was even a \u2018haircutting chant\u2019:"}
{"text": "Comb in the left handScissors in the right,Snip, snip, clip, clip!"}
{"text": "Watch out, be careful,"}
{"text": "Drop stupid practices,Dump childish things"}
{"text": "Speak openly and frankly"}
{"text": "Study Western customsImagine you are a student in the Tonkin Free"}
{"text": "School in 1910. How would you react to:"}
{"text": "\u00bewhat the textbooks say about the"}
{"text": "Vietnamese?"}
{"text": "\u00bewhat the school tells you about hairstyles?Activity"}
{"text": "Fig. 6  \u2013 A local caricature ridiculing the"}
{"text": "Vietnamese who has been westernised."}
{"text": "Abandoning his own culture, he has begunwearing Western clothes and playing tennis.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "362.3 Resistance in Schools"}
{"text": "Teachers and students did not blindly follow the curriculum."}
{"text": "Sometimes there was open opposition, at other times there was"}
{"text": "silent resistance. As the numbers of Vietnamese teachers increased"}
{"text": "in the lower classes, it became difficult to control what was actuallytaught. While teaching, Vietnamese teachers quietly modified the text"}
{"text": "and criticised what was stated."}
{"text": "In 1926 a major protest erupted in the Saigon Native Girls School."}
{"text": "A Vietnamese girl sitting in one of the front seats was asked"}
{"text": "to move to the back of the class and allow a local French student"}
{"text": "to occupy the front bench. She refused. The principal, also acolon (French people in the colonies), expelled her. When angry"}
{"text": "students protested, they too were expelled, leading to a further"}
{"text": "spread of open protests. Seeing the situation getting out of control,the government forced the school to take the students back."}
{"text": "The principal reluctantly agreed but warned the students, \u2018I will crush"}
{"text": "all Vietnamese under my feet. Ah! You wish my deportation. Knowwell that I will leave only after I am assured Vietnamese no longer"}
{"text": "inhabit Cochinchina.\u2019"}
{"text": "Elsewhere, students fought against the colonial government\u2019s efforts"}
{"text": "to prevent the Vietnamese from qualifying for white-collar jobs."}
{"text": "They were inspired by patriotic feelings and the conviction that it"}
{"text": "was the duty of the educated to fight  for the benefit of society.This brought them into conflict with the French as well as the"}
{"text": "traditional elite, since both saw their positions threatened. By the"}
{"text": "1920s, students were forming various political parties, such as theParty of Young Annan, and publishing nationalist journals such as"}
{"text": "the Annanese Student ."}
{"text": "Schools thus became an important place for political and cultural"}
{"text": "battles. The French sought to strengthen their rule in Vietnam through"}
{"text": "the control of education. They tried to change the values, norms"}
{"text": "and perceptions of the people, to make them believe in the superiorityof French civilisation and the inferiority of the Vietnamese."}
{"text": "Vietnamese intellectuals, on the other hand, feared that Vietnam was"}
{"text": "losing not just control over its territory but its very identity: its ownculture and customs were being devalued and the people were"}
{"text": "developing a master-slave mentality. The battle against French"}
{"text": "colonial education became part of the larger battle against colonialismand for independence.Some important dates"}
{"text": "1802"}
{"text": "Nguyen Anh becomes emperor symbolising"}
{"text": "the unification of the country under the Nguyen"}
{"text": "dynasty."}
{"text": "1867"}
{"text": "Cochinchina (the South) becomes a French"}
{"text": "colony."}
{"text": "1887"}
{"text": "Creation of the Indo-china Union, including"}
{"text": "Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin, Cambodia and"}
{"text": "later, Laos."}
{"text": "1930"}
{"text": "Ho Chi Minh forms the Vietnamese"}
{"text": "Communist Party."}
{"text": "1945"}
{"text": "Vietminh start a general popular insurrection."}
{"text": "Bao Dai abdicates. Ho Chi Minh declares"}
{"text": "independence in Hanoi (September 23)."}
{"text": "1954"}
{"text": "The French army is defeated at Dien Bien Phu."}
{"text": "1961"}
{"text": "Kennedy decides to increase US military aid to"}
{"text": "South Vietnam."}
{"text": "1974"}
{"text": "Paris Peace Treaty."}
{"text": "1975 (April 30)"}
{"text": "NLF troops enter Saigon."}
{"text": "1976"}
{"text": "The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is"}
{"text": "proclaimed.37"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China3  Hygiene, Disease and Everyday Resistance"}
{"text": "Education was not the only sphere of everyday life in which such"}
{"text": "political battles against colonialism were fought. In many other"}
{"text": "institutions we can see the variety of small ways in which the colonised"}
{"text": "expressed their anger against the colonisers."}
{"text": "3.1 Plague Strikes Hanoi"}
{"text": "Take the case of health and hygiene. When the French set aboutcreating a modern Vietnam, they decided to rebuild Hanoi.The latest ideas about architecture and modern engineering skills"}
{"text": "were employed to build a new and \u2018modern\u2019 city. In 1903,"}
{"text": "the modern part of Hanoi was struck by bubonic plague. Inmany colonial countries, measures to control the spread of disease"}
{"text": "created serious social conflicts. But in Hanoi events took a peculiarly"}
{"text": "interesting turn."}
{"text": "The French part of Hanoi was built as a beautiful and clean city with"}
{"text": "wide avenues and a well-laid-out sewer system, while the \u2018native"}
{"text": "Fig. 7 \u2013 Modern Hanoi."}
{"text": "Colonial buildings like this one came up in"}
{"text": "the French part of Hanoi.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "38What does the 1903 plague and the measures"}
{"text": "to control it tell us about the French colonial"}
{"text": "attitude towards questions of health and"}
{"text": "hygiene?Discussquarter\u2019 was not provided with any modern facilities. The refuse"}
{"text": "from the old city drained straight out into the river or, during heavy"}
{"text": "rains or floods, overflowed into the streets. Thus what was installedto create a hygienic environment in the French city became the cause"}
{"text": "of the plague. The large sewers in the modern part of the city, a"}
{"text": "symbol of modernity, were an ideal and protected breeding groundfor rats. The sewers also served as a great transport system, allowing"}
{"text": "the rats to move around the city without any problem. And rats"}
{"text": "began to enter the well-cared-for homes of the French through thesewage pipes. What was to be done?"}
{"text": "3.2 The Rat Hunt"}
{"text": "To stem this invasion, a rat hunt was started in 1902.  The Frenchhired Vietnamese workers and paid them for each rat they caught."}
{"text": "Rats began to be caught in thousands: on 30 May, for instance, 20,000"}
{"text": "were caught but still there seemed to be no end. For the Vietnamesethe rat hunt seemed to provide an early lesson in the success of"}
{"text": "collective bargaining. Those who did the dirty work of entering"}
{"text": "sewers found that if they came together they could negotiate a higherbounty. They also discovered innovative ways to profit from this"}
{"text": "situation. The bounty was paid when a tail was given as proof that"}
{"text": "a rat had been killed. So the rat-catchers took to just clipping thetails and releasing the rats, so that the process could be repeated,"}
{"text": "over and over again. Some people, in fact, began  raising  rats to"}
{"text": "earn a bounty."}
{"text": "Defeated by the resistance of the weak, the French were forced to"}
{"text": "scrap the bounty programme. None of this prevented the bubonic"}
{"text": "plague, which swept through the area in 1903 and in subsequentyears. In a way, the rat menace marks the limits of French power"}
{"text": "and the contradictions in their \u2018civilising mission\u2019. And the actions of"}
{"text": "the rat-catchers tell us of the numerous small ways in whichcolonialism was fought in everyday life.39"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China4  Religion and Anti-colonialism"}
{"text": "Fig. 8  \u2013 The execution of Father Borie, a Catholic"}
{"text": "missionary."}
{"text": "Images like this by French artists were publicisedin France to stir up religious fury.Box 1"}
{"text": "Confucius (551-479 BCE), a Chinese thinker,"}
{"text": "developed a philosophical system based on good"}
{"text": "conduct, practical wisdom and proper socialrelationships. People were taught to respect theirparents and submit to elders. They were toldthat the relationship between the ruler and thepeople was the same as that between childrenand parents."}
{"text": "Colonial domination was exercised by control over all areas of private"}
{"text": "and public life. The French occupied Vietnam militarily but they also"}
{"text": "sought to reshape social and cultural life. While religion played an"}
{"text": "important role in strengthening colonial control, it also providedways of resistance. Let us consider how this happened."}
{"text": "Vietnam\u2019s religious beliefs were a mixture of Buddhism,"}
{"text": "Confucianism and local  practices. Christianity, introduced by Frenchmissionaries, was intolerant of this easygoing attitude and viewed"}
{"text": "the Vietnamese tendency to revere the supernatural as something to"}
{"text": "be corrected."}
{"text": "From the eighteenth century, many  religious movements were hostile"}
{"text": "to the Western presence. An early movement against French control"}
{"text": "and the spread of Christianity was the Scholars Revolt in 1868. Thisrevolt was led by officials at the imperial court angered by the spread"}
{"text": "of Catholicism and French power. They led a general uprising inIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "40New words"}
{"text": "Syncretic \u2013 Characterised by syncretism; aimsto bring together different beliefs and practices,"}
{"text": "seeing their essential unity rather than their"}
{"text": "differenceConcentration camp \u2013 A prison where people"}
{"text": "are  detained without due process of law. The"}
{"text": "word evokes an image of a place of tortureand brutal treatmentNgu An and Ha Tien provinces where over a thousand Catholics"}
{"text": "were killed. Catholic missionaries had been active in winning converts"}
{"text": "since the early seventeenth century, and by the middle of theeighteenth century had converted some 300,000.  The French crushed"}
{"text": "the movement but this uprising served to inspire other patriots to"}
{"text": "rise up against them."}
{"text": "The elites in Vietnam were educated in Chinese and Confucianism."}
{"text": "But religious beliefs among the peasantry were shaped by a variety"}
{"text": "of syncretic  traditions that combined Buddhism and local beliefs."}
{"text": "There were many popular religions in Vietnam that were spread by"}
{"text": "people who claimed to have seen a vision of God. Some of these"}
{"text": "religious movements supported the French, but others inspiredmovements against colonial rule."}
{"text": "One such movement was the Hoa Hao. It began in 1939"}
{"text": "and gained great popularity in the fertile Mekong delta area. Itdrew on religious ideas popular in anti-French uprisings of the"}
{"text": "nineteenth century."}
{"text": "The founder of Hoa Hao was a man called Huynh Phu So. He"}
{"text": "performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless"}
{"text": "expenditure had a wide appeal. He also opposed the sale of child"}
{"text": "brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium."}
{"text": "The French tried to suppress the movement inspired by Huynh"}
{"text": "Phu So. They declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze,"}
{"text": "and put him in a mental asylum. Interestingly, the doctor whohad to prove him insane became his follower, and finally in 1941,"}
{"text": "even the French doctors declared that he was sane. The French"}
{"text": "authorities exiled him to Laos and sent many of his followers toconcentration camps ."}
{"text": "Movements like this always had a contradictory relationship withmainstream nationalism. Political parties often drew upon theirsupport, but were uneasy about their activities.  They could neither"}
{"text": "control or discipline these groups, nor support their rituals"}
{"text": "and practices."}
{"text": "Yet the significance of these movements in arousing anti-imperialist"}
{"text": "sentiments should not be underestimated.41"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-ChinaIn Japan, Phan Boi Chau and Phan Chu Trinh"}
{"text": "spent time together, discussing their visions ofVietnamese independence, and debating theirdifferences. This is what Phan Boi Chau laterwrote about their discussions:"}
{"text": "\u2018Thereafter over more than ten days, he and I"}
{"text": "debated time and again, and our opinions werediametrically opposed. That is to say, he wishedto overthrow the monarchy in order to create abasis for the promotion of popular rights; I, onthe contrary, maintained that first the foreignenemy should be driven out, and after ournation\u2019s independence was restored we couldtalk about other things. My plan was to makeuse of the monarchy, which he opposedabsolutely. His plan was to raise up the peopleto abolish the monarchy, with which I absolutelydisagreed. In other words, he and I were pursuingone and the same goal, but our means wereconsiderably different.\u2019"}
{"text": "SourceSource A"}
{"text": "New words"}
{"text": "Republic \u2013 A form of government based on"}
{"text": "popular consent and popular representation."}
{"text": "It is based on the power of the people asopposed to monarchyFrench colonialism was resisted at many levels and in various forms."}
{"text": "But all nationalists had to grapple with one set of questions: Whatwas it to be Modern? What was it to be Nationalist?  In order to bemodern, was it necessary to regard tradition as backward and rejectall earlier ideas and social practices?  Was it necessary to consider the\u2018West\u2019 as the symbol of development and civilisation, and try andcopy the West?"}
{"text": "Different answers were offered to such questions. Some intellectuals"}
{"text": "felt that Vietnamese traditions had to be strengthened to resistthe domination of the West, while others felt that Vietnam hadto learn from the West even while opposing foreign domination.These differing visions led to complex debates, which could not beeasily resolved."}
{"text": "In the late nineteenth century, resistance to French domination was"}
{"text": "very often led by Confucian scholar-activists, who saw their worldcrumbling. Educated in the Confucian tradition, Phan Boi Chau(1867-1940) was one such nationalist. He became a major figure inthe anti-colonial resistance from the time he formed the RevolutionarySociety (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903, with Prince Cuong  De as the head."}
{"text": "Phan Boi Chau met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao (1873-1929)in Yokohama in 1905. Phan\u2019s most influential book, The History of"}
{"text": "the Loss of Vietnam  was written under the strong influence and advice"}
{"text": "of Qichao. It became a widely read bestseller in Vietnam and Chinaand was even made into a play. The book focuses on two connectedthemes: the loss of sovereignty and the severing of ties with China \u2013ties that bound the elites of the two countries within a shared culture.It is this double loss that Phan laments, a lament that was typical ofreformers from within the traditional elite."}
{"text": "Other nationalists strongly differed with Phan Boi Chau. One such"}
{"text": "was Phan Chu Trinh (1871-1926). He was intensely hostile to themonarchy and opposed to the idea of resisting the French with thehelp of the court.  His desire was to establish a democratic republic ."}
{"text": "Profoundly influenced by the democratic ideals of the West, he didnot want a wholesale rejection of Western civilisation. He acceptedthe French revolutionary ideal of liberty but charged the Frenchfor not abiding by the ideal. He demanded that the French set uplegal and educational institutions, and develop agriculture"}
{"text": "and industries.5  The Vision of Modernisation"}
{"text": "What ideas did Phan Boi Chau and Phan"}
{"text": "Chu Trinh share in common? What did they"}
{"text": "differ on?DiscussIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "425.1 Other Ways of Becoming Modern: Japan and China"}
{"text": "Early Vietnamese nationalists had a close relationship with Japan"}
{"text": "and China. They provided models for those looking to change, a"}
{"text": "refuge for those who were escaping French police, and a location"}
{"text": "where a wider Asian network of revolutionaries could be established."}
{"text": "In the first decade of the twentieth century a \u2018go east movement\u2019"}
{"text": "became popular.  In 1907-08 some 300 Vietnamese students went"}
{"text": "to Japan to acquire modern education. For many of them the primaryobjective was to drive out the French from Vietnam, overthrow"}
{"text": "the puppet emperor and re-establish the Nguyen dynasty that had"}
{"text": "been deposed by the French. These nationalists looked for foreignarms and help. They appealed to the Japanese as fellow Asians."}
{"text": "Japan had modernised itself and had resisted colonisation by the"}
{"text": "West. Besides, its victory over Russia in 1907 proved its militarycapabilities. Vietnamese students established a branch of the"}
{"text": "Restoration Society in Tokyo but after 1908, the Japanese Ministry"}
{"text": "of Interior clamped down on them. Many, including Phan Boi Chau,were deported and forced to seek exile in China and Thailand."}
{"text": "Developments in China also inspired"}
{"text": "Vietnamese nationalists. In 1911, the longestablished monarchy in China was"}
{"text": "overthrown by a popular movement under"}
{"text": "Sun Yat-sen, and a Republic was set up.Inspired by these developments, Vietnamese"}
{"text": "students organised the Association for the"}
{"text": "Restoration of Vietnam (Viet-NamQuan Phuc Hoi). Now the nature of the"}
{"text": "anti-French independence movement"}
{"text": "changed. The objective was no longer toset up a constitutional monarchy but a"}
{"text": "democratic republic."}
{"text": "Soon, however, the anti-imperialist movement"}
{"text": "in Vietnam came under a new type"}
{"text": "of leadership."}
{"text": "Fig. 9 \u2013 Cartoon of Vietnamese nationalists chasing away imperialists."}
{"text": "In all such nationalist representations of struggle the nationalistsappear heroic, marching ahead, while the imperial forces flee.43"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China6  The Communist Movement and Vietnamese Nationalism"}
{"text": "The Great Depression of the 1930s had a profound impact on"}
{"text": "Vietnam. The prices of rubber and rice fell, leading to rising rural"}
{"text": "debts, unemployment and rural uprisings, such as in the provinces"}
{"text": "of Nghe An and Ha Tinh. These provinces were among the poorest,had an old radical tradition, and have been called the \u2018electrical fuses\u2019"}
{"text": "of Vietnam \u2013 when the system was under pressure they were the"}
{"text": "first to blow. The French put these uprisings down with great severity,even using planes to bomb demonstrators."}
{"text": "In February 1930, Ho Chi Minh brought together competing"}
{"text": "nationalist groups to establish the Vietnamese Communist (VietnamCong San Dang) Party, later renamed the Indo-Chinese Communist"}
{"text": "Party. He was inspired by the militant demonstrations of the European"}
{"text": "communist parties."}
{"text": "In 1940 Japan occupied Vietnam, as part of its imperial drive to"}
{"text": "control Southeast Asia. So nationalists now had to fight against the"}
{"text": "Japanese as well as the French. The League for the Independence ofVietnam (Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh), which came to be known"}
{"text": "as the Vietminh, fought the Japanese occupation and recaptured"}
{"text": "Hanoi in September 1945.  The Democratic Republic of Vietnamwas formed and Ho Chi Minh became Chairman."}
{"text": "6.1 The New Republic of Vietnam"}
{"text": "The new republic faced a number of challenges. The French tried toregain control by using the emperor, Bao Dai, as their puppet. Faced"}
{"text": "with the French offensive, the Vietminh were forced to retreat to"}
{"text": "the hills. After eight years of fighting, the French were defeated in1954 at  Dien Bien Phu."}
{"text": "The Supreme French Commander of the French armies, General"}
{"text": "Henry Navarre had declared confidently in 1953 that they wouldsoon be victorious. But on 7 May 1954, the Vietminh annihilated"}
{"text": "and captured more than 16,000 soldiers of the French Expeditionary"}
{"text": "Corps. The entire commanding staff, including a general, 16 colonelsand 1,749 officers, were taken prisoner."}
{"text": "In the peace negotiations in Geneva that followed the French defeat,"}
{"text": "the Vietnamese were persuaded to accept the division of the country.North and south were split: Ho Chi Minh and the communists tookDeclaration of independence"}
{"text": "The declaration of the new republic began by"}
{"text": "reaffirming the principles of the declaration ofindependence of the United States in 1771 andof the French Revolution in 1791 but added thatthe French imperialists do not follow theseprinciples for they"}
{"text": "\u2018have violated our fatherland and oppressed our"}
{"text": "fellow citizens. They have acted contrary to theideals of humanity and justice."}
{"text": "\u2018In the field of politics, they have deprived"}
{"text": "us of all liberties. They have imposed upon usinhuman laws \u2026 They have built more prisonsthan schools. They have mercilessly slain ourpatriots; they have drowned our uprisings inrivers of blood."}
{"text": "\u2018They have fettered public opinion; they have"}
{"text": "practiced obscurantism  against our people \u2026"}
{"text": "\u2018For these reasons, we members of the"}
{"text": "Provisional Government, representing the entire"}
{"text": "population of Vietnam, declare that we shallhenceforth have no connection with imperialistFrance; that we abolish all the privileges whichthe French have arrogated to themselves onour territory \u2026"}
{"text": "\u2018We solemnly proclaim to the entire world:"}
{"text": "Vietnam has the right to be free andindependent, and in fact has become free andindependent.\u2019"}
{"text": "SourceSource B"}
{"text": "New words"}
{"text": "Obscurantist \u2013 Person or ideas that misleadIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "44power in the north while Bao Dai\u2019s regime was put in power"}
{"text": "in the south."}
{"text": "This division set in motion a series of events that turned"}
{"text": "Vietnam into a battlefield bringing death and destruction to"}
{"text": "its people as well as the environment. The Bao Dai regimewas soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem."}
{"text": "Diem built a repressive and authoritarian government. Anyone"}
{"text": "who opposed him was called a communist and was jailedand killed. Diem retained Ordinance 10, a French law that"}
{"text": "permitted Christianity but outlawed Buddhism. His dictatorial"}
{"text": "rule came to be opposed by a broad opposition united underthe banner of the National Liberation Front (NLF)."}
{"text": "With the help of the Ho Chi Minh government in the north,"}
{"text": "the NLF fought for the unification of the country. The US"}
{"text": "Fig. 10 \u2013 The French Commander in Indo-China,"}
{"text": "General Henri Navarre (right)."}
{"text": "Navarre wanted to attack the Vietminh even in theirremote bases. As a consequence the French openedmany fronts of attack and scattered their forces.Navarre\u2019s plans backfired in the North Eastern Valleyof Dien Bien Phu."}
{"text": "Box 2"}
{"text": "At Dien Bien Phu the French were outwitted by the Vietminh forces led by General Vo Nguyen Giap. The French"}
{"text": "Commander, Navarre, had not thought of all the problems he would face in the battle. The valley where French garrisonswere located was flooded in the monsoon and the area was covered with bushes, making it difficult to move troops andtanks, or trace the Vietminh anti-aircraft guns hidden in the jungle."}
{"text": "From their base in the hills, the Vietminh surrounded the French garrisons in the valley below, digging trenches and tunnels"}
{"text": "to move without being detected. Supplies and reinforcements could not reach the besieged French garrison, the woundedFrench soldiers could not be moved, and the French airstrip became unusable because of continuous artillery fire."}
{"text": "Dien Bien Phu became a very important symbol of struggle. It strengthened Vietminh conviction in their capacity to fight"}
{"text": "powerful imperial forces through determination and proper strategy. Stories of the battle were retold in villages and citiesto inspire people."}
{"text": "Fig. 11  \u2013 Supplies being taken"}
{"text": "to Dien Bien Phu."}
{"text": "Vietminh forces used bicyclesand porters to transportsupplies. They went throughjungles and hidden tracks toescape enemy attacks."}
{"text": "45"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-ChinaBox 3"}
{"text": "Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)"}
{"text": "Little is known about his early life mostly because Minh chose to downplay his personal background and identify himself"}
{"text": "with the cause of Vietnam. Probably born as Nguyen Van Thanh in Central Vietnam, he studied at French schools thatproduced leaders such as Ngo Dinh Diem, Vo Nguyen Giap and Pham Van Dong. He briefly taught in 1910, and in 1911,learnt baking and took a job on a French liner on the Saigon-Marseilles run. Minh became an active member of theCommintern, meeting Lenin and other leaders. In May 1941, after 30 years abroad in Europe, Thailand and China, Minhfinally returned to Vietnam. In 1943 he took the name Ho Chi Minh (He Who Enlightens). He became president of theVietnam Democratic Republic. Ho Chi Minh died on 3 September 1969. He led the party successfully for over 40 years,struggling to preserve Vietnamese autonomy."}
{"text": "watched this alliance with fear. Worried about communists gaining"}
{"text": "power, it decided to intervene decisively, sending in troopsand arms."}
{"text": "6.2 The Entry of the US into the War"}
{"text": "US entry into the war marked a new phase that proved costly to theVietnamese as well as to the Americans. From 1965 to 1972, over"}
{"text": "3,403,100 US services personnel served in Vietnam (7,484 were"}
{"text": "women). Even though the US had advanced technology and good"}
{"text": "Fig. 12 \u2013 American soldiers searching rice fields for Vietcongs.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "46Box 4"}
{"text": "Agent Orange: The Deadly Poison"}
{"text": "Agent Orange is a defoliant, a plant killer, so called"}
{"text": "because it was stored in drums marked with anorange band. Between 1961 and 1971, some11 million gallons of this chemical was sprayedfrom cargo planes by US forces. Their plan wasto destroy forests and fields, so that it would beeasier to kill if there was no jungle cover forpeople to hide in. Over 14 per cent of thecountry\u2019s farmland was affected by this poison.Its effect has been staggering, continuing toaffect people till today. Dioxin, an element ofAgent Orange, is known to cause cancer andbrain damage in children, and, according to astudy, is also the cause of the high incidence ofdeformities found in the sprayed areas."}
{"text": "The tonnage of bombs, including chemical arms,"}
{"text": "used during the US intervention (mostly againstcivilian targets) in Vietnam exceeds that usedthroughout the Second World War.medical supplies, casualties were high. About 47,244 died in battle"}
{"text": "and 303,704 were wounded. (Of those wounded, 23,014 were listedby the Veterans Administration to be 100 per cent disabled.)"}
{"text": "This phase of struggle with the US was brutal. Thousands of US"}
{"text": "troops arrived equipped with heavy weapons and tanks and backedby the most powerful bombers of the time \u2013 B52s. The wide spread"}
{"text": "attacks and use of chemical weapons \u2013 Napalm,  Agent Orange, and"}
{"text": "phosphorous bombs \u2013 destroyed many villages  and decimated jungles."}
{"text": "Civilians died in large numbers."}
{"text": "The effect of the war was felt within the US as well. Many were"}
{"text": "critical of the government for getting involved in a war that they saw"}
{"text": "as indefensible. When the youth were drafted for the war, the anger"}
{"text": "spread. Compulsory service in the armed forces, however, could bewaived for university graduates. This meant that many of those sentto fight did not belong to the privileged elite but were minorities and"}
{"text": "children of working-class families."}
{"text": "The US media and films played a major role in both supporting as"}
{"text": "well as criticising the war. Hollywood made films in support of thewar, such as John Wayne\u2019s Green Berets  (1968). This has"}
{"text": "been cited by many as an example of an unthinking"}
{"text": "propaganda film that was responsible for motivating"}
{"text": "many young men to die in the war. Other films weremore critical as they tried to understand the reasonsfor this war. John Ford Coppola\u2019s Apocalypse Now (1979)"}
{"text": "reflected the moral confusion that the war had causedin the US."}
{"text": "The war grew out of a fear among US policy-planners"}
{"text": "that the victory of the  Ho Chi Minh government would"}
{"text": "start a domino effect \u2013 communist governments would"}
{"text": "be established in other countries in the area. Theyunderestimated the power of nationalism to movepeople to action, inspire them to sacrifice their home and family, live"}
{"text": "under horrific conditions, and fight for independence. They"}
{"text": "underestimated the power of a small country to fight the mosttechnologically advanced country in the world."}
{"text": "Fig. 13  \u2013 In December 1972 Hanoi was bombed."}
{"text": "New wordsNapalm \u2013 An organic compound used to thicken gasoline for firebombs. The mixture burns slowly and when it"}
{"text": "comes in contact with surfaces like the human body, it sticks and continues to burn. Developed in the US, it wasused in the Second World War. Despite an international outcry, it was used in Vietnam."}
{"text": "47"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China6.3 The Ho Chi Minh Trail"}
{"text": "The story of the Ho Chi Minh trail is one way of understanding the"}
{"text": "nature of the war that the Vietnamese fought against the US. It"}
{"text": "symbolises how the Vietnamese used their limited resources to great"}
{"text": "advantage. The trail, an immense network of footpaths and roads,was used to transport men and materials from the north to the south."}
{"text": "The trail was improved from the late 1950s, and from 1967 about"}
{"text": "20,000 North Vietnamese troops came south each month on this trail."}
{"text": "The trail had support bases and hospitals along the way. In some parts"}
{"text": "supplies were transported in trucks, but mostly they were carried by"}
{"text": "porters, who were mainly women. These porters carried about 25kilos on their backs, or about 70 kilos on their bicycles."}
{"text": "Most of the trail was outside Vietnam in neighbouring Laos"}
{"text": "and Cambodia with branch lines extending into South Vietnam. TheUS regularly bombed this trail trying to disrupt supplies, but efforts"}
{"text": "to destroy this important supply line by intensive bombing failed"}
{"text": "because they were rebuilt very quickly."}
{"text": "Fig. 15 \u2013 Rebuilding damaged roads."}
{"text": "Roads damaged by bombs were quickly rebuilt.Fig.14 \u2013 The Ho Chi Minh trail.Notice how the trail moved through Laos andCambodia."}
{"text": "NORTH"}
{"text": "VIETNAM"}
{"text": "Khesanh"}
{"text": "Hue"}
{"text": "Danang"}
{"text": "Quangngai"}
{"text": "QuinhonDakto"}
{"text": "Pheiku"}
{"text": "Banmethuot"}
{"text": "Tayninh"}
{"text": "SaigonLAOS"}
{"text": "THAILAND"}
{"text": "CAMBODIA"}
{"text": "SOUTH"}
{"text": "VIETNAM"}
{"text": "South China SeaTonle SapMekongMekongHo"}
{"text": "ChiMinhTrailIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "48"}
{"text": "Fig.16 \u2013 On the Ho Chi Minh trail."}
{"text": "Letters of Mr Do Sam"}
{"text": "Do Sam was a colonel in the North Vietnamese artillery regiment. He was part of the Tet Offensive started in 1968, to"}
{"text": "unify North and South Vietnam and win the battle against US. These are extracts from his letters written to his wife fromthe scene of battle. They show how, in the nationalist imagination, personal love mingles with love for the country and thedesire for freedom. Sacrifice appears necessary for happiness."}
{"text": "Letter dated 6/1968"}
{"text": "\u2018You ask me what \u201cyou miss most when you think of me?\u201d I miss the environment of our wedding ... I miss the small cozyroom with lots of memories. I miss \u2026"}
{"text": "\u2018Right after our wedding I had to again leave to fight in order to protect the coastal areas of our country. What a short"}
{"text": "time we had before I had to station permanently in the South. The more I think, the more I feel for you; therefore Iwould have to be more determined to protect the country in order to bring happiness for millions of couples like us \u2026"}
{"text": "\u2018Last night the car kept heading south. This morning I am writing to you sitting on a stone, surrounded by the sound of"}
{"text": "streams and the rustle of trees, as if they were celebrating our happiness. Looking forward to the day when we can returnvictoriously. Then we could live in greater happiness, couldn\u2019t we? Wish you good health and miss me always \u2026\u2019"}
{"text": "Letter dated 6/1968"}
{"text": "\u2018Though you are always in my mind I have to focus on my work to contribute to the victory of the ongoing struggle ofour nation \u2026"}
{"text": "\u2018I have promised myself that only when the South is liberated and peace and happiness return to the people, only then"}
{"text": "could I be free to focus on building our own happiness, only then I could be satisfied with our family life \u2026\u2019"}
{"text": "- Hung, Dang Vuong,"}
{"text": "(Letters Written during the War in Vietnam),  publication of Hoi nha"}
{"text": "van (Writers\u2019 Association), 2005. Translation by Nguen Quoc Anh.SourceSource C"}
{"text": "Nh\u1eefng l\u00e1 th\u01b0 th\u1eddi chi\u1ebfn Vi\u1ec7t Nam49"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China7  The Nation and Its Heroes"}
{"text": "Another way of looking at social movements is to see how they"}
{"text": "affect different groups in society. Let us see how the roles of womenwere specified in the anti-imperialist movement in Vietnam, and"}
{"text": "what that tells us about nationalist ideology."}
{"text": "7.1 Women as Rebels"}
{"text": "Women in Vietnam traditionally enjoyed greater equality than in China,"}
{"text": "particularly among the lower classes, but they had only limitedfreedom to determine their future and played no role in public life."}
{"text": "As the nationalist movement grew, the status of women came to be"}
{"text": "questioned and a new image of womanhood emerged. Writers andpolitical thinkers began idealising women who rebelled against socialnorms. In the 1930s, a famous novel by Nhat Linh caused a scandalbecause it showed a woman leaving a forced marriage and marryingsomeone of her choice, someone who was involved in nationalistpolitics. This rebellion against social conventions marked the arrival"}
{"text": "of the new woman in Vietnamese society."}
{"text": "7.2 Heroes of Past Times"}
{"text": "Rebel women of the past were similarly celebrated. In 1913, the"}
{"text": "nationalist Phan Boi Chau wrote a play based on the lives of theTrung sisters who had fought against Chinese domination in39-43"}
{"text": "CE. In this play he depicted these sisters as patriots fighting to"}
{"text": "save the Vietnamese nation from the Chinese. The actual reasons forthe revolt are a matter of debate among scholars, but after Phan\u2019splay the Trung sisters came to be idealised and glorified. They weredepicted in paintings, plays and novels as representing the indomitablewill and the intense patriotism of the Vietnamese. We are told thatthey gathered a force of over 30,000, resisted the Chinese for two"}
{"text": "years, and when ultimately defeated, they committed suicide, instead"}
{"text": "of surrendering to the enemy."}
{"text": "Other women rebels of the past were  part of the popular nationalist"}
{"text": "lore. One of the most venerated was Trieu Au who lived in thethird century"}
{"text": "CE. Orphaned in childhood, she lived with her brother."}
{"text": "On growing up she left home, went into the jungles, organised alarge army and resisted Chinese rule. Finally, when her army was"}
{"text": "Fig. 17 \u2013 Image of Trieu Au worshipped as a"}
{"text": "sacred figure.Rebels who resisted Chinese rule continue to becelebrated.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "50crushed, she drowned herself. She became a sacred figure, not just a"}
{"text": "martyr who fought for the honour of the country. Nationalistspopularised her image to inspire people to action."}
{"text": "7.3 Women as Warriors"}
{"text": "In the 1960s, photographs in magazines and journals showed womenas brave fighters. There were pictures of women militia shooting"}
{"text": "down planes. They were portrayed as young, brave and dedicated."}
{"text": "Stories were written to show how happy they felt when they joinedthe army and could carry a rifle. Some stories spoke of their incredible"}
{"text": "bravery in single-handedly killing the enemy \u2013 Nguyen Thi Xuan,"}
{"text": "for instance, was reputed to have shot down a jet with justtwenty bullets."}
{"text": "Women were represented not only as warriors but also as workers:"}
{"text": "they were shown with a rifle in one hand and a hammer in the other.Whether young or old, women began to be depicted as selflessly"}
{"text": "working and fighting to save the country. As casualties in the war"}
{"text": "increased in the 1960s, women were urged to join the struggle inlarger numbers."}
{"text": "Many women responded and joined the resistance movement. They"}
{"text": "helped in nursing the wounded, constructing underground roomsand tunnels and fighting the enemy. Along the Ho Chi Minh trail"}
{"text": "young volunteers kept open 2,195 km of strategic roads and guarded"}
{"text": "2,500 key points. They built six airstrips, neutralised tens of thousandsof bombs, transported tens of thousands of kilograms of cargo,"}
{"text": "weapons and food and shot down fifteen planes. Between 1965"}
{"text": "and 1975, of the 17,000 youth who worked on the trail, 70 to 80per cent were women. One military historian argues that there were"}
{"text": "1.5 million women in the regular army, the militia, the local forces"}
{"text": "and professional teams."}
{"text": "7.4 Women in Times of Peace"}
{"text": "By the 1970s, as peace talks began to get under way and the end ofthe war seemed near, women were no longer represented as warriors.Now the image of women as workers begins to predominate. They"}
{"text": "are shown working in agricultural cooperatives, factories and"}
{"text": "production units,  rather than as fighters."}
{"text": "Fig. 18  \u2013 With a gun in one hand."}
{"text": "Stories about women showed them eager to"}
{"text": "join the army. A common description was:\u2018A rosy-cheeked woman, here I am fightingside by side with you men. The prison ismy school, the sword is my child, the gunis my husband.\u2019"}
{"text": "Fig. 19 \u2013 Vietnamese women doctorsnursing the wounded.51"}
{"text": "The Nationalist Movement in Indo-ChinaThe prolongation of the war created strong reactions even within"}
{"text": "the US. It was clear that the US had failed to achieve its objectives:"}
{"text": "the Vietnamese resistance had not been crushed; the support of the"}
{"text": "Vietnamese people for US action had not been won.  In themeantime, thousands of young US soldiers had lost their lives, and"}
{"text": "countless Vietnamese civilians had been killed. This was a war that"}
{"text": "has been called the first television war. Battle scenes were shownon the daily news programmes. Many became disillusioned with"}
{"text": "what the US was doing and writers such as Mary McCarthy, and"}
{"text": "actors like Jane Fonda even visited North Vietnam and praised theirheroic defence of the country. The scholar Noam Chomsky called"}
{"text": "the war \u2018the greatest threat to peace, to national self-determination,"}
{"text": "and to international cooperation\u2019."}
{"text": "The widespread questioning of government policy strengthened"}
{"text": "moves to negotiate an end to the war. A peace settlement was signed"}
{"text": "in Paris in January 1974. This ended conflict with the US but fightingbetween the Saigon regime and the NLF continued. The NLF"}
{"text": "occupied the presidential palace in Saigon on 30 April 1975 and"}
{"text": "unified Vietnam.Fig. 20 \u2013 North Vietnamese prisoners in South"}
{"text": "Vietnam being released after the accord .8  The End of the War"}
{"text": "Fig. 21  \u2013 Vietcong soldiers pose triumphantly atop a tank after Saigon is liberated."}
{"text": "What does this image tell us about the nature of Vietnamese nationalism?"}
{"text": "India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "52Discuss"}
{"text": "Project1. With reference to what you have read in this chapter, discuss the influence of"}
{"text": "China on Vietnam\u2019s culture and life."}
{"text": "2. What was the role of religious groups in the development of anti-colonial feeling in Vietnam?"}
{"text": "3. Explain the causes of the US involvement in the war in Vietnam. What effect did this"}
{"text": "involvement have on life within the US itself?"}
{"text": "4. Write an evaluation of the Vietnamese war against the US from the point of"}
{"text": "a) a porter on the Ho Chi Minh trail."}
{"text": "b) a woman soldier."}
{"text": "5. What was the role of women in the anti-imperial struggle in Vietnam? Compare this"}
{"text": "with the role of women in the nationalist struggle in India."}
{"text": "Find out about the anti-imperialist movement in any one country in South America. Imaginethat a freedom fighter from this country meets a Vietminh soldier; they become friends and"}
{"text": "talk about their experiences of the freedom struggles in their countries. Write about the"}
{"text": "conversation they might have."}
{"text": "DiscussWrite in brief"}
{"text": "1. Write a note on:"}
{"text": "a) What was meant by the \u2018civilising mission\u2019 of the colonisersb) Huynh Phu So"}
{"text": "2. Explain the following:"}
{"text": "a) Only one-third of the students in Vietnam would pass the school-leaving"}
{"text": "examinations."}
{"text": "b) The French began building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta."}
{"text": "c) The government made the Saigon Native Girls School take back the"}
{"text": "students it had expelled."}
{"text": "d) Rats were most common in the modern, newly built areas of Hanoi."}
{"text": "3. Describe the ideas behind the Tonkin Free School. To what extent was it a"}
{"text": "typical example of colonial ideas in Vietnam?"}
{"text": "4. What was Phan Chu Trinh\u2019s objective for Vietnam? How were his ideas different"}
{"text": "from those of Phan Boi Chau?"}
{"text": "Write in brief"}
{"text": "Project    As you have seen, modern nationalism in Europe came to be"}
{"text": "associated with the formation of nation-states. It also meant a change"}
{"text": "in people\u2019s understanding of who they were, and what defined their"}
{"text": "identity and sense of belonging. New symbols and icons, new songsand ideas forged new links and redefined the boundaries of"}
{"text": "communities. In most countries the making of this new national"}
{"text": "identity was a long process. How did this consciousness emergein India?"}
{"text": "In India, as in Vietnam and many other colonies, the growth of"}
{"text": "modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anti-colonialmovement. People began discovering their unity in the process of"}
{"text": "their struggle with colonialism. The sense of being oppressed under"}
{"text": "colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groupstogether. But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism"}
{"text": "differently, their experiences were varied, and their notions of"}
{"text": "freedom were not always the same.  The Congress under MahatmaGandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement."}
{"text": "But the unity did not emerge without conflict."}
{"text": "In an earlier textbook you have read about the growth of nationalism"}
{"text": "in India up to the first decade of the twentieth century. In this chapter"}
{"text": "we will pick up the story from the 1920s and study the Non-"}
{"text": "Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements. We will explorehow the Congress sought to develop the national movement, how"}
{"text": "different social groups participated in the movement, and how"}
{"text": "nationalism captured the imagination of people."}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  India Chapter III Nationalism in India"}
{"text": "Fig. 1  \u2013 6 April 1919."}
{"text": "Mass processions on"}
{"text": "the streets became acommon feature duringthe national movement.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "541  The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation"}
{"text": "In the years after 1919, we see the national movement spreading to"}
{"text": "new areas, incorporating new social groups, and developing new"}
{"text": "modes of struggle. How do we understand these developments?"}
{"text": "What implications did they have?"}
{"text": "First of all, the war created a new economic and political situation."}
{"text": "It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed"}
{"text": "by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised andincome tax introduced. Through the war years prices increased \u2013"}
{"text": "doubling between 1913 and 1918 \u2013  leading to extreme hardship"}
{"text": "for the common people. Villages were called upon to supply soldiers,and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger."}
{"text": "Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India,resulting in acute shortages of food. This was accompanied by aninfluenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million"}
{"text": "people perished as a result of famines and  the epidemic."}
{"text": "People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was"}
{"text": "over. But that did not happen."}
{"text": "At this stage a new leader appeared and suggested a new mode"}
{"text": "of struggle."}
{"text": "1.1 The Idea of Satyagraha"}
{"text": "Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915. As you know,he had come from South Africa where he had successfully foughtNew words"}
{"text": "Forced recruitment \u2013 A process by which the"}
{"text": "colonial state forced people to join the army"}
{"text": "Fig. 2  \u2013 Indian workers in South"}
{"text": "Africa march through Volksrust, 6"}
{"text": "November 1913.Mahatma Gandhi was leading theworkers from Newcastle toTransvaal. When the marchers werestopped and Gandhiji arrested,thousands of more workers joinedthe satyagraha  against racist laws"}
{"text": "that denied rights  to non-whites.55"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  Indiathe racist regime with a novel method of mass agitation, which he"}
{"text": "called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of"}
{"text": "truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the causewas true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force wasnot necessary to fight the oppressor. Without seeking vengeance or"}
{"text": "being aggressive, a satyagrahi could win the battle through non-"}
{"text": "violence. This could be done by  appealing to the conscience of theoppressor. People \u2013 including the oppressors \u2013 had to be persuadedto see the truth, instead of being forced to accept truth through the"}
{"text": "use of violence. By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately"}
{"text": "triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this dharma  of non-violence"}
{"text": "could unite all Indians."}
{"text": "After arriving in India, Mahatma Gandhi successfully organised"}
{"text": "satyagraha movements in various places. In 1916 he travelled to"}
{"text": "Champaran in  Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against theoppressive plantation system.  Then in 1917,  he organised a  satyagraha"}
{"text": "to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected"}
{"text": "by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could"}
{"text": "not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection berelaxed. In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organisea satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers."}
{"text": "1.2 The Rowlatt Act"}
{"text": "Emboldened with this success, Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch anationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act (1919). ThisAct had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative"}
{"text": "Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members. It"}
{"text": "gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities,and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for twoyears. Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against"}
{"text": "such unjust laws, which would start with a hartal on 6 April."}
{"text": "Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in"}
{"text": "railway workshops, and shops closed down. Alarmed by the popularupsurge, and scared that lines of communication such as the railways"}
{"text": "and telegraph would be disrupted, the British administration decided"}
{"text": "to clamp down on nationalists. Local leaders were picked up fromAmritsar, and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi.On 10 April, the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession,"}
{"text": "provoking widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railway"}
{"text": "stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.Mahatma Gandhi on Satyagraha"}
{"text": "\u2018It is said of \u201cpassive resistance\u201d that it is the"}
{"text": "weapon of the weak, but the power which isthe subject of this article can be used onlyby the strong. This power is not passiveresistance; indeed it calls for intense activity. Themovement in South Africa was not passivebut active  \u2026"}
{"text": "\u2018 Satyagraha is not physical force. A satyagrahi"}
{"text": "does not inflict pain on the adversary; he doesnot seek his destruction \u2026 In the use of"}
{"text": "satyagraha , there is no ill-will whatever."}
{"text": "\u2018 Satyagraha is pure soul-force. Truth is the very"}
{"text": "substance of the soul. That is why this force iscalled satyagraha. The soul is informed withknowledge. In it burns the flame of love. \u2026 Non-violence is the supreme"}
{"text": "dharma  \u2026"}
{"text": "\u2018It is certain that India cannot rival Britain orEurope in force of arms. The British worship thewar-god and they can all of them become, asthey are becoming, bearers of arms. Thehundreds of millions in India can never carry arms.They have made the religion of non-violence theirown ...\u2019"}
{"text": "SourceSource A"}
{"text": "Read the text carefully. What did Mahatma"}
{"text": "Gandhi mean when he said satyagraha  is"}
{"text": "active resistance?ActivityIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "56On 13 April the infamous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On"}
{"text": "that day a crowd of villagers who had come to Amritsar to attend"}
{"text": "a fair gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.  Being"}
{"text": "from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that hadbeen imposed. Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, andopened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. His object, as he declaredlater, was to \u2018produce a moral effect\u2019, to create in the minds ofsatyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe."}
{"text": "As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets"}
{"text": "in many north Indian towns. There were strikes, clashes with thepolice and attacks on government buildings. The governmentresponded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorisepeople: satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground,crawl on the streets, and do salaam  (salute) to all sahibs; people were"}
{"text": "flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan)were bombed. Seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called offthe movement."}
{"text": "While the Rowlatt satyagraha had been a widespread movement, it"}
{"text": "was still limited mostly to cities and towns. Mahatma Gandhi nowfelt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India."}
{"text": "But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without"}
{"text": "bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doingthis, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue. The First World Warhad ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there wererumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on theOttoman emperor \u2013  the spiritual head of the Islamic world (the"}
{"text": "Khalifa). To defend the Khalifa\u2019s temporal powers, a Khilafat"}
{"text": "Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919. A younggeneration of Muslim leaders like the brothers Muhammad Aliand Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi aboutthe possibility of a united mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw thisas an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of a unified"}
{"text": "national movement. At the Calcutta session of the Congress in"}
{"text": "September 1920, he convinced other leaders of the need to starta non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well asfor swaraj."}
{"text": "1.3  Why Non-cooperation?"}
{"text": "In his famous book Hind Swaraj  (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared"}
{"text": "that British rule was established in India with the cooperation ofFig. 3  \u2013 General Dyer\u2019s \u2018crawling orders\u2019 being"}
{"text": "administered by British soldiers, Amritsar,"}
{"text": "Punjab, 1919 ."}
{"text": "57"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  IndiaNew words"}
{"text": "Boycott \u2013 The refusal to deal and associate with"}
{"text": "people, or participate in activities, or buy anduse things; usually a form of protestIndians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indiansrefused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within ayear, and swaraj would come."}
{"text": "How could non-cooperation become a movement? Gandhiji"}
{"text": "proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. It should beginwith the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a"}
{"text": "boycott  of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils,"}
{"text": "schools, and foreign goods. Then, in case the government used"}
{"text": "repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched."}
{"text": "Through the summer of 1920 Mahatma Gandhi and Shaukat Ali"}
{"text": "toured extensively, mobilising popular support for the movement."}
{"text": "Many within the Congress were, however, concerned about the"}
{"text": "proposals. They were reluctant to boycott the council elections"}
{"text": "scheduled for November 1920, and they feared that the movementmight lead to popular violence.  In the months between September"}
{"text": "and December there was an intense tussle within the Congress. For a"}
{"text": "while there seemed no meeting point between the supporters andthe opponents of the movement. Finally, at the Congress session at"}
{"text": "Nagpur in December 1920, a compromise was worked out and"}
{"text": "the Non-Cooperation programme was adopted."}
{"text": "How did the movement unfold? Who participated in it? How did"}
{"text": "different social groups conceive of the idea of Non-Cooperation?"}
{"text": "Fig. 4  \u2013 The boycott of foreign"}
{"text": "cloth, July 1922."}
{"text": "Foreign cloth was seen as thesymbol of Western economicand cultural domination.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "582  Differing Strands within the Movement"}
{"text": "The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921."}
{"text": "Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its"}
{"text": "own specific aspiration. All of them responded to the call of Swaraj,"}
{"text": "but the term meant different things to different people."}
{"text": "2.1 The Movement in the Towns"}
{"text": "The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities.Thousands of students left government-controlled schools andcolleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up"}
{"text": "their legal practices. The council elections were boycotted in most"}
{"text": "provinces except Madras, where the Justice Party, the party of thenon-Brahmans, felt that entering the council was one way of gaining"}
{"text": "some power \u2013 something that usually only Brahmans had access to."}
{"text": "The effects of non-cooperation on the economic front were more"}
{"text": "dramatic. Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed ,"}
{"text": "and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreigncloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping fromRs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders"}
{"text": "refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the"}
{"text": "boycott movement spread, and people began discarding importedclothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile"}
{"text": "mills and handlooms went up."}
{"text": "But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety"}
{"text": "of reasons. Khadi  cloth was often more expensive than mass-"}
{"text": "produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.How then could they boycott mill cloth for too long? Similarly theboycott of British institutions posed a problem. For the movement"}
{"text": "to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up"}
{"text": "so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These wereslow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling"}
{"text": "back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in"}
{"text": "government courts."}
{"text": "2.2 Rebellion in the Countryside"}
{"text": "From the cities, the Non-Cooperation Movement spread to thecountryside. It drew into its fold the struggles of peasants and tribalsNew words"}
{"text": "Picket \u2013 A form of demonstration or protest"}
{"text": "by which people block the entrance to a shop,factory or office"}
{"text": "The year is 1921. You are a student in a"}
{"text": "government-controlled school. Design a"}
{"text": "poster urging school students to answer"}
{"text": "Gandhiji\u2019s call to join the Non-Cooperation"}
{"text": "Movement.Activity59"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  Indiawhich were developing in different parts of India in the years"}
{"text": "after the war."}
{"text": "In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra \u2013 a sanyasi  who"}
{"text": "had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement"}
{"text": "here was against talukdars  and landlords who demanded from"}
{"text": "peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses. Peasants"}
{"text": "had to do begar  and work at landlords\u2019 farms without any payment."}
{"text": "As tenants they had no security of tenure, being regularly evicted so"}
{"text": "that they could acquire no right over the leased land. The peasant"}
{"text": "movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and"}
{"text": "social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places nai \u2013 dhobi"}
{"text": "bandhs  were  organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the"}
{"text": "services of even barbers and washermen. In June 1920, Jawaharlal"}
{"text": "Nehru began going around the villages in Awadh, talking to thevillagers, and trying to understand their grievances. By October, the"}
{"text": "Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba"}
{"text": "Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 brancheshad been set up in the villages around the region. So when the Non-"}
{"text": "Cooperation Movement began the following year, the effort of the"}
{"text": "Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the widerstruggle. The peasant movement, however, developed in forms that"}
{"text": "the Congress leadership was unhappy with. As the movement spread"}
{"text": "in 1921, the houses of talukdars  and merchants were attacked,"}
{"text": "bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over. In many"}
{"text": "places local leaders told peasants that Gandhiji had declared that"}
{"text": "no taxes were to be paid and land was to be redistributed amongthe poor. The name of the Mahatma was being invoked to sanction"}
{"text": "all action and aspirations.New words"}
{"text": "Begar \u2013 Labour that villagers were forced to"}
{"text": "contribute without any payment"}
{"text": "If you were a peasant in Uttar Pradesh in 1920,"}
{"text": "how would you have responded to Gandhiji\u2019scall for Swaraj? Give reasons for your response.Activity"}
{"text": "On 6 January 1921, the police in United Provinces fired at peasants near Rae Bareli. Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to go tothe place of firing, but was stopped by the police. Agitated and angry, Nehru addressed the peasants who gatheredaround him. This is how he later described the meeting:"}
{"text": "\u2018They behaved as brave men, calm and unruffled in the face of danger . I do not know how they felt but I know what"}
{"text": "my feelings were. For a moment my blood was up, non-violence was almost forgotten \u2013 but for a moment only. Thethought of the great leader, who by God\u2019s goodness has been sent to lead us to victory, came to me, and I saw the"}
{"text": "kisans  seated and standing near me, less excited, more peaceful than I was \u2013 and the moment of weakness passed, I"}
{"text": "spoke to them in all humility on non-violence \u2013 I needed the lesson more than they \u2013 and they heeded me andpeacefully dispersed.\u2019"}
{"text": "Quoted in Sarvapalli Gopal,"}
{"text": "Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography , Vol. I.SourceSource BIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "60Tribal peasants interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi and"}
{"text": "the idea of swaraj in yet another way. In the Gudem Hills of Andhra"}
{"text": "Pradesh, for instance, a militant guerrilla movement spread inthe early 1920s \u2013  not a form of struggle that the Congress could"}
{"text": "approve. Here, as in other forest regions, the colonial government"}
{"text": "had closed large forest areas, preventing people from enteringthe forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits.This enraged the hill people. Not only were their livelihoodsaffected but they felt that their traditional rights were being denied.When the government began forcing them to contribute begar"}
{"text": "for road building, the hill people revolted. The person who cameto lead them was an interesting figure. Alluri Sitaram Raju claimedthat he had a variety of special powers: he could make correctastrological predictions and heal people, and he could surviveeven bullet shots. Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed thathe was an incarnation of God. Raju talked of the greatness of"}
{"text": "Mahatma Gandhi, said he was inspired by the Non-Cooperation"}
{"text": "Movement, and persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking."}
{"text": "But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated onlyby the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attackedpolice stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried onguerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.  Raju was captured and"}
{"text": "executed in 1924, and over time became a folk hero."}
{"text": "2.3 Swaraj in the Plantations"}
{"text": "Workers too had their own understanding of Mahatma Gandhi"}
{"text": "and the notion of swaraj.  For plantation workers in Assam, freedommeant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space inwhich they were enclosed, and it meant retaining a link with the"}
{"text": "village from which they had come. Under the Inland Emigration"}
{"text": "Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave thetea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely givensuch permission. When they heard of the Non-CooperationMovement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left theplantations and headed home. They believed that Gandhi Raj was"}
{"text": "coming and everyone would be given land in their own villages."}
{"text": "They, however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the wayby a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police andbrutally beaten up.Find out about other participants in the"}
{"text": "National Movement who were captured and"}
{"text": "put to death by the British. Can you think of a"}
{"text": "similar example from the national movement"}
{"text": "in Indo-China (Chapter 2)?Activity61"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  IndiaThe visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress"}
{"text": "programme. They interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways,imagining it to be a time when all suffering and all troubles would"}
{"text": "be over. Yet, when the tribals chanted Gandhiji\u2019s name and raised"}
{"text": "slogans demanding \u2018 Swatantra Bharat\u2019 , they were also emotionally"}
{"text": "relating to an all-India agitation. When they acted in the name of"}
{"text": "Mahatma Gandhi, or linked their movement to that of the Congress,"}
{"text": "they were identifying with a movement which went beyond the limitsof their immediate locality."}
{"text": "Fig. 5  \u2013 Chauri Chaura, 1922."}
{"text": "At Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, a peaceful demonstration in a bazaar turned into a"}
{"text": "violent clash with the police. Hearing of the incident, Mahatma Gandhi called a haltto the Non-Cooperation Movement.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "623  Towards Civil Disobedience"}
{"text": "In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the"}
{"text": "Non-Cooperation Movement. He felt the movement was turningviolent in many places and satyagrahis needed to be properly trainedbefore they would be ready for mass struggles. Within the Congress,some leaders were by now tired of mass struggles and wanted toparticipate in elections to the provincial councils that had been set"}
{"text": "up by the Government of India Act of 1919. They felt that it was"}
{"text": "important to oppose British policies within the councils, argue forreform and also demonstrate that these councils were not trulydemocratic. C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Partywithin the Congress to argue for a return to council politics. Butyounger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose"}
{"text": "pressed for more radical mass agitation and for full independence."}
{"text": "In such a situation of internal debate and dissension two factors"}
{"text": "again shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s. The first wasthe effect of the worldwide economic depression. Agricultural pricesbegan to fall from 1926 and collapsed after 1930. As the demandfor agricultural goods fell and exports declined, peasants found it"}
{"text": "difficult to sell their harvests and pay their revenue. By 1930, the"}
{"text": "countryside was in turmoil."}
{"text": "Against this background the new Tory government in Britain"}
{"text": "constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon. Set upin response to the nationalist movement, thecommission was to look into the functioning of"}
{"text": "the constitutional system in India and suggest"}
{"text": "changes. The problem was that the commissiondid not have a single Indian member. They wereall British."}
{"text": "When the Simon Commission arrived in India in"}
{"text": "1928, it was greeted with the slogan \u2018Go back"}
{"text": "Simon\u2019. All parties, including the Congress and the"}
{"text": "Muslim League, participated in the demonstrations.In an effort to win them over, the viceroy, LordIrwin, announced in October 1929, a vague offerof \u2018dominion status\u2019 for India in an unspecifiedfuture, and a Round Table Conference to discuss a"}
{"text": "future constitution. This did not satisfy the Congress"}
{"text": "leaders. The radicals within the Congress, led by"}
{"text": "Fig. 6  \u2013 Meeting of Congress leaders  at Allahabad, 1931."}
{"text": "Apart from Mahatma Gandhi, you can see Sardar Vallabhbhai"}
{"text": "Patel (extreme left), Jawaharlal Nehru (extreme right) and SubhasChandra Bose (fifth from right).63"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  IndiaJawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, became more assertive."}
{"text": "The liberals and moderates, who were proposing a constitutional"}
{"text": "system within the framework of British dominion, gradually lost"}
{"text": "their influence. In December 1929, under the presidency of JawaharlalNehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the demand of \u2018PurnaSwaraj\u2019 or full independence for India. It was declared that 26 January1930, would be celebrated as the Independence Day when peoplewere to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence. But"}
{"text": "the celebrations attracted very little attention. So Mahatma Gandhi"}
{"text": "had to find a way to relate this abstract idea of freedom to moreconcrete issues of everyday life."}
{"text": "3.1 The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement"}
{"text": "Mahatma Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unitethe nation. On 31 January 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin"}
{"text": "stating eleven demands. Some of these were of general interest;"}
{"text": "others were specific demands of different classes, from industrialiststo peasants. The idea was to make the demands wide-ranging, sothat all classes within Indian society could identify with them andeveryone could be brought together in a united campaign. The moststirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax. Salt was"}
{"text": "something consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it was one"}
{"text": "of the most essential items of food. The tax on salt and thegovernment monopoly over its production, Mahatma Gandhideclared, revealed the most oppressive face of British rule."}
{"text": "Mahatma Gandhi\u2019s letter was, in a way, an ultimatum. If the"}
{"text": "demands were not fulfilled by 11 March, the letter stated, the"}
{"text": "Congress would launch a civil disobedience campaign. Irwin was"}
{"text": "unwilling to negotiate. So Mahatma Gandhi started his famoussalt march accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The marchwas over 240 miles, from Gandhiji\u2019s ashram in Sabarmati to theGujarati coastal town of Dandi. The volunteers walked for 24 days,about 10 miles a day. Thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi"}
{"text": "wherever he stopped, and he told them what he meant by swaraj"}
{"text": "and urged them to peacefully defy the British. On 6 April he reachedDandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt byboiling sea water."}
{"text": "This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement."}
{"text": "How was this movement different from the Non-CooperationMovement? People were now asked not only to refuse cooperationThe Independence Day Pledge, 26 January"}
{"text": "1930"}
{"text": "\u2018We believe that it is the inalienable right of the"}
{"text": "Indian people, as of any other people, to havefreedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil andhave the necessities of life, so that they mayhave full opportunities of growth. We believealso that if any government deprives a people ofthese rights and oppresses them, the peoplehave a further right to alter it or to abolish it.The British Government in India has not onlydeprived the Indian people of their freedom buthas based itself on the exploitation of the masses,and has ruined India economically, politically,culturally, and spiritually. We believe, therefore,that India must sever the British connection andattain Purna Swaraj or Complete Independence.\u2019Source C"}
{"text": "SourceIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "64with the British, as they had done in 1921-22, but also to break"}
{"text": "colonial laws. Thousands in different parts of the country broke"}
{"text": "the salt law, manufactured salt and demonstrated in front of"}
{"text": "government salt factories. As the movement spread, foreign clothwas boycotted, and liquor shops were picketed. Peasants refused to"}
{"text": "pay revenue and chaukidari  taxes, village officials resigned, and in"}
{"text": "many places forest people violated forest laws \u2013 going into Reserved"}
{"text": "Forests to collect wood and graze cattle."}
{"text": "Worried by the developments, the colonial government began"}
{"text": "arresting the Congress leaders one by one. This led to violent clashesin many palaces. When Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of"}
{"text": "Mahatma Gandhi, was arrested in April 1930, angry crowds"}
{"text": "demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar, facing armoured cars andpolice firing. Many were killed. A month later, when Mahatma"}
{"text": "Gandhi himself was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked"}
{"text": "police posts, municipal buildings, lawcourts and railway stations \u2013all structures that symbolised British rule. A frightened government"}
{"text": "responded with a policy of brutal repression. Peaceful satyagrahis"}
{"text": "were attacked, women and children were beaten, and about 100,000people were arrested."}
{"text": "In such a situation, Mahatma Gandhi once again decided to call off"}
{"text": "the movement and entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931.By this Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhiji consented to participate in a"}
{"text": "Round Table Conference (the Congress had boycotted the first"}
{"text": "Fig. 7  \u2013 The Dandi march."}
{"text": "During the salt march Mahatma"}
{"text": "Gandhi was accompanied by78 volunteers. On the waythey were joined by thousands."}
{"text": "Fig. 8  \u2013 Police cracked down on satyagrahis,"}
{"text": "1930.65"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  IndiaRound Table Conference) in London and the government agreed to"}
{"text": "release the political prisoners. In December 1931, Gandhiji went to"}
{"text": "London for the conference, but the negotiations broke down and"}
{"text": "he returned disappointed. Back in India, he discovered that thegovernment had begun a new cycle of repression. Ghaffar Khanand Jawaharlal Nehru were both in jail, the Congress had beendeclared illegal, and a series of measures had been imposed to preventmeetings, demonstrations and boycotts. With great apprehension,"}
{"text": "Mahatma Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement."}
{"text": "For over a year, the movement continued, but by 1934 it lostits momentum."}
{"text": "3.2 How Participants saw the Movement"}
{"text": "Let us now look at the different social groups that participated in theCivil Disobedience Movement. Why did they join the movement?"}
{"text": "What were their ideals? What did swaraj mean to them?"}
{"text": "In the countryside, rich peasant communities \u2013 like the Patidars of"}
{"text": "Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh \u2013 were active in the movement.Being producers of commercial crops, they were very hard hit bythe trade depression and falling prices. As their cash incomedisappeared, they found it impossible to pay the government\u2019s revenue"}
{"text": "demand. And the refusal of the government to reduce the revenue"}
{"text": "demand led to widespread resentment. These rich peasants becameenthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement,organising their communities, and at times forcing reluctant members,to participate in the boycott programmes. For them the fight forswaraj was a struggle against high revenues. But they were deeply"}
{"text": "disappointed when the movement was called off in 1931 without"}
{"text": "the revenue rates being revised. So when the movement was restartedin 1932, many of them refused to participate."}
{"text": "The poorer peasantry were not just interested in the lowering of the"}
{"text": "revenue demand. Many of them were small tenants cultivating landthey had rented from landlords. As the Depression continued and"}
{"text": "cash incomes dwindled, the small tenants found it difficult to pay"}
{"text": "their rent. They wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to be remitted.They joined a variety of radical movements, often led by Socialistsand Communists. Apprehensive of raising issues that might upsetthe rich peasants and landlords, the Congress was unwilling to support\u2018no rent\u2019 campaigns in most places. So the relationship between thepoor peasants and the Congress remained uncertain.\u2018To the altar of this revolution we have"}
{"text": "brought our youth as incense\u2019"}
{"text": "Many nationalists thought that the struggle"}
{"text": "against the British could not be won throughnon-violence. In 1928, the Hindustan SocialistRepublican Army (HSRA) was founded at ameeting in Ferozeshah Kotla ground in Delhi.Amongst its leaders were Bhagat Singh, JatinDas and Ajoy Ghosh. In a series of dramaticactions in different parts of India, the HSRAtargeted some of the symbols of British power.In April 1929, Bhagat Singh and BatukeswarDutta threw a bomb in the Legislative Assembly.In the same year there was an attempt to blowup the train that Lord Irwin was travelling in.Bhagat Singh was 23 when he was tried andexecuted by the colonial government. Duringhis trial, Bhagat Singh stated that he did notwish to glorify \u2018the cult of the bomb and pistol\u2019but wanted a revolution in society:"}
{"text": "\u2018Revolution is the inalienable right of mankind."}
{"text": "Freedom is the imprescriptible birthright of all.The labourer is the real sustainer of society \u2026To the altar of this revolution we have broughtour youth as incense, for no sacrifice is toogreat for so magnificent a cause. We arecontent. We await the advent of revolution."}
{"text": "Inquilab Zindabad!\u2019Box 1India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "66What about the business classes? How did they relate to the Civil"}
{"text": "Disobedience Movement? During the First World War, Indian"}
{"text": "merchants and industrialists had made huge profits and become"}
{"text": "powerful (see Chapter 5). Keen on expanding their business, theynow reacted against colonial policies that restricted business activities."}
{"text": "They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods, and a"}
{"text": "rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports.To organise business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial"}
{"text": "and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian"}
{"text": "Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927. Led byprominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and"}
{"text": "G. D. Birla, the industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian"}
{"text": "economy, and supported the Civil Disobedience Movement whenit was first launched.  They gave financial assistance and refused to"}
{"text": "buy or sell imported goods. Most businessmen came to see swaraj"}
{"text": "as a time when colonial restrictions on business would no longerexist and trade and industry would flourish without constraints. But"}
{"text": "after the failure of the Round Table Conference, business groups"}
{"text": "were no longer uniformly enthusiastic. They were apprehensive ofthe spread of militant activities, and worried about prolonged"}
{"text": "disruption of business, as well as of the growing influence of"}
{"text": "socialism amongst the younger members of the Congress."}
{"text": "The industrial working classes did not participate in the Civil"}
{"text": "Disobedience Movement in large numbers, except in the Nagpur"}
{"text": "region. As the industrialists came closer to the Congress, workersstayed aloof. But in spite of that, some workers did participate in"}
{"text": "the Civil Disobedience Movement, selectively adopting some of"}
{"text": "the ideas of the Gandhian programme, like boycott of foreigngoods, as part of their own movements against low wages and"}
{"text": "poor working conditions. There were strikes by railway workers in"}
{"text": "1930 and dockworkers in 1932. In 1930 thousands of workers inChotanagpur tin mines wore Gandhi caps and participated in protest"}
{"text": "rallies and boycott campaigns. But the Congress was reluctant to"}
{"text": "include workers\u2019 demands as part of its programme of struggle.It felt that this would alienate industrialists and divide the anti-"}
{"text": "imperial forces."}
{"text": "Another important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement"}
{"text": "was the large-scale participation of women. During Gandhiji\u2019s salt"}
{"text": "march, thousands of women came out of their homes to listen to"}
{"text": "him. They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, andSome important dates"}
{"text": "1918-19Distressed UP peasants organised by Baba"}
{"text": "Ramchandra."}
{"text": "April 1919Gandhian hartal against Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala"}
{"text": "Bagh massacre.January 1921Non-Cooperation and Khilafat movement"}
{"text": "launched."}
{"text": "February 1922Chauri Chaura; Gandhiji withdraws Non-"}
{"text": "Cooperation movement."}
{"text": "May 1924Alluri Sitarama Raju arrested ending a two-year"}
{"text": "armed tribal struggle."}
{"text": "December 1929Lahore Congress; Congress adopts the demand"}
{"text": "for \u2018Purna Swaraj\u2019."}
{"text": "1930Ambedkar establishes Depressed Classes"}
{"text": "Association."}
{"text": "March 1930Gandhiji begins Civil Disobedience Movement by"}
{"text": "breaking salt law at Dandi."}
{"text": "March 1931Gandhiji ends Civil Disobedience Movement."}
{"text": "December 1931"}
{"text": "Second Round Table Conference.1932"}
{"text": "Civil Disobedience re-launched.67"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  Indiapicketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail. In urban"}
{"text": "areas these women were from high-caste families; in rural areas"}
{"text": "they came from rich peasant households. Moved by Gandhiji\u2019s call,"}
{"text": "they began to see service to the nation as a sacred duty of women.Yet, this increased public role did not necessarily mean any radical"}
{"text": "change in the way the position of women was visualised. Gandhiji"}
{"text": "was convinced that it was the duty of women to look after homeand hearth, be good mothers and good wives. And for a long time"}
{"text": "the Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position"}
{"text": "of authority within the organisation. It was keen only on theirsymbolic presence."}
{"text": "3.3 The Limits of Civil Disobedience"}
{"text": "Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of swaraj.One such group was the nation\u2019s \u2018untouchables\u2019, who from around"}
{"text": "the 1930s had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed. For"}
{"text": "long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending thesanatanis,  the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi"}
{"text": "declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years ifuntouchability was not eliminated. He called the \u2018untouchables\u2019 harijan,Why did various classes and groups of Indians"}
{"text": "participate in the Civil Disobedience"}
{"text": "Movement?Discuss"}
{"text": "Fig. 9  \u2013 Women join"}
{"text": "nationalist processions."}
{"text": "During the nationalmovement, many women,for the first time in theirlives, moved out of theirhomes on to a public arena.Amongst the marchers youcan see many old women,and mothers with children intheir arms.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "68or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry"}
{"text": "into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the bhangi (the"}
{"text": "sweepers), and persuaded upper castes to change their heart and"}
{"text": "give up \u2018the sin of untouchability\u2019. But many dalit leaders were keenon a different political solution to the problems of the community."}
{"text": "They began organising themselves, demanding reserved seats in"}
{"text": "educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choosedalit members for legislative councils. Political empowerment, they"}
{"text": "believed, would resolve the problems of their social disabilities."}
{"text": "Dalit participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement wastherefore limited, particularly in the Maharashtra and Nagpur region"}
{"text": "where their organisation was quite strong."}
{"text": "Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed"}
{"text": "Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at"}
{"text": "the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate"}
{"text": "electorates for dalits. When the British government concededAmbedkar\u2019s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed"}
{"text": "that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of"}
{"text": "their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji\u2019sposition and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932."}
{"text": "It gave the Depressed Classes (later to be known as the Schedule"}
{"text": "Castes) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils,but they were to be voted in by the general electorate. The dalit"}
{"text": "movement, however, continued to be apprehensive of the Congress-"}
{"text": "led national movement."}
{"text": "Some of the Muslim political organisations in India were also"}
{"text": "lukewarm in their response to the Civil Disobedience Movement."}
{"text": "After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, alarge section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. From the"}
{"text": "mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with"}
{"text": "openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.As relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened, each"}
{"text": "community organised religious processions with militant fervour,"}
{"text": "provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in variouscities. Every riot deepened the distance between the two communities."}
{"text": "The Congress and the Muslim League made efforts to renegotiate"}
{"text": "an alliance, and in 1927 it appeared that such a unity could be forged.The important differences were over the question of representation"}
{"text": "in the future assemblies that were to be elected. Muhammad Ali"}
{"text": "Fig. 10  \u2013 Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru"}
{"text": "and Maulana Azad at Sevagram Ashram,"}
{"text": "Wardha, 1935.69"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  IndiaJinnah, one of the leaders of the Muslim League, was willing to give"}
{"text": "up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assuredreserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in"}
{"text": "proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Bengal"}
{"text": "and Punjab). Negotiations over the question of representationcontinued but all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties"}
{"text": "Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu"}
{"text": "Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts at compromise."}
{"text": "When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus"}
{"text": "an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities."}
{"text": "Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could notrespond to the call for a united struggle. Many Muslim leaders and"}
{"text": "intellectuals expressed their concern about the status of Muslims"}
{"text": "as a minority within India. They feared that the culture and identityof minorities would be submerged under the domination of a"}
{"text": "Hindu majority."}
{"text": "In 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal, as president of the Muslim League, reiterated the importance of separate electorates for"}
{"text": "the Muslims as an important safeguard for their minority political interests. His statement is supposed to have provided theintellectual justification for the Pakistan demand that came up in subsequent years. This is what he said:"}
{"text": "\u2018I have no hesitation in declaring that if the principle that the Indian Muslim is entitled to full and free development on the"}
{"text": "lines of his own culture and tradition in his own Indian home-lands is recognised as the basis of a permanent communalsettlement, he will be ready to stake his all for the freedom of India. The principle that each group is entitled to freedevelopment on its own lines is not inspired by any feeling of narrow communalism \u2026 A community which is inspired byfeelings of ill-will towards other communities is low and ignoble. I entertain the highest respect for the customs, laws,religions and social institutions of other communities. Nay, it is my duty according to the teachings of the Quran, even todefend their places of worship, if need be. Yet I love the communal group which is the source of life and behaviour andwhich has formed me what I am by giving me its religion, its literature, its thought, its culture and thereby its whole pastas a living operative factor in my present consciousness \u2026"}
{"text": "\u2018Communalism in its higher aspect, then, is indispensable to the formation of a harmonious whole in a country like India."}
{"text": "The units of Indian society are not territorial as in European countries \u2026 The principle of European democracy cannot beapplied to India without recognising the fact of communal groups. The Muslim demand for the creation of a Muslim Indiawithin India is, therefore, perfectly justified\u2026"}
{"text": "\u2018The Hindu thinks that separate electorates are contrary to the spirit of true nationalism, because he understands the"}
{"text": "word \u201cnation\u201d to mean a kind of universal amalgamation in which no communal entity ought to retain its private individuality.Such a state of things, however, does not exist. India is a land of racial and religious variety. Add to this the generaleconomic inferiority of the Muslims, their enormous debt, especially in the Punjab, and their insufficient majorities in someof the provinces, as at present constituted and you will begin to see clearly the meaning of our anxiety to retain separateelectorates.\u2019Source D"}
{"text": "Source"}
{"text": "Read the Source D carefully. Do you agree with Iqbal\u2019s idea of communalism? Can you define communalism in a"}
{"text": "different way?DiscussIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "704  The Sense of Collective Belonging"}
{"text": "Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all"}
{"text": "part of the same  nation, when they discover some unity that binds"}
{"text": "them together. But how did the nation become a reality in the mindsof people? How did people belonging to different communities,"}
{"text": "regions or language groups develop a sense of collective belonging?"}
{"text": "This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience"}
{"text": "of united struggles. But there were also a variety of cultural processes"}
{"text": "through which nationalism captured people\u2019s imagination. History"}
{"text": "and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all playeda part in the making of nationalism."}
{"text": "Fig. 11 \u2013 Bal Gangadhar Tilak,"}
{"text": "an early-twentieth-century print.Notice how Tilak is surrounded by symbols ofunity. The sacred institutions of different faiths(temple, church, masjid) frame the central figure.71"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  IndiaThe identity of the nation, as you know (see Chapter 1), is most"}
{"text": "often symbolised in a figure or image. This helps create an imagewith which people can identify the nation. It was in the twentieth"}
{"text": "century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India"}
{"text": "came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Theimage was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the"}
{"text": "1870s he wrote \u2018Vande Mataram\u2019 as a hymn to the motherland."}
{"text": "Later it was included in his novel Anandamath  and widely sung during"}
{"text": "the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. Moved by the Swadeshi"}
{"text": "movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of"}
{"text": "Bharat Mata (see Fig. 12). In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayedas an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual."}
{"text": "In subsequent years, the image of Bharat Mata acquired many"}
{"text": "different forms, as it circulated in popular prints, and was paintedby different artists (see Fig. 14). Devotion to this mother figure came"}
{"text": "to be seen as evidence of one\u2019s nationalism."}
{"text": "Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive"}
{"text": "Indian folklore.  In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began"}
{"text": "recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather"}
{"text": "folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true pictureof traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by"}
{"text": "outside forces. It was essential to preserve this folk tradition  in"}
{"text": "order to discover one\u2019s national identity and restore a sense of pridein one\u2019s past. In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting"}
{"text": "ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk"}
{"text": "Fig. 12  \u2013 Bharat Mata, Abanindranath Tagore,"}
{"text": "1905."}
{"text": "Notice that the mother figure here is shown asdispensing learning, food and clothing. The mala"}
{"text": "in one hand emphasises her ascetic quality.Abanindranath Tagore, like Ravi Varma beforehim, tried to develop a style of painting thatcould be seen as truly Indian."}
{"text": "Fig. 13 \u2013 Jawaharlal Nehru, a popular print."}
{"text": "Nehru is here shown holding the image of Bharat Mata and the map of Indiaclose to his heart. In a lot of popular prints, nationalist leaders are shownoffering their heads to Bharat Mata. The idea of sacrifice for the mother waspowerful within popular imagination.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "72\u2018In earlier times, foreign travellers in India marvelled at the courage, truthfulness and modesty of the people of the Arya"}
{"text": "vamsa ; now they remark mainly on the absence of those qualities. In those days Hindus would set out on conquest and"}
{"text": "hoist their flags in Tartar, China and other countries; now a few soldiers from a tiny island far away are lording it over the"}
{"text": "land of India.\u2019"}
{"text": "Tarinicharan Chattopadhyay, Bharatbarsher Itihas (The History of Bharatbarsh) ,  vol. 1, 1858.Source E"}
{"text": "Sourcerevival. In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume"}
{"text": "collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of  Southern India . He believed"}
{"text": "that folklore was national literature; it was \u2018the most trustworthy"}
{"text": "manifestation of people\u2019s real thoughts and characteristics\u2019."}
{"text": "As the national movement developed, nationalist leaders became"}
{"text": "more and more aware of such icons and symbols in unifying people"}
{"text": "and inspiring in them a feeling of nationalism. During the Swadeshi"}
{"text": "movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) wasdesigned. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British"}
{"text": "India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. By"}
{"text": "1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour(red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre,"}
{"text": "representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag,"}
{"text": "holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance."}
{"text": "Another means of creating a feeling of nationalism was through"}
{"text": "reinterpretation of history. By the end of the nineteenth century"}
{"text": "many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in thenation, Indian history had to be thought about differently. The British"}
{"text": "saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing"}
{"text": "themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past todiscover India\u2019s great achievements. They wrote about the glorious"}
{"text": "developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science"}
{"text": "and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, craftsand trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was"}
{"text": "followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised. These"}
{"text": "nationalist histories urged the readers to take pride in India\u2019s greatachievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable"}
{"text": "conditions of life under British rule."}
{"text": "These efforts to unify people were not without problems. When the"}
{"text": "past being glorified was Hindu, when the images celebrated were"}
{"text": "drawn from Hindu iconography, then people of other communities"}
{"text": "felt left out."}
{"text": "Fig. 14 \u2013 Bharat Mata."}
{"text": "This figure of Bharat Mata is a contrast to the"}
{"text": "one painted by Abanindranath Tagore. Here sheis shown with a trishul , standing  beside a lion"}
{"text": "and an elephant \u2013 both symbols of power andauthority."}
{"text": "Look at Figs. 12 and 14. Do you think these"}
{"text": "images will appeal to all castes and communities?"}
{"text": "Explain your views briefly.Activity73"}
{"text": "Nationalism  in  IndiaConclusion"}
{"text": "A growing anger against the colonial government was thus bringing"}
{"text": "together various groups and classes of Indians into a common struggle"}
{"text": "for freedom in the first half of the twentieth century. The Congress"}
{"text": "under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to channel people\u2019sgrievances into organised movements for independence. Through"}
{"text": "such movements the nationalists tried to forge a national unity. But"}
{"text": "as we have seen, diverse groups and classes participated in thesemovements with varied aspirations and expectations. As their"}
{"text": "grievances were wide-ranging, freedom from colonial rule also meant"}
{"text": "different things to different people. The Congress continuouslyattempted to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of"}
{"text": "one group did not alienate another. This is precisely why the unity"}
{"text": "within the movement often broke down. The high points ofCongress activity and nationalist unity were followed by phases of"}
{"text": "disunity and inner conflict between groups."}
{"text": "In other words, what was emerging was a nation with many voices"}
{"text": "wanting freedom from colonial rule.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "74Discuss"}
{"text": "Project1. List all the different social groups which joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921."}
{"text": "Then choose any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they"}
{"text": "joined the movement."}
{"text": "2. Discuss the Salt March to make clear why it was an effective symbol of resistance"}
{"text": "against colonialism."}
{"text": "3. Imagine you are a woman participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Explain"}
{"text": "what the experience meant to your life."}
{"text": "4. Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates?"}
{"text": "Find out about the anti-colonial movement in Kenya. Compare and contrast India\u2019s nationalmovement with the ways in which Kenya became independent."}
{"text": "DiscussWrite in brief"}
{"text": "1. Explain:"}
{"text": "a) Why growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement.b) How the First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India."}
{"text": "c) Why Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act."}
{"text": "d) Why Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement."}
{"text": "2. What is meant by the idea of satyagraha?"}
{"text": "3. Write a newspaper report on:"}
{"text": "a) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre"}
{"text": "b) The Simon Commission"}
{"text": "4. Compare the images of Bharat Mata in this chapter with the image of Germania"}
{"text": "in Chapter 1."}
{"text": "Write in brief"}
{"text": "Project          1  The Pre-modern World"}
{"text": "When we talk of \u2018globalisation\u2019 we often refer to an economic"}
{"text": "system that has emerged since the last 50 years or so. But as you will"}
{"text": "see in this chapter, the making of the global world has a long"}
{"text": "history \u2013 of trade, of migration, of people in search of work, themovement of capital, and much else. As we think about the dramatic"}
{"text": "and visible signs of global interconnectedness in our lives today,"}
{"text": "we need to understand the phases through which this world inwhich we live has emerged."}
{"text": "All through history, human societies have become steadily more"}
{"text": "interlinked. From ancient times, travellers, traders, priests andpilgrims travelled vast distances for knowledge, opportunity and"}
{"text": "spiritual fulfilment, or to escape persecution. They carried goods,"}
{"text": "money, values, skills, ideas, inventions, and even germs and diseases.As early as 3000"}
{"text": "BCE an active coastal trade linked the Indus valley"}
{"text": "civilisations with present-day West Asia. For more than a millennia,cowries  (the Hindi c owdi or seashells, used as a form of currency)"}
{"text": "from the Maldives found their way to China and East Africa. The"}
{"text": "long-distance spread of disease-carrying germs may be traced as"}
{"text": "far back as the seventh century. By the thirteenth century it hadbecome an unmistakable link."}
{"text": "The Making of a Global World Chapter IV The Making of a Global World"}
{"text": "Fig. 1 \u2013 Image of a ship on a memorial stone,"}
{"text": "Goa Museum, tenth century CE."}
{"text": "From the ninth century, images of shipsappear regularly in memorial stones found inthe western coast, indicating the significanceof oceanic trade."}
{"text": "India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "781.1 Silk Routes Link the World"}
{"text": "The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade"}
{"text": "and cultural links between distant parts of the world. The name \u2018silkroutes\u2019 points to the importance of West-bound Chinese silk cargoes"}
{"text": "along this route. Historians have identified several silk routes, over"}
{"text": "land and by sea, knitting together vast regions of Asia, and linkingAsia with Europe and northern Africa. They are known to haveexisted since before the Christian Era and thrived almost till thefifteenth century. But Chinese pottery also travelled the same route,as did textiles and spices from India and Southeast Asia. In return,precious metals \u2013 gold and silver \u2013 flowed from Europe to Asia."}
{"text": "Trade and cultural exchange always went hand in hand. Early"}
{"text": "Christian missionaries almost certainly travelled this route to Asia, asdid early Muslim preachers a few centuries later. Much before allthis, Buddhism emerged from eastern India and spread in severaldirections through intersecting points on the silk routes."}
{"text": "1.2 Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato"}
{"text": "Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange.Traders and travellers introduced new crops to the lands theytravelled. Even \u2018ready\u2019 foodstuff  in distant parts of the world mightshare common origins. Take spaghetti and noodles. It is believedthat noodles travelled west from China tobecome spaghetti. Or, perhaps Arab traderstook pasta to fifth-century Sicily, an island nowin Italy. Similar foods were also known in Indiaand Japan, so the truth about their origins maynever be known. Yet such guesswork suggeststhe possibilities of long-distance cultural contact"}
{"text": "even in the pre-modern world."}
{"text": "Many of our common foods such as potatoes,"}
{"text": "soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies,sweet potatoes, and so on were not known toour ancestors until about five centuries ago.These foods were only introduced in Europeand Asia after Christopher Columbusaccidentally discovered the vast continent thatwould later become known as the Americas."}
{"text": "Fig. 3 \u2013 Merchants from Venice and the Orient exchanging goods,"}
{"text": "from Marco Polo, Book of Marvels , fifteenth century.Fig. 2 \u2013 Silk route trade as depicted in aChinese cave painting, eighth century, Cave217, Mogao Grottoes, Gansu, China."}
{"text": "79"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  World(Here we will use \u2018America\u2019 to describe North America, South"}
{"text": "America and the Caribbean.) In fact, many of our common foods"}
{"text": "came from America\u2019s original inhabitants \u2013 the American Indians."}
{"text": "Sometimes the new crops could make the difference between life"}
{"text": "and death. Europe\u2019s poor began to eat better and live longer withthe introduction of the humble potato. Ireland\u2019s poorest peasants"}
{"text": "became so dependent on potatoes that when disease destroyed the"}
{"text": "potato crop in the mid-1840s, hundreds of thousands died"}
{"text": "of starvation."}
{"text": "1.3 Conquest, Disease and Trade"}
{"text": "The pre-modern world shrank greatly in the sixteenth century after"}
{"text": "European sailors found a sea route to Asia and also successfullycrossed the western ocean to America. For centuries before, the"}
{"text": "Indian Ocean had known a bustling trade, with goods, people,"}
{"text": "knowledge, customs, etc. criss-crossing its waters. The Indian"}
{"text": "subcontinent was central to these flows and a crucial point in their"}
{"text": "networks.  The entry of the Europeans helped expand or redirectsome of these flows towards Europe."}
{"text": "Before its \u2018discovery\u2019, America had been cut off from regular contact"}
{"text": "with the rest of the world for millions of years. But from the sixteenth"}
{"text": "century, its vast lands and abundant crops and minerals began to"}
{"text": "transform trade and lives everywhere."}
{"text": "Precious metals, particularly silver, from mines located in present-"}
{"text": "day Peru and Mexico also enhanced Europe\u2019s wealth and financedits trade with Asia. Legends spread in seventeenth-century Europe"}
{"text": "about South America\u2019s fabled wealth. Many expeditions set off in"}
{"text": "search of El Dorado, the fabled city of gold."}
{"text": "The Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonisation of America"}
{"text": "was decisively under way by the mid-sixteenth century.  Europeanconquest was not just a result of superior firepower. In fact, the"}
{"text": "most powerful weapon of the Spanish conquerors was not a"}
{"text": "conventional military weapon at all. It was the germs such as those"}
{"text": "of smallpox that they carried on their person. Because of their long"}
{"text": "isolation, America\u2019s original inhabitants had no immunity against"}
{"text": "these diseases that came from Europe. Smallpox in particular proved"}
{"text": "a deadly killer. Once introduced, it spread deep into the continent,ahead even of any Europeans reaching there. It killed and decimated"}
{"text": "whole communities, paving the way for conquest."}
{"text": "Fig. 4 \u2013  The Irish Potato Famine,  Illustrated"}
{"text": "London News , 1849."}
{"text": "Hungry children digging for potatoes in a field that"}
{"text": "has already been harvested, hoping to discoversome leftovers. During the Great Irish PotatoFamine (1845 to 1849), around 1,000,000people died of starvation in Ireland, and double thenumber emigrated in search of work."}
{"text": "\u2018Biological\u2019 warfare?"}
{"text": "John Winthorp, the first governor of  the"}
{"text": "Massachusetts Bay colony in New England,wrote in May 1634 that smallpox signalled God\u2019sblessing for the colonists: \u2018\u2026 the natives \u2026 wereneere (near) all dead of small Poxe (pox), so asthe Lord hathe (had) cleared our title to whatwe possess\u2019."}
{"text": "Alfred Crosby,"}
{"text": "Ecological Imperialism .Box 1India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "80Explain what we mean when we say that the"}
{"text": "world \u2018shrank\u2019 in the 1500s.DiscussGuns could be bought or captured and turned against the invaders."}
{"text": "But not diseases such as smallpox to which the conquerors weremostly immune."}
{"text": "Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in"}
{"text": "Europe. Cities were crowded and deadly diseases were widespread."}
{"text": "Religious conflicts were common, and religious dissenters  were"}
{"text": "persecuted. Thousands therefore fled Europe for America. Here,"}
{"text": "by the eighteenth century, plantations worked by slaves captured"}
{"text": "in Africa were growing cotton and sugar for European markets."}
{"text": "Until well into the eighteenth century, China and India were among"}
{"text": "the world\u2019s richest countries. They were also pre-eminent in Asian"}
{"text": "trade. However, from the fifteenth century, China is said to have"}
{"text": "restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation.  China\u2019sreduced role and the rising importance of the Americas gradually"}
{"text": "moved the centre of world trade westwards. Europe now emerged"}
{"text": "as the centre of  world trade."}
{"text": "New words"}
{"text": "Dissenter \u2013 One who refuses to accept"}
{"text": "established beliefs and practices"}
{"text": "Fig. 5 \u2013  Slaves for sale, New Orleans,  Illustrated London News , 1851."}
{"text": "A prospective buyer carefully inspecting slaves lined up before the auction. You can see two"}
{"text": "children along with four women and seven men in top hats and suit waiting to be sold. To attractbuyers, slaves were often dressed in their best clothes.81"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  WorldThe world changed profoundly in the nineteenth century. Economic,"}
{"text": "political, social, cultural and technological factors interacted in"}
{"text": "complex ways to transform societies and reshape external relations."}
{"text": "Economists identify three types of movement or \u2018flows\u2019 within"}
{"text": "international economic exchanges. The first is the flow of trade which"}
{"text": "in the nineteenth century referred largely to trade in goods (e.g.,"}
{"text": "cloth or wheat). The second is the flow of labour \u2013 the migrationof people in search of employment. The third is the movement of"}
{"text": "capital for short-term or long-term investments over long distances."}
{"text": "All three flows were closely interwoven and affected peoples\u2019 lives"}
{"text": "more deeply now than ever before. The interconnections could"}
{"text": "sometimes be broken \u2013 for example, labour migration was often"}
{"text": "more restricted than goods or capital flows. Yet it helps us understandthe nineteenth-century world economy better if we look at the"}
{"text": "three flows together."}
{"text": "2.1 A World Economy Takes Shape"}
{"text": "A good place to start is the changing pattern of food productionand consumption in industrial Europe. Traditionally, countries liked"}
{"text": "to be self-sufficient in food. But in nineteenth-century Britain,self-sufficiency in food meant lower living standards and social"}
{"text": "conflict. Why was this so?"}
{"text": "Population growth from the late eighteenth century had increased"}
{"text": "the demand for food grains in Britain. As urban centres expanded"}
{"text": "and industry grew, the demand for agricultural products went"}
{"text": "up, pushing up food grain prices. Under pressure from landedgroups, the government also restricted the import of corn. The"}
{"text": "laws allowing the government to do this were commonly known as"}
{"text": "the \u2018Corn Laws\u2019. Unhappy with high food prices, industrialists andurban dwellers forced the abolition of the Corn Laws."}
{"text": "After the Corn Laws were scrapped, food could be imported into"}
{"text": "Britain more cheaply than it could be produced within the country.British agriculture was unable to compete with imports.  Vast areas"}
{"text": "of land were now left uncultivated, and thousands of men and"}
{"text": "women were thrown out of work. They flocked to the cities ormigrated overseas.2  The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "82As food prices fell, consumption in Britain rose. From the mid-"}
{"text": "nineteenth century, faster industrial growth in Britain also led to higherincomes, and therefore more food imports. Around the world \u2013 in"}
{"text": "Eastern Europe, Russia, America and Australia  \u2013  lands were cleared"}
{"text": "and food production expanded to meet the British demand."}
{"text": "It was not enough merely to clear lands for agriculture. Railways"}
{"text": "were needed to link the agricultural regions to the ports. New"}
{"text": "harbours had to be built and old ones expanded to ship the newcargoes. People had to settle on the lands to bring them under"}
{"text": "cultivation. This meant building homes and settlements. All these"}
{"text": "activities in turn required capital and labour. Capital flowed fromfinancial centres such as London. The demand for labour in places"}
{"text": "where labour was in short supply \u2013 as in America and Australia \u2013"}
{"text": "led to more migration."}
{"text": "Nearly 50 million people emigrated from Europe to America and"}
{"text": "Australia in the nineteenth century. All over the world some 150"}
{"text": "million are estimated to have left their homes, crossed oceans andvast distances over land in search of a better future."}
{"text": "Fig. 6 \u2013 Emigrant ship leaving for the US, by"}
{"text": "M.W. Ridley, 1869."}
{"text": "Fig. 7 \u2013 Irish emigrants waiting to board the ship, by  Michael Fitzgerald, 1874.83"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  WorldPrepare a flow chart to show how Britain\u2019s"}
{"text": "decision to import food led to increased"}
{"text": "migration to America and Australia.ActivityThus by 1890, a global agricultural economy had taken shape,"}
{"text": "accompanied by complex changes in labour movement patterns,capital flows, ecologies and technology. Food no longer came from"}
{"text": "a nearby village or town, but from thousands of miles away. It was"}
{"text": "not grown by a peasant tilling his own land, but by an agriculturalworker, perhaps recently arrived, who was now working on a large"}
{"text": "farm that only a generation ago had most likely been a forest. It was"}
{"text": "transported by railway, built for that very purpose, and by shipswhich were increasingly manned in these decades by low-paid"}
{"text": "workers from southern Europe, Asia, Africa and the Caribbean."}
{"text": "Imagine that you are an agricultural worker who has arrived in"}
{"text": "America from Ireland. Write a paragraph on why you chose to"}
{"text": "come and how you are earning your living.Activity"}
{"text": "Some of this dramatic change, though on a smaller scale, occurred"}
{"text": "closer home in west Punjab. Here the British Indian governmentbuilt a network of irrigation canals to transform semi-desert wastesinto fertile agricultural lands that could grow wheat and cotton for"}
{"text": "export. The Canal Colonies, as the areas irrigated by the new canals"}
{"text": "were called, were settled by peasants from other parts of Punjab."}
{"text": "Of course, food is merely an example. A similar story can be told"}
{"text": "for cotton, the cultivation of which expanded worldwide to feed"}
{"text": "British textile mills. Or rubber. Indeed, so rapidly did regional"}
{"text": "specialisation in the production of commodities develop, thatbetween 1820 and 1914 world trade is estimated to have multiplied25 to 40 times. Nearly 60 per cent of this trade comprised \u2018primary"}
{"text": "products\u2019 \u2013 that is, agricultural products such as wheat and cotton,"}
{"text": "and minerals such as coal."}
{"text": "2.2 Role of Technology"}
{"text": "What was the role of technology in all this? The railways, steamships,"}
{"text": "the telegraph, for example, were important inventions without"}
{"text": "which we cannot imagine the transformed nineteenth-century world.But technological advances were often the result of larger social,political and economic factors. For example, colonisation stimulated"}
{"text": "new investments and improvements in transport: faster railways,"}
{"text": "lighter wagons and larger ships helped move food more cheaplyand quickly from faraway farms to final markets.India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "84The trade in meat offers a good example of this connected process."}
{"text": "Till the 1870s, animals were shipped live from America to Europeand then slaughtered when they arrived there. But live animals took"}
{"text": "up a lot of ship space. Many also died in voyage, fell ill, lost weight,"}
{"text": "or became unfit to eat. Meat was hence an expensive luxury beyondthe reach of the European poor. High prices in turn kept demand"}
{"text": "and production down until the development of a new technology,"}
{"text": "namely, refrigerated ships, which enabled the transport of perishablefoods over long distances."}
{"text": "Now animals were slaughtered for food at the starting point \u2013 in"}
{"text": "America, Australia or New Zealand \u2013 and then transported toEurope as frozen meat. This reduced shipping costs and lowered"}
{"text": "meat prices in Europe. The poor in Europe could now consume"}
{"text": "a more varied diet. To the earlier monotony of bread and potatoesmany, though not all, could now add meat (and butter and eggs)"}
{"text": "to their diet. Better living conditions promoted social peace within"}
{"text": "the country and support for imperialism abroad."}
{"text": "2.3 Late nineteenth-century Colonialism"}
{"text": "Trade flourished and markets expanded in the late nineteenthcentury. But this was not only a period of expanding trade andincreased prosperity. It is important to realise that there was a"}
{"text": "darker side to this process.  In many parts of the world, the"}
{"text": "expansion of trade and a closer relationship with the worldeconomy also meant a loss of freedoms and livelihoods. Late-"}
{"text": "nineteenth-century European conquests produced many painful"}
{"text": "economic, social and ecological changes through which thecolonised societies were brought into the world economy."}
{"text": "Fig. 8 \u2014 The Smithfield Club"}
{"text": "Cattle Show, Illustrated London"}
{"text": "News, 1851."}
{"text": "Cattle were traded at fairs, broughtby farmers for sale. One of theoldest livestock markets in Londonwas at Smithfield. In the mid-nineteenth century a huge poultryand meat market was establishednear the railway line connectingSmithfield to all the meat-supplyingcentres of the country."}
{"text": "Fig. 9 \u2013 Meat being loaded on to the ship,Alexandra,  Illustrated London News , 1878."}
{"text": "Export of meat was possible only after shipswere refrigerated.85"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  WorldLook at a map of Africa (Fig. 10). You"}
{"text": "will see some countries\u2019 borders runstraight, as if they were drawn using a"}
{"text": "ruler. Well, in fact this was almost how"}
{"text": "rival European powers in Africa drew upthe borders demarcating their respective"}
{"text": "territories. In 1885 the big European"}
{"text": "powers met in Berlin to complete thecarving up of Africa between them."}
{"text": "Britain and France made vast additions to"}
{"text": "their overseas territories in the late nineteenthcentury. Belgium and Germany became new"}
{"text": "colonial powers. The US also became a"}
{"text": "colonial power in the late 1890s by takingover some colonies earlier held by Spain."}
{"text": "Let us look at one example of the destructive"}
{"text": "impact of colonialism on the economy andlivelihoods of colonised people."}
{"text": "Sir Henry Morton Stanley in Central"}
{"text": "Africa"}
{"text": "Stanley was a journalist and explorer sent"}
{"text": "by the New York Herald  to find Livingston,"}
{"text": "a missionary and explorer who had been inAfrica for several years. Like other Europeanand American explorers of the time, Stanleywent with arms, mobilised local hunters,warriors and labourers to help him, foughtwith local tribes, investigated Africanterrains, and mapped different regions.These explorations helped the conquestof Africa. Geographical explorations werenot driven by an innocent search forscientific information. They were directlylinked to imperial projects.Box 2"}
{"text": "Fig. 10 \u2013 Map of colonial Africa at the end of the nineteenth century."}
{"text": "Fig. 11 \u2013 Sir Henry Morton Stanley and his retinue in Central Africa ,"}
{"text": "Illustrated London News, 1871."}
{"text": "MOROCCO"}
{"text": "ALGERIASPANISH"}
{"text": "SAHARA"}
{"text": "RIO"}
{"text": "DE ORO"}
{"text": "PORT"}
{"text": "GUINEAFRENCH SUDANFRENCH WEST AFRICA"}
{"text": "NIGERIA"}
{"text": "TOGOCAMEROONS"}
{"text": "MIDDLE"}
{"text": "CONGOCONGO"}
{"text": "FREE STATE"}
{"text": "(BELGIAN"}
{"text": "CONGO)"}
{"text": "ANGOLA"}
{"text": "GERMAN"}
{"text": "SOUTH WEST"}
{"text": "AFRICA"}
{"text": "UNION OF"}
{"text": "SOUTH AFRICANORTHERN"}
{"text": "RHODESIA"}
{"text": "SOUTHERN"}
{"text": "RHODESIAPORTUGUESE"}
{"text": "EAST AFRICA"}
{"text": "MADAGASCARGERMAN"}
{"text": "EAST AFRICABRITISH"}
{"text": "EAST AFRICABRITISH"}
{"text": "SOMALILAND"}
{"text": "ETHIOPIA"}
{"text": "ITALIAN"}
{"text": "SOMALILANDFRENCH"}
{"text": "SOMALILANDERITREA"}
{"text": "ANGLO-"}
{"text": "EGYPTIAN"}
{"text": "SUDANEGYPTLIBYA"}
{"text": "(TRIPOLI)TUNISIAMEDITERRANEAN SEA"}
{"text": "FRENCH"}
{"text": "EQUATORIAL"}
{"text": "AFRICASPANISH"}
{"text": "MOROCCO"}
{"text": "RED SEA"}
{"text": "ATLANTIC"}
{"text": "OCEAN"}
{"text": "BELGIAN"}
{"text": "BRITISH"}
{"text": "FRENCH"}
{"text": "GERMAN"}
{"text": "ITALIANPORTUGUESE"}
{"text": "SPANISH"}
{"text": "BRITISH DOMINIONINDEPENDENT STATEGOLD"}
{"text": "COAST IVORY"}
{"text": "COASTSIERRA"}
{"text": "LEONEIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "862.4 Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague"}
{"text": "In Africa, in the 1890s, a fast-spreading disease of cattle plague"}
{"text": "or rinderpest had a terrifying impact on people\u2019s livelihoods"}
{"text": "and the local economy. This is a good example of the"}
{"text": "widespread European imperial impact on colonised societies.It shows how in this era of conquest even a disease affecting"}
{"text": "cattle reshaped the lives and fortunes of thousands of people"}
{"text": "and their relations with the rest of the world."}
{"text": "Historically, Africa had abundant land and a relatively small"}
{"text": "population. For centuries, land and livestock sustained African"}
{"text": "livelihoods and people rarely worked for a wage. In late-nineteenth-century Africa there were few consumer goods that"}
{"text": "wages could buy. If you had been an African possessing land"}
{"text": "and livestock \u2013 and there was plenty of both \u2013 you too wouldhave seen little reason to work for a wage."}
{"text": "In the late nineteenth century, Europeans were attracted to"}
{"text": "Africa due to its vast resources of land and minerals. Europeanscame to Africa hoping to establish plantations and mines to"}
{"text": "produce crops and minerals for export to Europe. But there"}
{"text": "was an unexpected problem \u2013 a shortage of labour willing towork for wages."}
{"text": "Employers used many methods to recruit and retain labour. Heavytaxes were imposed which could be paid only by working for wages"}
{"text": "on plantations and mines. Inheritance laws were changed so thatFig. 12 \u2013 Transport to the Transvaal gold mines,"}
{"text": "The Graphic , 1887."}
{"text": "Crossing the Wilge river was the quickest method oftransport to the gold fields of Transvaal. After thediscovery of gold in Witwatersrand, Europeansrushed to the region despite their fear of disease anddeath, and the difficulties of the journey. By the1890s, South Africa contributed over 20 per cent ofthe world gold production."}
{"text": "Fig. 13 \u2014 Diggers at work"}
{"text": "in the Transvaal gold fieldsin South Africa, The"}
{"text": "Graphic,  1875.87"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  Worldpeasants were displaced from land:  only one member of a family"}
{"text": "was allowed to inherit land, as a result of which the others werepushed into the labour market. Mineworkers were also confined in"}
{"text": "compounds and not allowed to move about freely."}
{"text": "Then came rinderpest, a devastating cattle disease.Rinderpest arrived in Africa in the late 1880s.  It was carried by"}
{"text": "infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers"}
{"text": "invading Eritrea in East Africa. Entering Africa in the east, rinderpestmoved west \u2018like forest fire\u2019, reaching Africa\u2019s Atlantic coast in 1892."}
{"text": "It reached the Cape (Africa\u2019s southernmost tip) five years later. Along"}
{"text": "the way rinderpest killed 90 per cent of the cattle."}
{"text": "The loss of cattle destroyed African livelihoods. Planters, mine owners"}
{"text": "and colonial governments now successfully monopolised what scarce"}
{"text": "cattle resources remained, to strengthen their power and to forceAfricans into the labour market. Control over the scarce resource"}
{"text": "of cattle enabled European colonisers to conquer and subdue Africa."}
{"text": "Similar stories can be told about the impact of Western conquest on"}
{"text": "other parts of the nineteenth-century world."}
{"text": "2.4 Indentured Labour Migration from India"}
{"text": "The example of indentured labour  migration from India also"}
{"text": "illustrates the two-sided nature of the nineteenth-century world."}
{"text": "It was a world of faster economic growth as well as great misery,"}
{"text": "higher incomes for some and poverty for others, technologicaladvances in some areas and new forms of coercion in others."}
{"text": "In the nineteenth century, hundreds of thousands of Indian and"}
{"text": "Chinese labourers went to work on plantations, in mines, and inroad and railway construction projects around the world. In India,"}
{"text": "indentured labourers were hired under contracts which promised"}
{"text": "return travel to India after they had worked five years on theiremployer\u2019s plantation."}
{"text": "Most Indian indentured workers came from the present-day regions"}
{"text": "of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and the dry districtsof Tamil Nadu. In the mid-nineteenth century these regions"}
{"text": "experienced many changes \u2013 cottage industries declined, land rents"}
{"text": "rose, lands were cleared for mines and plantations. All this affectedthe lives of the poor: they failed to pay their rents, became deeply"}
{"text": "indebted and were forced to migrate in search of work.New words"}
{"text": "Indentured labour \u2013 A  bonded labourer under"}
{"text": "contract to work for an employer for a specific"}
{"text": "amount of time, to pay off his passage to anew country or homeIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "88Discuss the importance of language and"}
{"text": "popular traditions in the creation of national"}
{"text": "identity.The main destinations of Indian indentured"}
{"text": "migrants were the Caribbean islands (mainly"}
{"text": "Trinidad, Guyana and Surinam), Mauritius and Fiji."}
{"text": "Closer home, Tamil migrants went to Ceylon andMalaya. Indentured workers were also recruitedfor tea plantations in Assam."}
{"text": "Recruitment was done by agents engaged by"}
{"text": "employers and paid a small commission. Many"}
{"text": "migrants agreed to take up work hoping to escape"}
{"text": "poverty or oppression in their home villages.Agents also tempted the prospective migrantsby providing false information about finaldestinations, modes of travel, the nature of thework, and living and working conditions. Often"}
{"text": "migrants were not even told that they were to embark on a long"}
{"text": "sea voyage. Sometimes agents even forcibly abducted lesswilling migrants."}
{"text": "Nineteenth-century indenture has been described as a \u2018new system"}
{"text": "of slavery\u2019. On arrival at the plantations, labourers found conditionsto be different from what they had imagined. Living and working"}
{"text": "conditions were harsh, and there were few legal rights."}
{"text": "But workers discovered their own ways of surviving. Many of them"}
{"text": "escaped into the wilds, though if caught they faced severe punishment.Others developed new forms of individual and collective self-expression, blending different cultural forms, old and new. InTrinidad the annual Muharram procession was transformed into a"}
{"text": "riotous carnival called \u2018Hosay\u2019 (for Imam Hussain) in which workers"}
{"text": "of all races and religions joined. Similarly, the protest religion ofRastafarianism (made famous by the Jamaican reggae star BobMarley) is also said to reflect social and cultural links with Indianmigrants to the Caribbean. \u2018Chutney music\u2019, popular in Trinidadand Guyana, is another creative contemporary expression of the"}
{"text": "post-indenture experience. These forms of cultural fusion are part"}
{"text": "of the making of the global world, where things from differentplaces get mixed, lose their original characteristics and becomesomething entirely new."}
{"text": "Most indentured workers stayed on after their contracts ended, or"}
{"text": "returned to their new homes after a short spell in India. Consequently,"}
{"text": "there are large communities of people of Indian descent in these"}
{"text": "countries. Have you heard of the Nobel Prize-winning writer"}
{"text": "Fig. 14  \u2014 Indian indentured labourers in a cocoa plantation in"}
{"text": "Trinidad, early nineteenth century."}
{"text": "Discuss"}
{"text": "Fig. 15  \u2014 Indentured laboureres photographed"}
{"text": "for identification."}
{"text": "For the employers, the numbers and not thenames mattered."}
{"text": "89"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  WorldV.S. Naipaul? Some of you may have followed the exploits of West"}
{"text": "Indies cricketers Shivnarine Chanderpaul and Ramnaresh Sarwan."}
{"text": "If you have wondered why their names sound vaguely Indian, the"}
{"text": "answer is that they are descended from indentured labour migrants"}
{"text": "from India."}
{"text": "From the 1900s India\u2019s nationalist leaders began opposing the system"}
{"text": "of indentured labour migration as abusive and cruel. It was abolished"}
{"text": "in 1921. Yet for a number of decades afterwards, descendants of"}
{"text": "Indian indentured workers, often thought of as \u2018coolies\u2019, remained"}
{"text": "an uneasy minority in the Caribbean islands. Some of Naipaul\u2019s"}
{"text": "early novels capture their sense of loss and alienation."}
{"text": "2.5 Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad"}
{"text": "Growing food and other crops for the world market requiredcapital. Large plantations could borrow it from banks and markets."}
{"text": "But what about the humble peasant?"}
{"text": "Enter the Indian banker. Do you know of the Shikaripuri shroffs"}
{"text": "and Nattukottai  Chettiars? They were amongst the many groups"}
{"text": "of bankers and traders who financed export agriculture in Centraland Southeast Asia, using either their own funds or those borrowed"}
{"text": "from European banks. They had a sophisticated system to transfer"}
{"text": "money over large distances, and even developed indigenous forms"}
{"text": "of corporate organisation."}
{"text": "Indian traders and moneylenders also followed European colonisers"}
{"text": "into Africa. Hyderabadi Sindhi traders, however, ventured beyond"}
{"text": "European colonies. From the 1860s they established flourishingemporia at busy ports worldwide, selling local and imported curios"}
{"text": "to tourists whose numbers were beginning to swell, thanks to the"}
{"text": "development of safe and comfortable passenger vessels."}
{"text": "2.6 Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System"}
{"text": "Historically, fine cottons produced in India were exported  to Europe.With industrialisation, British cotton manufacture began to expand,"}
{"text": "and industrialists pressurised the government to restrict cotton"}
{"text": "imports and protect local industries. Tariffs were imposed on cloth"}
{"text": "imports into Britain. Consequently, the inflow of fine Indian cotton"}
{"text": "began to decline."}
{"text": "From the early nineteenth century, British manufacturers also began"}
{"text": "to seek overseas markets for their cloth. Excluded from the BritishFig. 16 \u2014 A contract form of an indentured"}
{"text": "labourer."}
{"text": "The testimony of  an indentured labourer"}
{"text": "Extract from the testimony of Ram Narain"}
{"text": "Tewary, an indentured labourer who spent tenyears on Demerara in the early twentieth century."}
{"text": "\u2018\u2026 in spite of my best efforts, I could not properly"}
{"text": "do the works that were allotted to me ... In afew days I got my hands bruised all over and Icould not go to work for a week for which I wasprosecuted and sent to jail for 14 days. ... newemigrants find the tasks allotted to themextremely heavy and cannot complete them ina day. ... Deductions are also made from wagesif the work is considered to have been doneunsatisfactorily. Many people cannot thereforeearn their full wages and are punished in variousways. In fact, the labourers have to spend theirperiod of indenture in great trouble \u2026\u2019"}
{"text": "Source: Department of Commerce and Industry,"}
{"text": "Emigration Branch. 1916"}
{"text": "SourceSource AIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "90market by tariff barriers, Indian textiles now faced stiff competition"}
{"text": "in other international markets. If we look at the figures of exports"}
{"text": "from India, we see a steady decline of the share of cotton textiles:"}
{"text": "from some 30 per cent around 1800 to 15 per cent by 1815. By the"}
{"text": "1870s this proportion had dropped to below 3 per cent."}
{"text": "What, then, did India export? The figures again tell a dramatic"}
{"text": "story.  While exports of manufactures declined rapidly, export of"}
{"text": "raw materials increased equally fast. Between 1812 and 1871, the"}
{"text": "share of raw cotton exports rose from 5 per cent to 35 per cent.Indigo used for dyeing cloth was another important export forFig. 17 \u2013 East India Company House, London."}
{"text": "This was the nerve centre of the worldwide operations of the East India Company."}
{"text": "Fig. 18 \u2013 A distant view of Suratand its river.All through the seventeenth and earlyeighteenth centuries, Surat remainedthe main centre of overseas trade inthe western Indian Ocean.91"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  World"}
{"text": "Fig. 19 \u2013 The trade routes that linked India to the world at the end of the seventeenth century.many decades. And, as you have read last year, opium shipments to"}
{"text": "China grew rapidly from the 1820s to become for a while India\u2019ssingle largest export. Britain grew opium in India and exported it to"}
{"text": "China and, with the money earned through this sale, it financed its"}
{"text": "tea and other imports from China."}
{"text": "Over the nineteenth century, British manufactures flooded the Indian"}
{"text": "market. Food grain and raw material exports from India to Britain"}
{"text": "and the rest of the world increased. But the value of British exportsto India was much higher than the value of British imports from"}
{"text": "India. Thus Britain had a \u2018trade surplus\u2019 with India. Britain used this"}
{"text": "surplus to balance its trade deficits with other countries \u2013 that is,with countries from which Britain was importing more than it was"}
{"text": "selling to. This is how a multilateral settlement system works \u2013"}
{"text": "it allows one country\u2019s deficit with another country to be settledby its surplus with a third country. By helping Britain balance its"}
{"text": "deficits,  India played a crucial role in the late-nineteenth-century"}
{"text": "world economy."}
{"text": "Britain\u2019s trade surplus in India also helped pay the so-called \u2018home"}
{"text": "charges\u2019 that included private remittances home by British officials"}
{"text": "and traders, interest payments on India\u2019s external debt, and pensionsof British officials in India."}
{"text": "Surat"}
{"text": "GoaMadrasMasulipatamHoogly"}
{"text": "BangkokHanoiCanton"}
{"text": "Malacca"}
{"text": "Batavia"}
{"text": "BantamAchehMuscatBandar AbbasBasraAleppo"}
{"text": "Alexandria"}
{"text": "Jedda"}
{"text": "MachaLahoreBukhara"}
{"text": "Yarkand TheGreatWall"}
{"text": "Mombasa"}
{"text": "Mozambique"}
{"text": "Sea route"}
{"text": "Land route"}
{"text": "Volume of trade passing through the portRed SeaPersian Gulf"}
{"text": "Indian OceanIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "923  The Inter-war Economy"}
{"text": "The First World War (1914-18) was mainly fought in Europe. But"}
{"text": "its impact was felt around the world. Notably for our concernsin this chapter, it plunged the first half of the twentieth centuryinto a crisis that took over three decades to overcome. Duringthis period the world experienced widespread economic andpolitical instability, and another catastrophic war."}
{"text": "3.1 Wartime Transformations"}
{"text": "The First World War, as you know, was fought between two powerblocs. On the one side were the Allies \u2013 Britain, France and Russia(later joined by the US); and on the opposite side were the CentralPowers \u2013 Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey.  Whenthe war began in August 1914, many governments thought it wouldbe over by Christmas. It lasted more than four years."}
{"text": "The First World War was a war like no other before. The fighting"}
{"text": "involved the world\u2019s leading industrial nations which nowharnessed the vast powers of modern industry to inflict the greatestpossible destruction on their enemies."}
{"text": "This war was thus the first modern industrial war. It saw the use"}
{"text": "of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons, etc. on amassive scale. These were all increasingly products of modern large-scale industry. To fight the war, millions of soldiershad to be recruited from around the world andmoved to the frontlines on large ships and trains."}
{"text": "The scale of death and destruction \u2013 9 million dead"}
{"text": "and 20 million injured \u2013 was unthinkable before the"}
{"text": "industrial age, without the use of industrial arms."}
{"text": "Most of the killed and maimed were men of"}
{"text": "working age. These deaths and injuries reduced theable-bodied workforce in Europe. With fewernumbers within the family, household incomesdeclined after the war."}
{"text": "During the war, industries were restructured to"}
{"text": "produce war-related goods. Entire societies werealso reorganised for war \u2013 as men went to battle,women stepped in to undertake jobs that earlier only"}
{"text": "men were expected to do."}
{"text": "Fig. 20 \u2013 Workers in a munition factory during the First World"}
{"text": "War.Production  of armaments increased rapidly to meet war demands.93"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  WorldThe war led to the snapping of economic links between some of"}
{"text": "the world\u2019s largest economic powers which were now fightingeach other to pay for them. So Britain borrowed large sumsof money from US banks as well as the US public. Thus the war"}
{"text": "transformed the US from being an international debtor to an"}
{"text": "international creditor. In other words, at the war\u2019s end, the US andits citizens owned more overseas assets than foreign governmentsand citizens owned in the US."}
{"text": "3.2 Post-war Recovery"}
{"text": "Post-war economic recovery proved difficult. Britain, which wasthe world\u2019s leading economy in the pre-war period, in particularfaced a prolonged crisis. While Britain was preoccupied with war,"}
{"text": "industries had developed in India and Japan. After the war Britain"}
{"text": "found it difficult to recapture its earlier position of dominance inthe Indian market, and to compete with Japan internationally.Moreover, to finance war expenditures Britain had borrowed liberally"}
{"text": "from the US. This meant that at the end of the war Britain was"}
{"text": "burdened with huge external debts."}
{"text": "The war had led to an economic boom, that is, to a large increase in"}
{"text": "demand, production and employment. When the war boom ended,production contracted and unemployment increased. At the"}
{"text": "same time the government reduced bloated war expenditures to"}
{"text": "bring them into line with peacetime revenues. These developmentsled to huge job losses \u2013 in 1921 one in every five British workerswas out of work. Indeed, anxiety and uncertainty about work"}
{"text": "became an enduring part of the post-war scenario."}
{"text": "Many agricultural economies were also in crisis. Consider the case"}
{"text": "of wheat producers. Before the war, eastern Europe was a majorsupplier of wheat in the world market. When this supply was"}
{"text": "disrupted during the war, wheat production in Canada, America"}
{"text": "and Australia expanded dramatically. But once the war was over,production in eastern Europe revived and created a glut in wheatoutput. Grain prices fell, rural incomes declined, and farmers fell"}
{"text": "deeper into debt."}
{"text": "3.3 Rise of Mass Production and Consumption"}
{"text": "In the US, recovery was quicker. We have already seen how the warhelped boost the US economy. After a short period of economicIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "94trouble in the years after the war, the US  economy resumed"}
{"text": "its strong growth in the early 1920s."}
{"text": "One important feature of the US economy of the 1920s"}
{"text": "was mass production. The move towards mass productionhad begun in the late nineteenth century, but in the 1920s itbecame a characteristic feature of industrial production inthe US. A well-known pioneer of mass production was thecar manufacturer Henry Ford. He adapted the assembly lineof a Chicago slaughterhouse (in which slaughtered animalswere picked apart by butchers as they came down a conveyorbelt) to his new car plant in Detroit. He realised that the"}
{"text": "\u2018assembly line\u2019 method would allow a faster and cheaper way"}
{"text": "of producing vehicles. The assembly line forced workers torepeat a single task mechanically and continuously \u2013 such asfitting a particular part to the car \u2013 at a pace dictated by theconveyor belt. This was a way of increasing the output per workerby speeding up the pace of work. Standing in front of a conveyorbelt no worker could afford to delay the motions, take a break, oreven have a friendly word with a workmate. As a result, HenryFord\u2019s cars came off the assembly line at three-minute intervals, aspeed much faster than that achieved by previous methods. The T-Model Ford was the world\u2019s first mass-produced car."}
{"text": "At first workers at the Ford  factory were unable to cope with the"}
{"text": "stress of working on assembly lines in which they could not control"}
{"text": "the pace of work. So they quit in large numbers. In desperationFord doubled the daily wage to $5 in January 1914. At the sametime he banned trade unions from operating in his plants."}
{"text": "Henry Ford recovered the high wage by repeatedly speeding up"}
{"text": "the production line and forcing workers to work ever harder. Somuch so, he would soon describe his decision to double the dailywage as the \u2018best cost-cutting decision\u2019 he had ever made."}
{"text": "Fordist industrial practices soon spread in the US. They were also"}
{"text": "widely copied in Europe in the 1920s. Mass production loweredcosts and prices of engineered goods. Thanks to higher wages,more workers could now afford to purchase durable consumer"}
{"text": "goods such as cars. Car production in the US rose from 2 million in"}
{"text": "1919 to more than 5 million in 1929. Similarly, there was a spurtin the purchase of refrigerators, washing machines, radios,gramophone players, all through a system of \u2018hire purchase\u2019 (i.e., on"}
{"text": "Fig. 21 \u2013 T-Model automobiles lined up outside the"}
{"text": "factory.95"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  Worldcredit repaid in weekly or monthly instalments). The demand"}
{"text": "for refrigerators, washing machines, etc. was also fuelled by a boomin house construction and home ownership, financed once again"}
{"text": "by loans."}
{"text": "The housing and consumer boom of the 1920s created the basis of"}
{"text": "prosperity in the US. Large investments in housing and household"}
{"text": "goods seemed to create a cycle of higher employment"}
{"text": "and incomes, rising consumption demand, more investment, andyet more employment and incomes."}
{"text": "In 1923, the US resumed exporting capital to the rest of the world"}
{"text": "and became the largest overseas lender. US imports and capitalexports also boosted European recovery and world trade and"}
{"text": "income growth over the next six years."}
{"text": "All this, however, proved  too good to last. By 1929 the world"}
{"text": "would be plunged into a depression such as it had never"}
{"text": "experienced before."}
{"text": "3.4 The Great Depression"}
{"text": "The Great Depression began around 1929 and lasted till the mid-1930s. During this period most parts of the world experienced"}
{"text": "catastrophic declines in production, employment, incomes andtrade. The exact timing and impact of the depression varied"}
{"text": "across countries. But in general, agricultural regions and communities"}
{"text": "were the worst affected. This was because the fallin agricultural prices was greater and more prolonged than that"}
{"text": "in the prices of industrial goods."}
{"text": "The depression was caused by a combination of several factors. We"}
{"text": "have already seen how fragile the post-war world economy was."}
{"text": "First: agricultural overproduction remained a problem. This was"}
{"text": "made worse by falling agricultural prices. As prices slumped andagricultural incomes declined, farmers tried to expand production"}
{"text": "and bring a larger volume of produce to the market to maintain"}
{"text": "their overall income. This worsened the glut in the market, pushingdown prices even further. Farm produce rotted for a lack of buyers."}
{"text": "Second: in the mid-1920s, many countries financed their investments"}
{"text": "through loans from the US. While it was often extremely easy toraise loans in the US when the going was good, US overseas lenders"}
{"text": "panicked at the first sign of trouble. In the first half of 1928, USMany years later, Dorothea Lange, the"}
{"text": "photographer who shot this picture, recollectedthe moment of her encounter with thehungry mother:"}
{"text": "\u2018I saw and approached the hungry and desperate"}
{"text": "mother, as if drawn by a magnet \u2026 I did not askher name or her history. She told me her age,that she was thirty-two. She said that they(i.e., she and her seven children) had been livingon frozen vegetables from the surrounding fields,and birds that the children killed \u2026 There shesat \u2026 with her children huddled around her,and seemed to know that my pictures mighthelp her, and so she helped me \u2026\u2019"}
{"text": "From:"}
{"text": "Popular Photography , February 1960.Box 3"}
{"text": "Fig. 22  \u2013 Migrant agricultural worker\u2019s family,"}
{"text": "homeless and hungry, during the Great"}
{"text": "Depression, 1936.  Courtesy: Library of Congress,"}
{"text": "Prints and Photographs Division."}
{"text": "India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "96overseas loans amounted to over $ 1 billion. A year later it was one"}
{"text": "quarter of that amount. Countries that depended crucially on USloans now faced an acute crisis."}
{"text": "The withdrawal of US loans affected much of the rest of the world,"}
{"text": "though in different ways. In Europe it led to the failure of somemajor banks and the collapse of currencies such as the British pound"}
{"text": "sterling. In Latin America and elsewhere it intensified the slump"}
{"text": "in agricultural and raw material prices. The US attempt to protectits economy in the depression by doubling import duties also dealt"}
{"text": "another severe blow to world trade."}
{"text": "The US was also the industrial country most severely affected by"}
{"text": "the depression. With the fall in prices and the prospect of a"}
{"text": "depression, US banks had also slashed domestic lending and"}
{"text": "called back loans. Farms could not sell their harvests, householdswere ruined, and businesses collapsed. Faced with falling"}
{"text": "incomes, many households in the US could not repay what they had"}
{"text": "borrowed, and were forced to give up their homes, cars and otherconsumer durables. The consumerist prosperity of the 1920s now"}
{"text": "disappeared in a puff of dust. As unemployment soared, people"}
{"text": "trudged long distances looking for any work they could find.Ultimately, the US banking system itself collapsed. Unable to"}
{"text": "recover investments, collect loans and repay depositors, thousands"}
{"text": "of banks went bankrupt and were forced to close. The numbersare phenomenal: by 1933 over 4,000 banks had closed and"}
{"text": "between 1929 and 1932 about 110, 000 companies had collapsed."}
{"text": "By 1935, a modest economic recovery was under way in most"}
{"text": "industrial countries. But the Great Depression\u2019s wider effects on"}
{"text": "society, politics and international relations, and on peoples\u2019 minds,"}
{"text": "proved more enduring."}
{"text": "3.5 India and the Great Depression"}
{"text": "If we look at the impact of the depression on India we realisehow integrated the global economy had become by the earlytwentieth century. The tremors of a crisis in one part of the world"}
{"text": "were quickly relayed to other parts, affecting lives, economies and"}
{"text": "societies worldwide."}
{"text": "In the nineteenth century, as you have seen, colonial India had become"}
{"text": "an exporter of agricultural goods and importer of manufactures."}
{"text": "The depression immediately affected Indian trade. India\u2019s exportsFig. 23 \u2013 People lining up for unemployment"}
{"text": "benefits,  US, photograph by Dorothea  Lange,"}
{"text": "1938. Courtesy: Library of Congress, Prints and"}
{"text": "Photographs Division.When an unemployment census showed10 million people out of work, the localgovernment in many US states began makingsmall allowances to the unemployed. These longqueues came to symbolise the poverty andunemployment of the depression years ."}
{"text": "97"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  Worldgrow more jute, brothers, with the hope of greater cash."}
{"text": "Costs and debts of jute will make your hopes get dashed."}
{"text": "When you have spent all your money and got the crop off the ground,\u2026 traders, sitting at home, will pay only Rs 5 a maund.and imports nearly halved between 1928 and 1934. As international"}
{"text": "prices crashed, prices in India also plunged. Between 1928 and 1934,wheat prices in India fell by 50 per cent."}
{"text": "Peasants and farmers suffered more than urban dwellers. Though"}
{"text": "agricultural prices fell sharply, the colonial government refused toreduce revenue demands. Peasants producing for the world market"}
{"text": "were the worst hit."}
{"text": "Consider the jute producers of Bengal. They grew raw jute that was"}
{"text": "processed in factories for export in the form of gunny bags. But"}
{"text": "as gunny exports collapsed, the price of raw jute crashed more than"}
{"text": "60 per cent. Peasants who borrowed in the hope of better times orto increase output in the hope of higher incomes faced ever lower"}
{"text": "prices, and fell deeper and deeper into debt. Thus the Bengal jute"}
{"text": "growers\u2019 lament:"}
{"text": "Across India, peasants\u2019 indebtedness increased. They used up their"}
{"text": "savings, mortgaged lands, and sold whatever jewellery and preciousmetals they had to meet their expenses. In these depression years,"}
{"text": "India became an exporter of precious metals, notably gold."}
{"text": "The famous economist John Maynard Keynes thought that Indiangold exports promoted global economic recovery. They certainly"}
{"text": "helped speed up Britain\u2019s recovery, but did little for the Indian peasant."}
{"text": "Rural India was thus seething with unrest when Mahatma Gandhilaunched the civil disobedience movement at the height of the"}
{"text": "depression in 1931."}
{"text": "The depression proved less grim for urban India. Because of falling"}
{"text": "prices, those with fixed incomes \u2013 say town-dwelling landowners"}
{"text": "who received rents and middle-class salaried employees \u2013 now found"}
{"text": "themselves better off. Everything cost less. Industrial investment alsogrew as the government extended tariff protection to industries,"}
{"text": "under the pressure of nationalist opinion.Who profits from jute cultivation according to the"}
{"text": "jute growers\u2019 lament? Explain.DiscussIndia and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "984  Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era"}
{"text": "The Second World War broke out a mere two decades after the"}
{"text": "end of the First World War. It was fought between the Axis powers(mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy)  and the Allies (Britain,France, the Soviet Union and the US). It was a war waged for sixyears on many fronts, in many places, over land, on sea, in the air."}
{"text": "Once again death and destruction was enormous. At least 60 million"}
{"text": "people, or about 3 per cent of the world\u2019s 1939 population, arebelieved to have been killed, directly or indirectly, as a result of thewar. Millions more were injured."}
{"text": "Unlike in earlier wars, most of these deaths took place outside the"}
{"text": "battlefields. Many more civilians than soldiers died from war-relatedcauses. Vast parts of Europe and Asia were devastated, and severalcities were destroyed by aerial bombardment or relentlessartillery attacks. The war caused an immense amount of economicdevastation and social disruption. Reconstruction promised tobe long and difficult."}
{"text": "Two crucial influences shaped post-war"}
{"text": "reconstruction. The first was the US\u2019semergence as the dominant economic, politicaland military power in the Western world. Thesecond was the dominance of the SovietUnion. It had made huge sacrifices to defeatNazi Germany, and transformed itself froma backward agricultural country into a worldpower during the very years when the capitalistworld was trapped in the Great Depression."}
{"text": "4.1 Post-war Settlement and the"}
{"text": "Bretton Woods Institutions"}
{"text": "Economists and politicians drew two key lessons from inter-war"}
{"text": "economic experiences. First, an industrial society based on massproduction cannot be sustained without mass consumption. But toensure mass consumption, there was a need for high and stableincomes. Incomes could not be stable if employment was unstable.Thus stable incomes also required steady, full employment."}
{"text": "But markets alone could not guarantee full employment."}
{"text": "Therefore governments would have to step in to minimise"}
{"text": "Fig. 24 \u2013 German forces attack Russia, July 1941."}
{"text": "Hitler\u2019s attempt to invade Russia was a turningpoint in the war."}
{"text": "Fig. 25 \u2013 Stalingrad in Soviet Russia devastated by the war."}
{"text": "99"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  WorldBriefly summarise the two lessons learnt by"}
{"text": "economists and politicians from the inter-war"}
{"text": "economic experience?Discussfluctuations of price, output and employment. Economic stability"}
{"text": "could be ensured only through the intervention of the government."}
{"text": "The second lesson related to a country\u2019s economic links with"}
{"text": "the outside world. The goal of full employment could only beachieved if governments had power to control flows of goods,capital and labour."}
{"text": "Thus in brief, the main aim of the post-war international economic"}
{"text": "system was to preserve economic stability and full employment inthe industrial world. Its framework was agreed upon at the UnitedNations Monetary and Financial Conference held in July 1944 atBretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA."}
{"text": "The Bretton Woods conference established the International Monetary"}
{"text": "Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its membernations. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development(popularly known as the World Bank) was set up to finance post-war reconstruction. The IMF and the World Bank are referred toas the Bretton Woods institutions or sometimes the Bretton Woodstwins. The post-war international economic system is also oftendescribed as the Bretton Woods system."}
{"text": "The IMF and the World Bank commenced financial operations"}
{"text": "in 1947. Decision-making in these institutions is controlled bythe Western industrial powers. The US has an effective right ofveto over key IMF and World Bank decisions."}
{"text": "The international monetary system is the system linking national"}
{"text": "currencies and monetary system. The Bretton Woods system wasbased on fixed exchange rates. In this system, national currencies,for example the Indian rupee, were pegged to the dollar at a fixedexchange rate. The dollar itself was anchored to gold at a fixedprice of $35 per ounce of gold."}
{"text": "4.2 The Early Post-war Years"}
{"text": "The Bretton Woods system inaugurated an era of unprecedentedgrowth of trade and incomes for the Western industrial nations andJapan. World trade grew annually at over 8 per cent between 1950and 1970 and incomes at nearly 5 per cent. The growth was alsomostly stable, without large fluctuations. For much of this period"}
{"text": "the unemployment rate, for example, averaged less than 5 per cent"}
{"text": "in most industrial countries.Fig. 26 \u2013 Mount Washington Hotel situated in"}
{"text": "Bretton Woods, US.This is the place where the famous conferencewas held."}
{"text": "India and the Contemporary World"}
{"text": "100These decades also saw the worldwide spread of technology and"}
{"text": "enterprise. Developing countries were in a hurry to catch up withthe advanced industrial countries. Therefore, they invested vastamounts of capital, importing industrial plant and equipmentfeaturing modern technology."}
{"text": "4.3 Decolonisation and Independence"}
{"text": "When the Second World War ended, large parts of the world werestill under European colonial rule. Over the next two decades mostcolonies in Asia and Africa emerged as free, independent nations.They were, however, overburdened by poverty and a lack of"}
{"text": "resources, and their economies and societies were handicapped by"}
{"text": "long periods of colonial rule."}
{"text": "The IMF and the World Bank were designed to meet the financial"}
{"text": "needs of the industrial countries. They were not equipped to copewith the challenge of poverty and lack of development in the formercolonies. But as Europe and Japan rapidly rebuilt their economies,they grew less dependent on the IMF and the World Bank. Thusfrom the late 1950s the Bretton Woods institutions began to shifttheir attention more towards developing countries."}
{"text": "As colonies, many of the less developed regions of the world had"}
{"text": "been part of Western empires. Now, ironically, as newly independent"}
{"text": "countries facing urgent pressures to lift their populations out of"}
{"text": "poverty, they came under the guidance of international agenciesdominated by the former colonial powers. Even after many yearsof decolonisation, the former colonial powers still controlled vitalresources such as minerals and land in many of their former colonies."}
{"text": "Large corporations of other powerful countries, for example the"}
{"text": "US, also often managed to secure rights to exploit developingcountries\u2019 natural resources very cheaply."}
{"text": "At the same time, most developing countries did not benefit from"}
{"text": "the fast growth the Western economies experienced in the 1950sand 1960s. Therefore they organised themselves as a group \u2013 theGroup of 77 (or G-77) \u2013 to demand a new international economic"}
{"text": "order (NIEO). By the NIEO they meant a system that would give"}
{"text": "them real control over their natural resources, more developmentassistance, fairer prices for raw materials, and better access for theirmanufactured goods in developed countries\u2019 markets.New words"}
{"text": "Tariff \u2013 Tax imposed on a country\u2019s imports"}
{"text": "from the rest of the world. Tariffs arelevied at the point of entry, i.e., at the border"}
{"text": "or the airport.What are MNCs?"}
{"text": "Multinational corporations (MNCs) are large"}
{"text": "companies that operate in several countries atthe same time. The first MNCs were establishedin the 1920s. Many more came up in the 1950sand 1960s as US businesses expanded worldwideand Western Europe and Japan also recoveredto become powerful industrial economies. Theworldwide spread of MNCs was a notable featureof the 1950s and 1960s. This was partly becausehigh import tariffs  imposed by different"}
{"text": "governments forced MNCs to locate theirmanufacturing operations and become \u2018domesticproducers\u2019 in as many countries as possible.Box 4101"}
{"text": "The  Making  of  a  Global  World4.4 End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of"}
{"text": "\u2018Globalisation\u2019"}
{"text": "Despite years of stable and rapid growth, not all was well in"}
{"text": "this post-war world. From the 1960s the rising costs of its"}
{"text": "overseas involvements weakened the US\u2019s finances and competitivestrength. The US dollar now no longer commanded confidence"}
{"text": "as the world\u2019s principal currency. It could not maintain its value"}
{"text": "in relation to gold. This eventually led to the collapse of the"}
{"text": "system of fixed exchange rates  and the introduction of a system"}
{"text": "of floating exchange rates ."}
{"text": "From the mid-1970s the international financial system also changed"}
{"text": "in important ways. Earlier, developing countries could turn tointernational institutions for loans and development assistance. But"}
{"text": "now they were forced to borrow from Western commercial banks"}
{"text": "and private lending institutions. This led to periodic debt crises in"}
{"text": "the developing world, and lower incomes and increased poverty,"}
{"text": "especially in Africa and Latin America."}
{"text": "The industrial world was also hit by unemployment that began"}
{"text": "rising from the mid-1970s and remained high until the early 1990s."}
{"text": "From the late 1970s MNCs also began to shift production operations"}
{"text": "to low-wage Asian countries."}
{"text": "China had been cut off from the post-war world economy since"}
{"text": "its revolution in 1949. But new economic policies in China and"}
{"text": "the collapse of the Soviet Union and Soviet-style communism inEastern Europe brought many countries back into the fold of the"}
{"text": "world economy."}
{"text": "Wages were relatively low in countries like China. Thus they became"}
{"text": "attractive destinations for investment by foreign MNCs competing"}
{"text": "to capture world markets. Have you noticed that most of the TVs,mobile phones, and toys we see in the shops seem to be made in"}
{"text": "China? This is because of the low-cost structure of the Chinese"}
{"text": "economy, most importantly its low wages."}
{"text": "The relocation of industry to low-wage countries stimulated world"}
{"text": "trade and capital flows. In the last two decades the world\u2019s economic"}
{"text": "geography has been transformed as countries such as India, China"}
{"text": "and Brazil have undergone rapid economic transformation.New words"}
{"text": "Exchange rates  \u2013  They link national currencies"}
{"text": "for purposes of international trade. There are"}
{"text": "broadly two kinds of exchange rates: fixed"}
{"text": "exchange rate and floating exchange rateFixed exchange rates \u2013 When  exchange rates"}