Status of PV Module 
Recycling in Selected 
IEA PVPS Task12 
Countries 
2022 
Report IEA-PVPS T12-24: 2022 
 
PVPS 
Task 12 PV Sustainability

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
 
 
 
 
What is IEA PVPS TCP? 
The International Energy Agency (IEA), founded in 1974, is an autonomous body within the framework of the Organization 
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The Technology Collaboration Programme (TCP) was created with 
a belief that the future of energy security and sustainability starts with global collaboration. The programme is made up of 
6 000 experts across government, academia, and industry dedicated to advancing common research and the application 
of specific energy technologies.  
The IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (IEA PVPS) is one of the TCP’s within the IEA and was established in 
1993. The mission of the programme is to “enhance the international collaborative efforts which facilitate the role of 
photovoltaic solar energy as a cornerstone in the transition to sustainable energy systems.” In order to achieve this, the 
Programme’s participants have undertaken a variety of joint research projects in PV power systems applications. The 
overall programme is headed by an Executive Committee, comprised of one delegate from each country or organisation 
member, which designates distinct ‘Tasks,’ that may be research projects or activity areas.  
The IEA PVPS participants are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, 
Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, 
Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, and the United States of America. The European Commission, Solar Power Europe, the 
Smart Electric Power Alliance (SEPA), the Solar Energy Industries Association and the Copper Alliance are also 
members. 
Visit us at: www.iea-pvps.org. 
What is IEA PVPS Task 12? 
Task 12 aims to foster international collaboration in safety and sustainability that are crucial for ensuring that PV 
penetration increases enough to make a major contribution to the energy needs and emissions reductions of the member 
countries and to the world. The overall objectives of Task 12 are to (1) quantify the environmental profile of PV compared 
to other energy technologies; (2) investigate end-of-life management options for PV systems as deployment increases 
and older systems are decommissioned; and (3) define and address environmental health and safety and other 
sustainability issues that are important for market growth. The first objective is well served by life cycle assessments that 
describe the energy, material, and emissions flows in all stages of the life of PV. The second objective is addressed 
through analysis of recycling and other circular economy pathways. For the third objective, Task 12 develops methods to 
quantify risks and opportunities on topics of stakeholder interest.  
 
Authors 
 
 
 Main content: Keiichi Komoto (Japan), Michael Held (Germany), Claire Agraffeil (France), Carmen Alonso-
Garcia (Spain), Andrea Danelli (Italy), Jin-Seok Lee (Korea), Fang Lyu (China), Jose Bilbao (Australia), Rong 
Deng (Australia), Garvin Heath (USA), Dwarakanath Ravikumar (USA), Parikhit Sinha (USA) 
 
 
 Editor: Keiichi Komoto (Japan) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DISCLAIMER 
The IEA PVPS TCP is organised under the auspices of the International Energy Agency (IEA) but is functionally and legally autonomous. 
Views, findings and publications of the IEA PVPS TCP do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the IEA Secretariat or its 
individual member countries. 
COVER PICTURE 
 
PV module recycling facility, courtesy of NPC Incorporated, Japan 
ISBN 978-3-907281-32-1: Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY 
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS PROGRAMME 
 
 
IEA PVPS  
Task 12 PV Sustainability 
 
Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA 
PVPS Task 12 Countries 
 
Report IEA-PVPS T12-24:2022 
July 2022 
 
ISBN 978-3-907281-32-1 
 
 
Task Managers 
Garvin Heath National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA 
Jose Bilbao 
University of New South Wales, Australia 
 
Authors & Contributors 
Keiichi Komoto 
Mizuho Research & Technologies, Ltd., Japan 
Michael Held 
Fraunhofer IBP, Germany 
Claire Agraffeil 
CEA-LITEN, France 
Carmen Alonso-Garcia 
CIEMAT, Spain 
Andrea Danelli 
Ricerca sul Sistema Energetico, Italy 
Jin-Seok Lee 
Korea Institute of Energy Research, South Korea 
Lv Fang 
Chinese Academy of Science, China 
Jose Bilbao 
University of New South Wales, Australia 
Rong Deng 
University of New South Wales, Australia 
Garvin Heath 
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA 
Dwarakanath Ravikumar 
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA 
Parikhit Sinha 
First Solar, Inc., USA

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
2 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Table of contents .............................................................................................................. 2 
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................. 3 
List of abbreviations .......................................................................................................... 4 
Executive summary ........................................................................................................... 5 
1 
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 7 
2 
Status of photovoltaic module recycling ................................................................. 11 
2.1 
Europe: Germany, France, Italy, and Spain ................................................ 11 
2.2 
Asia and the Pacific: Japan, South Korea, China, and Australia ................. 21 
2.3 
North America: United States of America ................................................... 39 
3 
Survey on photovoltaic module recycling in the markets ........................................ 42 
3.1 
Methodology of survey ............................................................................... 42 
3.2 
Survey results ............................................................................................ 42 
4 
Summary and conclusions ..................................................................................... 52 
4.1 
Status of PV module recycling .................................................................... 52 
4.2 
PV module recycling in the market ............................................................. 55 
4.3 
Conclusions ............................................................................................... 56 
[References] ..................................................................................................................... 58 
Appendix – Results of questionnaire by region ................................................................. 66

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
3 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
This report received valuable contributions from the International Energy Agency (IEA) 
Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme Task 12 members and other international experts. 
Many thanks to all of them. We also express our sincere thanks to the respondents of the 
questionnaire on photovoltaic (PV) module recycling and to the experts and contributors who 
supported this survey. 
The contribution by Japan is supported by the New Energy and Industrial Technology 
Development Organization (NEDO) under the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry, Japan. 
The questionnaire for PV module recyclers in Japan was conducted by the Japan Photovoltaic 
Energy Association and Mizuho Research & Technologies, Ltd., under the NEDO project. 
The German contribution is supported by the research project RePotPV (FKZ0324283), 
founded by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action. 
The contribution for the status of PV module recycling of France is supported by SOREN. 
Acknowledgements to Nicolas Defrenne. 
The Italian contribution has been financed by the Research Fund for the Italian Electrical 
System under the Contract Agreement between RSE S.p.A. and the Ministry of Economic 
Development - General Directorate for the Electricity Market, Renewable Energy and Energy 
Efficiency, Nuclear Energy in compliance with the Decree of April 16th, 2018. 
The contribution from South Korea is supported by the Korea Institute of Energy Research. 
The 
Spanish 
contribution 
was 
led 
by 
Centro 
de 
Investigaciones 
Energéticas, 
Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT). Acknowledgments to Raquel Gómez Rodriguez, 
from the Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y Reto Demográfico (MITERD). 
The contribution from China is supported by the Chinese Academy of Science and ECOPV.  
The contribution from Australia is supported by the Australian Renewable Energy Agency as 
part of its International Engagement Program. 
The contribution from the United States was led by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory 
(NREL), which is operated by Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, for the U.S. Department 
of Energy (DOE) under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308. Funding was provided by the 
DOE’s Solar Energy Technologies Office. The views expressed in the article do not necessarily 
represent the views of the DOE or the U.S. Government.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
4 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 
Ag 
silver 
a-Si 
amorphous-silicon 
c-Si 
crystalline silicon 
CdTe 
cadmium telluride 
CIGS 
copper indium gallium selenide 
Cu 
copper 
EOL 
end of life 
EPR 
extended producer responsibility 
EU 
European Union 
EVA 
ethylene vinyl acetate 
EWC 
European Waste Catalogue 
FIR 
Formulario di Identificazione Rifiuti (waste identification form) 
FIT 
feed-in-tariff 
GSE 
Gestore dei Servizi Energetici 
GW 
gigawatt (= 1 million kW) 
IEA 
International Energy Agency 
IRENA 
International Renewable Energy Agency 
JPEA 
Japan Photovoltaic Energy Association 
kW 
kilowatt 
MITERD 
Spanish Ministry for the Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge 
MOE 
Ministry of Environment (Japan) 
NEDO 
New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization 
OECD 
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development   
PV 
photovoltaic(s) 
PVPS 
Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme 
R&D 
Research and Development 
SEIA 
Solar Energy Industries Association members 
TCP 
Technology Collaboration Programme 
US 
United States 
WEEE 
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
5 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
Photovoltaic (PV) deployment has accelerated in recent years compared to projections in the 
early 2010s. This means that PV end of life (EOL) waste streams will also increase at a higher 
pace than anticipated. To meet and optimise PV EOL management, appropriate regulatory 
and technological approaches must be implemented in the near term, ensuring that available 
options are adapted to the conditions of each country or region. This report aims to review the 
current regulatory and industrial landscape for selected countries belonging to the International 
Energy Agency’s PV Power Systems technology collaboration programme, to assess status of 
PV EOL management, allow for comparison and cross-fertilization, and establish a foundation 
for future tracking of progress.  
In Europe, the European Union has adopted PV-specific EOL regulations. In other parts of the 
world, PV EOL is typically handled under each country’s legislative and regulatory framework 
for general waste treatment and disposal. In some countries, however, policy approaches for 
accelerating PV EOL management, including supporting technology R&D, have been 
developed or are in the process of being developed. In South Korea, EPR (extended producer 
responsibility) regulations will be enforced in 2023, whereas in Australia, PV modules are 
expected to be covered by the Product Stewardship Act 2011, in addition to state-level 
discussions. In the United States, regulations specific to EOL PV exist in some states. In 
Japan, although there is no PV-specific waste regulation, several recycling activities and R&D 
projects for supporting PV EOL management have been carried out, with commercial PV 
recycling technology now available. Similarly, while in China policies and regulations on PV 
module recycling and EOL management are still under development, ECOPV was officially 
established early 2020 with the goal of achieving a “PV green supply chain”. Although there 
are no reliable world data on the volume of EOL PV, it seems that a few thousand tons of EOL 
PV modules are annually processed in Germany, France, Italy, and Japan. In Spain and South 
Korea, the amount of EOL PV modules is still less than 1 000 tons/year. 
Although regulations can promote PV EOL management, a gap can still exist compared to 
expected impacts in the markets. To understand the status in the market, a questionnaire with 
intermediate processors treating EOL PV modules was conducted. Although the total number 
of responses was small, the responses reflect the current situations and barriers to PV module 
recycling in certain countries. 
Considering the treatment of EOL PV modules in the market, regardless of whether PV-specific 
EOL regulations have been implemented, several companies around the world are treating 
EOL PV modules to achieve proper EOL management and recycling. As such, companies are 
treating multiple types of PV modules, with different recycling technologies in use. Most use 
mechanical approaches (developed originally for electronic waste) and/or a combination of 
approaches, such as thermal and chemical processes. The estimated average rate of material 
recovery 1 from PV modules is more than 80% in weight, although the recycling rate 2 is 
marginally smaller than the recovery rate. On the other hand, the average treatment capacity 
by PV recycling plants included in this survey is a few thousand tons/year, with most plants 
below 1 000 tons/year. Comparatively, in most plants, the actual treatment amount is less than 
 
1 Recovery rate: ratio of the weight of materials recovered after processing, to the weight of the PV module before processing. 
2 Recycling rate: ratio of the weight of materials recycled for secondary use, to the weight of the PV module. Materials recovered 
but not used are not counted in the recycling rate.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
6 
100 tons/year. Because the capacity factor of these plants is currently low, high treatment costs 
per unit are expected, with several plants stockpiling PV modules until they have enough 
volume to process. After treatment at the initial recycling plant, materials recovered from PV 
modules are sent to other destinations for further recycling or processing, such as smelters, 
processing plants, and secondary markets; however, it seems that crystalline silicon PV cell 
materials and plastics/polymers are not currently recycled. Also, although at first glance glass 
seems to be recycled, the use of recovered glass is limited to less valuable products, with high 
transportation costs being an issue. 
Although volumes of EOL PV modules are still small, EOL PV is treated and recycled in a 
proper manner in the countries and regions that have EOL regulations in place. However, the 
current low volumes, limited available recycling technologies, logistics challenges, and 
undeveloped markets for recovered materials result in a high-cost, low-revenue scenario for 
PV module recycling globally. Nevertheless, the implementation of PV EOL regulations in more 
countries and R&D investment in PV recycling is expected to accelerate further improvements 
to meet future demand and to achieve high-value, low-cost recycling. 
We hope this report contributes to understanding the global status of PV recycling and to 
accelerating its development as a promising option for the proper EOL management of PV 
modules in the coming decades. 
It is noted that data in this report was collected in 2021, reflective of the latest year available.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
7 
1 INTRODUCTION 
Photovoltaic (PV) technology is one of the most promising technologies for improving energy 
security and mitigating climate change. The PV market is growing rapidly, and further market 
expansion is expected around the world. In addition to PV’s positive impacts on energy security 
and climate change, it is one of the most environmentally friendly technologies among all 
energy generation technologies, particularly when evaluated from a life cycle viewpoint, 
including end of life (EOL) management.  
With PV deployment increasing exponentially, the number of PV modules that reach the end 
of useful life will also increase, accumulating proportionately as waste after the time lag of 
operation. When a product cannot be repaired or reused, recycling is the next preferable option 
before disposing as waste. In anticipation of the large volume of EOL PV modules, and to 
retain PV’s position as a clean energy technology, PV module recycling has become an 
important emerging and strategic topic, with numerous global, regional, and country-specific 
activities conducted and developed by governments, organizations, and companies in recent 
years. 
Globally, newly installed PV capacity reached approximately 175 GW/year in 2021, leading to 
a cumulative capacity of 942 GW by 2021 [1]. In addition to the traditional leading PV markets 
- such as China, the United States (US), Japan, and countries in Europe—India, Australia, 
Korea, and Vietnam recently expanded PV installations (see Fig. 1-1 and Fig. 1-2). 
 
 
Fig. 1-1 Trends in PV installations around 
the world [1][2] 
Fig. 1-2 Regional distribution of the 
cumulative installation of PV technology at 
the end of 2021 [1] 
Given that PV is becoming one of the most economic and environmentally competitive 
electricity generation technologies globally, and therefore offers a viable solution for the 
necessary decarbonization of energy systems, it can be foreseen that PV deployment will 
continue to expand around the world. For example, in May 2021, the International Energy 
Agency (IEA) published a decarbonisation roadmap for the global energy sector, Net Zero by 
2050. As shown in Fig. 1-3, PV is forecasted to provide more than 20% of the world’s electricity 
generation by 2050 [3]. In addition to current leading PV markets, increased deployments in 
Africa, the Middle East, Latin America, and other non-Organisation for Economic Co-operation 
and Development (OECD) regions are expected. 
0
100 000
200 000
300 000
400 000
500 000
600 000
700 000
800 000
900 000
1 000 000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
[MWDC]
Annual installation
Cumulative installation
China
33%
Unites States
13%
Japan
8%
India
7%
Germany
6%
Australia
3%
Italy
2%
Korea
2%
Spain
2%
Vietnam
2%
Others
22%

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
8 
 
Fig. 1-3 Global electricity generation by source in the Net Zero by 2050 Announced 
Pledges case [3] 
(Source: OECD/IEA 2021, Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector, 
Figure 1-14, page 46) 
Because PV technologies offer economic and environmentally favourable electricity 
generation, stakeholders of PV deployment should implement environmental processes and 
policies, including responsible EOL management strategies. A framework supporting the early 
development of EOL strategies will foster good progress toward comprehensive policies. 
Moreover, better projections of future waste amounts and waste composition will help establish 
the basis of such a framework. 
A previous analysis by the IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (PVPS) Task 12 and 
the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) in 2016 [4] estimated the future amount 
of PV module waste. The projection of cumulative PV waste volumes to 2050 was based on 
IRENA (2030) and IEA (2030-2050) PV system deployment trajectories, converted through a 
Weibull distribution that incorporated statistical data on early failure modes of historic PV 
modules. The conversion ratio between weight and power (Watts) for historic and projected 
future PV modules was fitted by an exponential curve based on trends from the past to today. 
Fig. 1-4 shows the estimated cumulative waste volumes of EOL PV modules around the world. 
In the regular loss scenario, a PV module waste volume of 43 500 tons was projected by 2016, 
with an increase to 100 000 tons by 2020, and 1.7 million tons by 2030. An even more drastic 
increase to approximately 60 million tons can be expected by 2050. The early loss scenario 
projection estimates much higher total PV waste streams, with 250 000 tons by the end of 
2016. This estimate would increase to 850 000 tons by 2020, 8 million tons by 2030, and a 
total of 78 million tons by 2050 because the early loss scenario assumes a higher percentage 
of early PV module failures than the regular loss scenario.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
9 
 
Fig. 1-4 Estimated cumulative global waste volumes of EOL PV modules by 
IRENA/Task 12 [4] 
Fig. 1-5 shows the estimated annual waste volumes of EOL PV modules around the world. In 
2040, 2.5-3.5 million tons of PV module waste (depending on scenario) is predicted in 
comparison to 6.5 million tons in new PV module installations. As well, in 2050, 5.5-6 million 
tons of PV module waste is predicted in comparison to 7 million tons in new PV module 
installations. 
 
 
Fig. 1-5 Annually installed and end-of-life PV modules 2020-2050 (in % waste vs. t 
installed) by early-loss scenario (left) and regular-loss scenario (right) by IRENA/Task 
12 [4] 
However, looking at the world PV market, PV deployment has been accelerating at a higher 
rate than expected in the early 2010s, and further acceleration is anticipated to achieve net 
zero emissions by 2050. This means that PV waste will increase more quickly in the coming 
decades.3,4 
Given this, integrated regulatory and technological approaches are needed to optimise EOL 
PV management plans, together with adaptations to the unique conditions of each country or 
region. 
The European Union (EU) has adopted PV-specific waste regulations. In other parts of the 
world, little specific legislation for handling EOL PV modules yet exists, and PV waste is 
typically handled under each country’s legislative and regulatory framework for general waste 
treatment and disposal; however, policy approaches for accelerating PV EOL management, 
including supporting technology research and development (R&D), are under development in 
several countries. 
 
3 According to the recent report by IRENA, “World Energy Transitions Outlook 2022”, it is projected that PV module waste from 
global cumulative solar PV projects will increase to 4 Mt in 2030, almost 50 Mt in 2040 and more than 200 Mt by 2050. 
4 According to the latest report by IEA, “Special Report on Solar PV Global Supply Chains” published in July 2022, it is estimated 
that the global cumulative flow of decommissioned solar PV capacity will reach around 7 GW by 2030 and could increase to over 
200 GW by 2040. This represents 400-600 kt of embodied materials cumulatively by 2030 and 11-15 Mt by 2040.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
10 
This report provides an overview of the status of PV module recycling in some IEA PVPS Task 
12 participating countries in two main sections. First, regulatory schemes, information on PV 
module waste and relevant companies, and the outlook of each region and/or country are 
surveyed based on contributions by IEA PVPS Task 12 members. Second, practical 
treatments of PV module recycling in the markets are surveyed by questionnaire to PV module 
recyclers in some countries. The data were collected in 2021, reflective of the latest year 
available. 
We hope this report contributes to understanding the status of PV module recycling and to 
accelerating PV module recycling as a promising option for the proper EOL management of 
PV modules in the coming decades around the world.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
11 
2 STATUS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE RECYCLING 
This chapter examines the status of PV module recycling from the viewpoints of regulatory 
schemes, information on PV module waste from relevant companies, and overall outlook. 
Considering the current situation of PV markets and PV recycling activities, the following 
countries were selected from among the IEA PVPS Task 12 participating countries, organized 
by region: 
- 
Europe: 
 
Germany, France, Italy, and Spain 
- 
Asia and the Pacific: 
Japan, South Korea, China, and Australia 
- 
North America:  
United States of America. 
2.1 Europe: Germany, France, Italy, and Spain 
In the runup to the world PV markets, in Europe, starting in 2012, PV module recycling was 
mandated through the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive 
2012/19/EU [5], which includes the collection, recovery, and recycling targets for waste from 
electrical and electronic equipment, including PV panels. Since 2012, all EU members have 
implemented the PV regulation into national law, requiring all PV panel manufacturers in the 
EU market to either operate their own take-back and recycling systems or join existing 
producer compliance schemes. 
According to the EU directive [5], from 2019, the minimum collection rate to be achieved 
annually shall be 65% of the average weight of the electrical and electronic equipment placed 
on the market in the three preceding years in the member state concerned, or, alternatively, 
85% of WEEE generated on the territory of that member state. 
Corresponding to the WEEE directive, several European R&D initiatives are driving the 
improvement of recycling technologies for the different PV technology families. These 
initiatives aim to decrease recycling costs and increase the potential revenue streams from the 
secondary raw materials recovered through the recycling process. Also, the European 
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization developed specific PV treatment standards for 
different fractions of the waste stream to support a high-value recycling approach. 
Statistical data of PV module waste under the WEEE directive are available via EuroStat 
statistics [6]. Fig. 2.1-1 shows trends in PV module waste since 2016. Table 2.1-1 shows some 
details about year 2018, with 13 951 tons of PV module waste collected from 12 countries.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
12 
 
* Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Greece, and the United Kingdom 
Fig. 2.1-1 PV module waste collected under WEEE in Europe from 2016 to 2018 [2] 
 
Table 2.1-1 PV module waste collected under WEEE in Europe in 2018 [2] 
[tons/year] 
Germany 
France 
Italy 
Spain 
Hungary Others* 
Total 
a) 
Waste 
collected 
7 865 
1 555 
1 350 
462 
2 289 
430 
13 951 
b) 
Waste 
treatment 
7 865 
1 555 
1 598 
276 
2 218 
296 
13 799 
c) Recovery 
7 708 
1 513 
1 408 
249 
1 890 
126 
12 894 
d) Recycling and 
preparing for 
reuse 
6 896 
1 399 
1 361 
240 
1 890 
116 
11 902 
e) Preparing for 
reuse 
909 
- 
- 
- 
- 
- 
909 
Ratio: (c/b) 
98.0% 
97.3% 
88.6% 
90.2% 
85.2% 
42.6% 
93.4% 
Ratio: (d/b) 
87.7% 
90.0% 
85.7% 
87.0% 
85.2% 
39.2% 
86.4% 
* Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Greece, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom 
The status of PV module recycling in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain—the top four countries 
in the EU excluding Hungary—is presented in the next sections from the viewpoints of “relevant 
regulations and schemes,” “treatment of PV module waste,” and “outlook.” 
 
2.1.1 Germany 
(1) Relevant regulations and schemes 
The EOL management of PV modules in Germany is covered by the regulation “Elektrogesetz” 
or “ElektroG” since 2018, which complies with WEEE. Manufacturers and retailers are required 
0
2 000
4 000
6 000
8 000
10 000
12 000
14 000
16 000
2016
2017
2018
[ton/year]
Others(*)
Spain
Netherlands
Italy
Hungary
Germany
France
Belgium

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
13 
to register PV modules placed in the market. The registration is conducted by the “Stiftung 
Elektro-Altgeräte-Register”, wherein PV modules are categorized according to their size. The 
required collection rate for EOL PV modules is 85%, whereas the required recycling rate of 
recovered scrap materials is 80%. According to the extended producer responsibility (EPR), 
manufacturers must ensure that collection rates and recycling quotas are achieved. All PV 
modules require a registration and a specific EOL treatment, but, depending on the type of 
application - business-to-business (used for a business or by a company) or business-to-
customer (used by private customers, such as residential) - different requirements are applied. 
Business-to-customer PV modules are collected without charge for the customers on municipal 
waste collection points. Manufacturers and retailers must confirm default-free guarantees for 
these modules. Business-to-business PV modules require a direct take-back/collection but no 
default-free guaranties; hence, collection fees could apply for business customers.  
(2) Treatment of PV module waste 
According to the EuroStat statistics [6], in Germany, the volume of PV modules placed on the 
market in 2018 was 211 142 tons. The amount of collected PV modules was 7 865 tons, 
whereas 2 259 tons were collected from households, and 5 606 tons were collected from other 
sources. Of the 7 708 tons recovered, 6 896 tons were recycled, with 909 tons listed to be 
prepared for reuse. 
The take-back, recycling, and reuse of EOL PV modules in Germany are organized by service 
providers, such as PV CYCLE or take-e-way GmbH, which provide full-service administration, 
take-back, and recycling of EOL modules. 
The recycling of crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV modules is mainly done by glass recycling 
companies, such as Reiling Unternehmensgruppe. A specific recycling line of cadmium 
telluride (CdTe) PV modules is operated by First Solar in Frankfurt (Oder). 
(3) Outlook 
According to the IRENA/PVPS Task 12 report on EOL PV panels published in 2016 [4], a 
projection range of cumulative waste volume in Germany, depending on the scenario of 
average lifetimes of PV modules, is between 400 000 tons and 1 million tons for the year 2030, 
and is expected to increase to 4.3 million tons in 2050. 
In May 2021, the nongovernmental organization Environmental Action Germany (Deutsche 
Umwelthilfe, DUH) published a white paper [7] addressing the challenges and opportunities for 
improving the circularity of the PV sector in Germany. This white paper is based on expert 
interviews and stakeholder surveys, and it summarizes and discusses the main challenges 
and opportunities for strengthening the circular economy of PV along its life cycle—from 
product design, to market placement, to collection, repair, and reuse—as well as the recycling 
of PV modules at their EOL. 
The white paper highlights the need for improvements in the current collection of used and 
disposed PV modules with regard to the collection process but also in terms of transparency 
and economic aspects. As a result of improper treatment, the repair and reuse of used modules 
is not always ensured. Further, improper collection might also lead to the disposal of modules. 
Also, there is the need for better communication and information to relevant stakeholders and 
to the public regarding the collection and take-back, processes, and responsibilities in the 
recycling and disposal of used or disposed PV modules. In this regard, public collection 
systems must be improved to ease the return of PV module waste for private users (e.g., when 
returning large amounts of modules). An additional challenge for business-to-business

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
14 
modules describes the EPR of the ElektroG that requires PV module producers to provide 
possibilities to return and recycle used modules that were placed in the market after 24 October 
2015. On the one hand, it must be ensured that all producers comply with these requirements; 
on the other hand, under current conditions, collection and recycling is expensive. Currently, 
there are no similar regulations addressing modules that have been placed in the market 
before 24 October 2015; hence, the costs for collection and recycling were not included in the 
pricing of sold modules, and owners could incur return fees. There is a need for more cost-
effective solutions for disposing used modules so they are not placed in improper recycling 
systems. 
Further, the white paper states that the amount of collected modules in the EU as reported to 
WEEE is still low compared to the expected volumes of used and waste modules, but it is not 
clear whether the lifetime of the modules is higher than expected or whether used modules 
have bypassed the collection system (e.g., by being resold in second-hand markets or by being 
illegally exported). This shows the need for increased transparency in the disposal of used and 
waste modules. If modules have left the German market to countries with less developed waste 
collection or waste management systems, there is a risk that waste modules are not being 
properly recycled or disposed; thus, there is a need to enhance the possibilities of the repair 
and reuse of used PV modules while also stopping illegal exports and improving circularity. 
The white paper also states that modules are difficult to recycle; therefore, valuable materials 
are often downcycled for other applications or get lost. There is a high potential to develop 
better technical solutions for better recycling (e.g., for glass and silicon (Si) recycling); however, 
investments in recycling require security, which will be improved with increased volume 
streams of used or PV module waste. Specific recycling requirements could also provide 
incentives for the introduction of best practice technologies. Further, improved recyclability of 
modules must be implemented during product development, which could be enhanced by eco-
design regulations. 
 
2.1.2 France 
(1) Relevant regulations and schemes 
In France, the transposition of the directive 2012/19/EU was made into French law in 2014 by 
the Décret n° 2014-928 [8] of the French code of the environment. The Article R.543-172 [9] 
defines a specific category for PV equipment (category 7) which facilitates considerably the 
reporting of reliable data in France compared to other countries regarding the collected PV 
waste stream. Article 5 of the decree from 14 October 2014 [10] established minimum recovery 
and recycling ratios of 85% and 80% respectively. These ratios were initially to be increased 
through a national consultation in 2021, but finally were not modified. 
(2) Treatment of PV module waste 
The only non-profit eco- organization so called Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO) 
approved by ministerial decree in France for the treatment of PV waste is Soren (formerly PV 
CYCLE France5), which consequently has a monopoly on PV module waste management. 
Soren manages both collection and recycling by operating private tendering procedures that 
enable the centralization of PV waste management in France. The organization is subject to a 
set of specifications defined at the national level, which might require more stringent obligations 
 
5 The brand name PV CYCLE France was changed to Soren in July 2021.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
15 
(e.g., ratios for collection, recovery, and/ or recycling) than the regulations previously 
introduced [8][9]. 
In France, the amount of collected PV module waste has increased by more than 13 times 
from 366 tons in 2015 to 4 905 tons in 2019, as shown in Fig. 2.1-2. The smaller amount 
collected in 2020 (4 102 tons) is explained by the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic—few 
collection points operated during lockdown, and health rules made collection slower because 
only one truck could be at one site at a time. Several dismantlement processes were also 
delayed. 
The distribution of PV module waste in 2019 and 2020 by technology is shown in Fig. 2.1-3, 
including c-Si, CdTe, amorphous-silicon (a-Si), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), and 
flexible PV. Most waste comprises c-Si and CdTe, whereas a-Si represents more than 15%. 
In 2019, PV module waste was sent to different recycling facilities, with c-Si waste treated at 
the recycling facility Triade Electronique (Veolia subsidiary), CdTe in Germany, and others 
sent to specific treatment plants.  
 
 
Fig. 2.1-2 PV waste collected in France 
(2015–2020) [11] 
Fig. 2.1-3 PV waste collected in France by 
technology (2019–2020) [11] 
The first facility dedicated to c-Si PV module waste recycling was implemented by Veolia in 
2017, contracted by Soren in Rousset (located in the south of France). The PV modules are 
visually sorted and weighed, and the aluminium frame, junction boxes, and cables are 
semiautomatically removed. Finally, the multilayer PV laminates are cut into strips before being 
crushed and sorted using an eddy current separator to extract the metallic parts. The 
processing time is approximately 1–1.5 minutes per module, with a recovery ratio of almost 
95%. The secondary raw materials are recovered in the appropriate channels depending on 
their purity, which is not disclosed as well as the recycling ratio. The mandate given to Veolia 
by Soren to operate the recycling of PV waste in France ended in December 2020 and the 
associated operations in April 2021. 
(3) Outlook 
Projections of expected PV waste in France are presented in Fig. 2.1-4. This shows more than 
43 000 tons by 2030 and 118 000 tons by 2040, are expected annually. To meet this drastic 
increase, in February 2021, Soren launched a new tender process to implement three new 
facilities dedicated to PV recycling in France. Two facilities are currently running since June 
2021: one operated by Galloo in Halluin (located in the north of France), and a second one 
operated by ENVIE 2E Midi-Pyrénées in Portet sur Garonne (located in southwestern France). 
2019 
2020

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
16 
The third facility will be operational in September 2022 by ENVIE 2E Aquitaine in Saint-Loubès 
(located in southwestern France). 
 
Fig. 2.1-4 Projection of PV waste collection in France (2021–2040) [11] 
 
2.1.3 Italy 
(1) Relevant regulations and schemes 
The directive 2012/19/EU [5] was implemented in the Italian national regulatory system with 
the Legislative Decree No. 49/2014 [12]. This decree has two main objectives: (1) to prevent 
or reduce the negative effects resulting from the design and production of electrical and 
electronic appliances and from the production or management of waste derived from electrical 
and electronic appliances and (2) to reduce the negative impacts and improve the efficient use 
of resources to achieve the objectives of sustainable development in accordance with the 
criteria listed in the Legislative Decree No. 152/2006 – Environmental Code [13]. 
Legislative Decree 49/2014 applies to the categories of electrical and electronic equipment 
listed in Annex I of the WEEE directive until the end of the transitional period on 14 August 
2018. After the end of this period, the legislative decree will apply to the categories listed in 
Annex III of the WEEE directive. Under this decree, PV modules are equivalent to electrical 
and electronic equipment and are distinguished according to the size of the plant in which they 
are installed: 
- 
Modules installed in plants with a nominal power less than 10 kWp are classified as 
“domestic WEEE.” 
- 
Modules installed in plants with a nominal power greater than 10 kWp are classified 
as “professional WEEE.” 
The Italian law on electrical and electronic waste continues to place important responsibilities 
on EU producers. According to Article 4 of Legislative Decree 49/2014, the term “producers” 
also includes importers of electrical and electronic equipment, even if the manufacturer of the 
product is located outside of Italy. These responsibilities are in effect as provided by the WEEE 
directive; however, Legislative Decree 49/2014 imposes higher minimum recovery rates than 
the EU WEEE directive—up to 85% (PV modules) - on producers of categories of goods listed 
in Annex V. Legislative Decree 49/2014 also sets out the criteria that producers’ individual (Art. 
0
20 000
40 000
60 000
80 000
100 000
120 000
140 000
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
[ton/year]

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
17 
9) and collective (Art. 10) recovery methods must meet. Legislative Decree 49/2014 assigns 
recovery costs to producers based on several factors, including whether the goods in question 
are for domestic (Art. 23) or professional (Art. 24) use and whether they were placed in the 
market before or after 13 August 2005. Legislative Decree 49/2014 also places upon producers 
the obligation to provide users with information regarding, among other issues, the modalities 
of recovery of the goods in question as well as the potential environmental impacts of any 
dangerous substances they may contain (Art. 26). Finally, it mandates that producers must 
affix a trademark to their goods so that the producer’s identity can be easily recognized (Art. 
28) and that before starting operations in Italy, producers must be enrolled in the National 
Register of Subjects Obliged to Finance the Management Systems of WEEE (Art. 29). 
(2) Treatment of PV module waste 
According to the EuroStat statistics [6], the amount of collected PV modules in 2018 was 1 350 
tons. Collected modules from households totalled only 11 tons, whereas collected modules 
from other sources totalled 1 339 tons. 
Italy’s energy services manager, GSE (Gestore dei Servizi Energetici SpA), sets the 
instructions for the disposal of modules installed in Italian plants with feed-in-tariff (FIT) 
schemes, as contemplated by Article 1 of Legislative Decree 118/2020 [14]. The domestic PV 
modules that reach EOL must be either: 
- 
Sent to a national collection center (there are more than 4 000 in Italy). The private 
citizen can therefore bring the used modules to the municipal ecological platform. 
or 
- 
Managed through the distributor/installer where the modules were purchased (e.g., 
the old modules can be returned to the installer when purchasing new ones). 
In the case of the professional PV modules, once they have been decommissioned, they must 
be either: 
- 
Given to an entity authorized to manage waste such as PV modules (generally 
belonging to the EWC (European Waste Catalogue) code 16.02.14)  
or 
- 
Transported to an authorized treatment plant 
or 
- 
Sent to a national collective system. 
The plants that benefit from the FIT scheme - or, rather, the PV modules that comprise those 
power plants - must comply with the rules set by GSE, according to which the replacement 
and/or disposal of modules (identified with a serial number) must be communicated to GSE. 
When disposing of domestic modules, the owner is required to fill in the form Annex 8.1 and 
send it to GSE within 60 days of completion of the maintenance work. The document must 
specify who has taken charge of the management of the disposal of the panels, and a table 
must also be filled in reporting the brand, model, and serial number of the modules sent for 
treatment. 
Regarding professional PV modules, the owner of the plant must send to GSE the form Annex 
8.1 specifying the place of delivery of the modules (national collective system, authorized 
entity, or other), a copy of the FIR (waste identification form), and a certificate of treatment of 
the EOL PV modules issued by the destination plant. As in the domestic case, the 
documentation must be sent within 60 days of the completion of the maintenance work.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
18 
The GSE rules do not oblige the recycling of modules when they are decommissioned (making 
them eligible for reuse or resale). In order to ensure the financing of collection, transport, 
appropriate treatment, environmental compatible recovery and disposal of waste produced by 
PV modules, the GSE withholds from the incentive mechanisms in the last years of right to the 
incentive a share aimed at guaranteeing coverage of the management costs of the 
aforementioned waste. The amount withheld is returned to the holder, if it is ascertained that 
the obligations laid down in the Legislative Decree 49/2014 have been fulfilled; otherwise, the 
GSE provides directly, using the amounts retained. The share withheld (from the incentives) 
by the GSE is equal to: 
- 
at a value of 12 EUR per module for domestic PV modules (at the 15th incentive 
year); 
- 
at a value of 10 EUR per module for professional PV modules (fee spread over the 
last 10 years of incentive) 
To date, in Italy, there are no recycling plants exclusively dedicated to PV modules because 
the volume of EOL PV modules is not sufficient to create an ad hoc market. 
(3) Outlook 
According to the IRENA/IEA PVPS Task 12 report on EOL PV panels published in 2016 [4], a 
projection range of cumulative waste volume in Italy, depending on the assumptions of average 
lifetimes of PV modules; is between 140 000 and 500 000 tons for the year 2030 and is 
expected to increase to 2.2 million tons in 2050. 
 
2.1.4 Spain 
(1) Relevant regulations and schemes 
In Spain, the directive 2012/19/EU was approved into the Royal Decree 110/2015 of 20 
February 2015 [15], which includes updates to Law 22/2011 of 28 July 2011 on waste and 
contaminated soil [16] and repeals the former royal decree on electrical and electronic waste. 
The current law in force about waste and contaminated soil is the law 7/2022 of April, on waste 
and contaminated soil for a circular economy [17]. 
One main concept of this legislation is the EPR. The producer (manufacturer, distributor, 
installer, etc.) is obliged to comply with the obligations of the product design, to adopt the 
necessary actions to manage the waste of its products, and to cover the cost for this 
management. The producers must register their products in the national register of producers 
of electrical and electronic equipment (RII_AEE), managed by the Ministry of Industry, 
Commerce, and Tourism (MINCOTUR). The registration can be done individually or through a 
producer responsibility organization (PRO). If the system is collective, each producer 
contributes a quota to the systems based on the number of product they put in the market per 
year. If it is individual, the producer assumes all the costs. Currently, there are 11 authorized 
producer responsibility organizations according to Royal Decree 110/2015: Reinicia, Ecotic, 
Ambilamp, Ecolec, Ecofimática, Ecolum, Ecoasimelec, ERP, Eco-Raee’s, Sunreuse, and 
Ecoeche [18]. They are responsible for organizing and financing the management of WEEE. 
They collect the money from the producers and they are in charge of the management of the 
WEEE and of the information obligations towards the administrations and consumers. 
PV modules (with a dimension larger than 50 cm) are included in the scope of the Royal Decree 
110/2015. Currently, and after the modifications included in the Royal Decree 208/2022, they

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
19 
are included in the following categories: 7.1-Silicon non-hazardous PV panels; 7.2-Other non-
hazardous PV panels; 7.3-Hazardous PV modules. 
In the first quarter of each year, the MITERD (Spanish Ministry for the Ecological Transition 
and the Demographic Challenge) publishes the collection of WEEE targets to be achieved by 
collective systems for the current year. Targets for individual systems are communicated to 
each producer. These targets are based on the amount of WEEE placed in the market in the 
previous three years.  
In January 2021, the Royal Decree 27/2021 [19] introduced modifications to the previous Royal 
Decree 106/2008 regarding batteries and accumulators and the Royal Decree 110/2015 about 
WEEE. The modifications addressed the EU Directive 2018/849 of the European Parliament 
and of the Council of 30 May 2018 [20]. In relation to the topic, the MITERD, after public 
consultation, issued the Royal Decree 208/2022 about financial guarantees on waste [21]. 
(2) Treatment of PV module waste 
The treatment of waste coming from PV modules is in a very preliminary stage in Spain. The 
amount of PV module waste collected yearly is still small. Table 2.1-2 shows the amount of 
electrical and electronic equipment put on the market in Category 7, PV modules, and Table 
2.1-3 shows the WEEE collected in this category. 
Table 2.1-2 WEEE Category 7 (Category 4.b up to 2018): PV panels placed on the 
market in Spain [18] 
Year 
Put on the market (tons) 
2017 
1 532.24 
2018 
21 854.54 
2019 
83 256.34 
2020 
221 998.21 
 
Table 2.1-3 WEEE Category 7: PV panels (4.b up to 2018) collected [18] 
Year 
Total 
collected 
(tons) 
Treated 
(tons) 
Recovery 
(tons) 
Preparing for 
reuse and 
recycling (tons) 
2017 
155.13 
149.00 
134.10 
102.21 
2018 
461.89 
276.00 
248.55 
240.35 
2019 
226.15 
120.53 
117.29 
104.33 
The collective systems that have targets for PV waste collection in 2022 according to the last 
publication of the MITERD [22] are: 
- 
ECOASIMELEC 
- 
ECOTIC 
- 
EUROPEAN RECLING PLATFORM ERP SAS SUCURSAL EN ESPAÑA 
- 
FUNDACIÓN ECOLEC 
- 
SUNREUSE ASSOCIATION

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
20 
However, there are individual systems that contribute to the amount of PV waste that are not 
included in this list. 
(3) Outlook 
The amount of PV waste in Spain is currently small, but it will increase in the short to medium 
term caused by the EOL of the first PV plants installed and in the long term caused by the 
aging of plants recently installed and the new ones that will be installed in the coming years. 
PV waste projections are highly dependent on the historical evolution of yearly installed PV 
capacity and the predictions for future installations. Fig. 2.1-5 presents the yearly installed PV 
capacity (a) and the cumulative PV capacity (b) from 2007 to 2020. As shown, the evolution of 
PV capacity in Spain does not follow a linear trend, which should be considered when 
predicting the future amount of waste. Another remarkable point is the increase of installed PV 
power in 2019 and 2020 compared with the previous years. This change is in line with the new 
actions to achieve climate neutrality. 
 
Fig 2.1-5 Yearly (a) and cumulative (b) installed PV capacity in Spain during 2007–2020 
[23] 
In March 2021, the final version of Spain’s integrated National Energy and Climate Plan 2021–
2030 [24] was published. This plan foresees an increase in renewable energy capacity, with a 
target scenario of 39 GW of installed PV capacity to 2030. 
Some scientific studies have forecasted PV waste in Spain based on different projections [25, 
26]. The latter [26] is an update of the former, and the different scenarios used to calculate PV 
waste are based on two approaches— one with an estimated PV capacity of 47 GW by 2030 
and the other with 26 GW by 2030—which cover the target scenario of Spain’s current 
integrated National Energy and Climate Plan. Based on these projections, several regular loss 
and early loss scenarios for PV waste are calculated to 2050. 
 
512
2718
44
442
421
300
122
22
49
55
135
262
4752
3408
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
MW
Annual PV installations in Spain 
2007-2020
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
MW
Cumulative installed PV power in Spain. 
2006-2020
(a) 
(b)

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
21 
2.2 Asia and the Pacific: Japan, South Korea, China, and Australia 
In Asia and the Pacific, there are currently no nationwide schemes for PV module recycling 
and EOL management; however, some countries are implementing various discussions and 
activities for promoting the proper EOL management of PV module waste. This section 
presents the status of PV module recycling in Japan, South Korea, China, and Australia. 
 
2.2.1 Japan 
(1) Relevant regulations and schemes 
Currently in Japan, there are no specific regulations for EOL PV modules, which must be 
treated under the general regulatory framework for waste management: the Waste 
Management and Public Cleaning Act. The act prescribes definitions of waste; responsibilities 
of industrial waste generators and waste management; the handling of industrial waste, 
including landfill disposal, and so forth. 
Yet the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI) and the Ministry of Environment 
(MOE) have jointly assessed how to handle EOL PV modules. The second edition of the 
guideline for promoting the proper EOL treatment of PV modules, including recycling [27], was 
published in December 2018, as an update to the first edition, which was published in April 
2016. The guideline covers basic information, such as relevant laws and regulations on 
decommissioning, transportation, reuse, recycling, and industrial waste disposal. Further 
updates to the guideline are under discussion. Also, in May 2021, MOE published a guideline 
for promoting the proper reuse of PV modules [28]. 
Also, Japan’s FIT scheme will require a levy to fund the waste management of EOL PV in 
advance [29]. This will be in effect by July 2022, and owners of PV systems and plants, 
excluding residential PV systems (less than 10 kW), are obliged to comply. The amount to be 
reserved will vary in relation to the certificates under the FIT scheme. FIT rates for PV are 
calculated by considering 10,000 JPY/kW as the reserve for PV systems certified in fiscal years 
2020 and 2021. This reserve will be equivalent to 0.66 JPY/kWh–1.33 JPY/kWh [30]. 
(2) Treatment of PV module waste 
At present, there is no statistical information on PV module waste volumes in Japan. According 
to the guideline published in December 2018 [27], it was estimated that 4 400 tons/year of PV 
waste were generated; from that, approximately 3 400 tons of modules would be reused, and 
1 000 tons of modules would be recycled. Also, according to the MOE [31], it was estimated 
that 6 300 tons/year of PV waste were generated in 2020; from that, approximately 4 200 tons 
of modules would be reused, and 2 100 tons of modules would be sent to recycling facilities. 
Table 2.2-1 shows a list of 29 companies accepting PV modules for recycling in Japan [32]. 
The list was developed by the Japan Photovoltaic Energy Association, and it is updated in due 
time to support and promote EOL treatment. 
More than half the companies listed have installed specific equipment for PV module recycling 
(separating the PV module’s structure and components); however, because the amount of PV 
module waste is relatively small, the operation rate of these companies is currently low. 
The other companies are treating more common types of industrial waste whose main function 
is to separate bulk materials.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
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Table 2.2-1 Examples of companies that can “properly treat” PV modules in Japan [32] 
Name 
Location 
Name 
Location 
Matec, Inc. 
Ishikari, Hokkaido 
Econecol, Inc. 
Fujinomiya, 
Shizuoka 
Seinan Corporation 
Hirosaki, Aomori 
Harita Metal Co., 
Ltd. 
Takaoka, Toyama 
Mitsuba-Shigen Co., 
Ltd. 
Towada, Aomori 
Recycle Tech Japan 
Nagoya, Aichi 
Kankyo Hozen 
Service Co., Ltd. 
Oshu, Iwate 
Ecoadvance 
Iga, Mie 
Moriya 
Higasine, Yamagata 
Kinki Denden Yuso, 
Ltd. 
Neyagawa, Osaka 
Takaryo Corporation 
Minamisoma, 
Fukushima 
Hakuto Total 
Recycle System 
Co., Ltd. 
Tottori, Tottori 
Shirakawa Syouten 
Koriyama, 
Fukushima 
HIRABAYASHI 
METAL Co., Ltd. 
Okayama, Okayama 
Nisso 
Metallochemical 
Co., Ltd. 
Fukushima (Taito, 
Tokyo) 
Kangai 
Kurashiki, Okayama 
Mitsukaido Sangyo 
Joso, Ibaraki 
JFE Bars & Shapes 
Corporation 
Kurashiki, Okayama 
Kankyo Tsushin 
Yuso 
Ushiku, Ibaraki 
Sunada Co., Ltd. 
Higashi-hiroshima, 
Hiroshima 
Um-Welt-Japan Co., 
Ltd 
Yorii, Saitama 
Kaneshiro Sangyou 
Matsuyama, Ehime 
Re-Tem Corporation 
Ibaraki (Chiyoda, 
Tokyo) 
NPC Incorporated 
Matsuyama, Ehime 
Hamada Co., Ltd. 
Minato, Tokyo & 
Takatsuki Osaka 
Recycle Tech Co., 
Ltd. 
Kitakyushu, 
Fukuoka 
Tokyo Power 
Technology, Ltd. 
Koto, Tokyo 
Kyusyuhokusei Co., 
Ltd. 
Kobayashi, Miyazaki 
Toshiba 
Environmental 
Solutions 
Corporation 
Yokohama 
Kanagawa

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
23 
 
Fig. 2.2-1 Map showing location of companies that can “properly treat” PV modules in 
Japan (based on Table 2.2-1) 
(3) Outlook 
It is forecasted that the amount of PV module waste will increase to 170 000–280 000 tons/year 
by the mid-2030s [33], as shown in Fig. 2.2-2, which will correspond to more than 10 times the 
current capacity of PV module recycling equipment identified. 
 
Fig. 2.2-2 Forecast of the amount of PV module waste in Japan [33]  
A challenge to achieving a high-value recycling business is finding high-value products for the 
glass recovered from EOL PV modules. Currently, some projects to find solutions for high-
value glass recycling are under development, for example, under the NEDO projects [34].  
Also, the installed PV systems in Japan are dominated by residential PV systems. To achieve 
a low-cost recycling business, discussions have begun on how to develop efficient collection 
and transportation systems for EOL PV modules. 
[ton/year]
(A) Scenario for massive disposal after FIT
(C) Scenario for disposal at fixed-term 
leased land after FIT
(B) Scenario for disposal at lease land after FIT
(D) Scenario for no disposal after FIT by term

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
24 
2.2.2 South Korea 
(1) Relevant regulations and schemes 
PV module waste has become a severe problem because of the destruction of a PV plant by 
a typhoon in the Cheongdo-gun area in July 2018 (see Fig. 2.2-3). On 5 October 2018, the 
Ministry of Environment (ME) announced that PV module waste will be included in the list of 
items affected by EPR regulations [35, 36]. The ME formed a consultative group with PV 
manufacturers to discuss a better way to design EPR regulations in the PV industry. 
Eventually, the government and PV module manufacturing companies agreed to introduce 
EPR regulations to the PV industry. On 28 August 2019, the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and 
Energy and the Korea Photovoltaic Industry Association, as a representative of PV 
manufacturers, signed an agreement to include PV panels in the EPR list. This agreement 
implies that EPR will be enforced in the PV industry in 2023, after the collection infrastructure 
for PV module waste and the development of recycling technologies is established in 2022 
[37]. Legislation with an amendment of the “enforcement rule of the act on resource circulation 
of electrical and electronic equipment and vehicles” was completed in December 2019, 
although the act will be enforced only after 1 January 2023 [38]. In this rule, PV modules are 
classified as a separate product group that differs from existing waste groups, such as 
temperature 
exchangers, 
displays, 
communication/office 
equipment, 
and 
general 
electrical/electronic devices. In addition, intermediate processes—such as disassembling, 
sorting, and crushing—should be used, and the rates of recycling or reuse should meet the 
demand of more than 80% based on the total weight of products.  
 
 
Fig. 2.2-3 PV module waste generated by a typhoon in Cheongdo-gun in 2018 [39] 
(2) Treatment of PV module waste 
Because the EPR regulations will go into effect at the end of 2022, the current amount of PV 
module waste and treated PV modules in South Korea is unknown. According to Yoonjin Tech, 
one of several companies in South Korea with a PV waste treatment license, most recently 
treated PV waste consists of defective modules generated during the manufacturing process. 
In almost 6 months during 2020, approximately 55 tons of PV waste generated from PV power 
generation plants were correctly recycled. Statistics of the Korea Environment Corporation [40] 
concerning PV waste declared by owners during the last 3 years indicate that approximately 
540 tons of waste were disposed and recycled as of June 2020, as shown in Table 2.2-2.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
25 
Although a large amount of PV waste is currently generated from PV plants, most is landfilled 
after manual detachment of the metal frame because recycling is not currently compulsory. 
The waste code 514104, representing waste from solar cells and pastes in electronic devices 
in the Wastes Control Act, was established in July 2016 as a subcategory of waste by type, 
but it was not used for PV module waste before 2018. After the destruction of the PV plant in 
Cheongdo-gun, the code was redefined to include PV module waste. Further, the use of the 
waste management system “Allbaro,” operated by the Korea Environment Corporation, was 
officially applied in October 2018, when manuals for the temporary collection and storage of 
PV module waste were distributed. To clarify the name of the waste in the code, “waste of solar 
panel” has been added to the waste name in 2021. It is assumed that codes 511800, related 
to electronic equipment waste, or 513001, linked to glass waste, were previously used for the 
treatment of PV module waste because most manufacturers and users were not aware of the 
codes related to PV waste.  
Table 2.2-2 Statistics of PV module waste declared during the last 3 years as of June 
2020* [40] 
Year 
Waste code 
Waste name 
Annual PV panel waste 
(tons) 
2018 
514104 
Waste of solar cells, paste in 
electronic devices, waste of 
solar panel 
17.55 
2019 
245.605 
2020 
279.407 
*More recent data has not been released. 
Regarding companies treating EOL PV modules, Yoonjin Tech (Gyeongbuk Province) was the 
first company in South Korea to recycle PV waste, and therefore current statistics on treated 
PV waste are based on their data. The company is capable of recycling 1 000 tons/year of 
panel waste and has plans to expand its capacity to 3 600 tons/year. In late 2020, the company 
WonKwang S&T (Incheon metropolitan) launched a PV recycling operation with facilities 
capable of recycling 1 200 tons/year of PV waste. Further, Chungbuk Technopark (Chungbuk 
Province) established a PV recycling center capable of recycling 3 600 tons of PV panel waste 
from November 2016–September 2021. Although several other companies have plans for PV 
recycling, these do not include a detailed schedule for setting up the facilities. 
Table 2.2-3 List of companies using intermediate processors to correctly treat PV 
waste in South Korea [41]–[44] 
Company name 
Region 
Capacity (tons/year) 
Method 
Yoonjin Tech 
Gyeongbuk 
3 600 
Physical 
WonKwang S&T 
Incheon 
1 200 
Physical 
Chungbuk 
Technopark 
Chungbuk 
3 600 
Combination of 
physical and thermal

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
26 
 
 
 
Fig 2.2-4 PV module recycling facilities of Yoonjin Tech (left) [41], WonKwang S&T 
(center) [43], and Chungbuk Technopark (right) [44] 
(3) Outlook 
According to predictions of annual PV module waste by the Korea Environment Institute in 
2018, representing the latest version of officially published forecasts, the amount of PV waste 
is expected to increase continuously over time. This forecast was estimated based on the 
annual amount of PV installations and specific PV module life spans. PV modules recently 
installed will have a longer life span than older modules, owing to improved manufacturing 
technology. The amount of annual module waste is predicted to reach 9 665 tons in 2023, 
consistently increasing to 20 935 tons in 2030, and 112 564 tons in 2040 (see Fig. 2.2-5). 
 
Fig. 2.2-5 Forecast of the amount of PV panel waste generated in South Korea [45] 
To meet the increasing amount of PV module waste, various government-funded R&D projects 
to develop technologies related to PV recycling have been established in South Korea, as 
shown in Table 2.2-4. Some are focusing on disassembling modules through eco-friendly and 
low-cost processes with low energy consumption, whereas others aim to make the recovered 
materials applicable to other secondary markets, such as structural ceramics or construction 
materials. 
Table 2.2-4 Recent government-funded projects related to the recycling of PV waste in 
South Korea [46] 
Funding source 
Project name (project period) 
Company name 
Ministry of 
Trade, Industry, 
and Energy 
Establishment of PV recycling center  
(November 2016–June 2021) 
Chungbuk 
Technopark 
0
20 000
40 000
60 000
80 000
100 000
120 000
140 000
160 000
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
[ton/year]

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
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Ministry of 
Trade, Industry, 
and Energy 
Remanufacturing of PV modules with material 
recovered from EOL PV modules (October 2018–
September 2021) 
Korea Institute of 
Energy Research 
Ministry of 
SMEs and 
Startups 
Development of equipment for the recovery of 
valuable metals by recycling EOL PV systems and 
application as construction materials (October 
2019–September 2021) 
Hanjung Energy 
Networks 
Ministry of 
SMEs and 
Startups 
Localization of equipment to separate solar cells, 
protective sheets, and tempered glass from PV 
modules  
(November 2019–November 2021) 
Reset Company 
Ministry of 
Ecology and 
Environment 
Development of technology for collecting, 
shattering, and recycling recovery of valuable 
materials from EOL PV modules  
(May 2020–December 2022) 
WonKwang S&T 
Ministry of 
Ecology and 
Environment 
Development of 99.99% silicon carbide powder and 
mechanical seal/semiconductor tube parts using 
recovered Si from solar module waste (May 2020–
December 2022) 
PLUS Manager 
Ministry of 
Ecology and 
Environment 
Development of 4N Si material technology by wet 
processing of solar cells recovered from solar panel 
waste  
(May 2020–December 2022) 
Dream Mining 
Ministry of 
SMEs and 
Startups 
Development of an eco-friendly, low-cost, high-
value recycling process for EOL PV modules using 
physical separation (October 2020–October 2022) 
Woowontech 
Ministry of 
SMEs and 
Startups 
Recycling the silicon waste from the PV industry to 
composites for secondary batteries’ anode 
materials  
(November 2021-October 2023) 
J-Solution 
 
2.2.3 China 
(1) Relevant regulations and schemes 
At present, China's policies and regulations on PV module recycling and EOL management 
are under development. There are a variety of methods and feasible technical routes in the 
recycling technology of PV modules in China and abroad. At the same time, the number of 
EOL PV modules in China is gradually growing, and the corresponding industrial chains are 
being developed. Therefore, in terms of policies and regulations, China is making efforts to 
study and introduce relevant policies to guide the PV module recycling industry: 
- 
In February 2009, the State Council promulgated the “Regulations on the administration 
of waste electrical and electronic products recycling” (implemented since 1 January 
2011), which stipulates that waste from electrical and electronic products can be 
collected in different ways and should be recycled in a centralized system. Producers 
of electrical and electronic products are encouraged to recycle waste electrical and 
electronic products on their own or by entrusting sellers, maintenance agencies, after-

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
28 
sales service agencies, and recycling operators of waste electrical and electronic 
products. Although PV modules are not included in the list of waste electrical and 
electronic products for disposal stipulated in the regulations, these documents can be 
used as a model and reference for formulating policies and regulations related to the 
recycling and disposal of PV modules, and they are expected to effectively promote 
this process in China. 
- 
In terms of high-tech R&D projects, the state has provided support for topics related to 
PV module recycling. During the 12th Five Year Plan period, the National 863 project 
subtask “Research on PV equipment recycling and harmless treatment technology” 
carried out research on PV module EOL recycling and harmless treatment technology 
using two recycling routes (mechanical and thermal-chemical methods) and carried out 
relevant empirical research. 
To promote training and capacity building, public awareness, and an international cooperation 
platform in green manufacturing, the China Green Supply Chain Alliance was established by 
the International Economic and Technological Cooperation Center of the Ministry of Industry 
and Information Technology of China. This was done in cooperation with key industry 
organizations, universities, scientific research institutes, financial institutions, and industry 
associations. 
In January 2020, ECOPV was officially established as the PV committee of the China Green 
Supply Chain Alliance, with the goal of achieving a “PV green supply chain” and a “better ECO 
battery PV.” The establishment of ECOPV is conducive to achieving China's national goal of 
renewable energy and emissions reductions obligations, filling the gap of third-party 
professional services committed to the PV and green supply chains in China, promoting the 
innovative research and application of environmental protection and new PV products and 
materials, and solving the environmental and ecological risks in the whole life cycle of PV. 
ECOPV provides a good communication platform for the research of PV module recycling 
technologies, which can better promote the development of the recycling industry. 
To open up the last key link of the photovoltaic green supply chain, harmless treatment, 
recycling and reuse after photovoltaic EOL, with the support of China Green Supply Chain 
Alliance and ECOPV, together with relevant enterprises and colleges, a national, 
comprehensive, service-oriented, non-profit cooperative organization "PV Recycle Industry 
Development Center" (hereinafter referred to as "PV Recycle Center") was established. In the 
next few years, the PV Recycle Center will complete the preparation and release of the “Annual 
China Photovoltaic Recycle and Circularity White Book”, and will hold the annual China 
Photovoltaic Green Supply Chain Conference (PV Recycle International Forum) and the 
construction of the "China Photovoltaic Recycle Exhibition Hall". In addition, the PV Recycle 
Center will also prepare to launch the "Photovoltaic module recycling market forecast and the 
creation of digital system and platform", "Qualification accreditation management system 
research project of photovoltaic recycling factory" and "Full life cycle carbon footprint and LCA 
analysis of photovoltaic modules". The three projects are the focus work of PV Recycle Center 
around the common, basic and urgent problems of the industry. 
(2) Treatment of PV module waste 
China has started pilot treatment demonstration in scientific research projects, production 
enterprises, state owned and environmental protection enterprises. 
Since 2017, the SDIC Yellow River Hydropower Development Co., Ltd., the largest PV 
enterprise in Qinghai Province (also taking part in and being the Chair Unit of the PV Recycle

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
29 
Center), has taken the lead in independently carrying out research on key technologies and 
equipment for environmental protection treatment and recycling of photovoltaic modules. As 
of December 2021, the R&D project of "Research on recycling industrialization and equipment 
localization of crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules" carried out by the company has 
successfully passed the acceptance. This means that the company has officially built the first 
PV module recycling pilot line in China with a comprehensive recovery rate of more than 90% 
and an annual processing capacity of 110 000 modules (roughly equal to 2 750 tonnes). The 
company has formed a vertical integrated, closed loop PV whole-of-industry chain of 
polysilicon, silicon wafer, cell, module and photovoltaic power station planning, design and 
construction, operation and maintenance, detection and evaluation, and module recycling. 
Technical reserves have been made to reduce the impact of photovoltaic industry on the 
ecological environment. 
But because of the high cost of PV module recycling—such as the extra cost of equipment 
purchase and maintenance as well as the transportation cost in the centralized collection 
process of waste modules and waste materials—the economic benefits of PV module recycling 
are low. This makes many enterprises or research institutions that want to enter the PV module 
recycling industry hesitate, and the domestic market has little power to recover PV modules; 
therefore, there is still a long way to go to achieve the goal of the large-scale recycling of PV 
module waste in China. 
 
Table 2.2-5 Major enterprises/institutions engaging in research on PV component 
recycling in China [47] 
No. 
Enterprise/ 
organization 
Research content 
Research results 
Application 
1 
Zhuhai Xingye 
New Energy 
Technology Co., 
Ltd. 
Research relevant standards of 
PV module recycling. 
A national standard (General technical 
requirements for recycling of PV 
modules, GB/T 39753-2021) has been 
released and will be implemented in 
2022. 
And international standard (Glass in 
building -- General technical 
requirements of building integrated 
photovoltaic modules recycling, ISO 
21480) was established in the 
ISO/TC160/SC 1 working group and 
entered the committee draft (CD) 
stage of the international standard. 
The standard 
concerns by 
many research 
institutions and 
enterprises in 
the industry 
2 
Jingke Energy 
Co., Ltd. 
Carry out the experimental 
research on the low-consumption 
green disassembly of PV modules 
and the recycling of PV cell 
materials. 
Completed the environmental 
protection stripping experiment of the 
back plane, the low-loss pyrolysis 
experimental process of the module, 
the recovery technology of bare Si 
without metal, and the recovery 
technology of Ag and aluminum on the 
surface of the PV cell 
R&D status, 
preliminary 
recovery data 
have been 
obtained

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
30 
3 
Yingli Energy 
(China) Co., Ltd. 
Carry out R&D of the intelligent PV 
module frame disassembly 
process and the mechanical 
separation process among 
different components of glass, 
EVA, and related equipment. 
Form a preliminary solution of 
intelligent frame disassembly and 
thermal separation process of glass 
and EVA based on the physical 
method. 
R&D status, 
preliminary 
recovery data 
have been 
obtained 
4 
Beijing Jikedian 
Renewable 
Energy 
Technology 
Development 
Center Co., Ltd. 
Undertake the research on the 
"harmless treatment and recycling 
of PV equipment" of the 863 
project of the Ministry of Science 
and Technology of China in the 
12th Five Year Plan. 
Complete the domestic PV recycling 
market forecast and value analysis, 
the international PV recycling 
experience summary, and laboratory 
technology research. 
R&D status 
5 
Chinese 
Research 
Academy of 
Environmental 
Sciences 
Carry out the EVA pyrolysis 
method and related equipment 
research. 
Put forward the technology route of PV 
module waste with pyrolysis 
technology as the core, and carry out 
the research on the pyrolysis 
mechanism of EVA, and other plastics 
in c-Si PV modules. 
R&D status 
6 
China 
Electronics 
Standardization 
Institute  
Standard for the recovery and 
reuse of PV modules 
General technical requirements for 
recycling of c-SI PV modules, T/CPIA 
0002-2017 
Referred by the 
domestic 
manufacturers 
that plan to carry 
out the work in 
the recycling of 
PV modules 
7 
SDIC Yellow 
River 
Hydropower 
Development 
Co., Ltd. 
Research on recycling 
industrialization and equipment 
localization of crystalline silicon 
photovoltaic modules 
First pilot module recycling line in 
China with a comprehensive recovery 
rate of more than 90% and an annual 
processing capacity of 110 000 
modules 
R&D status, 
preliminary 
recovery data 
have been 
obtained 
(3) Outlook 
The official statistics of the China Photovoltaic Industry Association show that the forecasted 
amount of PV module waste to be recycled will exceed 4 million tons by 2035 [48]. On the 
other hand, a recent study [49] estimated that a range of annual PV module waste in 2040 
would be 1.3-4.0 million tons and that of accumulative PV module waste by 2040 would be 
6.8-36.1 million tons. 
In April 2019, the project on "Complete sets of technologies and equipment for recovery and 
treatment of crystalline silicon PV modules,” a key national R&D plan for renewable energy 
and hydrogen energy, was officially approved and implemented. Its completion is expected by 
March 2022. This project is the first national R&D project for PV module recycling technology 
and key equipment in China. It will reveal the evolution of the structure and surface bonding 
characteristics of organic adhesive film in c-Si PV modules with an external treatment process 
and a de-bonding mechanism; develop a complete set of technology and key equipment for 
the environmental protection treatment of modules based on mechanical and thermal-chemical 
methods; build demonstration lines; develop new technologies for the environmental protection 
treatment of new materials and new structure modules; establish an evaluation system for the 
recycling and treatment of c-Si PV modules; and provide standards and policy suggestions. In 
2020, the key equipment of the two technical routes of the mechanical and thermal chemical 
methods were developed. The first 10-MW demonstration lines in China are built in Baoding,

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
31 
Hebei Province, and Shangrao, Jiangxi Province, in 2021, respectively, and the technical and 
economic analysis has been carried out. 
The mechanical method uses hot knife technology, with grinding and separating technology 
for successfully recovering the aluminium frame, the complete glass, the PV cell powder, the 
brazing strips powder, and the plastic powder. This technology has low waste liquid and 
exhaust emissions and is suitable for the on-site recovery of c-Si PV modules. The recovery 
rate is more than 98%, and the element recovery will reach >96% for Si and >97% for copper 
(Cu). 
The thermal-chemical approach contains two processing stages. The first stage enables the 
separation of all major module parts though mechanical treatment and thermal reactions. This 
stage includes several inline semi-mass-production processes, frame removal, junction box 
removal, back sheet removal, and encapsulation material delamination. In the second stage, 
PV cells are treated in a batch chemical tool. The recovery is more than 97%, and the element 
recovery will reach >93% for silver (Ag) and >99% for Cu. 
The standard system is divided into basic and management standards, module EOL 
assessment standards, recycling technology standards, reuse standards, and recycling 
standards. One of the most important standards is the “Standard for assessing the EOL of 
crystalline silicon PV modules”— that is, under what circumstances are the modules not 
allowed to continue to serve? This is related to the degradation of performance and safety 
caused by the aging attenuation of modules. In 2021, through reliability testing and 
demonstration, the key parameters and technical indicators were improved and finally 
determined, and the standard for assessing the EOL of crystalline Si PV modules was 
formulated. In addition, the technical specifications for the green design of PV modules, which 
is the main green evaluation standard promoted by the Ministry of Industry and Information 
Technology in China, was released by 2020. It is clearly proposed that the recycling link should 
be added to guide the industry's attention and research on the recycling of c-Si PV modules 
from the perspective of standard formulation. At present, this group of standards will be all 
released shown in Table 2.2-7. 
Since 2014, the State Council and the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology have 
paid increasing attention to green manufacturing and green supply chains. By 2020, the green 
manufacturing system of national key industries, including PV, was established. In the past 
two years, LONGi, Chint, Tongwei, and many other enterprises have won the title of “Green 
Factory” and “Green Supply Chain” of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. 
Among them, LONGi put forward an initiative at the supplier conference to promote whole 
chain suppliers to jointly build a green manufacturing system. Non fluorine backsheet is one of 
the options of LONGi, Suntech, Chint, Haitai and Yingli (ect.) for eco-design, DSM and 
Zhejiang Sinopoly Materials provided recyclable non fluorine backsheet for module green 
manufacturing.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
32 
Table 2.2-6 Major policies on relevant to photovoltaic recycling 
No. 
Time/ 
released 
Released 
department 
Policy name 
Policy content 
1 
2017.12.27 
MIIT*/ 
MST** 
National catalogue of major 
environmental protection 
technology and equipment 
encouraged (2017 Edition)  
The "complete set of equipment for 
resource recovery of waste crystalline 
silicon solar panels" was included in the 
catalogue 
2 
2021.3.18 
NDRC*** 
Guiding opinions on 
comprehensive utilization of bulk 
solid wastes in the “14th-five-
year-plan”6 
Explore ways of standardized recycling and 
recyclable and high-value recycling of solid 
wastes from emerging industries 
3 
2021.7.1 
NDRC*** 
Circular economy development 
plan in the “14th-five-year-plan” 
Classified recycling and centralized 
treatment of waste materials including 
retired photovoltaic modules and wind 
turbine blades 
4 
2021.10.24 
State 
Council 
Action plan for carbon peak by 
2030 
Promote the recycling of waste from 
emerging industries such as 
decommissioned power cells, photovoltaic 
modules and wind turbine blades 
5 
2021.12.23 
MOF**** 
Catalogue of enterprise income 
tax preference for 
comprehensive utilization of 
resources (2021 Edition) 
Included recycling and comprehensive 
utilization of waste solar photovoltaic panels 
6 
2022.1.4 
MIIT* 
Action plan for innovation and 
development of intelligent 
photovoltaic industry (2021-
2025)7 
Promote the R & D and industrial 
application of recycling technology of waste 
photovoltaic modules, and accelerate the 
comprehensive utilization of resources 
7 
2022.2.9 
NDRC*** 
Guiding opinions on accelerating 
the construction of urban 
environmental infrastructure 
Promote the construction of solid waste 
disposal facilities and carry out 100 
demonstration projects for the 
comprehensive utilization of bulk solid 
waste 
8 
2022.2.10 
MIIT* 
Implementation plan for 
accelerating the comprehensive 
utilization of industrial 
resources8 
For the first time, waste photovoltaic 
modules are defined as emerging solid 
waste, and it is proposed to strengthen the 
R&D and promotion of complete sets of 
technology and equipment for 
comprehensive utilization, while exploring 
technical routes of emerging 
comprehensive utilization of solid waste. 
*MIIT : Ministry of Industry and Information Technology 
**MST : Ministry of Science and Technology 
***NDRC: National Development and Reform Commission 
****MOF 
: Ministry of Finance 
 
6 https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xxgk/zcfb/tz/202103/t20210324_1270286_ext.html 
7 http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2022-01/05/5666484/files/daf24576801549ecbde531fd9346b1e5.pdf 
8 http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2022-02/11/5673067/files/6b1bb86497954e97a6753310c06dc333.pdf

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
33 
Table 2.2-7 Major standards on Photovoltaic recycling 
No. 
Time/released 
Released 
department 
Standard name 
Standard content 
1 
2017.9.18 
CPIA* 
General technical requirements 
for recycling and reuse of 
crystalline silicon photovoltaic 
modules （T/CPIA** 0002-
2017）9  
It specifies the terms and definitions, 
basic principles, collection, 
transportation and storage, 
disassembly, treatment (including 
basic principles, frame treatment, 
lead out end treatment and laminate 
treatment), recycling (involving 
semiconductor materials, metal 
materials, glass and polymers) of 
recycling and reuse of crystalline 
silicon photovoltaic modules. This 
standard is a general and guiding 
technical document 
2 
2020.11.1 
CPIA* 
Technical specification for 
green-design product 
assessment—Photovoltaic 
module（T/CPIA** 0024-2020）
10 
It specifies the evaluation 
requirements and methods of green 
design products of photovoltaic 
modules, as well as the preparation 
method of product life cycle 
evaluation report. The standard is 
applicable to crystalline silicon 
photovoltaic modules and thin film 
photovoltaic modules 
3 
To be 
released 
CPIA* 
Plan Name: Guidelines for 
scrapping crystalline silicon 
photovoltaic modules 
The standard will be standardized 
from the classification of scrapped 
components, technical requirements 
for scrapping evaluation, 
experimental methods for scrapping 
evaluation, inspection cycle and 
other contents 
4 
2020.6.2 
Glass in Buiding-
TC255 
General technical requirements 
for recycling and reuse of thin 
film solar cell modules for 
buildings (GB/T*** 38785-2020) 
It specifies the terms and definitions, 
basic principles, collection, 
transportation and storage, 
disassembly, treatment, recycling of 
recycling and reuse of thin-film 
photovoltaic modules for building.  
5 
2021.3.9 
Glass in Buiding-
TC255 
General technology 
requirements for photovoltaic 
(PV) module recycling and 
recovery (GB/T*** 39753-2021) 
It specifies the basic principles, 
collection, transportation, storage, 
disassembly, disposal, recycling and 
management of photovoltaic module 
recycling 
*CPIA : China PV Industry Association 
**T/CPIA: China PV Industry Association Standards  
***GB/T 
: Recommended national standards 
 
9 http://www.ttbz.org.cn/StandardManage/Detail/22224/ 
10 http://www.ttbz.org.cn/StandardManage/Detail/48036/

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
34 
2.2.4 Australia 
(1) Relevant regulations and schemes 
In Australia, the State of Victoria passed legislation banning all electronic waste, including PV 
modules, inverters and PV batteries, from landfills as of 1 December 2019; however, currently, 
no other Australian state or territory has mandatory regulation on PV module disposal. PV 
modules are not explicitly classified as hazardous waste under the National Environment 
Protection Measure, and there is no requirement on reporting the transportation and handling 
of discarded PV modules [50]. Further, the Australian Standard AS/NZS 5377—which covers 
electronic waste collection, storage, transportation, and treatment—does not include PV 
modules and has not been updated since 2013, but it is now under review [51].  
The EPR principle is enacted in Australia through the Product Stewardship Act 2011 [50]. 
Currently, there are no recycling or product stewardship requirements for PV modules, 
inverters, and batteries in any state or territory in Australia; however, PV systems are a “listed 
class of products” to consider under the Product Stewardship Act since 2016 [52, 53]. An 
activity to evaluate the inclusion of PV systems in the national stewardship program was led 
by Sustainability Victoria, a statutory authority with a board appointed by the Minister for 
Energy, Environment and Climate Change. The findings published in 2019 [54] show that either 
voluntary or co-regulatory approaches for PV modules might be feasible in Australia and are 
likely to achieve the environmental, health, and safety objectives of the Product Stewardship 
Act, improving the management of EOL PV modules and opportunities to reuse valuable 
materials. Further, the National Waste Action Plan of 2019 established that a preferred PV 
stewardship scheme is identified by 2021 and in place by 2023. In December 2020, the 
Department of Agriculture, Water, and Environment released a partnership call to develop an 
industry-led product stewardship scheme for PV systems (PV modules and inverter 
equipment) over 3 years, with the objective of implementing the national scheme by 2023, but 
the department decided not to progress with the partnership agreement at this stage [55]; 
hence, progress in designing the PV stewardship program has been slow to date. This is 
expected to change with the recently created Product Stewardship Centre of Excellence, which 
is leading the codesign of the national product stewardship for PV systems, with the aim of 
reaching an industry-agreed, nationwide scheme by June 2022, starting operations by June 
2023, and including an approach to deal with legacy PV panels. 
(2) Treatment of PV module waste 
Most discarded modules are currently landfilled or stockpiled in most states and territories, 
with a low recycling rate. Victoria is an exception because of the landfill ban and local 
enterprises are making significant effort to implement a circular economy for PV modules. In 
Australia, only registered PV installers can install and remove PV modules. Installers then have 
three options: shipping the EOL panels to local councils that accepted solar panel disposal, 
sending EOL panels to a landfill facility where permitted; or sending them to a recycling facility 
for processing with a gate fee charged to installers [56]. Recycling cost barriers include 
transporting PV modules to a recycling facility [57] and high processing costs [58]. As a result, 
only a small amount of EOL PV modules are being recycled or refurbished (locally or 
domestically), whereas the average recycling process can reclaim up to 17% (by weight) of a 
PV module by recovering aluminium frames, junction boxes, and cables because they are most 
commonly or easily recycled [59]. Reusing PV modules could be an alternative solution, but 
most disposed modules do not meet current standards, and there are safety concerns with 
consumer law [60]. Inverter equipment is being disposed in similar ways to the PV modules, 
i.e., recycled in Victoria but recycling is not required in other states. A small amount of PV

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
35 
system inverter equipment is being refurbished and redeployed [58]. Collection, handling, and 
storage present significant barriers, and solutions are not yet apparent [57]. 
Although the current EOL management in Australia is in its infancy, as described, there are 
exciting developments in the area, with several companies and startups devoted to PV module 
recycling, including PV Industries, Scipher Technologies, Solar Professionals, Reclaim PV 
Recycling, Solar Recovery Corporation, Lotus Energy Recycling, and Elecsome. 
- 
PV Industries, based in Sydney (New South Wales), has been offering system 
decommissioning, collecting, and recycling services to household owners, commercial 
tenants, solar installers, and utility-scale service managers across Australia since 2018 
[60, 61]. PV Industries are the first and only company to have an automated deframing 
machine in Australia. Once modules are transported to the PV Industries facility, the 
aluminium frames, cables, and junction boxes are immediately recovered. The 
remainder of the PV module is stored until the next stage of the recycling plant is 
operational, or they are used for R&D by universities and other research partners. PV 
Industries is developing its own mechanical processing technology to recover the 
remaining materials from the solar panels. Removing the aluminium frame reduces up 
seven times less space of the module for storage [60]. 
- 
Scipher Technologies, based in Melbourne (Victoria), is the largest licensed e-waste 
recycler in Victoria and owns the only e-waste plastic recycling facility in Australia. 
Scipher Technologies has been working in partnership with the University of New South 
Wales and research and development advisors on a commercially proven and 
environmentally sound solution for solar panel recycling. They have an agreement with 
an oversea technology supplier that can recover 80% of raw materials included in PV 
modules [62].  
- 
Solar Professionals (KGM Services Pty Ltd), based in Wagga Wagga (New South 
Wales), has been awarded 946 000 AUD in funding from NSW EPA to design, engineer, 
construct, and commission the automated recycling of solar panels facility. In 
partnership with Deakin University, Andersons Services, and Apex Greenhouses, they 
claim that solar panel components will be deconstructed without the cross-
contamination, and the delaminated components can be used to make new cells or will 
be re-engineered for other industries like the manufacture of greenhouses [63].  
- 
Reclaim PV Recycling, based in Adelaide (South Australia), offers commercial 
decommissioning, collecting, and recycling services. For the past few years, Reclaim 
PV has collected and stockpiled approximately 10 000 modules/year. Reclaim PV is 
inviting industry operators, suppliers, installers, and maintenance operations around 
Australia to become a drop-off point for discarded PV modules and collection network 
partners [64]. Reclaim PV developed a recycling process using pyrolysis, applying heat 
in a furnace to melt the adhesives and separate components, which are then sorted 
and sent to different companies for reuse [65]. Reclaim PV is developing the first large-
scale dedicated PV module recycling site in Lonsdale, South Australia [65]. The 
company is securing environmental licenses to conduct full-scale recycling in Lonsdale. 
The facility should process 70 000 modules/year, which is coincidentally the number of 
partly processed PV modules that are currently being warehoused [66]. 
- 
Solar Recovery Corporation, based in Melbourne (Victoria), offers recycling services 
for PV modules. They have collection points across Australia thanks to a partnership 
with SRC recycling hubs. They are committed to a circular economy, with the main goal 
of extracting high-quality materials from PV modules and reinjecting them into the PV

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
36 
manufacturing supply chain. Their website mentions that they have access to a “state-
of-the-art exclusive automated recycling machine” with “an exclusive partnership for 
Australia and New Zealand with the manufacturer,” which allows them to “recover at 
least 95% of the raw materials from each PV module” [67]. No further details on the 
technology are provided. 
- 
Lotus Energy Recycling, based in Melbourne (Victoria), purchased recycling machinery 
for solar panels in September 2020 comprising a two-roller crusher, which is now in 
operation. The plant claims close to 100% recovery using no chemicals. Recycled 
panel materials are used to manufacture tiles, tabletops and other environmental-
friendly architecture materials locally in Victoria [68]. 
- 
Ojas Group (Elecsome), based in Kilmany (Victoria), was awarded a 3 million AUD 
federal government grant to establish a new recycling plant in Victoria to upcycle EOL 
PV modules into feedstock for cement-based construction materials through an 
innovative process. The technology claims to be able to up-cycle 97% of each PV 
module at a commercial scale, with the glass used as concrete fill, replacing sand and 
to be used as other construction materials, including road base materials. The project 
will last 3 years, from 2020–2023 [66]. 
Recently, Sustainability Victoria published a study investigating shredding and heating 
treatments as an effective approach to achieving higher PV recycling yields and identifying end 
users for these recovered materials in Australia [58]. This study found that the mixed glass 
cullet (a mixture of the tempered glass and PV cell layers) and the separate cullet (the 
separated glass cullet after heating treatment) can be sold to domestic glass manufacturers to 
produce new glass products, such as glass bottles or containers, for 30 AUD/ton and 70 
AUD/ton, respectively. The quality of the recycled glass met the company requirements, and 
recycled glass fines can be used in asphalt aggregate as a replacement for coarse sand in 
road base, tiles, concrete, or cement, with a return of 0 AUD/ton–49 AUD/ton. Aluminium 
frames and interconnecting ribbons can be sold to scrap metal suppliers—such as Cobral 
Metals, Norstar, and Sims Metals—for reuse in manufacturing new metal products. The 
remaining back sheet, plastic, ash fines (mixture of fine glass and Si) are currently not 
recyclable in Australia. 
There are national-level funding initiatives in 2020 in Australia to address PV module and 
battery EOL issues. These projects will develop innovative solutions to enable the sustainable 
and cost-effective management of EOL PV modules: 
- 
The University of New South Wales received a 1.36 million AUD R&D grant from the 
Australian Renewable Energy Agency on behalf of the Australian government to 
develop and demonstrate highly efficient, low-cost, and sustainable recycling 
technology for EOL PV modules, with inspiration from metallurgy engineering. The 
project will last 2 years, from 2020–2022 [69]. 
- 
In addition, the New South Wales Environmental Protection Authority has committed to 
a 10 million AUD recycling fund to reduce the landfilling of PV modules and battery 
systems. This investment is intended to future-proof the management of this growing 
waste stream and help New South Wales transition to renewable energy sources within 
a circular economy. The two-stage funding will last 3 years, from 2021–2024 [70, 71]. 
Transporting EOL PV modules remains expensive in Australia, given the large, sparsely 
populated land area, high freight costs, and long distances of transportation. In the current 
circumstances, the collection and stockpiling, with some limited dismantling, appears to be the 
best approach until economies of scale (or scope) can be achieved [56].

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
37 
(3) Outlook 
It is expected that the volume of EOL PV modules will reach 10 000 tons/year by mid-2020s 
and will surge after 2030 as a result of the solar boom started in 2010 by FITs and government 
subsidies [56, 57, 72]. Early on, distributed PV systems will be the main source of the PV waste 
volume (~88%), but by 2035, discarded modules from utility-scale PV systems will create a big 
share [73]. Si PV modules comprise more than 90% of the waste stream [72]. From IRENA’s 
prediction, the cumulative volume is projected to reach 30–145 thousand tons in 2030, 300–
450 thousand tons in 2040, and 900–950 thousand tons in 2050 [4]. At present, the early loss 
trajectories seem to be a more accurate reflection of the situation in Australia [56] because of 
several factors, including low-quality PV modules entering the market (which could be up to 
80%), financial incentives to decommission rooftop systems before the expected service 
lifetime, building upgrades, lack of maintenance by owners, inappropriate installation, and not 
meeting current Australian standards [57, 74]. Residential systems experience higher early 
decommission prior to reaching technical end of life because of economic and social factors 
such as receiving new rebates when replacing a small-scale PV system. On average, the 
practical lifetime for PV modules in Australia is only 15-20 years rather than 25-30 years 
because residential market dominates Australian PV market (more than 70% market share by 
2020) [75]. Over the next decade, PV modules from residential market will enter the EOL 
market and the actual volume will be higher than previously predicted – which is good news 
for local PV recycling industry  
The problem of EOL PV is arising in Australia, and managing this waste needs shared 
responsibility among government, industry, and consumers. Collaboration and open 
communication will be essential for the implementation of circular business models [50].  
The current complication of EOL panel collection might be improved with a unique “reverse 
logistic” model in Australia, where installers transport the used modules back to the collection 
point to eliminate the need for an additional transportation company. Researchers from the 
University of New South Wales believe the approach would help cut the logistics cost, making 
recycling a more attractive proposition [76]. In a low-recovery pathway, there is a risk of 
crushed glass not meeting market specifications, leading to a large amount of glass stockpiling 
and eventually being sent to landfills. On the other hand, in a high-recovery pathway, the main 
barrier is the value of the commodities recovered versus the processing costs. In this sense, 
the most fundamental challenge for viable PV recycling and achieving economies of scale is 
insufficient waste volume [54]. In Australia, volumes are likely to become large enough by the 
end of the decade, so stockpiling with essential pretreatment (removing cables, junction boxes, 
and aluminium frames) can be a temporary solution. 
From the stakeholder surveys, it was identified that the most common problem faced by 
installers and system owners is the lack of knowledge on how or where to dispose PV modules 
[56, 74]. Awareness training and education of the industry and consumers are necessary to 
increase the participation rate of recycling and diverting materials from landfills. Regulations 
and requirements on recycling can improve this situation.  
A product stewardship regulation is necessary to support the sustainable collection and 
processing activities and to increase the participation rates of recycling over landfilling [54]. A 
mandatory scheme, such as banning landfilling, would also be a potential choice [50], whereas 
standardized labelling and material passports (i.e., module type, which materials are used) 
would make it easier to sort modules at EOL for more effective recovery processes [50].  
The recycling rate for PV is currently low in Australia and far from reaching the goal under the 
National Waste Policy Action Plan: increasing Australia’s resource recovery rate to 80% by

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
38 
2030. Establishing collection systems is a priority for any recovery pathway. Further R&D is 
required to develop advanced processes for high-value recovery and for managing 
contaminated hazardous residual material. There is uncertainty about the quality of the 
recovered glass and the size of the available end markets. Further research into potential end 
markets and economics for glass recovered from PV panels will help inform future policies and 
investments [57]. 
Regarding a potential reuse market for PV modules once they have reached their technical 
EOL, the main barrier is lack of regulation. For example, these modules might not meet current 
Australian standards, guarantee terms are nonexistent, they are not eligible for government 
incentives, and it is difficult to find modules with similar performance and I-V characteristics to 
connect them in an array.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
39 
2.3 North America: United States of America 
(1) Relevant regulations and schemes 
The potential economic and environmental opportunities for recovering and reusing materials 
from EOL PV systems has increased regulatory and commercial interests and the focus on 
sustainable PV recycling practices in the US.  
To incentivize the expansion of industrial capacity to manage the expected increase in PV 
waste, there has been growth in regulations specific to PV waste across various states in the 
US. Washington is the first state to introduce a regulation for take-back requirements for PV 
manufacturers at no additional cost for the owners of the PV system [77]. Beginning in 2021, 
California implemented regulations to classify EOL PV modules as universal waste [78] to 
decrease the costs of regulatory compliance and processing waste and thereby incentivize a 
domestic PV recycling industry. Policy mechanisms for PV waste management are being 
actively considered in Illinois, Hawaii, Arizona, North Carolina, and New Jersey [79, 80]. Similar 
to California, the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality has recommended 
rulemaking efforts to define EOL PV modules as universal waste [81]. In addition, both 
Minnesota and Illinois have facilitated stakeholder working groups to assess solar panel 
recycling policies [82].  
Despite the regulatory developments at the state level, there is no US federal regulations 
specifically designed to regulate PV waste management. PV waste is regulated by the 
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, which does not contain any specific regulatory 
requirement for PV waste. 
(2) Treatment of PV module waste 
Crystalline Si and thin-film PV recyclers in the US operate at various capacities and with 
different degrees of experience. First Solar, which is the world’s largest PV recycler [83, 84], 
has a recycling capacity of 150 metric tons/day in the US for its thin-film CdTe PV modules 
[85]. Using a high-value recycling process, First Solar recovers 90% of both bulk (e.g., glass) 
and specialty materials (e.g., CdTe semiconductor layer) from EOL CdTe PV modules [86]. 
The US has also witnessed an increase in the number of firms dedicated to recycling c-Si PV 
systems [87]-[89]. The potential economic and environmental gains from sustainably managing 
PV waste has motivated the allocation of R&D funds toward accelerating the scaling of startups 
focusing on recycling Si PV waste [90]. 
Table 2.3-1 Example vendors for PV module recycling in the US (as of October 2021) 
[89]  
Vendor 
Location 
Echo 
Environmental 
Holdings 
Dallas, TX 
Dynamic 
Lifecycle 
Innovations 
Onalaska, WI 
Recycle PV Solar, LLC 
Sparks, NV 
First Solar 
Perrysburg, OH 
We Recycle Solar, Inc. 
Yuma, AZ; Mount Vernon, NY 
FabTech 
Enterprises, 
Inc. 
Gilbert, AZ; Savannah, GA

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
40 
Cascade Eco Minerals, 
LLC 
Phoenix, AZ; Waxahachie, TX; Natrona 
Heights, 
PA; 
Upper 
Sandusky, 
OH; 
Okumulgee, 
OK; 
Hardeeville, 
SC; 
Lawrenceburg, KY; Portland, OR 
ZEEP Technology, LLC 
South Hadley, MA; Somerset, KY; Temple, 
TX; Corona, CA; Batavia, IL 
The Solar Energy Industries Association operates a program to aggregate recycling services 
from registered vendors and make the recycling services available at lower costs for PV 
manufacturers that are Solar Energy Industries Association members [91]. The potential 
economic opportunities in PV recycling have motivated industrial firms with experience in 
recycling non-PV products (e.g., electronic waste, glass) to expand operations into PV waste 
management [92]–[95]. 
(3) Outlook 
A cumulative PV module waste in the US is projected to reach 5.5 to 10 million metric tons by 
2050 [4, 96, 97]. Beyond the literature estimates, there are no high-quality, open-source 
databases on the projected PV waste based on past and expected installations across the 
different states in the US. Data that account for the geographic dispersion of PV installation 
across the US can help recyclers plan to scale up operations and optimally locate recycling 
facilities to decrease transportation costs. 
Despite the regulatory and commercial progress, a recent study has highlighted that the 
limitation in existing Si PV recycling technologies, the cost of Si PV recycling, and the limited 
Si PV recycling capacity are key barriers in managing PV waste in a sustainable manner in the 
US [95]. Unlike CdTe PV recycling, there is no Si PV recycler in the US operating an integrated, 
high-value recycling process that recovers bulk and specialty materials from EOL c-Si PV 
modules. By not recovering specialty materials, PV recyclers forgo an opportunity to maximize 
revenues from recovering and reselling precious materials (e.g., Ag) and prevent the potential 
downstream environmental hazards from materials such as lead. Further, the low volume of 
PV waste in the next 5 years can temporarily delay small-scale Si PV recyclers from increasing 
their scale of operations. Additional regulatory clarity is required to standardize the protocols 
used to classify the PV modules as hazardous or nonhazardous based on toxicity tests. The 
results from the existing tests, such as the toxicity characteristic leaching protocol, which are 
commonly used to characterize the toxicity of PV modules, vary based on the cutting method 
used to obtain the samples from the EOL PV module [98, 99]. The results from the toxicity 
tests determine if the EOL PV module is classified as hazardous waste or not, which can 
significantly impact the downstream processing costs of c-Si PV recycling. For example, the 
downstream transportation costs and landfilling tipping fees are higher for hazardous waste 
than for nonhazardous waste. 
To obtain reproducible and representative toxicity characteristic leaching protocol results for 
EOL PV modules, the ASTM E44 committee has developed a sample preparation protocol for 
PV modules [100]. In addition, the ASTM E44 committee is working on a new protocol which 
specifies a waterjet-based cutting method to obtain PV module samples and test if they pass 
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) method 311 for toxicity characterisation 
[101]. Additional R&D efforts are required to determine the technology strategies to reduce the 
costs of Si PV recycling. Current estimates show that the net cost of Si PV recycling (after 
accounting for the economic value of recovered materials) is 25 to 30 USD per module [96, 
98], which is significantly higher than the cost of landfilling the module in the US [98]. Landfilling 
the EOL PV module forgoes an opportunity to recover and reuse precious (e.g., Ag) and

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
41 
energy-intensive materials (e.g., solar-grade Si) in PV manufacturing. The U.S. Department of 
Energy has established a PV end-of-life action plan with recycling cost target of 150 USD/ton 
(3 USD/module) by 2030 [102]. 
Further, there is a lack of publicly available data on the storage duration of PV modules prior 
to recycling [79, 80], the design and material composition of the PV modules, and the key 
drivers of PV modules to reach EOL (e.g., early EOL as a result of damage during 
transportation and installation or manufacturing defects [103]). Each of these items will impact 
the planning for the expansion of recycling capacities and the choice of recycling technology 
that is best suited to manage PV waste in the future. For example, if the defect in the module 
can be addressed through repair (e.g., replacement of the damaged junction box), it will avoid 
module recycling, though recertification standards are needed to safely and reliably deploy 
repaired modules. 
The choice of recycling technology will need to account for the presence of hazardous and 
precious materials, such as fluorine and Ag, in the PV module. The presence of fluorinated 
back sheets might require additional equipment, such as scrubbers, to manage the fluorine 
emissions when high-temperature PV recycling processes are used [104]. The decline of Ag 
content in PV modules [105] will decrease the potential revenue for Si PV recyclers from 
recovering and reselling Ag. A low Ag content will favour cost-effective recycling processes 
that depend less on the revenue from Ag. Further, recent progress in the design of PV modules 
may enable more efficient recycling, though trade-offs with long-term durability need to be 
assessed. For example, laminate-free design [106], wherein the ethylene vinyl acetate 
encapsulant is replaced with edge sealants, could facilitate recycling without economically and 
environmentally burdensome thermal, chemical, or mechanical processes required to 
eliminate the encapsulant. Publicly available data on the material and design composition of 
PV modules will help PV recyclers better adapt and customize recycling technologies to more 
effectively recycle the expected volume of PV waste.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
42 
3 SURVEY ON PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE RECYCLING IN 
THE MARKETS 
As described in Chapter 2, PV module recycling is mandatory in Europe, whereas in other 
countries, actions promoting PV module recycling are under development; hence, information 
on current PV EOL treatment methods available in the market will be useful to understand the 
current situation and to encourage projects for PV module recycling. 
To understand the status of PV module recycling across several IEA PVPS Task12 
participating countries, a survey on PV module recycling was conducted during 2020–2021. 
Although the total number of responses is small, the responses reflect the current situations 
and barriers for PV module recycling in certain markets. 
Note that because this survey covers limited countries and companies, the results should not 
be considered general world trends. 
 
3.1 Methodology of survey 
The PV module recycling survey was conducted across PVPS Task 12 from 2020Q4 to 
2021Q2. Expected respondents were companies and organizations treating PV module waste 
for recycling. A weblink address was sent by PVPS Task 12 members to relevant companies 
and organisations in their countries, except in Japan, where a survey sheet was delivered and 
collected. Items for the questionnaire are shown in Table 3.1-1. 
Table 3.1-1 Items for questionnaire on PV module recycling in the markets 
o Location of company or organisation 
o Legislation on PV EOL management 
o Existing PV EOL collection and take-back management 
o Waste treated in the waste management plant 
o PV cell technology treated in the plant 
o PV module structure treated in the plant 
o Treatment technology for PV modules used in the plant 
o Materials recovered from PV modules 
o Estimation of the average material recovery rate from PV modules [%] 
o Estimation of the average material recycling rate from PV modules [%] 
o Current available treatment capacity for PV modules [tons/year] 
o Current amount of PV modules treated [tons/year] 
o Cost for treatment (excluding transport) [USD/ton] 
o Destination for each recovered or recycled material: glass, ferrous metals, 
nonferrous metals, Si, Ag, Cu, plastics, and polymers 
o Potential issues or barriers for recovering or recycling materials: glass, 
ferrous metals, nonferrous metals, Si, Ag, Cu, plastics, and polymers. 
 
3.2 Survey results 
During the survey period, from 2020Q4 to 2021Q2, 29 answers were obtained in total, as 
shown in Fig. 3.2-1, with 6 respondents from Europe (Germany, Spain, and the Netherlands), 
and 23 respondents from Asia and the Pacific (Japan, South Korea, and Australia). The largest 
number of respondents was 21, from Japan.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
43 
Results for each question are shown in this section. Note, however, that because countries 
and companies/organizations covered by this survey are limited, these results should not be 
considered general world trends. 
 
 
Fig. 3.2-1 Number and country distribution of respondents to the questionnaire 
 
3.2.1 Relevant legislation and take-back management 
(1) Relevant legislation 
In Europe, PV module recycling has been mandated through the WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU. 
EU member states have approved the directive into national law, requiring all producers that 
put PV modules in the market within the EU to either operate their own take-back and recycling 
systems or join what are known as producer compliance schemes. 
In other countries—such as Japan, South Korea, and Australia—there are no nationwide 
specific legislations for PV module waste; therefore, PV module waste is treated under the 
general national and local legislation for waste management. As described in Chapter 2.2, 
however, in South Korea, the EPR will be enforced in the PV industry in 2023, after the 
establishment of the collection infrastructure for PV module waste and the development of 
recycling technologies in 2022. In Australia, an EPR scheme is expected to be designed and 
agreed upon in June 2022, with the expectation of being implemented by June 2023.  
(2) Take-back management 
In European countries, direct collection from the site to the recycling plant, central collection 
and sorting, and PV CYCLE collection schemes (collection services through PV CYCLE) are 
used. On the other hand, in Japan, South Korea, and Australia, direct collection is commonly 
used. 
In Japan, a demonstrative take-back and collection scheme, such as PV CYCLE, was trialled 
under the MOE project. Further, to identify barriers and propose an effective take-back 
management process, a survey study of the proper EOL management of PV modules was 
implemented under a NEDO project. 
 
Germany, 3
Spain, 2
the Netherlands, 1
Japan, 21
Korea, 1
Australia, 1

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
44 
3.2.2 Waste treated in the waste management plant 
Most survey respondents are treating different waste streams, with EOL PV modules being 
one of them. As shown in Fig. 3.2-2, only three respondents treat only PV module waste, with 
the other respondents normally processing metals, glass, electronic waste, etc. In Japan, more 
than 10 respondents are using specific equipment for PV modules, even though most are 
treating other waste streams. Currently, it seems difficult to operate a recycling business 
focusing on PV modules because of the low waste volume and the associated revenue from 
the materials recovered. 
 
 
Fig. 3.2-2 Waste treated in the respondents’ plants 
 
3.2.3 PV cells and modules treated in the plant 
(1) PV cell technologies 
Fig. 3.2-3 shows survey data regarding the PV cell technologies that are treated. Most 
respondents treat c-Si PV modules, with 12 companies treating CIGS and only 4 companies 
treating CdTe modules. In addition to the difference in market size between c-Si PV modules 
and other solar cell technologies, in thin-film PV modules, solar cells are deposited on the 
substrate, which makes the separation of these two materials more challenging compared to 
c-Si PV modules. Further, hazardous materials, such as cadmium and selenium, can pose a 
further challenge on the recycling of thin-film PV modules. 
0
5
10
15
20
25
Others
Metals
Glass
e-waste
General waste
Pre-treatment facility
PV only
No. of respondents: 29

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
45 
 
Fig. 3.2-3 PV cell technologies treated in the respondents’ plants 
(2) PV module structure 
For the PV module structure, most installed c-Si PV modules have a glass/back sheet structure, 
whereas the glass/glass structure is becoming more common as the market share of bifacial 
PV modules increases. Thin-film PV modules use various structures, such as glass/glass 
without a frame (e.g., CdTe by First Solar), glass/(glass/)back sheet with a frame (e.g., CIGS 
by Solar Frontier), and flexible architectures. 
As shown in Fig. 3.2-4, most respondents treat PV modules with a glass/back sheet structure 
with and without a frame, and more than half the respondents treat PV modules with a 
glass/glass structure. Also, flexible modules are treated by nine respondents in their plants. 
 
Fig. 3.2-4 PV module structures treated in the respondents’ plants 
 
3.2.4 Treatment technologies for PV modules 
Generally, as a first step, the junction box and frame are removed mechanically or by hand. 
Then, the laminated structure is separated and recycled using different treatments available. 
Regarding the treatment technology for the laminated structure, 17 respondents answered that 
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
CIGS
CdTe
Thin-film Si
Crystalline Si
No. of respondents: 28
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Flexible modules
Glass/glass no frame
Glass/glass with frame
Glass/backsheet no frame
Glass/backsheet with frame
No. of respondents: 28

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
46 
they use only a mechanical treatment—for example, shredding, separation by hot knife or wire, 
or scraping the glass or a plastic layer, as shown in Fig. 3.2-5. After treatment, recovered 
materials are sorted and sent to other companies for recycling as secondary materials or 
products. Another 12 respondents are using a combination of multiple technologies. All of them 
combine a mechanical treatment with a thermal and/or a chemical treatment. On the other 
hand, no respondents use only thermal treatments or only chemical treatments. 
 
Fig. 3.2-5 Treatment technologies for PV modules 
 
3.2.5 Materials recovered from PV modules 
Fig. 3.2-6 shows the number of answers regarding materials recovered from PV modules. 
Nonferrous metals, including aluminium frames and glass, are recovered at most plants. PV 
cell materials and polymers/plastics are recovered by 20 and 13 plants, respectively; however, 
for c-Si PV modules, it seems that Si PV cells are recovered together with plastics as a mix 
material in many plants. 
In the case of thin-film PV modules, after separating the glass having the thin-film layer 
(semiconductor metals), the PV cell materials are recovered from the glass at the next 
treatment process. 
 
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Combination or hybrid approach
Thermal
Chemical
Mechanical
 - scraping glass or plastic layer
Mechanical
 - separation by hot knife or wire
Mechanical - shredding
No. of valid responses: 29
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Solar cell materials
Glass
Polymers/plastics
Non-ferrous metals
Ferrous metals
No. of respondents: 29

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
47 
Fig. 3.2-6 Materials recovered from PV modules at the plants 
 
3.2.6 Estimated average rate of material recovery and recycling 
Answers on the estimated average rate of material recovery and recycling are discussed in 
this section. Recovery rate is defined as a ratio of the weight of materials recovered after 
processing to the weight of the PV module before processing. The recycling rate is defined as 
a ratio of the weight of materials recycled for secondary use to the weight of the PV module 
before processing. Materials recovered but not used are not counted as the recycling rate. 
Note that the results are based on the respondents’ answers (e.g., self-enumeration). 
(1) Average rate of material recovery 
Fig. 3.2-7 shows the estimated material recovery rate from PV modules. Twenty-five 
respondents, among 28 valid responses, achieve a recovery rate of materials exceeding 80%. 
(Note that “80%” is easily achievable when glass and frames are recovered.) 
 
Fig. 3.2-7 Material recovery rate from PV modules at the plants 
(2) Average rate of material recycling 
Fig. 3.2-8 shows the estimated recycling rate from PV modules. Twenty plants have realized 
more than 80% of the recycling rate. Note, however, that when Si cells and polymers/plastics 
are recovered as mixed materials, these may be sent to smelters and treated thermally. Then, 
polymers/plastics are treated as energy recovery, which is not counted as “recycling,” at least 
in Europe. Also, it seems that some polymers/plastics separated from the laminated structure 
are landfilled because there are no available recycling destinations. 
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
less than 20%
20-40%
40-60%
60-80%
80-100%
No. of valid responses: 28

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
48 
 
Fig. 3.2-8 Material recycling rate from PV modules at the plants 
 
3.2.7 Treatment capacity, amount treated, and cost 
Fig. 3.2-9 shows the current available treatment capacity for PV modules. Among 16 valid 
answers, the treatment capacity of 10 plants is less than 1 000 tons/year, whereas the largest 
capacity is 10 000 tons/year. 
 
Fig. 3.2-9 Available treatment capacity for PV modules 
Fig. 3.2-10 presents the amount of PV modules treated in 1 year from 24 respondents. 
Compared with the available treatment capacity, the current amount treated in the plants is 
very small. In 23 plants, the amount of PV modules treated was less than 1 000 tons/year; 
among those, in 14 plants, it was less than 100 tons/year. This means that the capacity factor 
of these plants is currently very low. At the largest plant, with a capacity of 10 000 tons/year, 
the amount treated was 6 000 tons/year. 
 
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
less than 20%
20-40%
40-60%
60-80%
80-100%
No. of valid responses: 28
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
less than 1000 ton/year
1000 - 3000 ton/year
3000 - 5000 ton/year
over 5000 ton/year
No. of valid responses: 16

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
49 
 
Fig. 3.2-10 Current amount of PV modules treated 
Regarding the cost for treatment excluding transport, 21 respondents, all in Japan, answered 
that it would exceed 400 USD/ton, whereas it was less than 400 USD/ton according to 5 
respondents in Europe, as shown in Fig. 3.2-11. Here, the answers obtained from respondents 
correspond to the “price” for receiving PV module waste rather than the “cost” for treatment. 
Because the capacity factor of recycling plants using equipment specific to PV modules is less 
than that of recycling plants treating various types of waste, this will result in potentially higher 
treatment costs (price) at the plant. 
 
Fig. 3.2-11 Treatment cost (price) for PV module waste at the plant (excluding 
transport) 
 
3.2.8 Destination of the recovered or recycled materials 
After treatment at the plant, various materials recovered from the PV modules are sent to the 
next destination for recycling or disposal. Potential destinations include smelters, additional 
processing plants, secondary markets (directly), incineration plants, landfills, etc. Fig. 3.2-12 
shows the destination for each material. Glass is mainly sent to the next processing plant for 
recycling. It seems the glass will be recycled as glass products, such as insulator materials 
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
less than 100 ton/year
100 - 1000 ton/year
1000 - 3000 ton/year
3000 - 5000 ton/year
over 5000 ton/year
No. of valid responses: 24
0
5
10
15
20
25
less than 200 USD/ton
200 - 400 USD/ton
over 400 USD/ton
No. of valid responses: 26

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
50 
and container glass, and sometimes used as materials for civil work. Ferrous and nonferrous 
metals are sent to smelters, the next processing plant, or directly to secondary markets. At the 
smelter or other processing plant, metals are recycled as secondary materials. Metals used for 
c-Si cells—such as Si, Ag, and Cu—are also sent to smelters, the next processing plant, or 
directly to secondary markets. In many cases, however, these metals are not separated and 
are sent to the next treatment as Si cells. After that, these metals are separately recovered 
and recycled as secondary materials, but considering the treatment cost and the value of the 
recovered metals, landfilling is chosen on many occasions. For plastics/polymers, the answers 
obtained show various destinations. This means there is currently no regular treatment for 
recycling plastics/polymers. Also, there will be cases when plastics/polymers are treated 
together with c-Si PV cells without separation. 
 
Fig. 3.2-12 Destination of the recovered or recycled materials 
 
3.2.9 Potential issues or barriers for recovering or recycling materials 
As shown in the previous section, 3.2.8, most materials recovered from PV modules are 
recycled in some way; however, the survey responses show that c-Si PV cell materials and 
plastics/polymers are not recycled frequently enough. Also, although glass is recycled, its use 
might be limited to lower-value products (i.e., downcycling). In order to scale up the recycling 
of PV waste and achieve a circular economy, further improvement might be needed, for 
example, from viewpoints of quality (purity of materials recovered, contamination); amount, 
especially for PV cell materials including electrodes metals; value (market price of materials 
for recycling, weight density of valuable metals in the compounds recovered); transportation 
(distance to the next destination, weight density and effectiveness of transportation); and 
destination (technical availability, economical availability including transportation). 
Fig 3.2-13 shows potential issues or barriers for recovering or recycling materials from PV 
modules. For glass, the largest issue is “low value.” Because recovered glass is used for lower-
value products compared to PV glass, the net revenue is low or nonexistent. When a high-
value end use is found or developed, the revenue from recovered glass will increase. The other 
issues for glass recovery are “high transportation cost” and “no proper destination.” Because 
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Smelter
Processing plant
Secondary-market
Incineration
Landfill
Other
Smelter
Processing plant
Secondary-market
Incineration
Landfill
Other
Smelter
Processing plant
Secondary-market
Incineration
Landfill
Other
Smelter
Processing plant
Secondary-market
Incineration
Landfill
Other
Smelter
Processing plant
Secondary-market
Incineration
Landfill
Other
Smelter
Processing plant
Secondary-market
Incineration
Landfill
Other
Smelter
Processing plant
Secondary-market
Incineration
Landfill
Other
Glass
Ferrous metals
Non-ferrous metals
excluding Si, Cu, Ag
Si
Ag
Cu
Plastics/polymers
No. of respondents: 29

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
51 
of the high weight density, the transportation cost of glass is high. Shortening the transportation 
distance for the downstream treatment or end use is one way to reduce costs. On the other 
hand, “no proper destination” could be a result of no proper facility or end use application, 
which could also arise because of high transportation costs. 
Nonferrous metals correspond mainly to aluminium frames in terms of weight or waste volume. 
The answer “other” includes issues such as the difficulty of removal and the treatment of 
materials having significant physical damage. For other nonferrous metals (e.g., Ag and Cu), 
the main issue is “low recovered amount,” followed by “low value.” Generally, the smelters 
request being provided with a certain amount of metal constantly, whereas the value depends 
on the purity and weight density. When such metals are recovered with plastics or others as 
mixed materials, the value decreases. In the case of Si, the main barrier is “no proper 
destination,” which is caused by the low value of Si compared to Ag and Cu and the lack of 
recycling uses. Even if the smelter receives Si together with Ag and Cu, it might not be recycled 
as a secondary product; however, if Si is separated and recovered with a high purity, it will be 
necessary to find a high-value end use of the recovered Si. Ideally, it is expected that the Si 
will be reused for Si PV cells, but further efforts to realize this at large scale are necessary. 
Plastics/polymers are also difficult to recycle and are currently mostly discarded and sent to 
landfills; however, they are an important target for high-value recycling, and a circular economy 
and a valuable approach for recycling these materials should be developed, with a focus on 
new products. 
 
Fig. 3.2-13 Issues or barriers for recovering or recycling materials 
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Low quality
Low recovered amount
Low value
High transportation costs
No proper destination
Other
Low quality
Low recovered amount
Low value
High transportation costs
No proper destination
Other
Low quality
Low recovered amount
Low value
High transportation costs
No proper destination
Other
Low quality
Low recovered amount
Low value
High transportation costs
No proper destination
Other
Low quality
Low recovered amount
Low value
High transportation costs
No proper destination
Other
Low quality
Low recovered amount
Low value
High transportation costs
No proper destination
Other
Low quality
Low recovered amount
Low value
High transportation costs
No proper destination
Other
Glass
Ferrous metals
Non-ferrous metals
excluding Si, Cu, Ag
Si
Ag
Cu
Plastics/polymers
No. of respondents: 26

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
52 
4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
The PV market is growing rapidly, and further market expansion is expected around the world. 
With PV deployment increasing exponentially, the number of PV modules that will reach the 
end of useful life will also greatly increase in the future, accumulating proportionately. In 
anticipation of the large volume of PV module waste, and to retain PV’s position as a clean 
energy technology, PV module recycling has become a key topic, and various discussions and 
activities have been conducted and developed by governments, organizations, and 
companies. 
This report summarized an overview of the status of PV module recycling in some IEA PVPS 
Task 12 countries. The first section of the report presented the regulatory schemes, information 
on PV module waste, relevant companies, and the PV waste outlook of each region, based on 
contributions by IEA PVPS Task 12 members. The second section discussed the results of a 
survey to PV module recyclers in several countries. 
 
4.1 Status of PV module recycling 
Europe: Germany, France, Italy, and Spain 
In Europe, PV module recycling has been mandated since 2012 through the WEEE Directive 
2012/19/EU. All EU member states have homologated the directive into national law, requiring 
all producers with PV modules in the EU market to either operate their own take-back and 
recycling scheme or to join what are known as producer compliance schemes. According to 
the Eurostat statistics, 13 951 tons of PV module waste were collected in 12 countries in 2018. 
In Germany, the amount of collected PV modules was 7 865 tons in 2018; 7 708 tons were 
recovered, from which 6 896 tons were put to recycling and preparing for reuse. All PV modules 
require a registration and a specific EOL treatment. Business-to-customer PV modules are 
collected without charge for the customers at municipal waste collection points. Manufacturers 
must confirm default-free guarantees for these modules. Business-to-business PV modules 
require a direct take-back/collection but have no default-free guaranties; hence, collection fees 
could apply for business customers. The take back, recycling, and reuse of EOL modules in 
Germany is organized by service providers, such as PV CYCLE Germany or take-e-way, which 
provide full services of the administration, take back, and recycling of EOL modules. The 
recycling of c-Si PV modules is mainly done by glass recycling companies, and for CdTe PV 
modules, a specific recycling line is operated by First Solar in Frankfurt (Oder). According to 
the IRENA/PVPS Task 12 report on EOL PV panels published in 2016, waste projection range 
in Germany will be between 400 000 tons and 1 million tons in 2030 and increase up to 4.3 
million tons in 2050. 
In France, the amount of collected PV module waste has multiplied by more than 13 times from 
366 tons in 2015 to 4 905 tons in 2019. Soren, the nonprofit eco-organization approved by 
ministerial decree, has the monopoly on activities related to PV module waste management. 
Soren manages both the collection and recycling by operating private tendering procedures 
that enable the centralization of PV waste management on French territory. The distribution of 
the PV module waste includes c-Si, CdTe, a-Si, CIGS, and flexible PV. The bulk waste stream 
comprises c-Si and CdTe modules. In 2019, c-Si waste was sent to the recycling facility Triade 
Electronique (Veolia subsidiary), whereas CdTe waste was sent to Germany, and other PV 
waste streams were sent to other treatment plants. The projections of the amount of PV waste

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
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expected in France will be more than 43 000 tons by 2030 and more than 118 000 tons by 
2040. To meet this drastic increase, in February 2021, Soren launched a new tender to 
implement three new facilities dedicated to PV recycling in France. One facility started 
operation in 2021, and other two facilities will be operational in 2022. 
In Italy, the amount of collected PV modules in 2018 was 1 350 tons. The Italy’s energy services 
manager, the GSE, oversees the definition of instructions for the disposal of modules installed 
in plants in Italy in FIT schemes. PV modules discarded from plants with a nominal power less 
than 10 kWp are classified as “domestic WEEE.” Those from plants with a nominal power 
greater than 10 kWp are classified as “professional WEEE”. The domestic modules, once they 
have reached EOL, need to be sent to a national collection center. In the case of professional 
modules, they must be destined to an entity authorized to manage waste such as PV modules, 
a transporter, or a national collective system. The plants that benefit from the FIT scheme - or, 
rather, the modules that comprise the incentivized installed power - must comply with the rules 
set by the GSE or the PV module holder may be charged 12 EUR per domestic module or 10 
EUR per professional module. According to the IRENA/PVPS Task 12 report on EOL PV 
panels, the waste projection range in Italy will be between 140 000 - 500 000 tons in 2030 and 
increase up to 2.2 million tons in 2050. 
In Spain, the treatment of waste coming from PV modules is in a very preliminary stage. The 
amount of PV module waste collected in 2019 was 226 tons. The producer (manufacturer, 
distributor, installer, etc.) is obliged to comply with the obligations of the product design, to 
adopt the necessary actions to manage the waste of its products, and to fund the cost for this 
management. The producers must register their products in the national producer registry of 
electrical and electronic equipment (RII_AEE), managed by the Ministry of Industry, 
Commerce, and Tourism. The registration can be done individually or through a producer 
responsibility organization; currently, there are 11 authorized producer responsibility 
organizations, according to Royal Decree 110/2015. The amount of PV waste in Spain is small, 
but it will increase in the short to medium term due to the EOL of the first PV plants installed 
and in the long term due to the aging of plants recently installed and the new ones that will be 
installed in the coming years. 
Asia and the Pacific: Japan, South Korea, China, and Australia 
In Asia and the Pacific, there are currently no nationwide schemes dedicated to PV module 
recycling; however, some countries are implementing various discussions and activities for 
promoting the proper EOL management of PV module waste.  
In Japan, currently, there are no specific regulations for EOL PV modules, so they must be 
treated under the general regulatory framework for waste management: the Waste 
Management and Public Cleaning Act; however, in 2018, Ministry of Economy, Trade, and 
Industry and MOE jointly published the second edition of the guideline for promoting the proper 
EOL treatment of PV modules, including recycling, as update to the previous edition, which 
was published in 2016. Also, in May 2021, MOE published a guideline for promoting the proper 
reuse of PV modules. Although there is no official statistical information on PV waste, it was 
estimated that 6 300 tons/year of PV waste were generated in 2020; from that, approximately 
4 200 tons of modules would be reused, and 2 100 tons of modules would be sent to recycling 
facilities. Most waste was caused by natural disasters, such as typhoons, floods, and 
earthquakes. There are at least 29 companies treating PV module waste for recycling; it seems 
more than half of them use specific equipment for PV module recycling (separating the PV 
module’s structure and components). It is forecasted that the amount of PV module waste will 
increase to 170 000 - 280 000 tons/year by the mid-2030s. Currently, some projects to find

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
54 
solutions for high-value glass recycling and for low-cost recycling, including the collection and 
transportation of EOL PV modules, are being carried out. 
In South Korea, it is not currently mandatory to treat PV waste; however, PV module waste will 
be included in the list of items affected by EPR regulations, which will be enforced in the PV 
industry beginning in 2023, after the collection infrastructure for PV module waste and the 
development of recycling technologies is established in 2022, which will define PV modules as 
a unique product group. According to the statistics of the Korea Environment Corporation, the 
amount of PV module disposed and recycled during 2018 and the first half of 2020 was 
approximately 540 tons. Three companies use intermediate processes to correctly treat PV 
module waste; their total nominal treatment capacity is 7 800 tons/year. Several other 
companies have plans for PV recycling, but there is no detailed schedule for setting up 
facilities. According to predictions of annual PV module waste estimated by the Korea 
Environment Institute in 2018, the amount of annual module waste is predicted to reach 9 665 
tons in 2023, consistently increasing to 20 935 tons in 2030, and 112 564 tons in 2040. To 
meet the increasing waste volume, various government-funded R&D projects to develop PV 
recycling technology have been carried out. 
In China, there are no specific policies and regulations on PV module recycling or harmless 
treatment at the EOL stage. Although there are a variety of methods and feasible technical 
routes in the recycling of PV modules in China and abroad, the corresponding industrial chain 
has not been formed in China. In terms of policies and regulations, China is making efforts to 
study and introduce relevant policies to guide the industry, to require PV module recycling, and 
to fill the gaps. In recent years, increasing numbers of enterprises have joined the field of PV 
module recycling. Because of the high cost of PV module recycling, however, including 
transportation and collection, the economic benefits of PV module recycling are low, and the 
domestic market has little power to recover PV modules. To meet the demand for recycling, 
several R&D projects have been implemented. Also, an alliance, the China PV Recycling 
Center, was established in 2022, and it is expected that their work plan will contribute to 
achieving the goal of large-scale recycling of PV module waste. 
In Australia, the State of Victoria passed legislation banning all electronic waste from landfill, 
including PV modules, inverters and PV batteries; however, currently, no other Australian state 
or territory has mandatory regulation on PV module disposal. The EPR principle in Australia is 
enacted through the Product Stewardship Act 2011. Currently, there are no recycling or 
product stewardship requirements for PV system components in any state or territory in 
Australia; however, an activity to evaluate the inclusion of PV systems showed that either 
voluntary or coregulatory approaches for PV modules might be feasible and are likely to 
achieve the objectives of the Product Stewardship Act, improving the management of PV 
modules and opportunities to reuse valuable materials. Currently, the Product Stewardship 
Centre of Excellence is leading the codesign of the National Product Stewardship for PV 
systems, with the aim of designing an EPR scheme by June 2022, to be implemented by June 
2023. Barriers for recycling include transporting PV modules to a recycling facility and high 
processing costs. As a result, only a small amount of EOL PV modules are being recycled or 
refurbished. Despite such circumstances, some companies have started developments for PV 
module recycling. Also, national-level funding has been granted to develop innovative solutions 
to enable the sustainable and cost-effective management of EOL PV modules. It is expected 
that the amount of PV module waste will reach 10 000 tons/year by mid-2020s and to surge 
after 2030. Because the amount is likely to become large enough by the end of the decade, 
establishing collection systems is a priority for any recovery pathway. Further, R&D is required 
to develop advanced processes for high-value recovery and for managing contaminated 
hazardous residual material.

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
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North America: Unites States of America 
In the US, there has been growth in regulations specific to PV module waste across various 
states to incentivize the expansion of industrial capacity and to manage the expected increase 
in PV module waste. No US federal regulation specifically regulates PV waste management, 
but PV waste is covered under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Although the 
amount of PV module waste is not monitored clearly, c-Si and thin-film PV recyclers in the US 
operate at various capacities and with different degrees of experience. The potential economic 
and environmental gains from sustainably managing PV waste have motivated the allocation 
of R&D funds toward accelerating the scaling of startups focusing on recycling Si PV waste 
and of industrial firms with experience in recycling non-PV products to expand operations into 
PV waste management. The amount of PV module waste is projected to reach 5.5 to 10 million 
tons by 2050. In the coming decades, data that account for the geographic dispersion of PV 
installation across the US can help recyclers plan to scale up operations and optimally locate 
recycling facilities to decrease transportation costs. Also, publicly available data on the material 
and design composition of PV modules will help PV recyclers better adapt and customize 
recycling technologies to more effectively recycle the expected volume of PV waste. 
 
4.2 PV module recycling in the market 
To understand the status of PV module recycling in the market, a survey was conducted. 
During the survey period, 2020Q4 to 2021Q2, a total of 29 answers were obtained: 6 from 
Europe (Germany, Spain, and the Netherlands) and 23 from Asia and the Pacific (Japan, South 
Korea, and Australia); thus, this survey covers a limited number of countries and companies, 
and the results should not be considered general world trends. 
Relevant legislation and take-back management 
In Europe, PV module recycling has been mandated through the WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU. 
EU member states have transposed the PV requirements into national law. Corresponding to 
the framework, direct collection from the site to the recycling plant, central collection and 
sorting, and PV CYCLE collection schemes have been applied in some EU countries. In other 
countries, currently there are no nationwide specific legislations for PV module waste, and 
direct collection is commonly used; however, discussions for introducing relevant regulations 
have been implemented. 
Waste and PV cells and modules treated in the plant 
Most respondents, both in Europe and the Asia/Pacific regions, are treating several waste 
streams—including metals, glass, and electronic waste—and PV module waste is only one of 
them. Only three respondents treat only PV module waste. Regarding the PV cell technologies 
recycled, most respondents treat c-Si PV modules. On the other hand, not many respondents 
treat CdTe modules or CIGS modules. From the viewpoint of the PV module structure, most 
respondents treat PV modules with a glass/back sheet structure, with/without a frame, and 
more than half the respondents treat PV modules with a glass/glass structure. Nine 
respondents answered they are treating flexible modules. 
Treatment technologies for PV modules, their nominal capacity, and the actual amount 
of treatment 
Regarding the treatment technologies for laminated structures, 17 respondents answered that 
they use only mechanical treatments—for example, shredding, separation by hot knife or wire,

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
56 
or scraping the glass or plastic layer. The other 12 respondents use a combination of multiple 
technologies. All of them combine mechanical treatments with thermal and/or chemical 
treatments.  
Regarding the current available treatment capacity for PV modules, from among 16 valid 
answers, 10 plants have capacities less than 1 000 tons/year, whereas the largest capacity is 
10 000 tons/year. Comparatively, the current amount treated in the plants is very small. 
According to 24 respondents, in 23 plants, the amount of PV modules treated was less than 1 
000 tons/year; among those, in 14 plants, it was less than 100 tons/year. 
Materials recovered from PV modules and estimated average rate of material recovery 
and recycling 
Nonferrous metals and glass are recovered from PV modules at most plants. PV cell materials 
and polymers/plastics are also recovered. In the case of c-Si PV modules, however, it seems 
that Si PV cells are recovered together with plastics as mixture materials in many plants. 
The estimated material recovery rate from PV modules, according to 25 respondents from 
among 28 valid responses (self-enumeration), is more than 80% of the materials. On the other 
hand, the estimated recycling rate from PV modules is less than the recovery rate. Twenty 
respondents from among the 28 answered that they are realizing more than 80% for the 
recycling rate. It seems that some polymers/plastics separated from the laminated structure 
are landfilled or incinerated. 
Destination of the recovered or recycled materials 
After the treatment at the plant, various materials recovered from PV modules are sent to the 
next destination for recycling or disposal. Glass is mainly sent to the next processing plant for 
recycling. Ferrous and nonferrous metals are sent to smelters, the next processing plant, or 
directly to secondary markets. Metals used for c-Si cells—such as Si, Ag, and Cu—are also 
sent to smelters, the next processing plant, or directly to secondary markets. In many cases, 
however, these metals are not separated and are sent to the next treatment as Si cells. 
Considering the treatment cost and the value of the recovered metals, landfilling might be 
chosen. For plastics/polymers, there are various destinations. Also, there will be cases when 
plastics/polymers are treated together with c-Si PV cells without separation. 
Potential issues or barriers for recovering or recycling materials 
Regarding the potential issues or barriers for recovering or recycling materials, the largest 
issue for glass is “low value.” The next issues are “high transportation cost” and “no proper 
destination.” It seems that “no proper destination” could result from situations caused by longer 
transportation distances or very low values. For other nonferrous metals (e.g., Si, Ag, and Cu), 
the largest issue is “low recovered amount,” and the second largest is “low value.” In the case 
of Si, it is “no proper destination.” This is caused by a low value of the Si material itself 
compared to Ag and Cu. It is also difficult for plastics/polymers to realize effective material 
recycling, but heat recovery is a promising path. A valuable approach for recycling materials 
should be developed. 
 
4.3 Conclusions 
PV deployment has accelerated more quickly than expected in the early 2010s. This means 
that, in the coming decades, PV waste will increase faster than anticipated. To meet and

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
57 
optimize the EOL management of PV waste, regulatory and technological approaches should 
be well integrated, and their potential options should be adapted to the conditions of each 
country or region. 
In Europe, the EU has adopted PV-specific waste regulations. In other parts of the world, PV 
waste is typically handled under each country’s legislative and regulatory framework for 
general waste treatment and disposal; however, policy approaches for accelerating PV EOL 
management, including supporting technology R&D, have been developed. 
Looking at the treatment of PV module waste in the market, regardless of whether there are 
PV-specific waste regulations, several companies are treating PV module waste for proper 
EOL management and recycling.  
The current low volumes, recycling technologies, logistics challenges, and undeveloped 
markets for recovered materials result in a high-cost, low-revenue scenarios of PV module 
recycling. The implementation of further improvements in PV EOL process is needed to meet 
future demand and to realize high-value, low-cost recycling.

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Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
61 
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62 
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63 
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64 
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Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
65 
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Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
66 
APPENDIX – RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE BY REGION 
 
Fig. A-1 Waste treated in the respondents’ plants 
 
 
Fig. A-2 PV cell technologies treated in the respondents’ plants 
 
 
Fig. A-3 PV module structures treated in the respondents’ plants 
0
5
10
15
20
25
Others
Metals
Glass
e-waste
General waste
Pre-treatment facility
PV only
Japan
Europe
Others
No. of respondents: 29
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
CIGS
CdTe
Thin-film Si
Crystalline Si
Japan
Europe
Others
No. of respondents: 28
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Flexible modules
Glass/glass no frame
Glass/glass with frame
Glass/backsheet no frame
Glass/backsheet with frame
Japan
Europe
Others
No. of respondents: 28

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
67 
 
 
Fig. A-4 Treatment technologies for PV modules 
 
 
Fig. A-5 Materials recovered from PV modules at the plants 
 
 
Fig. A-6 Material recovery rate from PV modules at the plants 
 
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Combination or hybrid approach
Thermal
Chemical
Mechanical
 - scraping glass or plastic layer
Mechanical
 - separation by hot knife or wire
Mechanical - shredding
Japan
Europe
Others
No. of valid responses: 29
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Solar cell materials
Glass
Polymers/plastics
Non-ferrous metals
Ferrous metals
Japan
Europe
Others
No. of respondents: 29
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
less than 20%
20-40%
40-60%
60-80%
80-100%
Japan
Europe
Others
No. of valid responses: 28

Task 12 PV Sustainability – Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task 12 Countries 
68 
 
Fig. A-7 Material recycling rate from PV modules at the plants 
 
 
Fig. A-8 Available treatment capacity for PV modules 
 
 
Fig. A-9 Current amount of PV modules treated 
 
 
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
less than 20%
20-40%
40-60%
60-80%
80-100%
Japan
Europe
Others
No. of valid responses: 28
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
less than 1000 ton/year
1000 - 3000 ton/year
3000 - 5000 ton/year
over 5000 ton/year
Japan
Europe
Others
No. of valid responses: 16
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
less than 100 ton/year
100 - 1000 ton/year
1000 - 3000 ton/year
3000 - 5000 ton/year
over 5000 ton/year
Japan
Europe
others
No. of valid responses: 24

1